-ocr page 1-

^ym

iSSÏJ

r/i;».
1

aïsB

ÜIÜ

-ocr page 2-

-ocr page 3-



		■ £S -.H ■ I■v*\' HHHHHHH B ,
		\'t. «.r ^


		■«■■■

-ocr page 4-

»**^rn |£ö

^ "AX

ft/v*

-ocr page 5-



		Ca/4 i: c \'c/w.*



		HANDBOOR

		Cl NCHONA CULTURE.

-ocr page 6-

-ocr page 7-

HANDBOOR

Cinchona Culture.

e.\\

Karel Wessel van C^drkom,

farmerfy Chitf-Inspectar oj Cultures in the Ne(ntrlands East Indies,

1RANSI.ATED BV

Benjamin Daydon Jackson,

Steretary vj Ihr Linnean Society vf London.

H- IX

Amstf.rdam. J. H. de BUSSY.

London. TRÜBNER & Co.,

57 and 59, Ludgatk Hll.l..
1883.

; UTRECHT

A06000020102665B

-ocr page 8-

-ocr page 9-



		Translators Preface.

		The following pages are a translation of the portion relating to Cinchona, published last year in tlie author\'s "De Oost- Indische Cultures in betrekking tot handel en nijverheid". My endeavour has been to give as close a rendering of the original as Iay in my power, and I have chosen rather to run tlie risk of occasional awkwardness, than to express the author\'s meaning by periphrasis. This treatise being intended for practical men, I have tried to present tlie following record from a practical man, with the fewest possible changes; I have even adhered to slight peculiarities of arrangement, or division of sentences, with that end in view. I trust, therefore, that those readers into whose hands this volume will come, will kindly excuse any seeming inelegancies of style. There is no need for me to bespeak attention on behalf of Heer van Gorkom ; for he is too vvidely known as the energetic director of Cinchona culture in Java, and the author

-ocr page 10-



		of the success of the government plantations in that island, to require any advertisement at my hands In the narrative, which vvill be found in the proper place, it will be seen how much of the present splendid position of the Javan enterprise, is due to the indefatigable perseverance of the author: it was he who found the culture in a depressed and languishing condition, from which he was able to raise it, and place it in its recognised high position. The early history of Javan Cinchona culture has been lightly dwelt upon in Chapter IV; a full account of this phase of the undertaking will be found in D^r. De Vrij\'s \'\'On the cultivation of Quinine in Java and British India". London, Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1865. 8°. pp. 27. A few notes will be found scattered throughout the volume, which have been added by me, and are marked as such by my initials. They are usually reductions of foreign measures and weights to English standards, but occasionally they supply information of later date than the text. Whilst this translation has been passing through the press, the seed of a new variety of Cinchona Calisaya, has been introduced into the London market. This, termed "Calisaya verde" is stated to be very vigorous in growth, thus resem- bling C. sticciruèra, and its yield of bark is very much larger than that of, C. Ledgeriatia, although its percentage is only two-thirds of the best Ledgeriana. Its greater robustness and quickness of growth, are stated to give it a preference when planting, even over the choice Javan variety.

-ocr page 11-



		The Index which ends the volume has been compiled with a view to practical use; if I had indexed every mention of Cinchona the Index would have assumed an inconvenient length. Each important paragraph, will, I trust, be found set out in such a manner that the searcher for information may readily find what he requires. B. DAYDON JACKSON. 30 Stockwell Road, London, S. W. November 1882.

-ocr page 12-

-ocr page 13-



		CONTENTS.

		Tkanslator\'s Preface. CllAPTER I. Introcluctory remarks.............. 12 CllAPTER II. Earl>- history of Cinchona............ 3-30 Chapter III. Botanical descriptions. Original occurrence...... 31 -38 Chapter IV. The Introduction of Cinchona into Java....... 38-62 CfiAPTER V. Continued development of Cinchona culture in Java . 6369 Chapter VI. Cinchona cultivation continued; from the death of Junghuhn to the present time............. 6989 CllAPTER VII. Species and varieties of Cinchona cultivated in Java . . . 89106 Chapter VIII. Chemical Investigattons............. 106129 Chapter IX. The cultivation of Cinchona. Propagation by seed. . . . 129135 Chapter X. Gathering and keeping the seed.......... 135138 Chapter XI. Artificial propagation.............. 139150 Chapter XII. Erection of propagating houses and laying out beds . . . 150153

-ocr page 14-



		Chapter XIII. Clearing the ground. Commencement of nurseries ... 153163 Chapter XIV. The space between the plants...........163172 Chapter XV. Maintenance of Cinchona plantations. ... .... 172177 Chapter XVI. Diseases and enemies..............177184 Chapter XVII. Harvesting the Cinchona bark...........184 199 Chapter XVIU. Stripping and drying the bark...........200205 Chapter XIX. Sorting and packing..............205211 Chapter XX. Administration of Cinchona......... 211215 Chapter XXI. Artificial preparation of Quinine..........215217 Chapter XXII. Production and Commerce............217252 Chapter XXIII. Expense of the government Cinchona undertaking in Java. 252255 Chapter XXIV. Private plantations of Cinchona..........255259 Chapter XXV. The acclimatization of Cinchona, outside the limits of the Malay Archipelago.............259267 Chapter XXVI. The preparation of Quinine...........267270 Chapter XXVII. The Quinine alkaloids.............270275 Index..................277292

-ocr page 15-

-ocr page 16-



		ERRATA.

		Page 8, line 2 from boltom, for averdupois, read avoirdupois. ,, 14, ,, 17 for governement, read government. 32, 24 for height, read heights. ,, 33, 3 from bottom, add B. D. J. ,, 40, ,, 28 for naturet, read nature. 103, ,, 17 for iudividuals, read individuals. 149, last line, two letters have been dropped read houses. 170, top line, for content, read contend. 171, line 25 nW happen only in.... &c. 211, 6 for nomenelature, read nomenclature. 211, last two Unes, for enough recognise, read have recognised.

-ocr page 17-



		HANDBOOR 01 CINCHONA CULTURE.

		CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

		Cinchona has assumsd an increasingly weighty position, amongst the newer colonial productions which have recently acquired significance in die markets of the Netherlands. Previous to 1870, only a single sale by auction had taken place in the Netherlands, and this was due to mere acci- dent, and not to direct importation. It consisted of a more or less damaged parcel from a vessel laden with Cinchona bark which had become subject to average, and was therefore compelled to discharge cargo in one of the Dutch harbours. The results of this sale appeared satisfactory, and testified that articles of commerce in request do not need to be con- fined to a fixed market, but find a ready sale wherever the existing needs can be provided for. The centres of the Cinchona trade at the present time are established in England, France and North America; as to the Dutch market, a continually increasing significance has been

-ocr page 18-



		2

		assured since 1870, provided it is supported and conducted by skilful brokers, and if the State does not permit itself to be induced to disturb the natural movements of the trade, by charges and formalities. We shall consider each of these more at length in the cliapter devoted to the Cinchona trade. In Cinchona we have a subject of wide extent. Indeed, it comprises not only important questions of production, trade and industry, but has also in a high degree to do vvith botanica), medical and chemical science. Thirty years ago, ideas about the origin, differences, use and application of Cinchona, were very vague; they formed a mere chaos of contradictions. Little by little, this state of things has come to an end; in proportion as the field for im- portant investigations was enlarged and sufficiently extended to admit of observation and attention to the most important phenomena, a clearer light was shed over the whole. Even at the present time, if many points are not fully cleared up, at least they 110 longer escape attention, but are recognised as objects for accurate investigation. Every year brings us nearer to solutions of manifold and indisputable im- portance Having devoted my best and strongest years in the field of experiment, that the before-named Cinchona questions might be brought out more clearly, it will be readily understood, why I entertain a certain predilection for the subject The his- tory of it teaches that the labour is crowned vvith a satisfactory return. This explanation is not meant as self-adulation; but it must be borne in mind, that I shall by and by have to speak, principally on the ground of personal exertions and experience; exaggerated modesty indeed might as in this case, actually do hatm to the public interest.

-ocr page 19-



		::

		CHAPTER II. EARLY HISTORY OF CINCHONA.

		As a remedy, especially as a febrifuge, Cinchona bark was known In South America, as far back as the beginning of the seventeenth century. Tradition states, that an Indian, vvho was Iying helpless in tlie wilderness, sick of a violent fever, and urged by burning thirst, dragged himself to a pool of water, which he spied close at hand. When he had quenched his thirst, he feit his strength gradually return, so that he was able to get up and return home. The relation of his experience excited no small surprise, as no approved remedy had yet been discovercd for Intermittent fever, itself one of the most dreaded dis- eases. No wonder, therefore, that a desire to know about the case, caused the place itself to be visited. The bitter taste which the water had, seemed, after long search, to be owing to the bark of one of the trees lying in the pool, which was similar to several living specimens in the vicinity, and further on in the virgin forest. The natural consequence of this discovery probably led to experiment with the wonderful bark, at first on the part of the natives themselves on due occasions, bat later, when Euro- peans had learned the remedy, methodically and on a larger scale, on the fever patients in hospitals. In 1636 the wife of the Viceroy of Peru, Don Luis Gero- nimo Fernandez de Cabrera y Bobadilla of Mendoza, fourth Count Del Chinchon was lying ill of fever, when the corregidor (town governor), Juan Lopez de Canizares, recommended the use of bark in the form of powder. This was foliowed by complete recover y.

-ocr page 20-



		4

		If the whole story seems more legendary than historical, it gives in either case a very probablc explanation of the manner by which the bark became known as a febrifuge; an explanation which possesscs more probability than all traditions relating to the first knowledge of coffee and tea. In 1639 Count Del Chinchon despatched a scientific expedition having Texeira as its commander, to the Cinchona regions. We are indebted to the Jesuit, Cristoval de Acuna, who formed part of this expedi- tion, for important Communications and illustrations, and also for the first earnest attempts to diffuse the knowledge of the bark in a wider circle. In 1640 the family Del Chinchon removed to Hurope, and naturally took the opportunity to bring with them a considerable quantity of the marvellous bark in powder. How great a value was already attached to this remedy appears from the fact, that Dr. Juan de Vega, who accompa- nied the Viceroy, sold a pound of the powder for 100 dollars! In honour of the noble countess who made this precions remedy generally known, and who generously distributed it, it was named pulvis comitissae. When later the Jesuits encou- raged the diffusion, it obtair.ed the name of pulvis jcsui- ticus. In Rome, where it was introduced by Cardinal Juan de Vega, it became known as Cardinal \'s powder, and in France it appeared as Poudre de Talbor (medicamentum Talborii, seu anglicum) after a certain doctor Talbor, who about 1671 bronght it over from England, and sold it as a secret remedy to Louis XIV for 2000 Louis d\'or. In the language of the Incas it appears as Quina, China, \' Kina or Kina-kina, febrifugal bark; and Quina-Quina (from which the French name Quinquina is derived) indicated specially efficacious bark. The first description of the tree, from which Quina-Quina seems derived, was given by La Condamine, who travelled ¹ Markham s\'atcs that this is a Spanish corruption. 15. D. J.

-ocr page 21-



		5

		through a part of South America in 1737 1738. He named it Quinquina de Uritusinga (Quina primitiva, our modern Cinchona ojficinalis). As early as 1742, Linnaeus esta- blishud the genus Cinchona, and he called the species de- scribed by La Condamine, C. officÏ7ialis. At a later period Knnth, in Humboldt and Bonpland\'s \'Synopsis\', changed it into C. Co/t- daminea, but Hooker restored the Linnean name, which to this day is generally received. In proportion as Cinchona bark became known and valued, the exports from the country producing it increased, and it happened frequently that the quality of different parcels varied so extremely, as to create doubts regarding its use and appli- cation. Thus gradually it came to be understood, that various barks from different species were mixed together. The interests of merchants and pharmacologists were really concerned in a fuller knowledge of the subject, but nothing better could be arrived at, than that attained by botanists themselves, from investigations and researches on the Cinchona trees; indeed, the confusion in quinological matters continually increased as the number of searchers became greater, whilst their vanity and jealousy spurring them on, trade mystifications became yet more involved. Karsten writes : - "Whilst, on the 011e hand, botanists uncertain of the knowledge of species, intentionally compli- cated matters, on the other hand pharmacologists went astray in the endeavour to distinguish Cinchona barks widely distributed in commerce under manifold names, assigning them to species hardly known and altogether undescribed by botanists, supposing that the barks of all Cinchonas were met with in commerce." We leave these accusations against scientific men entirely to the account of the eminent German professor. The same view is taken by the famous French Quinologists, Delondre and Bouchardat, where they assert:

-ocr page 22-



		6

		"The influence of mercantile trickery went so far, that at Cadiz, by the kina\'s order, a large quantity of the best orange Cinchona, collected by Mutis at the king\'s expense, was burnt, whilst in all the Spanish hospitals there was the greatest scarcity of this precious product of America. A parcel of this Cinchona, intended for the flames, was secretly bought at Cadiz by some English merchants, and sold in London at high prices." Hnvever this may be, the fact is, that as soon as the heal- ing power of Cinchona bark became widely known, and the enquiry for this article gradually increased, a source of riches for South America was opened up, and the exploitation of the Cinchona trees assumed ever widening proportions. The harvest of the fever-bark in the primeval forests of America is real\'v an expedition. Kxperience, courage and perseverance are indispensable requisites for those who engage in it, and who form a special caste The collectors, known under the name of Cascarilleros. unite themselves into gangs, under the direction of a major- domo, and work on their own account, or as more often happens engage themselves on behalf of particular people or companies. From the moment the working party sets out, it is exposed to continual d.mgers and endless hindrances; what they seek is only met with in distant, desert, inclement moimtain regions, where al! progress through the wild, formidable interlaced vegetable growth, has to be won by cutting a path, foot by foot, with the hatchet. Days even weeks, sometimes elapse, whilst the party is engaged in endless climbing up and down, and environed by dangers and hindrances, before a single Cinchona tree is met with in the thick forests. It is not seldom that the heaviest work then begins. The collect- ors are surrounded by a crowd of forest giants, inaccessible be- cause of the strong, many, branched web of llianas, and by num-

-ocr page 23-



		7

		bers of creeping, climbing and thorny plants, which must as a rule be cut down in order to clear a tolerably large space before one of the wished for trees can be felled and barked. The forest-clearer in the wild forest repons amongrst the hio-h mountain ranges in Java, can form some idea of the difficulties and troubles mentioned. The most experienced Cascarilleros, the Diésiros, form the pioneers in the search. These people seem actuated by instinct, nothing escapes them, a handful of leaves carried by the wind on to their path, or the peculiar lustre of a leaf-tip, are for them sufficiënt signs of recognition to lead them in a direct course to the tree sought. If a district is considered suitable for working, a sleep- ing hut is set up, and the ground cultivated so as to afford, during the uncertain time of their stay, some such food as maize, and pease; the men afterward scatter themselves in groups or single file in all directions so that the collection may be carried out over an extended field. The major-domo remains behind with a few people in the primitive headquarters, as much to guard these, as to dry and sort the barks successively brought in. The bark of slip-ht thickness, from branches and slender sterns, is sufficiently dried by the warmth of the sun alone, and rolls inward like quill cinnamon. For drying heavy, thick pieces of bark, sometimes assistance from fire heat is necessary, or else, during dry favourable weather they are stacked like firewood, and the mass weighted with stones. The latter manner of drying yields, as a rule, the thick flat bark of com- merce. As soon as a tree of considerable dimensions is felled, the trunk and thick branches are deprived, by brushing, of their uppermost layers, and subsequently divided into equal portions by circular incisions. \' Between the incisions, the bark is afterwards cut lengthwise, ¹ It xv-ï 11 bc hercaftcr shown. that by thib brushing the actual valun of the bark is really diminished, without it being so considered or perhaps even conjecturcd by the natives.

-ocr page 24-



		M

		lifted np and gathered, as far possible, in pieces of similar dimensions, one after another. This cleansing with brushes is not done to the bark of the smaller sterns and branches; these consequently retain their upper layers and mossy covering. The latter has been long considered a valuable means of recognisinf to what species the bark belongs, and still, at the present day, by druggists at least, it is highly prized. The dried bark is packed in a light cloth, and transported by the Cascarilleros themselves, or by means of mules, to the houses of business. Here it is packed anew, either in cases, tubs, drums, or more usually in ox or buffalo hides, with the hairy sidc turned inwards. These hides, wholly or partly fresh, or at least pur[)osely wetted, gradually draw together strongly, and thus firmly secure the packed bales, or serons.* A seron weighs about 70 to 80 kilograms, \' and, as a rule, contains a great admixture of barks, or at all events it is not sorted according to forin and thickness, etc. The hides themselves have a marketable value and are turned to good account. It is evident that so careless and crude a method of collec- ting, renders the separation of the various barks extremely difhcult. Formerly the opinion was held that all barks came from one kind of tree; the produce therefore could only differ in shape and size, as it was obtained from the larger or smaller sterns and branches. This opinion was not universal; on the contrary some even thought that the heavy pieces came from an entirely different species from the light ones. The custo- mary trade names were of no use in determining their identity, these being derived from the colour, local origin, port of ship- ment, and the like, and thus little decisive or explanatory. The confusion became greater, when it was made known, that the ¹ In English averdupois, from 1 cwt. to i± cwt.; for practical purposes. a kilo- gram may bc rcckoncd as IO per cent more than 2 lbs., and 1015 to the English ton. 15. D. J.

-ocr page 25-



		9

		Cinchona trees consisted of various species and varieties, and that to botanical descriptions of these species were mixed up, and confounded with the commercial names. The worthless names, which gave no information either of the parent-trees which yielded the bark, or of a still more important matter, the quality of their bark, were still retained. As subsequently we shall see, science has been able, thanks to the bringing over of the Cinchona to the Dutch and English colonies, to disclose, or at least to make clearer, most of the mysteries; and it is known now that not only very many species and varieties of Cinchona exist, each possessing its own special furm and composition, but that even the com- position varies in the same species or variety, so that thougt the actual value of a bark may be approximated by means of the microscope, it can only be completely ascertained by chemical analysis. It will be readily understood that the nearest and the most productive of the Cinchona districts would be hrst worked out, so that the workers must go farther and farther to find other advantageous spots. The rough manner in which they always went to work, chielly thinking of present gains, could only lead to local exhaustion and extirpation. Primeval forests may maintain themselves, but the conditions, into which the Cinchona trees were brought were as a rule very unfavourable. Control and supervision were absent, and the care absolutely needed for Nature to restore and build up again, was wanting. There was much wasted ; for as long as abundance lasted for the covetous, there was no thought of economy in gathering the bark. Delondre, who visited the Cinchona regions in 181617, wrote thus concerning them: "On descending the mountain, I could not help lament- ing the indifference with which the Indian delivered his axeblows at a certain height above the ground, so as not to have the trouble of stooping. It is the same in all the

-ocr page 26-



		10

		South American forests; they also leave the trunk at the point whence the branches spring, and it may be gene- rally calculated that only one half of the bark is col- lected which each tree could furnish." (Delondre & Bou- chardat, "Quinologie", p. 21). If a tree is felled at the surface of the ground as usually hap- pens, under favourable conditions it is able to shoot up again and form new sterns, of somewhat more slender dimensions; bnt the Cascarilleros did not permit of these favourable conditions, and even where these new shoots did show themselves on the prostrate trunk, numberless hindrances still interfered to prevent their further developement. Cinchona seed is extremely fine and light. the sport of wind and weather; even if it reaches a fertile soil in the thick pri- meval forests, the chances of its germination, and the success of the tender plant in the struggle for life, are very small. That the government for the time being, should have framed no regulations to guard against unnecessary loss and eventual extirpation, may seem strange indeed and greatly to be deplored, but it is apparent that the South American States have been constantly involved in political difficulties, which hinder manifold efforts or a strong policy. The)\' are persuaded of the inexhaustibility of their resources, and are op- posed to any organisation for a decisive forest-policy in the extensive chain of the Andes. Thus much is certain, that the existing governments have always had an eye to present rather than to future profit. At one time they burdened the exports of Cinchona with duties, granting the right of work- ing to a certain company, and at another time forbade any exportation whatever. A systematic exploitation joined to simul- taneous maintenance and proportionate replenishing by new plantations, whenever it has been taken into consideration, has never come to anything. For the first time, quite tecently, as will be seen from a report of the Dutch Consul-general at

-ocr page 27-



		11

		La Paz, Heer Schuhkraft, a systematic cultivation, of Cin- chona has been attempted in its mother country. \' * * * The classic land of the Incas, since its discovery and con- quest by the Spaniards, though already a favourite country for investigation by naturalists and historians, enjoyed much increase of business after the indigenous Cinchona was found, anda number of learned men went thither, simply to accurately study the Flora of the country. Amongst the travellers who have spe- cially devoted themselves to the knowledge of the Cinchona tree of South America, and who either as writers, or as collec- tors of material, have rendered themselves deserving of notice, we may mention: C. L. de Ia Condamine (173738), J. de Jussieu (1739), Santesban (1755), Mutis (17601800), Renquifo (1772), Ruiz (1790), Caldas Zea (1800) Pavon (1801), Tafalla (180208), Humboldt and Bonpland (1807), Bergen (1822), E. Poeppig (182732), Weddell (184348), Delondre (1846 48), Hasskarl (185354), Scherzer, Markham, Spruce, Pritchett (1859 61), Warczewicz, Triana, Rampon, etc. etc. We do not attempt a bibliography of the subject Cin- chotia; a summary of the existing literature would bear the marks of incoinpleteness so numerous are the published works and scattered articles. If entertaining, instructive, and ample reading be wanted, the following may be consulted. H. A. Weddell, "Histoire naturelle desQuinquinas". Paris, Victor Masson, 1849. C. R. Markham, "Travelsin Peru and India", London, John Murray, 1862, and the splendid work published by L. Reeve and Co., J. E. Howard, "TheQuino- logy of the East Indian plantations", London, 3 parts, 1876. \' Cultivation has also been attempted at the present time in the rcpublics of Ecuador, Venezuela and New Grenada, it secms, even so far as importing rich species, by using secd collected in Bolivia.

-ocr page 28-



		12

		With these special recommendations, we do not wish to pre- judice die many other highly deserving writers and compilers. The works named give, however, die must complete natural historical and scientific summaries, by which most practical needs mny be satisfied. What we know meanwhile about the earlicst history of Cinchona, by no means bears the stamp of absolute certainty, or even of completeness; this indeed was hardly pussible. Before the advent of the Spaniards in South America, diere was naturally no notion of methodical search. When the medi- cinal virtues of Cinchona bark became known in whatever manner, to Europeans, they very decidedly aimed at diüfusing this remedial agent, and it can readily be believed that its diffusion by various persons about the same time, and to its being tested in various ways, have given rise to the contradictions which have been recorded concerning the subject. The main point remains, that the discovery took place during the first half of the 17"¹ century, and that its blessings have extended to civilised people, and will extend more and more to man- kind at large. No single scientific travelier has been able to learn all that the Cinchona regions, in their full extent may offer. Per- chance in many places the forests which formerly sheltered the Cinchona tree, were already destroyed when the first investi- gators found them, and thus complete certainty cannot be attained concerning its original, natural, and geographical dis- tribution, although on the other hand, botanists happened to state the fact, that various species of Cinchona existed and were met with there. In relation to the real remedial pro- perties of the various species, gross darkness prevailed, until the moment when diemistry came forward to help, and by sepa- ration of the alkaloids (1820) indicated the only trustworthy means of recognition. The noteworthy and fruitful journey of Dr. H. A. Weddell,

-ocr page 29-



		13

		is first of all, known on account of its important results\'. Weddell drew serious attention, to the danger attend- ing a continuous, irregular, uncontrolled exploitation, and it is above all due to his unwearied pleadings and his admirable vvritings, that the French government concluded to introducé the Cinchona tree into its colonies. This was the first powerful impetus given to the further acclimatization trials. From a practical standpoint, (which we must as far as possible endeavour to vindicate), we have now to follow up the histor)\', with reference to the explanations of Weddell and others, which led, as mentioned later on, to the importation of Cinchona cultivation into the colonies of European States During the years 184548 Weddell was occupied with an investigation regarding tbe natural occurence of the Cinchona tree in South America, the description of the species, and the methods by which it might be cultivated. Commeuting on the recklessness with which the primeval Cinchona forests were cleared without any check, and expressing, as indeed man)- before him had already done, the fear that some da)\' would see a necessary want of genuine Cinchona he says: "There remains the resource of cultivation, and it must be employed. If there is a tree worthy of acclimatization in a French colony, truly it is Cinchona, and posterity will bless those who shall have carried out such an idea." In the report of MM. de Jussieu, Richard and Gaudichaud read before the French Academie des Sciences, the following passage occurs: "We can only recommend experiments, and it is the duty of government to make them, for although we have no exact ¹ In April 1877 Weddell took an important part in the International Congrcss at Amsterdam. Not long after the intrepid travelier died (in his 6o<i> year); tohim mankind owcs an etcrnal debt ol gratitude, for the impulse which he gave to the acclimatization of Cinchona.

-ocr page 30-



		14

		data as to the number of ycars required by the tree lor the bark to reach its maximum yield and perfection, we may calculate upon a tolerably long time, and the profits are too uncertain, and much too distant, to engage private industry in such attempts." We must pay attention to this declaration, for it Jnduced the French governement to undertake acclimatization trials in Algeria, vvhich compelled other nations to follow that example. The indneement to introducé Cinchona cultivation in the East Indies is thus explained, and we do not need to add to it anything further. In the year 1869 an investigation set on foot by a scien- tihc commission of five persons, ascertained the increasing scarcity of genuine Cinchona barks in America (see "The Andes and the Amazon", London, Sampson Low). In 1870 Dr Kerner, the wellknown chemist of Zimmer\'s quinine manufactory at Frankfort, in his "Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Chinin-Resorp- tion" (Bonn, 1870, printed by Carl Georgi) dwelt with emphasis on the ever diminishing arrivals in Europe, of good barks, especially those rich in quinine. Since the discovery of the special febrifugal properties of Cinchona bark, the seat of the alkaloids, and their separation earnestly attempted, the arrivals of this product have not actually diminished, although naturally we are more informed as to its percentage, and anon the figures given will plainly show that, though South America is very far from being exhausted yet, still a very unfavourable proportion may be increasingly remarked between the arrivals of the barks which are rich, and those which are poor in quinine. So much apprehension was excited that South America at some time would fail to yield Cinchona, looking to the augmenting use of quinine, that the French Academie des Sciences, as already stated, offered a high premium for the preparation of this indispensable alkaloid, by the method of

-ocr page 31-



		15

		synthesis. Up to the present time there lias been no indication of adjudication of the premium, but in another chapter we shall show that the idea is not abandoned, and really the intention seems now likely to be realised. Many travellers and writers at different periods have pointed out the danger of a slow, but sure extirpation of the Cinchona trees in their native land; others on the contrary, believed that the primeval Cinchona forests were almost boundless and not even fully known, and further that Nature herself was competent to maintain this valuable plant. We most decidedly side with the first declaration to a cer- tain extent; although the occurrence of Cinchona trees (which in each case appear confined to limited areas not as yet fully understood), can with difficulty be compared, for example, with the distribution of the coal beds. What the care of Nature means, we may sum up in a single word, our doubts and small expectations. * * Under date 30 March 1865, Heer Schuhkraft, the Dutch Consul general at La Paz, reports as follows: "When in 1860, the prohibition on export was taken off, which is known to have been in force for eight years (in Bolivia), the exploitation of the forests and the exports there during 186163, amounted to about 50,000 Spanish quintals, of 46 kilos, \' averaging 55 dollars per quintal on its dispatch from Bolivia. "To this must be added five dollars per quintal, export dut), and another five for packing and shipping charges in Peru, etc.

		¹ A Spanish quintal wonkl tluis amount to 3 Ors 17 lbs. I! I) J.

-ocr page 32-



		IK

		"The value of the exports, free on board in the Pacific ücean may thus be estimated at 4,000,000 dollars, or about £ 650,000. "The exports are chiefly consigned to England, but in consequence of the war, the United States have trans- mitted considerable orders, and the remainder goes to France and Italy. "This trade has yielded the best results for all concer- ned in it; from the Indian labourer who fells the tree, strips off the bark and dries it, and the house exporting it in Bolivia or Peru, to the firm in Europe which receives the consignment. La Paz was the centre for this trade, to which all the Cinchona procured by the workmen from the forests. was brought to market" Thoughout the entire report, mention is constantly made of the extent of the Bolivian trade, and the great profits thence resulting. No complaints were made of reckless exploitation, nor fear of extirpation, but, on the contrary, of local difficulties which made themselves feit in increasing measure. Schuhkraft was of opinion that the exploitation of the Bolivian forests must be stopped, whenever the prices ranged low as a consequence of the sup- plies from Columbia and other places. According to his notions the tree was not extirpated in Bolivia; but it was found only at constantly greater distances, and this naturally made the transport much more costly. He considered it illusory to expect the existing government to open up roads. Since 1863, several private individuals endeavoured to export Cinchona by the Madeira and Amazon rivers, via Para, on the Atlantic Ocean. The costs of carriage were so slight, that the Cinchona transport by that route could be delivered on board at Para, at most at 40 dollars per quintal. The success of these attempts ought again to assure the first place for Bolivian Cinchona, and to the supplanting of all other sorts in the European markets!

-ocr page 33-



		17

		Meanwhile, there appeared to be very great difficulties against this method of transport, and certain parcels of Cinchona, brought to Europe via Para, were found not to be the genuine Calisaya, and were therefore worthless. The price of good quality Cinchona at La Paz, was 52 dol- lars per qnintal. In icS65 also, on the authority of a thoroughly competent judge, (in opposition to many earlier and later declarations of scientific travellers,) there was no positive fear of the rapid exhaustion of the valuable primeval Cinchona forests, but on the other hand, there was threatening competition, and the enhanced expense of exploitation. In 1873 Schuhkraft sent to the Dutch government, an admir- able map, wherein were indicated as far as possible, the previously mentioned Cinchona regions, with observations about their extent at the time, and of exploitation in the various forests. This illustrated representation gave but little real support to the loud and repeated lamentations about a rapid extirpation. It is quite evident though, that where no care is taken to maintain the forests, or to plant new, the future must be positively menacing. A new point of view is thus opened up by the report of our zealous and able Consul-general for the year 1878. In this Schuhkraft says: "The great event in the agricultural region of Bolivia, is the planting of the Bolivian Cinchona forests, of which an earnest beginning was made in 1878, not by official pressure, but by a genuine initiative of the land owners and other private persons. The high prices of the last three years, and the reports of the Cinchona culti vation in India, have at last awakened here the spirit of enterprise. T"e river Mapiri, in the province of Larecaja, department La Paz, has been the centre of the movement, and already the young trees of tvvo years growth, may be reckoned at from four to five hundred thousand.

-ocr page 34-



		is

		"The Songo and Challana valleys in the same province which turn out equally fine quality Cinchona, number also some plantations, though of less importance. In the pro- vince of Yungas, the districts from Coroico and Coripata to the Casones river are being energetically planted, and an extensive valley where there still exist numerous groups of bushes, stumps, and shoots from old stems, called the Quinuni valley, has by purchase passed into the hands of private persons, who intend to close it for some years, to allow the young plantations to grow up. "Planting is done in two ways; that which is done on private estates {haciendas) and that which takes place on government land (tcrreiios baldios), Excepting the Quinuni valley, and the lands on the Mapiri and Casones rivers, all that I have mentioned are private property, and formerly were divided into haciendas, whose prin- cipal produce were, coca, coffee, cacao, sugarcane, bananas. etc, These were cultivated from the foot of the moun- tains to three-fourths of their height, whilst the Cin- chona tree was found in the forests which crown the summits, or in the mountain gullies {gnebradas). The regions, formerly under cultivation, may properly be termed semi-tropical. The trees found there, on account of their near proximity to La Paz, were the earliest to be cut down, and later on, when the bark became dearer and scarcer, the collectors were driven into the tropical parts of the forests lying towards the interior, and not yet brought into cultivation; consequently on the land belonging to the state, the groups of trees have mostly disappeared. "The former crude way of working is known; the tree was \'cut over\' at the height of from one to two feet above the ground. The branches, which for a long time were not known to be actually richer in alkaloids than the stem itself, were cut off and left as worthless to rot upon the damp earth."

-ocr page 35-



		19

		(As the testimony of experiments and chemical investigations in Java will show, Schuhkraft has here made an evident error. It can now be asserted quite positively, that the bark of the branches is in no case richer in quinine, than the stem of the same tree.) "Merely the trunk was stripped, sometimes only ontheside lying nppermost. If it was too heavy, or cost too much trouble to turn it over, it was allowed to He half stripped." (This declaration is in accordance with the expericnce of Weddell, Delondre and other travellers ) "Similar sterns, naturally of great value if they are not entirely rotted, ought at the present day, to be not infrequently fonnd in the forest. The stumps remaining in the ground, again shoot out like willow trees, and from these stumps, shoots, branches, bushes, and here and there the young stem of a neglected or hidden tree, during the last ten years since the thick sterns have been exterminated, quilled Cinchona has been obtained, which formerly no one besides the quinine manufacturer knew, but now is generally known, to be richer in salts than the stem bark." (This opinion is not confirmed by experience gained in cultivating Cinchona in Java and elsewhere. The percentage of quinine is by no means dependent on the form of the bark, but on the contrary is closely connected with the kind of trees, from which it has been obtained. Thick barks preserve their original shape sumciently in drying, if they are not cut too wide, in which case they curl up somewhat, whilst lighter, thinner barks roll together in drying.) "When the price at La Paz, owing to excessive com- petition, reached 225 dollars per quintal, equalling about 8 francs \' per kilo, free on board at Mollendo, in order to bring a few more pounds of bark to market, the collect- ors began to dig out the stumps and roots entire, so that exter- ¹ That is, about 3S. 2d per lb. English. B. D. J.

-ocr page 36-



		20

		mination would have been completed, if it had not been that only low prices were offered in trade for this descrip- tion of Cinchona, and thereby no profit could be relied on, by which in some measure the ravage was at least confined within limits. "The systematic replanting on private estates, was done cheaply enough. The contract between a Yungas landed proprietor and his Indian agricultural labourers (fteoucs, colonos) for ages has been as follows. Each household receives a piece of land with dwelling in usufruct, and its members bind themselves to perform field labour on behalf of the hacienda, for 2, 3 or 4 days in each week, in return for wages of 4 to 5 reals for each man, 2\'/₂ to 3 reals for each woman or child (13 to 16, and 8 to 10 Dutch stuivers respectively\') per day; the remaining days in each week, the colonist or peon is free to employ upon his own allot- ment. A few days in each year surfice to clear the ground for beginning a Cinchona plantation, to put out the plants from the nurseries, and to keep the ground free from weeds, one year, or at most two years. After that, the trees can take care of themselves. Such a Cinchona plantation costs the proprietor little or nothing. (When we proceed to treat of the cultivation in Java, it will appear that there it is less simple and more expensive. If experience in Bolivia merely dates from 1878, we fear that time will bring forth disappointment; we willingly admit the Cinchona in its native country may show itself less susceptible and tender, than it does in those countries where it has been acclimatized, or even become naturalised.) "In the regions still uncleared on the Mapiri, the undertaking requires greater labour and more capital. The land must be acquired of the state. The requisite petition is called a denuncia, and contains a description ¹ The Dutch stuiver is equivalent to an English penny. B. D. J.

-ocr page 37-



		21

		of the land declared to be baldio {vaccins ager) and a list of witnesses to testify that it is not private property. After the witnesses have been examined, there follows a valuation on behalf of the state, and thereafter a sale by public auction, at which the petitioner enjoys a certain prefer- ence or choice, above other bidders. Onesided preference always plays a great part in these grants. If the petitioner is an insignificant person, without influence or influential friends, his letter of request is apt to be delayed. On the contrary some lands are valued at low assessments, and, as in the case of the Quinuni valley, as good as given away. This valley, probably 10 German miles in extent \' was given over to a private planter for the sum of £ ioo, and a still larger estate on the Mapiri river, for £ 250. "Planting on such land is done by contract with natives of inferior standing, who usually want advances, and in their turn subiet the actual work to Indians, thus acting as middlemen. "The work chiefly consists in making ready the ground, which usually presents itself as thick wood. First of all, the trees, saplings, and plants, are cleared off the ground, piled up, and after some weeks, when they are consi- dered dry enough, are burnt. "The entire procedure is termed la rosada. During the time this is going on, the nursery, exposed to free currents of air, but lying partially sheltered, is sown with a liberal hand, and when the young plants are a foot high, they are considered fit to transplant. The cleared land or the so-called rozadcro is cleaned a second time of weeds; the cuttings (the writer means the seedling plants) are put out in rows, at 5 to 6 feet from each ¹ li 10 German Geographical miles are hcre meant, this would be a fraction over 46 English statute miles in length. B. D. J.

-ocr page 38-



		22

		other, bananas being planted here and there, to afford shade for die first and second years, and dien die middleman by means of his Indians, looks over die ground from time to time, and keeps it in good order. From March to June is the most suitable season for beginning, for then the rains are over. A year after planting, the plantation is delivered over, the withered cnttings (read: young plants) are pulled out, and those remaining are counted. For each yearling plant the middleman receives two reals, or about seven Dutch stuivers \'. According to this scale, the cost of planting on the Mapiri should be as follows: Rent of land, 3000 francs; 300,000 plants at 35 cents = 105,000 francs; overseers, erection of dwellings, etc. 10,000 francs; for interest the second year at io°/₀ on 120,000 francs = 1 2,000 francs. Total 130,000 francs *. "It lias already been stated, that cutting can begin in the fourth year, though I doubt this, and it is most likely that the bark on account of its young state, would possess but little quinine, for it appears to be an estab- lished fact, that, the older the tree, the richer it is in salts (read: alkaloids), and this explains probably the hithertho paltry percentage in Javan Cinchona, obtained from the seeds sent by me in 1865 (read: 1864)." For a correct understanding, we must here introducé a few remarks. The reader is aware that there is a disagreement between the declaration, that the Cinchona tree is richer in alkaloids in proportion to the age reached, and the earlier statement, that the branch-bark is more powerful than the stern-bark. It is evident that in the same tree the branch-bark must in its entirety be younger than the stern-bark, and hundreds ofana- \' Scvcnpencc. 13. D. J. ^J Amounting at par, to £ 5,200 sterling, li. D. J.

-ocr page 39-



		2*

		lyses have shown, th.it a tree needs a certain time for the formation of its maximum percentage of alkaloids, though, at the same time, there is a limit which cannot be exceeded. Now it has already been mentioned that Schuhkraft\'s first dispatch of Cinchona seeds, reached the Netherlands in 1864; half were sown in that country, the other half were sent on to Java. This was the origin of the Calisaya Schuhkraft trees. The first plants were put out in the open ground in Java in July 1865, and at Lembang, Nagrak and Tjiniroean, there must still be some specimens which have thus reached the age of fifteen years. Thus there was ample opportunity for determining the per- centage of alkaloid at various ages, and analyses were carried out, and have decisively shown, that though the Calisaya Schuhkraft yields an excellent pharmaceutical bark, yet it cannot as a rule come into consideration, for the preparation of quinine, on account of its small percentage of that alkaloid. On the Mapiri plantation there are already some plants, which were put out earlier than 1878, and the pro- prietors affirm, that from these and two-year-old plants, they have already obtained 300 quintals of quilled Cinchona, say 13,800 kilos, and thus received back a part of their capital, though this seems to me to be only boasting." Here also an explanation may be desirable. Since Schuh- kraft has not informed us "from how many trees the 13,800 kilos were obtained", naturally we cannot judge, how far the produce was profitable. But in Java there are Cinchona trees 3 to 4 years old, developed under favourable conditions, which, while fit for harvest, have not yet attained their maximum per centage. It is evident that only quilled hark could be obtained from such young individuals, for it would be still thin, and thus curl up on drying. It is new information that the quilled form can be any criterion of its quality, it is rather the contrary. "After delivery by the middleman of a number of 20,

-ocr page 40-



		24

		30, or 40,000 plants, the buyer has to bear all risks, and must now commit the superintendence and proper mainte- nance of the ground to his subordinates. In the first and second years, the plant is exposed to two dangers, namely, drought, and destruction by ants; after that time there is no further danger from these. The drought which prevailed in 1879 throughout Bolivia (in India and Europe on the contrary, there was great complaint of the unusually wet weather) killed thousands of plants in Mapiri." Once more we must venture a remark. It occurs to us, that there is a connection between the two dangers speciiied, drought and ants. Schuhkraft says that plants are put out, when the rainy season is past. If this rule prevails, it is not to be wondered at that the young plants suffer from drought; we notice little provision for an artificial watering, where all the industries seem to be highly primitive and superficial. The young plants have thus slender chances for actual, robust development, and under these circumstances they are much exposed to influences from without, or from ants, to which they can offer but little resistance. If the plants were turned out some time before the rains, probably less loss would be suffered. "Already new experiments have been made on young trees, to strip the bark and preserve the trunk, by ripping it off in long strips by portions, and leaving the trunk to cover itself with bark by another year; in other words, not to strip the stem once for all, but partially and at different times. The experiments through, have given the conviction, that it is better, as of old, to cut over the stem at one or two feet above the ground and to bark it entirely, for when the stump remains in the ground, it generally shoots up again." The partial stripping of the tree by cutting out strips, was first tried by M^c Ivor in Madras, and distingiushed as strip-

-ocr page 41-



		25

		ping, in contradistinction to coppicing or cutting down to the stump. Tlie trees bure the operation well, pruvided it was done with care; Mc Ivor even contrived a special knife for it. To the stripping process was soon added the plan of messing; the exposed portions of the stem were covered with moss, and from this it was expected not only would there be a more complete and quicker regeneration of bark, but also an enhancement of the alkaloid percentage. The experiments were crowned with complete success, and were carried into practice on a large scale; indeed the renewed and rnossed bark, has, from the very first, in British India possessed a higher value. As to the various methods of harvesting the bark, we shall naturally recur more at length. "Whether the planting in Bolivia (to which the planters in Java cannot be indifferent), will be earnestly prosecuted, depends partly on the market prices of the ensuing three or four years; if these fall in consequence of the increas- ing exports from the East Indies, or from other causes, then the enthusiasm will speedily cool, and give place to the old indifference and neglect, the more so, as the available labour in the Yungas, scarcely suffkes to work the more profitable and surer coca plantations (we suspect that coca cultivation is said to be more lucrative, because the produce is greatly in demand on the spot, and thus does not require high transport charges, which make Cinchona bark so dear) besides, the increasing wellbeing of the pcons or colonos of the haciendas, following upon high coca prices, makes them more and more inde- pendent of the landowners, and Chinese immigration is still unknown in Bolivia. Further, there prevails a feeling of insecurity, as to whether private property will be respected, or the law be powerless to prevent pillage on what were once state lands, but are now in private hands. The question- able origin of the newer possessions, and the doubtful right

-ocr page 42-



		26

		of the proprietors, are but too well known, and under a change of government it could casily happen, that for the existing Cinchona bark-cutting classes in the provinces, the plantations should be considered as public property, and no difference pleaded as to the earlier condition, when the felling of the forests was allowed. "To oppose force by force, and to defend one\'s own pro- perty weapon in hand, would be permitted, though the European proprietor might be found wanting in such a struggle. Even with a favourable concourse of circumstances, I do not think that the replanting of Cinchona trees in Bolivia, need awaken great concern in Java. With absolute security for property and life, peace and order, capital going hand in hand with earnest spirit of enterprise; planters so situated can afford to sustain competition with a land where all these factors are wanting, and where no attention is paid to what has been done in Java; the plant here (in Bolivia) being endemic, all theories and experiments are held to be superfluous." We cannot wholly endorse this opinion. We have already briefly stated, that in the different South American countries, various kinds of Cinchona are met with, which vary greatly in quality. From the seeds which we repeatedly received in Java from Schuhkraft, which were thought to be product of the best variety of Calisaya, there were no trees derived which possessed a high percentage of quinine, and we have no reason to suspect that that species has degenerated in Java. It is true that in 1873 Schuhkraft sent us likewise, a parcel of bark samples, and the richest specimens appeared to contain 3.02 % of quinine, an amount which is also found in some of the Javan Calisaya Schuhkraft and yavanica but appears always higher in another variety of Calisaya, the Ledgeriana, which also was received from South America. It seems to us that the great question remains, viz : "which

-ocr page 43-



		27

		can yield the richest bark", and up to this time, commerce has received from the native country of Cinchona no prodnce that can compete with the Ledgeriana bark from Java. This strangely sounding fact demands an explanation, and is we think, found. An actual and regular survey of our subject is however desirable, and this we give in the chapter devoted to the species cultivated in Java. "It is also by no means certain that the method of plant- ing in rows like coffee trees, instead of groups amongst other trees as Nature seems to require, is not entirely wrong, and this plan wil] probably yield as a rule produce poor in salts (read: alkaloids) A bark yielding less than 2 % quinine, as export produce from Bolivia, is for trade, as good as worthless, and plantations of simikir trees are yood for nothin<j. Thus success is by 110 means sure, and in every case, the chances are every bit as much in favour of the Javan, as of the Bolivian planter. If however, this part of Bolivia were annexed to Chili, then from the stringent regulations of that country, an entirely different result might be expected, which would have serious effects upon the Cinchona cult- ivation in Java." Although the Cinchona trees are met with in their natural state under and amongst their brethren of the thick, primeval forests, it is not thereby proved that only under analogous circumstances can they be planted out and thrive. Junghuhn clung to the opinion here enunciated by Schuhkraft, but ripe experience gained in Java and British India, tells quite another story. Every cultivator knows that plants put out under the shade of great, heavy trees, or, in thick, sombre forests, cannot come to proper development, setting aside the numberless dangers to which they are constantly exposed in the forests. Young plants want more light and air than they can get in such surroundings. Whatever may be known of the original occurence

-ocr page 44-



		28

		of the Cinchona trees in the American forests, it must not be forgotten that they form part of the forest itself, and are developed under the same conditions as their surrounding ncighbours. This circumstance agrees more or less with the commencement of a Cinchona or coffee plantation, the plants and the sheltering trees grovving simultaneously, and it is vvell to distinguish this from putting out young individuals in an already complete, thick forest, which dominates over the soil, light, air, and entire surrounding. There is one supposition which might fairly be entertained, in conjunction with the fact, that Cinchona trees never form entire forests by themselves in their natural state, as for instance the Djati (teak) in Java, but are always accompanied by other trees, the supposition namely, that with an accumulation of Cinchona plants, perhaps the individuals might be deprived of an opportunity of forming their full amount of quinine. Against this, however expe- rience acquired in close, regular plantations of Cinchona Ledgc- riana and C. ojficinalis, has already sufficiently declared, and microscopical, united to chemical investigations, have also taught with certainty, that the alkaloid formation holds the closest connection with the anatomical structure of the types. Very strongly, indeed indisputably is this fact shown by the results of grafting, to which we shall hereafter recur in detail. That barks having less than 2 % are worthless for export, is quite possible as regards Bolivia, because the cost of trans- port is very high there, but that such inferior barks must be worth as much to Bolivia, as to the other South American states, from which they are exported in quantity, is comprehensible without gainsaying. The East Indian barks with less than 2 ⁰/_o of quinine, appear well worth exploitation and export; it is also true, that barks with less than 2 \\ of quinine may still be very suitable for the separation of this alkaloid, and are used for want of better, provided that separation is not hindered by too great a quantity of secondary alkaloids.

-ocr page 45-



		29

		"The total export of fine factory Cinchona bark in 1879, from the port of Mollendo, merely amounted to between 300,000 and 350000 kilos, half of which was derived from the province Caupolican, the extreme north of Bolivia, which tends to show that there the extirpation of the trees has not yet reached its climax as it has in the Yungas. "A portion of the Caupolican bark is not Bolivian in a geographical sense, but is brought from the neighbouring province of Carabaya, belonging to Peru. Peru forbade cutting any Cinchona bark throughout the entire republic, doubtless with the intention after a certain time, of forming an cstanco or monopoly of this produce, though the fruitlessness of these attempts having been recognised, the government of Peru by decree of December ii^th, again permitted the cutting, on condition that every person engaged in this industry should plant ten trees in the forest annually, an ordinance which remains, and will remain, a dead letter. This is much to be deplored, for were such a regulation stringently maintained, it would effectually take away all fear of extirpation. The southern pro vinces of Santa-Cruz and Cochabamba yield an ample supply of false Cinchona bark possessing no quinine, and worthless for the manufacturer, but it serves for the fabrication of another very useful product in Europe, the so-called quinine-wine. Of these trees, from which I am doing my best to obtain seeds, is to be discovered as yet no tracé of any diminution, although the yearly exportation of the bark exceeds 200,000 kilos, the average value being about three gulden per kilo \'. The price of fine quill factory Cinchona varied in 1879 from 180 to 225 dollars per quintal free on board at Mollendo, equalling 15 to 17 francs per kilogram." This repoit of our esteemed fellow countryman Schuhkraft ¹ Roughly. about is lod. per lb. avoirdupois IJ. D. J.

-ocr page 46-



		30

		is extremely interesting. From a recently received private report it appears that shortly afterwards, the Bolivian govern- ment promulgated a new and amended law as to ob- taining state lands, by which the bolders are assured of better guarantees. An explanation is certainly wantèd as to Schuhkraft\'s state- ment that he was busy collecting seeds from species of Cinchona whose worth he himself considered small \'. Tliat it is profitable to export barks which are only fit for phar- maceutical preparations, when it is previously explained that barks of less than 2 °/₀ quinine, are as regards export as good as worthless, sounds strange indeed, especially when we take into consideration the situation of the producing regions with relation to the nearest places of shipment Certainly a great difficulty for export from Bolivia, is that produce as a mie must find its way through foreign territory (Peru) to reach the principal, and oft mentioned port of Mollendo. But as the South American barks must be destined for the preparation of quinine-wine, then it will not be doubted that on account of the expense, it cannot remain in competition with the Succi- rubra barks raised in the British and Dutch Indies, which are eminently suitable for that purpose. This species can hardly thrive quicker and more robustly even in South America, than it does in suitable estates in the Indian possessions of both nations, where it can return a rich paying harvest in from 4 to 6 years, provided the prices of the last years do not fall too much. \' Letters received at the moment of going to press give us the key to the riddlc, and it now seems that I myself can give the clue. I had commissioned de Heer Schuh- kraft to collect seeds from various districts, that we might thereby possibly meet with superior kinds for cultivation.

-ocr page 47-



		31

		CHAPTER III. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS. ORIGINAL OCCURRENCE.

		The Cinchona trees grow on the eastern slopes of the Cor- dilleras, or Andes range of mountains, between North Lat. 10" and 2 2° South Lat., and thus are localised in the territories of the South American States of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Columbia (formerly called New Grenada) and Venezuela. The height above the sea level, at which the trees occur, varies from 1200 to 3270 metres \', and so extends from the temperate regions to the cold mountain zone. The exact limits cannot be given; on this subject the reports of numerous travellers differ widely, and as all of them furnish what appear to be accurate height measurements, it becomes very difficult to sharply define the places of Cinchona growth, since the exploitation of the trees in the course of time has matei ially altered and restricted the onVinal limits. Cinchona trees are usually met with, according to C. A. J. A. Oudemans ², between 1620 and 2600 metres ³ above the sea. On the testimony of various travellers, who in his opinion had opportunity to become thoroughly acquainted with the subject, Junghuhn accepted the notion, that Cinchona barks were more powerful or effectual the higher and colder the district in which trees gre»v, on the other hand the less effectual the lower and warmer the locality. Humboldt and others seem to be of the same opinion; Weddell left the question open, anti according to our experience in Java, this was very \' In English fect, 3937 and 10730 rcspcctivcly. B. D. J. ^; Handleiding tot de pharmacognosie van het planten-en dierenrijk. Amsterdam, (C. L. Brinkman) 1880. (Introduction to the pharmacognosis of the vcgetable and anima! kingdoms.) ³ Reduccd to English fcet, 5250, and 8530 B. D. J.

-ocr page 48-



		32

		prudent. To confine ourselves to simple fact, we observe that Junghuhn estimated the C. Calisaya zone tu be between 4500 and 5500 feet, and the C. lancifolia zone between 6500 and 7500 feet above the sea \'. We now know, that amongst the Calisayas, some are to be found very poor in quinine, yet to make up for that, the better Calisayas are much superior to the best C. lancifolia. Meanwhile, the experiments in India have not as yet given us positive information whether the richness of the varions species of Cinchona, or even of the individuals of the same species, is absolutely and by preference, dependent upon the relative situation of the localities of growth above the sea. Nevertheless, it is quite certain that the infhiences of climate and soil, produce effects upon the growth, development, and duration of the species and individuals ². The most westerly point in the Cinchona regions, lies in Loja, formerly called Loxa, the mart of the Cinchona barks of Ecuador, and the native country of C. succirubra and C. offuinalis, South Lat. 4", and West Long. 62" \'\'; the most northerly at Caracas, the chief town of Venezuela, North Lat. 10" 30\', and West Long, 49⁰\'¹; themost southern at Santa Cruz in Bolivia, South Lat. 18⁰ and West Long. 45" 30\' \\ The entire region thus fonns a wide bay, the opening of which \' These height are given in Paris feet, and the equivalents in English measure are 4924, 6027, 7113 and 8207. 1$. D. J. ¹ Junghuhn has himself in a later report, doubted the influence of high situation on the amount of alkaloid, whilst De Wij remarked that the amount of alkaloid and quinovic-bitter shows itself to vary so greatly in different material, that general conclusions may be derived from it, with some amount of certainty. The Cascarilleros are convinced. that "el arbor qui mira la nevada" (the tree which looks upon the snow) is the richest, and the nearer to the snow the richer! Also the trees met with on the eastern slopes are considered the poorest and this in proportion as they grow lower down, and are more exposed to the mists rom the rivers. ³ West Long. 79° 52\' from Grccnwich. 15. D. J. ⁴ West Long. 67° 2\' from Greenwich. I?. I). J " West Long. 62° 23\' from Greenwich. B. D. J

-ocr page 49-



		33

		is turned towards the east. The whole Cinchona region is estimated to cover a surface of 20,000 square miles,\' an extent as large as France, Spain and Portugal together. As to Cinchona forests in a strict sense, there are none so far as we know; the trees are met with scattered throughout the forests. In the territory of Bolivia, the Andes reach their greatest height, and at the same time their greatest breadth. The elevated valleys of the Andes have an agreeable climate; in Peru the Andes divide into two or three parallel chains, which again unite into colossal groups of mountains, and so may be considered to form a series of table lands and high valleys, which average from 3500 to 4000² metres above the level of the sea. The highlands proper have a dry climate, visïted however, almost daily by tremendous thunder storms. Humboldt estimates the average temperature at a height of from 5400 to 7200 feet in the Andes, at 2018° centigrade ^:i. Subsequent observations by Caldas show however, 1514⁰ centi- grade, for a height of 5000 to 8300 feet . Numerous observ- ations taken by Junghuhn on high mountain summits in Java, yield the result that in all zones lying above 6000 and 7000 feet, the temperature falls more rapidly than is the case in similar latitudes in South America, so that thus the snow line would in all probability be lower in Java, and might perhaps be found at a height of 13,000 feet or thereabouts, if mountains of that elevation existed in Java. The greatest ascertained height there is only 11,500 feet. The difference in temperature can be explained by the isolated situation and conical shape of the Javan mountains, by the excessive steepness of the slopes considered as a whole, and also by the general condition of the island, which is all together ¹ 20000 geographical square miles, 15 to a degree, are equal to 4,237,522 English square miles. B. D. J. In English feet, ei, 483 and 13, 124. ³ In English feet, 5910 and 7880, and a temperature of 6364° Fahr. B. D. J. ⁴ Similarly rcduced, 5472 and 9083 English feet. B. D .].* 3

-ocr page 50-



		34

		wanting in the extensive, outstretching table-lands, like those which the continent of South America possesses. In spite of these observations, and the conclusions drawn thence, Junghuhn supposed that in the temperate mountain zone of South America where the Cinchona trees are met with, espe- cially on the eastern slope of the Corderilleras between 5000 and 7000 feet, that on declivities covered with forest, under similar circumstances, the same, or at least a slightly varying temperature is found, as is the case at similar heights, and on the same, or nearly the same Iatitude as Java. The difference should by analogy of outward circumstance, be actually not more than one deeree centiorade lower than in South America. In the latter country how^ver the temperature shows 3 to 4 degrees more than in the same zone of elevation in Java. As Junghuhn bas pointed out, the similarity of the flora of South America and that of Java at about the same heights is remarkable. That he nevertheless, as much as possible aimed at cultivating Cinchona in the latter at a greater relative height, than it was met with in the former, is explained by the opinion to which he clung so long, that more efficacious barks are obtained from the trees, in proportion as they grow at a greater elevation. We are involuntarily obliged to speak of the original occur- rence of the Cinchona when entering into comparisons with regard to Java; we have come to it by a regular transi- tion, and its intimate connection with our present topic, and thereby spare a longer relation, when we shall presently have to treat of the acclimatization of the Cinchona plant. * * The genus Cinchona belongs to the Natural order Rumaceae, of which Cinciioneae form a section. Cinchonae are evergreen trees or bushes with opposite, decus- sate, simple, entire, petiolate leaves, having the centre vein

-ocr page 51-



		35

		strongly developed, and on the under surface, a considcrablc number of side veins. In shape the leaf varics from nearly circular to lanceolate, the upper surface being with or without hairs. Certain species met with in Java, C. Pahudiatia, C. Hasskarliana, and some varieties of C. Calisaya are very hairy; C. lanceolata is so to some extent, though this may be con- sidered as identical with C. Paliudiana, or almost a variety of it. The leaves of nearly all Cinchona plants of whatever species are hairy at first. The circular leaf is mostly met with in the large leaved kinds, of which we possess in Java, C. succi- rubra, C. caloptera, C. micrantha, C. Calisaya, and its variety anglica, and C. officinalis, which are divided into almost numberless varieties, amongst which the lanceolate leaf occurs. In the axils of the primary side veins in some species, for example the true C. Calisaya, C. ojficinalis, C. lancifolia, C. micrantha, and C. Hasskarliana, are found little pits, or scrobiculi, which exude an astringent juice; in other cases a small tuft of stiff hairs. In the intervals between the insertion of the leafstalks, on both sides of the young branches, there are two crooked, small, supporting leaves, or stipules, which soon fall off, and belong naturally, one to the right, the other to the left hand leaf. The flowers form at first a dichasium ^x which again forms a rich, feathery, radiating inflorescence, shortly stalked, and provided with bracts. They have further, an inferior, two- celled ovary, with numerous ascending ovules, attached to the partition, a trumpet-shaped sweet smelling corolla, with five oblong or ovate segments, having tufted fleshy hairs, or fringe on the inner surface and along the edges, valvate in aestivation, with a small five-toothed calyx, five stamens alternate ¹ A dichasium is, according to Dr. Oudcmans, what was formcrly tcrmcd a cyme, that is an inflorescence which never givcs off moie than two side bran- ches from the axis. The samc phenomenon repeats itself frequently in the secondaiy axes, which themselves branch in the same manner.

-ocr page 52-



		36

		with the segments of the corolla, situated either low down in the corolla tube of the long styled flowers, or high up in those of the short styled form, dehiscing inwards by slits, towards a short or long style, which terminates in two stigmas. The flowers of Cinchona are thus dimorphic; but whether dimor- phism occurs in the same tree, as asserted by some, has never been certainly seen by us. The fruit crowned with the calyx, is an ovate, oblong or lanceolate capsule, which divides from beneath upwards, the fruit stalk also splitting, springing open with two valves, and contains numerous flat, broad-winged, shield-shaped seeds. When properly matured, the seeds are brownish yellow or light brown, those of C. ojficinalis, however, arealways darker coloured, sometimes chestnut brown. These are also distin- guishable by their considerably greater size and weight, and their broader thicker embryo. Well developed capsules contain 12 to 38 perfect seeds, on an average about 25. A thousand well dried seeds, freed from all impurities, weigh from 0.355 to 0.365 gram- me, consequently a single seed weighs about half a millegramme. \' The seeds of C. ojficinalis however, form an exception; we have not our observations on this point at hand, but we shall not be far from the truth, in estimating them to be from 50 to 100 per cent. heavier. As regards the odour of the Cinchona flowers, we cannot fairly coïïpare them with any well known European flowers. They resemble the jasmine, as well as the lilac; it is worth mentioning however that, this scent does not occur in every species of Cinchona, for it is strongest in C. Calisaya, and absent from C. Pahudiana. The colour of the flowers, varies from pure white, as in the true C. Lcdgeriaua and C. micrantha, through rosé, in C. Calisaya, C. succimbra, C. Pahudiana to ¹ Onc thousand seeds would thercfore average, say fivc and a quartcr grains, about one-ninetieth of an ounce troy; a millegramme is approximately 0.1543 of a grain. B. D J.

-ocr page 53-



		37

		violet or purple, in C. officinalis and C. lancifolia. The colour of the leaves is also very varied; ranging from light green in C. succirubra, to a darker lnstrous tint in C. ojficiualis whilst C. micrantha is brownish-green, C. caloptcra shows a lighter shade, and certain varieties of C. Calisaya, such as Schuhkraft and Ledgcriana, are coloured on the underside of the leaf with clear chestnut brown. Indeed if attention be given to the various shades and shapes of the leaf, even on the same tree, they are found to be so various, that by them alone a species or variety cannot be recognised with certainty. All the forms, even of the tree in its entirety, seem depend- ent on a chain of circumstances; it has further been amply ascertained, that Cinchona easily degenerates, and passes through innumerable gradations, in consequence of the influences of soil and climate, as well as of hybridization. The height and age attained by Cinchona trees in South America, are naturally difficult to state, for no one has foliowed the development-history of individuals; in the East Indies, the cultivation of the acclimatized plant is still of too a recent date to give an answer. However, so far as experience has gone, we shall hereafter show. In America trees are met with of a height of 80 feet, with a circumference of five feet; on the other hand, there are also bushes merely from 4 to 12 feet high. According to Weddell, a tree of the best description, may yield 6 to 7\'/_a aroöas of dry bark, each aroba being n7₂ kilos; and from individuals of 10 metres high, and 0.6 metre in circumference, an average of 10 kilos is obtained. Plenty of specimens like this, from 10 to 15 years old, can already be pointed out in Java, and we may refer to the information given by S. von Warsewicz, inspector of the botanical garden at Cracow, who made important inves- tigations in America, that C. officinalis is a tender species, but it seems to thrive well in Java, growing there as quickly

-ocr page 54-



		:;s

		and even taller than in America. Warsewicz was obliged to search eight days in the Cinchona forests, before he found C. Caüsaya growing as high as 50 to 60 feet. In the East Indies the most important thing is, that many Cin- chona trees there have already attained an age of 20 years, and that their development, where they have been planted and maintained under moderately good conditions, on comparison with otlier introduced cultivated plants and even vvith indi- genous trees, in our judgment, leaves nothing to be desired. The Cinchona plant possesses a so called tap-root, like coffee; this form however is only absolute in young individuals, and alters mach daring the further growth. The roots rarely penetrate deeper than 0.6 metre, and as a rule branch imme- diately from the collar, in which case, the secondary roots be- come more strongly developed than the primary or tap-root itself.

		CHAPTER IV. THE INTRODUCTION OF CINCHONA INTO JAVA.

		In our historical summary, the instigation towards undertaking trials foracclimatizing the Cinchona plant, was sufficientlyset forth. At the instance and by help of Weddcll, the French government took the initiative in Algeria. At the beginning it appeared as if good results might be looked for; but either the choice of situation was not fortunate, or else the officials were insufficiently acquainted with the needs of the foreign nurslings, so that they were not placed under the most favourable conditions; the

-ocr page 55-



		39

		experimental planting, therefore, soon wententirely to the bad; ac- cording to the official reports they were annihilated by the sirocco. The English government was no more fortunate in its first attempts, and it was generally thought that the Netherlands in its rich and extensive colonies, possessed the best opportun- ity with regard to satisfactory results, to venture on a new and earnest experiment. Indeed, the question of a lasting supply from the mother-country of Cinchona, having regard to the uncontrolled exploitation in South America, had taken an international charac- ter, in which all civilised peoples may be said to be concerned. In the Netherlands, the full weight of this consideration was also feit. A first attempt towards bringing over the Cinchona to Java, was made in 1829 by Blume. During the years from 1830 to 1837 the subject was considered also by Korthals, Reinwardt, Fritze and Junghuhn; meanwhile with but little good result. The government was quite convinced of the desirability of earnest efforts being made, but the conditions of the time could not be called favourable for the prosecution of a task which would doubtless demand considerable pecuniary sacrifices, and of which the results and eventual fruit could not be anti- cipated. It is a noteworthy fact, that, when the Director of Cultures in Java, Heer de Vogel, in 1837 drafted model-contracts for issue in hiring waste lands, he was already thinking of the possibility of a special exploitation by private means for Cin- chona culture. But the time for vigorous measure had not yet arrived; menhowever like Vrolik, Mulder, de Vriese, and Miquel were not weary of calling the attention of the government to the subject and keeping it awake, and it may be added that finally the travels and writings of Weddell, gave an impetus towards a decision which could no longer be restrained, after his increas- ingly weighty argument, of the real urgency of the case and

-ocr page 56-



		M)

		his exact information given about the ways and means towards succeeding in the quest. It was reserved for the Minister for the Colonies, Ch. F. Pahud, to undertake and carry out the necessary arrangements for the great work. In the year 1851 Pahud communicated his plans to F. Junghuhn, at that time sojourning in the Netherlands, and already famous as an Indian naturalist. These plans were on an ample scale, and of wide comprehension. The government wished to send an expert to South America, there to collect seeds and plants and bring them over to Java. Junghuhn was chosen for this difficult but honourable task, and it was expected of him, that he would eagerly seize the oppor- tunity to attain to a thorough knowledge of the country, which had become famous by the classical writings of A. von Hum- boldt and many others. Junghuhn applied himself assiduously to study all the existing writings and official information, which would conduce to his preparation for this highly important mis- sion, and the satisfactory issue of the subject. Meantime, the project came to nothing. As Junghuhn testified some years later in his reports, he gave up his commission, and the distinction of the mandate, on behalf of his old friend, J. K. Hasskarl, who had been the colonial botanist during the years 1837 to 1843, and in 1846 was engaged at the state botan- ical garden at Buitenzorg in Java, but afterwards ha ving been removed from his proper sphere, was at that time in Dussel- dorf employed in business, still ardently longing to be replaced in active service, which would satisfy his scientific knowledge and love of Naturet. What foliowed need not be detailed. The fact is, that the Dutch government forced the difficult mission on Dr. Hasskarl, whose doings and actions we must now briefly recount. Difficulties and dangers of all kinds were involved in the commission, for cooperation on the part of the South Americans could hardly be reckoned on. It might rather be expected that

-ocr page 57-



		11 every step, and every action which might seem to threaten the maintenance of their monopoly would be resisted, whilst in the distracted political condition of the South American Republics, any foreigner appearing to cherish the design of attacking the most notable and richest source of livelihood, had very little guarantee of his personal safety\\ Thus the commission required the utmost delicacy of man- agement. Confidence was reposed in a scientific man, who possessed besides courage and hardihood, a strong constitution, experience and hearty devotion. Hasskarl was sufficiently prepared and ready to start, when a circumstance happened which did not make his task seem easier, and moreover compelled him to be very careful. An inter- ested but somewhat clumsy publicist, unseasonably disclosed the plans of the Dutch ^overnment abroad, and it was reasonable to expect that this would be reported to Sou h America, where the inhabitants thus enlightened, would certainly do their best to counteract and frustrate all attempts. Hasskarl\'s papers were drawn up and made ready, with an eye to these facts and considerations. The intrepid explorer left Europe in December 1852, as Herr Muller, native of Cassel, living at Amsterdam. Having arrived in the West Indies, he thence travelled over the Isthmus of Panama to Callao, which port after numerous difficulties and perils was reached on the 3i^st January 1853. In the West Indies and at Panama yellow fever was then raging, consequently quarantine was observed in the splendid bay of Callao. A surgeon came on board to inspect the crew and passen- ¹ It appears quitc truc, by rcports just to hand from the heart of the Cinchona countries, that the South Americans are still out of humour at the disturbance of their monopoly. At the present time howevcr it is easy to collect seeds of Cinchona there, although the illusion of thereby getting possession of the better sorts must not bc entertained. On the contrary, there prevails a resolute intention, to furthcr the propagation of inferior descriptions outside their own country.

-ocr page 58-



		42

		gers. He did ample justice to the abundant table of the steam ship, and probably it was to be ascribed to this, that he did not notice the symptoms of the dreaded disease, which accord- ing to everyone else, were plainly to be recognised in one of the passengers; the official doctor saw no danger, and declared rverything in order. The quarantine was raised, the passengers disembarked, and the following day, Callao for the first time became acquainted with the terrible yellow fever. The passenger died; Callao was infected. Herr Muller hastened to leave the place, and turned imme- diately eastward tovvards Lima, the ancient royal city, the Paris of South America. Various circumstances here compelled him to a stay of three months, which he turned to profit in acquiring the language of the country, and opening up good connections. Just at this time, the Peruvian government had the idea of peopling the eastern districts of its territory with European colonists. The distant uncultivated wastes were still for the most part unknown. Our traveller made good use of this cïrcumstance. He had pretended to travel with a scientific aim, and now agreed to give his best experience and observations, provided the govern- ment assured him of its moral support. Thus it feil out; recommendations were sent to officials and the clergy in the interior; the government therein expressed its desire that all things required by the travelier Muller, should be furnished, and indeed, he thus obtained the best opportunity to procure the necessary knowledge and data. For more than a year Hasskarl roamed about the Andes, sometimes penetrating to a height of 15,000 feet above the sea¹. From every point of view, and in ample measure he experienced difficulties, incidental to a waste, unknown, aud very primitive or uncivilised country. There was no lack of dangerous, and some- ¹ In English feet = 16404. B. D. J.

-ocr page 59-



		4:5

		timcs clroll adventures; with all that even in the midst of the Cinchona forests, it seemed still difficult to collect seeds and plants. Now and then, it cost much toil and tact, to dispel arising distrust or to adroitly divert it, and once in that position, there was no end to obstructions and impo- sitions. Nevertheless he succeeded in getting possession of some seeds, and sent them by trnsty hands direct to the Netherlands, and after the turn of the year, several hundreds of young plants were collected, which safely reached the coast, packed in twenty one cases. By a concurrence of accidents, some others dispatched in advance, were injured by neglect at Panama. At the end of August 1854 Hasskarl was able to embark at Callao with his costly treasures on board the Prins Fre- derik Hendrik, a war ship sent from the Indies. A heavy task was accomplished, but the series of cares and disappointments was not closed with it. Sailing in a westerly direction in the Pacific Ocean, they arrived at Makassar, where the war steamer Gedeh took over the charge, and brought it to Batavia on the i3^th December 1854. The concern now was to forward the young plants to the cool mountains as speedily as possible. During the long voyage they had suffered much, so that not more than seventy reached Tjibodas on the Gédé range of mountains, an establishment to be described presently. Hasskarl\'s mission may be said to have been completed with credit and satisfaction, and the Dutch government gave him substantial proofs of recognition and estimation. Certainly to no one better than to him, could the further care of the new colonists be entrusted; so Hasskarl was charged with the direction of Cinchona culture in Java, and acquitted himself of the task according to his powers till the commencement of 1856, when, in consequence of continued weariness, constant application and perhaps also of disappointments without end, he became

-ocr page 60-



		H

		ill and found himself obliged to return to Europe, abont the middle of the year ^l. Dr. F. Junghuhn was enjoined to take over Hasskarl\'s work and to continue it. What was it meanwhile that had taken place there at that time and previous to Hasskarl\'s mission? Many years previously, a plant which had been sent to Java by Miquel, was planted in the hospital garden at Weltevreden, and there was lom* considered to be the true Ciuchona. In 1856 I saw the plant, then a healthy bush, but it had been known for some time, to be nothing else than Cascarilla muzoniensis. In 1851 there was in Paris a true Ciuchona plant belong- ing to the best species, C. Calisaya; it was raised from seed, collected by Weddell in America. Professor de Vriese received this precious specimen from MM. Thibaut et Keteleer of Paris, in exchange for certain Indian plants. Transferred to the garden of the academy of Leyden, it was afterwards placed with the greatest care in a specially prepared case and dispatched to Java, i^st December 1851, by the sailing vessel Frederik Hendrik, P. Huidekoper, master. In April 1852, Teijsmann, the curator of the state botanical garden at Buitenzorg, received this firstling. It had suffered so much, that it could not be kept alive, but thanks to Teijsmann\'s care, one cutting was obtained before it succumbed, which developed robustly and was transferred to Tjibodas in the Gédé range of mountains, the so-called strawberry garden of the Governor General, about 4400 feet above the sea². The diligent Teijsmann quickly obtained a new individual from this plant, itself once a cutting, and the specimen booked as Calisaya No. 2, obtained a place close to the parent plant, between the thick roots of a hewn down, ¹ Dr. Carl Muller gave a long account of Hasskarl\'s noteworthy travels, in the "Deutsche Revue der Gegemvart" for 1873 The whole question of the intro- duction of the Cinchona tree into Java, was taken up by Dr. W. H. de Vriese in an interesting pamphlct in 1855. * In Paris feet, or 4812 English feet. B. D. J.

-ocr page 61-



		45

		gigantic forest tree. Though this situation may seem very narrow and confined, experience had taught the skilful propa- gator to reckon precisely on it, that on the other hand, an excellent shelter would be secured for the tender nursling. The parent tree and its offspring vied with each other in rapid growth ; according to the observations of i^st January 1856, N°. 1 had developed to 3 metres, and N°. 2 to 2³/₄ metres. In July 1859 the dimensions indicated were 16 and 15 feet, and in January 1865, 28 and 24 feet. In 1866 N^u. 2 (the cutting obtained from N°. 1) began to languish, and then threatening to die, it was sawn off about 2 decimetres\' above the ground. The tree of about fourteen years old had reached a height of 8.125 metres, with a circumference round the trunk of 0.8 metre. 10 kilos of dry bark were obtained from the sawn off stem, whilst if the tree had been dug out, and the bark harvested from all the branches, the stump, and the roots also, the outturn would certainly have amounted to 12 kilos. A large piece of the sawn trunk was forwarded to Bandoeng, and being of historical value, it is carefully preserved in the office of the Director of the government Cinchona culture. In the same way, disks were taken from the handsome stem with the bark still on, and sent to the Colonial Museum at Haarlem. The tree N°. 1 remained several years alive, and attained consi- derable dimensions; from the stump of N°. 2, numerous, robust suckers sprang up; but the original Cinchona establishment was abandoned about the year 1866, and attached as a section to the state botanical garden. Special care being no longer demanded, the nurseries for Cinchona cultivation were transferred to the central range of Preanger, and then, as the original trees at Tjibodas were no longer necessary for propagating, they had less attention devoted to them, so that at the present time, they probably are no longer to be found.

		¹ Nearly cight inches. B. D. J.

-ocr page 62-



		K>

		It will presently appear that the two nurslings so often ment- ioned had their full share in the multiplication, and thereby must constantly liave been subject to severe treatment. Thus, for the purpose of chemical investigation, strips had been repeatedly cut from the bark of the stem, all of which taken together from these two, as well as from all the remaining original Cin- chona trees at Tjibodas, so much and so long experimented on, in every shape and form, that their tenacity of life may be appreciated now that they did not succumb more speedily and in greater numbers. In the barks of Calisaya i and 2, from 5 to 6 °,\'o of alcaloids were found, under different circumstances, and by various analysts, produced for the most part as quinine and its analogous compounds. We were therefore right in hoping we possessed the best and richest description of Cinchona, and it is not to be wondered that, that the endeavour was to increase the number of indivi- duals of such excellent quality by artificial propagation, as rapidly as possible. The trees flowered repeatedly but the flowers ahvays withered, and feil off without setting fruit. From 1864 onwards, the trees at Tjibodas were allowed to rest, and in the year named, two of the specimens in the strawberry- garden were manured. In 1865 they yielded some well deve- loped capsules, from the seeds of which a few young plants germinated and were planted out at Tjineroean in the Malawar range. The seedlings did not wholly resemble the parents, but by progressive development, the majority at an advanced period of life, came to resemble small trees showing single, unmistakable, important deviations, amongst other things, in hairiness of the leaves. The strawberry garden at Tjibodas, where the two parent trees stood isolated, was so far separated from the higher situated Cinchona plantations, where other species occurred, that it was hardly possible to suspect hybridization, unless insects might have conveyed the pollen from the trees at a

-ocr page 63-



		47

		higher station; the wind though could not be the carrier, for a broad strip of forest between both sections of the nursery was left untouched. We shall subsequently see that bastards or varieties are mostly obtained by multiplication by seeds, and that these, har- vested from one tree and at the same time, as a rule produce plants, very various in appearance and form. It is well to remember that from seeds brought by Weddell from America, hybrids or varieties were already derived (See Vol. i, p. 61 of my book, De Oost-Indische cultures in betrekking tot handel en nijverheid, where the distinguishing points of hybrids are considered,) and in this case it is explained, that in the seedlings the characters of both the parent-trees revert. With regard to quality, it appeared in the course of time, that the barks just described were not in reality so good as the first repeated analytical results had declared. Since chemistry has taught how to separate with greater nicety the various Cinchona alkaloids, analysis brought to light the fact, that much of the pretended quinine in the Calisaya barks, N^os i and 2, was nothing else than quinidine and the so called amorphous alkaloid. Having thus in a short space sufficiently recounted the history of the first Cinchona plant which reached Java, we must now return to Hasskarl\'s mission and closely follow up its results. We have mentioned in passing, that Hasskarl during his stay in America, sent seeds to the Netherlands. According to his statements, these were derived from two varieties of Cin- chona Calisaya, and also from C. ovata, C. amygdalifolia, and C. pubesceiis. Some of these seeds, were, with the pow- erful cooperation of de Vriese, immediately sent to India, and the remainder were entrusted for sowing, to the directors of the botanie gardens in the Netherlands.

-ocr page 64-



		4S

		In Java, the curator Teijsmann was naturally selected as the man to take charge of the treasure thus acquired. Teijs- mann knew that the home of the Cinchonas was in the higher, cooler, mountain zones, and at Tjipannas, Tjibodas, Tjibeurem, and Kandang-batak, respectively about 1200, 1290, 1460, and 2372 metres above the sea, \' he, with the assistance of the skilful superintendent Teuscher, laid out numerous and extensive nursery-beds, on which the seeds were sown with the greatest care, and provided with the needful protection. These estates were chosen, for the simple reason that no other land under Teijsmann\'s supervision was available. He gave an account of his proceedings in letters dated 30^th January 1854, to which he added a proposition, that in order to ensure the germination of the seeds, a commission of experts should be nominated, whose function it would be, to tracé out suitable lands, and to determine their elevation. He further ureed the experimental culture of Cinchona in selected places, not confin- ing it to that region, but also seeking elsewhere for suitable land. With this reminiscence, borrowed from authentic sources, we join in a hearty protest against the accusation, so often rumoured, that Teijsmann "obstinately and irremovably clung to the purpose of fixing the future Cinchona culture, exclusively to the Tjibodas estate". Whoever at the present time, ascribes the sad ending of the Tjibodas Cinchona plantation to Teijs- mann, simply shows insufficiënt acquaintance with the facts, and besides, inattention to the history of the plantation. It would be useless, and here at least is not the place for it, to awaken old quarrels, or to take sides with this or that cham- pion, but esteem for Teijsmann\'s industry compels us to place the facts in their true just light, and as we were never infa- tuated with the idea of an extended Cinchona cultivation on the narrow mountain ridge on the northwest aspect of the Gédé

		¹ In English feet 3637, 4232, 479°, 7546. B. D. J.

-ocr page 65-



		49

		range, we may not deny, that the soil and climate at least did not appear unfavourable there. The two oldest Calisaya trees, and many others, of 10 to 14 years old planted still higher, which we have visited repeatedly, have ahvays astonished us by their strength and active development, in spite ofthemor- tal experiments to which as will immediately be shown, they were subjected when young by attempts at artiricial propagation. I low many of the previously mentioned intended nursery- beds succeeded, we cannot say for certain. The plants resulting therefrom, with those subsequently brought from the Nether- lands, raised from the seeds entrusted to the various botanie gardens, were put out at regular intervals of 20 feet, in the specially cleared ground. In December 1854 Hasskarl himself came over, and brought with him specimens from America, thouyh it seems uncertain what this number was. On the first of January 1856 there were mentioned as being at Tjibodas, the two Calisayas in the strawberry garden, respectively 3 and 2.75 metres high, 42 Calisayas and 60 Ovatas, raised from seeds. Amongst the plants introduced direct from America, there were three, 0.8, 0.5 and 0.25 metre high. The weather was unfavour- able at the beginning of 1856; many plants were damaged by violent winds, and the frequent showers did much harm. By this time 238 Calisayas and 50 Ovatas, had been obtained from cuttings. It was said in the earliest reports, that the plants showed a strong inclination to branch quickly, and these branches made suitable cuttings. On attentively going over the monthly reports in succession, it will be perceived, that Hasskarl and Junghuhn also, by persevering, accomplished much by making cuttings, although it becomes apparent thereby, that relatively few grew up to plants, though Junghuhn states in one of those reports, that not more than 10 °/₀ of the cuttings failed. The truth is, as we have found during eleven years, when we could avail ourselves of riper experience and better means, that, except in C. mecirubra and C. ojjicinalis, cuttings as 4

-ocr page 66-



		50

		a rule, are most troublesome and deceptive. If well put in, and lookcd after, cutlings will sometimes for months maintain a favour- able outward appearance, and some will even seem to grow. If however they are examined more closely, there will be found little or no sign of rooting, but on the contrary, at the base of the cut surface, a knob shaped thickening, the so called ca/lus. Now we can imagine, that at first the propagators allowed themselves to be deceived by these appearances, and that they seemed to sce thrifty, healthy plants, while they really were merely fresh and green cuttings, without a good system of roots. Such individuals planted out in the open ground, must as a matter of course speedily die, and we must seek in this direction for the explanation of numberless disappointments, which were constantly experienced in propagating, when this was not accomplished l>y means of fresh, well developed seeds. So also at the present time it does not seem strange to ns that so few plants germinated out of the mass of seeds sent by Hasskarl. Granted that they were in a germinative condi- tion, it remains still a fact, that the older the seed, the more difficult to start it into growth, and if many even now are lost from fresh, healthy seeds, sown broadcast on beds however protected against wind and weather, etc, it is evident that but little was to be expected from seed that had travelled far, was neither new nor fresh, and treated in the way abovc mentioned. From 1864 onward, we have repeatedly received Cinchona seeds direct from America, or via the Netherlands, and by another method of treatment, which we shall describe hereafter, we always obtained a satisfactory number of plants. If the seed sent by Hasskarl had yielded results in proportionate mea- sure, Java would in 1855 already have rejoiced in the pos- session of many thousands of Cinchona plants. But the pro- perties of the Cinchona seed were to be learned only by costly and tedious experience. The cultivator Teijsmann himself, who had by the end of 1853 extensive beds, sown with Cinchona,

-ocr page 67-



		51

		which judged from our present standpoint, really obtaincd no results worth naming, taught us in March 1864 a method of germinating seeds which we have always found excellent, even when we had to do with seed no newer and even worse cared for, than that sent in quantity by Hasskarl. On the first of May, 1856 there were recorded at Tjibodas, 43 Cinchona Calisaya, 76 C ovata and 3 C, lanceolata besides 865 cuttings. The total number of plants was thus actually lessened by one C. Calisaya, but increased by 15 C ovata. The C lanceolata which are here ennmerated for the first time, appear later on to be identical with the C. ovata, or at most only a variety of it. In the strawberry garden the two oldest Calisayas con- tinued growing, and there also we find mentioned a specimen of Cinchona pubcscens, introdneed as we suspect, from the Netherlands. This plant did not long sutvive, at least it was soon omitted from the reports, and it may be left out of our reckoning, for no propagation if it scem> to have taken place. This single specimen had reached a height of 0.5 metre. Ths latest reports of Hasskarl concerning Tjibodas, are dated 2 and 3 July 1856, and are compiled from data of the super- intendent Teuscher on duty there. According to this official report there were on July i^st as follows, 11 3 Cinchona Calisaya and 8S C. ovata, the latter better developcd than the former. Junghuhn who on the3^ri1 July follow- ing personally inspected the condition of the plantation, reported only 63 plants in all, 37 being C Calisaya. The climension of these were, 26 under, and 9 above 0.25 metre; the two others had reached a height of even more than 0.5 metre, whilst of C. ovata only 8 specimens attained more than o. 275 metre. With the trans- fer of the direction of culture, there was thus suddenly brought to light the inaccuracies, for which Hasskarl, then already under treatment in the hospital at Weltevreden, can hardly be blamed. * * *

-ocr page 68-



		52

		Quite in accordance with Teijsmann\'s representations of 30 January 1854, Junghuhn had already succceded in directing die attcntion of the Dutch government to the excellent situa- tion for an extension of Cinchona culture offered by the cen- tral mountain range of Preanger. He had moreover weighty objections to Tjibodas, and also in a general way, against clearing the Gédé range. The objections consisted in the unfavourable formation of the ground, the want of shelter against winti and of water snpply, the inadequacy of the ground, as well its quality and lastly the impending danger from the active neighbouring crater. Above all, Junghuhn considered the plantation to lie too low. In the Malavvar range (Zuid-Bandoeng, about the centre of the Preanger regency) there was not one of these drawbacks; on the contrary every condition was favourable, both in regard to climate and soil, as to the formation of the ground and the amount of suitable lands disposable. Junghuhn visited this region first in October 1839, and all his subsequent writings and actions testify to his great liking for this neighbourhood. At that period, there was nothing to be found but boundless, impenetrable forests, in which the only open spaces were due to the sulphur springs of the Wajang mountain, and a few warm springs close by. The entire tableland of Pengalengan, within the vertical limits of 4400 to 4500 feet above the sea, * estimated to be 9 kilometres from east to west, and fully 10 from north to south, was covered with forest to the tops of the surrounding mountains. No other mountain district exists in Java which can vie with this, in its great extent, propor- tionate height and favourable situation. Towards the close of 1839 a passatigrahan (resting place for officials and travellers) was built, an opening made in the forest at the most suit- able point, and a road constructed. From this point, the forests ¹ Respeclively 4812 and 4921 in English fcet. B. \\). J

-ocr page 69-



		68

		were begun to be cut down, and plantations laid out; this increas- ing year by year, cnded by taking in a considerable portion of the hi<dier lands. o Junghuhn had fixed his eye upon this rcgion, so highly favoured by nature. Here would be room for an almost unlim- ited cxtension of Cinchona culture, and in these highlands, which offered the most striking resemblance in climate and vcgetation to the native land of the Cinchona, these plants brought fron South America would not feel strange. The simi- larity is really rtmarkable enough to warrant the hypothesis, that here the Cinchona tree would have to undergo a process of naturalisation, rather than acclimatization. Junghuhn started to return on the i^st September 1855 by the sailing vessel "Minister Pahud" (W. Pfull, master), bringing with him the Cinchona plants which had been left in the Aca- demy garden at Leyden. Timely information had previously been given to the Indian government, so that regulations could be drawn up for the speedy transmission of the plants on their arrival at Batavia, to the place chosen by Junghuhn at Pengalengan. Hasskarl charged himself, during the close of 1855 with- making the ground ready for the reception of the new guests. Two kilometres north east of the passangrahan Pengalengan, the centre of the extensïve government coffee plantations, and above these, a space in the forest of about 300 feet in length, and the same in breadth, was cleared with the utmost celerity. From the stream which thcre flows, the future establishment was named Tjinieroean, 1566 metres above the sea \'. Junghuhn had come back with four cases of a special con- struction, the so-called Wardian cases, containing 55 Cinchona Calisaya, 88 C. ovata, and 6 C. lancifolia plants, which whilst on board, one with another, had reached the height of 1 to i\'/i feet- Arriving at Batavia in the first week of December, Junghuhn reported to the government, that he had succeeded ¹ That is, 5140 English feet B. D. J.

-ocr page 70-



		54

		in bringing over 139 plants out of 149, in a perfectly healthy and fresh state. During the voyage, the plants had grown so much, that their diligent guardian was obliged to cutuffsome of the tops, wliich were put in as cuttings. On hearing of the arrival, Hasskarl hurried to Batavia, to transport the new treasure himself to Tjinieroean By the 2^nd of Febmary he was compelled to record the death of 4 C. Calisaya, and 18 C. ovata. Most of the plants seemed to lose their Icaves and buds, so that they really looked greatly diminished in general aspect. On the other hand, the same plants had a tendency to bud out at the bottom of their woody stems. This appearence was a natura] consequence of the topping practised by Junghuhn. By Hasskarl\'s report there now remained only 103 plants, that is, 46 C. Calisaya, 50 C. ovata, and 7 C. lancifolia. The biggest plant was 0.2 metre high \'. We must here remark, that the C. lancifolia plants were not derived from seeds collected by Hasskarl. The Berlin professor, Dr. Karsten, travelling in New Grenada, had there procured seeds, which by exchange with the Governor of Surinam, were presented to the Dutch government. From these, 6 or 7 plants were raised in the botanie garden at Leyden, which reached Java under Junghuhn\'s care. About the same period as the dispatch of the "Minister Pahud", there were shipped to India by the "Corigene" (Rijken master), 106 plants, which were raised in Utrecht. This consignment did not receive skilied supervision, and thereto it must be ascribed that although these plants were dispatched forthwith to Tji- nieroean, according to Hasskarl\'s report, not more than 7 came to hand in a fresh state, and 13 in a doubtful condition. On the i^st April there were only 40 of Junghuhn\'s plants, C. Calisaya, 33 C. ovata and 6 C. lancifolia still living; whilst of the Utrecht consignment not more than two remained. Dating from Tjinieroean, Hasskarl presented another report, \' Not quite 8 inches. B. D. J.

-ocr page 71-



		55

		with a description, of the Cinchona varieties indicated, accompa- nied by C. Calisaya leaves of five different forms, to show that the form of leaf differs remarkably in individuals of the same species. The report and appendixes were sent to the Netherlands for the opinion of De Vriese, who confirmed the accuracy of Hasskarl\'s statement. It was of the utmost import- ancë, to know whether we really posscssed the true Cinchona Calisaya because this species was generally considered to yield the barks richest in quinine. De Vriese had kept back a few plants, and on his proposal Weddell, who was still held to be the highesl authority in the domain of quinology, was invitcd to inspect this treasure and pass his opinion thereon. This took place at Leyden, on the 27* September 1855, and whilst still at a distance, Weddell recognised and distinguished amongst the plants, "the true Calisaya, and nothing else, without the slightest doubt". It is necessary to bear in mind, that at this time, only young plants were to be had for investigation and determination. As peculiariy characteristic of C. Calisaya, \\\\\\<tscrobiculi&\\\\<\\ the duil velvety appearence of the leaves were relied on, although this last is due to a special conditïon of the cells of the upper surface of the leaf. How deceptive these characters are, and how difficult it is to distinguish even developed, flowering, and fruiting Cinchona trees, will be seen later on. The scrobiculi do not serve as a special characteristic of the true C. Calisaya, for as we have already shown, they are also met with* in other species, though certainly not in the species then called C. ovata. On the other hand, C. ovata displays in its young state, as plainly, its peculiar velvety surface. One after another fact was cleared up by the dispute which ensued later as to specific determination, as also the fact that the original names seem to be not entirely irreproachable. * *

-ocr page 72-



		56

		In June 1856 Hasskarl returned to Europe, resigning the prosecution of Cinchona culture to Junghuhn. With this transference of management, the first period of the new culture was closed. There was now a trial plantation at Tjibodas, disapproved of by Junghuhn as already stated, and a second at Tjinieroean, which estate be considered to lie too low, whilst he moreover deplored the planting out of Cinchona trees on cleared ground, he had there placed them under the shade of intentionally planted Dadaps \'. Tunirhuhn also saw a threateninof danser in the circumstance that the stumps and roots of the felled forest trees were left in the ground; in his opïnion the vegetable portions would proceed to rot, and in every respect open a favourable oppor- tunity for cryptogamic vegetation, of which the developed mycclium would overrun and kill the delicate Cinchona plants. The fact that afterwards, sickly or dead Cinchona plants were met with, attacked by mycclium, gave support to Junghuhn\'s suspicions and fears. Meanwhile we may now, by reason of many years¹ experience on hundreds of hectares of ground cleared and again planted, declare with the greatest possible certainty, that the causes of the deaths of the Cinchona plants did not lie in the method of clearing and planting. Junghuhn\'s first report was dated 25 July 1856. Besides the 7 C. Calisaya and one specimen of C. pubesccns in the strawberry garden at Tjibodas, there were then recorded in that plantation, 41 C. Calisaya and 65 C. ovata. A mighty revolution was begun in the Malawar range. From Pengalengan to the summit of the mountain, were tvvelve nurseries made, adjoining in a straight line, Tjinieroean being one, which was already made by Hasskarl. These collective trial nurseries now lodged 143 plants, 66 of which were at Tjinieroean, Junghuhn now distinguishing 7 as C. lanceolata. In the higher plantations there were placed 56 C. Calisaya, ¹ Various species of Erytkriita B. D. J.

-ocr page 73-



		57

		77 C. ovata, 7 C lanceolata, and 3 C. laiicifolia, all protected with the greatest care against injury by animals, etc. The plants brought by Junghuhn himself from the Netherlands, were all at Tjinieroean, those higher up the mountain, were derived from Tjibodas, where the oldest individuals, and the more difficiilt to remove, were destined to rem.iin to supply cuttings, undcr the care of the superintendent Swart. In August 1856, the first propagating house at Tjinieroean, iS feet long and 13 feet wide, was finished; Junghuhn was hard at work to turn the Malawar range into an English park, by making roads, leading from Tjinieroean to the upper regions, which cut through the primeval forest in various directions. Above Tjinieroean, in the middle of a thick, majcstic forest, at a hcight of 5790 feet, a small passangrakan was built, and ground cleared. From this place, Gedong-banteng, Junghuhn wished to regulate and watch his projected gigantic labours. On 31 August 1S56 there were emunerated; on the Malawar range 143, and at Tjibodas 105 plants; the latter were mentioned by Junghuhn as being already great, heavy trees. Some hun- dreds of cuttings (as the small branches or ends of branches when cut off are called) were taken from these every month, which were then wrapped in pisang (Miesa) leaves, and sent to Tjinie- roean, and there received in the propagating house. It needs scarcely be told, that the first planted or trans- plantcd young trees were placed by Junghuhn in the thick shade of the forest It appears from everything, that he remained convinccd that these conditions were the prime requisites for a good and Iasting development of Cinchona. At first the young nurslings were put out along the newly constructed roads, and thus had, relatively at least, more light and air, than the rows which were later made, at distances of 25 feet apart, in the thick forest. Both undergrowth and trees alike were felled; the ground cleared simply of weeds, and the Cinchona turned out into a

-ocr page 74-



		58

		deep, broad hole, so that they were at least from six inches to a foot when settled, above the trodden ground, in consequence of breaking up the soil in the hole, after which they were provided with stout fencing. In this fashion gradually a hundred thousand Cinchona plants were systematically planted out in the forests of Malawar, Wajang, Kendeng, Wringin, Patoeha, and Tangkoeban-Prahoe ranges. In October 1S56 Junghuhn\'s expectations of the near future were so great, that he drew up an outline of instruction for the officers, charged or about to be charged with the super- intendance of Cinchona culture, and of rules for the foremen in that department. A preliminary Guide to the culture, soon saw the light namely in 1858, and even from our present standpoint, it contains considerations and information in natura] history and climatology of extreme interest. Junghuhn on the 2^nd November 1856, reported that 22 plants had died at Tjinieroean, which he attributed to the still imperfect experience of the foreman; the remaining plants grew day by day. At that time there was actually an experimental planting in the Ajang-range (Besoeki) in order to observe the influence of a drier climate. Junghuhn carried out this plan on the 2i^stMay 1859; 9 Cm- chot ia Calisaya, 8 C. ovata, and 4 C. lauceolata were planted at that date at Wonodjambi, 2219 metres\' above the sea, in very fertile soil, in the midst of the forest, each plant separately provided with a strong fence, since it would not be possible there to keep a constant watch. Within two years, 3 individuals were dead, and when the writer of this visited Wonodjambi in September 1865, hefound still there, 15 vigorous and tall trees, but in want of air and space, so that a thinning of the surrounding forests was greatly to be recommended. At the same time it appears that in 1859 \' In English fect, 7280. li. I). J.

-ocr page 75-



		59

		young plants could not be clearly detcrmined; for there stood proinincntly forth a handsome specimen of the species, which Miquel aftervvards described as C. caloptcra. In 1863 Junghuhn planted on the cleired table-land Diëïig; 2046 metres above the sea \' behind thepasangrahan there, in an enclosed nursery, 16 Cinchona trees, belonging to C. Cali- saya, C. Pahudiana (formerly called C. ovala) C. lancifolia,* and C. succirtibra, (met with amongst C. ovata, and at first called C. cordifolia, but aftervvards C. caloptcra) fonr of each species. When I surveyed this plantation in September 1865, there were still 14 freely developed bushes living. At Tjinieroean meanwhile the dwellings of the foreman and the staff of workpeople, and the nursery accommodation were actively pushed on. On the 4^th December it was said; all "plants in the open ground more than three inches high, are growing admirably, those in the frames satisfactorily; the cuttings root so fast, that they must be shifted into the largest sized pots. Tjibodas yields about 300 cuttings per month on an average, and this number will be increased to 500 or 600, as soon as sufficiënt nursery accommodation can be prepared at Tjineroean." At Tjibodas they began at this time to take tjangkokkcn, or layers, from the biggest trees, by which means robust young trees could be readily assured. The report of the 4^th January 1859 states, that many plants in the open ground had died, in consequence of frequent rains, against which the insufficiently rooted cuttings appeared unable to contend. In future so far as possible, planting out will be done after the rainy season. At the end of 1856 at Tjibodas, there were still recorded, 41 C. Calisaya, and 64 C. ovata, and on the Malawar hills, 66 C. ovata, 62 C. Calisaya 7 C. lanccolata and 3 C. lancifolia, without reckoning the cuttings in the propagating houses. Contrary to the great expectations che- rished of the artificial propagation, and often repeated, the \' That would amount to 6713 English feet. I). D. J.

-ocr page 76-



		60

		actual increase cannot be considered particularly satisfactory. A new period of happy augury set in, when on the io^thJune 1857, flowers were discovered for the first time on a specimen of C. ovata 9 feet in height. In August, 6 C. ovata from 8 to 1 2 feet, and 7 C. Calisaya, of 7 feet high each were flowering; Junghuhn remarked, that those branches on the C. Calisaya tree which were intended for layers, bore the most flowers. Amazement at this, surely testified to want of expe- rience in propagating trees. The operation of ringing as a provocation or incitement to flower, was known long ago, and often in later years it has been applied with the happiest results to trees of C. Calisaya, C. lancifolia, and C. caloptcra. In the month of June 1869 Junghuhn noticed a specimen with a large leaf, amongst the C. lanceolata vvhich was held to be C. cor- difolia until more recent investigations andcomparisonsconvinced him that here he had to do with C. succimbra \'. But this opinion also seeuied wrong when he was able to compare this species, with specimens of C. succirubra received from British India in 1S62, and Miquel recognised it as C. caloptcra. The pretended C. succirubra remained for years known to the labourers in the Cinchona establishments as Kortefolia, (short-leaf) and we also, previously to 1866, did not dare to doubt officially, its identity with the true C. succirubra. Miquel undertook and completed the task of making an end of the existing confusion as to species. In arranging the material collected by Hasskarl in America, which was preserved in the Leyden herbarium, the expert systematist Miquel by set study and analysis, arrivcd at accurate botanical determinations. Where the data for a thorough investigation failed, the plantations in Java were able to supply them. We had the privilege of supplying the eminent botanist with important and desired ¹ According to Oudemans, Howard considered this plant to be C. succirubra Hasskarl however had not visited the mother country of this species and so it must be considered strange or purely accidental if he had brought seedsof it thence.

-ocr page 77-



		(il

		matcrial, and numerons questions concerning the natural occur- rences of the living tree were readily and with the greatest exactitude answered. In 1869 the fruit of his labours saw the Iight; it was en- titled : - "De Cinchonae speciebns quibusdam, adjectis iis quae in Java coluntur", Amstelaedami (C. G. van der Post). Miquel\'s declarations were not implicitly received on all sides; as for ourselves we had no definite reasons for doubting the accuracy of his botanica! determinations, although we could advance certain objections to the estimated values of the species and varieties investigated, on the strength of the chemical analyses which were made in Java. It wonld lead us too far, were we to follow minutely the official reports as to the history of the development of Cin- chona culture in its second period, nnder Junghuhn. Many times and in many ways it was faulty, but it was an experi- mental field in the fullest sense of the word, and conclusions and deeds of the most apparently logical kind could only exposé the experimenters to disappointment so long as expe- rience had not yet, by means of long practice, decisively declared. A man like Junghuhn stands too high, for the errors which arose nnder his superintendance. to depreciate his well merited fame and name. His unbounded love of nature, his unwearied diligent endeavours, his clear and sharp insight, and his comprehensive knowledge, speak in his numerous and most important writings. Junghuhn\'s work in Java is unsurpassed of its kind at the present day, and will always remain a trusty, unmistakeable testimonial to the Indian naturalist. Cinchona culture has benefitted immensely by his information as to the most suitable soils for it, and his perseverance in accomplishing his task. His acrid criticism on his predecessors, Teijsmann and Hasskarl, criticism which indeed had no right to be made, is however to be deplored. If the course adopted by conviction by both these men, and dealings with regard to Cinchona

-ocr page 78-



		112

		culture did not coincide or agree with those of Junghuhn, this champion for light, right, and truth might have refrained from depreciating and discrediting die activlty of his predecessors, though which his own mistakes and shortcomings, wcre more or less hidden. The acclimatization experiments have set loose dcbate, in which many have taken part, both Dutch and others. It be- comes art international question, in as much as all civiliscd peoples must have an interest in the success of the attempts to subject Cinchona to regular cultivation outsidc its native land \'. We will not interfere with the contentions of passion caused by devotion to the object, perhaps also a little by vanity. Henceforth we have merely to do with actual facts, and by them, to ensure a clear exposition of the whole history, which may serve as fruitful instruction, and as sure guidance to planters of the present day, as well as those the future².

		¹ Among the many forcign periodicals, which have applaudcd the success of Hasskarl\'s mission as a triumph of science and civilisation in the cause of humanily, we may name, Hookcr\'s "Journal of lïotany\', the "Annuaire des deux mondes" of 1855, and various Journals and Reviews of the United States etc. In 1867 Rochusscn wrote: "The cyes of Europc are fixcd upon this enterprise, which interests it in the highest degrec; for it is, so to speak, to procure for the sick, the mcans of life, and to procure it at a cost which will not exceed his means. This is no conimon speculation, it is a humanitarian work that the Dutch government lias undertaken and carricd it out; it does not wiOi for monopoly; it does not hide it undcr the veil of secrecy." Even so lately as 1864, it was expressly stated by deerce of the Indian govern- ment of February 14, that the culture of Cinchona must not be regarded in any aspect as a financial speculation. We know to day that the sacrificc made on behalf of humanity, has actually in the end, succeeded fiscally, and also as private undertakings. ■ It long was a great mistake in liritish India, as well as in Java, that the con- cern was much more for what might be, that is to say, for what was hoped for, than for what was. Many disappointments were feit by going too fast and too far, which would not have been experieneed in calmly working on.

		-

-ocr page 79-

CHAPTER V.

CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT OF CINCHONA CULTURE IN IAVA.

The first sceds werc obtaincd in Java about the middlc of
185S at Tjibodas. The bearing trees had thus scarcely attained
the age of four years, but although the erop of seed constantly
increased upto 1866, it took place exceptionally, or in very small
quantities, in the species considered the best, C. Calisaya.

At the end of 1 859 there were out in the open ground,
19 C. Calisaya and 27,702 C. ovata, raised from Javan seed.
In addition there were in the nursery beds, 2,401 C. Calisaya,
and 68,569 C. ovata, vvhilst u,66S C, Calisaya and 408,230
C. ovata seeds had been sown. There were held in reserve,
950 C. Calisaya, and 415,000 C. ovata.

It deserves remark that the seeds were still carefully
counted, so high a value was set upon them. VVith arti-
ficial propagation there was no need henceforth to be so
strict, the extension of the cultivation in that direction was
no longer necessary and in truth, even at the present time
but comparatively paltry results have been obtained from it. At
the end of 1859 the total number of trees, brought from else-
where or raised from cuttings, amounted to 1,445, amongst
which, there were probably many cuttings of doubtful vitality.

The subjoined summary shows the out-turn of the live fol-
lowing years.


	1859	1860	1861	1862	1863
Seeds not yet germinated. . . .	722,681.	S93.660. 355,9°i	479.750-	391,486.	208,322.
	108,603.	541,861.	633,944- 330.965-	612,770.
	33»483-	58,548.	135,580.	539,040.

-ocr page 80-



		64

		We shall presently record the proportionate ntimbers of the various species. Meanwhile it already appears from this summary, what strides the culture took, as soon as seeds could be used. Junghuhn utilised his ripe knowledge of soils, in extending the Cinchona establishments, and did not restrict himselt" in that, to the Malawar range, but chose a series of central localities, sitnated on different mountains and various elevations, so as to bring together as many factors as possible, for comparing the power of growth, nndcr widely different circumstances. Besides the existing establishments at Tjibodas (1430 metres above the sea) and Tjinieroean (1566) there were successively formed, Tjibeurem (1560) on the Malawar in 1858, Rioeng- oenoeng (1625) on the Tiloe in 1859, Kawa-Tjiwidei (1950) on the Kendeng in 1859, Nagrak (1625) on the Tang- koeban-Prahoe in 1859, Tjibietong (1527) on the Wajang in [860, Rantja-Bolang (1917) on the Kendeng-Patoeha in 1860, Telaga-Patengan (1576) on the Patoeha-Djampang in 1862, and Lembang (1251) on the Tangkoeban-Prahoe in 1862. We have already mentioned the small experimental plan- tings at Wonodjarnpi in Besoeki, and on the Diëng in Bagalen; there was no previous talk of further extension there. Each of the above named ten establishments however, all sitnated in the western half of the Preanger regency, was separately placed under the orders of a European superintendent, for whom a suitable boarded dweiling was built, and to whom was assigned a native foreman {mandoer) and several permanent labourcrs (boedjangs). For the latter, uniform dwellings were made under a roof, whilst day labourers {koelis or coolies) served as wanted at the time. Only the superintendent, at Tjinieroean and Lembang had shut-up propagating houses; at the others places merely nursery beds were used. At Gedong-Banteng on the Malawar between Tjinieroean and Tjibeurem, but sitnated higher than these, also at Lorrok- Kidoel, between Rantja-Bolang and Telaga-Patengan, Junghuhn

-ocr page 81-



		(55

		built passangrahanSy where he could stay during his periodical inspections, and whence he could visit the seven establishments lying south of Bandoeng. His own dweiling was at Lembang, from which place it was possible to reach Nagrak in an hour\'s time. Meanwhile, during the progress of these activities, investiga- tion as to the worth of the various species of Cinchona, and the exact definition of these, was not discontinued. On the other hand, outside Java gradually arose a great dispute in tliis matter, which bore very much the semblance of passionate vehemence. As far back as 1855, doubts were entertained in the Nether- lands, about the good quality of those species of Cinchona collected and dispatched by Hasskarl. Professor De Vriese at that time assuredly was the person who had the greatest share in everything that concerned the introduction of Cinchona cul- ture into Java. He was not only the scientific adviser of the government, hut also at the garden at Leyden most Cinchona plants were raised, whilst all that were sent from America, therc underwent critical investigation. The questions which were here considered, could not from their very nature, be mysterious or secret; though it appears to be a fact that Pro fessor Blume at Leyden, who may certainly be styled an autho- rity in botanical matters, vainly institutcd attempts to see the Cinchona plants which had been reared in the academical garden. It was not until after Weddell\'s visit and declaration mentioned on page 55 that this readily comprehensible desire was fnlly gratified, when Blume also recognised plainly, the C. Calisaya type, in the specimens which had been left behind \'. ¹ The writer of tliis is thoroughly acquainted with the special circumslanccs of the case, and was concerned in them.moie than was agreeable to him. He was at that juncture at Leyden, by command of the colonial minister, on purpose to employ himsclf with quinological studies, and saw the living Cinchona plants for the first time simultaneously with Blume, who complained that De Vriese should have carefuliy denied all access, until VVcddell had reportrd on the identity of the C. Calisaya. 5

-ocr page 82-



		66

		The seeds which Hasskarl had sent, belonged to the following; Cinchona alisaya, C. Covata, C. amygdalifolia and C. pubescens. From the last but one, nothing seems to have been raised, whilst of C. pubescens only one plant was produced, which however must soon have died. Junghuhn soon had suspicions regarding the C. ovata and for a short time supposed them to be C. Condaminea, although they were already in 185659 entered in the reports as C. lucumacfolia. Junghuhn sent leaves, flowers and fruit of this sort to Mr. J. E. Howard of London, who saw in it a new and hitherto unre- cognised species, and christened it in honour of the Dutch statesman to whom Javan Cinchona culture is so deeply indebted, Cinchona Palmdiatia. Since 1861 it is has been mentioned in the reports under this name, and still affords dispute among botanists, whether Miquel in his monograph formerly quoted, has not described it as a worthess species, C. carabayensis. This question is no longer of practical importance, for since 1864 the propagation of C. Pahudiana or C. carabayensis has been discontinued. lts further propagation was forbidden so early as 1862, by decree of the Indian government of n September, because of the doubts concerning it, and the possession of other species whose value was considered superior in every respect\'. Amongst the imported C. ovata, certain specimens were distinguished and considered to be C. lanceolata, and amongst these, Junghuhn noticed an individual, which by its peculiarly large form, as well as by the colour and substance of the leaf, showed marked divergence and was styled C. cordifolia. Sub- sequently named C. succirubra, Miquel has finally pointed out its identity with C. caloptera. The dispute however did not end with these confusions and elucidations. ¹ In spitc of prohibition, the multiplication was not actually stoppetl. Plenty of sceds were obtaincd from C. Pahudiana, and of the others few or none. In striving after extension, we were obliged to make shift with C. Pahudiana.

-ocr page 83-



		67

		From the first harvested C. Calisaya seeds gathered atTjibodas from plants which were raised from seeds sent over by Hass- karl, there were 5000 plants obtained in 185961, which were naturally regarded as C. Calisaya. In 1864 it was abundantly evident, that these were very different in ontward appearance from all those of C. Calisaya which had been obtained by cuttings, and also from a few individual seedlings planted out in the forest at Nagrak. When, in the beginning of 1865, these doubtful plants began to flower, the suspicion gained ground that here also confusion must have prevailed, and since then thesepseudo- Calisaya have been distinguished, as C. dubia, until Miquel recognised them as a particular species, and named it in honour of Hasskarl, C. Hasskarliana. Others have asserted and still do assert, that this C. Hass- karliana is a hybrid originated at Tjibodas, from the fertili- sation of C. Calisaya flowers by pollen from C. Pahudiana. C. Hasskarliana has trui}- a strong family likeness to C. Palni- diana, though it is wholly distinct from the latter, and it will here- after be seen that it again runs into varieties, shown by superficial differences in the shape of the fruit as well as in form and more or less hairiness of the leaf. C. Hasskarliana in common with C. Calisaya, possesses the oft mentioned scrobiculi in the axils of the veins of the leaf. However this may be, we certainly do not consider ourselves qualified to take sides in the dispute; Miquel was an established authority as a systematic botanist, and he had found material in Hasskarl\'s collections identical with C. Hasskarliana, a tolerably good proof that this existed in America before its discovery in Java. Still further we would recall the fact, that amongst the originally received C. ovata, there were also found divergencies from the typical form, and that both Hasskarl and Junghuhn met with great diversity amongst the earliest specimens of C. Calisaya. Besides, it is very difficult to base knowledge upon an inves- tigation of dried leaves, flowers and fruits; young Cinchona

-ocr page 84-



		CS

		plants resemble each other so much, that even the most experi- eneed eye must sometimes hesitate, before making a catego- rical declaration. At the same time it happens, that the chief distinguishing characters of C. Calisaya, namely the presence of scrobiculi, and the velvety appearance of the leaves, are both criteria borne also by many other species. Both readily show that mis- takes would be sure to arise so long as no arrangement existed and the fully developed material at hand requisite for thorough stndy and mutual comparison. The eminent systematist may have made mistakes in dealing with defective data, snch as obtained in this case at first, without endangering his reputation. Thus much as to the species, to which we must again return when speaking of their chemical value. We already know Junghuhn\'s opinion, that Cinchona ought to be planted in primeval forests, and we are also aware that he he\'d to this system with great tenacity. In this respect he blamed the principles of both his predecessors, which once more gave opportunity for a strong debate, and this time it resulted in the express desire of the government that a trial at least be made, in planting on cleared and nnshaded ground. To this mandate is owing the origin in 1862 of the Cinchona establishment at Lembang. Junghuhn here was ablc to arrange it on ground cleared some years before, in the immediate neighbourhood of his own dweiling, situated on the southern slope of the Tangkoeban-Prahoe range, at a height of more than 1251 metres above the sea. The ground was thus under Junghuhn\'s own personal super- vision, by which regular observations and continuous comparisons were possible. On the other hand however, according to Junghuhn\'s own ideas and conviction, the elevation was far too small. There were formerly coffce plantations laid out here, which, however, were soon obliged to be given up because they did not suc-

-ocr page 85-



		til)

		ceed; the ground thereafter became like a meadovv, freqtiented by buffaloes, oxen and horses; it was level, hard trodden, and gradually became covered with a rampant growth oialang-alang.* It was first begun to be planted in 1863, and then with 6000 C. Pahudiaua. The ground for them was not worked or otherwise prepared; the alaug-alaug was merely cut away at certain dis- tances, so as to allow of regular plant-rows. Thus the young Cin- chona plants possessed in this thrifty, tall growing grass, sufficiënt shelter on the north and south sides; on the other hand in the long run, the most injurious influences must have been experienced from a weed, dreaded mostjustly by the planter; from all that we can gather we are not convinced that he was in earnest in this experiment, but rather it seems to us that he gave a passive execu- tion to an explicit, a priori pre-condemned order. In conclusion, when we have recalled the fact that Junghuhn both at Tjibodas, and Tjinieroean caused many Cinchona trees to be lifted, and transplanted near the higher situated forests, with the intention of withdrawinii them from the unfavourable conditions under which he had seen fit to place them, we can herewith regard the second period of Cinchona culture in Java as closed.

		C HAPTE R VI. CINCHONA CULTIVATION CONTINUE1); KROM THE DEATH Of JUNGIlUIiN TO THE 1\'KliSENT TIME.

		In the second half of 1863 Junghuhn began to feel himselfill. He had demanded too mach from his strength, and relied on its inexhaustibility. By the beginning of 18Ó4, his condition had become critical; a visit on furlough to the Netherlands for the \' Imperata arundinacca, Cyrill. D. D. J.

-ocr page 86-



		70

		restoration of his health, could no longer be deferred. This leave was granted as a matter of course by the government, and at the same time, 14 March 1864, the temporary succession of the director of the Cinchona culture was provided for. The nature of the malady made it necessary to return to Europe by a sailing vessel; but when the wished for opportunity of em- barkation arrived, the patiënt was so far exhausted, that his joumey was perforce delayed. The great naturalist died on the 24^th April, he whose eminent abilities, unwearied and fruitful activity are fully acknowledged, although he was engaged in scientific disputes more or less all his life long. His ashes were committed to earth in a spot chosen by himself in the middle of the future Cinchona plantation at Lembang, and a simple pillar placed over his grave. Junghuhn might well say in 1859 in poetic language: the splendour of Cinchona cultivation in Java to our earthly vision can hardly be exceeded! for his risen spirit may behold the Cinchona forests at the present time representing millions, and ready to yield a richer reward. The Cinchona plantation at Lembang was laid out in such a manner, that Junghuhn\'s grave made a point of junction with two main paths, along which at the present time are formed fine avenues. The white column may be descried from far down these; the peaceful spot at the mountain\'s foot, agrees well with the respect and appreciation due to him, and involunt- arily cheers one to thankful remembrance uf the great and gifted man, who endowed with rare knowledge and unequalled indus- try, and animated by inward reverence and love for Nature, investigated the geological formation and vegetable productions of Java, and in many writings of greater or lesser extent, strik- ingly made plain these facts to all. His formal resignation of the supervision of Cinchona cul- ture could not take place; but his undivided devotion declared itself in the broken utterances in which Junghuhn committed

-ocr page 87-



		71

		in trust to his successors, the continuation of work begun by him. Truly, this continuation was no easy task. However esteemed the mandate might be, the new director feit to the full the heavy responsibility laid upon him, and did not conceal his serious anxieties from the Indian government \'. What then was the state of things? To judge accurately of this, it is necessary to follow yet further, the history of Cinchona in those days. The third period of the culture is distinguished by radical divergencies from the system pre- viously followed, and this must be explained by an exposi- tion of the facts themselves, without in the least clouding the great services and renowned name of Junghuhn. ¹ In Junc 1855 the Colonial Minister requested I\'rofessor G. J. Mulder to select a person who should bc appointed by the government as chemist to the then rcccntly introduccd Cinchona culture in Java. The choicc having fallcn upon me, I consi- dered it my duty, by order of the minister, and following out Mulder\'s advice, to concern myself cxclusively with quinological studies at Lcydcn and Utrecht in suc- cession. In April 1856 having set out for Java, I found myself on my arrival at Batavia, effectually disappointcd in my expectations. Appointed army apothecary to the large hospital at Weltevreden, I was, however, aftcr eleven months of pharma- ccutical service, nominatcd assistant at the Laboratory of agricultural chemist y at Buitcnzorg. In September 1S60 this institntion was given up, and the government placcd me in the Inland Hoard, wherc I remaincd as acting-Controller until the enactment of 31* December 1863, appointing a commission to enquire into the condition of the government coffee culture, and I was assigned as secretary to the commission. Then, when Junghuhn needcd a substilute, the government remembered my original destination and no longer delayed entrusting to me the further conduct of Cinchona culture, despite the rcal difficultics I plcaded in the presence of the Govcrnor-gcncral Baron Sloet van de Becle. The provisional appointment in March, was followed by the dcfïnitive in August, and thanks to the powerful support of the government, as well as to the hearty help and cooperation of scientitic men, at home and abroad, it has been my good fortune to carry on the work not without success, so that when I in my turn, in March 1875, resigned the conduct of the Cinchona culture, on my being nominatcd Chief inspector of cultures, a candid observcr might sec that my devotion and endcavour to establish lirmly and extend Cinchona culture, wcre not fruitless. In a scientitic point of view, from the rirst I found cspecial support in my old fellow-student J. G. Bernelot Mocns; and I have to thank his many sidcd knowledge and powerful cooperation for a considerablc portion of the success which has been obtained.

-ocr page 88-



		72

		At the end of 1863 there were in the open ground: C. Calisaya . . . 7,408, amongst which 5000 were C. Hass- karliana. C. succirubra . . 71, of which 56 were C. caloptcra. C. lancifolia. . . 104. C. Pahudiana. . 531,456, in which are included the identical C. lauceolala. C. tnicrantlia . . 1, with 12 true C. succirubra received from British India in 1862. In the nurseries at the same time there were: C. Calisaya. . . 4,685, amongst which were 4, f 44 so called rooted cuttings. C. succirubra . . 18, cuttings, all C. caloptcra. C. lancifolia. . . 147, do. C, Pahudiana. . 607,920, amongst which were 55 rooted cuttings. Besides these, there were 208,322 seeds sown of C. Pahu- diana which by the end of the first quarter of 1864 were com- pelled to be written off as bad. Further, 737 C. Calisaya seeds, which gave no favourable return, and about 7000 cuttings of the various species, with 6500 of C. Calisaya, from which little conld be expected. A marked disproportion thus prevailed between the species considered valuable, and the others which were held to be doubtful. Very little alkaloid was found in the young C. Paliu- diana bark, and therefore relatively little quinine, but some \\vere of opinion that the amount would augment with age, and Junghuhn estimated the age of exploitable Cinchona trees at 30 years. The future would thus it was thought bring improve- ment, and this suspicion based itself partly on the circum- stance, that the roots of C. Pahudiana contained more alkaloid than the stern-bark. On the other hand, trust in the future was precarious, and it was established as an indisputable fact, that although the

-ocr page 89-



		7:<

		C. Calisaya plants vvere of the same age as those of C. Palm- diana, the former were already far richer in quinine than the latter. The question could have been positively settled, or even obviated, if a careful analysis of the barks of the various descriptions brought over by Hasskarl had been made. For that purpose there was certainly old material at disposal, of C. Pahudiana or C. ovata as it was originally called. It is certain that Junghiihn did not propagate C. Pahudiana by distinct preference, but because the first seeds, and after- wards a constant abondance, were harvested from it. Everything shows that the few C. Calisaya specimens at his disposal, had the greatest care devoted to tliem, and were valued most highly. The regulations vvhich he devised for this purpose, seem not very happily chosen, and witness rather to his well-inten- tioned purpose. Transplanting fully developed trees from the cleared grounds to the shady forests, could not conduce to flowering and fruiting. Light and air are of the first requisites for the production of blossoms and seeds. Those trees which were too big to be transplanted remained in their original, unsheltered position, but care was taken to better their condition. A bamboo roof was provided for shelter against wind and rain, but we shall bye and bye see that this measure was not altogether a success. The trees showed con- siderable inclination to flower, and already in the years 1859 61, a tolerable supply of seeds was harvested, which produced about 19 C. Calisaya (planted at Nagrak in the forest) and quite 5000 C. Hasskarliana. These, at all the older establi- ments were planted out in the forest, and since 1864, wei e particularly well looked after, so that most developed into healthy trees, some of which ma)^- still be met with here and there at the present day. Although the oldest specimens were now sheltered from wind and rain, nevertheless it acted injuriously, hindering robust

-ocr page 90-



		74

		growth, and the flowers did not come to development. By 1864, these were free strong plants, with thick sterns and branches and well spreading crown, but bearing every token of being drawn up in vertical growth. They appeared like bushes with a short thick stem. When it is borne in mind that these few individuals, were continually being severely cut back each month to obtain cuttings, it cannot be a matter of surprise, that constant and great disappointments should take place. The small branches and twigs which were cut off, could not possibly be called good cuttings, and this explains the fact that in spite of constantly putting-in on a large scale, no com- mensurate number of healthy flourishing plants were obtained. Experience of later years has amply shown, that C. Calisaya can only be successfully propagated by cuttings, if thrifty twigs from young, strong plants are procured, or better still, healthy, fresh young shoots; even in this case good results appear greatly dependent on many factors, lying outside the general routine in the nurseries. It also seems that good and healthy roots are not put forth in every season. At all events, the government decree of the 11^th September 1862, containing the express order to suspend all further multipli- cation of C. Pahiuüana, was and remains in full force. Junghuhn₍strong in /u\'s convictions, had not actually adhered thereto, but in the transfer of the direction this had to be looked to in the very first place, foliowed by an orderly amelioration in the proportion of species to each other, the exclusive multiplication of the more suitable, better species, and thereby make use of the lesson which disappointing experience had enforced. Making cuttings from the oldest trees was therefore suspended, and their artificial roofing was taken away. Several specimens of C. lancifolia and C. caloptcra (at that time still booked as C. succirubra) which had been transplanted into the high forest on the Malawar range, were dug out with an enormons ball of earth, and brought back to their original

-ocr page 91-



		75

		station on open ground at Tjinieroean. All these measures were intended for nothing else than to favour the flowering and fruit setting, and they appear to have been successfiil in that direction. So also, with partial success, detached spirals in the manner of rinring, were tried on the thickest branches of the oldest C. Ca/i- saya tree, and also on a C. lancifolia and C. caloptera. From the first named, a couple of hnndred young plants were obtained in 1865, which were planted out at Tjinieroean, though most of them died. In 1866 the first seeds of C. caloptera, and in the following year, the earliest germinable seeds of C. lancifolia were harvested. In 1866 seven C. Calisaya trees at Tjinieroean were so heavily laden with fruit, that their branches bent under it. Since that time the production of seeds has constantly aug- mented, so that gradually a selection could be made in accordance with the comparative analyses of the barks, to decide concerning this or that variety. In 1867 so great a value however was still set upon the seed-crop, and so emulous were the superintendents as to their management in this, that from each careful collection, the portions obtained after cleaning, were accurately counted and parcelled out. It is well to recall these facts, for at the present time owing to the actual abundance little attention is best- owed on economy or careful treatment. It can hardly be realised now, that long years of trouble and debate ensued, before the first seeds of a Cinchona tree of good quality were obtained, and these then were worth their weight in gold, and counted by tens. \' In the meantime the government had also made use of the help of its consular agente in South America, to provide Cin- chona seeds, and succeeded therein, thanks to the exertions \' This reminisccncc has this contirmation : Within the last dozen years, millions of <;ood sceds have been distributcd to private spcculators both at Java and else where. What has been obtained Iron these, is relatively pallry, and snrcly does not plead in favour of an always exact valuation of what is liberally bestowed.

-ocr page 92-



		76

		of our energetic Consul-general Schuhkraft. As early as 1864, he sent a parcel of Cinchona capsules to the Netherlands, which by Miquel were determined as the produce of three varieties of C. Calisaya, namely, vera, morada and yosephiaua. I Ialf of the seeds were entrusted to the nurseries in the gardens of the Academy, the other half were sent to Java. In the first half of 1865, about 200 plants raised from seed, were sent froin the Netherlands by various means to Java, and planted out at Nagrak. Nine were planted at Lembang and probably are still there in part. In Java itself 1 200 plants sprouted, which fonnd room at the various establishments and since then have been distinguished as Calisaya Schuhkraft. In the months of May and December 186S, seeds were again received from Schuhkraft, from which many plants were obtained, which did not differ in appearance from the first sent. In 1873 there was a^aiu a small remittance; the dozen plants which grew from these, showed for the most part, a chestnut brovvn colour on the underside of the leaf, these stand in the small plantation at Tjinieroean. From yet another parcel sent in 1877, about 2000 plants were obtained, although up to the present time it does not appear that Schuhkraft succeeded in procuring for us the Calisaya variety, which excels in its large amoiint of quinine. In the beginning of 1868 seeds reached Java under the name of C. succirubra, sent by the Dutch Consul-general Rol- danus at Caracas, which hovvever I was not fortunate enough to see germinate. In 1870 from the same source came a second remittance, which was said to be derived from C. cordi- folia var. rotundifolia. According to the consul\'s report, great quantities of bark of this species were exported, although stated to possess only one per cent of alkaloid. The seeds produced ten plants. which when developed to trees, were recognised as C. caloptcra. In December 1865 we came into possession of a parcel of

-ocr page 93-



		77

		Calisaya seed, from which 20,000 plants were raised, though not more than 12,000 were planted out, bccause at Lembang as well as the highest situated establishments Tjiwidei and Ranta-Bolang, on account of their still incomplete arrange- ments and capacity of propagating houses, many thousands of plants perished in their first stage of existence. We forbear speaking particularly of this sort, at this moment, which after- ward became generall)- known as C. Lcdgcriana, because by it, the Cinchona culture of the future has entered upon an entirely new phase, Negociations were set on foot with the directors of Cin- chona culture in British India, at Madras, Bengal, and Ceylon in 1864 by means of the English consul at Batavia, Mr. Fraser, assuring the transmission of new valuable species of Cm- cliona, such as C. offuinalis and C. succirubra, in exchange for C. Calisaya and C. lancifolia. In 1862 there were received 12 C. succirubra and 1 C.mi- crantha, which were planted out in one row, along the path- way near the crater at Nagrak, and there grew into tall trees, except two C. succirubra, which died. In 1865 four cases of C. offuinalis were sent from Madras; hardly a dozen plants arrived in a thoroughly healthy and fresh state at Tjinieroean, and here, aftera short time of preparation, they were turned out into the open ground. From these handsome specimens, we got cuttings as quickly as possible, and it appeared that the species was propagated without difficnlty by that method. In the course of 1865 there were further received some seeds of C. ojficinalis from Madras and Ceylon, and in 1866 another batch from Bengal, with seeds of C. succirubra. Thus in truth, a new period was entered upon, and the results of the attempts to improve and increase the species of Cinchona considered superior to C. Paliudiana, surpassed our most daring expectations. There were 100,000 plants of C. Pahudiana still in the

-ocr page 94-



		7S

		nnrserics, when the culture was transferred in March 1864, and these were as soon as possible planted out in the open, where, according to official reports more than half-a-million of this species already existed. In Junghuhn\'s system, the Cinchona plants were distributed in the forests of the frcquently mentioned mountains. They stretched over an extent of about 75 square palen (a square paal = 320 l>o?i7os, and each bouw = 7096.5 metres\', and any one who knows what the high, uncultivated mountain regions are, will understand that under such circumstances, sub- ject to neither strict control, nor to a constant sufficiënt mainte- nance there but little to boast of. Wild beasts, falling trees and many other destructive causes, must cause the ruin of thousands upon thousands of plants, whilst moreover the natural conditions are not wholly favour- able for an unobstructed development. By 1864, the condition of cultivation permitted a rigidly accurate observation and comparison, as well as an estimate of the different influences. At a glance, only those trees were in a fresh and robust state, or growing well, which had been allowed enough space, or at least had been assured of a fair amount of direct sunlight. So also, amongst other things, here and there along the principal roads, by accident, or else by the caprice of a superintendent, some had been planted in more open spots In seeking for the original plant-rows in the forests, many of them appeared to have wholly vanished; even where scattered Cinchona plants had bidden defiance to their unfav- ourable surroundings, they showed themselves slender, spindly, and almost branchless, and with respect to these, entirely out of proportion between vertical and horizontal development. It was evident that these tall, slender trees, could not support them- selves if the surrounding growth was cleared or even if vigor-

		¹ This would make each bouw a triflc more than I acre, 3 polcs. B. D. J.

-ocr page 95-



		79

		ously thinned. Besides, the bark of the oldest and best deve- loped trees was as thin as paper. There was nothing to hope for in the future from this state of things, and as to providing more light and air to the 100,000 C. Pahudiana, by cutting out forest trees, that, apart from the question as to whether the doubtful value of the bark would repay it, must be looked at from reasons of administrative and technical character. Therefore we con- fined ourselves as much as possible, to bringing under more favourable conditions, the 5000 or more trees which stood in our books as C. Calisaya, but have been since named C. Hasskarliana. This fact was truly surprising, that just the few trees which abundantly enjoyed light and air, were seen to be most strongly developed, and that not less in the lower, than in the highest situated plantations. Wherever both conditions of existence were fully conceded, the plants appeared to develope readily into trees. On the basis of these observations and of various economie considenitions, the decree of the government of the 29^th Septem- ber 1864 was issned, containing the injunction : "That no more C. Pahudiana plantations on a large scale shall be laid out, and the stock of plants in the nursery-beds, shall be applied only to repair and replenish". Further, "that no more labour and expense shall be devoted to existing C. Pahudiana plantations, than is unavoidable to prevent their total extinction". These restrictive measures, caused by the fact that it did not appear necessary to institute experiments on so large a scale, together with the insufficiency in the first place of material for the propagation of species of good quality, led to the following changes. The Telaga Patengan establishment was given up in 1865; the passangran Lorrok Kidoel was removed to Kawah-Tjiwidei, and the neighbouring Rantja-Bolang moved to this establishment.

-ocr page 96-



		80

		Two years later the transfer of Tjibodas to the curator of the government botanical garden took place. The number of super- intendents was consequently reduced from 10 to 7, and in the course of 1864, the forests were begun to be cut down systematic- ally, from each superintendent\'s dwelling onwards, to make room for the plantation of Cinchona on the open spaces. Thus these dwellings gradually became the centres of plantations, and proportionate riper experience more and more showed, that Cinchona, under conditions in other respects favourable, does not require shade; on the contrary there were manifest diffi- culties in single forest trees being allowed to stand; so the forests were more completely cleared, only leaving strips untouched, where these might serve as protection against wind. Having thus to deal with new species of Cinchona, and to plant them out under entirely fresh conditions, the method of rearing them also graduall)^- underwent alteration. The number of propagating houses was considerably increased, and each establishment had its own arrangements. The bamboo nursery pots, which seemed very dear, while possessing man)\' good qualities, had also preponderating bad ones; these were laid aside, or at least the manufacture of them was stopped, and they were regularly replaced by pots of baked earth, which three Javanese at Bandoeng under our instruction, and after a little practice, very soon learned to turn out in great numbers and at very moderate cost. Previously to this, Junghuhn had imported several thousand flower pots from the Netherlands, but the expense was so great, that it could not be continued. The method of germination, also underwent a radical change, under the direction of Teijsmann, which we shall notice when describing the cultivation. The progress did not confine itself however to these modi- fications and changes. There was another question of quite as great importance, that was, the labour question. From the beginning, both at Tjibodas and Tjinieroean, all the business

-ocr page 97-



		81

		of Cinchona culture was done by paid statute-labour, and all supplies of material were ordered by the Administration. This state of things could not continue; Cinchona culture was not reckoned among the cultures "by the powers that be" as a consequence of the known system. By government decree of the 24* February 1864 (N°. 27) it was laid down, that labour in Cinchona culture merely by way of exception, might be performed by paid statute-labour, and that as a rule, permanent, voluntary work- men should be engaged for that service. The advice of the Administration as well as that of the Inspector, Junghuhn, had stated, that free supplies of material in the elevated cool moun- tain ranges, was out of the question, and still less dependence could be placed on a regular provision of the necessary volunt- ary workpeople. The Preanger Regencies were at that time still in an entirely special condition of proprietary and patri- archal administration; the chiefs and head men as so many great and little potentates were predominant, and the people could with difficulty form a fair idea of individual freedom, because they had never experienced it. Investigation instituted showed, that the young Cinchona culture in the last few years, required on an average 300 rendering statute-labour besides the permanent labourers settled upon the establishment, which were accounted for by the Inland Administration. This regime could not exist officially, though actually in force, and on the transfer of the culture in 1864, there were free supplies of materials and voluntary statute-labour still seeming to find countenance. The superintendents unanimously declared that if the system were given up, they must be dependent on the caprice of the labourers, and their belief found powerful support in the Inland Administration, so that greatly fearing a rupture of its authority and power, that body preferred to permit the continuance of the compulsion. At the end of March 1864, after a careful inspection and complete consideration of the condition of things, I approached

-ocr page 98-



		«2

		the heads of the Administration with the request, that they should forbid all direct interference with Cinchona culture on the part of their officials and chief clerks, and only to afford help when it was asked through me personally. It was emphatically im- pressed upon the superintendents that they would be simply removed and replaced, in case it appeared that they were wanting in the tact to provide themselves by voluntary agree- ments with material and labour. One helped another; during 1864 there were still many appeals for help from the admini- stration, because the new regulations did not sit easily at first, and the population came slowly to just ideas, but little by little improvement set in, and since 1864 there has been no question of direct interference of the Administration. When in May 1865, Governor-general Sloet van de Beele came to inspect the Cinchona plantations, after searching interrogatory of the officials he was able to state the fact, that the govern- ment-culture had now really become a wholly free undertaking. The above named decree also contained an emphatic recom- mendation, that whilst the greatest possible economy was to be observed in the culture, it was never intended that the intro- duction and prosecution of it should be merely a financial speculation. This recommendation was a direct consequence of the impatience which gradually showed itself in the Ne- therlands, where it was fancied that the results were not pro- portionate to the considerable sacrifices already incurred. All these together did not make the task an easy one to the new Director, and it was made still more burdensome by a stringent protest of the Administration against cutting down the forests, which had been begun as an indispensable con- dition to the success of the undertaking. Hereupon foliowed the previously mentioned visit of the Governor, who settled the question by granting full liberty to the Director of Cinchona culture to go on in the way begun, and desiring the Administration to interfere no further in

-ocr page 99-



		S3

		the operations with regard to the Cinchona department. In the Dutch States-general, questions were put to the colonial Minister almost every year about the condition of the new culture, and as a rule there was no lack of com- plaints about its defects and slow improvement. It was not encouraging to the Director in Java, to be compelled repeatedly to protest that the development could not be forced on, that the young plants demanded time to grow into trees, and that the necessary experiments would take up many years, before all debated points were solved. Comparisons were made with British India, where Cinchona was introduced later, but was said to be relatively and abso- lutely much more forward, and further it was stated that the English -had profited by the experience gained in Java, and would thus evidently incur fewer failures. On the one side complaint were made of the heavy expense which seemed to bear no fruit; on the other side dissatisfaction at the slow progress made, and whispers were not seldom heard, urging that all these costly experiments should be ended. As to how far the complaint of "slow development" had any right to be made, or even counted as a reproach, may be learned from the official reports we have quoted; with regard to the cost, the summary of results since 1864, which we shall presently give, will speak for itself. In the beginning of 1869, the Upper Administration expressed an explicit desire to know, whether the culture could be extended more vigorously; the opportunity for it existed in ample mea- sure at the time, and the exports had only to do with the question as to the stocks possessed. The culture-reports and pecuniary accounts for the Upper Administration could be called satisfactory in every sense, whilst to prove that Java could already turn out produce, and that the future was far from being hazar- dous or hopeless, there were several hundred kilos of Cinchona bark harvested in 1869, and sent to the Netherlands forsale.

-ocr page 100-



		84

		We must here pause for a moment to consider the fol- lowing facts. After the abandonment of the establishments Tjibodas and Telaga-Patengan. and the union of Rantja-Bolang with Kawah- Tjiwidei, there still remained seven establishments, two to the north, and five to the south of Bandoeng, which served and still serves as the residence of the Director of the cul- ture. The many and radical changes to which the culture was necessarily subjected, made it urgently necessary that the respons- ible director should as much as possible himself be on the spot, where the business had to be carried on and regulated. Now it needs no argument to prove, that it was impossible to simultaneously superintend the seven outlying plantations, even with the greatest diligence and the strongest constitution. The staff of superintendents itself, was obliged to accommodate itself to the new order of things, and changes were continually taking place, so that repeatedly the guidance and teaching of novices had to be begun from the beginning. It was thus impossible that the director of the culture, although trained as a chemist, should confine himself to the laboratory, whilst the whole of his time and pains were most of all wanted in the field. On the other hand, the continued debate as to the intrinsic value of the numerous Cinchona barks, obliged him to be especially cautious in the choice of stock-plants for propaga- tion, and it was about that point, in which he from the first sought as much enlightenment as possible from chemical ana- lyses of different material. In these attempts he found his chief support in Heer I. C. Bernelot Moens at Weltevreden, whose help since 1865 has been incessant and disinterested. Samples of bark were submitted to examination, from trees considered to be of good quality, which promised shortly to produce seed. If analysis proved the superiority of this or that tree, then seeds were gathered exclusively from it, and sown. Were any one were at the present time to go over the analyses

-ocr page 101-



		85

		of those days, he would come to the conclusion that theplan- tations in Java had no other individuals than those yielding manu- facturer\'s bark of the best description. Meanwhile this was by no means the case, and it must be accepted, either that Cin- chona propagated by seed degenerates, or, that the older analyses do not show the precise value. We shall here append a few results in elucidation of this; they deal exclusively with C. Calisaya, inasmuch as no other species was propagated in Java from seeds for several years after 1863. Repeated investigations had, up to and including 1864, shown that in the barks from two of the oldest C. Calisaya trees at Tjibodas, there was more than 5 °/₀ alkaloid, of which about four-fifths consisted of quinine and its analogues. Pro- pagation of these trees and their descendants, was thus wholly justified according to the then scientific standpoint. In 1868 flowering and fruit bearing trees of the false Calisaya, were examined which afterwards was described as C. Hass- karliatia, and it was actually when analysed booked as Calisaya dubia. In the handsome bark from a tree about seven years old, raised from Javan seed, 4.960 °;₀ alkaloid was found, of which 2.845 % ^was quinine. This amount authorised its multi- plication, and at Nagrak in 187071 there were large plant- ings made of this species. Another old specimen of similar age and origin gave 4.030% alkaloid, 3.320 °/₀ being quinine, and a true Calisaya tree, obtained from the first harvested seeds at Tjibodas, and planted in the forest at Nagrak (known as N°. 4) showed an amount of 4 300 %j ^wi^tn 3-o8o °;\'₀ of quinine. A specimen of Schuhkraft three years old, raised from seed received in 1864, yielded 3.912 °/₀ alkaloid, and 3.109 °\'₀ quinine, (see 1868 Reports). In 1869 again, analyses of flowering trees took place, to answer the enquiry as to which might rightly be propagated. C. Hasskarliana of 7 to 8 years old gave 2.714 °/₀quinine, and one 5 year old tree from a cutting of this species, appeared to possess 6.010 °/₀ alkaloid, of which 2.331 °/ was

-ocr page 102-



		86

		quinine. A flowering Calisaya tree of 4 years old, raised in 186465 from Javan seed, possessed 7.483% of alkaloid, and 3.670% quinine. This little tree stood in the yard of the passangrahan at Tjinieroean and yielded an abundance of seeds which were sown without any scruple. The analyses of 1870 again confirmed the belief that we possessed and were propagating only superior kinds of Cinchona. In specimens of Schuhkraft 4 and 5 years of age there were 2.4 % and 4.4 °/₀ quinine found, and in a Calisaya anglica of 37, years (the seed was received from Madras in the middle of 1866) 6.3 % alkaloid and 3.3 % quinine was met with. Many samples were examined in 1872, Moens then finding the average amount from 8 Calisaya javanica to be 1.23 °/ quinine, 1.24% quinidine, 1.52% cinchonine and 1.01 °/₀ of amorphous alkaloid. This result was not satisfactory, after we had done our best by confining our propagation only to those trees which showed a higher percentage of quinine. Moens calculated as average figures the following, from 8 Calisaya Schuhkraft, (from which during 186571 by far the most of the Calisaya plantations were obtained) 2.33 °/₀ quinine, 0.43 % quinidine, 0.79 cinchonine and 1.34% amorphous alka- loid. This species had then remained constant, and it might consequently be expected that the great mass of Cinchona bark which those plantations would produce, would turn out to be useful manufacturer\'s bark. Nevertheless, experience disappointed our good expecta- tions. Here and there samples of Calisaya javanica, Calisaya Schuhkraft, Calisaya anglica, also Cinchona Hasskarliana, were found to be rich in quinine, but taken at random, the barks of those varieties were not suitable to use for the sepa- ration of quinine. Granting that by accident, a small part was propagated from a parent tree of inferior quality, still the fact is not explained, why the bulk of the plantations should yield barks so poor in

-ocr page 103-



		87

		quinine. The suspicion that actual degeneration arises from propagation, is in opposition to other experience; in each case it can be absolutely demonstrated that there is no invariable rule as to degeneration. In the report of the chemist Moens, appended to the official statements for 1873, he says: "There is still a very important question; namely» whether there is ground for supposing that the plants which were reared from seed, will vary from the type of the parent-tree, whereby it may be feared that either the species will degenerate, in the sense that is inferior, or will possess less valuable alkaloids. "Comparison is somewhat difficult, because it may be admitted that the separate determination of each of the alkaloids, was not sufficientiy accurate in all the earlier analyses, by reason of the faulty analytical methods em- ployed. Nevertheless facts can be shown, which are satisfactory from that point of view." I hereby testify that in 1874 I cut out pieces of bark, and gave them to Moens for examination, from several living trees of Calisaya javanica, from plantations then 7 to 8 years old, and intended in that year to be harvested in part. The results were of such a character, that we might fairly flatter ourselves that we were about obtain from those plantations, produce suitable for the preparation of quinine. When subsequently samples were taken from the entire mass as harvested and ready for market, they showed lower figures than these of the former analyses, and so we were once more disappointed. These and other facts show that there is still much that is wanting in our scientific knowledge, but at the same time they incite us to con- tinue in methodical investigation. Whatever was possible to throw light upon this subject, and to ensure the diffusion of plants of good quality, was done. It is just possible that the parent-trees from which seed was

-ocr page 104-



		88

		harvested, had come under the influence of foreign pollen, pollen that is, of inferior kinds. The strictest watchfulness cannot prevent such an eventuality, when C. Pahudiana occurs everywhere by thousands, and it was still more an impossibility to keep all the numerous species and varieties of Cinchona isolated. The question as to the choice of sorts, by the end of the year 1872 was confined to very narrow limits. From that time it has been a fought-out question; henceforth only C. Ledgeriana_tC. officinalis and C. sticcirubra were to be propagated, to the exclusion of all other species and varieties. From that time also, it was possible to lay down stringent regulations, necess- arily at the expense of much material, tending to prevent degeneration by crossing. The near future will show if these regulations have hit the mark, and whether it lies in the power of the raiser to ensure a constant amount of quinine, by a rigid choice of seed. Distinct from the question if determination of value, the chemist had still to inform us in another direction, when oppor- tunity should serve thereto, by matured material. We wanted to know, whether the place of growth, relative elevation above the sea, shade, or direct exposure to sunlight, kind of soil, prevailing winds, etc. can be considered to influence the formation of alkaloid. By continued methodical analytical research, it was further to be cleared up, in which portion of the tree the most valued alkaloids accumulated, and if there were changes in quantity and quality during the different seasons as well as at various ages. In one word; now that individuals occurred in all ages of development, of all species of Cinchona, at different localities and height, the chemist can and must give a helping hand to the planter, that he may help to solve Nature\'s enigmas. Now also had the day dawned for tracing out the best methods of harvesting and drying the bark, and for a regular, systematic examination of the parent-trees reserved for future seed supply.

-ocr page 105-



		59

		In 1870 the Indian government was disposed on account of all the above detailed motives, to satisfy the urgent want of a skilful chemist to Cinchona culture, and in 1872 Heer J. C. Bernelot Moens, who had already shown himself so disinterested and serviceable was definitely appointed as such. With this gain to the culture a new period was opened up, that brought to light constantly occurring facts, and gave more positive shape and power to their further direction. Before speaking of the results of chemical examinations, we must now take another subject in hand.

		C HAPT ER VII. SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF CINCHONA CULTIVATED IN JAVA.

		All that we have previously given of the botanical description of Cinchona, and its introduction into Java, does not release us from the duty of giving a short account of the various species and varieties of Cinchona which are cultivated in Java. In cultivation there are: 1. Cinchona Calisaya. This species which is met with in almost boundless variety, owes its existence in Java to various sources of supply, namely; - to the original plant from Paris; to seeds, brought by Hasskarl from South America, or sent thence by him; to seeds repeatedly procured by Schuh" kraft; to the seeds offered by Ledger; and lastly, to those plants which came to us from British India in 1866. Gradually the plants came to be distinguished by their various sources, as, Calisaya javanica, Schuhkraft, Ledgeriatia, and anglica. This distinction however, does not nearly express the characters of the individuals belonging to each section. Both in form and

-ocr page 106-



		90

		chemical contents the four named kinds vary greatly from each other, moreover each kind displays a diversity in its individuals, which frequently makes this determination of identity very troublesome. Only by experience and close acquaintance with the plants, can their typical form be recognised, now and then without being able to formulate the exact reason. Fortunately numerous experiments and chemical examinations have done away with much of the difficulty so far, that since 1872 we know that of all these Calisaya forms, the Ledgeriana best merits propagation exclusively, or at least with decided preference. We have now to devote our special attention to this variety, and its history is so striking in many aspects, that we here append it in its entirety. * * During the years 184158, an Englishman, Mr. C. Ledger, was travelling in South America, with the object of purchasing vicunas, an animal resembling the alpaca, which he had under- taken to deliver to the Australian government. Amongst his following there was a certain Manuel, formerly a cascarillero. This man being thoroughly conversant with the Cinchona districts, knew on the best authority that officials as well as natives regarded with district and suspicion all attempts on the part of foreigners to collect Cinchona seed, and opposed the exportation both of seeds and plants \\ Speaking of this and other things to Ledger, he further asserted that most collectors were misled by good seed being changed for bad, or else the germinative power of it destroyed; he promised however to procure seeds of the best species of Cinchona, if his master desired it. In 1865 ha ving returned to Peru from Australia about the middle of that year, Ledger received a visit from his old ¹ Concsrning this see note on p. 95.

-ocr page 107-



		91

		servant, who took the opportunity to hand him a packet of Cinchona seed, which he had collected in the Bolivian province of Caupolican. By July of the same year Ledger had sent the seeds from Arica to his brother in London, to offer them to the English government. As luck would have it, an opportunity to enter into correspondence with the English government did not soon present itself, and so the greater part of the seed was bought by Mr. J. W. B. Money, the possessor of extensive Cinchona plantations in British India. With the remainder, Ledger turned to the Dutch government, a preliminary deposit of a hundred francs was paid, to which a moderate addition would after- ward be added on the germination of the seed in Java, and if it appeared to belong to a good sort; by the advice of Miquel this was accepted. These seeds then came in December 1865 into the posses- sion of the Director of Cinchona culture, who one year after- wards was able to report, that about 20,000 had germinated. Ledger thereupon received a further sum of 500 francs and was therewith well content \'. Meanwhile Money had not himself used the seed he had bought, but had exchanged it for C. succirubra seed with Mclvor, the head of the government Cinchona culture in Madras. The reason for this was, that he considered his own plantation to be situated too high for the cultivation of C. Cali- saya, under which name Ledger had offered his treasure. On the other hand, Mclvor had already expressed himself repeatedly as not prepossessed in favour of C. Calisaya cultivation. The Ledger seed was sown at Ootacamund, but produced no plants, at least if any there were, they were not specially noticed or mentioned. From a small quantity parted with to a colleague in Bengal, a few trees were raised in Sikkim which first began ¹ The total sum received by Ledger from the Dutch government was thus a triflc less than £ 24 sterling. B. D. J.

-ocr page 108-



		92

		to attract attention, when the fame of the Ledger Calisaya spread afterwards from Java ^!. In the months of November and December 1866, about 12,000 young "Ledger" plants, were planted in the open ground at the various establishments. Thus of the sprouted seedlings, sundry thousands had gone to the bad. At that time, we was no reason to suppose that we had come into posses- sion of an especially valuable description of Cinchona, on the contrary we thought we were dealing with the identical Cali- saya we already possessed, and so the "Ledger" plants were put out in small plantations quite by themselves. This mea- sure of precaution was natural and requisite, having regard to our old Calisaya trees which had scarcely begun to bear fruit, and each tiny seed was thus looked upon as an impor- tant gain. The C. Ledgeriana plantations at Tjinieroean, Tjibeurem, and Rioengoenoeng were of some importance; the greatest quantity were planted out at these three establishments, at the others comparatively few were planted, and most of those that were, died. The new nurslings developed into handsome young trees, without any sign, at least on a hasty glance, of showing them- selves distinct from the already indicated, indubitable C. Cali- saya, the offspring of Javan seed. Several specimens began to flower in the course of 1872; the flowers distinguished themselves by their small size, as much as by their creamy white colour. Samples of bark were cut from the trees, now aged five and a half years, and chemically examined. The results were surprising; thepercent- age of alkaloid appeared higher than in any hitherto known ¹ The superintendent of the government Cinchona nurseries in Bengal, Mr. Gammie, obtained about 800 plants from Ledger\'s seed, and made so many cuttings from them, that in 1880 he planted 10 acres of ground with it. Mocns who has seen this planting, says that the type is quite likc that wc have in Java, but the plants had not developed so strongly.

-ocr page 109-



		93

		Cinchona bark. A quantity of 260 kilos was harvested, and sent to the Amsterdam market in four cases, as a test. The testers there termed the bark, "average quill, silvergrey", and assessed the value at 240 to 250 cents per half kilo. Samples taken from the whole parcel, showed 7 per cent of alkaloid, from which quite three-fourths of pure quinine could easily be separated. The dealers paid doublé the assessed price; the reputation of this description of Cinchona was thus assured, and has since splendidly maintained itself at each auction. Meanwhile the examination of the trees was continued, and whilst the flowers and fruit really gave an evident token of difference from all the other kinds of C. Calisaya, it appeared from chemical analyses more and more certain, that we had here to do with a hitherto unrecognised type of great richness. Chance had played into our hands, and with this discovery, Cinchona culture entered into a new period, its third \\ The answering of the question: "From which species of Cinchona, should we propagate by choice?" was thus no longer difficult. We could henceforth steadfastly maintain that the future must be sought for in C. Ledgeriana, that joined to it, for the preparation of quinine, only C. officinalis could be noticed and for the production of pharmaceutical or druggist\'s bark, C. succirubra deserves the front rank. With this idea, in conjunction with Moens It was decided and ordered, that all plants of every other variety were to be turned out of the nurseries. Henceforth, no other kinds than C. Led- geriana, C. officinalis and C, succirubra, and we have kept strictly to this. Howard after accurate examination, has ascertained the typical ¹ In truth, the parties interested in South America are perplexed to this day by rcason of the richness of the C. Ledgeriana bark, of which they can form no idea by want of their own experiencc. It is considered that in America no Cinchona tree has been found of so rich percentage, and the surprising results in Java, are ascribed to the influence of climate and soil. We by no means subscribe to this opinion.

-ocr page 110-



		94

		form of our new C. Calisaya and has named it C. Calisaya, var. Ledgeriana in honour of Mr. Ledger¹. Since plantations have been made exclusively of Ledgeriana, it has been noticed that the trees showed innumerable varieties of leaf, but proportionately as we became more experienced, we learned to point out with certainty the individuals of the common C. Calisaya which had slipped into the C. Led- geriana plantations by repairing gaps. Very seldom any doubt existed where flowers and fruit appeared, and in a few cases, chemical examination settled the question. That is to say, after numerous analyses of specimens which differed mutually both in form and colour of the leaf, it was verified that the quantity of the alkaloid was not always constant, whilst the quality and relative proportions were, and that further, chemistry could accurately indicate the type. In 1873 the first seeds were gathered, and from them, several thousand plants were reared. Meanwhile directly after the discovery of the treasure a beginning was made of artificial propagation by means of cuttings, which however yielded no results commensurate to the material used. At first all the seeds were used, because the flowering and fruit setting occurred sporadically, but by choice, when more trees beginning to bear fruit, a careful selection and limitation in seed saving became possible and desirable. The examined trees were accurately marked and registered, so that the raiser was and remains in a position to estimate the richness of his plants, and to try the value of them by comparative examination. Howard has described the Ledger Cinchona as C. Calisaya, var. microcarpa, and has found different sub-varieties amongst the material sent to him from Java, which differ somewhat in shape and colour of flower and leaf, but the small capsules ¹ Quite recently it has been raised to the rank of a distinct species, C. Ledgeriana, Moens; s;e Trimen\'s Journal of Botany, 1881, pp. 321325, with twoplates. B. D.J.

-ocr page 111-



		95

		and small seeds, may be said to be permanent charactistics\'. Calisaya Schuhkraft according to Howard belongs mostly to ¹ In the Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions" of March I3^th 1880, Howard has recounted the following particulars as to the origin of the Calisaya Ledgeriana of commerce, which he had described in his "Quinology of the East Indian plan- tations", as well known in commerce as the tinest description of Calisaya bark. "Wc are indebtcd not to systetnatic botanists, but to the experience and sagacity of an Indian, for our knowledge of the best kinds of Calisaya bark; whilst to Mr. Ledger belongs the whole credit of the exterprise of obtaining the precious seed to which the hope of future success attaches in Java and perhaps in other parts of the East Indies. 1 have pleasure in now recording the name of the above mentioned Indian servant of Mr. Ledger, Manuel Incra Mamani, to whom was entrusled in 1861 the commission of obtaining the seed of the best Calisaya. At page 48 of my (untortunately) little accessible "Quinology oi the East Indian plantations\'" will be found many details, but I now quote more fully from Mr. Ledger\'s original letters. Under date December 22, 1864, I find the following: "Manuel Incra Mamani delivered the seed he had collected, in June 1865. He then told me that the best bark trees had not produced ripe seed for four years previously. When the trees were f uil of flower and most promising, a frost (hclada) in April destroyed it all. The inferior sorts had not sufïered. He had been cutting bark with his sons and patiently waited for opportunity for complying with my orders, obtaining only the best sort. "He assured me too, he had seen several parties collecting seed for gentlemen in La Paz; that they did not obtain a single good seed till 1865; and this assertion seems now to be corroborated by result of Schuhkraft\'s remittances in those years. "After paying him well, he returned to his home in Bolivia, having engaged with me before leaving to obtain more seeds of the Rojo, the Morada, the Nazanjado, and of the Calisaya of Moco-Moco." The sequel is a sad one. After relating the particulars of the murdcr of another servant, (Cabreri) Mr. Ledger says. "Pooi- Manuel is dead also; he was put in prison by the Corregidor of Coroico, bcaten so as to make him confess who the seed found on him was for; after being confined in prison for some twenty days, beaten and half starved, he was set at liberty, robbed of his donkeys, blankets and everything he had, dying very soon after." (Op. cit. 730). Ledger turther wrote, "Manuel assured me that the greater part of the seed came from Rojo trees, he had brought in one bag the seeds collected from about fifty trees, the harvest of many days." This explains a certain divergence in the forms of Ledgeriana; all belong however to the best Calisaya, which we know at the present time as Ledgeriana. Howard further states, that the Ledgeriana, especially where it is carefully propagated, yields on an average about 10 percent of quinine. He nowhere

-ocr page 112-



		96

		the variety C. Calisaya Josephina, which was formerly des- cribed as a bushy form. Although " Schuhkraft\'s" indeed shows certain characters that way, still in spite of great diversity, it is readily recognised, and the development of numerous indivi- duals in Java, informs us that the tree-form not infrequently occurs amongst them. For the preparation of quinine, this Calisaya cannot come into prominence in comparison with Calisaya Javanica, amongst which Howard noticed some evidently different, although he finds ground for the assertion, that it has originated spontaneously or by hy- bridization. The Calisaya Ledgeriana, appears then as the legitimate descendent of the noblest variety of the noblest species of the Bolivian forest, and there occurs also in various forms, differing from each other chiefly in the shape of the leaf, but on the other hand agreeing in a high percentage of very pure quinine in their bark. These plants quite early distinguish themselves from the other varieties of Calisaya, and are regularly recognised in Java by their small white flower, which in South America appears to be very sensitive to frost. The bark has a peculiarity quite its own. The cause, why this variety does not reach Europe in large parcels, appears to be, that in Java very properly the trees of less value are cut down, whilst the best are reserved for later growth. On the other hand there is fear that in British India, many of the best C. succirubra and C. officinalis trees have already been felled. Howard is not able to refrain from declaring his vexation, that those who have suffered and striven so much to introducé this valuable tree into India should have been so ill rewarded. Ledger sacrificed his labour, and his servant his life, though the first was as little valued by the English government as by the Dutch. We must here remark, that Ledger appeared to be content with the purchase money furnished by the government of the Netherlands. It was not known at that time, that the C. Ledgeriana exhibited so high a value, and in every case, the seeds alone could not assure the future; this is seen in British India. Dr. King, director of the botanie garden at Calcutta, visited the state plantations in Java, by command of his government. His report is to be found in the April number of the "Indian Forester" and is commendation throughout. He makes a complete statement, that the English in Sikkim also possess the truc C. Ledgeriana but he recognises that, actually, in consequence of various influences the bark there does not possess so great a percentage of quinine at that in Java. We can scarcely credit this, and entertain better expectation as to the results from the plants which have been received in British India from Java.

-ocr page 113-



		97

		ranked it with var. Josephiana but approximating more nearly to the tree-form. He was able, like the rest, to define the characlers of Calisaya va-a, and in Java C. Javanica is met with as tall sturdy trees as well as bushes. Calisaya anglica is strongly divergent from the three de- scriptions just spoken of, it plainly recalls C. sucfirubra both in shape of the tree and the leaf. It betrays however more of the Calisaya type, by substance and surface of the leaf, by the scrobiculi there found, and by the flower. In 1866 Mc Ivor sent to us a parcel of Calisaya seed from Madras. Probably this was obtained from the plants which had previously been received from Java. Within six months, these seeds had yielded strong lusty plants, a success which neither before nor after, from no single batch of any kind of seed, has been obtained \'. In a few years the plants grew into tall stout trees, and at first glance they showed great similarity to C. siiccirubra. Howard supported our suspicion that wj here had to do with a hybrid, originating from the influence of C. succirubra on C. Calisaya. Analysis of the bark also showed contents between that of both species, less than in the first named, but higher than in the second. However, for the preparation of quinine, C. anglica has not proved suitable. Thus there came into Java four chief kinds, classes we might say, of Cinchomi Calisaya, and each separately showed numerous varieties, which were however tolerably typical of each description. All the barks are suitable for pharmaceutical use, though only C. Lcdgeriana yields factory bark, and this it does excellently well. If systematic propagation of all these kinds were carried on, irremediable confusion would ensue, and private speculators, who cannot busy themselves with special ¹ I here testify with emphasis, on the ground of pcrsonal experience and experi- ment during a series ol years, that in Java we have ahvays obtained the best plants from Cinchona seeds which were sent to us from South America or British India. 7

-ocr page 114-



		98

		scientific examinations and continual experiments, would not be able to entertain the hope of producing rich Cinchona barks. All sorts must be raised in the government undertaking, that a choice may be made, and there also, exist the will and opportunity for distinguishing and disentangling. Since the superiority of C. Ledgeriana has been known, only this has been propagated, and gradually all the other Calisaya have been cleared away by harvesting, so that at last no more will be kept, than are necessary to keep the species in existence, the aim here intended being of a purely scientific kind. 2. Cinchona officinalis. This species was received in 1865 from Madras. Amongst the plants sent, there had also been distinguished three varieties, C. officinalis crispa, C. o. Cha- hnarguera and C. o. Uritusinga. Subsequently C. o. augusti- folia was noticed. After the receipt of this first dispatch, seeds were repeatedly sent of C. officinalis from Madras, Bengal and Ceylon, and from these constantly fine plants were obtained. In Java a great difference may be readily remarked, but examination of the bark shows always a relatively rich quinine percentage, so that C. officinalis after C. Ledgeriana, appears the most suitable for the separation of that alkaloid by the manufacturen To obtain manufacturer\'s bark therefore, quite rightly, the propagation of C. officinalis is decreed. Which variety or form contains the most quinine, cannot at present be said decis- ively. Individuals are found with large, middling, small and even a rolled up leaf, though analyses have not yet been able to show assuredly a distinct superiority of any. On the whole, C. officinalis may be distinguished in each known form even by the novice, from the various kinds of C. Calisaya. The tree remains more slender, and displays relati- vely thin branches which soon show a tendency to droop. The leaf is of a dark green, and glossy, generally smaller than that of C. Calisaya and the flower distinguishes itself by its purple

-ocr page 115-



		99

		or violet colour, from the rosier or whiter hue of the former. The bark has a more or less brown tint, and is strongly cleft (grooved) so that the bark, in the olcler trees, shows itself by lengthwise, as well as transverse indentations, which divide the cork-layer into noticeable, foursided pieces. Warsewicz has declared that in America C. officiiuzlis grows no higher than 12 to 15 feet, and that it can be treated suc- cessfully in the European copsewood fashion. Indeed it shoots quickly and thriftily from the felled sterns, and cuttings may be taken from the plant with the best result. In Java there are numerous trees of 7 to 8 years of age, which by measurc- ment, have already reached more than 20 feet in height, and Pavon described the species C. Urihcsinga discovered byhim, as a tree of óo feet and more. C. officinalis therefore is a rich species and we may add that it is one of the most ornamental; it appears however especially susceptible to climate and soil, and thrives by prefe- rence in the higher districts. For culture in Java on a large scale, it is probably less suitable on account of its dclicacy; most plantations remain backward, and were also visited most heavily by disease (Cinchona rust), so that frequently extensive plantations, must be written off as promising little. Moreover in this species of Cinchona, the assurance has been decisively given in Java, that propagation by seeds does not necessarily lead to degeneration from the type, or from the bark-contents. On the other hand we have to state, that seeds received from British India have always yielded stronger plants, than those harvested in Java. This fact declares the desirability of exchange in regard to Cinchona seeds. 3. Cinchona succirnbra. The young plants considered origin- ally by Junghuhn to be this species, had no right to the name, later they appeared to be C. caloptera, (see under No. 7). The first true C. succirnbra were received from Bengal in 1862, twelve in all. From 1866 seeds have several times been sent

-ocr page 116-



		100

		to us from Bengal, Madras and Ceylon, and in Java C. succi- rubra was energetically multiplied by cuttings with the best resul ts. No description of Cinchona grows quicker or more robustly, or is more readily propagated by cuttings. C. succirubra deve- lopes itself in 6 to 8 years to a vigorous tree, with thick branches, and large, light green Ieaves. The flower is pale rose-red. At seven years old, individuals have been measured 34 feet high, by a stem-circumference of eighteen inches to two feet. The oldest tree in 1874 was about 13 years old, 13.260 metres high, and 0.721 round the stem\'. There is no Cinchona bark richer in alkaloids, and though C. succirubra from which "red bark" is obtained, is not suit- able for the preparation of quinine, because it can only be extracted with trouble and much expense, yet it has a pre- ponderance of the secondary alkaloids. No better material for pharmaceutical purposes is known, and on that account its propagation is desirable from every point of view ². We have learned thus to know the three previously des- cribed species of Cinchona, which were necessary and best for our culture; they are mutually so easily distinguishable, that there can be no fear of confusion between tliem. As the extremes in form, as well as the power of develop- ment, we may name C. succirubra and C. ojjiciualis. The latter rcmains a slender tree, with thin, drooping branches; the former grows tall and robust, and betrays itself at a dis- tance by its large Ieaves. The stem of C. succirubra is seen to be light coloured, that of C. offuinalis is relatively darker. ¹ About 43 feet, and 2 feet 10 inches respectively 15. D. J. \'-\' It is truly remarkable, that although De Vrij as far back as 1876 had directed the attention of government thereto, the East Indian C. succirubra is still not rightly appreciated as an official Cinchona bark. People only know whatis familiar to them, the above mentioned barks are not propcrlv known because they are in _cach case considercd to be of infcrior quality.

-ocr page 117-



		101

		Between these two types, comes C. Ledgeriana which offers an endless diversity. lts crown of foliage betrays itself at a distance by its peculiar brown tint, and the colour of the stem is midvvay between both the other species, whilst the branches grow more vertically, forming an acute angle with the stem, similar to C. lancifolia. Whoever has once seen the three species together, (provided he has no other species under his eyes), has conviction so strongly impressed upon him, that all hesitation in the definition of thcir identity is removed. 4. Cinchofia Pahudiana Howard. We have already fully detailed the history of this species. No single private planter has brought it into culture; the species grows exceedingly well, but in mature age yields no better result than when young. Moens found in a 20 year old tree no more alkaloid than as a rule, younger individuals had shown. It will not be soon extir- pated in Java, especially as there are still specimens remaining scattered in the forests. C. Pahudiana distinguishes itself by its coarse hairy leaf, and in ontward appearence it approaches nearest to: 5. Cinchona Hasskarliana, about which we have nothing more to say, after our account already given of its origin. It is distinguished from C. Pahudiana by a finer leaf, which is also less hairy, and moreover displays the oft mentioned scro- biculi. On the whole, the tree grows fuller and broader; whilst its bark contains less alkaloid than the common Calisaya. In 1864 many plants were obtained from cuttings, which grew up into stout trees, the bark of which was of excellent thickness and good appearance. At least two varieties of C. Hasskarliana are to be found, one with short thick capsules, the other with long; the former which has also a more shiny and less hairy leaf, is considered the better. 6. Cinchona micrantha. One specimen was received in 1862, together with the 12 C. succirubra from Bengal. We have

-ocr page 118-



		102

		never purposely set ourselves to propagate this, on the ground of the inferior quality of its bark. The shape of the tree is like that of C. succirubra but its leaves are tinted brown, and the stem approaches that colour. Amongst the plants which were raised in Java from C. succirubra seeds received from British India, many C. micrantha were met with. In the early years of Cinchona culture, the English appear to have bestowed little attention to keeping the different Cinchona species separate, and thus degeneration and mingling occurred. 7. Cinchona caloptera. In form this is between C. succirubra and C. micrantha; C. caloptera has also a large leaf, harder and rougher than that of the two species named, and further is to be ranked between both, as regards its colour. Jung- huhn had discovered it amongst C. Pahudiana (at that time C. ovala) and it was brought forward as C. succirubra. The same species was obtained in 1S70 from seeds sent from New Grenada. 8. Cinchona lancifolia. This in America grows at a greater elevation than any other Cinchona, and yields the Pitayo bark so much in demand, and said to possess 2 % of quinine. Dr. Karsten collected seeds of this species in America, which he was kind enough to send to the Dutch government; this we have already mentioned. C. lancifolia developes into a tall tree, whose shape, leaves and flowers, comes midway between C. Calisaya and C. officinalis. Its growing power in Java does not appear out of the common, though the isolated propagation of this species has not been purposed long, because its bark was not considered suitable for the separation of quinine. It is quite true that examination has shown some very rich specimens, but these were exceptions, and there is e very reason to believe, that C. lancifolia degenerates by propagation. Howard was unable to recognise some material sent to him, as being of Karsten\'s species. With these remarks we conclude our discussion of the species.

-ocr page 119-



		108

		Purely scientific botanical descriptions He outside the plan of this vvork; those who desire it, may consult the works on the subject given on page n. Our aims are confined to that which can be called important and useful to the planter and to industry. We once more emphatically repeat, that seeds from the same tree, as a rule yield plants of very diverse forms; thus we are sure that crossing occurs in very many cases The habit of young plants however, is apt lead us astray by too hasty determinations; with development of the individuals, the differences mostly vanish, at least the forms sometimes change. Hybrids occur abundantly in all species, and this need not be thought amazing. Cinchona plantations were really like a pattern-card of species and varieties, and as long as the period of experiment con- tinued, there was nothing to alter therein; it was an absolute impossibility, to strictly isolate iudividuals. In proportion as extensive plantations of the valuable species came into con- dition, and in these, more trees began to flower, the chances of fertilization with foreign pollen were naturally restricted, and from the oldest C. Lcdgeriana nurseries, those individuals could gradually be weeded out which were of doubtful parent- age, or seen, by means of analysis to be really inferior. These improvements came by degrees, and by careful selec- tion it was possible to aim at the enriching and perfecting an entire plantation. Chemical analyses have shown that an intimate connection exists between the form of a tree and the quality of its bark. Consequently by diligent observation in a plantation of a particular kind, the hybrids may readily be distinguished, and these it is well to eliminate betimes, or at least, in case of harvesting, to bring them into the market. The following statements may give an idea of the com- pprai\'ve development of the plantations.

-ocr page 120-

104

There were in the open ground, by the end of the years

1863 1864 1865

531,000 813,000 909,000

Pahudiaua plants all of which had been raised under Jung-
huhn\'s direction. Since 1864, this species has not been propa-
gated, only those which were to hand in the nursery beds,
were planted out. Several thousand plants were put out in the
open ground at Rioengoenoeng and Lembang.

It happened at the latter place that on account of the poor
soil and other reasons, few prospered; at the former, the very
few individuals which were planted out, in 4 to 5 years
developed into thriving harvestable trees.

After 1865 the Pahudiana figures in the reports underwent
no change, though it is evident that their accuracy could not
be ensured, scattered as the individuals were in extensive
forests, where they were continually perishing by thousands,
or destroyed by wild beasts, falling forest trees, etc. Permission
was therefore asked, and accorded by decree of 15 February
1870, in future to omit all mention of C. Pahudiaua.

The reports show, that at the end of each year, there were
in the open ground as follow:


	Calisaya	Succirubra	Officinalis	Lancifolia	Micrantha
1864	11,000	81		171	1
1865	27,000	341	12	332	1
1866	56,000	792	2,400	418	1
1867	198,000	3.100	9400	509	3
1868	429,000	12,700	24,000	370	386
1869	564,000	45,000	61,000	797 \'	414
1870	843,000	130,000	120,000	6,400	758
1871	1,009,000	164,000	188,000	16,000	1,050
1872	1,235,000	179,000	262,000	27,000	1,030

With this the third period may be said to be closed, for
henceforth the rule has been to propagate C. Lcdgcriana and

-ocr page 121-

105

C. ojficinalis exclusively, and to keep the C. succirubra planta-
tions at full strength.

Amongst the C. Calisaya figures, the C. Hasskarlicuia are
hidden, and amongst those of C. succirubra the C. caloplcra, of
which altogether io.ooo must have propagated, whilst the total
C. Hasskarliana have never exceeded 8o,ooo. Up to 1866 there
were not more than 12 true C. succirubra noted ; the rest, brought
forward under that name were C. caloplcra, raised from cuttings.
Good seeds of C. lancifolia were harvested first in 1870, of
C. caloplcra already in 1867, though then also were C. succirubra
seeds received from British India. In August 1866 the first C.
Lcdgcriaua were put out, they were then noted as C. Calisaya.

In the following statement we now only mention the three
principal varieties, which have been, and still are since 1872
exclusively propagated.


	Officinalis	Succirubra
	337,000	190,000
	426,000	185,000
	491,000	179,000
	504.000	162,000
	507,000	157.000
	535,000	177,000
	377.oog	219,000
	401,000	278,000\'


	i«73	10,000
	1874	44,000
	1875	105,000
	1876	167,000
	1877	197,000
	1878	353,000
	1879	355,000
	1880	498,000

The richest parent trees were always reserved for propagating
C. Ledgeriana, and in proportion as these began to flower and
fruit in abundance, it was possible to become more exacting,
and therefore the very finest of the best were exclusively
reserved for seeding.

If it were still possible that the decendants should seem to

¹ At the close of 1880, there were besides in the nurscrics 272,000 Ledgeriana,
208,000 succirubra, and 80,000 «fficinalis. Furthermore in the open ground, 630,000
Calisaya and Hasskarliana, 16,700 lancifolia and 260 micrantha.

-ocr page 122-



		106

		fall away from their percentage of quinine, still on the average₍rich barks would be harvested. This illusion if it be one, depends upon facts already experienced in other species of Cinchona, and is at the present time, not disproved by the analytical results from descendants of 3 to 4 years old. These indeed do not yet possess the quantity of the parent tree, bnt the quality is seen to be identical. Four year old trees are as a rule not developed enough to yield a ripe. mature bark of much consequence. The first thing to be kept in mind, is, to be sure of having the typical form in the offspring, for the qualitative composition corresponds to the form.

		CHAPTER VIII. CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

		In the year 1820 Pelletier and Caventou happened to dis- cover the existence of alkaloids in Cinchona bark, and to separate two of them, which vvere named Quinine and Cin- chonine. In 1833 Henry and Delondre discovered a thircl alkaloid, which later become better known through Pasteur\'s labours, and since then has been termed Conchinine. In i847\\Vinckler found Cinchonidine; in 1872 Hesse did the same by Qui- namine and Paricine, and in 1879 A. C. Oudemans detected Cinchonamine. Quinamine and Paricine have thus far only been met vvith in certain C. succimbrci barks from British India. From the bark of Buena hexandra as early as 1845, Paricine had been separated by Winckler. Oudemans found his Cinchonamine in Quinetum, a preparation said to contain all the alkaloids of the bark together, which we shall later on treat of more at length.

-ocr page 123-



		107

		Aricine, Cinchovatine, Cusconine, Javanine, and othcrs, are less known alkaloids, which have been met with in certain barks, such as that of C. pubescens, and Javan Calisaya. Besides the foregoing crystallizable alkaloids, the majority of cultivated varieties of Cinchona have also some which do not crystallize, termed by the analytical chemist amorphoics alkaloids. They remain combined with acid in the mother-liquor, from which the crystallizable bases have alrcady been separated, and are thence thrown down by ammonia as a dark-brown, brittle, slightly alkaline precipitate, which fuses below ioo°Cent. and is named Quinoidine. It is brought into commerce as a slightly coloured muriate or sulphate, and is extolled by man)^-as a cheap substitute for sulphate of quinine. Further, three kinds of acid have been met with in Cin- chona barks, tannic, quinic and quinovic acids. We confine ourselves at present, to the simple statement; we shall deal with the previously mentioned alkaloids, at the conclusion of this subject in its general hearings. The last word has not yet been spoken by the chemist, and debate has long con- tinued over the nature of the various alkaloids, whilst their number has constantly increased, so that a presentation of the enquiry may as soon bring a still greater complication to light, as a simplification of the existing state of things. It may be that some alkaloids which are thought to be pre-formed in the Cinchona bark, are merely the results of the chemical treatment of the raw material. Thus Mulder and others allege, that Quinidine as such, does not occur in the bark. Investigation of the living tree must be continued for many years yet; who knows whether we may not find out that Nature changes one form into another? In that case, we may indulge the idea, that under the hand of the manufacturer or analyst, similar processes may come to pass. Meanwhile it is a remarkable fact, that the various Cinchona types, with regard to their alkaloids, qualitative at least,

-ocr page 124-



		108

		remain tolerably constant, and thus the planter has to prevent deterioration by choice in propagating. When the first alkaloids were separated, it was evident that the principal power of the raw material was sought for, and therapeutic experiments confirmed this opinion. Quinine ajDpeared the febrifugal specific, and thus in the treatment of fever patients, it came to supplant the use of the bark in its entirety. We shall bye and bye devote a special chapter to the use of Cinchona bark and the value of its various constituents. We must now fix our attention on the results of chemical investigations, in so far as they can be called in the first place useful and important to the planter. In the year 1857, Dr. J. E. De Vrij, who during several years had busied himself in quinological studies, and whose name as a chemist was of high repute, returned to Java as Inspector of chemical investigations. As a fellow worker with the naturalist Junghuhn, valuable results were expected, and for six years De Vrij devoted his rare chemical attainments to the interests of the young Cinchona culture. The material for an extended investigation, and for method- ical, orderly and regular experiments, was up to 1863 limited, and thus even from the most earnest endeavours, there could be no results expected, of real decisive usefulness. In 1863 De Vrij returned to Europe, and remained there, unweariedly devoting his time to quinological researches, by which, above all, the support of the already more advanced English planters was assured to him. Simultaneously also, Howard, Hesse, Kerner, Oudemans, Van der Burg, Stoeder, Broughton, and many Other untiring naturalists and analysts, were busy about the subject, but no one more so, or more fortunate in opportunity of realising the fruit of his activity than J. C. Bernelot Moens, who from 1864 to 1872 uninterruptedly superintendended all the analyses, which were committed to him by the Director of Cinchona culture in Java,

-ocr page 125-

109

for the appraisement of the imported species of Cinchona. In
the middle of 1872, Moens was appointed chemist to the
Government culture, since when hundreds of analyses of most
diverse material, display not merely the results of his uncom-
mon powers of work, but also decided many pending questions.

This is not the place to follow up the scientific aspect of
the plan adopted, or the course of the investigations; we must
confine ourselves to showing the results obtained. For so much
as this is meant as an indication of the relative value of cult-
ivated Cinchonas, tabular statements of the results of analyses
of samples of bark, appear the most suitable to us. All the
remaining results we condense into small compass, and we can
do so honourably, because before long by Moens\'s own hand,
a work on Cinchona will appear, which promises to give a
clear and ample account of the subject, from the present scientific
standpoint.

Ledgeriana. 175 samples of bark, cut from the same number
of parent trees of this kind, (raised from Ledger\'s seed and
mostly planted in November and December of 1866) were
during the years 1872 to 1878, tested for amount of alkaloid.
The following summary will give an idea of the composition.


when ned. 1	Number of samples.	Alkal é § 3 i	oid.\' i 1 d E	Quinine.	Average amount.	Number of samples.
Date exam	minimum.	maximum.	^6 <	Quinine-	Quinidine	I\'
1872	7	3-88	9.07	jo5	8.I5	7.08	5.58	2
1873	20	2.24	\'4-3»	0.65	IO.9O	8.58 6.c6	8	8
1874	29	5-93	12.97	3-82	11.68	9-56 7-37	8	7
1875	\'4	7 9"	1228	4-39	10.72	979 826	1	3
1876	32	4.67	13 35	2.57 13.25	8.86 7.23	6	6
1877	\'9	4.90	\'3-50	1.67 \| 12.31	8.56	7.06	3	4
1878	54	4.64	11.67	3.22 10.67	859	7.34	1	9

\' At the time of packing, the barks hold about 13.5 % of water. If the percentage
of alkaloid in aii air-dricd state is wanted, the averages must bc multiplied by 0.86.

-ocr page 126-



		110

		It is quite evident, that the identity of certain individuals in the Ledgeriana plantations was doubted reasonably. The doubt became certainty through the results of the analyses; though these were given in the tabular statements, and thereby the averages are actually not high enough for the genuine Ledgeriana. Before this kind was known in Java, it was con- sidered that American barks with 3 % quinine were of very good quality; barks with more than 5 % were held to be exceptionally fine. This fact gives cause for consideration. We now know that Ledger\'s seed was obtained from fifty trees, and the seedlings must thus represent a great diversity of forms. From America however, there was nothing brought into commerce of so rich an amount, and this confirms our opinion that the Cascarilleros bestow too little care upon the selection. Quinidine and Cinchonidine were found exceptionally in Ledgeriana bark, they only occurred together in three cases; Cinchonidine showing itself the most. Quinine is predominant, and the quantity remains constant in each case; it amounts to 70 or even 80 % of the total alkaloids and is accompanied merely by a little Cinchonine and amorphous alkaloid. It is this proportion which causes the separation of quinine to be so easy and so clean. From the amounts of the produce in bulk, meanwhile more accurate exhibitions were obtained, whenever the results were compared with the analyses of samples taken from cases and bal es. It was quite possible here and there to lay the hand upon a specimen which was not derived from the true Ledge- riana; (indeed for repairing the original plantation, other Cali- sayas, such as Calisaya Javanica, were used) but although the analyses of such a sample might give lower figures, yet in the bulk of the bark, usually 65 to 75 kilos per case or bale, the few quills of poor quality could not be said to have a consi- derable influence.

-ocr page 127-

111


Cn>i>.	tal packages.	Net wcight of bark in Yt kilos.	Total Alkaloid. minimum. maximum.	Quinine	Average agreed pricc
minimum.	maximum.	per V₂ kilo in francs.
	H
1872	4	522	6.72	742	5 24	548	5.02
I&73	23	2,944	6.84	858	5.48	6.69	3-87⁵
1874	28	4.500	4-5	9.6	3-2	7-4	3-7o
1875	28	4,452	5.6	8-3	39	7-2	386
1876	29	3.925	5.0	8-3	3-9	7.2	8.79
1877	9	2,419	5-i	8.5	4.1	7.0	561
1878	66	8,009	6-3	96	5.0	80	631
1879	61	7,850	6.1	8.1	6.0	7.0	4.4610.51
Total	258	34,6i9

In 1878 a trial was made of the outside scrapings (or shav-
ings) from Ledgeriana. The produce was brought to market as
scrapings in 12 cases, 1620 half-kilos, and here fetched 9 francs
per half-kilo. Two samples contained 9.5 and 7.5 alkaloid, of
which 8.3 and 6.7 were quinine. It is therefore of especially
favourable proportions, which well deserve attention, against
the fact that the Cascarilleros are wont to deprive the thick
branches of their epidermis by brushing. Cinchona barks sine
epiderme have long been shown to be the most costly; in
truth however by this brushing the finest portions are lost.
For this discovery, as will appear later on, we have to thank
the regular methodical investigation of Moens.

In 1879 there were 5 cases harvested, containing 544 half-
kilos, of scrapings. By advice of the Examination-commission
in the Netherlands, the term schilfers (scales) was given to
them. Analyses showed 9.1 alkaloid, of which 7.8 was quinine;
this time also the highest prices were realised for the scrapings.

Numerous examinations of 3 to 4\'/, year plants, reared from
Ledgeriana seed, obtained in Java, seem even now to lead to
the encouraging declaration, that no degeneration, in a chem-
ical sense, has taken place, and that in each case, the plants

-ocr page 128-



		112

		which most resemble the parent trees, agree most nearly also in chemical composition. The quantity of alkaloid is indeed smaller; but in such young individuals the maximum amount cannot be expected, and the chief and principal thing is, that the quality of the occurring alkaloids should be in harmony with the parent trees \'. C. officinalis. In 1872 a young tree of four years old was examined, it contained 4.36 alkaloid, 1.75 being quinine. In 1873 the figures of the analyses of 13 trees ran thus: alkaloid, 3.73 to 8.65, average 6.77%, and quinine 1.75 to 7.52, that is, about 4.17%. In 1877 in one tree there was found 3.01 of quinine in 4.05 of alkaloid, and 8 trees examined in 1878, showed 3.39 to 6.05, average 4.77 alkaloid, of which 1.74 to 495 or about 3.07% was quinine. Cinchona officinalis thus yields a bark of great value for quinine manufactures, and comes immediately after Ledgeriana. Experience lias already abundantly shown that the amount of quinine is not lessened in consequence of propagating by seeds; there is no apprehenion of degeneration, either in a chemical or botanical sense. There are many hybrids met with amongst this species, which probably owe their existence to the action of foreign pollen. Their recognition is however less dimcult than in Ledgeriana, because through all its varieties C. officinalis remains a very characteristic species of the genus. It is not a specially productive kind; but it may very likely be that the existing plantations are not best adapted for it, as regards their soil and elevation. In general it may be seen as a slender plant, and admeasurements, even of fully deve- loped trees, seem relatively slight. Altogether the C. officinalis culture may be said to be the least successful, although in the ¹ From a private plantation in Pekalongan recently there were barks examined at Amsterdam, from 2 year-old Ledgeriana, which appeared to possess 1 2 % quinine. neither cinchonidine nor quinidine with 025 cinchoninc and amorphous alkaloid; a rcsult indicating a very pure type

-ocr page 129-

113

government plantations, miny handsome specimens may at all
times be met with, and certain plantations were developed
fully and advantageously.

The following summary conlirms the foregoing statement.


	kages	Net weiglit	Total alkaloid.	Quinine	Agrecd price
Crop.	l	of bark	-------.------	---------- . .	per \'/, kilo
	1	in \'/« kilos	minimum. maximum.	minimum, i maximum.	in francs
1872	8	814	more than 4 % alkal. c	fwhich 50 % quinine	2.01
1874	6	665	66	46	f
1875	18	2,021	57	42	about 2.59\' 6.25 and 3.23\'
1876	32	3.75\'	4-9 5 7	35 4	\'in 2 auctions )
1877	34	3-347	48	30	about 2 98\'
1878	25	2,702	3-7 4 8	2 3.1	2.41 to 3.30
IS79	3°	3-3⁶5	5-3	6.8	1.2 4.6	2 41 to 5.94
Total	153	16,665

If now a comparison be made of the crops of Ledgeriana and
Officinalis barks given on pages 1045, then the far poorer
returns of the Officinalis culture will be plainly apparent. When
at the close of iSóó, the first Ledgeriana were planted out,
to the number of about 12,000, we had it is true only
2,400 young trees of C. officinalis, but that figure was already
increased to 24,000 in 1868, and by 1870 to 120,000, whilst
the propagation of the Ledgeriana first acquired significance in
1873. Up to and including 1879 there were not more than
16,665 pounds of Officinalis bark harvested against 34,619 of
Ledgeriana, and moreover it must be remarked that of the
original Ledgeriana plantation of more than 12,000 trees, to
the present time about one half remains untouched. From this
half, at most single branches have been taken.

The raising of C. officinalis is not deprecated here; it is

effected both by cuttings and seeds, and the trees produce a

-ocr page 130-



		114

		handsome bark, readily distinguishable, rclatively rich in quinine, and it fetches a high price. We were not fortunate at the com- mencement of the plantations, but wliere good soil is reserved for it, and a suitable elevation above the sea is chosen, (it grows b}^- preference in the highest regions) the results will be satisfactory; riper experience of recent years giiarantees this\'. C. sticcirubra. No description of Cincliona grows more quickly, thriftily, robustly and seems to require less actual needs as to soil and position than this; there is also noother which has more alkaloid througliont. Amongst these, however quinine occurs in relatively so insignificant a quantity, that the bark is unsuitable for the preparation of that alkaloid. On the other hand, amongst the many varieties of Cinchona, there is no plant known which is more advantageous to cultivate, or has so quickly found and surely held its position for phar- maceutical purposes. It is needless to give a statement of repeated analyses, they all indicate high hgures which run from 6 to 10 %, in a single case remaining below the minimum, but sometimes exceeding the maximum. Mclvor showed that the amount of alkaloid, especially the quinine, can be increased by covering the stem with moss, also by partial stripping of the tree. in whose renewed bark an enhancement, of even higher proportion, has been ascertained. Meanwhile, in spite of the increased quinine percentage, the improved barki must remain less in demand for manufacturing purposes, so long as the manu- facturer can manage to get material in which the quinine pre- dominates; the equivalent greater bulk of secondary alkaloids makes the separation of pure quinine, troublesome and costly. The following statement displays the quantity produced and the value of Succirubra culture in the government plantations in Java. ¹ It may probably be worth while to plant C. officinalis betwecn C. Ledqeriana, and whcn fairly dcveloped, to make usc of the latter first.

-ocr page 131-

115


Crop.	N\'umbcr of packago.	Total alkaloid.	Quininc minimum. maximum.	Ouantity of bark tlispatchcd in \'/j kilos.	Market price
,_	maximum.	per \'4 kilo in francs.
1872	5					"24	I.14 to 1.16
1873	36	9.19	9.46	O.74	\'S	4.425	i/>7*throiiRhout.
\'874	109	6.1	8.6	0.5	0.8	14.249	0.85 »
1875	125	6.2	9.2	0.6	1.1	16,502	143\' »
1876	290	6.1	8.6	0.6	1.0	38,769	r.62 & 1.30 throughout. (two sales.)
1877	293	6.0	87	0.7	1.4	38,188	o.86<"
1878	349	6-4	8.6	0.9	1.2	43Ó25	0.97 to 2.55
1879	\'99	6.0	80	0.6	0.9	25,207	1.30 to 362
Total	1405	181,509

If the statements on pages 1045 showing that the planting of
C. succirubra which in 1868 first attained any importance, 1 2,700
plants being then in the open gronnd, amongst which however,
C. caloptera was still included, be again referred to, it will be seen
that no variety of Cinchona can be cultivated in Java, with
better prospect of speedy and ample production. If it were
certain that good prices would be maintained, then without
doubt, preference shonld be given to the culture of C. succirubra.
But as long as quinine is wanted, and it is not supplanted by
the secondary alkaloids, or frequently replaced by them, so
long can there be no satisfaction in cultivating C. succirubra to
the exclusion of all other kinds. The market may easily be
oversupplied with the so-called pharmaceutical or druggist\'s
barks, to which C. succirubra belongs, so that the heavy fall in
prices thence resulting, would make the profits of this culture
very questionable\'.

¹ De Vrij lias reniarked that the C. succirubra barks which ave brought to markot
from private plantations in Java, are less rieh in alkaloids than those of the
govermr.ent plantations. and he very justly wonders at it, because the private

-ocr page 132-



		116

		In our analytical tables we have nut taken np the relative amounts of schilfers (scales), the nppermost and richest part of the bark, gruis (dust), waste, mostly of inferior quality, gemoste (mossed) or gcregcnccrde (renevved) bark, which seems richer than the original, uncovered bark, and the root-barks, in which as a rule, more alkaloids are met with than in the stemhark. The tigures cited have thus relation to normal barks. In the case of Ledgeriana, the root-barks attain the highest prices becanse they are the richest. Dust and waste fetch the lowest prices, not only becanse they are most!}- of inferior quality, but also because they can vvith difhculty be selected by the eye. What we have hitherto enumerated concerning the three chief varieties of Cinchona, is suflicient to give an estimate of their value. There is not a single planter who has taken np the culture of the remaining varieties imported into Java; so that we have not to deal with them in detail, and as to the latter we can complete it with a tabular statement of the results of the analyses of samples drawn from various crops.

		estates in British India do not share in that decline. We here note, i« That private planters in Java probably strip their trees while young, and 2^nd That C. succirubra* raised from Javan sced are usually more or less detcriorated. Since it has been practicable to harvest seeds from extensive, fully developed enclosurcs, the danger of deterioration is certainly lessened. It is a fact, that by far the most Succirubra barks. which the government has brought to market to the present time. were harvested from trees raised from British Indian seed, and cuttings from them.

-ocr page 133-

117


r*			vO
C		\'suitiinh	d	N C	c d			m c\'	ï
*\'6*
\'ahi
		>*	r\\	r-«			f»	ir,
		*piojc?(nï

\'J
4							\'
.£		\'»niumb			M
^					0 0
rt				\'			■	■
icr			■	-----------	------------.	-


^		P!°I^K?11^C			fÓfÓ
ü
?j
		autuinb						0 oc
"c
u.

o
c
Ü		plOIttfp						*-t t.**
tcra.		autumb		r^		■		- O
			C		0		o\' o
g*

S
o		piO\|E^(C		O		o		O 00
ü			tr		tó		PI rö
.			"1
1.		\'autuinb	0	ri	<n 0	o q	fO N	N P»	-toe
		ri	O ri	0 N	O ri	b -	O -	0 -
\' d
"> c
- rt
I -			-t-
		*pio\|e?\|\|iB	r^.	><-i o	0 <"*	cc "■»	m ~	■ 00	- «t
Ü		iri	- i-i	fi -t	ri ■	M -	pi to	PI "$■
ica.		auiutnb	CO		[ -			O	r^ ro
		o		i			~	O -

Ï
		oc
Ü		P!°I1P^!					-	00	-tv!
*-»
ï			r^ rs.
	sutumb	ro -		-	M <«■»	rnvO	m m	~
uhk			ö 6		C	O Ö	O O	O -	c -
1			M rO
x		■p!°r"ii"	T "?		N	p-~	^00	ir, ^	*C\\C**
Ü			ri m		,n	M pi	pi	tó	« tó
S			*00 <"ï**
	ouiuinb	M -t		ro r^	M l#1	pi r^	-r P>	0C VC
3			6 ~		o\' -	o o\'	ö -	O -	6 -
avai								----------

\'		WW	*\'t*		ri o	m O	O0C	r^ O	co -r
Ü		n		pi ■	pi -	O -r	-	pi -t
	i.		CO	<*	trt	O	r~	DO	Tn
	a		r-s.	hs	r~	i^	r^	l--	r^
	-		00	00	00	-J-.	eo	■JD	:c
c,	^

-ocr page 134-



		118

		It is plainly apparent that amongst these species, C. Pahn- diatia lags behind all through, whilst C. lancifolia excels all the rest. As the latter is of particularly robust growth, its propa- gation should be taken into consideration. C. Hasskarliana produces an excellent druggist\'s bark, and by careful selection, it would yield plenty of material even forquinine manufacture. Javanica and Schuhkraft run close together. Of Anglica the same can be said as of Hasskarliana. Meanwhile all taken together, there is no more room for doubt or hesitation, and most properly, C. Ledgeriana, officinalis and succirubra, were chosen for exclusive and remilar culture. It is remarkable that principally in the eight inferior kinds of Cinchona, the greatest percentage was found in the bark of the roots. In Ledgeriana and Officinalis bark, quinine is always the prevailing alkaloid. Quinidine occurs in some specimens of the former, Fmt is not always indicated in Officinalis, and was virtually absent from Succirubra, with the exception of a few barks from sterns which had been cóvered with moss. On the other hand Cinchonidine is constant, and in considerable measure in Succirubra and Officinalis; in Ledgeriana it is, as with quin- idine, not continously met with, but much more often in the latter. Root-bark of Ledgeriana contains less quinine than the stern-bark, though it has more Cinchonine and often Cinchonidine also. In Succirubra and Officinalis, the root-bark as a rule appears richer in alkaloid, and sometimes even to have more quinine than the stern-bark; the amount of Cinchonine is in all root- barks ereater t_nan \|_n the stern-bark. The following results, of importance chiefly to the planter, were obtained by experiments extending over many years. Moens himself owns that they are not decisive in every point, and that methodical examination, systematically pursued on the living trees, has yet to confirm or throw more light upon certain phenomena. Time is essential for the formation of the full quantity of

-ocr page 135-

119

alkaloids in Cinchona bark. Undcr a certain time, in con-
junction also with individual development, the normal typical
percentage of alkaloid in the tree is not formed; beyond a
certain age, having regard to the degree of development, the
percentage does not increase.

This fact may be ascertained by analyses of various trees
of different periods, and on barks of similar origin, but of
different ages.

Certain full-grown trees were divided into similar pieces,
and these were separately subjected to examination. By this
method, in the first place, the age of a bark would be ranked
the younger, in proportion as it was taken at a greater height
from the stem, or thinner, newer branches.

In 1872 Moens examined a C. siiccirnbra tree, 6 metres in
height, which was sawn into six pieces of equal length. The
bark from each piece was separately powdered, and a sample
of that powder analysed. The bark of the entire stem and
its large branches, weighed, when dried in air, 1.68 kilograms,
of which :

o 44 kilo yielded by the lowest \'/o part of the stem.

^U-3Ó » n 1

O.28 ,

O- 2 3 _n

O. I I ,

O.O5 ,

O.24 ,


«	»	** >
**	n	ó 1
Ï1	ti	4^th 1
w	n	5^lh ,
)1	"	6^th
thick	branches.

The total percentage of alkaloid of the three lowest portions,
therefore to three metres from the ground, appears sufficiently
equal; as also the atnount of quinine, although the portions
could not embrace the same period of life, for the third metro
was positively fully two years younger than the lirst. Insensibly
the percentage of alkaloid decreased as it neared the top. The
fourth and fifth portions have very much of a mutual agrce-

-ocr page 136-

120

ment. Up to and in the youngest portion, the nature of the
alkaloids is identical, and in it, even relatively, as much Cin-
chonidine found as on the oldest pieces. The bark of the
branches agrees most with that of the youngest part of the
stem. There were found:


	Cinchon-	Cinchon-
Quinine.	icllne	ine.
0.85	2.35	2 94
0.76	2.95	2-74
o.8-(	3-09	2.07
0.58	2.38	2.58
0.58	1.87	2.6o
o.39	148	1.59
023	1.22	I.30

Amnr-
phous

alkaloid.

Total

alkaloid

Water

Ash.

469

3-\'4
2.90

2-97
3-5\'
4.12
5.89

In the lowest portion . . . 11.71

second.......... \\ 12.28

third............ | 1363

fmirth............ 12.03

fifth.......... 12.12

sixth............ ! 12.67

seventh (branches) . . . | 1306

7-23
7-55
7.01
638
5-95
4-49
3-83

1.09
1.10
1.02
0.84
084
1.03
1.08

Quinidine was not indicated ; in normal Sticcirubra this alkaloid
which in therapeutic value is sufficiently similar to quinine, is
not met with.

In 1879 Moens took a still more accurate test with a 13 year-
old Ledgeriana of 9 metres height. The results are combi ned
in the following statement.

Total

alkaloid.

Quinidine. \' Cinchonine. \\ Atiinrphous
1 alkaloid.

Quinine.


	7.67	4.85
	2 42	1-74
	IO.	831
	8.65	7.63
	925	8.17
	IO 60	9.04
	IO.26	9 10
	904	8.32
	9 48	887
	850	7-83
	812	7.62
	Sn	7-59
	9.05	8-45
	991	924
	8.48	7-93
	713	633
	571	476
	265	1.72
	8-49	7.40
	5-34	463
	109	064

Bark from the thickest roots
liarkscrapings from the samc
Bark from the thin roots

Stern-bark
1 decimetre above the ground


	2.32	039
	066	0.02
	085	0.57
	0.61	0.41
	0.74	034
	1.04	0.52
	0.54	0.42
	041	0.51
	0 30	0.31
	0.52	0.15
	0.30	0.20
	0.32	020
	o-3S	0.25
	0.38	0.29
	0.41	0.14
	0 60	0.20
	0.80	0.15
	0.72	0.21
	0.42	0.29
	0.64	0.45
	0.27	018

O. II

o 27


5	f		»	» »
1 metre		D	» »
1%	»		))	» »
2	»		1)	n 0
«V,	»		»	» »
3	i>		r>	» »
3",	»		»	u >)
4	»		9	» »
t\'/i	1		»	» »
5	»		»	» »
S%	»		9	» »
6	»		B	» »
6%	>i		V	» »
7	»		»	» »
Bark from	the	thickest bram
»	V	»	med	mm »
<	»	»	thin

ches

-ocr page 137-



		121

		Thus was confirmed, that in this species the amount of Cin- chonine in root-bark increases greatly, whilst quinine diminishes ; the latter remains even to a great height up the stem, as an important factor. The bark of the thick branches is similar to that from the stem, whilst that from the young branches approaches more to that of the sterns of younger trees. In 1879 the two- year shoots (new sterns) which had grown from the stump of an eleven year old Ledgeriana previously felled, were examined There were found in this still very young bark, 4.8 % alkaloid, of which 2.86% was quinine, 1.43% cinchonine and 0.6 % amor- phous alkaloid. In plants of three and four years of age, raised from seed in Java from the" Ledgeriana originally planted, there was found 10 55 % alkaloid, and 7 69 % of quinine. Numerous young descendants of parent trees whose per- centage was known, were examined, and the analyses have yielded the satisfactory result that no fear need be entertained of any decrease in percentage. It is true that man)- young plants gave comparatively low figures, but in most cases certain divergencies from the form of the parent tree might be remarkecl in the individuals themselves. The careful and exper- ienced raiser can ver)^- well avoid the danger of mixing rich barks with the poor ones. If it is now undoubtedly made out that the amount of alkaloid in the different portions of the stem, is more or less diverse accordino- to its a^e, not the less sure is it, that the amount does not resrularly increase with the a<e of the bark, that is, certain limits cannot be exceeded, and normally developed trees, from six to eight years old, will have formed their maximum contents. With regard to C. succirubra* it is belivtd to have been observed, in Java as well as in British India, that after a certain period, the quinine decreases rather increases, or else remains stationary. Experiments were made as to the influence exercised by the different periods of the year on the contents of the bark.

-ocr page 138-



		122

		Several series of trees of similar ao-e and origin, were during a twelvemonth, regularly each month, with that object, deprived of a strip of bark of the same breadth, and at the same height on the stem. These experiments have not led to absolute conclusions It may be presumed, that it would be during the rainy season, and towards its end, that the maximum would be attained. Some researches concerning the influence of light and shade on the amount of alkaloid, gave still less grounds for a settled decision. They only confirmed the supposition that in bark of the selfsame stem, cut out at the same height, a great difiference may l>c met with, a difiference however that can in one sense be ascribed to the greater or lesser de<rree of liijht to which the bark was exposed. Still as little can this question be answered, whether in the amount of alkaloid of flowering or fruiting trees, a consider- able, or transitory alteration arose. Such alteration can in no case be important; the analyses show that quite clearly. The elevation above the sea appears to have but little influence upon the amount of alkaloid, at least within the limits of the government Cinchona plantations, 1250 to 1950 metres \'. Barks were examined from trees which were reared at no greater elevation than 150 metres, even these showed no important discrepancy. Trees of a known type give, both in the highest as well as in the lowest nurseries, a bark which in quality and quantity of alkaloid, is entirely satisfactory and corresponds to the typical amount. Moens has directed many analyses with the view of deciding in various varieties of Cinchona, what may be the difiference of the alkaloid percentage in various portions of the bark. It is made out distinctly that the outermost rind (primary layer) is richer than the innermost (secondary layer). The comparative figures declare that plainly. The taste of Cinchona is partly bitter, \'4100 to 6400 English fect. 1!. I) J.

-ocr page 139-



		123

		partly astringent; the outermost layers excel in bitterness, the innermost in astringency. Not only are the inner layers poorer than the exterior in total alkaloid, but it is chiefly the hetter known febrifugal bases which greatly diminish, whilst cinchonine prevails in relatively large quantities in the layer situated close to the cambium region. Older trees are apt to lose the bark-scales (rhytidomata); this is especially seen whilst the barks are in course of drying. We have already on an earlier page remarked, that the best American barks, are sent most improperly into the market without covering, the outer bark-layers having been rubbed or brushed off and thrown oway. For this and other reasons, together with the conviction that cork and other trees, submit very readily to deprivation of their upper corky layers, Moens brought it to the test on a large scale. The question was, how to harvest the largest quantity of quinine-containing bark layers by scraping, without injury to the Cinchona tree. We shall bye and bye recur to the harvesting opcration; for the moment we had to ascertain the fact, that the chief seat of the quinine first of all, is really to be found in the outermost layers of the entire Cinchona bark. The question as to whether sun heat exercise^ injurious influences on the drying of the bark, is quite settled. Even before the first real harvest began in Java, we determined this matter by comparative experiments Since then Moens bas dried the rich bark-scrapings in various ways, and made it certain that neither the quantity nor the character of the alkaloids, undergo thereby any change or damage. A particularly noteworthy series of experiments now deserves our attention. The most skilful, and the earliest director of Cin- chona culture in India, Mr. Mclvor, hit upon the happy idea of increasing the produce of his Cinchona trees, and enhancing their value, by partially stripping them, that is to say, to cut out small, vertical, long strips of bark alternatel)-, and let the

-ocr page 140-



		124

		bark renew itsclf on the exposed parts of the stem. That such a renewing soon takes place, experience both in British India and in Java had already taught, where so frequently pieces of barks had been cut out of the living tree, to ascertain the value of the various kinds of Cinchona, and in individuals of one and the same species. By these experiments it was already known, that the renewal takes place the quicker and more completely, in proportion as the superhcial layers only are cut out, and the strips of bark taken are narrower. Mclvor however did not merely strip, but he covered the exposed parts of the stem with moss, and covered also entire sterns with the same material. After a certain time, about a year, in those parts covered with moss, the barks appeared actuallv richer in alkaloid, and the renewed bark had gained considerably in bulk. Mclvor experimented principally upon Succirubra trees. After his example, in Java so soon as 1864, there were a hundred young trees of various kinds, covered with moss. At that time however our attention was still too much confined to Cinchona culture as a whole, to allow us to stir heart and soul in a direction which at that time was only of secondary importance. It may be partially ascribed to that, that many trees under the mossing-process languished and died, whilst on the other hand the results of the analyses which Heer De Vrij instituted on mossed and exposed Javan barks, did not induce us to give more attention to it, or to really follow it up by experiments. Moens caught up the subject with avidity, though in the mean- time the English authorities, Broughton, King and Howard, did not seem to be infatuated with Mclvor\'s continuance of the prac- tice, and I, on my part, continued to maintain and urge, at all times, the great difhculties against the mossing-process. Moens quickly remarked that the virti e did not consist in the moss itself.

-ocr page 141-



		125

		In Java, this material can only be got in sufficiënt bulk with great difficulty, and in consequence a trial was made in the nse of iwljoek, the thick, strong vascular-fibres of the Areca palm, with entirely satisfactory \' result. The outcome of the experiments supported the opinion of Mc Ivor. The barks of C. succiruöra, C. Hasskarliana, C. tnicrantlia and C. Pahudiana by 1878, after having been one year covered with moss, had really made more alkaloid, especially quinine. In 1879 the experiments were repeated. On the whole this time the outcome was less satisfactory, because the renewed bark did not, as always has been the case in C. succirubra, appear to be appreciably better than the original. The conclusion arrived at, is, that the renewing process is not applicable to inferior kinds of Cinchona. The character of the alkaloids remains in the renewed bark, as a whole, just the sa me as in the original; only the quanti- tative proportion changes. This change is peculiar to the renewing, and hardly at all \\ sometimes not in the least dependent on the kind of covering material used. It is principally C. succirubra and C. officinalis which seem to fabricate a richer bark by this process. The amount of quinine is considerably more, that of cinchonidine is diminished, and in C. officinalis in most instances entirely suppressed. Qninidine also increases, whilst cinchonine remains about the same. For science in general, and plant-physiology in particular, these and many other results are all important. We consider it none the less prudent, especially in practice, to see no fixed rule in the results obtained to the present time. They are in our ¹ Following the example set in Iiritish India, in the last months of 1880, an experiment was tried by covering with alangalaug, (Impcrata arundinacea) which wild grass, is in most places only used for forage. Mcanwhile Moens was able by personal exaniination in Iiritish India to state, that the prejudice against Mc Ivor s system has 110 foundation, and the pr.diction that the partially stripped trees would speedily die, is triumphantly disproved by an experience of seven years. We rejoice in this fact, that thereby the crown and completion is set to Mclvor"s work.

-ocr page 142-



		126

		opinion, data which must be foliowed up for years, and be fully carried out, before tliey can fulfil the requirements of a substantial and regulated decision. How often have we fonnd ourselves disappointed; how frequently have we been deceived, by a series of independent phenomena and experience, to follow those things which must afterwards be again doubted! We rejoice beforehand, rather in the actual perseverance with which the scientific method is carried out hand in hand with practice. The)\' offer to our view, the disclosure of still ver)\' many secrets of nature, and we must wait npon their positive decla- rations, before we pass to a decided course of procedure, which may bring an entire industry into danger. An examination, both scientific and supported by facts, was accomplished in 1879 by Moens and Scheffer, commissioned thereto by the Indian Government, led to the decision, that by application of the scraping-method on fullgrown Ledgeriana trees, a kilogram of superior bark could annually be harvested from each. The first great scraping experiment had yielded really excel- lent results; one ycar later however, it was found that the doctrine of proportions did not come into play here. It is the invariable practice in natural science to build upon a long, linked series of facts; or else, from one independent fact, by logical consequences to reach a desired conclusion. Although the bark renewed in one year of the second scraping, had almost the same thickness as the original, the new tissue did not seem to be so rich in alkaloid as the former, and thus it was deemed advisable, to allow a period of two years for the renewal. In quality as well as in quantity the result thus miscarried; whilst in the first experiment the trees had appa- rently not suffered, in this regard also, the second time gave a less favourable return. It is true, that this time scraping had been done during a different season, so that now it was judged, that the trees would best bear the operation in the

-ocr page 143-



		127

		dry weathcr; the experiment thus has not quite run its course, the value of the process is not yet known, and it has not been practical!)\' applied. Under the direction of a man like Moens, this highly important question, will no doubt be decided in the near future \'. Each unaccustomed wound to a tree must lead to its injury, and if continued, result in its final annihilation, therefore an important thing is the modus quo. It is now quite evident, that whilst the scraping-process can be effected one or many- times with good returns, under the actual superintendence of the skilful, in ao case can the operation be called an every day ordinary, careless, crude affair, as will soon be known if the matter is given over and entrusted to underlings aud labourers. In giving these hints we do not wish in any sense to decry the value of this process. On the contrary we are delighted with the earnest attempts towards attaining this most desirable end; but we would impress this axiom, that continous application, with accurate observation of phenomena, must speak out, before the practical man can enjoy the prevailing desire, which a priori and on good grounds, is therein sought and may hereafter be discovered. Original Ledgeriana and Succirubra barks are light coloured and have a greyish-white exterior, the consequence of lichens growing thereon. By mossing these seem to die, and the bark obtains a darker look, whilst here and there little knobs pro- ject, which present themselves as large lenticels. Bark renewed after partial stripping of the tree, likewise possesses a darker outside; its entire surface is smoother than that of the original According to the Report of 1879, the scconcl scraping gave 20% lessproduce, which in general contained less quinine The expense of scraping is relatively slight, and we are of opinion that a special worktool should be prepared, to ensure the success of the operation, such as the special knife which Mclvor bad previously contrived for stripping. In 1880 the scraping of certain trees, Ledgeriana, Succi- rubra and Ofticinalis, has been continued, though this time merel) one half of their circumferencc, by which the chances of a consequent injury are naturally less.

-ocr page 144-



		128

		bark which remained longer covered, but the above mentioned knobs are much more numerous. Lastly, the bark which is renewed after scraping, is likewise darker in colour, thoagh smooth, and without knobs. Bark which has altered under moss-covering appears more brittle than usual, but not so brittle as renewed bark. The cause of this lies in a lessening of the vessels in the bark, against an increase of cellular-tissue, and seeing that this latter is the principal seat of the best alkaloids, so the mossed bark is richer than original, and renewed again is superior to the first. The bark renews itself more readily after scraping than after stripping. We have quite recently shown that, in direct pro- portion as the stripping is superficial, and in smaller strips, the renewal follows more surely, quickly and completely. Yet further it appears, that young trees submit best to stripping, or at least recover quicker from their wounds. Succirubra renews itself after scraping less quickly than does Ledgeriana. I can assert with tolerable certainty that the Succirubras on which the experiments were made, were younger than the Ledgerianas which served the same purpose, or at least, that the upper layers of the latter, were more developed, more characteristic and easier to remove. Moens and Scheffer made diligent use of the microscope, in comparing the anatomical structure of the various kinds of bark. The results thence drawn, full of industrial importance we shall produce later on. At present we must deal with the proper cultivation of Cinchona, and especially the raising of plants ; the propagation by art, as well as by seeds, will be brought prom- inently forward. As regards clearing the land, commencement and maintenance of nurseries etc. in general, we have suffi- ciently touched upon that when treating of tea and coffee-culture \'. \' See the author\'s \'De Oost-Indische cultures\', vol. I, pp. iIII. A portion has been translated and will be found in chapter xii of this volume. 13. D. J.

-ocr page 145-



		129

		What has there been said on the subject, holds good in most cases also for Cinchona, but the especial requirements of the Iatter will not be passed unnoticed.

		CHAPTER IX. *THE CULTIVATION O CINCHONA. PROPAGATION BY SEEO.**

		On page 36 we have given a short description of Cin- chona seed, and the results of the first sowing in Java. This having turned out very unsati.sfactory, when Junghuhn har- vested germinative seeds for the first time in 1858, he tried many methods of germination, that he might find out the best plan. From 200 well developed seeds, sowu broadcast upon well prepared beds, there was hardly one healthy plant obtained. Junghuhn ascribed this misfortune to the fineness and lightness of the seeds, which we re there exposed to all the caprices of wind and weather, and further pointed out the dangers without number, which existed also from the first sprouting in the beds. Now that the field of experience has become wider and clearer, we know also that the quality of the first harvested seeds, must in part be blamed for the bad returns at the outset. On well prepared, carefully kept, and shaded beds, it is proper to expect a fair return from good developed seed, sown broadcast. The beds however must at first be kept in semi-darkness, and the soil must be neither too moist nor too dry, and not alter much in its condition. In Cinchona plantations there are often found ander the seed bearing trees, abundance of young plants, the spontaneous result of the seeds which had fallen upon the earth beneath. On the estates of Tjiomas near Buitenzorg, such little plants were 9

-ocr page 146-



		130

		found in thick masses under the oldest trees, which were there planted in 1865; they were afterwards found also at Nagrak and other districts, in some places in great abundance. The circumstances however must be very favourable; amongst other things, the soil must be more or less clayey, and not be too thickly covered with weeds. In the old, extensive government plantation::, amongst the millions of seeds which feil upon the crumbly, little disturbed soil, it was exceptional to find any developed, and when these ivere met with, it was only near felled tree trunks, or at the base of old stumps, where the seeds had found a natural shelter. Meanwhile, the results of simply sowing broadcast upon beds, as a rule had not been brilliant. Junghuhn now ordered the seeds to be sown in pots. For these he took thick pieces of bamboo, about nine inches long, a bottom being made by thrusting in some indjoek. These cases or little pots were filled, with purified, finely sifted wood- earth, or else with a mixture of this and a fourth part of black volcanic sand, composed of felspar, hornblende, and magnetic or titanic iron, where this was obtainable. After this the filled pots were placed close together, on covered beds, arranged in amphitheatre fashion in the mountain clearings. In the first experiments, each bamboo pot served for the reception of a single little seed, afterwards two or three were put in; this was done in a small superficial pit, made by pressure of the finger in the loose soil in the centre of the pot, which was then sprinkled with the black sand just mentioned, to a thickness of Vj or at most 1 millemetre \' to hinder the seed being blown away, and to prevent it being dried too much by the air. From this time the soil in the pots was kept constantly moist, by means of a very fine water-pot. According to Junghuhn\'s observations, under favourable con- ¹ A millemclre is only V_ï6 of an English inch. li. Ü. J.

-ocr page 147-



		131

		ditions, good seed and good soil, the majority germinated in about six weeks. In a few cases he observed growth after 22 days or even 20, but never after 100 days. By germinating, Junghuhn understood the visible breaking out of the rootlet, which at first crept on the surface of the soil, but in less than 24 hours secured itself thereto, and after the course of two to three days the tiny stem shot forth, on the top of which the two seed-leaves might be observed. As soon as germination had taken place, growth was kept up by sprinkling, so that directly the young, tender rootlets had obtained a hold, progress might go on without hindrance. After eight or nine months the plants had reached a height of six inches, and were fit to be transplanted into the open ground. The nature of the covering of the nur- sery beds, lying as they did on the edge of the mountain clearing, naturally supplied the young nurslings with sufficiënt light only on one side, and thus gave rise to an evident inclination to grow up in a slanting direction. To restore the balance, the pots were turned half round every week. From this description it will be seen that neither pains nor expense were spared, yet we have every reason to believe that in spite of all this, the results for a long time were not so brilliant, as might have been expected from Junghuhn\'s representations. When in March 1864, we took over the direc- tion of Cinchona culture, we found a hnndred thousand Pahu- diana seeds sown as previously described; for three months the superintendents had vainly looked for plants therefrom, and the out-turn was thus obliged to be considered a total failure. Seeds which are not properly ripe when harvested and dried, in damp earth become black and mouldy. Nothing hinders germination more than alternate drouglit and moisture; there- fore waterpots with the finest roses must be used, or spray from a syringe, for even the weakest, slightest stream of water may disturb the extremely light seed, and do harm to the tender seedling.

-ocr page 148-



		132

		We acquired a method of raising from Heer Teijsman, which we have described in our \'De Oost-Indische cultures\' vol. i, p. 63, and quote as follows; we have strictly kept to this plan \'. Unglazed, baked earthen pots, common flower pots, rather broader than deep, are fïlled two-thirds of their depth with sand, on which is spread out a layer of loamy soil, properly moistened, of about a few centimetres in thickness. On this prepared soil the seeds are scattered, as thickly as possible together, but taking care not to heap them up. Tha pots are then put into saucers filled with water, by which means, quite a sufficiënt quantity of moisture is drawn up by capillary attraction, whilst the sprinkling of the seeds is made unnecessary. In sprinkling or watering the limits of the desired moisture may easily be overstepped, moreover the seeds themselves may be damaged, and sometimes be dislodged or removed. It is quite clear that favourable conditions for the germination of the seeds and development into plants cannot be sufficiently ensured in the open ground, and thus it is necessary to have well devised propagating houses. These are simply indispens- ab!e where artificial propagation is aimed at, and we here testify plainly, that an intelligent Cinchona planter must devote himself to directing the propagation, that he may guarantee the maintainance of his typical descriptions The erection of the propagating houses will be described in chapter XII. If the seeds are treated as we have described, they will germinate in eleveu to fourteen days, old seeds take longer time, but after forty days all hope may he given up. Here is apparent the advantage of the improved method, over that ¹ We put the se;d[ots on saucers Sincc then the pots have often been put into hollow trunks of trees, bowls or troughs, and then complaints have begun about the ainount of mildew. Our sced-pots and saucers belonged to each other, and were delivered together by the potter.

-ocr page 149-



		133

		foliowed by Junghuhn. The present mode is moreover very inexpensive, because there was always a great amount of space lost, by the room which the non-germinating seeds took up. Before the seeds are sovvn, they are steeped some hours in water. Putting out each seed, one by one, after a little practice, is and rapidly easily done, by help of a flat-pointed piece of wood or bamboo, by which the seeds are picked up. Germination betrays itself by swelling, and the appearance of white points. As soon as these show themselves, the development goes on quickly; white threads spread them- selves over the surface, straighten themselves up, two little leaves unfurl, and on one of then is seen the husk of the seed, sitting like a little cap. After twenty to thirty days, they have formed four leaves, and now the delicate plants whose rootlets do not penetrate into the clayey soil, but lie outstretched thereon, must be separated and transplanted, pricked out as English nurserymen call it; this is easily done, by using a flat-pointed bit of wood or bamboo. One by one, the tiny plants are carefully taken out of the pot, and then shifted into common flowerpots, filled with pre- pared garden soil. In doing so, it must be especially seen that the roots are put perpendicularly in the earth, for which pur- pose a little hole is made. and when the plant is put in, the earth is pressed together again with the fingers. According to the size of pot used, each takes from 5 to 20, or even more, depending upon the room in the nursery, and the number of plants and pots at command. The seedlings often were actually planted out on well prepared and protected beds. If these are kept closed at first against wind and rain, and above all against direct light, then the results are satisfactory, but it is much the best plan, in the first instance to make use of pots in the manner just described, and to keep them a few months in the propagating house. Here they can be put close together, all harmful influences seen and provided against, with more

-ocr page 150-



		134

		care and success in the requisite watering, and in a word the whole thing may be watched continuously and without fatigue. During the first few weeks, but little progress can be noticed, the reverse seems rather to be the case. The backward tendency is however scarcely visible, once begun, development goes on apace, provided in the first place, a moderate sprinkling be given, and a steady regulation as to the amount of light. After four to six months the plants are so much grown that they stand in one another\'s way. They must now be separated and potted singly, or else transplanted into nursery beds, which demand most careful watching during the first few days, so that the transition may be feit as little as possible. In the beds they are planted at mutual distances of eight inches; from here they can afterwards be lifted with a good ball of earth, embracing the entire root-system. In nine to thirteen months after the sowing of the seeds, the plants will have attained a foot in height, and whilst in these beds, are not allowed to branch; they now only await a favourable moment for transplantation into the open ground. In the introduction to our \'De Oost-Indische cultures\' we have fully dealt with nursery work as a whole and hence do not consider it necessary to go further into the subject. Un- doubtedly perishable pots deserve great recommendation; it needs scarcely to be said that the soil in the pots must be as clean as possible, that watch be kept against immoderate moisture, against insects, etc. The use of cutting instruments in the propagating houses and in the beds, should be avoided as much as possible, and the surface soil should rather be kept open, cleaned and crumbled with the fingers from time to time This method of propagating must not be reproached with being too expensive or giving too much trouble. If there be unlimited command of seed, and if it does not matter if 50% and more be lost, then the seed may be sown broad-

-ocr page 151-



		135

		cast upon well prepared beds, and it is right to say, that tliose plants vvhich win in the struggle for life, will be even stronger than those procured by the former method. Meanwhile we are immoveably convinced that we should never have obtained the priceless Ledgeriana in Java, if we had spared ourselves in any way, trouble, care or cost. What results have been obtained in British India, from the other half of Ledger\'s seeds? Little enough, and certainly a less careful treatment is to blame for it\'.

		CHAPTER X. GATHERING AND KEEPING THE SEED.

		Cinchona flowers at all seasons, quite as coffee does, another introduction into Java. As soon as the trees have attained maturity that is to say, have reached a certain development, they begin to flower, and show henceforward, constantly flower- buds, blossoms, or fruit, some all three at once. Under the influence of shade, flowering takes place later, and always in more scanty measure. Young trees of four years of age or even less, sometimes shoot into flower; where this appearence presents itself, it is not considered a favourable sign, but as surely indicative of an unfavourable condition. ¹ In 186465 we tried at many times, and in many ways, to artificially awaken or help on, the germinative power of old Cinchona seeds. It was all in vain, for no single method gave evidently declarative results. Seeds which swell with difficulty, as in Papilionaceae, are shaken up with sharp powdered-glass; the hard outer skin receives scratches, which readily take up water, and thereby help on germination. This means however has no significatioa or application to Cinchona seeds.

-ocr page 152-



		136

		As previously remarked in America by Warsewicz, it was confirmed many times in Java, that the tvvigs which have flowered and borne fruit, for the most part die; in every case the extension in growth is hindered by flowering, and thus it happens, that from a plant which bears flowers on its summit, no further development can be fairly expected. It is of no use cutting away the flowerbuds; if the tendency has once declared itself in an idividual, it cannot be repressed \\ Although flowers may be seen thoughout the entire year, yet it seems in the high mountain districts of Java, that the true blossoming period in some measure coincides with the end of the west monsoon, say about the months of January to March. About ten to twelve months after the buds began to appear, the fruit ripens. All fruits in an inflorescence do not attain complete development, still less do all the seeds in the capsules. For seed-saving, the handsomest, strongest trees are selected, and especially amongst those whose superior value has been ascertained by chemical examination. Disappointment is inevit- able where the eye and botanical characters alone are made use of and trusted to; the whole issue depends upon the cer- tainty that varieties rich in quinine are exclusively propagated. The choice being made, there is something else which must not be neglected; it further behoves us to be perfectly sure that the tree is not fertilised with foreign pollen, that is to say, pollen of an inferior tree or variety. We know that Cin- chona readily hybridizes. Darwin, Hildebrand, Muller and Kuntze maintain that plants with dimorphic flowers, are dependent upon crossed or mutual fertilisation; that the latter seldom occurs from its own pollen, and even then, with little success. The cascarillcros had previously noticed that Cinchona dis- tinguished itself by dimorphic or heterostylous flowers, and \' If cuttings are made of the shoots which are inclined to flower, they are often seen to bear blossoms. The true Ledgeriana appear only by exception to arrive at this stage, before their fifth or sixth year.

-ocr page 153-



		137

		they natned the flowers with short styles, Macho, the flowers with long styles, Hembra. C. Ledgeriana shows both forms, though the hembra pre/ails, and from this the conclusion can be drawn, that nature here assists in the fertilisation of both. Experience meanwhile has fully shown that plants can be raised from seed, which both in botanica! and chemical aspects, equal the parent-tree. Trials were made purposely, in the govern- ment nurseries, as to artificial fertilisation. Calisaya flowers were touched with pollen from Caloptera, and vice versa. In the plants reared from the seeds so obtained, the type of the parents in various degrees could be recognised. The proofs were thus amply made out; besides, there may be seen trees by hundreds in the plantations, bearing the mark of the influence which the parents experienced from others. Princip- ally in the Officinalis nurseries the unmistakeable hybrids occur, now recalling Succirubra, then again Pahudiana or Calisaya, and chemical analyses have over and over again shown that the percentage in the barks, agrees with the botanical charac- ters, and thus regard must be had to the typical percentage of both parents \\ Although it is quite possible, that by careful selection and crossing, in the long run new varieties ma)\' be called into existence, decendants at least of superior value which have taken up the chief virtues of both parent, yet it remains most advisable for the planter, that he should as much as possible withdraw the trees he has selected for seed-savin<r, from the O\' influence of other trees of doubtful value. If only one species is possessed from the same origin, then there is naturally no danger, although it is readily understood that all individuals do not possess the same amount of alkaloid ; chemical research decides in that case. When a tree flowers, from which seed ¹ It had been remarked in previous years, and again in 1879, that various insects prey upon the Cinchona flowers, and may thus play an important part in fertilization, by transporting the pollen.

-ocr page 154-



		138

		is desired, the proper thing is to cut away all flowerbuds in the neighbourhood, from those individuals which cannot be depended on. This is the method which has been foliowed for years in the government nurseries to guard against dege- neration. In spite of every care, however, a complete isolation could not be assured to the selected trees; against it were the numerous species and varietie?, together with the great dispersion and extent of the nurseries, which difnculties were not to be overcome. As soon as the fruits begin to turn dark brown or black, the best plan is to envelope the entire inflorescence, or truss, in a gauze bag. Light and air can pass in unhindered, whilst loss is guaranteed against, when the capsules eventually spring open. When the largest fruits of an inflorescence are plainly ripe, that is, darker coloured, and on the point of bursting, then the truss is out off and hung up in a dry airy place, to prevent mould or rot. When it is wanted to gather the seeds, the fruits are laid spread out on paper for several hours, in a sunny spot. They then readily spring open, and the seeds may be winnowed or sïfted, and after carefully picking out the pieces of capsule and rubbish, are separated quite clean. Well dried seed preserves its power of germination for a con- siderable time, provided it is kept airy and dry. Hermetical sealing is unnecessary, even dangerous; dispatches are best done in cartridge paper, when in large quantities preferably mixed with powdered charcoal.

-ocr page 155-



		139

		CHAPTER XI. ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION.

		It appears from the statement of the first years of Cinchona culture, that from the commencement, attempts were made to multiply by cuttings: Teijsmann succeeded in striking a cutting from the first Cinchona tree obtained from Paris, and from that plant again, to raise a living progeny. The history of the two oldest cuttings has been given on pages 4445, it tells us that Cinchona may be propagated by cuttings; but afterwards many disappointments were encountered, which may chiefly be imputed to less careful treatment, and restricted disposition of excellent material. In the years 186465 we were obliged to apply ourselves heartily to artificial propagation, because the trees which then were reputed to be the best in Java, still failed to produce fruit. We were not very fortunate, although our trouble and care were not unrewarded. From the seedling Calisayas, which later on appeared Hasskarlianas, we raised by cuttings in 1864, those which at that time already distinguished themselves from all other, similarly named sister plants, also got from cuttings. The Hasskarliana cuttings yielded handsome plants which grew up at Tjinieroean to tall, thick trees, and in 1876 there were still hundreds of them noticed in full vigour. In 187172 from these trees, then seven years old, there were sent away fully 1500 kilos of bark of handsome and bold appearence, in slender silver- grey quills. When in 186566 cuttings could be got from young, robust seedlings, the results were at once more favourable, though by this time there were more and more seeds harvested, and thus cuttings were thrust into the background (nevertheless artificial

-ocr page 156-



		140

		propagation of Succirubra and Officinalis continued, with the greatest success) until in 1872 a new start had to be made, after the discovery of the splendid quality of the Ledgeriana, of which at that time, no seeds were to be had. Thousands of plants were obtained by cuttings, but thousands also, in the open ground, came but slowly, or not at all, to development. New regulations were repeatedly tried in the hope of better results, though still they feil short of expectation. The best returns were ahvays got from the shoots which sprang up from the stems of Ledgeriana trees, which had been sawn down for the bark-harvest. The shoots were taken off with a heel from the stem with care. Otherwise the cutting is usually a twig of 9 to 20 centimetres in length \', which is cleanly cut horizontally below an cye, and should possess two or more eyes, one of which is put into the soil, and lightly pressed therein. Experience has taught, that it is not a matter of indifference, in what season, or from which plant cuttings are made. By similar treatment, under circumstances in other things identical, widely varying results were obtained, at different times of the year. The formation of the root in a cutting is explained in the following way. The eyes above ground, under favourable con- ditions of warmth and moisture, bud out; too much moisture being avoided. The young shoot thus in activity and elabor- ating sap, sends this below, where it exudes or oozes out, and produces a knob or eallus, which is the medium of pro- ducing the rootlet, from which this appears to grow at the proper time. From this period we have a complete plant, which however is still very tender, but when further developed and hardened off, and brought into the open ground, will continue to live. The course of this process gives us information of the earlier ¹ Three and a half to eight inches. B. D. J.

-ocr page 157-



		141

		noticed fact, that frequently disappointment was experienced from cuttings, which in the propagating houses seemed perfectly fresh and growing. Many cuttings which remained several weeks in the propagating house, and presented a healthy appearence, when taken out of the soil, showed at their base a hard knot, instead of a gentle svvelling. The exudation may sometimes be so excessive that decay sets in, and for this reason, subse- quently cuttings were provided at their foot with a little pellet of ckiyey soil, which absorbed the too rapidly exuding sap \'. This way of artificial propagation succeeds better with soft, than hard wood, as a rule; so therefore, Succcirubra and Orfi- cinalis permit of being increased more easily by cuttings, than Calisaya. In every case the raising of cuttings must be done in propagating houses. Trials have also been made with layer.* Layers have really a surer chance of good results than cuttings; on the otlier hand, they demand more care, and as a rule are not used in Cinchona culture. When in later years it was possible to devote to the culture, a superintendent who had been trained as a propagator in Europe, a new phase was entered upon, which promised better results, and whereto we must devote our particular attention. Instead of propagating by cuttings, we now began by grafting the noble Ledgeriana on young sterns of Succirubra, thus quickly multiplying it, and keeping it true to type; we know that Succi- rubra grows the most readily and thriftily. In 1866 already were Calisaya and Pahudiana grafted by the so cal led de ft- or crown-graftitig, and the trials turned out successful, they were however not continued, as soon Calisaya seed could be had in abundance. ¹ Artificial propagation in this manner has always been carricd out with most satisfactory results at the establishments at the highest elevation, where only C. officinalh is grown. Each of the cuttings was provided with a little claypellet at its foot and the consequent advantages could not be doubted.

-ocr page 158-



		U2

		The technical question thus being answered in a satisfactory sense, there now remained the question, whether the stock (the stem on which the graft is made) exercises any infiuence upon the scion, in other words, whether its growing on, and retaining its own tissues, would also form a corresponding amount of alkaloid. As far back as 1679 Mariotte had shown by ingenious experiments, that plants do not merely take up nutriment, but that they also digest this according to their wants, and the vigour of their structure; it was possible however, that trees which were cultivated for their fruit, might behave quite differently to those raised for their bark contents. The cultivated pear, grafted on a wild pear tree, brings forth cultivated pears. If now a wild pear branch be worked on a shoot of the cultiv- ated pear, then it will bear no other than uneatable fruit. The same sap in the trunk, thus show itself in each shoot from the graft to have different proportions. The analyses which Moens in 1873 directed on the previously mentioned Cinchona trees, which had been grafted in 1866, have brought to light the natural vigour in relation to Cin- chona, at least so far shown, that therefrom the best hope may be entertained for practical results. The Calisaya graft seems to possess the normal percentage of alkaloid for the species; the stock-Pahudiana stem, seems however to have feit the influence of the scion, so far that is to say, that the quantity of alkaloid exceeds the normal amount; the quality remaining unchanged. From these trials and analytical results Moens deduced the following, that the nature of the alkaloids, which are seated in the bark of the various species of Cinchona, is dependent upon the special tissue of the bark, each sort for itself. This conception gave support to the idea of making trial with grafts of Ledgeriana on Succirubra sterns, a trial, which began in 1879, and commenced well. Moens hoped by this not only to be able to propagate the best parent-trees by

-ocr page 159-



		143

		artificial means, but moreover in some sense to make the Ledgeriana partakers of the strong, rapid growth of Succirubra. Grafting is continued to the present time with satisfactory results, the worked plants grow unmistakeably much quicker and stronger than cuttings. The advantages are so obvious, that we must place in the foreground, what has been actually accomplished during five years by means of chemical analyses, that the scion attains to the chemical contents of the parent- tree in practical completeness. Succirubra plants can easily be raised in unlimited quantities, seeds may be harvested in abun- dance and without intermission, and the plants thrive quickly and robustly. Young sterns of Succirubra can thus always without difficulty be had ready for use, and when once command is had over several hundreds or thousands of developed Ledgeriana trees, there will be even less want of scions prevalent \'. Moreover, in the government Cinchona nurseries, there are hundreds of Ledgeriana trees already analytically examined, the specimens of highcst percentage of alkaloids are there known, and can be specially reserved for propagation. Gradually as plantations were made, possessing exclusively individuals of superior worth, and as they increased in numbers, so those of ¹ The following communication is not uninteresting, and is in each point well worth considering. An American nurscryman. Hendcrson, recommends a new method of making cuttings. He breaks or cuts the branches, of which cuttings are to be made, ten or twelve days before, so that a portion of the vascular tissue remains connectcd with the plant itself. The cuttings by this slight connection obtain sufficiënt nutriment, and root much quicker than would otherwise be the case, whenever they are put in. Hendcrson allegcs, that in the previous autumn, he had made 10,000 cuttings of tricolor Pelargoniums in this fashion, with a loss of hardly 1 per cent., whilst previously 50 per cent. miscarried. Such cuttings root within ten or twelve days, unless they are over-watered or too much exposed to the sun. In this way, a number of plants and vegetables can be treated, such as Bignonias, Carnations, Heliotropes, all sorts of Cactus, Oleanders, Pelargoniums, Geraniums, etc. This plan has this further advantage, that the parent-plant itself is less weakened, and that new shoots arise from below the branches which were broken off, which can afterwards be used as cuttings.

-ocr page 160-



		144

		smaller worth have been cleared away, and the prospect is held out, that bye and bye, only Ledgeriana containing 10 per cent and upwards, will be reared. As only the best are kept of that noble sort which we possess in the Ledgeriana, the latest descendents of those fifty different trees, from which Manuel collected his seeds with so much intelligence, will in Java, appear to be the very piek of the choicest kind. The method of grafting which was introduced by the skilful superintendent Veulemans, and is continued with reasonable success, bears the name of side-grafting, and is an operation which is in constant use in the European nurseries, applied under various modifications. The assistant-director of the govern- ment Cinchona culture, R. van Romunde, has given us an accurate descrïption of the system foliowed in Java, and has made it quite plain by a clear sketch of Veulemans, which will be found at the end of this volume. For scions, young twigs of Ledger- iana trees are taken, those with one joint are large enough, though as there are no reasons for extraordinary economy, \'it is better to use tops of branches with two to three joints. The woody stem of a young Succirubra plant serves as a stock, prefcrably a seedling, because cuttings usually pos.ess a less developed root system. Succirubra sterns, as thick as a lead- pencil, offer sufficiënt surface; stronger sterns may perhaps supply more nutriment to the scions, but it is an advantage on the other side, that the diameter of stock and scion should agree, that the opposed barks may be united as completely as possible. A slanting incision, is made with a sharp knife (D) in the stem, (B) of the stock for about Va to \'/» its length. The scion (C) is cut wedgeshaped, and so placed in the incision in the stock, that so far as possible, the bark may touch on both sides, when it is in a slanting position in the divided portion oi the stock (f), against which the iongue of the graft

-ocr page 161-



		145

		is pressed, as if to make one single being with the Succi- rubra stem \'. Next comes the fastening, or tying round with soft string which will not cut, the best being that fmm unravelled gunuy- bags, see figure A e. The pots (A) in vvhich the operation is performed, are next put into frames, closecl by glazed lights, in the propagating house. They are carefully watered, and in dry weather the frames are kept close, usually a little air is left on by leaving the upper edge of the Hght a little way open. In this way the air is kept sufficiently moist, to make watering unnecessary. After 10 to 14 days the pots can be taken out of the frames; the closing of the wounds, the union of stock and scion, will then have ensued. The greater part of the lower leaves of the scion are cut away, and it is a good sign if the remaining portions fall away of themselves. If on the contrary they remain hanging, stiff and black, that appearance betrays sickness or death. It happens just the same when trees are transplanted, if the leaves fade and remain hanging, instead of falling off, the conclusion may be drawn that the trans- plantion has not succeeded. From the frames the pots are put out into the propagating house, where they are now stood upright, after the plants have been cleared of the possibly still adhering, useless leaves and half-perished stipules. If the Succirubra sterns themselves after a fortnight should have so developed, that they rob the graft of light and air, then they are shortened back, by topping. Some weeks later, whenever it appears quite evident that the graft has started into growth, the ties are slackened, and the Succi- rubra sterns are again shortened as may be needed. A month \' The part of the stem which is cut open, shown by f in the sketch may be entirely taken away. In this case the scion C is only cut on one side, thus not wedgeshaped, and then pressed with its cut surface against the wound of the stock. The scion is supported on the base of the cut surface of the stock, and the operation will succeed in proportion as the dimensions, agree more perfectly, permitting a more complete union of the barks at the foot as well as over the entire length. 10

-ocr page 162-



		V.L.M.

		*JH\'de Bussy, Amsterdam.*

-ocr page 163-



		146

		after the loosening of the ties, the Succirubra stems are cut away above the union of stock and graft. If there is plenty of space under glass, then the pots are allowed to stand as long as possible in the houses. The appearance of the grafts is some- times deceptive, and if exposed too soon to the free air outside, with all its uncertainties, the apparently strong grafts may still frequently disappoint. When brought into the open ground, the grafts should beforehand be habituated to this transition, or preferably be prepared thereto, by remaining some time under care in covered cradles, where the winds and direct beams of the sun would not cause real injury. Once fairly in the open ground, the grafts sometimes show themselves still very sensitive, and many die outright, in spite of the best care. Under favourable conditions we say that they grow half as fast again as cuttings or seedlings. Taken one with another, although a practised workman will graft 300 plants in one day, still we cannot say that the results leave nothing to be wished; more than half the grafts seem to miscarry; the operation is not of the greatest simplicity, and demands much time and space in the propagating houses \'. We should be glad to see the experiment repeated by crown- graf (ing, now that a skilled staff is at command. Succirubra trees of six years old, at a decimetre above the ground, usu- ally to have a circumference of o. 3 to 0.6 of a decimetre ~. If these are sawn off at that height, an ample erop would be ¹ In our opinion, the disappointments must in part be ascribcd to this, that in Java propagation goes on uninterruptedly almost the whole year round. The good results of grafting are dependent upon the choice of scions. The twig must be ripe, and not too young. The best scions are those which are cut in the transition period between the East and West monsoons, after the trees have enjoyedapcriod of comparative rest, and are about to enter on a period of renewed, robust vital functions. The tops of the twigs which may then be got, are certainly the most suit- able, for the young, green, sappy portions of the plant can give no hope of the best results. No direct sun-light should penetrate into the frames, and they must be kept fully moistcned, avoiding however such an extreme as would lead to the plants damping off. \' From one inch to two and a quar\'.er at nearly four inches above the ground. B. D. J.

-ocr page 164-



		147

		obtained. and on each stump 3 to 4 Ledgeriana grafts might be inserted. By the same operation it would be possible to call a Ledgeriana plantation into existence, under the most favourable conditions, established without loss of ground, and with the least cost or trouble, provided ample supplies of strong grafts are at hand. That good results are possible in this fashion, in the open ground, and free air, our experiments in 1866 on cleft-grafting have shovvn. Providing shade, is more- over not an impossibility, still less an overpowering difficulty. For many years all plants which have been turned out into the ground, have been shaded by a bottomless basket, made of plaited bamboo, 0.5 metre in height and 0.4 metre in dia- meter. Since then this careful provision has been deviated from, and it cannot be doubted, that the increased number of deaths, and slower development, are the consequences \\ If artificial propagation be taken in hand with the hope of good returns, it is essential to ensure the help of a skilful experienced staff, and on a large Cinchona undertaking, the appointment of a clever propagator cannot be too strongly recommended. We cannot here go into details, but it is certain that in the briefly described method of sidc-grafting (which with the drawing appended needs no further explanation), can be modified in many ways, and that abundant experience and practice are necessary to make a good choice of stocks and scions, to unite these together, to watch over them, and con- stantly to regulate the proper degree of light, air and moisture. ¹ The Succirubra trees intended for crown-grafting must not be allowed to grow too thick, the young trees should bc thinncd out as soon as their bark is fit to harvest. It is recommended to cover the cut surfacc of the tree stump with grafting wax, after inserting the graft. Commonly the stump soon sprouts out, and all the shoots should not be clcarcd away, until the grafting is seen to take A further recomniendation, is that trial deserves to be made after grafting to bury the whole tree-stump, that is to say, if need be to cover the whole with an enclosure of soil.

-ocr page 165-



		148

		In connection with the foregoing, some good hints must here be given, for which I am indebted to the able director of the Royal School of Horticulture, "Linnaeus", Heer Krook. In the Catalogue of the Brothers Dittmar at Heilbronn in Wuerttemburg, amongst other work tools the following are mentioned, which seem capable of the most extended \\ise in vvorking Cinchona. N°. iS. Spaltpropfmesscr [Graftingknife]. Mark 1.60. N°. 25. Copulir or Veredlnngsscheere [Grafting shears] by which the stock and scion are sufnciently shaped to each other at one operation. Price 7 marks. * * Grafting wax for use on a large scale. One kilogram of yellow rosin, and o. 11 unsalted hogs\' lard \', are melted together in an iron pot, and thoroughly mixed. After being stirred sufnciently, the mass is poured into a tub of warm water, and as soon as it has cooled to permit of being conveniently handled, it is briskly kneaded with the hands into balls, which are afterwards thrown into cold water to complete the cooling; they can then be preserved wrapped in paper. For use, one of these balls is melted, and the stock, on which budding or grafting is done, is smeared with the fluid wax by means of a small brush. The temperature of the wax must not be higher than needed to make it flow. Grafting wax for use in small quantities. Under the name of Kaltjlilsjlger Baumwacks a special grafting wax of excellent quality prepared by the firm of Theine and Leibig at Hannover, is sold put up in small tin boxes. [A similar preparation known as Mastic VHorante Lefort, or French cold grafting wax, is sold by nurserymen in England. B. D. J.] ¹ These proportions are roughly as 35 to 4. B. D. J.

-ocr page 166-



		149

		The scion or bud is smeared all over with the grafting wax, which secures it from all damage or harm whtch might come to it from outside influences, and the bursting forth of the buds through the thin layer of grafting-wax, is neither hindered nor delayed. * * 4c To graft, bud, inarch, etc. with success, it is essential that the stock be in active growth, vvhilst on the other-hand, the buds of the scion must be in a dormant conclition. In the tropics, where plants are always growing and fiowering, it is not always easy to remark the periods of strong activity and of comparative repose. In order to ensure good scions, it is recommended, that the selected tranches of a tree chosen to supply them, be cut off, and kept moistened in a shady spot, so as to compel them to rest. In dicotyledons, an eye, visible or invisible, is found in the axil of each leaf, and when the leaves of the severed branch die and drop off, the sap causes the eyes or buds to push, a matter of everyday observance among propagators. Scions having one eye in the cleft, and one above it, two buds in all, give the most certain result. The whole process of grafting depends on the fusion of the Cambium, a very loosewalled cellular-tissue, and thus it is not essential that the outermost corky layers should come into contact with the scion, so long as care is taken to bring the similar formative layers, the Cambium of each, together. * * The best expectations are justly cherished of grafting that splendid scion Ledgeriana, on the stumps of Succirubra trees. This method has the advantage of requiring no propagating honses, and moreover can be put to use after cropping an

-ocr page 167-



		150

		inferior Cinchona plantation. For splitting\' the stumps, the stocks, and inserting therein the scions, use may be made of the grafting-knife previously mentioned as N°. 18 on page 148.

		CHAPTER XII. ERECTION OF PROPAGATING IIOUSES AND LAY1NG OUT BEDS.

		Propagating houses for a Cinchona speculation, are not luxurious erectlons. Whoever spares the cost of these, practises an economy which will permanently affect his interests, and upon them are entirely dependent the seizing and confirmation of the opportunity of propagating by art, the choicest, best and richest Cinchona plants, and continuing in this path, to pro- vide exclusively the best types. Propagating houses have already been most strongly recommended for increase by seeds, vvhilst without their help, an earnest, successful artificial multiplication is scarcely to be thought of. The arrangements have for aim, the assurance as far as possible, of an equable temperature, with the exclusion of all atmospheric and other disturbing influences. The expense can be confined to a minimum by a suitable construction of Junghuhn\'s contrivance, which we have steadily kept to as follovvs. On the spot which has been chosen for a propagating house, an open trench or passage is dug in the earth, with upright walls, to a depth and breadth of about four feet. The upright walls are faced with rough planks, to prevent the soil bulging out or giving way. These are instead of dwarf walls of masonry, which in the high, distant mountain districts would be too troublesome and costly to build, not only on account of the

-ocr page 168-



		151

		necessary transport of stone and lime, but also because of the want of skilied Iabour. Wood as rule is made use of; rough planks can be cut by every native, and for the entire simple timberwork, there is only need of one carpenter, who for this propose, need not be particularly skilled in his trade. Thuis the propagating houses are actually built in the ground. In the trench which has been dug out, there is ample room for moveinent, and the nursery-pots are accommodated on the common soil, right and left of the passage, as far as can be reached with the hand. Glazed lights form the roof, the ridge running parallel to the length of the house, and is raised six or seven feet above the bottom of the passage, borne by wooden pillars, which are placed at suitable distances in the direction of the length of the trench. The length of the propagating house is optional; the longer it is, however, the more choice there is of an even temperature. One end is entirely closed, up to the roof light, at the other in the closing wall, is constructed a little door, which gives admission to the trench by a gcutle slope \'. A simpler and less expensive propagating house can scarcely be built; the main cost lies in the glazed lights and putty. These are best ordered from the factory, where they are prepared by machinery; or they may be obtained more or less weatherbeaten, which will serve very well, and be bought cheaply. Attention has many times been given to an iron fraining for a roof and lights, woodwork naturally being less lasting (though it is a fact that by careful choice of wood, a well built propagating house will remain six years in good con- dition), and the erection, the placing if necessary of it properly framed, over an already executed trench, should cost a min- inium of time and Iabour. But, iron is not indestructible; more especially where it is exposed to the changeable innuences of the weather in the high, moist mountain regions; and were defects once remarked, the means would be wanting for promptly ¹ When the propagating house is of great length, we use a door at each end.

-ocr page 169-



		152

		remedying them. Experience in Europe has also taught, that the panes of glass are exposed to more injury by breakage in iron lights than in wooden rabbets, because die former are more liable to expansion and contraction than the latter. The glazed lights forming the roof, are provided with move- able blinds, which are best made of a wild reed Kassok, (Sac- charum spontaneuni) or of split bamboo, with gemoeti cord prepared from indjoek as binding material. By day, whenever the sun\'s rays would burn by too direct influence, the blinds are allowed to roll over the frames, so that the sun\'s rays are partly kept off, and always broken. Really if we wished to describe a model propagating house, we do not know how to improve upon the foregoing. Full account must be kept of the circumstances to which the planter must submit, far from the help which art and industry could offer him, and destitute of skilied labour. As to its shape it matters nothing, the chief thing is to create an enclosed space, in which the chancfeable influences of the weather are as little feit as possible, and so that the propagator has sufficiënt room to move about in easily. Cleanliness and method must prevail in a propagating house. Strong currents of air must be guarded against, but on the other hand care must be taken to renew and change the air. In a propagating house, much water is used for sprinkling the plants, and in that narrow pent-up space, the atmosphere may soon become mouldy and musty, and fungoid growths find a fruitful field. In soft and quiet weather the door can now and then be set open, otherwise the ventilation is regulated by small moveable frames. The nursery beds are laid out at a breadth of about six feet, and about six inches above the trodden ground, to secure good drainage. Both sides of the beds must be kept free, so that their entire surface may be within easy reach. For cover\'ng, use is made of alang aiang {Imperata arun-

-ocr page 170-



		153

		dinacea, Cyr.), or nipa, (Nipa fruticans, Thunb.), as may be most easily be localjy procured. As regards die direction of the beds, die construction of the covering etc, no fixed regu- lations can be prescribed, because so much depends upon local considerations. The plants in the beds should by preference, enjoy the morning sun, and in every case as much as pos- sible be sheltered from the wind. All regulations which apply to raising and rearing cultivated plants in general, hold good also for Cinchona, and therefore we have no need to go into further details».

		CHAPTER XIII. CLEARING THE GROUND. COMMENCEMENT OF NURSERIES.

		With regard to clearing and laying the foundations of planta- tions, Cinchona demands nothing more than do Tea and Coffee culture; we quote from our \'De Oost-Indische Cultures\' the following passage, for any further information reference can be made to that work itself. "In clearing we have to reduce to regular culture, that is, making ready, or preparing to plant, on waste lands, which at the present time only show the natural vegeta- tion, or which after a temporary use, have again returned to a condition of wilderness or jungle. Such waste lands are covered either with virgin forest, scrub, or wild grasses. If we have to do with a thick forest, the trees must be felled and cleared away as much as possible. Big trees are not grubbed up, the expense would be too great, and not scldom at least in the mountain clearings,

-ocr page 171-



		154

		it woulcl disturb the covering of earth too much to tear them up. If the giants of the forest are of considerable diameter, they are by preference, cut over several feet above the ground. This spares much labour, whilst the stumps wliich remain in the ground, do not much interfere with the planting of the entire cstate, or at least only a few feet occasionally. In exceptional cases it may be best to grub up such hewn down trees. They gradually waste away by continual exposure to the atmospheric influences, and their roots also, rot away little by little. The felling of the forest is best done in the dry season; moreover, the axes used by the natives are difficult to use in rainy or damp weather. The masses of wood are burnt where possible, to eco- nomise room as well as labour and time If the combus- tion is effected with care, there need be no fear of actual loss of humus. On the other hand, there is gained a fertilising ash, mixed with plenty of charcoal, and the only thing required, is that these remains are not suffered to stay heaped up, but are spread equally. By this hring, the estate is purified from weeds, and from injurious animals, larvae of insects and their eggs. The felling of big forest trees is no common cooley work; it demands experiencc and management. Before giving the lirst blow of the axe, the tree must be exam- ined, to see whether it has any tendency to fall in a definite direction, in consequence of growth or top hea- viness. The felling is begun on the side where the tree must tumble; thereafter, when a half or one third part cut through, a beginning is made on the opposite side. If the trees on the cleared land are close and regular, then much labour is saved by merely cutting down a certain number, as may be pointed out, on one side only.

-ocr page 172-



		155

		By feiling the trees on the boundaries, these vvill in their fall, drag down also their neighbours. Scrub and bushes must be grubbed up, not only because it does not want extraordinary labour to do it, but also because by simply cutting down to the stump, they would readily spring up again, and threaten to create a wilder- ness a-new. So also must herbaceous and grassy plants be uprooted, thrown into heaps, and after sufficiënt drying, be burnt. If these precautions are neglected, a new plantation will soon demand uncommon vigilance. Level and hilly lands require special treatment. If an estate is deprived of its natural covering, then it must, if level, or slightly inclined, be regularly ploughed in its entire extent, or worked with t\\\\e patjol, or mattock. The deeper and more thoroughly this is done, the better; the plants to be thereon cultivated will soon show their gratitude. In proportion as the soil is stiff and more tenacious, it requires to be more repeatedly gone over, either with the plough or the patjol, and these operation are conducted in proper turn, so that the maiden soil may have opportunity by the alternation of light and air, to prepare itself to nourish cultivated plants. According to the destination of the cleared and worked land, it is parcelled out into regular compartments by larger and smaller roads or paths, as it were to cut it up. Such a systematic division, at a later period, simplifies super- intendence and management. It permits of an accurate apportionment of labourers, and indication of maintenance, and thns gives a desirable uniformity and order in all actions, as well air in the administration. Level lands of certain extent, are easy to work, and to divide regularly. They have this disadvantage on the

-ocr page 173-



		156

		other hand that they can hardly be irrigated. A good supply of water may be ensured by a system of channels which for the most part, can follow the patlis, and whose capacity can be estimated for, in regard to the nature of the soil and its situation. On sloping lands, water may cause damage by too quickly or readily running off. The soil being washed away, natural channels are formed which exposé the fertile crust to constant harm and loss. If the slope be planted, then the removal or denudation of the earth will cause, in one place an uprooting, in another an earthing up. Mountain slopes which are taken into cultivation, are continually liable to the loss of their fertile soil, and though the injury to a plantation may not be noticed immediately, yet the danger is great, that after a few years, it will be necessary to write off that land as valueless. Many planters rest content with giving to each plant separately, a little surface in the slope, a scooping out. The maintenance of a plantation arranged in this way, is difficult, and is seldom unattended with damage. Besides, the little plateaus or hollows become reservoirs of water or filth, which is heaped up and injures the plant. But there is a sufficiënt means of pre venting the injurious consequences which tilling or planting the slopes may have or draw after them. That, is by the laying out of terraces, which levels the arable or worked surface. By steady labour very steep slopes may be made suit- ablc for regular cultivation. In proportion as the slopes are steeper, the terraces must have a narrower breadth, and it is wholly unnecessary, moreover frequently it is impossible, that the breadth should be the same over an entire terrace. The soil cleared of its covering and rid of jungle and stumps, is traced out by means of lines which are accurately

-ocr page 174-



		157

		levelled along the slopes. The grass and weeds are heaped up alongside these lines, having been cut down by a hatchet or Iight use of the patjol. The labourer places himself below tlie row of weeds and begïns to work upon the ground above him with his patjol, and in such a way, that tlie first spit comes to rest upon the weeds, and gives the necessary solidity. Thus he goes on. tlie upper spits and clods being con- stantly turned over upon the; preceding, for the entire space between the two successive traced out lines, until it has lost its inclination. As soon as this rude commencement is made over the whole estate, a slight slope is given to the steep sides, (which must in no case have erect walls, by which the terraces would degenerate into canals) and made tolerably even. After this, the terraces themselves are worked over with the patjol, sparing the edges, because these must possess a suitable solidity. On wooded grounds, the working up of the soil in its entirety may precede the forming into terraces, because these soils are by nature already loose and friable. Pre- vious working is often quite necessary, on account of the endless hindrances which present themselves on the cleared estate, and the workpeople in the actual, previous beginning of the terraces, would be in the way. The direction and breadth of the terraces being wholly dependent on the nature of the soil, it is evident that the terraces cannot be arranged for any premeditated culture, but on the other hand, that which concerns the order and space for plants, must be ruled by them. The edges and slopes (talies) of the terraces are allowed to be grown over. The weeds thereon developed can be kept short, but it gives solidity, and rather than attain this by pressing together, use is made of some such plant

-ocr page 175-



		158

		as antanan, (rendeng or pagagan) \\Hydrocotyle hirsuta, DC] to replace it. This way of beginning has for a long time found strenuous opponents. The plan has been said to be ex- pensive, but on the other hand it may be said briefly, that if a permanent or a lasting plantation is to be made on mountain declivities, the costs of terracing can better be met, than constant expectation of great, irreparable disappointment. It has already been stated that on steep slopes where foundation of lerraces requires in some cases to be deeply dug out, a barren subsoil may be dipped into, wherein the plants can thrive only with difficulty. If planting must be done, either in a medium which cannot be considered fertile soil, or which cannot come into that category within a certain time, is surely better not to plant at all. Excess in any direction is punished, so also in the choice of lands for clearing. Meanwhile the alleged danger is as a rule, fanciful. To vvhatever depth the soil may be stirred, the fertile upper layers are not thrown aside, but simply replaced. By mingling the poorer subsoil, with the richer surface soil, and the whole being weathered for a sufficiënt time, there is no risk run of improverishment, but on the other hand, the conditions for favouring the remaining plants must be considered to become more favourable. * * * The subsoil may be either, vegetable humus, clay, loam or sand; it cannot offer sufficiënt nutriment, unless it is properly exposed to the aforesaid influences. By mixing surface soil and subsoil, or else by exposure of the Jatter, a fertile crust is created which defies disappoint- ments. Of course all considerations restrain one, where

-ocr page 176-



		159

		the subsoil may appear so unserviceable, that it would be foolish to destine that estate for clearing. On sloping ground, a regnlar division into similar plots or gardens becomes difficult. The paths to be laid out, cannot follow the shortest line; for they would tlien serve as water-channels. Coutinual damage and loss of ground would be the consequences, and to prevent these, the paths are laid out on the slopes in a diagonal direction, zi"f-za£ fashion. A oradient of one in a hundred, seems to be the most that can be recommended, so as to secure a sufhcient fall but not too much. As much as possible the paths are allowed to be overrun with grass, it gives them fixity and cohesion, and alongside them are dug the channels in which the superfluous water can run off, which is contributed to by the gutters which are laid out across the terraces, as may be necessary. As a free or unrestricted choice is not always obtain- able and thus one cannot voluntarily arrange matters on this or that mountain slope, so it does not always pront one to know which declivity with relation to its aspect, is most advantageous for cultivation. It may be well to stop operations, and institute comparisons, so as arrive at proper knowledge. Many allege that the slopes which are turned towards the equator, come under the most favour- able climatic influences; after that, the eastern and western follow. Others are of opinion that plants in leaf require the morning sun, on the other hand fruiting plants want the evening rays. In a country covered with mountains, no fast rules can be laid down on the subject. As we have to treat of the climatic conditions of the East Indian Archipelago, it is quite evident, that the relative situation with regard to the aspect, is a very weighty question. The local currents of air with their own characteric features, vary

-ocr page 177-



		160

		greatly and in some measure determine the temperature and moisture. Thcre are however other considerations which compel respect when clearing away primeval forests. It is to be remembered, that the local temperature and moisture must undergo an important change at least for a time, by the disafforesting over a large area. The cleared ground is more quickly warmed than the soil which is covered over with a thick leafy canopy. By continued exposure to the heat of the sun during the dry season of the year, especi- ally if assisted by violent winds, the upper layer of the soil is brought into conditions unfavourable for vegetation. If the surface is quickly and strongly heated by day. because unprotected, it will also by night quickly radiate and cool. Sudden transitions are the causes of sickly con- ditions which although mostly transient, may disturb the more delicate subjects of cultivation. Constant exposure creates barrenness in the arable sur- face. It seems certain that even the thickest layers of the cultivable soil cannot hold out against the pertinacious working of a high degree of heat. If it is not shaded by vegetation, it dries up and offers only sustenance to grasses like alang-alang \\Jmperata arundinacca, Cyr.]. Such land will not regain its ancient fertility, until again covered by a plantation, which will prevent those quick and powerful alternations which we have previously des- cribed. This possibly supplies the reason of the often remarked phenomenon, that it is very difficult in old plantations to get the "repairs" to do well. The incom- pletely sheltered superficial ground is sacrificed to a too powerful chemical action, and it wants a sufficiënt time under favourable conditions to regain its original qualities. Frequently also great difficulty is experienced in getting a new plantation to do well on lands once cultivated.

-ocr page 178-



		161

		Experienced planters know full well the dansers to their plantations, which exist in exposure to violent currents of wind. Circumstances compel earnest care in the clearing of forest-lands, and as a rule it is desirable to leave con- siderable strips of forest untouched. For laying out roads, terraces, etc. a certain instru- ment deserves recommendation, which as we are informed by Heer O. von Winning of the Dutch East Indian army, is made by Üöhme of Berlin. This surveying instrument consists of a case with the theodolite, box-compass, and qua- drant, so proportioned, that they are carried on a single- footed staff. With this simple and handy combination, by which the contriver has done good service to forest- clearers, all requirements are readily and amply met. With proper explanation and some practice, nonprofessionals readily work with it. The future is assured by suitably beginning the permanent maintenance of the fertile surface; this need not be done so regularly for Cinchona as for Coftee or Tea, which by period- ical cropping are kept within definite bounds, whilst Cinchona is regarded more as forest-culturc; order and regularity must reign in every case, not the least to facilitate control, and to excite and further pleasure in supervision and main- tenance. Previous to the year 1866, the government plantations were not actually in every case laid out in terraces. At that time in -.ome places they were wholly unknown, and superintendents as well as labourers had a prejudice against them. The transition from forced to free labour, and many other burning questions of paramount interest, compelling the consequences of not plunging into all requirements at one time, brought matters to a focus. In the government reports for the years 1864 and 1865, the methods were described whereby the clearing and founding of estates took place in those years. The director gave ex- 11

-ocr page 179-



		162

		planation and account of both one and the other; his actions were not of free-will, hut were regulated by circumstances. The forests were cut down, with the exception of certain handsome forest-trees \'. The felled trees were cleprived of their branches, divided into as man)\' pieces as were necessary, and then heaped np into rows, at regular distances of 25 to 30 feet. In this fashion they formeel high, broad galangans, between which the Cinchona plants were put out, and enjoyed a certain degree of shade. Whilst there was thus no foundation of ter- races, all fear of loss of the fertile soil by its being washed away might be said to be abandoned, because of the stacked up masses of wood. The wood piles slowly rotting, formed after a cottrse of years a considerable layer of humus, which was then equably spread over the gardens, whilst the scant}- pieces of wood still remaining intact, yielded a fertilising ash after burning. From that time terraces were as much as could be, formed, and most certainly in its entirety the ground had lost nothing of its fertility, but rather gained. At the establishment Nagrak, the felled masses of wood were heaped up, not in rows, but heaps, which might be regarded as rubbish heaps, from which the rains washed out and distributed through the plantation, the perishable soluble portions. From 1866 onward, cutting down was strictly kept to terracing the clearings, though no one will wonder that in consequence of the dislike which prevailed among certain superintendents and workfolk, the ter- races were not constructed as they should have been. This one thing is certain; care and pains were devised against any loss of the fertile soil, which then occurred but seldom, and since then only to an insignificant extent. \' On page 82 it is mentioned that the "Western department" protested against the disafforestation. Governor-General Sloet, visited the Cinchona establishments in May 1865, and acquainted himself with the furthering of the culture, and the new direction of it, though he urged none the less, that exposure of the Cinchona plantations was probably going too far. We were of the opposite"opinion; and gradually weiit even to a complete clearance.

-ocr page 180-



		1<

		When !arge tracts were cleared and plantcd, on the other hand it was not seldom to be feared, that toogreat opportunity was afforded to the influence of wind and sunheat, and tirst of all at Tjienieroean in November and December 1866, in the plantations of Ledgeriana, tliere were actnally shelter plants put out. Some years later these companions were cleared away, when they began visibly to hinder the Cinchona trees. We always thought it possible to defend the position, that in the long run the soil might even gain in fertility if loss were o-uarded against; weeds, fallen Cinchona leaves, etc. being[ allowed to remain, and turned into the ground in a general clearing up. Our hope was established on this basis, that on the sanie land, Cinchona should continuously remain, and our system of exploiting Cinchona was thereon projected. In practice difficulties seem to have arisen, which here demand a closer consideration, and can be conveniently spoken of, under the ver)\' important question of spacing the plants.

		C HAPT ER XIV. THE SPACE BETWEEN THE PLANTS.

		After numerous comparative trials, we had as a rule resolved to plant out, Cinchona ojfficinalis at 4 feet, C. succirubra at 7 feet, C. Calisaya and the remaining Cinchonas at 6 feet distances each way. If the plants develope well, after 6 to S years they will meet, and the want of space must be met by thinning out. Thinning is now adopted as a regular harvesting, and in proportion as the gaps occurring had been filled up, and the supplementary plants have become the greater, the

-ocr page 181-



		164

		original plants are gradually removed; according to this view, unin errupted use and profit can be made of the same land. In i S69 the rlrst exploitation took place of several planta- tions vvhich had been laid out in the immediate neighbourhood of the establishments. From that time, harvesting was regularly continued and the old nurseries made ready anew for the recep- tion of other, preferentially the richer Cinchona sorts. The results oi the new plantings, still at that time mostly on a restricted scale, were not bad, and at least gave no reason to fear that repeated planting on the same land, would in the long run end in disappointment. In the first place it must not be forgotten, that the first planla- tions were still more or less sheltered by the original forest trees, which wer^ spared when clearing; in the second, that at first the maintenance, when the planting was still restricted, could be carried out with greater care than, when later on, the nur- series were considerably extended, and a complete staff of labourers could not always be obtained. The latest nurseries stood moreover quite open and exposed, therefore at their commencement the land was entirely cleared. Where the Cin- chona grew immediately, it was able more or less to protect the soil from the direct sunrays. On a few grounds however, the development Ieft much to be wished, that being where the growth was very slow, and where effectual superintendance could not take place by want of labour power. For two years past, complaints have again been made, that in inany places where the first Cinchona plantings have been exploited, those following will have a difficult task tosucceed\', ¹ In liritish India about this amplc cxperience has already been obtained; the same sort of Cinchona does not thrive again, on the old, worked grounds. The land is therefore continually changed, and for that purposc, a great reserve of l.ind is held in Bengal It deserves remark however, that most of the lands which were destined for Cinchona culture in India, had already been cleared and worked by the natives. This makes a difference between it and primeval, Virgin forest- lands, which nutst not be lost siglit of.

-ocr page 182-



		165

		Endeavours were made to tracé the causes, and to attain a tenable hypothesis by means of logical deductions; possibly the hypothesis did not agree with the actual resnlts of examination, and in every case experiments may go on for years, before it can be raised to a firm natural law. Nature is jealous of her riddles and secrcts, and does not disclose them except after earnest enquiry and continued attempts. Cinchona holds in one sense a different position to Coffee, Tea and other constant crops, whose regular harvests con- tinually withdraw a large amount of nutrimcnt from the soil. The cultivation of Cinchona approaches more to the case of timber-culture, and of original or natural forests, vviiere a con- stant, undisturbed development, requires constant nutriment from the soil, without however exhausting it. It seems that the disposition of the ground, its defence, so to speak, can keep pace with the development of the forest, which is not regularly carried off, and withdrawn in bulk; on the contrary, all the fallen leaves, fruit, wood, etc, remain on the soil, and add to its fertility. Certainly, timber culture seems to rob the soil so little, that the reasons for unfruitfulness cannot be found in that impoverishment. At the end of the r6^th century, Van I Iel- mont instituted an experiment which as ingenious as decisive, removes all fears on this score. He planted a vvillow entting of five pounds weight, in a pot with 200 pounds of dried soil. After five years₄ the cutting of five pounds weight, had developed intoatreeof 169 pounds, whilst the earth had not lost more than two ounces in weight. The loss was thus not worth mention, and there now exists no single reason to suppose, that Cinchona is more exigent that the willow \'. The direct impoverishment of the soil, thus cannot ¹ Dr Van Vlaanderen at our request in 1869 examincd certain Cinchona barks as to their percentage of inorganic constituents, and found in Calisaya bark, ²-33² % °f which 0.728 \\ was linie In no single case was linie wanting in the different samples of soil, taken from the Cinchona imrseries.

-ocr page 183-



		106

		be the cause of the phenomenon, that a new planting of Cin- chona appears to have no actual chance of success, on the same ground whence similar plants of 8 to 10 years old have been removed. But there is still another plea against the notion of exhaustion. If a Cinchona plantation of 8 years standing be harvested, all the trees dug out, the soil worked anew, young Cinchona plants brought in, still, the young nurslings will sometimes refuse to thrive. If an old plantation be harvested, but the trees cut over and not dug out, what happens then ? The stumps again sprout out, forming new sterns and new trees! For this development as much nourishment was necessary, as the young plants require, as far as we can see. If the opinion be held, in the first case that exhaustion of the soil was the cause, the second directly and fully contradicts it. In coffee culture the same phenomenon is to be seen. Whilst cutting over, close to the ground in old plantations which have ceased to yield fruit, forms new trees or bushes, it has long been known that planting afresh in those plantations is not profitable, unless the ground is used for other cultures for some years. Supplementing old nurseries simply leads to disappoint- ments. The old trees, whether coffee, tea or Cinchona, con- tinue to grow quickly and strongly, and experience nothing of declining nutriment from the soil, whilst on the other hand, the young individuals placed between, show themselves unable to develope properly. VVith these supplementary plants, truly, the opinion may be held, that, between the old trees and the young ones, which must draw their nourishment from the same medium, the struggle for existence must end disastrously for the latter. It may also be thought that the shade of the old trees, hinders the young tender nurslings, although shade is by some considered useful, by others necessary. All these phenomeua put together, and logically reasoned

-ocr page 184-



		167

		out, with «in eye on the nature and action of the cultivable soil. added to the influences from within which act upon the soil, we arrive at the following hypothesis, which we put forth not as an axiom which we wish to announce, but which we, after deep study and consideration believe to be the most plausible. In the Introduction to our \'De Oost-Indische cultures\' we have shown how a chemical action constantly prevails in the cultivable soil; for details reference may be made to pages 12 ti) 16, etc. Most ut\' the forest-lands of the high mountain ranges where Cinchona is planted, are mainly composed of humus (or leaf-mould) and sand; clay is seldom preponderant. The latter holds the soluble portions, and where the soil pos- sesses sufficiënt clay, the chance of soluble material beintr washed out, or carried deep down, is slight. Therefore we believe that the disappointments mentioned in replanting, mostly if not exclusively, are to be feared and feit on Iands which are poor in such constituents as clay, which possess great power of absorption, and able to form the oft-mcn- tioned Zeolithic masses. In some Cinchona plantations, as at Nagrak and Rioengoenoeng, where substantial terraces must be laid out on the mountain side, and the more clayey sub- soil mixed with the rich humus of the surface, thnre very pro- bably the second planting will succeed very well. because the disposition, the constitution of the ground, is less likely to be disturbed by the loss of its constituent elements. In most primeval forests the humus is almost always pre- doininant, and that is equally important as the clay, but by clearing, the upper surface is exposed to the direct action of the sun\'s rays, and the continual working of the ground, constantly exposes fresh surfaces to those influences. Now these influences are powerful, as we have mentioned in the Intro- duction to our complete work \'De Oost-Indische cultures\', the humus bcing soon destroyed, this decomposition breaks up the

-ocr page 185-



		168

		union of the cultivable soil, and under circumstances tending thereto, even makes of it waste steppes, and barren sandy deserts, where only the alang-alang can find a home. Soils cleared some years since, and rich in humus, give indeed many times, after long protracted drought, the impres- sion of a dried up, crumbly mass of sand. Under such circum- stances the rains have free play; the soluble parts of the earth not being kept or held together, sink into the lovver layers, and may under unfavourable conditions of the ground, even be washed away, and be wholly lost. In each case the upper layers are actually robbed, and it is evident that young tender plants cannot root therein, at least cannot find the food so necessary, within their reach. It is not so with the already devclopcd trees. As young plants, the latter found a still rich maiden soil; they throve apace, both above and below the ground, and the root system keeping pace with the develop- ment, foliowed the nutriment in the soil, or had the power to keep it within reach. Where a first planting throve from the very first con- tinuously, and whose\'leafy crown quickly covered the ground with its own shade, there we consider, the soil will not be too decomposed, and a second planting will thus have less to do with changed conditions when rooting. However it is not usual for plantations to start away from the beginning. At one place the young nursery \'stock was perhaps not strong enough, at another, the soil itself was not particularly fertile, at a third, the outward influences worked unkindly. In our annual report for 1870, we wrote: "Unlessa detailed and strict superintendence and arrangement is possible, the result probably reached will be, that one fourth will be in bad condition, one fourth will give but little hope from the begin ning, and the remaining half, can be said to be partly satis- factory, partly very favourable. No cares avail against such a diversity, there is generally an equal amount of good and bad,

-ocr page 186-



		160

		they may be seen next to each other. The origin of the dis- similar development of individnals of the same variety may be in the original differences in the young plants as mach as in the diversity of the ground, for very important local differences occur in the latter, in monntain lands of volcanic quality." Of late years, the system of closer planting has been adopted, chiefly on the proposal of R. van Romunde, Adjunct to Cin- chona culture. Van Romunde recommended that Ledgeriana and Succirubra should be planted four feet apart each way, and Ofticinalis at three feet. The alleged advantages were, that the plantation woiild be sooner obtained with a closer growth, shading the soil by which the development of vveeds would be hindered, and the maintenance correspondingly lightened, that losses by death would be less noticed, and filling up would not be necessary, that bastard plants could be "rogued" out as soon as seen, without leaving too wide gaps, and finally, that by close planting, straight sterns would be formed, which would not readily branch, and entail the otherwise too early necessity of thinning. All these advantages were fully recognised; if an abundance of young stock is at command, close planting is the best, although it is not always possible to call a regular plantation into existence on sloping and cleared lands. Experience must teach, whether grounds on which a thin planting with difficulty comes to maturity, we should say it points out, that a thicker planting undoubtedly assures better chances. As the young plants frotn the nurserybeds are put out at 6 to 7 feet apart, they seem to have superabundant space, a similar impression however is given by planting at 3 to 4 feet apart. If the plants meanwhile grow thriftily with- out disturbance, after six or eight years Ledgeriana and Succirubra appear to stand far too close to each other, and must be thinned out or shortened back, so as to cause a further healthy develop- ment. If on the other hand, the growth has been small, or

-ocr page 187-



		170

		else, if the plantation has to content with injurious influences such as disease, then there will be ample space for eight or ten years to come. Whenever things go on prosperously, after a few years thin- ning must take place, whether planting has been done at 6 feet or 4 feet intervals, in the latter case, two years sooner Where the development leaves mnch to be desired, the plantations still have abundant space, however thickly they tnay have planted. The principal question is, whether a thick plantation really offers more chance of actually good undisturbed develop- ment, than a thin one. In this case also, the answer can only be given with respect to easy maintenance. The chances are in favour of this system; the nearer the plants stand to one another, the sooner will they support and shelter each other, and shade the ground with their leafy canopy. It is also easier to thin a plantation, to give more space air and light when wanted, than to fill up or supply the empty places in a thin plantation. In this too, the thinning of a young plantation is not a total loss, or waste of valuable material. Analyses of three to four year-old Ledgeriana have shown that the quinine contents of such young individuals, are already fit for the manufacture of this alkaloid. Thus there are indisputable advantages arising from close planting, but foresigbt must be exercised, greediness must be guarded against, and the requirements of timely thinning borne in mind. Indeed, the thicker the planting, the more spindly the plants grow up, and the proportions as to length and circum- ference of stem, will be too slight and slender. To amend this condition, thinning out must not be delayed too long; the uniformity once broken cannot be restored. The long spindly young trees do not quickly recover themselves, but appear weak, susceptible to influences from without. The thousands of Cinchona trees which were planted out in the thick woods,

-ocr page 188-



		171

		and were many years afterwards admitted to the light by fel- ling the original forest-dwellers, have shown this. In 187071, on account of want of ground ready for plants at Rioengoenoeng, there were thousands of Succirubra put out at distances of 4 feet instead of 6 or 7 feet, and of this planting it cannot be said, that within the same time, it yielded as strong trees as the thin plantations. Even after thinning, still the question remained, whether the trees would outgrow the damage inflicted by the want of space at first. At the same establishment the first Ledgerianas at the end of 1866, were put out at mutual distances of 6 to 7 feet, and we have never seen a plantation of handsomer or stronger trees. Every plant in six years, grew into a vigorous tree, whilst on the contrary the Ledgerianas planted at the same time close together at Tjinieroean, against all instructions at four feet apart, at ten years of age were still very poor in comparison. Numbers of examples might again be given, to show that it is well to plant Cinchona with ample space, when a quick and strong development is aimed at; we meanwhile willingly recognise that very much may be said for close planting, and as a rule, after the experience gained during the last few years, it well deserves recommendation, provided there is ample com- mand of young nursery stock. It will happen in exceptional cases, that a plantation, what- ever distances may be taken for the plants, grows up regu- larly; the nursery-plants themselves in germination show more or less stronger development. If close planting be done, in the first place it may and should be that those young trees which remain backward or wanting in vitality, should be rejected, and at the same time also, these individuals which may be thought of less value, by their difference of botanica] structure. In cach case 3 to 4 feet is quite enough for C. o/ficinalis.

-ocr page 189-



		172

		This species is more slender than others; it does not form thick sterns, still less thick branches, and so, as in C. Ledger- iana it comes about, that the bark is not the most handsome to look at, altliough it will continue to be destined for manu- facturing purposes \'. It is quite othervvise with Succirubra, from which a hand- some bark is wanted, and this can be with diftïculty pro- duced by young slim trees, which receive but little light on their sterns. It therefore happens that the more robust growth of C. succi- rubra, which are planted at 6 to 7 feet, under normal circum- stances wholly cover the ground with their own canopy of leaves.

		CHAPTER XV. MAINTF.NANCE OK CINCIIONA PLANTATIONS.

		In close connexion with the subject of our last chapter is the question of maintenance. Our directions were strict, we required a continual super- intendence and maintenance. As soon as a certain height was reached the weeds were to be cut down. Twice a year it was ordered, that the entire plantations should be deeply dug, and ¹ First 011e thing and then anothcr induced us to allow the C. Ledgeriana plants to remain al 7 to 8 feet, but to place between them C. offieina/is, which could be harvcsted first, and whose slender growth not only required less space, but would not seriously hinder C. Ledgeriana. In 187374 we laid out a plantation at Rioengoenocng of Ledgeriana cuttings, and the nursery was lillccl up by C.offi- cinalis; Van Romunde writes to us that this has devcloped very thriftily, and aecording to his system a simultancous rcaring of Ledgeriana and Officinalis, is likely to turn out excellcntly.

-ocr page 190-



		173

		the weeds buried. This mie could however be applied to the full extent of the planting but merely by exception. There were so man.)^- things without number to be done, that the means and power available often feil short of the wants. By constant extension the old nurseries were frequently left to tliemselves longer than was proper; but in no case was the delay harmful. Fresh weeds on good soil, whicli increase by seeds, grow quickly and die away, cannot be, in our opinion injurious to the soil, and still less be of direct hindrance to the young plants, so long as the latter are not covered, or thickly grown round. It was a different matter when the ground was covered with noxious weed such as alang\'ülang, as it was at Lembang, as noted on page 69. No establishment has demanded greater expense in manage- ment; we have patiently expended really extraordinary care and cost, to see what could be obtained from a more thorough working of the ground. The result of this long continued deep tillage and burial of the weeds, has surpassed our expecta- tions and even struck the attention of the native foremen. The plantation, because of its barren soil, and unfavourable aspect, exposed to the full jfury of the winds, had remained in a backward state for years, but it recovered itself under the hearty attempts towards improvement, and according to the later reports, the progress appears very satisfactory. At Nagrak, where things went on very calmly and orderly, all performances could be adapted to the want, and the results have not remained without observation. We have always found that, where the natural conditions were favourable, the plantations developed tliemselves advant- ageously even when the care vvas not too abundant; where these conditions did not prevail, in spite of extremest care, some of the nurseries could not be raised out of their low backward condition. This will be shown plainly by figures which are in ven further on.

-ocr page 191-



		174

		The original Ledgeriana plantation consisted of about 8¹/» bouws \', and was laid out at the end of 1866. Up to and including 1879, there were thence harvested 179,500 kilos of dr)- bark, and at least an equal quantity was still to be ex- pected from the remaining trees. Results more brilliant are diflïcult to imagine. The most exigent can hardly expect in thir- teen years from 8V_a bouws, to harvest more than 35,000 kilos, that is on an average more than 2000 kilos per bouw, or about 1 54 kilos per bouw annually. The results from the Succi- rnbra plantations have not been less favourable; on the other hand the Officinalis nurseries have well nigh continually dis- appointed. If deep broad plant-pits are dug, then the whole ground ma)- be covered thickly with grown up weeds, whilst the plants themselves are still free. The deeper and cleaner the soil is worked, the longer it remains free from weeds and we con- sider that it is no injury, for the young plants to be shut in with the surrounding weeds, at certain distance round the limits of each pit, for the soil is thereby kept from being dried up, and the plants themselves, in no small degree are protected from wind and the fierce rays of the sun. At the present time weeds are considered injurious, and after the example of some English planters, the absolute clean state of the nurseries, is thought to be one of the first requisites for the good success of a Cinchona plantation. Then too, the great use of deep broad plant-pits is no longer regarded, and the cost of these can be spared, if the ground is merel)- well worked in its entirety. Naturally this new doctrine is connected with the system of close planting, and we do not venture to predict the result until experience becomes ripe, with the results of the harvest, but we fully recognise the good that is con- tained in the new elements. Meanwhile the danger is, that the labour and means may frequently fall short of completely See note on p. 78. B. D. J,

-ocr page 192-



		175

		and continuously keeping the young plantations at the abso- lutely clean state reqnired, will presently not be less trouble- some than the earlier ways\'. We learn froni the course of the history of Cinchona culture, first and foremost, that the prescription of fixed rules may he abstained from, or rather the establishment of a programme, which furthers unconditional maintenance. "To keep the land, constantly and completely clean, is an excellent principle" cannot be declared, only because once and for a definite time, unusual results have been remarked from it. Elsewhere no such rule was observed, and the results were in no sense worse; the reverse held true also. Experience is not sufficiently attained by the practice of single years in restricted plantations, hut must, to be of practical value, embrace all plantations, and under various circumstances, during as many years as may be needful to institute a comparison with regard to the crops, If the land is kept absolutely free from weeds, then it is absolutely exposed to the operation of sunheat, and the fear of that harmful factor must not be underestimated, meanwhile nut taking it a priori forcertain that the plantation will actually very speedily shield and shade itself. Circumstances must always direct the rule of conduct of work, and the more extremes are avoided, the less chances are run of acting against the true interests of the culture. The management of the ground is a chief essential in ever)\' culture, because the plantation must supply continuous nourish- ment. But the plantation itself needs watchfulness and super- ¹ Wc consider deep plant pits altogether unnecessary where the soil in its entire extent is deeply stirred. Uigging deep pits is a compromise between deep tillage and none at all. In India as well as in the Netherlands and elsewhere in the world, the richest results may be expected from the remaining plantations in proportion to the deuth of soil worked. If the ways and means do not permit of deep working, then we show that broad and deep plant pits are a substitute that cannot be spared, and will niake a reasonable return.

-ocr page 193-



		176

		intendance. Harmful influences from without have to he <ruarded against, and amongst these, gusts of winds do not coiuit for the least. Should shoots show themselves from the sterns, they must as soon as possible be removed. As a rule though, they show tliemselves in an abnormal condition, either of disease, or injury to the plant. Branches bruised or broken off, are cut clean away, and particular care must be taken against hurting or damaging the stem, which has to yield the bark, and the healthier and sounder in appearence the better. When the Cinchona plantations are once so far developed, that it is possible to more freely under the leafy roof of the trees, then there is little more to attend to. On the soil no weed can grow which can do any harm and the trees give mutual support and slielter, when the allotted space is filled up there is no more need for close attention. If however the space is limited, the branches growing amongst their neigh- bours, then the light cannot penetrate beneath, and the lowest branches pine and die. It will be proper to cut these away, because intentional lopping and feiling, alone should cause gaps. l^;or the rest, the planter has little more to do in such a plantation; he intends it for the production of bark, and harvests it according to circumstances, more about which anon. Where the Cinchona trees do not normally develope, or else make branches too soon, thus hindering the formation of good sterns, pruning may be necessary. In this case the opera- tion is confined to (sleunen) thinning out; the lowest branches are cautiously removed, not so high up however as to break the proportion. In like manner those branches mostly second- ary which close up the head of the tree, are to be taken away, they would hinder the development of the principal branches. For pruning or thinning, sharp tools are of course used. Care for proper irrigation, to keep up the condition of the fertile soil, and other purposes is not less important in

-ocr page 194-



		177

		Cinchona culture than in the cultivation of any other erop. In poor plantations it Jeserves recommendation to dig ditches wherein the weeds are collected, or if practicable, manure is put into them. The earth dug out is spread about the plantation. This plan has frequently achieved excellent success\'.

		CHAPTER XVI. DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

		Junghuhn, during the first few years, had to content! against the attacks of a small beetle, which he took to be a species- of Bostrichus or Dermestcs. The insect, black in colour and no bigger than a pin\'s head, bored horizontal holes through the bark and wood of the sterns and thicker branches, quite to the centre. From there it made vertical passages, up and down, so narrow as hardly to admit a thread or a needie. Only by means of a magnifying glass could the opening which gave admittance, be seen, but by accurate examination there might be perceived also a reddish, very bitter-tastcd fluid, which hardened on the surface after oozing out. The beetle laid its e££s in the bored holes and died thereafter. After the young brood have lived through their larval and pupal conditions, making many tunnels and great cavities in the trees, and have themselves developed into beetles, they seek to quit the tree by these newly bored openings, to repeat their destructive work or another tree. The attacked and relinquished tree soon begins to languish, and now there may be discovered on the stem, short streaks of tiny, yellowish white fine sawdust, that pours out of the bored holes. ¹ These are tertned "renovalion pits" in Liiiüsh India. B. D. J. 12

-ocr page 195-



		178

		In consequence of the small total of Cinchona trees possessed at that time, each one destroyed was a heavy loss, and thus it may be understood that Junghuhn did everything he could to obviate the mischief, but no single means availed. The boring beetles chiefly attacked the transplanted trees, and from this fact, as well as the circumstance that in later years we have rarely been troubled with them, we conclude that this kind of beetle visits sickly trees by preference. More damage, although relatively of less significance because it was soon noticed, and showed itself sporadically, we exper- ienced with a large brownish-yellow larva, of what family wc have not been able ascertain, but only its apper>rence. Atten- tive observation in developed plantations, more particularly of C. succirubra, will revcal at a certain height on the stem, a ringshaped swelling of light yellow colour, and wart)^- exterior. More closely examincd, the stem seems to possess a broad opening from which the ringshaped appcarence is gnawed away, so that the finely masticated fibre presents itself as a ring composed of moist sawdust. If this be removed, the stem shows itself "ringed" to the wood. If the "ringing" be complete, the portion above must die, and the best thing to do, is to saw off the stem, under the ring. If it be not complete, then the tree may live and recover itself, provided that the cause of the mischief is removed. This, the larva above mentioned, deve- lopes, if we are not mistaken, into a large black heetle. With a bit of iron-wire or sharply pointed piece of rotan, the opening of the stem is probed, by which means the larva, called by the natives oelam-pahit, may be brought to the out- side, or else pressed to death. Where the effect of the gnawing has already proved harmful, it betrays itself at a long distance off; stem branches and leaves have then a dry, reddish look. The tree then has very little vitality left, it will be well to cut it down and burn the affected parts, to prevent the increase of the insect.

-ocr page 196-



		179

		However, the destructive vvork should not be suffered to go so far. Moderate attention on the part of the labourers, will detect the foe, and it can be killed before the damage is irreparable. In the propagating houses, in the beds, and in the nurseries the plants are exposed to all sorts of danger; diligent attention, however, will by prevention, guard against great loss occurring. A blackish-grey larva which lives in the ground just below the surface, in certain places, and seasons, ravcnously devours the crown of the roots of the newly planted stock. The natives call it hilcd orok. If fresh planting is going on daily, then the existence of the larva is soon bctrayed by single plants, broken off and lying down. The insect may soon be found, by carefully feeling in the soil with the hand round these young plants. When the plants have once a firrn hold vvith their roots, these larvae seem to do no further harm, in every case this plague is never of such great significance, that it cannot quickly be overcomc on its first appearence in a ncw plantation. Actually and seriously we only dread one disease or plague in Cinchona culture, (which we may therefore style Cinchona disease) known as Cinchona rust, it seems to have the same origin as the so-justly dreaded tea-rust. In the year 186S the first Ledgeriana plantation, at Tjinie- roean, then about eighteen months old, bccame diseased, and the same mischief so soon showed itself in other plantations at all the establishments, under such various circumstances, that we could find no explanation of the case. The disease manifested itself in the leaf. An abnormal increase of the cellular tissue herc took place, the epidermis becoming thicker on the spots attacked. When the morbid swelling is full grown, the epidermis becomes corky or suberified, and thereby locally binders the further development of the leaf. The sur- rounding parenchyma continues growing, and the leaf puckers up, vvhilst at the same time it is covered with rust)- knobs, which

-ocr page 197-



		180

		afterwards break throiigh. The malady proceeds to the young tops of the plants, which are seeii to die off, when wholly corky. If broken across, inside they appear still fresh and green. Only a few plants succumbed to the evil, which since 1868, lias occasionally shown itself and again disappeared, bringing fear and hope, but each time leaving behind it deep traces of partial damage, which injured the shape of the plants, and prevented lusty development. In the year named, Teijsmann and Scheffer visited the plan tations, and the latter thought be discovered little eggs on the parts of the plants attacked; the idea was then that insects were the cause; however no insects could be detected. In 1869 the disease showed itself in gieater force, although still conlined to certain plantations and certain varieties of Cinchona. More and more it was ascribed to the action of insects, it appeared also that the older, developed plantations, had not suffered from it. On the other hand, extensive young plantations were so heavily harassed, that it was in considera tion to root them tip, and commence afresh. Plants which seemed quite fresh in the evening, by the following morning were badly attacked. The leaves of these plants looked as if burned, withered, covered wilh brovvn dots, spots and inflated patches, whilst the young tops of the stem and branches seemed dead and suberified, though internally still wholly green, fresh and sappy. What experiments were not made to restore the plants, and to check the evil! If the diseased parts were cut away and burnt, the new shoots were not free. Decoctions of tobacco, solutions of sulphate of lime, etc, were profitably used for sprinkling; but whenever it was thought that good results were to be seen, then it happened that some individual which had not been treated, came round by itself and at the same time. Thus there was no nearer approach to a decision, with regard to the causes and remedies.

-ocr page 198-



		181

		At last was tried the plan of working the ground to an nnusual extent, and severely cutting back the plants attacked. We here aimed at improving the conditions for sturdy deve- lopment, and to strengthen the power of endurance of the plants We certainly found somc good in these measures, the evil was staycd for a time at least, and when it again showed itself afresh, the same means were employed against it. On my proposition, made to the Government, Heeren Teijs- mann, Hernelot Moens and Scheffer, came in 1871 to ohserve the disease. Teijsmann continued to ascribe the cause to insects; his fellow commissioners by microscopical research, came to tlie conclusion that the disease rcvealed itself by a crypto- gamic growth, a species of fungns, situated on the surfacc, no mycelium being found within the plant. On the whole, tlie commission considered the evil less serious than was supposed, in so far as the greater part of the plants was not attacked. Thus the examination did not crive definite knowledee, still less a specific for restoration or prevention. The plan of pruning and stirring the ground remained therefore the indicated pre- liminary means. At one time it seemed by this proceduce to diminish, even to disappear entirely suddenly, however it showed itself again, and thus it remains at the present day, inspite of all regulations and temporary illusions, in spite too of the com- plete knowledge of the causes, for which we have to thank Moens. In the report for 1875, the first which Moens made, we read : "The Cinchona trees are treated by pruning, and it seems always, that by this the disease, which for so long has shown itself, now in one, then in another plantation, is so restricted, that it does little permanent harm. Very skilful tea-planters are of opinion, that this malady is the same as occurs in the tea-shrubs, and that the cause lies in the puncture of an insect belonging to the order

-ocr page 199-



		182

		Hemiptera. It has not yet heen possible to completely confirm this ¹." In the year 1876 pruning was still recognised as the best method of preventing the injurions results of the disease, except that it caused the plants to grow bushy. Repeated pruning, however useful it might be in this case, remained an heroic remedy, to that degree that it could nevcr be heartily recom- mended. In 1877 the appearences presented thennselves in especial strength and on an extensive scale, and Moens ascertained it to be due to the influence of an insect, the same indeed, which causes the tea-rnst and was described in British Iiulian Journals, as Hilopeltis theivora, or Tea-bug, but is termed by Snellen van Vollenhoven, JIclopcltis Antonii. This insect, which according to Moens, when fullgrown is abont 0.01 1 metre ~, sticks its proboscis through the upper epidermis of the young leaves and tops, and thence sticks out the sap. The inflammation which is the consequences makes tlie spot in the circumference of the puncture to become dis- coloured and black, and the tissue dies. Only the unattacked por- tions develope themselves furthcr, by which the Ieaf puckers up in all directions and grows into itself. The same happens with the young tops. The discover)^- of eggs in a fertile female was an important find. These eggs are white, lV« millernetre long, and provided at their smallest extremity with two thread shaped appendages. Hight to fourteen eggs were met with in each female. These were laid by means of the ovipositor, in the ends of the branches and the leafstalks. They He therein entirely hidden, so that usually onl)^- the threadshaped appendages are visible, and found with difficulty. When the young are hatched, they are wing- ¹ The honour of first calling atlention to this insect, belongs to Heer Meijboom, the planter, at Bandoeng in Java. ⁵ That is not quitc half-an-inch. a fraction less than ^:,,_fl. \\>. 1>. J.

-ocr page 200-



		1S3

		less, and thus confined to a restricted dwelling place, they find in the neighbourhood of their birth place the food intended for them, the sap of the young parts of the plants, and it is tliese newly bom creatures, which chielly cause the worst devasta- tions. Although the insects may be found in various phases of development the whole year throngh, the young are most abundant by far in the months of May, June, Jitly, whilst after that time they slowly disappear, and are only met with in single specimens\'. After the causes of the evil were completely known, cutting out still remained the best remedy. It was now strictly foliowed, and the prunings burned, so as to destroy the eggs as much as possible. As to capturing the perfect insect, which occurred by millions, that was not to be thought of in the extensive plantations. In small nurseries of Ledgeriana cuttings, to whose unimpeded growth most value was attached, it was applied how- ever, and that with good resnlts. For 1878 it was stated, that the Hclopcllis had again causcd much damage; it again showed itself in strong force, notwith- standing the severe pruning of the previous year. That the young plantations might .as far as possible be rescued, it was resolved, that the insects should bc taken by women and chiklren, a means that is reputed to be the best in the large tea estates. The thousands which were daily captured and killed, of course could not follow out their work of destruction, and where they were thus checked, the plants recovered them- selves all the quicker. In the Malawar mountain range, cight- tenths of the C. ojftciiuxlis plantations had to be written off as ¹ In the report for the fourth quarter of 1880, is it stated, that this insect has shown itself for the tirst time in a ncw plantation which was laid out and managed with the greatest care, possessing plants obtained by grafting, and of whose hand- soine and speedy development thcre had been thus far 110 rcason to bc otherwisc than satisfied. It appears from this, that the insect cannot be kept back by the exlremest care of the planter, nor are the strongest saplings spared.

-ocr page 201-



		184

		worthless, having suffered the most for some years, from the repeated attacks of Helopcltis. Now that the nature of the disease is known, and the relationship of its originators, more than previously, it is to be hoped that some complete remedy may be found. Short of an entire stamping-out of the insect, which is hardly to be thought of, chance only offers us the discovery of other plants which the insect would possibly prefer to Cinchona. Helopeltis having once obtained a footing in a Cinchona plantation, it is hardly conceivable that the enemy can be hunted out; where it has not as yet entered, careftil attention must be given, so that at the very first appearence, it may be immediately dealt with, by burning or other means, to frighten away the immigrant and drive it back. All other troubles and maladies in Cinchona culture are insignificant compared to this; and are probably due to un- skilful, awkvvard management of the planter himself.

		CHAPTER XVII. HARVESTING THE CINCHONA BARK.

		When is a Cinchona tree fit for stripping? This question repeatedly put whilst the history of the tree in its develop- ment was yet unknown, and at that time remained without satisfactory answer, now finds us fully prepared to reply, since regular cultivation has informed us of its power of growth, and chemical analyses have thrown light upon the formation and amount of the alkaloids. We can at present definitely say that the question resolves itself into a pure speculation, within the discretion of the planter himself, from the moment when the

-ocr page 202-



		185

		tree is fully developed, that is to say, has formeel its different layers, ranging from without invvards as, cork, parenchymatous layer and liber \'. Undcr favourable circumstances of soil and climate, and with unimpeded development, Cinchona plants may be stripped with advantage in six to eight years from being planted out; so far at least as then the maximum percentage of alkaloid is formed by that time. The maximum percentage of alkaloid however has nothing to do with the maximum production of bark; naturally this increases with the age of the plants, and so it is a consider- able advantage for Cinchona culture, that its cropping is not obligatory upon fixed, periodically recurring times. For instance, if the coffee berries are ripe then they must be gathered without delay, and within a short margin of time; negligence in this would lead to loss. In most cultivated plants this is case, but not so with Cinchona. An exploitable tree loses nothing by delay in harvesting; on the contrary, having here to deal with the bark, when the tree has reached its maximum percentage of alkaloid contents, the bark itself increases in thickness and quantity, in proportion as it is allowed to grow on. The great difficulty lies in the choice of the genuine plants, and progress in propagating and rearing them. When the tiny plants have become actual trees, then they require little more attention or expense, and a Cinchona tree eight years old, which may yield a kilogram of dry bark, gives every promise (certainty even, if the plantation is not disturbed in its development) of pro ducing 25 to 50 % more at ten years old. The value attained by the process of nature in eight years, is doubled in the four following years ; thus if the planter is not forced to realise, he acts foolishly in beginning to harvest too soon. This truth ¹ For accurate knowlcd^c of the anatomical structure of the Cinchona barks, Oudcman\'s \'Handleiding tot de pharmacojjnosic van het planten- en dieren-rijk\', may bc consulted [Also Howard\'s \'«juinolo^y of the East Indian I\'lantations\'. B.D J.]

-ocr page 203-



		186

		needs no further comment. The harvest once begun, it can be carried on systematically, proportioneel to the nature and extent of the planting. If a fnllgrown tree is smitten by serious dis- ease, and its life is enda.igered, then it is evident it should be stripped; the bark is not easily stripped from sickly or dead trees, and they never yield regular handsome pieces. What system should novv be foliowed, to ensure the exploita- tion on the same land, as long as possible? If close planting has been done, then the trees are thinnod out as required. Each thinning yields a croo, and cfives more room to the remaining individnals to progress tovvards healthy develop- ment. There will be about 4500 plants in each bouw, if planted at 4 X 4 feet, and if undisttirbed in their growth, after four years, tliey will interfere with each other. Then one half should be removed, to give the other half the chance of stronger development. When the first thinning has to do with comparatively young trees then it does not produce much; besides, the full atnotint of alkaloid has not yet been reached. I lowever, C. Ledgeriana of four years old contains already so much quinine, that its bark can be considered fit for the pre- paration of that alkaloid. It is the same with C. officinalis, and C succirubra of four years will yield a product that as regards alkaloid contents, has already a high pharmaceutical value. This first thinning therefore assnres a financial profit, but has chiefly for aim, to bring the remaining trees under more favourable conditions. Two or three years later, these will appear to stand far too close to each other, and once more, half are taken away, which will give a good quantity of bark, and this time pretty nearly with the full percentage. Now then we have 1 200 trees of seven to eight years of agc left, and in two or three more years, the thinning can be repeated, until the point is approached when by the superabundant space, the creation of a new planting must be taken into consideration. The following harvests will generally yield a product of similar quantity,

-ocr page 204-



		187

		although each time the nnmber of tree:; is 50 % less than at the previous thinning. That so regular a course is to happen constantly or even frequently, must not be expected. It is but celdom that a plantation grows on without disturbance. When the mischances are within moderate limits, it is satisfactory; it diminishes the amount and the value as a whole, or the after welfare of the trees, if a less uniform thinning leaves here and therc some in mutual relationship not to be desired. A plantation cannot develope itself so advantageously, but that certain individuals will always give out, whatever may be the causes or influences, and the plants themselves may vary much from each other, even when derived from seeds from the same parcnt tree; it is therefore well to attend to these when thinning. Without being a skilled botanist, the experienced and atter.tive observer recognises the typical forms, and those individuals which show a stronsf divenjence therefrom, should be removed as soon as their removal can be useful to the plantation as a whole; the product hence derived must be treated by itself and offercd separately. If these regulations are strictly kept to, then after several years, the plantations will possess trees exclusively of a high percentage, and at the same time the chances of a progressie degeneration are more and more diminished \'. With close planting such we have just spoken of, the first and perhaps the second thinning also must be done by com- pletely digging out the trees. A stump cut over, woald soon throw out shoots, though the new branches would not succeed, because a thrifty development could not take place in such insufficiënt quarters. By digging out, the entire stem is obtained and use can be made also of the rootbark. If the stump is cut or sawn over, ¹ It should bc considcred when renioving these, whethcr it is practicable to cut over the trees and to graft betier sorts on the stumps. By this the risk which is inseparablc from lilling up, is avoided.

-ocr page 205-



		1S8

		then a partial erop is obtained, but the chance remains of new procluce within a few years. Of these two systems which is a priori the best is more than can well be answered. All depends on local conditions and surrounding circumstances. The stock of plants in the nursery, is the first thing to be asked; a second, is the chance of success in filling up. The soil may have become quite iinfit to ensure a new planting living and thriving. In this case the right way is to cut over the stem, so that new sterns may be obtained from the old tree. Then again, ground which seems unable to support a second erop, after having given one, must have a change, so that the constituents of the soil may be restored. The planter who works with foresight and deliberation, so regulates bis planting and harvesting, that he can proceed unintermptedly, and does not trust to one card turning up trumps, by which a temporary, possibly years long stagnation would be the consequence. In the government Cinchona culture, we were driven to various methods, not only to arrive at the most profitable and handiest method by means of comparisons, but also chiefly because of the great diversity of our varietics of Cinchona. Originally indeed, the regnlation of planting was founded in the jnst described plan of thinning. Since however the actual value of the different kinds has become known, we were obliged to follow another direction. When in 1872 it was made certain, that for the production of manufactiirer\'s bark, only C. ojjïcinalis could thought of after C. Lcdgcriana, natur- ally the fiat went forth, that all planting of the less valuable kinds were now to be methodically grubbed up, to makeroom for C Lcdgcriana. After the new kind become available for enriching and extending the undertaking, room had to be found in the most profitable way to be start new nurseries. These were found in the plantations of the old common C. Calisaya, C. I/ass- karliana, C. caloplcra, C. /ancifolia, etc. whose propagation

-ocr page 206-



		189

		was given over for good, and thus they were removed in succes- sion, as soon as they were fit for exploitation. Dug out, roots and all, these gave the doublé advantage of au entire erop, and a freed plantless soil, which otherwise must have been cleared in the virgin forests, at the sacrilïce of inuch expense and time. Whilst this was bein^ done to the ereat mass ofour Cinchona plantations, the original Ledgcriana nursery had on the other hand, another, and wider significance and destination; therein lay the whole future of Cinchona culture, because it must yield us the seeds, as well as the cuttings for multiplication. There- fore the crops, which have been obtained annually since 1872, were taken from the pieces of the tree sawn off the stump, or else from single, lopped thick branches. The stumps gave numerous shoots, which offered excellent material for artificial propaga- tion. Some were merel)- allowed to grow to obtain new sterns, it would have been a great blunder to let all remain, because they would have hindered each other\'s development, partly by want of sufficiënt space, partly by their manifold require- ments in taking up nutriment. At best the result would have been a bush with many small sterns, each remaining thin and weak. By cutting or savving out thus, a tree is not sacrificed, and at the same time a rich source of material is created for propagating. The thicker branches are sawn off by choice, cutting causes some loss of bark, and there is also more chance of damage. Thinning by cutting over did not always take place in regulat allernate order. Indeed, the most valuable parent trees had to furnish seed, and flowerinir individuals which seemed on chemical analysis to possess excellent qualities, were spared in every case. For years the government Cinchona undertaking has been an experiment on a large scale; the fixed rules and system- atic methods, the fruitful setjuence of this, come chiefly to the profit of the private planters who are travelling on this road by help of the government.

-ocr page 207-



		190

		Whether thin or close planting be adopted, in both cases a time comes when the original planting requires thinning, and then for the first time a erop is reaped, which at the same time, tends to improve the planting. At the first thinning, the choice has to be made between uprooting or feiling to the stump. Another method can bc applied to the remaining trees; they are standing at sufficiënt distance, and will soon offer sterns of considerable dimensions. Upon these can be tried the plan already mentioned of parlial stripping or shaving. So also may attempts be made to enhance the amount of alka- loid, by tctnporary covering (onc year or longer) with moss, indjoek, or other materials at hand, snch as alang alang. We have always had a prejudice against partial barking, stripping as the English call it; that is, the cutting out of long strips of bark. The tree may bcar the operation well enough, if it be done with care, but they are none the belter for it, and as soon as it is applied on a large scale, the labourers can not be kept under strict supervision, and there- fore the chances of damage to the trees are considerable. C. ojjlcituxlis is of a kind too slender to be subjectcd to the stripping process. However small may be the strips taken from it, the cutting out would harm the relatively thin stem. The sterns of C. succiruóra, tall, and stout, with flat, smooth bark, offer more favourable conditions, but the newly formed, so called regenerated, or rencwed bark, is less attractive to the eye, and so long as the more restricted shop or drug- gist\'s material is bought, its outside appearence has great significance, according to which in part its value depends. The sterns of C. Ledgeriana at the same age are seldom as tall and as thick as C. succirubra, and its bark for that reason, also because as a rule it is less even, smooth, and thick, is not so easy to strip off. Morever it is this variety in particular, which deserves preference for Moen\'s method of

-ocr page 208-



		191

		shaving, above the plan of partial stripping, the more so as C. Ledgeriana is not so certain as C. succirubra to possess a higher percentage of quinine in the renewed bark. The hark seldom renews itself completely, that is to say, the exposed portions of the stem, are wholly covered again; on the con- trary sometimes considerable wounds remain visible. Young trees recover quickest and most complete])-. In the ordinary course of things, more or less derived froni the normal, simple rules in force, too much trust should not be reposed in the average native labourers; this fact only should be full in view, that vvhen an estate is far enough advanced to allow of it, then regular harvesting, repairing gaps, rilling up and planting afresh, as a rule making use of no artificial means to hasten it, but strictly confining oneself to taking the erop by thinning, either by d\\<rgïng up or cuttinef down to the eroiind. It is possible that by this plan, chances of enriching the stock may be missed, but on the other hand the danger of damage is escaped, and it is quite sure that the handsomest produce is to be got by a regular stripping of natural, original bark from entire intact sterns. Briefly, and for as much as we have not already treated it in chapter VIII, \'Chemical investigations\', we will here mention the conclusions to which Heeren Moens and Scheffer come, at the end of their course of investigation in 1878. The microscop\'.cal examination concerned C. succirubra as well as C. Ledgeriana. For mutual comparisons of both, there were taken: original barks, barks which had been some time under a covering of moss, and finally barks which had been renewed both after partial barking by longitudinal strips, and after shaving off the uppermost layers. The last named, shavings, were further distinguished, as having been covered with moss or indjoek. These barks, derived by these various methods were very easy to distinguish from one another by the look, as we have

-ocr page 209-



		192

		already stated on pages 1278. Under the microscope the recomiition is instant. The original C. succirubra bark possesses sap ducts plainly visible. The cells uf the uuter and inner bark (parenchyma) are arranged in tangential rows, and extended in the same direction. The cells of the mednllary rays have an altogether different direction. After remaining lifteen months under moss (every other harmless covering seems to have the same effect, so long as it excludes light and air) the bark had become perccptible thicker than the uncovered bark of the same tree. The bark vessels were very slightly increased in number, the thickening occurred almost entirely in the cells of the inner and outer bark, or from the outermost portion of the entire bark. No wonder therefure that chemical examination detected a higher percentage in mossed- öark, and that it obtained a higher price in the market. By the uneven augmentation of the cellular tissue, the vascular layer was surrounded by a thicker row of cells, and the former farther separated from the circle of sap ducts. The mednllary rays are far more easily seen than in the original bark, and after the outer bark has enlarged to a great extent, an abnor- mally vigorous increase of the cells takes place. The barks renewed after partial slripping and covered with moss for thirteen to sixteen months, under the microscope have quite a different appearence to the original. Firstly, in the samples examined, almost all the cells of the inner and outer bark were found to be arranged in radial rows, by vvhich the renewed bark is recognisable at first glance. These cells, which are longer than they are broad, always have their greatest length in a radial direction: Secondly, in the new growth no ducts were observed, and lastly, the vascular layer is very small, hardly amounting to one fifth of the entire thickness of the bark. These vessels hovvever are placed very close to each other,

-ocr page 210-



		193

		and are merely separated by very smal! medullary rays. The absence of ducts may be observed in barks of various species, especially in full grown specimens, and as these latter, in quality and quantity of alkaloids rank above the younger, the alkaloids certainly do not reside in the ducts, and the want of these in the renewed barks, is consequently no token of inferior quality. From the anatomical structure of renewed bark, it might be already inferred that it is richer than mossed bark, and analysis confirms this idea. In the examination of bark renewed after shaving, it appears that whenever a portion, however small, of the original bark remains seated on the cambium layer, the renewing commences anew in the cambium, the thin inner layer which remains after shaving being thrown off like cork. This layer forms then, a protecting envelope round the cam- bium and the renewed bark. On the contrary, if the shaving is more superficial, so that a thicker layer of the original bark is left, then it is not thrown off, but tha new growth takes place from the medullary rays, towards the outer side of the vascular layer of the bark. The structure of the bark renewed in this way, is the same as that arising after partial stripping and mossing. Examination further showed, that bark which was renewed on the lower extremity of the stem, possessed more bark- vessels than that which had re-covered the higher portions of the stem. Chemical analysis had already suspected the existence of a difference, by finding a larger amount of Cinchonine in the lower portions of the stem. If a piece of bark is cut out of a stem, then the formation of new begins, first and quickest from the edges of the cut, but it has been observed at many places independent of each other, to take place over the entire exposed portion of the stem. Where the cambium layer is not in the least interfered with, »3

-ocr page 211-



		194

		that is, when the shaving has not gone through to the woody portions, the renewing naturally takes places most quickly and vigorously. The bark of C. Lerfgeriatui under the microscope, has an entirely different appearance to that of C. succirubra. In neither of them, either in the original or in the renewed bark, were crystals discovered. (Howard thinks he has seen these in various other species.) Sap ducts in original bark, were fonnd in only very few cases, in renewed bark, not in one single case. Where they were met with, they appeared much smaller than those of C. succirubra. The cells of the inner bark are always in ori- ginal bark arranged tangentially, in renewed bark in radial rows. After shaving, the newgrowth takes place in the same way as in C. succirubra; here also it proceeds from the cam- bium if a little bark is left. Newly formed bark again is much poorer in liber-cells than the original. Renewing takes place much quicker after shaving, than after partial stripping. In original Ledgeriana bark, besides the usual cells, there occur three other forms which deserve particular mention. Two kinds are thin walled, and possess an opaque substance. One of these, quite filled with this substance, occurs in the original libcr portion of the cellular tissue, and like it, is very strongly tangential in original barks, in renewed barks it stretches radially quite as strongly. The second sort, whose contents are much less than the cell-wall, occurs in the deeper layers, between the parenchyma of the bark, and is somewhat round or square. Both sorts were found in all the barks examined, most abundantly in the renewed. The cells of the third de- scription have an entirely different appearance. By Howard they were termed resin-cclls. They possess a very strongly thickened wall, with very evident canals, sometimes, but rarely with branched pores. The circumference of the cells is more angular or square than that of the surrounding cellular tissue; from

-ocr page 212-



		195

		the latter they are, besides their larger size, easy to be recognised by different contents These are opaque, insoluble in boiling absolute alcohol; are coloured dark brown by iodine, not blue, and only partially fill the cell. The cell wall itself, like the wood vessels, is coloured light yellow by iodine. The thickening of the cell-wall is frequently very irregular. In all original barks these thickened cells are only found in one or two layers of the outermost bark, immediately under the suberous or corky layer. Very rarely there are two or three close together, and their number is small. In bark renewed under moss or indjoek after shaving or stripping, these same cells were large and extended in a some- what radial direction. Furthermore they are irregularly scattered through the entire cell-layer, although they always leave off where the cortical vessels becfin. From tlie occurrence of these cells, not only immediately under the cork-layer, but in the whole breadth of the parenchyma, the barks renewed under moss or indjoek can at once be distinguished from original. This renewed article, has in anatomical structure, great resem- blance to the Quina roja of Mutis, figured by Howard in his \'Nueva Quinologia\', n°. 26; the agreement is seen both in the broad layer of resin-cells, and in the want of sap ducts. Only the cells of our renewed barks are arranged radially, and there the cortical vessels appear much less numerous. Some have connected the presence of resin-cells with the lovver qualities of the Cinchona barks. In C. succirubra they do not occur in its entirety; they do, in C. Ledgeriana but then with simultaneous increase of cellular tissue and decrease of bark vessels. As to the inferior quality of C. Lcdgcr- iatia, there is indeed no reason to complain as to that! Ledgeriana bark renewed after shaving without being covered up, is almost as thick as the original, the resin cells however, here hardly occur in the same degree and in the same place, as is the case with original Ledgeriana barks. The quantiiy

-ocr page 213-



		196

		of bark after shaving, thus remains the same, whether it be covered with moss or indjock or not; the anatomical structure is however, different, and chemical analysis has still to make out, which treatment is best. So far as relates to C. succirubra it appears meanwhile fully made out, that covering has a very favourable action upon the formation of quinine. If we have dwelt in some measure unduly on the anatomical structure of the barks, as they are formed in the living trees under different conditions, we intended chiefly to show how Moens was led by purely scientific examinations and inductions to the harvest-method of shavingf. The first trials have con- hrmed the economie use of it. The shavin<js contain a greater percentage of quinine than the bark as a whole, and there- fore command a higher price in the market. It is evident that a raw material such as this, has a special value for the quinine manufacturer who will desire the uppermost layers of the Cin- chona trees by preference, provided he can perfectly rely on the care of the producer, and the conscientiousness of thesales- man. There is this against this method of cropping, that it must be under good control and be conducted with prudence, also that it has not been applied long enough to warrant the declaration, that in the long run it will deserve preference. Continued experiments during a series of years, must yet show whether the trees can really bear repeated shaving without injtiry. If this appears to be the case, then it will be that the tall, lusty trees which remain after the completed thinning of a plantation, will bear a periodic, say biennial, shaving, and in the meantime between them a new plantation can be laid out. How much produce can a Cinchona tree readily yield within a certain time ? That is the question which each planter puts to himself and on the answer to it, his financial position is largely dependent. Less than with other plants of cultivation,

-ocr page 214-



		197

		can the production be estimated beforehand on the whole with certainty. We shall meanwhile give wliat experience has tanght us to the present time. In 1869 the first erop was taken. From 2 20 C. Pahudiana trees of seven years old, which had grown up in the forests in tliick shade, we then obtained 125 kilos of dry bark. The freshly peeled bark lost 71 % by drying. From 255 four to five year-old C. Pahudiana trees at the same establishment but from cleared ground and thus developed in full sunlight, we got 192 kilos of dry bark. The loss of weight in drying here barely reached 5S%. These figures speak for themselves, they show that planting in full light assures far quicker and ampler return. 110 four to five year-old C. Calisaya trees, raised from seeds, bushes from two to four metres high, grown on open ground, yielded 199 kilos of fresh bark, which lost 62 % in drying, and thus gave a net product of 110 kilos. 29 eight year-old C. Hasskarliana trees which from 1S61 to 1864 had stood in the thick shade of the primeval forests, though afterwards they had enjoyed more light, in consequence of thinning out the forest trees, produced 57 kilos of dry bark; here the weight lost amounted to 61 %. At a visit from Governor-General Mijer on 22 September 1871 to the Cinchona plantation at Nagrak, four trees were grubbed up and peeled under the eyes of the Council of State. One tree of C. Hasskarliana nine years old, yielded 7.85, one C. Calisaya seven years old, 6.10, one C. succirubra of six years-old, 4.ïo, and one C. Pahudiana of seven years, 2.85 kilos of dry bark. These trees were selected at the same establishment, and give no support to the opinion that all trees of similar kind and age, will yield an equal quantity of bark, but a hint may be drawn from the ideas here given, the good development of a plantation being taken for granted. The tabular statement

-ocr page 215-



		198

		which we have given on pages 104115 of the crops of C. Lcd- geriana, C. succirubra and C. ojficinalis, give further a more detailed view of the produce to be expected. We wrote in our report so far back as 1864, that in Cinchona cultivation a period of eight years grovvth must be reckoned on, before the trees can be harvested successfully, with an eye to the development of their alkaloids, and that to a certain extent one may reckon upon as many half kilos of dry produce, as there were plants originally. We still believe that a calculation on this basis, will obviate disappointments. The plants of the same plantation, even if not very exten- sive, rarely grow equally quick and strong. Many remain in a backward state; some are susceptible to harm, others do not perceptibly progress. By disease and other influences, individuals are constantly perishing, or are hindered in their development. The law of averages, when computing a future erop, can find no foundation in the results of trials on single trees. In the same nursery, say for example, of 8 years old, a tree may be seen which will yield upwards of 4 kilos of bark, whilst another will give barely four-tenths of a kilogram or even less. From the introduction of Cinchona culture, every quarter, measurements have been taken of several trees of each descrip- tion, so as to ascertain their power of development. The last measurement taken was in December 1876 and may give an idea of the relative vigour in development. The tables never had any wider application than to show the general develop- ment of Cinchona trees in Java, under favourable conditions. For this purpose the handsomest trees were not carefully selected; still less was a choice made of these which grew under abnormal circumstances, or whose development might be disturbed by noticeable causes.

-ocr page 216-

199


umbers.	Locality.	Description.	Height at end of	Girth of stem at end of 1875. 1876.	years.\'
1875.	1876.	e
V.		metres.	<
i		C. Calisaya	13.980	13.980	0704 0.705	\'5
**	Nagrak . . . J	succirubra	12.750	12.950	0 650 0.670	\'4
3	id.	10.030	10.430	0710 0.720	12
4	f	id.	11.390	11 590	0.630 0650	12
5		Hasskarliana	8.200	9.200	0.760 0.770	Si
6		id.	10600	10.600	0630 0.640	id.
7	Tjibcurem. . \'	Paluidiana	10.500	10.500	0 440 0.440	id.
S	1	Ledgeriana	6.700	7.500	0.415 0.450	11
9	succirubra	11.800	12 200	0.625 0.700	9
IO	1 Tjinieroean . .	Calisaya	9.700	10.170	0.500 0.370	II i
u	succirubra	9270	10.010	0.670 1 0.750	9
12	lancifolia	9.000	9.100	0.350 _t 0.360	12
13	micrantha	8.900	9.370	0.550 1 0.580	10
14	Pahudiana	11.700	11.700	0.640 ; 0.645	191
\'S	Rioengcnoeng	officinalis	7300	7.700	0.390 0.410	10

To exhibit as far as it is possible the developmental puwer
in the first years of the plaats, we here append a statement,
which was furnished in the report for 1868.

Growth of certain plants in the new plantations.


CL	1	t/i Ï4		Height	at the Girth of stem
scri ion.	Plantation.	X! E V.	Planted.	end of 1866 \| 1868	at the end of		Explanations
Q	1866 j 1868
		1	May 1S6S	S3o	3-3⁸°	0.090	0 180	.=	*?p u^iiji
	\\	2 3 4	» » »	1.240 I.IIO 1-73°	2.550 3.100 4.070	0.080 0.060 0.065	0.155 0.180 0 105		ifii illii
saya	Tjimeroean .	5 6	» » 1864	2.000 2.400	3-3°o 3-75°	0.100, 0.260 0.070, 0.120	;	IIP W&i
iS	f	7	»	2.450	3-55°	0.075 i 0.125	E -	1\|s.i ISsi-^-i^
U	!	8	»	2.050	3.800	0.085 j 0.130	S°	l-m «*l?!rtT
		9	»	2.250 3.700	0.075 1 0.160	*J	;?h-: *.^^ks
	t	10	Febr.1865	2.440 4.650	0 150 I 0360	ï*	sHi ïl^ili-
	Nagrak. ...	11	»	2 020 3400	0.150 I 0.330	■5-	«»:1 l"²!!¹^
	f	12	»	2.000; 3.220 1 ^J	0.170 j 0.350	u	\|j\|_lAn!«fl!j
ri	Tjimeroean . J	1	May 1865	1.280 \' 3.600	0.065 \' 0.200	u!	IWKdifisj
ja	2	>)	O.890 2.500	0.045 0.100	ül	^.sll^Ssflii
U	1	3	»	I.800 , 4700	0.110 ! 0.260	■i \'	- s"3 -\'"tf-s = i ■■~^-~ -
SUCC	Nagrak . . . ■	4 S	Sept 1865 »	2.320 4.900 2.170 1 5.420	0.170 1 0.400 0.16o , 0.400	1	*mm&*
Tf*	1	1	May 1864	I.740 1 3.270	0.060	0.130	mm
ji	Tjinieroean .	2 3	»	I.800 3.700 1.900 3.700	0.060 0.060	0.120 0.115	3)
ci- lis	Rioengoenoeng	I	May 1866		3.020		0.120
	Tjinieroean. .	²	May 1865		2.800		0.150	^j	^öe3StlUm-₀
	_____ .		___		.....	- -	--------		----------

-ocr page 217-



		200

		CHAPTER XVIII. STRirriNG AND DRYING THE BARK.

		The erop may be taken in any season, but for drying it, the rainy season is not favourable. Day after day, sometimes quite suddenly, the rain comes down, each time interrupting and hindering the drying process, and moreover it then requires more attention, care, and labour. On the other hand, the vital functions of the Cinchona trees in this and the transitional seasons, appear to be most vigorous, and therefore the bark is easier to remove. As a rule, meanwhile, it will be well to complete theperiodical, main harvest, during the prevalence of the East monsoon, but that does not prevent utilising the produce throughout the entire year, when thinning the plantations of trees for one reason or another. The stripping of sound, healthy sterns and branches requires but little trouble; the more sappy the bark is, the more readily it comes away. Longitudinal incisions are made as far as the wood with a sharp knife, and afterwards, circular cuts at definite distances, naturally dependent upon the dimensions desired for the bark. The bark is then carefully turned up along the first named incision with the back of the knife, and so on, until it is liberated. If the stem is provided with knots or other inequal- ities mostly caused by old wounds, bruises, or the sprouting of branches, then the bark clings more tightly to ils seat, and more care and patience much be employed \'. \' Knives of bamboo or buffalo-horn, shaped like a paper knife, are made use of for peeling. Iron or steel knives might bruise the bark when loosening it, and also discolour it by the action of the tannic acid upon the metal.

-ocr page 218-



		201

		At first we cut the Java barks, 0.2 nietre long, and 0.05 broad. The fresh strips feel like damp sole-leather, but are very brittle, especially that from Ledgeriana, on account of their short vessels. If handled roughly the danger is run of breaking the regularly cut piece. By circular incisions on the stems and branches thus, the bark is perforce taken at the required length; the breadth as may be convenient, which miy be ascertained after peeling. The breadth we at first fixed upon, 0.05 metre, was not without reason. In a fresh condition the bark strips are fiat; in drying they bend, and show a strong tendency to curl inwards, forming quills. Now a width of 0.05 nietre, forms after complete drying a close quill; the longitudinal edges of the strips jnst meet each other. If the strips were taken broader, then the quills would be less regular in shape, or else curl up too much, and they would then be awkward to pack, because they should be filled up with thinner quills, which again gives fresh difficulty, and necessitates moreover a strict sorting. The planter directs the industry according to local circum- stance. Drying, sorting and packing the produce, must be done on the spot. A building is erected on the estate, where there is space for the drying arrangements, and where constant supervision can be kept. Drying on the spot itself, would reduce the weight and bulk of the product for transit, but the necessary care can hardly be expected in the different planta- tions, not to speak of the great number of sheds or roofed erections that would be wanted there because of the uncertain or changeable state of the weather. Stripping on the other hand, is preferably done in the plantations, the transport of the entire trees would be too expensive and troublesome. From the nature of the principles which stand in the fore- ground of exploitation, it is evident that the planter as a rule, himself should mark out the trees which are intended for stripping.

-ocr page 219-



		202

		Whether uprooting or cutting over be adopted, the work must always be done by a gang of trusty workmen. The trees being felled, are deprived of their branches on the spot, and these together with the stem, are transported to a central point in the plantation, where the barkers or shavers have come together in a shady spot, so that during the hours of labour the direct sunheat may not be overpowering. Having regard to sorting it is now adwsable to keep quite separate the barks taken off at various heights of the stem, as well as those from the thick and the thin branches. We know that the contents of the bark varies in proportion as it is met with higher or lower on the stem, and diminishes much up- wards, that is to say, towards the younger portions. The same is the case with the relative weights of the barks, and sorting may very well be done after drying according to its thickness, but it seems to be a safer rule for the estimation of its value, to keep separate directly after stripping, the barks from the lower, middle, and upper portions of trees of similar age. Indeed from one tree the middle bark may be as thick as the lowest from another, so that the age and quality, are not always strictly defined by relative thickness. This method of immediate preliminary sorting, is moreover easier and surer, because it has not the least to do with valuation, and thus can be entrusted to any one. Accurate sorting is of very great importance, if the analyses are remembered which were performed on the bark at different heights on entire trees. For the quinine manufacturer the bark is more suitable and valuable, in proportion as it contains a preponderance of quinine. At a certain height on the stem, this alkaloid diminishes noticeably in quantity; also the weight of the bark is less than that taken lower down; though mixed with so much that is richer, the mass as a whole is poorer as to percentage. The case may present itself, that the bark from a tree

-ocr page 220-



		203

		which is only considered fit for pharmaceutical use, by good selection and picking over, may yield its quota for the manu- facturer. When the daily task is completed, the labourers take the peeled bark in baskets to head quarters, where the pro- duce is received by men thereto appointed and regularly Iaid out on light, oblong squared racks of plaited bamboo. The filled racks, placed on rough frames to a height of 1\' _t metre above the ground, remain in the open air exposed to the direct action of the sun\'s heat. In foggy or wet weather, and towards the afternoon or evening in the mountains regions, when it becomes cloudy and moist, the racks are brought into a shed or under cover. Very soon the fresh strips of bark begin to curl up; thereupon the opportunity offers to unite the masses on two racks in one, and gradually more drying room is available. In the meantime, the original sorting is strictly kept to, and care is especially taken that the produce of difife- rent kinds and from various plantations is not mixed. In favourable weather the drying is complete in a few days. When the barks rattle on being heaped vip and have lost their pliability, a simple practical proof of their air-dried state may be taken. A piece is put upon a block of wood, and cleft across the middle, by a violent blow of a hatchet. If the clean cut pieces spring up briskly, then the drying process can be considered complete, and it is now ready, to be preserved in its dry state. To this end it is stored in dry airy warehouses. Whether the stripping be done in the plantations or at head quarters, it is most essential that the barks of each kind of Cinchona of similar origin and age, should be kept by them- selves, and be sorted according to their station on the stem and branches. To sort strictly and to cut in regular uniform pieces, are actions of the highest importance, which cannot be too closely observed. How and where the various operations take place, matters nothing; the planter must guide himself as

-ocr page 221-



		204

		to these, with regard to circumstances which concern the econ- omic and practical importance. Peeling the branches is naturally slower and less easy than dointr so to the stems, and still more troublesome is barkin<r the roots. From the later, only bits and broken fragments can be got, and no regular pieces. The workmen must be for- bidden to wash off the earth adhering to the roots; they should instead, be providcd with stiff brushes. * * Comparative trials have repeatedly shown, that no harm accrues to the contents of the bark when dried by summer heat. Artihcial drying demands costly contrivances, and more- over, damage to the ontward appearance of the produce may soon be done, not to speak of the chances, that in dealing with large quantities, a remnant of moisture might be over- looked. One cannot be sure of equal drying, and by too violent a heat the contraction of the outermost layers of the bark may be so great, that the produce may outwardly seem quite dry, and inwardly be still more or less green and wet. If there should be a single piece of bark in a bale or chest, which is not completely dry, it might spoil the entire mass. It is well therefore to keep a sharp look out, so as not to include any suspected pieces when packing. The case may occur, that small parcels of bark, gathered for some reason at other times than the usual, must be arti- ficially dried. Then an enclosed but well ventilated place is selected, merely taking care that the barks are not exposed to the smoke, and still less to the direct heat of the fire, the action of which would then be hard to regulate. Succirubra barks, which are usually termed \'red bark\' in trade, are seen in section and inside plainly red, and this colour is probably enhanced by slow drying and temporary scalding of the fresh bark, by which it is longer exposed to

-ocr page 222-



		205

		the influences of light and air. At the auction of 1879 a small parcel of scalded bark was offered, but the results of the sale have declared nothing decided. Even less did a parcel of Succi- rubra bark, which had been covered with moss, attain a higher value. This last bark was distinguished by its deeper colour and its brittleness.

		C H A P T E R XIX. SORTING AND TACKING.

		What we have just now said as to sorting and its conse- quences, must be considered more at large in this chapter. The trade in Cinchona barks divides into two principal cate- gories, whether they are destined for the preparation of quinine, or else in pharmacy and industry as raw material for decoc- tions, infusions, extracts, powders, tinctures, wine, etc. The latter are termed pharmaceutical, druggists, or shop barks, the former manufacturer\'s bark, The value of manufacturer\'s bark entirely depends upon the amount of quinine, and that can only be determined by chem- ical analysis. We now know that each description of Cinchona possesses its ovvn special composition, which agrees with the typical form of the tree and the anatomical structure of the bark, but it is seen quite as clearly, that, whilst the quality of the alkaloids remains constant, the quantity may vary in individuals of the same kind and origin; this is not yet ex- plained. In other words, while the producer can give the most positive assurance, that he is offering Ledgeriana bark and nothing but Ledgeriana bark, without previous chemical examination he is

-ocr page 223-



		206

		not in a position to state the percentage of quinine in his produce. Of course he knows, that his bark must possess abundance of alkaloids. and that quinine prevails among them. Indisputably it is of great importance for the producer, that he should be able to teil the chemical value of the pro- duce he brings to market. First, he can thereby approx- imately estimate the money value, but also, the merchant whose confidence he bas won, wil] deal with him more readily, bec.uise he can confine himself to a definite control, and is not obliged to get analyses made with substantial accuracy of each parcel offered. The value of the manufacturer\'s bark is thus actually regul- ated by its percentage of quinine; the shape and outward look of the produce has little to do with it, but it should not be purposely rejected. The eye also has its requirements, and it may be fully satisfied by carefully, uniformly treated produce, without any more trouble or expense. This comes about by careful sorting; we cannot repeat it too often, that no produce of different percentages should be mingled, where with a little care, they can be kept separate. Absolute high percentage of quinine alone, does not deter- mine the value for the manufacturen If a bark possesses with plenty of quinine, a preponderant quantity of secondary alka- loids, then reasonably enough, its manufacture is difrïcult. Succi- rubra bark with 3 % of quinine, approaching 7 or more per cent of secondary alkaloid, will not be chosen before Ledgeriana bark, which with a total alkaloid contents of 3 %, has more than 2.5 % quinine. Irregular pieces and fragments, morsels, shavings, powder from inferior kinds, have a relatively small value; but if it is certain that it is suitable for quinine preparation, then the form occasions no real difficulty. It is altogether different with the druggist\'s or shop-barks. For these a more distinctly taking appearance is required; they

-ocr page 224-



		207

		are bought more by this outside, than after their cliemical contents, which can be pretty well guessed when the origin of the produce is known. The trade prefers regular quills, the longer the better, (the longer quills of 5 to 6 decimetres in length, appear much in demand, and evidently do fetch higher prices) with strong healthy appearance, silver grey in colour from being covered with lichen growth. The flat shape is also highly appreciated, provided it is the result of the natural thickness of the bark and uot a consequence of artificial drying and weighting the fresh bark during that operation. The thick barks from stout sterns, do not curl up in drying, but remain almost flat, only somewhat bent into a gutter shape, where it was cut. If now a parcel of Cinchona be bought, judging by the out- side of the samples, and on unpacking it be seen that the sorting leaves much to be desired, and that the entire bulk is not uniform, thcn the buyer\'s disappointment will make him dis- trustful. Thin, less robust quills of barks are also in request, pro- vided they are seen to be similarly sha£>ed, intact, and hand- somely covered, and are offered for what they really are. * The first erop of Javan Cinchona was sent in mats, bags and cases. This was done to learn the best, and at the same time most economical packing. Meanwhile the primeval forests, destined for the planting of Cinchona yielded such an abun- dance of timber, that we gave the preliminary preference to cases. These were prepared at the Cinchona establishment by ordinary carpenters, 0.7 metre in breadth and length, and 0.42 metre deep. Such cases, well packed, hold 60 to 75 kilos of bark, according to the weight of the latter. The barks cut to a length of 0.2 metre, were stood upright therein, and put clo.se together in two rows, one above the other.

-ocr page 225-



		208

		A few quills wcrt: then put in a horizontal direction to fill up the space at the top. Plaited mats of Pandanus leaves were so put into the case, that they bent over the edges of these in sufficiënt measure, that when brought back over the upper- most layer in the case:-, they entirely covered the whole con- tents. Cases packed thus, with a stout cover nailed down, were so solid, they were able to withstand the roughest trans- port. An experiment was made with a loaded bullock cart, which was purposely overturned on the edge of a ravine, so that the five cases had a serious and long continued tumble. The)\' seemed quite uninjured by this violence, and thus they might be supposed capable of withstanding the most trouble- some travelling. The packing thus described is still kept to, though in 1874 another plan was also tried, on the ground of the conviction, that private planters at least, in the long run might bc unable continuously and economically to provide themselves with the necessary timber for the cases. The cases weighed more- over one with another about 20 kilos, and as all the wood was not absolutely dry at all times, they might show a con- siderable difference in the tare, found when sending from the establishment and on its arrival in Europe. The cost of a case amounted to about one guilder ^l, and for that price efficiënt, strong gunny-bags were obtainable. The kind however used in forwarding coffee, rice etc, would not answer our purpose; regular packing of Cinchona bark in these is hardly practicable. We therefore prepared bags with a circular bottom, and a corresponding loose cover. By folding the loose margin over and back, the quills can be put in there as evenly and closely as in the cases. Five of these rows found room in the usual bag one metre high; if desired, barks of greater length than 0.2 metre of course can be included in these bags, or rather, fewer rows placed on each other, so as to keep the ¹ One shilling and eight pcncc. I!. I). J.

-ocr page 226-



		209

		packages uniform. The packing finished, the loose cover was sewn on, and the bale thus formed was furnished with four solid enclosing hoops of rotan, and over these, a transverse band of the same material. The well-filled bale has a clean cylindrical shape, is easy to handle, and as appears from several years\' experience, can withstand a violent blow. The tare is from iV_a to 2 kilos; a difference in weight compared to the cases of considerable importance, both as to the cost of the entire freight, and transportation power of the carts, and therefore in the long run on the freight. The principal thing in each way of packing, is that care be taken to prevent chafing and consequent damage to the upper layers. We therefore supply the following method of filling. The prepared barks are tied together in bundies of the same thickness. For packing in cases they are made of such dimen- sions, that four bundies just cover the bottom of the cases, but leaving empty places, where they do not touch one an- other, because of their cylindrical form; these spaces are filled up with loose quills. Afterwards the ties are taken away, and the case is rocked lightly to and fro, to give the barks an upright direction. If it now appear that the closing up was not complete, a handy workman puts a quill here and there carefully between the others, so that the whole mass is wedged together and all movement prevented. As the barks were all cut to the same length, not quite halfway up the case there is a new firm bottom, on which the second layer is piled in the same careful way. When it seems necessary, the ends are filled up with barks put horizontally, as we have already described. In filling the bags, we go to work in the same fashion, only here the bundies are made about the same diameter as the bottom of the bag. Since 1874 dispatching in bags (or bales) has much increased, 4

-ocr page 227-



		210

		and the cases in Hke ratio, have been less used. The bales do excellently; only once (erop of 1876) was there any complaint made in the Netherlands. This however was not due to the mode of packing as it has just been described; it so happened that at one of the establishments, for a moment the packing had not taken place with the usual care and supervision. If it is wished meanwhile, to bring a selected parcel into the market of cabinet pieces, then cases, though heavy, must always have the preference. Each case or bale has its marks denoted on a place easily seen. These consist of the initials of the species of Cin- chona, and the plantation, the number of the package, and the gross or tare weight. For the bales, denoting the tare is superfluous as it is known once and for all time. The three principal descriptions of Cinchona, C. Calisaya Ledgeriana, C. sticcirubra and C. officinalis, are denoted by the letters C. C. L., C. S. and C. O. If a descriptive invoice be sent with the goods, showing the contents of the various parcels of bark, it is certain to gain the confidence of the market, so soon as the bidders (buyers) are convinced that the statement is accurate. When the systematic harvest is begun in the commence- ment of the East monsoon in June, it is possible to send the produce by steamer to Europe in the same year, and thus there is no need to wait long for realisation. The producer must calculate, that his success in the long run is dependent on the confidence that he can inspire in the mer- chants, by strict order and accuracy in sorting, packing and marking. He must never think of offering his produce under a name which does not belong to it, but on the contrary con- sider that honour should be observed in the sale and nothing against it. From the first erop and onward, we had to accustom the merchants to judge of the barks, and to receive them under

-ocr page 228-



		211

		the names of the trees frotn which they were procured. The Netherland advisers were not at one with us at first, and thought we must persevere in the old trade names of "brown", "crown-bark", etc. Thus it feil out, but quite soon and properly there were in the German periodicals, remarks thrown out against the old nomenelature \'. Since the first auctions, there has been a general adhesion to our wishes, and the Javan barks are still sent to market under the names of their botanical origin. In like manner the antique trade names, which still obtain even in scientific works and Pharmacopoeias, with time must undoubtedly give place to a nomenelature which denotes the exact origin, and thereby conduces to estimation of the value.

		CHAPTER XX. ADMINISTRATJON OF CINCIIONA.

		Previous to 1820, Cinchona bark was used remedially exclus- ively in the form of powder or extract, infusion or decoction. The Cinchona alkaloids were not then sufficiently known, but although the discovery and separation of quinine soon obtained a wide application in medicine, still the old forms are not entirely discarded, and it has appeared many times that an effective use of the bark according to pharmaceutical pres- criptions, has effected recovery or amelioration where quinine alone was inoperative. ¹ In Buechner\'s "Neues Repertorium für Pharmacie", vol. XX, p. 343, Jobst says, speaking of Javan brown bark, "without doubt the fanious Pahudiana" and at p, 657 Henkei remarks, that of the Javan barks no accurate account of their origin was given, which is simple, for no single Cinchona expert would enough recognise the offered barks under the trade names which had been abandoned.

-ocr page 229-



		212

		The conviction has more and more gained ground, that good Cinchona barks judiciously applied, frequently do not merely rival quinine, but even surpass it in useful effect. More attention is now being devoted to the secondary alka- loids, and at various places these have been tried separately on thousands of patients. The results are not universally in accord, but they have sufficiently demonstrated that the healing power must not be ascribed exclusively to the quinine, but in many cases it resides in the subsidiary alkaloids\'. The enormous quantity of Cinchona bark exported from America and the East Indies, and not destined for the preparation of quinine, can really be called an assurance that the bark, as such, is much used and highly valued. Quinine indisputably remains the preëminent febrifuge, and its physiological action action is best and most completely known. This does not take away the fact, that there are other medicinal virtues in the bark besides, and in many cases of sickness, the combination of different chief-constituents of the bark, conduces to its favour- able action. A large amount of the produce serves for the preparation of quinine wine; great quantities also, in British India especi- ally, are intended for the manufacture of Quinetum, which possesses all the Cinchona alkaloids in one, thus named and highly recommended by Dr. de Vrij. Quittettim is another name for the mixed crude alkaloid, rough mixed alkalcnd, ¹ It is now some years since therapeutic expcriments werc made, and Pleischl, Appolzer, Seitz, Briquat, Bouchardat, etc. testify to the value of the secondary alkaloids of quinine. In British India on a greater scale, attention was fixed on the subject, but in the Dutch East Indies there was no energetic testing as to the use of the associated alkaloids of quinine. Really it seems folly to seek after a surrogate for quinine, as long as these known, valuable and cheap bye-alkaloids can be had in quantities. On pharmacodynamic grounds we are meantime going backward, instead of forward, by urging the use of a mixture such as quitte turn, so long as it has not a fixed composition which can be guaranteed. With quiuetum, as prepared from Succirubra barks, the doctors have no fixed guage to go by as to its results.

-ocr page 230-



		213

		Cinchona fcbrifugc, Indian quininc or Quiiiquinine prepared in British India, and an improvement on the older prepara- tion, QuiniuM of Delondre, in which much quinovic acid occurs. It is not possible for us to give in a short space, a com- pletc statement of the manifold and miiltifarious applications of Cinchona in its different forms and preparations. In a medical work it would be appropriate to give the many experiments, which have already been made, and still are, on the various alkaloids. They have at all times led to disputes, sometimes very violent and unrefreshing, which the planter and dealer can very well neglect. For the two latter, after knowing the different Cinchona species and their chemical contents, the only really important thing is the certainty, that the use of Cinchona is very far from having yet reached its limit. A considerable part of the population of the globe, remains still ignorant of its use, and as for another part, Cin- chona and its preparations are luxuries which by their costliness, only permit the most moderate use. The alkaloids occur in almost every part of the Cinchona tree; it is true, not to any great extent in the wood, and only traces in the leaves. Moens separated pure quinine from the wood of Ledgeriana. Meantime, the quantity to be obtained elsewhere than from the bark of the stem, branches and roots, can never be of practical significance. The leaves can if necessary serve for the preparation of Quinovic acid, which is recommended in medicine, for amongst other things, dysentery, and it can easily and in ample measure be separated. Dr. Phoebus, sixteen years ago, advised the admixture of the sweet-smelling Cinchona flowers with tea. We have often tried this, but we cannot say that the tea has thereby gained any special scent; on the other hand we do not bclieve in the medicinal effect of so paltry a quantity

-ocr page 231-



		214

		of Cinchona flowers as can be mixed with tca, unless the flowers themselves were used for a drink. In the" list of remedies, Cinchona holds undoubtedly the highest rank lts consumption as a specific in fevers, falls short of the demand. The produce is still scarce and consequently too expensive. Since Cinchona however has been brought into regular culture outside America, the chance exists, that this excellent, almost indispensable remedy, before long will be produced in sufficiënt quantity to satisfy the extensive demand for it, and at the same time the price reduced to bring it within reach of the sick poor. Though the high prices which are now obtained, will then fall considerably, still the culture will remain a profitable one; above all, humanity will be bene- fitted; but the producer will still be rewarded with satisfactory profits, although he may have based his calculations, and directed his undertaking, on the maintenance of high prices. For the time being therefore, the raiser of raw material of good quality is guaranteed high profits. It is quite another question, whether science will ever succeed in preparing quinine by method of synthesis. Allured by the high prices obtained, led also in part by purely scientific inte- rests and aims, the chemists have been busy for years on this highly important question. If it attain to a reasonable, practical, satisfactory solution, then a comparison of the expense must be made, with that occurring in the existing culture, as to whether the latter is only valuable for firewood. We shall in the next chapter adduce what is known about this matter.

-ocr page 232-



		215

		C HAPTE R XXI. ARTIFICIAL l\'REPARATION OF QUININE.

		Even at the present day, chemists are not entirely agreed as to the composition and constitution of the different Cinchona alkaloids, for vvhilst Hesse describes a new Quina-basis under the name of Homocinchonidinc, Skraup on the contrary denies its existence, because he considers it identical with Ciiuhoninc; thus it seems that chemistry in the domain of quinology, has not as yet spoken the last word. By numerous experiments, (whose continuance will certainly not be suspended, until the aim is reached, or else the con- viction is attained, that in the present standpoint of science, any further search must be pronounced hopeless) it has been endeavoured to ascertain the constituents of the Cinchona bases, so that afterwards possibly thoses base might bc built up synthetically. At the present time, Cinoline and Cinoleine are considered to be two, isomerous bases, very much resembling each other, about analogous in nature and reaction to aniline, both having the formula C_y H₇ N. The one occurs in coal-tar and can be thence separated by partial distillation, the other is with many other productions, formed by dry distillation of quinine. quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine, with potash or soda. That both these isomerous bodies are very much alike, is is generally admitted. Dr. Hoogewerff at Rotterdam obtained from both bases, the same products, by oxydation with Chamae- leon mineral. These constitute a series of homologous bodies, belonging to the same class. distinguishable by great stability when heated with nitric acid. Lepidiue (C_JO H,, N), Dispoüiie (C H,, N) etc. belong here. Certain members of this series are met with in coal-tar.

-ocr page 233-



		216

		For some time there have been active endeavours to build up quinine from this Cinoline, and chemists of good name and repute do not doubt the eventual success of these attempts. It has even happened in Germany, that an actual artificial fabrica- tion of a Cinchona alkaloid has been effected, but it possessed no polarising power, therefore not identical with the natural production, and decidedly differing in other properties. Granted now, that at no very distant period it may be possible to prepare the most valuable Cinchona alkaloid by the synthetic method, what dangers have the Cinchona planters to fear from this scientific triumph ? In our opinion the natural product would not be thrust aside, though the competition might become serious. It is by no means certain, that with a similar chemical composition, similar physiological and therapeutical effects would follow, and even were it so, then people would for years cling to the old well ascertained state of things, before an unconditional trust would be placed in the new venture. In any case the artificially obtained quinine would require costly production, and experience must show, by which way this remedy can be most advantageously prepared. What does the history of madder teach us ? lts culture seemed doomed to entire extinction, when the way to prepare that colouring matter artificially was found out. Yet it is not only still existent, but it is even considered at the present day, that an extension of madder cultivation is desirable and profitable, where it can be prosecuted under favourable conditions. The product of art does not seem to satisfy the dyers in every point, as well as the material which nature offers. Indigo also has now been prepared artificially; this fine dis- cover)\' however will be first valuable to industry, only as soon as the indispensable raw material can be procured in sufficiënt quantity and in a profitable manner. Indigo culture goes on its way, and is not as yet dangerously menaced. If quinine can be obtained synthetically more cheaply than

-ocr page 234-



		217

		from Cinchona bark, and further if it appear that the artificial product quite ousts the vegetable bases, the need of Cinchona bark as such, is in no sense abandoned. Pharmacy will not contract its considerable demand for it, but will still utilise it. The possibility of an artificial preparation of quinine may rise up before the planters as a threatening spectre, but we continue convinced, that the cultivation of Cinchona thereby would in no way receive a death-blow, that at most it would have to be narrowed or modified, and yet remain profitable.

		CHAPTKR XXII. r-ROnUCTION AND COMMERCE.

		Among the Cinchona producing countries, besides the original fatherland of the Cinchona trees, there have come into notoriety during the last ten years, Madras, Bengal, Ceylon and Java. In other countries also, as we shall bye and bye show, the culture has been tried and introduced, with however as yet lesser production. The produce of the plantations of the Dutch East Indian government exceed as yet that from all the private growers together in Java. In the meantime these last are continually extending and within a few years the relation may be reversed, and we believe the exports from Java, will exert a certain influence upon the Cinchona trade even of the globe. The private speculations are still quite young; a few only, Krawang, Buitenzorg and the Preanger, on the private estates of Pama- noekan, Tjasem and Tjiomas, and the leasehold estate Nas- pada, possess important exploitable plantations.

-ocr page 235-

218

The following statements show the production, in so far as
they can be compiled from the official reports and brokers\'
circulars. The figures may not be absolutely correct, but cannot
be far from the truth.


	PRODUCTION OK	PRIVATE	ESTATES.
		1S75	1S76	1877	1878	1879
In half-kilos, 3	.125	914	6,387	20,6o6	48,777
	PRODUCTION OF	GOVERNMENT	PLANTATIONS.
1869	933	half-kilos.	1875	87,273 half-kilos.
1870	9,000	«		1876	94,548	ïi
1871	15,200	11		1877	100,178	n
1872	36,000	r		1878	121,343
i873	50,000	,1		1879	106,000	)»
1874	66,000	n		1880	109,080

In these figures, except those for 1880, not only are the
exports and sales comprised, but also the quantities which
were destined in the Dutch East Indies or the Netherlands
for the medical service of the state, or the preparation of crude
alkaloid.

The following tables A, B and C, give a summary of the
Javan Cinchona sold by auction in the Netherlands. If these
data are compared with the indications concerning the develop-
ment and the strength of the plantations, an idea will be obtained
of the productive power of these within a certain number of
years. It must be borne in mind however, that in each single
year was harvested whatever seemed fit for it, also what in the
interest of the culture as a whole was thinned out or uprooted
to prepare the place for better descriptions of Cinchona.

-ocr page 236-

219

_.,

\'-

I-*

-r

On ON

1 ~

■

\'0

r*~

-t NO

-1-

-t

On -t

-t

cn"

00\'

1^.

cn -"

cn »n

■*

- 

1-1

-bT

-r.

-\'«

880

\'t

in «

*> 1

P» "N

-t

t 1

1-1

-t

sö

■«->

0
p~

r^.

*■

"«-%

rn m

»n 0

w oo

-1-

\'O

CO\'

0\'

NO\'

00
00

-t

t-s

Pï

cn »n

P«

-r

co\'

^1-1

t*s

p»

-t

t^,

■ r,

-t

1-1

r-^ r^

pN.

p>»

]

)

in P^

■ n

On p^

n£>

>*-i

-.0

On CO

-r

■* NO

00"

-t

"-)

1
t

t"»

IA
P^

f»

»■

ts.

OO t^

■ n

■n

-t OO

-0

-r

Pi m

1 ~
cn

-r

1^.

«^

p»

cn 0

\'t
1

(-1

0
1^

1 N,

-f

 n

-4-

■n

cn
00

»*N

■

\'O

■*

1______

pi
00

4
\'t

nC
p

)

-t

-r

-t-

1 ~

ON
NO

-4-

0
1-1

spuijj snour^

nÖ

O
P^

tuajdoiBD puc sijrupiyo

m On
* NO

uripnipjj

\'timiJoissuH ■

C.<BStp33

0
0

■

? *

«1

ri
\'S

rt
t-
^
2

n
0

2
\'C
0

cc
-0

-->
nJ

\'J

■f

c
0.

re
■j
_c<

\'u
u

CC1

r
r_

-
-c<:

\'t

-ö
r

3
Ü

■I
j

0\'
7.

=8
°

8" !

\'O
»n

ö\'

o\'

-. 00

-ocr page 237-



		220

		Of the 1873 erop, 80 cases containing 10152 half-kilos Calisaya javanica, were lost by the wreek of the steamship Prins Hendrik in the Red Sea. With the erop of 1874 there was a beginning of the selection of the barks into first and second quality, according to its thickness. The)^- were also for the first time cut at doublé their former length. In 1878 as an experiment, 12 cases with 1620 half-kilos of shavings of Ledgeriana bark were sent to market. In the year following there were offered 5 cases with 544 ft similar material, and moreover 1 case of Officinalis shavings containing 93 ft. This time the name schraapscl (scrapings) was replaced by that of schilfers (scales or shavings). From the beginning we strove to obtain from the govern- ment Cinchona exploitation, an endeavour after pr oportionate yearly increase of produce. If we had only actually tried to deliver from what might be got from the same kinds at the same age, without doubt by this time, there might have been 3 or 4 times as much sold. In the last year or two no more was harvested than was moderate and reasonable, agreeably to the principle aimed at, because the continuous wet weather was not favourable, and also because the means of transport, conse- quent upon cattle-disease, or the workpeople, the result of fever epidemie etc. feil short. If less has been harvested in 1879 and 1880 than was expected, the plantations which have been that much spared, can meantime form so much the more produce, and the following years may, under favouring circamstances, yield so much the more than the average In 1880 there was harvested and exported of renewed bark, Led- geriana in shavings, one case, containing 1 1 1 half-kilos. Analysis shows that this contains 7.5 % quinine in a total alkaloid contents of 8.7 %. Further, 18 cases of Ledgeriana shavings, containing 1890 half-kilos, of 7.9 and 8.8 % quinine, in a total alkaloid content of 9 and 8.8 %. Lastly, there were 6 bales Officinalis bark, 694 half- kilos in shavings, containing 4.2 % quinine in 6.5 % of total alkaloid.

-ocr page 238-



		221 I^O N _j CO WSS5 " , Jt \'" N ï\| ïll- si- r? i i - \'2 si ___________________V. V.. V.__________*_________^>V. S <>£ & K?! 2 i i l l l i\|i_Ka O nog oo io tl » "i n I I M llllr^g E-¹ ■►» V. T > Z o\\3vooèSovOsS-l- , w w.** \| <» 8 2^3? 8 . . i , -^s I 2><2 $ ï»»«ï ^S.........»£ g ^oos^^ïï v»________________________s-s-, *O M » ; _ fO o vo O ; >S 4^M \\Q -f I I m m f> O - - 2 ~,fton..~C5>o-._k_^vövo _w J? ü. V» <■»» - <«.** - «1 "£ S W o o oo t^* o s ! ■<-v-°° -____________._________________ Ai n ei co _ en ^» ^ fO fO ^ to CJs >< «* «-MN O^ (O >A t/5 i_ i£ tC 3^ ">⁼-_"Os\\D ritcsvD t-»r^\| IvO-J^r *O p o___________________v- v. ~ -______________________ .. v. >.* ttiS \'o & oo ~ ÏÏ\'S ÜZ - \' \' * . ntï** * * 5 * _R § 5»$5flL 4 fe&SS «-\| , S%° ■i* \'OM _i f P» - s£> Cs i- -t N\\D Os >«-> I ! ~ to -t *^è a ~« s S^SS* ^ j^s>£ : : {? £ tn E <\' S « vO 0O ^N. ■> "I Pt -t O PI O0 N m N <3 rl O 1 Ö H ^.00 ,o -T f> Pt ps sO O O PI ~ \'O "S fw-> s£> ..-, o <t > I_______________ _ _Z______________________________- ^"* ¥ ^ t3s-t:JC!>S"-«-vC oo on S > --l^* P» o\\⁼ O - ,_n ^ c, o _ >J , i i 1. ^ < p~ oo \'- - to » s in oo oo - I I I \| n t-, H i-¹. " - m 2 tó \'ⁿ " pi \'1 "> . . m ri »S Z-------------- --------------------;----- ►Ti-I \\OMvSn VOM "^ i -fa* O m "^ ^l#s ö^ nn *"h i~> J2 R. 5 8 ss vo. ^ - ^ \| i i \| i i i i i «. ^ faj " oo t~ N_QOrs.int^-lill III It^i^ " ««VOVO"" ^ i-iw IT________________________------__-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_^* *n9 m lt\\* >5 mui ft OO » lOOStim" oo i«to £«£■ 8 IsjïJ 2 MM MIIIS? §__________________~ ^______________________ P I 1 : t~ b l.h . . g ■ ■ s J£I I I ^:i^:\' 45 ■-\'»-{ 5 "s 5** lil¹ * 2 :1« : l.s4 1 sï-1 -S1 \'t; -r ^fflu-tjlji-iiu SS ru y 22Ï *> .i»>. J5>.3 1. V O ,S .« ■- \'i ^ü* 1 £ < «? £ ö < 0 uk^u <y a \'J a

-ocr page 239-



		O O\') -----

		There is much information to be drawn from this statement of the 12 government sales and therefore we must fix our attention on certain points of it. The calculated average prices, in which also the purchased samples are brought into account\', are naturally useless for estimating the prices of the different kinds and varieties of bark. On pages in 115, we have given a summary of the sales of the three principal kinds, and only these are of significance for the future, because though not exclusively, yet they are raised by preference and in quantity. The prices of these three chief species; C. Lédgeriana, C. offuinalis and C. succirubra, will probably always strongly fluctuate in relation to each other, yet in accordance with their typical percentage, they will come more and more to fixity. Each species or variety is moreover again sorted, as the bark is derived from sterns, branches or roots; whether cut in short or long pieces, or else delivered as pieces or fragments (dust) They are further distinguished as we have already said, as bark in shavings (superficial barking) mossed, and renewed bark. Within a short period the market prices may show consider- able differencies, which are dependent upon the various actual needs, in connection with greater or smaller imports and expecta- tions about these. At the auction of 11 March 1881 at Amster- dam, prices were obtained for ordinary Javan barks, which otherwise were usually grudged for good raw material for quinine making, and so also at the auction of 18 January pre- vious, single parcels of Schuhkraft ran up to 205, and rootbark of this species, to 231 cents per kilogram. Great differences were noticed in the invoiced freight, and delivery weight of the Cinchona packages. From our summary B, it appears that the waste, from the shipment at Batavia, to ¹ Samphs were given out thus; for the sale of 30 April 1879 175 kilos fr. 1132.00 2 July 1879 4420 » » 397.10. 20 » 1880 251 »5 » » 1538.05

-ocr page 240-



		223

		the delivery at Amsterdam, amounted from 1.83 to 12.6 per cent., and as we have heard on good authority, private con- signments at the present time lose from 5 to 7 per cent. in waste. The product of the first two government auctions was sent by sailing vessels, and thus was longer exposed to loss, than the later consignments which were sent by steamer. The weights as invoiced, might differ considerably from the bills of lading, because the weighing of the packages did not take place at the Cinchona establishments, but in the coffee warehouses closest at hand. When the Cinchona establishments were subsequently provided with weighing machines, it was not even than possible for various reasons, for the Director of the government undertaking to ensure accurate weighing. And were the just weight taken, the weighing machines at the establishments and those of the factory at Batavia, would probably always show certain dis- crepancies. In later times things have been managed better; in every instance the weighing machines at the establishments and at Batavia, were brought into complete accordance by testing against standards. Meantime it must be understood that the difference in weight when shipped at Batavia and delivered at Amsterdam, is in no case to be imputed to negligent weighing here or there, and now the loss which is constantly leading to the disappointment of produces or consignor, must receive a clearing up and explanation. The Cinchona barks are delivered air-dried and packed in cases or bags. Trials carefully made at my request by the firm of Heeren d\'Ailly have shown that Cinchona bales after remaining ten days under a shed exposed to the air outside, gain in weight, that is, take up water, and the bags also are hygroscopic; that on the other hand, loss of weight takes place in parcels of bark, remaining a similar period, in a closed room, exposed to a temperature of 16⁰ to 17⁰ centigrade. [6o^u to 63° Fahr.] In transport by steamer, the packages are not only con- stantly exposed to the influence of a certain current of air,

-ocr page 241-



		22

		but at most times also to a more than ordinary temperature. It is thus admissible that they lose in vveight, but a priori the influences and circumstances are hard to calculate which come later into play, when the same packages are turned into the warehouses in Amsterdam for some time, and there remain open for many days. The bags cannot exert any important influence upon the gross weight of the packages, for they do not weigh more than about one and a half kilogram; the cases on the contrary have usually a weight of about 20 kilograms and as they, especially in the first years, were not made up of thoroughly dry and seasoned wood, it may be understood that they must lose in drying, and notwithstanding that the tare denoted in India is allowed for, yet a loss of weight actually occurs, to the advantage of the buyer, but to the loss of the seller. Lastly it deserves to be noticed, that the invoices speak of half-kilos, and the deliveries, (although the Cinchona prices are noted by the half-kilos), on the other hand take place by kilograms without the turn of the scale, also the worthlessness of the lower portions, at least in a considerable number of packages, may have for the seller a very injurious difference. It is possible that the buyers reckon advantageously upon these turns of the scale, but the producer who brings his produce to market is advised to keep account of all these circumstances, for otherwise be may easily be exposed to great disappointment. We shall presently give the conditions of auction, and then the charges which are noted in our tabular statement B, find therewith an explanation. We must first let a display follow of the results, obtained at the auctions held in Amster- dam in the years 187880 of private Cinchona growers from Java.

-ocr page 242-

225

t/i

ë |

■

c
u

c
o

c *

Extreme
per %

\'O

-2

trt

U"*

t^i

\'O

sold b

-t

-f-

t-.

r^.

ir^

■

i*-.

■-O

Pï

\'V.

\'O
tv

1 -

,_;

⁵⁰I!M

rv.

Tota

t\'/

"-)

M
N

Cs)

■ n

saSBjpej

-!-

-1-

e O

-f-

-*

"8 \'^sol!M

UBAUf

Suotui!

nam

p3StldlU03

saSwpfcj

M
C
(1

skarl-
na.

\'soüm

a-a

«SB^pBj

o»

iy»

;

\'n

\'O

is,

^S°I!M

Javan

ir»

^*-

saSujpBj

0
cl

■*

Schuhkraft.

C-N

\'O
\'O

O
0

^S0I!M

00
ro

«N

<v.

■saSinprj

»n

\'O

r»

On
tn

r»

\\r\\

-t

\'^soI!M

-f

<-i

»H

ucc

■soSBipirj

\'T

tfl

"->

"■

Offi

saSopBj

UBABf
3U0UIB

^S0I!5I

tv.

geri

pasudmoD

Led

ssSe^DBjj

on of

On
tv

<=>

■

««

-t

00"

-1-

Ön

""■

\'5

-ocr page 243-



		22 6

		So far as we can tracé, there were no other sales in 1879 and 1880; earlier sales are of no significance. A small parcel of inferior Cinchona from the Koripan estate (Buitenzorg) was sold on 17 April 1877 at 29 to 61 cents. The outward appear- ance, sorting and packing, left much to be wished; the same day government Cinchona sold for 81 cents for powder, 141 for dust (broken bits) and 168 to 879 cents throughout, for the different descriptions. A few parcels of Ledgeriana reached 1085V2 cents per kilo, circumstances being very favourable for disposal. De Vrij in a published letter of 12 March 1881 remarks, that the Succirubra barks brought from private growers in Java, fall below the quality of the government and English plantations, and he calls it a sad fact, on which attention should be carefully fixed. It ma)- be useful with regard to thh, to give some ex- planation. The Succirubra seed gathered in Java, when only a few trees flowered and bore fruit, gave plants, which in a great measure departed from the type of the parent trees. Evidently the flowering parent-trees had experienced the influence of foreign pollen. Since the time when seeds could be collected from extensive, enclosed, and developed plantations, greater assurance could be feit of having true, undegenerated seed, therefore is it to be expected that younger Succirubra plant- ings will show slighter aberations from the typical form. That in certain exceptions, true Succirubras were raised in Java from seed received from British India, is to be attributed to the fact that the plantations in British India are composed almost entirely of C. succirubra, and little danger is thus run of fertilization by pollen of inferior species of Cinchona. In the government plantations in Java there were man)- species of Cinchona to be met with, and the scattered Succirubra trees were exposed to fertilization by pollen of the cbmmon C. Cali-

-ocr page 244-



		227

		saya, C. Hasskarliana and even C. Pahudiana. The old planta- tions of C. Ledgeriana were designedly isolated, but it was absolutely impossible to ensure a like isolation also with regard to the rest of the varieties. For raising C. succirubra and C. officinalis, we gave with good reason, always the pre- ference to seeds from British India, and the C. succirtibra barks brought to market from the government plantations, can, in by far the greatest proportion, be considered to be derived from trees raised from British Indian seed. Another cause of the inferiority of private-grown Javan barks may be in this, that private planters are impatient and erop too early, whilst besides, there are well founded reasons to suspect, that it is not every grower who is in a position of certainty as to the identity of his plants and trees. At Amster- dam we have seen produce offered for Ledgeriana bark, that as soon as our eye feil upon it was distrusted, and by analysis it was seen to be of very poor quality, thus having nothing in common with Ledgeriana. It has already been mentioned, and now may once more be seriously pressed, the great importance for the producer to particularly to attend to the identity of his plants, the careful selection, and true naming of the harvested barks. * * The Dutch East Indies will for several years yield the finest manufacturers\' bark, C. Ledgeriana and C. officitialis, and further the druggists\' bark most in demand, C. succirtibra. As it has been shown by the history of the culture, there has always been the endeavour to propagate the most valu- able kinds, and to relegate the inferior descriptions to the background. This has not been the case in British India In Bengal, C. succirubra was almost exclusively propagated; the culture

-ocr page 245-



		L\'2S

		of C. officinalis opened well, but resulted in disappointment Up to and including 18777& there were obtained from the government plantations in the Himalaya mountains, Darjeeling being the central point, 878,242 pounds avoirdupois of bark, most of it being utilised for crude alkaloid; "Cinchona febri- fuge"; it is now estimated that from 300,000 to 400,000 pounds weight can be taken annually. The production of 1877-78 amounted to 344,225 Ib. which according to the official report, remained at the disposal of the government chemist Mr. Wood, at Mongpoo, for the preparation of the previously mentioned alkaloid. The delivery in that year amounted to 5162 pounds of alkaloid, which with that for former years made a total quantity of 10,901 R. \' This alkaloid was partly sold publicly, partly applied to and the medical service of the State, to economise the more expensive sulphate of quinine; instead of one part of quinine, three parts of Cinchona febrifuge were administered. Various medical men have for many years tried this remedy on thousands of fever patients, and it is officially stated that in the above named proportion, the Cinchona febrifuge may serve very well as a substitute. About this for several years, many voices have been raised against the administration of a remedy, whose thera- peutic action cannot be accurately foretold, on account of its complex and varying composition. In the Cinchona febrifuge, following the explanations, there occur besides quinine (this always in small quantity) Cinchonine, Cinchonidine, Quinamine and amorphous alkaloid ; each of these alkaloids is febrifugal, but each shows its power in its own ¹ The preparation of the quinetum in Bengal, is done so simply, that it can be left almost entirely to the nativcs to perform. Meanwhile it appears a deplor- able fact, that the extraction from the bark is very incomplete, for one half of the alkaloids go to waste. It appears from the report for 1879, ^tnat things are not more fortunatc in Java. In the chemical laboratory at Weltevreden, from 3000 kilos of Succirubra bark, which positively avcraged 6 % of alkaloids. there were not more than 56 kilos of quinetum made.

-ocr page 246-



		229

		degree and vvay, that is to say, the action of each separately, is different. The great danger however lies in the circumstance that the named alkaloids, although they occur constantly and together in the same mixture, vary in mutual quantitative pro- portion at each time of preparation. The Bengal government meanwhile, makes its Cinchona culture serviceable before all things to the wants of its popula- tion, and thus only asks itself, how the people and army may be provided with febrifuges on the most advantageous terms. Starting from this principle, the financial results of the under- taking have been extolled, but in fact these last may, on good grounds be doubted. No account has been taken of the bark, the raw material. The question has not been raised what this would realise at public sales, and thus it comes about, that the price of this substitute for quinine is placed no higher than 21 francs [16 shillings and 9 pence] per pound avoirdupois. It is a wellknown fact, that not one half of the alkaloids possessed by the raw material are obtained, the greater part being lost. The large quinine manufacturers on the other hand, for whom the secondary alkaloids properly are a disadvantageous bye product, obtain them in bulk, because they must be separated to attain the entire and complete purification of quinine; they might thus yield a Cinchona febrifuge of constant composition, relatively and perhaps absolutely cheaper, or at least no dearer, than the raw produce at the present time costs the Bengal government. It does not He within our scope, further to speak here of the therapeutic value of the different Cinchona alkaloids; still less to solve the question as to whether the Bengal govern- ment will attain its end, in the most economical and practical way, by the method at present foliowed. It is certain that private planters do better to sell their bark, leaving the manu- facturer to utilise it; at least so long as the manufacturing

-ocr page 247-



		230

		separation does not become simpler, completer and less costly. In 1879 the private undertakings in Bengal must have har- vested 1050 packages of bark \'. There were brought into the London market during the years 1877 to 1880 in succession, 6260, 6250, 13,460 and 20,690 packages of British East Indian bark. The weight of these packages varied greatly, sometimes being very small. * * In 1879 there were harvested in Madras, from the govern- ment plantations (Dodabetta, 429, Neddivettum, 779, Pykara, 241) 1449, and Irom private plantations, 557 packages. In 187778 the former produced 138,808 ft of which 132,951 Ib were shipped to England. The rest was at the disposal of the medical service or remained in reserve. In the Madras presidency, where the culture is prosecuted in the high-lying Nilgiris (Neilgherries, central point Ootaca- mund) C. officinalis thrives better than in Bengal, but is less propagated than C. sticcirubra. Here also all the other kinds of Cinchona introduced have no significance as regards trade. According to the "British Trade Journal", British India, excepting Bengal and Madras, furnished in the years \'875 76 26,992 tb valued at £ 2,570 ,87677 72,952 _n .\' .. » ⁶>4i3 187778 286,944 39-635 187879 227,179 28,196 187980 459.286 66,071. Within the last few years, Cinchona culture has attained considerable dimensions in Ceylon. Here also it is chiefly con- ¹ Moens who visited British India in the second half of 1880, explains that the application of quinctum is more and more extended and believed in. The Dutch Kovernment has lately ordered the delivery of 300 kilos of quinctum, and thercfore experiments will be importantly extended.

-ocr page 248-



		231

		fined to C. succirubva and C. officimilis. In the years 1875 to 1880 there were successively exported, 18,731, 16,842, 56,598, ¹73.497» 373.5¹¹ ^and 1.208,578 pounds of bark\'. Other sources give for 1879 a total of 6229 packages, 3098 of which consisted of bark from branches, and dust. Jamaica yielded in 1879 a erop of 16 bags. We have not met with advices from other countries where Cinchona culture has been introduced; the crops therefrom can in no case be considered as of any importance in trade. From the foregoing data of the English and Dutch pos- session it seems quite clear, that the American Cinchona trade has already to dread a strong competition. What the produc- tion of America really is, can hardly be shown. No one knows, even approximately, the extent of the forests in which the Cinchona trees are scattered. The exports of South America differ much from year to year, and that cannot be greatly wondered at, having regard to the ever changing political condition of the South American republics. In every case there is no ground for the opinion that in the long run the exports will be diminished, and the fear of a possible extirpation of the original Cinchona forests, seems indeed to have been overdrawn. Exports are chiefly consigned to London, ja ew-York and Paris. In the last year or two, some well selected kinds of bark have come from Porto Cabello and Maracaibo. The price of the last named description, we see noted at the auction at London of 30 January 1881 at from 6 d. to 1 s. 8 d. According to a communication of the Dutch Consul, the imports of Cinchona bark at Hamburg amounted to a value of 177,150, 34,830 and 177,150 marks, in the years 187710 ¹ Ceylon Observer of November 9, 1880. Other reports do not agree with the figures here noted, which difference we can only explain by some confusion or combining the crops of succeeding years.

-ocr page 249-



		232

		1879 successively. In 1878, 3995, and the following year 6794 kilograms of quinine, were imported, valued at the present time at 535,620 and 1,043,450 marks. Nine tenths of these quantities were derived from Germany, the remainder mostly from London. A considerable part of this quinine was again sent to North and South America. The following statement of the trade in Cinchona has been drawn up from the most important English, French and German reports.

		i

-ocr page 250-

233

i^ CO
O N

"1 ■


		___
\'1		*
f»	:.--	ri
	w	^
r>	0>	r**
■ o	-t	O
ü	2

-o

\'S

T3 T>

fO O ro

M 00 "

2
2

c
j

2. °

c» co

0 00

1^ o

■d

ui \\r\\

^8 "8 ï

* \'S

- 2

■d

o w*

\\Ö

tn co
vo o

■Jï

Tt -

N CO O
- <■« ■♦

e
D

■d

-2

■d

c
u

~5
j:

^ >.

2
c

U o

-ocr page 251-



		234

		Thus the imports into London have considerably increased, but the consumption must have augmented in like proportion, since the prices both for bark and quinine have risen much instead of falling. The imports during the years 1877 to 1880 are specified as follows. 1877 «878 1879 1880 Calisaya........... 6800 7835 9190 6580 serons and cases. Columbia..........10610 15350 16370 \\ /- j j » * U5°° » » bales. New Grenada and Pitayo 5025 10045 1429°» Carthagena......... 2615 5777 5360 6480 » >» * East India and Ceylon . 6260 6250 13460 20690 bales and cases, (some very small). Total 31220 45250 58670 78250 From these Hgures the influence of the culture in British India becomes very evident. Whilst the imports of bark into London have much increased, their percentage of quinine in the years 187779 in the contrary seems respectively, and in 1879 even absolutely to decline. Messrs. Gehe and C°. note in their annual report for 1879 that there were sold at London, 1879, 53303 packages with a calculated contents of 41695 kilos c\|uinine. 1878, 43775 » » » » » i) 47746 » » 1877, 27165 » i> » » o » 30425 » * Possibly these imports from British India bear the less favour- able proportions, because they are mostly Succirubra barks, which are rich in alkaloids, but relatively poor in quinine. According to the English official reports there were imported into England, in \'877, 34936 quintals of bark, value £ 402234 1878, 54746 » » » » t 658228 1879, 60878 » » i) » i) 973163 The imports into France amounted in the years 1877 79 to

-ocr page 252-

235

iS₇fi

3387

1595

1341

800

7123

,879

1658

36\'7

426

7i8
1540

75
8034

Fine Calisaya, about 30 grammes \\
and upwards of quinine contents /

Do. 20 grammes and upwards..... 754

Do inferior................ 360

Do. not specified, and flat...... 770

Do. Schuhkraft..............

Do. flat, specified.............

Total 4816

North America imported from Columbia and New-Grenada
in the years 187280, packages as follows, 34,473, 35,344,
42,720, 35,150, 32,400, 23,400 41,000, 46,700 and 32,800.
Messrs. Lewis and Peat state that the best barks find their way
in increasing measure to England, and the ordinary qualities go to
America. In July 1879 the import duties of 20% on sulphate
of quinine in North America were abolished, and thereby
there was a greatly increased enquiry after this salt from
Europe, in spite of the existing manufacturers in Philadelphia.
It is certain that the latter, for whatever may be the reason,
cannot deliver quinine at the same price as the large European
establishments, thus the conclusion is patent, that the market in
North America will gradually confine itself to the sale of so
called druggist\'s or pharmaceutical barks, and the best manu-
facturer\'s material will be exclusively sent to Europe.

The imports of the three chief markets during the years, are


	Lo 11 do 11	Paris,	N. America.	Total.
1876	20735	7900	32400	59335
1877	31320	7900	234OO	62620
1878	45250	119400	4IOOO	98190
1879	58670	15990	46/OO	121360
1880	78250	2ji66	32800	131216

As the weights of the packages (serons, bales or cases)
vary greatly, it is difficult to give a just notion thereof.
Meantime a comparison of these figures with those which are
afforded by the Amsterdam market, show that the last named
must gain in importance, and there is every reason for the

-ocr page 253-



		236

		belief, that within ten years\' time, the Dutch market will outstrip the Parisian. From our statements it appears most plainly, that the con- sumption increases with the exhanced imports, and that to the present time the ampler production has not as yet led to lowering prices. It is difficult to foresay what the future in this aspect is likely to bring. It is beyond all doubt that even in civilised, and regularly governed countries, every year thousands suffer from fever, which is not combated in time by the administration of the necessary but expensive means of health, further that entire countries still remain insensible to the excellent remedy; so we may picture to ourselves, that the consumption at the present day of Cinchona and its alkaloids, merely represents a paltry fraction of the quantity which will be required, to satisfy the prescriptions of medicine and humanity in every country, and among all classes and races of men. In fact, the want may be termed limitless. Meanwhile, the planting in the English and Dutch possessions and other colonies, not to speak of the culture in America itself, broadens out greatly, and within a few yearü the production will have increased to such colossal proportions, that at least the relations of supply and demand will become more reasonable. The culture in Java as regards extent, is not to be com- pared with that of British India or Ceylon. Whilst in the former we reckon plants by the hundred thousand, in the latter, they already reckon them by millions. A hundred-weight of Cinchona seed is obtained every year from the English possessions. If now the number of plants obtainable from one pound of seed be taken at 80,000, then hardly any one, affrighted at such tremendous figures, would dare to commence new undertakings, but would even relinquish existing planting, for another staple. Augmented production furthers the general interest, but not the individual planter. The governments

-ocr page 254-



		237

		which have brought Cinchona into their colonies, started actu- ally with purely humanitarian principles; it is however seen that selfishness herewith need not be indispensable in this matter. For the rest, large figures cannot daunt us. For years together we were reproached, because we allowed ourselves to be outstripped by British India, although we began in Java earlier. Indeed, the English Cinchona reports soon spoke of higher numbers than ours. Though if we keep account of the mighty strides of the government plantations in Madras and Bengal, and our more modest progress in Java, we have at the present time, no cause to complain. The government planta- tions in British India are not so strong as might be expected, after the colossal propagation, which the official reports men- tioned during so many years. The report for 187778 estim- ated the strength of the planting in Madras at 569,031 plants, of which 226,936 were C. officinalis, 260,837 C. succinibra, and 2762 other sorts \'. In Bengal the government plantations consist of a surface of about 2240 acres, according to the same report, the number of trees thereon is not given, but it may fairly put down at 2000 per acre. In 1866 the Madras official reports showed 1,123,759 plants, notwithstanding that the highly skilful and energetic director of the culture, Mr. W. P. Mclvor, had parted with quite 100,000 to private parties. At the same time Dr. Anderson at Darjeeling in Bengal ¹ It becomes more and more difficult toprovidc labour power. The mossing process which was carried on especially in Madras on a large scale, was seriously threatened by the scarcity of moss. This last danger occurred to us insignitïcantly, for, for the covering of Cinchona sterns excellent use may be made of other, oftcn occurring materials, and a short time since, successful use has been made of alattf-alang. On old grounds in British India the Cinchona trees do not seem to bc more than 8 years of age, and the deaths in young plantations are still considerable. When it once comes to this, that the want ot new ground leads to a struggle, then the suddcn over prosecution of the culture will produce its effects.

-ocr page 255-



		238

		had carried his total to 192,765, and Dr. Thwaites happened in Ceylon, to be at Hakgalle in possession of 500,000 plants, besides the 180,000 which he had already imparted to private speculation. We have the greatest respect for the energy and activity by which our English brother-ofhcial in the time, gave evident tokens. His reports were held up to us in Java, as being more or less a reproach. But we remember that in one of those reports, about 800,000 plants of C. officinalis were mentioned as being written off, because they promised nothing, and we add thereto, that there the)- have much long confined themselves to propagating only C. succirubra in quantity, which is indeed is the easiest and quickest to propagate, but is not really the most valuable species, then we cannot refrain from inferring, that too much has been built upon illusive prospects afar off, and calculations based thereon, and that the figures at the present day, would not have the present value, which we might expect. If we had once in Java set ourselves to create large extensive Cinchona forests, we had the amplest opportunity for it, by abundance of C. succirubra seeds and cuttings, and most certainly that would have spared us the difficulties and cares, which our endeavour to propagate the species richer in quinine such as the best Calisaya, brought in their train. We do not by any means seek to depreciate the labours of our former brother-official by these retrospective views, on the contrary we do public homage to their value, and all thanks especially to the too early deceased Mclvor, for whose important and valuable information as to improving the con- tents of the bark in the living tree, and for so much else; we have thought we must advert to the facts, in the interest of the growers; these must attain the important conviction, that their best interests must be sought for in the species, than in the quantity of Cinchona trees. If they adhere to this principle then not only will they be able to withstand the

-ocr page 256-



		239

		powerful competition of South America, but in the long run, to exercise considerable influence on the exploitation of the Cinchona forests in that country. The production of good Cin- chona barks, harvested from the primeval Cinchona forests, seems indeed to stand in no specially favourable^relation to that obtained by methodical cultlvation. The transport of the produce, from the Andes to the port of shipment, is at the present day at least, and probably for all time, far dearer than the entire culture and exploitation in Java, Ceylon, Madras and Bengal. * * * In Java also a true Cinchona-fever has prevailed. Dazzled by the fabulous results of single government plantations, the creation of a Cinchona plantation, was thought nothing less, but even better, than laying open a rich gold mine. With strenuous eagerness clearing was entered upon, after doubting for years as to the future welfare of a Cinchona undertaking. Many have begun their task without the slightest knowledge, the smallest idea of the proper requirements of the plant they wish to rear. For them Cinchona was no other than Cinchona. The history of it has taught meanwhile, that this culture requires quite other attention, than that of coffee or tea for example, and that a man may be an excellent planter in general, without possessing any qualification or skill as Cin- chona grower. What then is the case? The planter who wishes to grow Cinchona, is dependent upon the seeds and plants which he can procure, and must exercise an unconditional trust, where he himself cannot judge. That trust may be well reposed, or it may disappoint. We have seen how hard it is to distinguish the plants when young; we know that degeneration when pro- pagation is done by seed is not infrequent, and that the most various plant-forms may occur from seed of the same tree.

-ocr page 257-



		240

		Definite certainty or even satisfactory guarantees that he is creating a valuable product, the inexperienced planter thus cannot have. If he is neither a chemist nor a botanist, he will not readily attain to certainty, and his produce not being selected with the required precision, the consequences do not promise an advantageous realisation. During the last six years numerous parcels of waste land in Java have been given up to clearing for Cinchona nurseries. We do not accurately know the extent of the planting, but we do know that millions and millions of seeds have been distributed from the government plantations, and that very scant)- results in proportion have been obtained therefrom. The seed of the best species is limited; he who does not do his utmost to ensure its germination, is opening for himself by that means alone, a source of disappointment. Where a plantation of genuine trees exists, there should artificial multiplication be set on foot, as a security against degeneration, and as a means in the long run to have material at disposal for propagating by seeds, as well as cuttings or grafts. It is possible that among the foregoing hints, here and there we may have seemed to say, what we have already repeatedly said. The common welfare has impelled us thereto. The lesson which we ourselves have drawn from the history of the creation and development of Cinchona culture in Java, was long and costly; may it teach and pront others! * When speaking of sorting and packing it has been already remarked that the trade in Cinchona bark divides itself first of all into two chief divisions, according as they are suited and destined for manufacturer\'s use, or else intended for pharmaceutical ends. In the long run undoubtedly those rich in quinine, the factory barks, obtain the best prices. We have endeavoured to show

-ocr page 258-



		241

		that many Cinchona trees may yield both factory material and for pharmacists, provided the bark from the different heights on the stem is kept separate; if mixed, they will possess an average contents, less serviceable and less in demand by manufacturers. Strong, heavy barks, poor as to quinine like C. succirubra, have a higher value for the pharmacist or druggist, than light fine quinine-rich material, such as C. officinalis for example. The ontward appearance of druggist\'s bark exercises so import- ance an influence upon the price, that this may run up 50 or 100 % higher, than its actual value in contents would warrant \'. The London brokers take out very large samples from the packages of druggist\'s bark for inspection, whilst on the other hand, from each separate package of manufacturers bark, only a little portion is taken. These little sample portions are afterwards mixed together, and from the similar mass, as finely powdered as possible, a necessary destined quantity is taken for analysis. The result of the chemical examination shows, as near as possible, the percentage of the entire parcel, and the quinine manufacturer estimates therefrom from the price he can afford to give.. Separate analyses of samples from each package, would cost too much time, trouble, and labour. From table D it appears that the trade still names the barks from their place of origin of shipment. Calisaya only is an exception, and although its bark may be recognised by its extraordinary percentage, as the history of culture in Java has sufficiently shown, the true identity of the botanical derivation can still less be defined by bald state- ments of the place of origin or dispatch, which may yield in \' It is evident, that in case the secondary alkaloids of quinine comc into use in medicine, the pharmaceutical barks, C. sttccirttbra exccpted, will be regarded from another point of view. 16

-ocr page 259-



		242

		the same region in the wild forest, many descriptions of Cinchona. The division into Columbia, New-Grenada and Pitayo barks, which have so often occurred, has for trade not the slightest value. It is knovvn that in the fight with Spain, Bolivia pro- claimed the republic Columbia (1819) at that time consisting of 1 2 departments, with Bogota as chief town. One year after Bolivar\'s death, that is in 1831, the confederation resolved itself into three independent states, Venezuela, New Grenada and Ecuador. The last but one was in 1861 rechristened Columbia, and Pitayo is a town in its southwest district. The Pitayo bark is mostly derived from our C. lancifolia. In a certain sense then they know Columbia, Pitayo and New Grenada to be the same tract of country, and the same can be said of Carthagena, one of the principal ports of Columbia. Peru and Bolivia yield chiefly, the Calisaya barks (yellow or crown barks) to which Ledgeriana and Schuhkraft belong; in the Paris market also the last is so called, after our consul- general at La Paz. In America the baptismal name Ledger- iana given in Java is quite unknown. The republic of Ecuador produces chiefly the C. succirubra (red bark) and C. officinalis (Loxa bark or crown bark) noted as the best varieties. The old division of barks into yellow, brown, grey and red, was founded on the ontward diflerence; it was further meant that quinine was prevalent in the yellow, cinchonidine in the brown bark and that both alkaloids occurred in the red in about equal quantities It is not so actually, and moreover the colours run into each other so much, showing so many shades, that the same bark might as well be assigned to one as the other. Scientific value is not attached to division by colours. Young Cinchona quills are naturally light or dark grey; older or flat pieces, are yellow, brown or reddish. Lichens which have developed on the outer surface, may change the appearance, the chalky-white or black spots must be ascribed exclusively

-ocr page 260-



		_>4:?

		to those cryptogams. Smooth when young, the Larks attain a wrinkled surface, and in still older specimens a grooved appear- ance, as we have described when treating of C. offuiualis. In thick Calisaya barks die cork layers often fall off or are inten tionally removed, Cortex sittc epidemie, and impressions may be seen on the exposed óas/-\\a.yer termed, after their shape, shell or Jinger-groov&s. Old stembarks are beset with a crust, and are thereby very uneven and pimply. On the inner sur- face Cinchona barks are smooth, finely or coarsely striped, and finely or coarsely fibrous, whilst their colour is a lighter or darker brown or else wine-red. Dry Cinchona is brittle; Cinchona in quills especially, will not bear rough handling without breaking. The solidity of Cinchona is usually considerable, though latterly certain sorts have been readily divided, in the sense namely, that the inner- most or bast-layer can be split up into its fibres with the nail. These softer barks are not considered to belong to the best descriptions \'. On fracture, Cinchona quills are always smooth and even outside, bat shortly fibrous within. In pieces from old branches or heavy pieces from the stem, the smooth layer may be wholly wanting or in long fibres. The taste of Cinchona is partly bitter, partly astringent; the former resides more in the outer layers, the latter in the inner. There exists very little connection between the bitter taste and the quantity of quinine. A bark ma)- contain much quinine, C. ojfficinatis for instance, and be comparatively only slightly bitter. Vice versa, the intense bitterness does not ensure a high Standard of quinine. * * * ¹ The dividing into hard and soft barks is nothing more than a trade test. Buyers will feel good Cinchona in the hand, and this rcally seems to bc the case in practicc. The false and inferior barks are termed very light Pitayo and New Grenada barks are usually styled hard barks, Columbia and Carthagena barks as soft. In these distinctions and differences we recognise but little harmony

-ocr page 261-



		244

		It appears desirable to us, to bring the conditions of sale which are current at Amsterdam, before the notice of the East Indian grower and the trade. We here give a literal trans- cription of them. [Translation]. CONDITIONS OF SALE BY AUCTION OF THE DUTCH TRADING COMFANY. {De Ncderlandsche Handelmaatschappij.) ARTTICLE I. The sale will take place absolutely, without further claim or compensation, the Iots seen or not seen ; in cents per half kilogram in lots as set forth in sale-list. ART. 2. The weighing will be done without bias, by whole kilo- grams, per case or per bale. The tare will be deducted, according to the amount marked on the cases or bales in India or in the bills of lading. art. 3. The registration duty and all other costs of sale, reckoned altogether at one per cent., must be borne by the buyer. art. 4. For delivery, which must take place where the goods are lying, a term of fourteen days is allowed. After that time, and consequently after......the expenses of transport and ware- housing, (notwithstanding any injury or loss in consequence of fire, burglary, or other occurrence), must be borne by the buyer. art. 5. Payment must be made at the Company\'s premises, or at their agents at Rotterdam, Middelburg, Dordrecht or Schie- dam, on receipt of the goods, at the buyer\'s option, either under an abatement of one per cent., or without discount by approved acceptances at three months from the date of sale, payable at Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Middelburg, Dordrecht or Schiedam.

-ocr page 262-



		245

		ART. 6. The lots which are not cleared within the stipulated time and after notice thereof, shall thereafter be resold, at the cost of the defaulting buyer, who shall, in case of loss, make good the loss so occasioned, but without benefitting from any gain which may thence accrue. art. 7. Brokerage amounting to one and a half per cent of the value is disbursed to the brokers dealing in Cinchona bark, at the place where the auction is held in respect of all that is brought by them, or in their name; they shall within three days after such sale, deliver in the name of their principals, living within the realm, to the agent of the Company, together with the accept- ances of their principals; in the mean time the Company is at liberty, whenever the reported buyer or buyers is or are not sufficiently known to it, to demand the appointment of gua- rantees; in both cases, whether the names of the principals dweiling in this realm be not given up, or if no guarantors of sufficiënt standing be appointed, then the Company shall proceed to resell the said lots, and the broker shall make good any injury thence accruing; as set forth in Art. 6. art. 8. The Company reserves to itself the right not to accept a bid from any one whe shall not be sufficiently known to it, unless he shall be prepared to give a satisfactory guarantee. art. 9. Delivery will take place the day following the demand thereof; in so far as it shall be possible, against the warrant of the buyer. Note. The 1 % received as recompense for costs of sale, as defined by Art. 3, and the 1 % allowed for cash pay- ment, Art 5, cancel each other, and therefore no notice will be taken of either, but the net amount.

-ocr page 263-



		246

		CONDITIONS OF SALES BY AUCTION OF THE DUTCH EAST INDIAN BANK OF COMMERCE. (De Nederlandscli-lndischc Handelsbank.) The auction will take place in the premises, without further claim or compensation, the lots seen or not seen, in cents per half kilogram in lots as specihed in the sale list. The weighing shall be done without bias, by half-kilograms, and tare per bale iV₂ kilogram. Registration-duty and further costs of sale together reckoned at one per cent shall be borne by the purchaser. For receiving, a period ot fourteen days shall be allowed, after that time all costs and damage shall be at the purchaser\'s risk. Fayment shall be made by bills at 3V2 months, dating from the date of auction, or by cash at one per cent discount, at the option of the Dutch East Inclian Bank of Commerce. Brokerage at the rate of iV_a per cent. will be allowed to drug brokers, for all purchases made through or by them of Javan Cinchona bark. The said brokers are on their part, obliged to give in the names of their clients to the agent of the Dutch East Indian Bank of Commerce, which reserves to itself the right of demanding guarantees whenever the pur- chaser is not sufhciently known to it. Note. The sale will take place in lots of 1 to 6 pack- ages. The packages lie opened for some time, and on certain days in the warehouses for inspection. Samples will be given out at fixed prices. The Dutch East Indian Bank is accustomed to submit the samples from its lots for analysis tode Heeren d\'Ailly en Zonen (Mess\'"*. d\'Ailly and Sons); analyses of the barks from the government plantations, are made in Java by the chemist of Cinchona culture. The Company abides by these, and the trade must place conricience therein.

-ocr page 264-



		2 7

		The net production is shovvn in table B, as well as the gross. According to the official reports the charges are thus made up : costs in the Dutch East Indies, principally ship- ping charges, marine insurance, freight from Java to the Nether- lands (shipment usually by steamer, the erop of 1877, packed in 197 cases and 578 bales, together 775 packages, and vveighing on arrival at the Netherlands 55,774 kilograms, amounting to 533\'4 measurement tons), captain\'s premium, maximum of one per cent. per ton, lock dues, brokerage on on sale at i¹/;. %, registration and additional percentage, recom- pense for scientific work at 1 %, costs of warehousing, fire insurance, sale charges, commission at 2 %, clerks salary etc. The gains are thus manifold; the sale is considerable. The charges for scientific work were instituted at our request, when in 1869 we sent the first trial of Cinchona from Java. They have been kept up since then ; they have exclusive reference to the ontward appearance of packing and of contents, and we looked to these to give useful hints for service in the ensuing dispatch. Private grower\'s Cinchona is not subject to a similar scientific testing of its exterior. What concerns the percentage of the Cinchona barks, are the analyses of the chemist to the culture, transmitted with the parcels of govern- ment produce. Private planters do not furnish the like lists, but samples at e taken at Amsterdam, for examination. (See Conditions of sale, page 246). * * The results of the auctions thus far have been very satis- factory; particularly when it is taken into account that the Cinchona market in Amsterdam is still very young, and has as yet attracted little or no attention from merchants outside the Netherlands. This is shown most plainly by this fact, amongst others, that after the last Exhibition at Paris, the Director of

-ocr page 265-

248

the government undertakings in Java, received letters, enquiring
how the Javan Cinchona could be procured.

The principal Cinchona dealer at Hamburg declared in 1880
to our vice-consul at that place, that for several years he
tried to bring Javan Cinchona into the Hamburg market, but
had not been able to sell any. He was all the same time
aware, that the Javan barks had a very good name on account
of their high percentage.

The market in the Netherlands has really a great future. In
proportion at the imports from India become greater, attention
from foreign countri. s will be attracted, und when once it deals
chiefly in Ledgeriana bark, which no other country can offer in
like quantity and so soon, we even dare to predict that manu-
facturers will fix their attention by preference on the Dutch market.

Now as we have in tables B and C given a full statement
of the auctions of Javan Cinchona at Amsterdam, it may be
usefiil for comparison, to supply an impression of the results
obtained by American and English produce on the London
market. It seems to us desirable to give some of the English
reports without alteration, by this means the nomenclature and
the distinctions made by our neighbours will be learned.

REPORT OK LEWIS AND PEAT, DATED 14 EEURUARY 1879.

The auctions, since our last, have embraced the following,
viz :


[8	Packages	Calisaya (juill.
736	0	Soft Columbian
653	"	New Grenadian.
In	»i	Hard Pitayo.
\|8o	0	Carthagcna.
26	»	Red Bark.
1923	Serons.

At the auctions no Calisaya ur Columbian, and only a little
New Grenadian were sold. Carthagena all sold with good cotn-
petition at only slightly easier rates on the average.

-ocr page 266-

249

10 s. o d.

7 s. 9 d.

5 s. 9 d.

to 4 s. o d.

per Ik.

3 Packagcs Calisaya Ouill, fine picked

116 » » » fine .

66 » <> >) good .

7 » v Flat, good . . .

10 d

3 s.

192

527 Packagcs Soft Columbian,
61 » i) *>

32 » » »

620

very good
good . .
middling .

2 d.

4 s.

4 s

3 s.

3d.

₉d.

2 s. o d.

67 Packagcs N.Granadian,good
\'2 » » » fair

5 d.

6 d.
₉d.
6 d.
6 d.

5 s.

4 s.

3 s.

2 s.

o s.

3 d-
o d.
2 d.
2 d.

4 s

3 s.

1 s.

o s.

middling ....
conimon and ordinary
very low (Maracaibo)

101

277

10 Packagcs ard Pitayo, very good
106 Packages Carthagena, very good

7d.

0 d.
3d.
4d.
Sd.

1 d.

3d.
3d.
1 d.

■(

3 s.

2 s.

I S.

8 s.

3 s.
3 s.
1 s.

6 d.

7 d.
2 d.
1 d.

3 ^s-

2 s

2 S.

I S

83
242

77
508

fair to good

ordinary

common

1 Case Red bark, fine bold...... >

20 Cases » » bold quills...... >>

3 » >) o fair i) ...... *

2 >) common, part damagcd..... »

₉d.

0 d.

1 d.

The auctions included 411 packages E. I Cinchona (chiefly
government importations), nearly the whole of which sold at
good prices.

312 Bales Madras Cinchona, all sold.

5 Bales rich open Ouill........at

3 » small o part open, very curly >)

"~8

14 Balcs Neilgherry rciiewed Crown . .

19 » » mossed »

20 * i) unmosscd » . .
92 » Ncddivitum rencwed » ...»
85 » » mossed » ...»
74 » » unmosscd »

304 Government Importations
45 Cases Calcutta Uarjeeling. Withdrawn
>4 Packages Ceylon Cinchona. All sold.

Good Ouill...........

Fair » .......

Middling. part broken.......

Twigs and Chips.........

10 s. o d. per 1b.

7 s. 2 d. » »

10 s. o d. per ft.

7 s. 2 d. » i)
5 s. 11 d. >> »

o d. to 9 s. 4 d » v

8 s. id. » »
8 d. i) 5 s. 9 d. » »

9 s.
S s-


4 s	1 d.	»	4 s.	3d.
2 S.	9 d.	o	3 s.	5 d.
I S.	8 d.	»	2 s. 1 s.	₉d. 3d.

-ocr page 267-



		250

		Arrivals have consisted of 477 serons Calisaya, 591 packages New Grenadian, 266 packages Soft Columbian, 309 packages Carthagena, 768 packages East Indian, and 316 packages Crown and Grey (Druggist\'s). Sulphate of Quinine 11 s. 3 d. per oz. for English and French; 10 s. 9 d. for German. REPORT OF LEWIS AND PEAT, DATEL) 14 FEBRUARY 1880. The auctions since the 30^th January have embraced the undernoted, viz: 1087 Packages Soft Columbian. 1050 » New Granadian. 150 v Hard Pitayo. 2287 Only 60 serons of the New Granadians, 70 packages of the Soft Columbian, 10 packages of the Hard Pitayo, and 32 packages Maracaibo sold in the room, and are included in the following summary of all the transactions of the fortnight; superior qualities of both New Granadian and Soft Columbian have brought long prices; in none other is there any change, and our supplies increase. 90 Packages Calisaya, very fair.....at 4 s. 3 d. to 4 s. 9 d per Ik. 15 » » common.....» 2 s. 9 d. » 3 s. 3 d. » » 105 389 Packages Soft Columbian, very tine . o 5 s. o d. » » 66 » >> » good to very good » 3 s. 5 d. » 3 s. o d. » >> 32 v » » middling to fair. » 2 «. 2 d. » 3 s. o d. » » 57 » " » ordinary . . . » 1 s. 4 d. 1 1 s. 7 d. » » 544 15 Packages New Granadian, very line ...» 8 s. 9 d. » » 63 » » » ordinary . . . >> 2 s. o d. » 2 s. 6 d. » » 57 >) » » common and Maracaibo sort <> o s. 6 d. » 1 s. 7 d. » 1 123 10 Packages Hard Pitayo middling ....<> 2 s. o d. » « Arrivals have consisted of 800 packages Calisaya, 710 packages New Granada, 411 packages Carthagena, 92 packages Drug- gist\'s, and 1205 packages East Indian.

-ocr page 268-



		251

		Sulphate of Quinine steady. We quote English I2s., French 12 s., in bottles, German 11 s. 3 c!. per oz. in tins. e. 1. bark. At the sales held on the io^th Inst., 340 packages Ceylon, 14 packages Madras, and 202 packages Calcutta were offered and sold. Ceylon. OFFICINALI^ Quill, line bold.........at 6 s. 1 d. to 7 s. 2 d. per 1b. » small..........» 4 s. 8 d. » » Hranch, small..........» 2 s. I d. >> >> » and chips........« 1 s. 10 d. ■> 3 s. 6 d. <> » Chips and dust.........>> 2 s. 6 d. » <> Twigs.............o 1 s. 9 d. » 1) Dust ............11 o s. 7 d. >> o s. 10 d. » 11 SUCCIRUHKA. Quill, bold and mixed......at 2 s. 9 d. per tb. » mixed..........» 1 s. 8 d. to 1 s. 6 d. » » 1) i) ..........» 1 s. 4 d. 11 1 s 6 d. » » » poor thin.........» o s. 6 d. » » Branches and twigs.......» o s. u d. » 1 s. o d. >> » Twigs............i) o s. 6 d. » 1 s i d. 11 i) Roos .... ........» 2 s 3 d 11 2 s. 4 d. 1» i> Root and Chips.........» 2 s. 2 d ■; » Madras, CINCHONA. Ouill pale open rich.......at 9 s. 10 d. to 9 s. 11 d. per tb d small open rich.......» 7 s. 6 d. » » » i)....... ...» 5 s 6 d. > i) Hranch and Twigs.......» 3 s. o d v » Twigs and Chips . ......» 4 s. 10 d. 1 \'j Twigs......... ...» o s 9 d. > » Calcutta, UAKJEEL1NG. Quill very bold handsome .... at 4 s 1 d. per tb. » medium....... . . » 2 S II d. » » 11 good bold mossy......» 2 s. 3 d. to 2 s. 6 d. » » bold and medium......» 2 s. o d. " 2 s. 2 d. » » 1 long, medium and mixed ...» 1 s. 7 d. 9 1 s. 10 d. » » 1 small and Hranch......<> 1 s. I d. » » Dust............. o o s. 2 d. » \'i Arrivals : - 1205 packages.

		The English auctions of 1879 show in telling rigures the remarkable difference in price between mossed, unmossed and renewed bark.

-ocr page 269-



		252

		Here for the present we leave the consideration of produc- tion and trade. A positive declaration of the cost of harvesting, drying, sorting, packing and transporting to the port of ship- ment in India is not admissible, for it must differ for each undertaking, according to its situation. The stoutest bags of jute, such as we have described, are obtainable for one gulden [one shilling and eight pence] and as they hold when pro- perly packed about 70 kilos, the charge upon each kilo of bark is at most 1 Va cents. Labour itself falls below the comraon business charges; women and children can do much of the work as well as strong men. The cost of carriage from the mountain to the parts is certainly not small, but in proportion to the value of the product is of less importance, and in no case so high, as in South America.

		CHAPTER XXIII. EXPENSE OF THE GOVERNMENT CINCHONA UNDERTAKING IN JAVA.

		For years the government Cinchona culture in Java, has been spoken of as an undertaking which has swallowed up millions of dollars of capital. How exaggerated this representa- tion is, we will show by the figures themselves, which will also be of use in reckoning the lump sum required to start a private plantation. It is beyond our power, or at least beyond the present moment, to give the amount of the disbursements which were made for the introduction of Cinchona from America by Hass- karl\'s mission. So too, the cost of dwellings for the European staff, though known, are not included. It must also be borne in mind, that the Dutch government

-ocr page 270-



		253

		did not undertake the Javan Cinchona culture as a speculation, also, that necessarily years were taken up in experiment, in various places at the same time, the question therefore was not how to proceed in the most economical way. What was wanted first and foremost, was to know how to propagate and rear, the choice of varieties, and the wants of the new denizens. All work and regulations had this aim in view, to ascertain the best methods and to pave the way for private planters. We confine ourselves thus to actual performances, as on a somewhat moderate scale which the government culture has had to keep in account in its exceptional development-history. These are only of interest to the private grower, who himself must know how much he can afiford for administration and dwellings, but with regard to the capital actually needed for work, the interest and charges thereon, that naturally is con- nected with, and dependent on circumstances. The actual disbursements for Cinchona culture from its intro- duction, to July 1856 cannot be given with accuracy. They can however be fairly estimated, for besides Hasskarl\'s salary, they are of comparatively little significance. From i^st July 1856 to i^st May 1858, the returns furnished to the Audit department, amounted to the sum of 3124 fr. 34 c. \'.

		¹ Costs of clearing lands, salaries to permanent and temporary native staff, purchase of matcrials and iinplements, carriage and other daily requiremcnts.

-ocr page 271-

254

Form i May 1858 to the end of 1859......... 15,096 fr. 40 c.

During the year 1860..... ... 12,408 » 46 »

o 1861......... 16,158 » 36* »

» 1862....... . 24,404 » 68 »

» 1863......... 21,039 » 32 »

» 1864......... 16,563 » 46 >>

» 1865 . ....... 11,871 » 74 »

» 1866......... 11,645 » 64 »

1867
1868

17.379 » 25
17,401 » 42

1869......... 24,948 » 77

1870......... 22,232 » 17*

1871......... 25,041 » 29*

1872....... 25,964 » 61⁵

1873......... 25,920 > 77

1874......... 25,179 » 55

1875......... 24,881 » 51

1876......... 22,627 « 36*

1877......... 32,575 » 20^s

1878........ . 29,686 » 57

32,735 » 86 e

1879

Total to and including 1879 in francs 461.829.31\'\'

To understand the true import of these figures it must be
remarked that in the years 1864 to 1875 about 700 hectares
were cleared in the primeval forests. Further, amongst the
payments, there are also included considerable sums, which
had not strictly to do with the undertaking itself, such as for
distributing plants amongst the popnlation of the entire Archi-
pelago (186971), for sending to various Exhibitions, for experi-
ments, etc. Also the expense of harvesting, treating, packing
and convenance of produce to Tjicao, (the place from which
further carriage to Batavia is done by water) are comprehended
in these figures.

These can be no doubt, that for its kind, the government-
undertaking is carried on, in the most economical way. The
plantations He mutually far apart, and so it costs more than
would be the case, if they were all close together on one
range of hills, or at least were situated in the neighbourhood
uf each other. There was every opportunity for that, but then

-ocr page 272-



		255

		the culture would not have been an experimental one. It was essential to try it under unfavourable conditions, and though, in spite of them, all payments whatsoever are at the present time already covered by the results of the crops. Yes, if it were wished to realise the actual crops which are at this moment in the plantations, the costs of shipment would once again appear far below the present value.

		CHAPTER XXIV. PRIVATE CINCHONA PLANTATIONS.

		The initiative in these, was taken in 1866 by Heer K. F. Holle, on his rented grounds (later taken on lease) near Garolt in the Preanger. We granted with great pleasure the desired coopera- tion with Holle, and devoted heart and soul to the first begin- ning so as to assure extend Cinchona culture through the efforts of private landowners. By repeated attempts we had aroused Heer Hofland the proprietor of the extensive estates, Pamanoekan and Tjiasem in Krawang, to make a trial. There was however no expectation of profitable results; our representions were often listened to with the utmost politeness, without being carried into execution. The second pathmaker amongst the Javan planters was Heer Seelig, manager of the fine estate Tjiomas in Buitenzorg, who allowed himself to be persuaded by the friendly com- pulsion of Governor-General Sloet van de Beele. In 1866 Heeren Holle and Seelig received a parcel of plants from the government plantations, and two years later, a trial was made on the previously mentioned estates in Krawang. The Cinchona barks which are brought to market in Java at

-ocr page 273-



		256

		the present time, are derived with relatively insignificant excep- tions, from the estates Tjiomas, Pamanoekan and Waspada, aud for several years special attention has been given to the extension of Cinchona plantations, whose value has now to be estimated. In 1869 thousands of plants were distributed throughout the entire Archipelago, the intention being to make the native acquainted with, and as far as possible, taken with the denizen. Everyvvhere nurseries were made, or single plants were accom- modated, on the grounds of the aborigines dweiling in the higher mountains. The excellent opportunity here opened, to observe the power of growth in various regions, might be at once a spur and guide to private workpeople, and here and there to start an undertaking. The population to the present time, has shown 110 great liking for the culture. It requires too much care; the rearing of plants is not easy, and probably the great advantage or preèminent importance of the cultivation are not yet sumciently visible. On the other hand the results of the government under- taking are attracting more and more the attention of the land owners, and from various quarters there constantly come requests for plants and seeds. In 1874 for the first time, a plot of waste land was requisitioned, specially for Cinchona culture. From day to day this occurs in the Preanger, already there are per- haps twenty plots worked with that end in view, besides others still whereon coffee or tea is cultivated as well as Cinchona. For five years past, direct encouragement has not been required, rather it ma)- be said, that a temporary exaggeration has pre- vailed, resulting in a feverish hunt for lands \'. ¹ According to the Colonial return of 187980, 26 leaseholders are busied with Cinchona culture in Java, 9 as the chief concern, 17 as subsidiary. We cannot consider these returns as complete At three places, in Preanger, Hagelen and Seinarang, crops had already been taken. For several years certain F.uropeans have commenccd work in Sumatra, with good success from the first The latest official reports do not mention this.

-ocr page 274-



		2Ó7

		The Cinchona planter must reckon, that he must make pecuniary sacrifices for at least eight years, that he must be (at least at the outset), dependent upon the issue of seeds from the government nurseries, and that these may offer abundant disappointment, as the seed saving of the last two years has taught, (in consequence of wet weather) so that the chiefly desired Ledgeriana trees almost all miscarried. The foregoing facts deserve to be well and seriously pondered; no one can with certainty define or furetell that within a certain number of years, he will possess a given extent of Cinchona plantations; the expenses of management, etc. in the meantime continue pressing. The government has from the commencement always shown itself ready, to accord its co-operation disinterestedly. In British India, plants and seeds are sold to planters as asked for; there is much to be said for this system in Java, when once the value of Cinchona culture has become indisputable. * Countries outside the limits of the East Indian Archipelago have profited in ample measure from the introduction and well- being of Cinchona culture in Java. The government attends really and loyally to all requests for help or co-operation. Plants and seeds are constantly being exchanged with the English authorities; where it is possible to help one another, it has on both sides been readily and promptly done. By requisition of the governments concerned or from private persons, from the government nurseries in Java, seeds and plants have been repeatedly dispatched to Algeria, Martinique and Guadaloupe, the Sandwich Islands, Australia, Cochinchina, Japan, Mauritius, Réunion, New Caledonia and the Portuguese possessions. At the various International Exhibitions at Vienna, Paris, Philadelphia and Amsterdam, complete collections of Javan Cin- 17

-ocr page 275-



		258

		chona barks made the best impression, and on eacli occasion were awarded the highest distinction. Scientific institutions abroad as well as in tlie Netherlands did not vainly ask for material to l>e placed at their disposal, for study and instruc- tion, and the Cinchona culture in Java, whose introduction by the late Professor de Vriese was termed ^;\'a pearl in the crown of the Netherlands", is really known at the present da)\' over the entire civilised world, and valued as an undertaking begnn and carried on in the common interest of mankind. * * * We here take leave of our subject, so far as it relates to our East Indian colonies \\ The history of our Cinchona culture in all its extent, and transitions, is in no sense completely told, still less system- atically foliowed up, for our chief intention was to lay it open and make it useful, more especially for the planter and trader. Although we have kept our attention more to the practical side than the purely scientific, historica! truth has been rigidly adhered to, and the power of facts, in a culture, so full and easy to see as that of Cinchona, may be a rich source of information, for those who would extract such herefrom seriously and advantageously. We have in conclusion still to speak of the acclimatization and its propagation outside the East Indian Archipelago. This history is rich in important facts and costly lessons; ¹ Krom the latest official returns thcre scenis to bc no j^rcat likin^\' for Cinchona culture among the native population. As to this wc must be silent. but lament that the private growers do not scnd annu.il tabular statements to the Director of governinent cultures, of the state of their nurseries and plantations. In 1870 we offered them printed forms for that purpose, at the instigation of the Society of Agriculturc and Industry at Batavia. These had only to be lilled in, and returned with comments to the abovc namcd Director. (See Cinchona report for 1870). In this fashion hearty co-operation towards information and knowledge, collected from all. would now have been guarantced, and satisfied all parties as to their achieve- ments as well as their disappointments.

-ocr page 276-



		259

		we must not, however, pass over it in its entire extent, because thereby our work would overstep its appointed limits, and would not be of paramount importance to the Javan planter. Still, a short summary should not be wanting, were it only to estimate what England performed, France tried, and the \'Société d\'acclimatation\' at Paris, continued with unabated energy to essay.

		C H A P T E R XXV. THE ACCLIMATIZATION OF CINCHONA, OUTSIDE THE LIMITS OF THE MALAV ARCHIPELAG0.

		As early as 1813, Dr. Ainslie in his \'Materia medica\' remarked upon the lamentable fact that no trial had ever been made, to acclimatize Cinchona in British India. In 1839 Dr. Forbes Royle, in his work \'Illustrations of Himalayan Botany\' strongly adverted to the introduction of the Cinchona plant in British India, and indicated the Nelg- herries and Sylhet as the most suitable regions. Lord William Bentinck showed great interest in the question, but it never resulted in action. After the opportunity of a preliminary attempt of Blackwood at Lima, to introducé the cochineal culture into British India, Royle again took up the question of Cinchona. Three years later, 1850, John Grant of the (British) East India Company, in a communication, warmly recommended the undertaking, and in 1852, there were serious efforts made by the East Indian Government itself, which first of all published an elaborate opinion of Dr. Falconer, director of the botanie garden at Calcutta, and a partisan of the ideas brought forward by Royle. This opinion placed in the fore- ground, that a properly qualified and equipped person should

-ocr page 277-



		260

		be charged with a mission to South America. One report after another was sent to England and urged by Royle. It was to be expected that the Jatter would support his representations with emphasis and force. This occurred in a report of 27 June 1852, wherein he asserted, among other things, that after tea, there was no plant more desirable to introducé than Cinchona. Touching the mission to America, all advisers were at one, that this could only be committed to an experienced scientific man, since the Cinchona tree had never been an object of regular culture, and accurate investigations must be made about its local requirements, in the original forests. Before passing however, to a recommendation so full of difficulty. and expensive a measure, the English government wished first to try hovv far it could procure this material, by the assistance and help of its consuls in South America. The reply from Mr. Mark at Bogota was not encouraging. Mr. Sullivan in Peru reported that he had applied to Vice- Consul Crompton at Islay and Arica; the latter gave small hopes, and his attempts to procure Cinchona seeds broke down. Mr. Cope at Quito was more successful; he was able to send several Cinchona plants from Loja, which however reached England in a hopeless condition. In 1853, six Calisaya plants were sent to Calcutta, raised from seed collected by Weddell They did not reach their destination alive. No better results were obtained from seeds sent by Weddell to Mr. Pentland, but these had been kept a long time; sent to Calcutta, they did not come to germination, notwithstanding Falconer\'s earnest care. Meanwhile Royle did not remain inactive. In 1853 he once more wrote a stringent communication concerning the acclimatization of Cinchona, and in March 1S5Ó, be made use of a powerful argument with the East India Company to set about earnest and vigorous measures. At this juncture, he pointed out Dr. Jamieson, Professor of Botany in the University of Quito, as the man

-ocr page 278-



		261

		best fitted to undertake die commission. One year later Royle made a fresli appeal. The question seemed now to be approaching its much desired solution, but alas! the true, courageous cham- pion, one of England\'s most famous, and, for her colonies especi- ally, most deserving botanists and naturalists, Avas not able to put the crown upon his labour. To his worthy successor, Dr. Forbes Watson, feil the task in part, to seek out and pro- pose, to whom might be entrusted the expedition to Ameriea. In April 1859, Mr. Clements Robert Markham was charged with this onerous commission. The choice was fortunate. Mark- ham had already travelled in South America as archa;ologist and ethnologist; he was versed both in the native languages as well as Spanish, and knowing how much Hasskarl\'s mission had awakened the jealousy and suspicion of the population in the Cinchona districts, he considered it of pressing import ance, to be prompt and ready in dealing with the matter. That was to be accomplished by the commission operating simul- taneously in different regions, a measure which at the same time would be less costly. On Markham\'s proposal, four expeditions were organised. He charged himself with collecting C. Calisaya and C. micrantha in Bolivia and Peru (Caravaya). For the exploration of Ecuador to obtain C. officinalis and C. succirubra plants and seeds, Spruce was designated, a skilied botanist who had known South America for years. By recommendation of Sir William Hooker, Markham and Spruce were respectively furnished with experienced gardeners, Weir and Cross. When Spruce was ill in America, Cross worthily carried on his work. To Pritchett the task was assigned, of searching the forests of Huanuco and Huamalies to obtain C. nitida and C. glatidulifera; he also had been acquainted with the regions for years. The fourth expedition was charged to explore the forests of New Granada, for the seeds of C. Pitayo and C. lancifolia. Towards the close of 1859, Markham had completed his

-ocr page 279-



		2fi2

		arrangements, so that he was able to start on i7^th Decem- ber of that year from England to Lima, where he arrived 2Ó^th January 1860. We cannot follovv the important commission on its difficult and dangerous paths. Suffice it to say, that it fulfilled its task with talent and perfect success. Before the end of 1860, the English possessions received the nevv nurslings from America, seeds as well as plants\'. In a highly interesting book, \'Travels in India and Peru\' (London, Murray, 1862) Markham has described the expedi- tion entrusted to him, and under his guidance so splendidly successful, at the same time he has thrown clearer rays of light over the classic land of the Incas. The same author has recently brought out a new work, \'Peruvian bark. A popular account of the introduction of Chinchona \| sic \| i nto British India\' ; London, 1880. In Bengal, Dr. Anderson, director of the botanie garden at Calcutta, was charged with the care of Cinchona culture, which speedily became an accomplished fact at Darjeeling in the Himalayas. In Madras it was committed to the energetic William Mclvor, and in Ceylon Dr. Thwaites, of Peradeniya, laid out the grounds at Hakgalle for the now gigantic culture. On 2i^st August 1862, there were counted in Madras already 72,568 plants, that is of C. succirabra 30,150, C. Calisaya ¹ In May 1860, Markham was able to dispatch 15 Wardian cases with 529 young plants (497 C\'. Calisaya, 25 C. ovata and 7 C. inkrantha) from Islay; they arrived how- ever in a dcplorable state at Bombay. A parcel ot plants collccted by Pritchett, had no better fate; seeds however (of C. nitida and C. micranthd) sent at the same time, yielded 890 plants. Spruce was the most fortunate; he was able to send 10,000 seeds and 600 plants of C. succirubra to England. Cross who afterwards went a second time to America, in 1861 sent 100,000 seeds, via Southampton to British India. On the voyage through the Red Sea, however, the plants suffered so greatly, that they reached their place of destination in a hopcless condition. Besides these, there were 463 C. succirubra and 6 C. Calisaya plants, brought by Cross himself from England, and given over to Mclvor in a fresh state, together with a large quantity of seeds.

-ocr page 280-



		263

		1050, C. Condamiuca var. Uritusinga 41, C.Condamincavzx. Chahuarquera 20,030, C. Cotidaminea var. Crcspilla, 236, C. iancifolia i, C nitida 8500, C micrantha 7400, C. pcruviana 2995, C Pahudiana 425 and an unnamed species 2240. As early as 1863, private persons began to devote them- selves to the culture. They were readily furnished with plants from the government nurseries. The plantations at Darjeeling received their original plants, partly from the botanie garden at Calcutta, where Anderson had reared them from American seeds, partly from Mclvor at üotacamund, partly also from Java, to which place Anderson betook himself in 1861, to personally inspect the culture already there advanced. We have already in Chapter XXII, Production and Trade, seen what an enormous extension the culture has received within a few years, in all parts of British India and Ceylon. What Minister Pahud did for Java, with regard to Cinchona, Lord Stanley fulfilled for British India. Royle, Falconer, Eorbes Watson, Sir William Hooker, and his son, J. E. Howard and others, were the skilful, courageous, and trusty counsellors who did not remain behind in their competition with the pre- viously named Dutch scientific men. Hasskarl was the great executant of the Dutch plans, Mark- ham fulnlled that task for England, on a greater scale, hut also better prepared and with ampler help. Mclvor, Anderson and Thwaites were by Markham and his coadjutors, put into positions to lay the foundations of a culture which in 20 years\' time may acquire an unimaginable signiheance and exteut. If rivalry has prevailed between the English and Dutch directors of Cinchona culture, it has in no sense harmed the development of the latter, the most cordial co-operation on both sides continues undisturbed. Impelled by international interest, it was held to be a principle of humanity. In the year 1879 Dr. King the present superintendent of

-ocr page 281-



		264

		Cinchona culture in Bengal and director of the botanie garden at Calcutta, visited the government undertaking in Java, shortly after the vvell-known Money, one of the foremost British Indian planters, had also visited our plantations. Both men declared their full appreciation of what they noticed in Java. In the second half of 1880, Bernelot Moens, the director of the culture in Java visited Ceylon, Madras and Bengal. If we trust that this excellent opportunity for fruitful com- parisons shall lead to unfettered judgment, still more do we look for, from the impressions received and the enlarged field of view, the scientific work carried on, which has so long been in hand, and most certainly with great completeness and undisputed knowledge of material, will indicate our present standpoint in the domain of quinology. We might already understand both one and the other from private reports and English periodicals (especially the "Ceylon Observer"), we do not, however, luid ourselves at liberty at the present moment, to reveal anything. Only a complete report can conduce to the advantage of the planter and of science; and this the compilation of Moens purposes to do. Only we must state the cheering fact, that the hearty co-opera- tion and mutual estimation between the neighbouring Cinchona authorities, remain unbroken. * * * Fulfilling instructions received, Markham sent seeds from America to Jamaica, where they were entrusted to the care of Mr. Wilson, superintendent of the botanie garden. By November 1861, Wilson was already able to plant out some in the open ground. He was greatly taken with the new culture, which he believed to have a great future. At the close of 1867, one specimen of C. succirubra had reached the height of 18 feet. Besides this species, C. micrantha and C. nitida were raised. Shortly after this Wilson retired on

-ocr page 282-



		2«ó

		liis pension, and si nee that time there seeins to have been a temporary clisturbance in the progress and development of Cinchona in Jamaica. As far as may be seen, they might have been as forward there as in the Hindostan and Ceylon; the produce, however, is still of little signirtcance, as appears from our statements. From later reports it seems, that Jamaica had already sent to the London market, in 1S78 seven bales, in 1S79 six, and in 1880, 303 of Cinchona bark; each bale weighing from 60 to 80 pounds avoirdnpois. Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, government botanist at Mel- bourne, in Victoria, and Dr. Waker Hill, his colleague at Brisbane, in Queensland, have introduced Cinchona. Both autho- rities extol the good development of the plant, and predict favourable results. Up to the present time, however, no Cinchona has been exported from Australia. In Mauritius also, Trinidad and New Zealand acclimatization has been tried; as to produce, at least of any exportation, that is meantime unknown to us. Nor do we know any more, with certainty of the attempts in Brazil, where Senor Glaziou took the initiative, which, afterwards received the attention of the government; still less of Mexico, where the English govern- ment provided plants and seeds for the Imperial government for the time being. The Portuguese have thought the Cinchona plant would thrive in their various over-sea possessions, Madeira, the Azores and the Canary Islands, in Goa and at Timor. As almost everywhere else, the fïrst reports sound very favour- able, and testify to thankful trust and great expectations. Mean- time more precise information tarries, and the trade still knows nothing of any fruit of the culture. Whether Spain has satisfied her declared wish to introducé Cinchona into the Philippine Islands we know not; still less if Russia has passed to an experiment in the Caucasus. Even

-ocr page 283-



		26fi

		Turkey and Egypt had good intentions, and private persons at Alexandria, some years ago, desired a consignment of seeds, a request which we then, as always, gladly fulfilled. * * In 1849 M. Hardy, director of the botanie garden at Hammar, in Algeria, received some Cinchona plants, which had been raised nnder the care of Houllet, in France, from the seeds collected by Weddell. These were actually the first Cinchona plants which found a place in the open air, outside their parent country. La Condamine had already earlier, endeavoured to make the culture prosper in French Guyana but in vain. Hardy\'s cares were not rewarded by good results. Wardian cases were afterwards sent from Java with plants, but it seems quite clear that the good expectations, cherished of the climate in some parts of Algeria, could not berealised. In 1876 several plants were sent from Java to Japan, and in 1878 a second expedition foliowed thither for continuing, as the first experiment was satisfactory. In Martinique and Guadaloupe again, there was no success. Better success was attained in Réunion where MM. Morin and Vinson, have devoted great pains and care for years. Here also from Java repeatedly, Iarge parcels of seed were received. New Caledonia, Cochinchina and Tahiti, havelikewise received material for experiments, and the acclimatization Society at Paris for a long time took much pains to encourage and further the acclimatization and culture of Cinchona in the French colonies. In 1861 it offered a prize of 1500 francs for the actual introduction of the culture in one of the French colonies or else in the south of Europa. On May i^st 1875 this prize was awarded to the previously mentioned MM. Morin and Vinson. We have every reason to believe that the Cinchona of Réunion is derived from Javan

-ocr page 284-



		267

		seed. The late General Morin, formerly Director of the \'Con- servatoire des arts et des metiers\' at Paris, had enteied into direct relations with us, and received seeds more than once from us, which he sent to his son. Francois Pollen the well- known naturalist, connected with the museum at Leyden, on his visit to Réunion delivered likewise three small packets of Javan seed, and by the intervention of the often named \'Société d\'acclimatation\', there were seeds procured from Java on several occasions. In 1879 Réunion possessed more than 5000 plants from 1 to 6 metres in height, and 2500 cuttings and seedlings all of which by the end of that year, were ready to be trans- ferred to the open ground. Indeed the care, cost and trouble which have been incurred by private persons in Réunion, give every promise of a paying success. We close this important subject with the hearty wish, that Cinchona culture wherever it has been introduced, may con- duce in increasing measure to the pront of the growers, as well as of mankind in general.

		CHAPTER XXVI. TUK PKEPARATION OF QUJNINE.

		Not long after the discovery of the alkaloids in Cinchona bark, the firm of pharmacists, D\'Ailly and Nieuwenhuis at Amsterdam, was among the first to devote itself to the separa- tion of quinine. In this course it did not long persevere; it was confined to the years 182530. When the manufacturer\'s barks go beyond a certain price in the market, the manufacture can no longer be carried on at a prorït. Abroad, factories were erected on a large scale, especially for this intention, the action,

-ocr page 285-



		26S

		which here was considered as a subsidiary thing, became further impossible, whilst abroad thcy were content to submit patiently to costlv erections. When the first Javan barks arrived in the Dutch market, the then head of the old firm D\'Ailly and Sons, Heer J. A. Rijk, prepared a sample of "Sulphas chinicus" from a parcel of Calisaya, which he offered to the government. The latter accepted it with great satisfaction, and gave the salt to the judgment of the skilful, unquestionable authority on the topic, Dr. J. E. de Vrij. The examination of this led to a most favourable and flattering report, giving rise to the notion, that the old industry in the Netherlands would rise again, and with the increasing imports from Java, a great future would be assured. Such a course however could not be foliowed. To erect, put in order, and conduct a factory, which could compete with the older renowned sister-establishments abroad, would go beyond the powers of a private hrm on account of the high requirements. No smaller capital than 300,000 to 500,000 guilders\' was the amount of capital estimated to be necessary. Within a short time however, an active association has taken up the subject, made its calculations, and applied itself to erecting a factory at Amsterdam. If this city were once in reality to become the great Cinchona market, then a factory could be well supported, for the pro- jector could secure the services and snstenance of an experi- enced maker. After the London market, that at Paris is the most important at the present time. New York in its competition with London, has lost much of its importance since the abolition by the United States of the import duties on quinine, in July 1879. Two large facturies are working at Philadelphia, of which it has been said, that they together turn out more produce than all the European factories. But these factories do not seem ¹ From L 25,000 to i, 41,667 sterling. Li. 1). J

-ocr page 286-



		2(59

		able to continue competing with the great European firms, and America requisitions more and more of quinine salts from Europe and gradually the New York market will be compelled to confine itself to pharmaceutical barks. Although London is more favourably situated than Paris, which must receive its raw material by a longer journey, from Havre, yet the Paris market has good development of business, thanks to the low costs of entrepots, etc. At Paris there are four quinine factories at work, of which tvvo, Armet de Lisle et Cie, (maison Pelletier) and A. Calandier, are very extensive, that of F. Dubosc et Cie, moderately so, and that of Schiffmann frères the smallest. For distribution, Paris is particularly well situated. and is as it were a centre for all the continent. The two large factories at Philadelphia stand under the name of Messrs. Rosengarten and of Messrs. Porvers and Weigtman. At London the principal factory is that of the well known quinologist, Mr. J. E. Howard, and the second of Whiffen. At Milan is the large Fabrica Lombarda; at Genoa the undertaking of Dufour. Large factories are also to be met with at Stuttgart and Frankfort a/M., respectively of Herren Jobst and Zimmer, whilst less extensive establishments are those of Koch at Oppenheim, at Brunswick under the name of \'Braunschweiüfsche Kininefabrik\' and one at Stutteart be- onging to Boehringer and Sons. Thus altogether, so far as we know, there are i 5 factories, and the annual production of the above named may probably be estimated at r 5,000 to 25,000 kilos of sulphate of quinine. That the number should remain so limited, must be the special knowledge demanded for the extraction from the raw material, and separating into the one desired fonn, that of salts. Indis- putably this knowledge is confined to a few people, and it remains more or less a secret, which each establishment keeps to itself. It is said that the British Indian Cinchona barks on account of their hardness, their amount of secondary alkaloids,

-ocr page 287-



		270

		and percentage of resin, are still difficult to work in France, though it seems that both the English and German manu- factnrers do not experience any invincible difficulties therein. We do not presume to give more than an outline of the manufacture; the full treatment of the subject would be out of the place here. Still for Cinchona planters if not for chemists, it will not be unwelcome to cast a rapid glance over certain special points concerning the alkaloids of Cinchona.

		CHAPTER XXVII. THE QUININF. ALKALOIDS.

		According to De Vrij, the alkaloids occur in Cinchona barks as chino-tannates, as well as hyper-salts. If powdered Cinchona bark is treated with water, then the _acid combinations divide into basic and still more acid-alkaloid salts. The latter are soluble, whilst the former cannot be extracted by water alone. By this it becomes clear that barks for pharmaceutical needs, in simple decoctions and infusions, may yet be excellent for the preparation of quinine, it being taken for granted, that this alkaloid, vvhich forms combinations of difficult solubility, was present in certain quantity in the raw material. The following gives a connected statement of the principal alkaloids, of which we cannot further sum up the manifold derivatives and salts. a. Quinine 1 6. Quinidine f ^isomet- ^C» ^H>< ^N> °> c. Cinchonine ï d. Cinchonidine } ^da ^C" ^H- ^K ° (according to Hesse, C,_y H,₄ N, O.)

-ocr page 288-



		271

		a and d are right-handed in polarisation, b and c left- handed. c. Amorphous-alkaloid, as such indicated by Hesse in Cin- chona bark and named, Diconchinine, C₄ H_4r, N₄ O. and Dicin- chonine C, H₄₈ N₄ 0₃. er, l) and c are soluble in ether, c and d not, or hardly so; a and d are precipitated as almost insoluble tartrates from the dissolved salts, by potassic or sodic tartrates, whilst the tartrates of 6, c and e, are easily soluble in water. Besides these, there are separated from Succirnbra barks oi Bengal and Java, Chinamine and Paricine; whilst Hesse has separated from Calisaya javanica, an alkaloid provisionally christened Javanine, which is accumulated in the amorphous basis, and is probably fugitive. The methods for separation of the alkaloids most commonly used, are, (a.) The lime and spirit method, in which fine Cinchona powder is mixed with milk of lime, and after complete desiccation, lixiviated with spirit of 90 %. For lixiviation, tar oil is used in France \'. (/>.) The acid method, in which the Cinchona powder is completely exhausted with water acidulated with hydro- chloric acid, the resulting liquids percipitated by soda- or potash-lye, and the alkaloids collected and washed out with weak lye, and afterwards separated. This separation of the diverse Cinchona alkaloids, generally takes place in the factory, by crystallisation of the sulphates and repeated crystallisation, by which the sulphate of quinine as the salt most difficult of solution, constantly falls down in the greatest quantity. The solubility of the different sulphates ¹ In the earliest times I\'ellctier and Cavcntou used dilutc sulphuric acid when boilinfï down Cinchona. Afterwards by advice of Henry, hydrochloric acid was made usc of. At the present day, other solvcnts are cmployed in extraction, and even De \\\'iij admits that all the agents applied in the factories are not known to him. (Nieuw Tijdschrift voor de Pharmacie, February 1880).

-ocr page 289-



		272

		of quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine, are res. pectively exhibited by the fractions yèïr, ïstr, rln, \\.* F"or quantitative determination of the different alkaloids, these are taken as a whole, together, dried at boiling point of water, and weighed, afterwards dissolved in dilute hydro- chloric acid, neutralised, filtered after cooling, and then mixed with ²/₃ of its weight of potassic-sodic-tartrate (salseignette). After twelve hours, the precipitated tartrates are separated by filtration from the quinine and cinchonidine, which are dried and weiglied, after which it is again dissolved in hydrochloric acid, to which solution soda and ether are to be added. The cin- chonidine remains tolerably insoluble, whilst the etherial quinine solution, evaporatecl by the atmosphere, is dried at boiling point of water, and the quantity of anhydrous quinine is indicated. To separate the previously treated tartrates from the mother- liquor, the)^- are precipitated by soda. The precipitated alka- loids are obtained by filtration, washed as may be requisite, the washing repeated with spirit of 40 % after drying, by which the amorphous alkaloid is dissolved and cinchonidine remains behind. If quinidine prevails in the bulk. it is precipitated from the mother-liquor by potassic-iodide as hydro-iodates; the dried precipitate is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the quinidine separated by soda, dried and weighed. By these short instructions, we do not think we have put the means into the hands of the non-chemical planter of exa- mining his barks himself On the contrary, it appears how far from simple the analytical methods are, and it ma)^- be calcu- lated that much practice is necessary, even for a chemist, before he can exhibit the exact composition accurately, of so complex a structure as Cinchona bark. As we have previously said, analytical research has not uttered its last word on this score by a long way, and we can only act as a fmgerpost,

-ocr page 290-



		273

		so as to give some notion of the extent and importance of quinology in its entirety\'. What tlie future may bring, who will venture to predict ? There is no doubt that the secondary alkaloids of quinine will be more and more esteemed, and thereby perhaps another direction given to Cinchona culture; in so far as the quinine- rich Cinchona species, their right to the chief place will seem to be disputed. We have, though, remarked that they are not always the casiest and most luxuriant growing, and it some- times appears that the cultivation of the vigorous C. siira\'rubra will really assure great advantages to the planter. The prices of quinine are subject to violent fluctuations, which are as much connected with the greater or smaller importations of manufacturer\'s bark, as of the temporary want of this still above-all valued febrifuge. The following state- ment which merel)^- extends over a short term, shows the results of the periodical, public cnntracts at the Hague, for the state service in the Netherlands and the East-Indies. The contracts embrace, as a rule, a quantity of 200 kilograms, to be delivered in parcels of 50 kilograms. Tendered foi maximum minimum, 26 August 1880.......... fr. 256.89 fr. 247.20 per kilo. 21 September » .......... o 249.70 i> 236.80 » » 18 October » .......... » 234-95 » 224.50 » » 12 December » .......... » 222.41 » 204.98 » » 29 » » .......... » 214.30 * 203.01 » o 21 January 1881.......... » 223. » 215.46 » » 3 March » .......... » 262.33 » ²37-8" » » 14 April » .......... » 224.40 » 211. » » Contracts were accepted by four patties in the inonth of March for 300 kilograms quinetum prepared from East Indian ¹ The Grahe Cinchona test rests upon the property of quinine, cinchonidine and isomerous bodies in the barks containing them, to devclope carmine-red vapours by heating in a test-tube. Barks which do not possess the named alkaloids, yield only brown coloured fumes, and finally a brown tar. This test has some value as an indicator, but none as a means of registering. The carniine-red fumes are characteristic.

-ocr page 291-



		274

		bark. The tenders ran from 40 francs to 72.89 francs per kilo. On the 27 and }i^st May following 200 and 300 kilo- erams of sulphate <>f quinine were contracted for For the first contract, the minimum tender was 194.95 francs; the maximum at the same, 206.70 francs. At the second, the minimum 191.50 francs, the maximum 204.S8 francs. The quinetum \'prepared from Kast Indian C. succirubra bark pos- sesses cinchonine, cinchonidine, amorphous alkaloids, quinine, besides water and impurities. and is left-handed in polarisation. Each manufacturcr will turn out these alkaloids in various quantities, and in different mutual relation, as ma}\' be under- stood from the statement of the analyses of C. succirubra barks, which are given on pages 1151 19 and also ascertained by numerous examinations of de Heeren De Vrij, Stoeder, Moens. Mr. Wood, etc. De Vrij reported in the \'Nieuw tijdschrift van pharmacie\', 1878, p. 179, that the percentage of quinine plus cinchonidine in quinetum prepared hy him, varied from 39 % to 70 %, whilst in the quinetum of commerce, it varied from 28 % to 68 %. Meanwhile the secondary alkaloids in the great factories are obtained in such large (]itantities, that there would be no trouble in producing a quinetum of delïnite con- stitution by mixing. The prices of the salts of the hye-alkaloids are far below those of quinine; quinidine is the most valuable which, however, occurs the most scantily, after it follow cincho nidine, cinchonine, chinoidine. The prices of these alkaloids also var)\' much, hut that they remain far below those of quinine, is well shown by the result of the public contracts for this end \'. ¹ The minimum tender was 40 francs per kilo. the delivery appeared grantcd at the price of f-o francs. We add that once it happencd, that 7.5 % alkaloid was separated from a large pareel of Succirubra bark, then for the contract delivery of 300 kilograms of quinetum, 4000 kilos of raw material is needed, and if this is bought at 3 francs per kilogram, the buying price of the raw material alone is as much as the minimum price, for which the quinetum was to be delivered. [n- stead of 7.5 % however. on an average at most not more than 6 % alkaloids mav be caleulated on, and the lowness of the tenders seen from this side, beeome patent.

-ocr page 292-



		275

		With this we consider our task as regards the Cinchona planter complete. We have kept strictly to fact in our history, and especially in this most important staple, ma)- it be as a compass by which the producer may direct his course.

		KI N I S.

-ocr page 293-

-ocr page 294-



		INDEX.

		Alkaloids devcloped with age 119 -------first separated..... 12 -------in the young barks ... 106 ■ in various Ja van barks . 8586 quinine....... 270 -------subsidiary, often efneacious 212 Amorphous alkaloid, its compo- sition......... 271 -------in Calisaya bark .... 107 Amsterdam exhibition, bark at . 257 ------- market, success of. . . 247 proposed quinine factory at 268 Analysis of barks, for guidance in culture......... 84 -------of Ledgeriana barks . . 109 ------- of Officinalis bark . . . 112 ------- of samples...... 241 -------of species...... 117 ------- of Succirubra bark . . 112 Anhydrous quinine, how deter- mined......... 272 Anderson, Dr., charged with Cin- chona culture...... 262 Andes, Cinchona regions of . . 31 ------- climatc of...... 33 Andes and the Amazon, a book so-called........ 14 Antanan, a species of Hydrocotyle 158 Appearance of cuttings often de- ceptive........ 50 Appolzer on secondary alkaloids. 212 Arable surface affected by expo- sure.......... 160 Areca palm-fibre or indjoek, used instead of moss...... 125
		Acid mcthod of making quinine 271 Acids found in Cinchona bark . 107 Acclimatization experiment* . . 259 of Cinchona urged ... 13 Accuracy ofdescription by vendor requisite in tradc.....210 Acuna, Christoval de, his account of Texeira\'s mission .... 4 Administration oC Cinchona . . 211 \| Admixture of barks..... 8 Advantages of shaving bark . . 196 Age connected with alkaloid de- velopment.......119! ■ fit for cropping . . . . 185 ------necessary to develope the alkaloid in bark.....106 Ages of trees as affecting alka- loids.........88 Ainslic, his uish to introducé Cinchona into India .... 259 Ajang-range, experimental plan- ting in........58 Alang-alang, a grass (Imperata arundinacea) as shading mate- rial........69, 152 ------used in mossing .... 123 ------ wil] thrive when all else dies........160168 Algeria, abortive attempts to in- troduce Cinchona into ... 38 Cinchona plants in . . 266 - stock sent to.....257 Alkaloid-formation, if affected by outward circumstances ... 88 Alkaloids, amorphous .... 107

-ocr page 295-



		278

		Arica, failurc to obt.\'iin secds from 260 Aricinc occasionally found in bark 107 Arniet de Lisle et Cic, their qui- ninc factory at Paris .... 269 Artificial heat in drying . . . 204 ------- hybridization..... 137 ------ preparation of quinine . . 215 -------premium offered for its preparation...... 14 ------propagation...... 138 Aspect in relation to growth . 159 Astringency in Cinchona bark in inner layer....... 243 Auctions in Netherlands, salc con- ditions of......244246 ------ of Javan Cinchona . . . 221 Australia, Cinchona introduced into........257, 265 Azores, Cinchona culture intro- duced into the ...... 265 Bales, marks on...... 210 ------ packing in . . 20S209 Bamboo blinds used in culture . 152 ------knife for barking .... 200 ------pots for Cinchona . . . 130 ------ their use discontinued 80 ------racks for drying barks. . 203 Bark. costs of freight, etc. . . 247 estimated average produce 198 ------ false, from Santa Cruz and Cochabamda...... 29 ------first brought to Europe . 4 ------ from Carabaya .... 29 ------from Caupolican ... 29 ------grooves in...... 243 ------harvesting...... 200 ------how distinguishable ... 99 ------ influence of appearance or price of...... . 241 ------its preparation in the forests 7 ------Javan, sold...... 221 ------loss of weight by drying . 197 lost in Red Sea .... 220 ------of C. otüïcinalis analysed . 112 ------ of C. succirubra . . . joo ------of Ledgeriana, its analyses 109 renewal after shaving . . 193 ------renewed, appearance of 127128 ------ richer than mossed ... 193 ----- sorting.....202205
		.Bark of trees when shaded, its thinncss........ 79 Bark-layers, respcctivc richness of 122123 Bark-scales apt to be thrown off by old trees...... 123 Barks, acids found in . . . . 107 - analysed for seed trees . 84 ------of best quality not yet sent from Java....... 96 ------became mixed in trade . 5 British Indian, stated to be difficult to work by French, . 269 ------dimensions when cut . . 201 hard and soft..... 213 ------of 2 % alkaloid .... 28 their appearance when cove- red with moss . . . . 191192 ------trade names from shipment ports......... 242 Batavia, water carriage of bark to, 254 Baumwachs, cold grafting wax . 148 Beetle injurious to Cinchona . . 177 Bengal as bark producing. . . 217 exchanges with Java . . ^7 ------land reserved in..... 164 - visited by Moens .... 264 Bentinck, Lord William, his in- terest in Cinchona culture in India......... 259 Bergen in Peru ...... 11 Besoeki, experimental planting in, 58 Bibliography of Cinchona ... 11 Bitterness in Cinchona bark, in outer layer....... 243 Blinds for shading plants . . . 152 Blume, his attempts to introducé Cinchona into Java .... 39 ------ to see Cinchona plant growing at Lèyden .... 65 Boedjang, a native labourer . . 64 Boehme, useful survey instrument by.......... 161 Boehringer & Sons, factory at Stuttgart........ 269 Bogota, Consul Mark at, his abor- tive attempts to procure seeds 260 Bolivia, Calisaya bark yielded by 242 Cinchona regions of. . . 31 culture in.....1718

-ocr page 296-



		279

		Bolivia, export dutics in . . . 15 Ledger\'s seeds froni Cau- polican in....... 91 ■ Markham\'s mission to . . 261 Bonpland in Peru..... 71 Bostrichus. a beetle harmful to Cinchona..... . . 177 Bouchardat on secondary alkaloids 212 Houw, quantity of land defined 78 ------mimbcr of plaats in each, when planted close 1 öG ------amount rcturned froni each 174 Box-compass for surveying . . 161 Branches, to be removed when needed........ 176 \'Braunschweigsche Kininefabrik\'. 169 Brazil, attempt to introducé Cin- chona into....... 265 Briquat on secondary alkaloids . 212 Brisbane, Cinchona culture at . 265 British India, Cinchona culture in, compared with Java .... 83 Brittleness of Cinchona bark . . 243 ------fresh-peelcd bark . . . . 201 ------renewed bark..... 12S Broughton, his investigations . . 108 Brunswick, factory at . . . . 269 Brushes for cleaning rootbark 204 Brushing the bark donc by natives 7X Buena hexandra, its barkyielding Paricine........ 106 Buffalo horn knife for barking . 200 Burg, Van der, his researches . 108 Bye-alkaloïds, quinetum made by mixing........ 274 C. C. L = mark for Ledgeriana 210 C. O. mark for Officinalis . 210 C. S. mark for Succirubra . 210 Cabrera y Bobadilla, Viceroy of Peru in 1636...... 3 Cadiz, oiange bark burnt at. . 6 Calandier, quinine manufacturer at Paris,........ 269 Calcutta, Calisaya plants sent to, froni WeddeliI\'s seeds . . . 260 Calisaya, development of first 4447 Javan,....... 26 so called...... 17 Cambium layer, effects in renew- ing, when not touched . . . 193
		Cambium of scion and graft must meet......... 149 Canary Islands, Cinchona culture introduced into..... 265 Canizares, Juan Lopez de, recom- mends Cinchona to Countess Del Chinchon...... 3 Capsules, seed, their contents . 36 Carabaya or Caravaya bark . . 29 Caracas, the northernmost limit of Cinchona....... 32 Caravaya, Markham\'s mission to 261 Cardinal\'s powder..... 4 Carthagena bark, so called . 242 Cascarilla muzoniensis, cultivated at Weltevreden as Cinchona . 44 Cascarilleros, their method of working........ 6 Cases for Javan bark . . 207208 ------marks on...... 210 Caucasus, Cinchona in . . . 265 Caupolican bark...... 29 Caupolican, Ledger\'s seeds froni, 91 Caventou and Pelletier discover Cinchona alkaloids . . . 106 Ceylon as bark producing. . . 217 ------Cinchona introduced into . 262 ------exchanges with Java . . 77 visited by Moens. . . . 264 "■Ceylon Observer" newspaper, reports in,....... 274 Characters of C. Calisaya. . . 55 Charges on transit of bark . 247 Chemical investigations.... 106 ------testing of barks .... 272 Chemist to Cinchona culture ap- pointed . ...... 89 China, a Spanish corruption of the native name..... 4 Chinamine froni Succirubra bark 271 Chinchon, Count del, sends Tex- eira to Cinchona regions . . 4 Countess del, cured by Cin- chona......... 3 Chinchona, Mr. Markham\'s me- thod of spelling Cinchona . 262 Chinoidine, mentioned .... 274 Cinchona, its administration . . 211 - amygdalifolia, seeds received from Hasskarl...... 44

-ocr page 297-



		280

		Cinchona amygdalifolia, no seeds of Hasskarl\'s reared .... 66 ------ anglica a variety of C. Cali- saya......... 89 ------its origin .... 97 --------------leaf of..... 35 ------bark first brought to Europc 4 ------ botanie account of . . . 34 ------burnt at Cadiz .... 6 ------Calisaya at Paris in 1851 . 44 --------------characters comparcd with C. ovata...... 55 --------------- cuttings, only ten per cent. failed with Junghuhn . . 49 --------------five varieties of leaf- form in........ 55 ------its origin in Java . 89 ------ numbers reported . 104 ---------------leaf of ... . 3537 ----- ■ seeds from Hasskarl 47 -------------var. Ledgeriana, one of the three selected .... 88 ---------------var. microcaspa =1 C. Ledgeriana....... 94 --------------var. Schuhkraft, its origin......... 75 -------------- zone as estimated by Junghuhn........ 32 ------caloptera termeci Kortcfolia 60 --------------account of . . . . 102 ---------------leaf of ... . 3537 ------Condaminea, Kunth = C. officinalis, L....... 5 --------------- varieties of, at Madras 263 ------ culture, a department of forestry........ 165 dubia =. C. Hasskarliana . 7 ------ its exploitation in nativc country........ 6 -------febrifuge....... 213 -------flowers first seen in Java . 60 ------- forced sale of..... 1 ------genus revised by Miquel 6061 ------Hasskarliana, its origin . . 6j ---------------its origintwovarie- ties of........ 101 --------------]_eaf ₀f..... 35 ------introduced into Java . . 38 ------javanica, a variety of C. Cali- saya......... 89		Cinchona lancifolia, nuuiber re- ported ... .... 104 ---------yiclding Pitayo bark, origin of........ 102 --------------zone as estimated by Junghuhn........ 32 Ledgeriana, a variety of C. Calisaya....... 89 ------ bark, high price real- ised by first samples ... 93 -------------- analyses of. . 109 analysed according to ages of portions . . . 12012 J distinguishing charac- ters......... 100 -------------- first growth ... Jj ------ first seeds harvestcd 94 ----- its origin . . . 9096 numbers reported . 105 micrantha, derived from India 101 leaf of ... . 35 37 numbers reported . 104 ncver forms exclusive forests 28 officinalis, analysis of bark of 112 ------ cuttings..... 49 -------------discovered by LaCon- damine........ 5 --------------- its distinguishing cha- racters......... 98 --------------it_s native country . 32 ---------------its origin in Java . . 98 ---------------its poor growth . . 112 -------leaf.....3537 name restored by Hooker........ 5 - numbers reported 104105 plantations destroyed by Helopeltis...... 183 one of the three selected 88 var. Chahuarguera . 95 var. crispa .... 98 --------------var. Uritusinga . 9899 ovata, seeds from Hasskarl 47 Pahudiana, doniicüed injava IOI ------leaf of..... 35 --------------numbers raised by Junghuhn...... 104 --------------its poverty in alkaloids 7273 named by Howard 66 --------------propagation forbidden 66

-ocr page 298-



		281

		Cinchona planted witli shelter trees 56 plants sent by Hasskarl . 41 ------pubescens mentioncd as being at Tjibodas..... 51 ----- seeds from Hasskarl 47 ------ regions of Andes . ... 31 - rust, account of . . . . 179 -------------on C. officinalis . 99 Schuhkraft, a variety of C. Calisaya......23, 89 sced, its chances of germina- tion in a state of nature . . 10 ------its prospects of ger- mination after travelling . . 50 ------sovving..... 129 - sent to Netherlands for sale in 1869........ 83 -----species in 1863 .... 72 and varieties cultivated in Java........ 89 - succirubra analysed, accord- ing to age of portions . 11 o,120 ---------analysis of its bark . 112 bark from British India yielding Paricine & Quinamine 106 cuttings..... 49 -------------its native country . 32 -----its history in Java . 99 -------------its robustness . . 112 ------------leaf of .... 3537 numbers reported 104105 - onc of the three to be propagated....... 88 -----Uritusinga from Pavon\'s de- scription........ 99 Cinchoneae, a tribe of Rubiaceae 34 Cinchonamine discovcred by Ou- demans........ 106 Cinchonidine absent from Ledger- iana bark....... 118 ------always greater in roots than sterns......... 118 composition of .... 270 ------discovered by Winckler . 106 ------solubility of..... 272 Cinchonine, composition ol . . 270 ------discovered by Pelletier and Caventou........ 106 ------solubility of..... 272 CinchovaHne found in bark . . 107
		Cinoleine........ 215 Cinoline.......215216 Clay pots made by labourers . 80 -------soil, its treatment . . 158 - necessary for self-sown plant 130 Cleaning the seeds..... 138 Clean-keeping of plantations . . 175 Clearing jungle...... 153 in Java....... 162 Cleft-grafting Cinchona .... 141 Coal-tar product resembling qui- nine......... 215 Cochabamba false bark ... 29 Cochinchina, stock sent to 257, 266 Coffee plantations at Lembang given up and used for Cinchona 6869 Colour division.s of bark. quite illusory........ 212 Columbia, formerly called New Granada, its Cinchona region 31 ------bark so called..... 242 Commerce in bark..... 217 Compass for surveying . . . . 161 Conchinine discovered by Henry and Delondre...... 106 Conditions of sale in Nether- lands.......244246 ------to be observed in grafting 148 Consular attempts to procure seeds for English government . . . 260 Consuls in South America re- quired to procure seeds . 75 Cope, Consul, sends plants from (Juilo......... 260 Coppicing........ 25 ------Cinchona officinalis . , . 99 Copulirscheere, or German graft- ing shears....... 128 Cortex sine epidemie .... 243 Costs of planting in Bolivia . 2022 -----government Cinchona cul- ture in Java.....252254 Criticism of Teijsmann and Hass- karl by Junghuhn .... 6162 Crompton. Vice-Consul, his failure to obtain seeds..... 260 Crop, when and how to be taken 185 Cropping the bark..... 200 Cross, his help in Spruce\'s mission 261 ------seeds sent by..... 262

-ocr page 299-



		282

		Destruction of C. plants in forests 78 Devastation of Cinchona forests 10 De Vogel, his ideas on Cinchona culture........ 39 De Vriese\'s confirmation of Hass- karl\'s species...... 55 ------calls attention to Cinchona culture........ 39 ------his work in Java menlioned, 108 -------sends a plant of Cinchona Calisaya to Java..... 44 ------visit mentioned .... 65 - work on Cinchona ... 65 Dichasium, explanation of the term 35 Dicinchoniue, its composition. . 271 Diconchinine, its composition. . 271 Diéng, plantation at..... 58 Diesiros, the most experieneed cascarilleros....... 7 Differences in tare weight. 273-274 Digging plantations..... 172 Dimcnsions of Javan barks . 201 Diminishing production of bark in South America..... 14 Dimorphism of Cinchona flowers 36, 136 Disafforesting, changes ofcliniate resul ting from...... 160 Discovery of therapeutic virtue of Cinchona....... 3 Diseases of Cinchona .... 177 Dispatch of secds..... 138 Dispoline........ 215 Dispute as to value of Cinchona species........ 65 Drainage of cstates..... 156 Drought, its cffects on soils . . 168 ------in Bolivia, and its influence on planting....... 24 Drying the bark...... 200 ------ in the Cinchona forests . 7 weight of bark lost by . 197 Dubosc et Cie. quinine makers in Paris......... 269 Dufour, manufacturer in Genoa . 269 Dutch government, 011c half of Ledger\'s seeds bought by . . 91 Ecuador, Cinchona regions of . 31 Loja or I -oxa bark, from 32 Spruce\'s missioh to . . 1526
		Crown-grafling Cinchona . . 141 recommended for renewing a plantation after cropping . 146 Cultivation of Cinchona in its own country........ II ------in Bolivia......17 ------urged by Weddell ... 13 Cusconine found in bark . 107 Cutting tools in propagating Lo be avoided.......134 Cutting-over for cropping . . 166 Cuttings of Cinchona .... 139 - of Calisaya, Junghuhn\'s suc- cess in making......49 - of Ledgeriana.....140 ------011 Henderson\'s plan . 143 ------readily oblaincd from C. succirubra.......100 .sent in Musa lcaves ... 57 ------only of C. succirubra and officinalis succeed.....49 ------their deceptivc appearance 50 Cytne, infloresccncc of Cinchona described as «1......35 Dadaps, various species of Ery- thrina......... 56 D\'Ailly, experiments of, on loss of weight.......223 D\'Ailly and Nieuwenhuis, their preparation of quinine 267 Darjeeling, Cinchona culture at 262263 Deaths of early plantod trees not caused by clearing .... 56 Deceptive appearance of cuttings 50 Degeneration of Cinchona. . . i,¹/ ------ feared when seed only is used for propagation .... 87 De! Chinchon, Countess of, cured by Cinchona...... 3 Delay in harvesting not injurious 185 Delondre in South America . . 11 ---- his lamenis regarding the nativcs\' .wastefulness .... 9 ------and Bouchardat, their ac- count of bark-trade tricks . . 6 ----- vvitli Henry discovers Con- chinine........106 Denudation by rains . 156 Dermestes, a beetlc injurious to Cinchona........177

-ocr page 300-



		283

		Effects ofscasons on yield ofalka- loid......... 122 Eggs of Helopeltis discovered 182 ------of destructive insect, fancied discovery of...... 180 Egypt and Cinchona culture . 266 Elevation, whethcr it affects the alkaloids......88, 122 Enemies of Cinchona .... 177 England, Talbor carries the bark from......... 4 Erection of propagating houses . 150 Erythrina used as a shade plant 56 Establishment* given up ... 79 Exhaustion, so callcd, of Cinchona planlations ...... 166 Experimental nature of govern- mental planting . . . 98, 189 Experiments carricd out on carly Cinchona plants..... 46 Exploitation in native country of Cinchona........ 6 Exports of bark from Bolivia 16 Exposurc of arabic surface to sun, its bad effects .... 160 ------affecting alkaloids . . . 88 Extent of Cinchona regions . 32 Falconer\'s opinions as to Cinchona introduction.....259260 Felling timber tbr culture ... 154 Fibre plugs to baniboo pols. . 130 Finger-grooves in bark. . 243 Flowering of Cinchona . . 135 Flowers lirst scen in Java 60 in various species, their co- lour ........ 3637 of Cinchona with tea 213 Fluctuation in prices of bark. . 221 of quinine...... 273 Forests, effects of clearing 169 ------ felling of. deprecated by the Inland department .... 82 ----- first planting in the ... 57 - systcmatically felled ... 80 Formation of alkaloids, whethcr af- fected by outward circumst.mces 88 Frames in propagating houses 145 Frankfort, manufactory at 269 Fraser, English Consul at Batavia, his assistance in exchanging . 77
		\'Frcdrik Hendrik\', Cinchona sent to Java by....... 44 Freight charges on bark . 247 French colonies, prizc for Cin- chona culture in..... 266 Fritze mentioned in relation to Cinchona culture..... 39 Fruit of various species ... 36 "Fungus in Rust"..... 181 Fungoid enemies of Cinchona . 56 Fungoid growth the result of care- lessness........ 15² Gammie, his success with Led- ger\'s seeds....... 92 Gaudichaud, Richard andjussieu, report 011 culture..... 13 \'Gcdeh\', Hasskarl\'s Cinchona plants conveyed to Java by . 41 Gedong-banteng.Junghuhn\'shead- quarters at....... 57 Gemoeti cord from Areca fibre 152 Gemoste (mossed) bark . 116 Genoa, manufactory at, . 269 Germination of Cinchona . 131 on Teijsmann\'s plan. . 132 Geregeneered (renewed l bark 116 Girth of Cinchona trees ... 199 Gia/.iou, Senor, atlempts Cinchona culture in Brazil..... 2Ó5 Goa, Cinchona culture introduced into...... . . 265 Gorkom, van, appointed Chiefin- spector of culture..... 71 appointed successor to Jung- huhn......... 71 ------his training...... 7\' Government sales of Javan Cin- chona......... 219 Gradients, the steepest allow- able......... 159 Grafting Cinchona..... 141 - best period for . . . . 146 Grafting-knife, German . . . . 14S Grafting-shears German . . . 148 Grafting-wax, two kinds . . 148 Grahe Cinchona test..... l"J3 Grant\'s recommendations as to Cinchona........ 259 Grass allovved to grow on paths. 159 Grooves in bark...... 213

-ocr page 301-



		284

		Grubbing-up Irccs usually not done when clearing . . . . 153 Grubs, destructive, . . . 178179 Gruis or dust, usually poor . . 116 Guadaloupe, stock sent to, 257266 Guidc to culture by Junghuhn 58 Gunny bags, used for tying grafts 145 \'■ - for packing bark . . 208 Glitters by sides of paths . 1 59 Guyana, abortive attempts to grow Cinchona in , 266 Haarlem, specimen of early Cin- chona at museum in... . 45 Hague, contracts at the, for qui- nine ....... 273274 j Hamburg, Javan Cinchona not yet appreciated in...... 248 ^: Hammar, Cinchona plants at, 266 Handpicking of Helopcltis. 183 Hard barks, so called .... 242 Hardy, his Cinchona plants in Algcria........ 266 Harvesting the bark 184200 Harvests, explanation of recent small,......... 220 Hasskarl, arrival in Java, ... 49 ------charged with direction of Cinchona culture..... 43 - resigns it .... 44 ------his mission to South Ame- rica.......11, 4043 Hasskarl\'s mission, its lessons learnt by English expedition . 261 ------return to Europe.... 56 ------specimens from America . 60 Height of Cinchona trees ... ^ Helmont, van, his experiment on a willow cutting .... 165 Helopeltis, attack by a species of, in 1878....... 183 ------Antonii, causing Cinchona rust.......... 182 ■------theivora, or tea-bug, 182 Hembra.the shnrt-stamened flower 136 Hemipterous insect causing rust 181 Henderson\'s plan of preparing cuttings........ 143 Henry and Delondre discover Con- chinine........ 106 Hesse, his Homocinchonine 215
		Hesse, Javanine separated \\>y 271 ----his researches..... 108 I Ieed-orok,a destructive grey larva I jS Uil], Dr. \\V , and Cinchona culture at Brisbane....... 265 Hilly country, metliod of clearing 155 I limalayas, Cinchona culture at Darjeeling in the,..... 262 History of Cinchona .... 3 Homocinchonine, Hesse on, . . 215 HoogewerfFs researches on artifi- cial quinine....... 215 Hooker, Sir W. J., on Cinchona acclimatization...... 62 - his aid in Cinchona culture 263 Hoops round bales..... 209 Horn-knife for barking .... 200 Howard, Mr. J. E., Cinchona Pahu- diana named by, .... 6ö - his help in Indian Cinchona culture ........ 263 his "Ouinology of the East Indian 1\'lantations". . . 11, 185 ------his researches .... 108 Howard and Sons, manufacturers in London....... 269 Huamalies, 1\'ritchett\'s mission to, 261 Huanaco, Pritchett\'s mission to, 261 Humboldt and Bonpland in Peru 11 Humus or vegetable mould . . 15^ Hybrids arising from seeds . . 47 Hybrids in various forms very common........ 103 Hydrochloric acid used in ex- traction........ 271 India, Ainslie and others urge Cin- chona culture in..... 259 - Cinchona culture in, as coni- pared with Java..... 82 Indian quinine....... 23 Indigo culture, its lessons . . . 216 Indjoek fibre from palm leaves used instead of moss . . 125 made into cord . . . . 15- used to plug bamboo pots 130 Inflorescence of various species 35 Imperata arundinacea, a weed . 69 - used instead of moss . . 145 Import duties of quinine on United States abolished..... 268

-ocr page 302-

285

Junghuhn, his first attempts as to
Cinchona culture.....

- first report......

-----grave at Lembang . . .

------illness........

------imported flower-pots from

Nctherlands.......

projected mission to South

America........

------theories as to proper tem-

perature for Cinchona culture

------war against insect enemies

Jungle, clearing, for culture . .
Jussieu, J. de, in South America
Jussieu, Richard, and Gaudichaud,

recommend culture ....
Kandang-batak, nursery at . .
Karsten\'s opinion of trade mysti-

fications........

------seeds of C. lancifolia

how obtained . . .
Kassoh, or reed, blinds for pro-

pagating houses.....

Kawah-Tjiwidei estate ....

changes at,......

Kendeng, original planting in,
Kerner\'s remarks on the bark

arriving in Europe ....

- researches ......

Kina, the native name ....

Kina-kina........

King, Dr., visits Java . 96, 263

Knifc for stripping.....

------used in barking . . . .

Koch, manufacturer at Oppenheim
Koelis or Coolies, as day labourers
Kortefolia, a Javan name for C.

caloptera........

Korthals, mentioned in connection

with Cinchona culture . . .
Labour question in Java .
Labourers in nurseries . . . .
La Condamine in South America

Instructions drawn up by Jung-

huhn for Cinchona cultnrc . .

Insect causing Rust.....

Insect-fertilization of Cinchona .
Insects injurious to Cinchona. .
Insecurity of planters in Bolivia. 25-
Introduction of Cinchona into Java
Introductory remarks ....

Irrigation of estates.....

------to be kopt in mind .

Islay, failure of English consuls

to obtain seeds from. . . .
Isolation of choice varieties . .
of varieties and species not

always possible.....

Jamaica, seeds sent to,....

- littlc return from, . . .

Jamieson, Dr., rccommended as a

Cinchona expert by Royle
January, Cinchona flowering in, .
Japan, stock sent to. . . 257,
Java, as a bark producing country
------exchanges with British pos-

sessions........

------introduction of Cinchona into

slow development of culture

in, compared to British India
temperature in, compared

with Andes.......

Javan barks, the best not as yet

sent to market......

Javan Cinchona, first method of

packing........

--------------sold at Amsterdam .

Javanine, an alkaloid separatcd

by Hessc........

------found in bark.....

Jesuit\'s powder ......

Jobst, manufacturer in Stuttgart
Junghuhn\'s arrival in Java with

Cinchona plants.....

------character and work .

charge of Cinchona culture

in Java ........

------code of instructions for Cin-

chona culture......

death........

------estimates of Cinchona zones

------first arrangements with Dutch

Government.......

5« I
182 i

137
177
-26

38
1
156 i
176

260
138 |

88
264
265

260

136
266
217

77
38

33 \'^:

207
219

271

i87
4

53
61

5*
70
f_v

■Sc

34
178

153

1 1

\'3

i.S

5
102

L52
64
79
58

108

4
4
264
127
200
269
64

39
87
64

i I

178

59
141

180

his

knowlcdge of the Cin-

chona tree
Larvae harmful to Cinchona
Layers, taken at Tjibodas

------moderate success of

Leaf when attacked by rust, its

appearance.....179

58
70
32

-ocr page 303-



		286

		Leaf-form in various species . . 35 ------and colour ... ■ 37 ------ofC. Calisaya, live varietics of 55 Leaves, thcir appearancc ingood and bad grafting..... 145 Ledger, account of his seeds 9096 Lcmbang establishment ... 64 ------Junghuhn\'s grave at, . . 70 overrun with alang-alang grass......... 176 ------propagating house at . . 64 Lepidine......... 215 Levcl country, how cleared . . 115 Lewis and Peat, Reports by 248251 Leyden garden, Cinchona plant recognised there ... 55, 65 ------herbarium, dried Cinchona specimen in....... óo plant from...... 54 Liber-cells of bark..... 194 Lichen-growth, outward changc of bark due to..... 242 Lichens on Cinchona barks give a character to them .... 1 27 1 .ight as affecting yieldofalkaloids 1 22 Lime in barks....... \\6^ sulphate of, used to combat "rust"......... 180 Lime and spirit niethod of making quinine........ 271 Loatny soil........ 158 Loja, fornierly called Loxa, Ecua- dor barks from..... 32 ------plants sent by Consul Cope from......... 260 London, Cinchona collected by Mutis, sccretly sold in . . . 6 ------Cinchona reports from . . 248 ------manufacturers in, ... 269 ------ market the most important 268 ■ samples as taken in . . 241 Lorrok-Kidoel estate .... 64 ; ------removed to Kawah-Tjiwidie 75 Losses of Cinchona due to insect s 178 Louis XIV, his purchase of the bark 4 Loxa, now called Loja, bark from 32 Macho, the long-stamened flower 136 Mclvor, Cinchona culture by. . 262 - exchanges C.succirubra seed with Money for Ledgeriana 9)		Mclvor, his plan of stripping 123 124 ------sends Calisaya seed from Madras........ 97 Madder culture, its lessons . . 216 Madeira, Cinchona introduced into 265 Madras, a bark producing country 217 ------Cinchona culture in, . . . 268 ------exchanges with Java . . Jj ------seed of Calisaya from, its splendid germination .... 97 ------visited by Moens.... 264 Malawar, planting originally done in.......... 58 ------range of mountains chosen for Cinchona culture by Jung- huhn......... 52 ------twelve nurseries laid out in that range....... 56 Mamani, Manuel [ncra, a servant of Ledgers.....9095 Mandoer, a native foreman . 64 Manure, uhen applied .... 177 Map of Cinchona regions prepared by Schuhkraft...... 17 March, flowering of Cinchona in 136 Mark, Consul, his failure to obtain sceds......... 260 Markham, C. R., his mission and its success.....261 262 ------in South America ... 11 Marks on packages..... 210 Martiniqne, stock sent to, 257, 266 Mastic, cold French, for grafting 14S Mattock used by native labourers 155 Mauritius, stock sent to, . 257, 265 Measurements of trees . . 198199 Meijboom, tea-bug discovered by 182 Method of packing..... 208 ------of grafting used in Java . 144 Mexico, stock sent to, .... 265 Microscopic appearance of bark 194 Miquel on Cinchona culture . . 39 ------011 revision of Cinchona 6061 Milan, \'Fabrica Lombarda\' at, . 269 Mixed plantations of C. Ledger- i.ina and C. officinalis . . . 172 Moens as analyst to culture . 84 ----- definitely appointed such . 89 ------feilow student of, and co-worker with author ... 71

-ocr page 304-



		287

		Moens his visit to British India . 264 , his work in analysis 108109 ---------on "Rust" .... 181 Moens and Scheffer\'s investigations on scraping....... 125 Moisture affected by feiling forests 160 Money, a planter, half of Ledger\'s seeds bought by,..... 91 ------his visit to Java, .... 264 Monsoon, east, best to harvest during......... 200 ------west, flowering of Cinchona at end of....... 136 Morin, General, seeds sent to, . 267 Morin and Vinson, their success in Reunion........ 266 Mossed bark.....25, 116 ------.-----poorer than rcnewed 193 Mossing on Mclvor\'s plan . . 124 -----a failure in some cases . 125 Muellcr, Baron Ferd. xxm, and Cinchona culture in Auslralia 265 Mulder on Cinchona culture . . 39 selects Van Gorkoni for Cinchona\' chemistry .... 71 \'\'Muller\'\', an assumed name <>l Hasskarl........ 41 Musa Ieaves used to cnfold cultings 57 Mutis in South America ... 11 ------bark collected by, burntby royal order....... 6 Mycelium overrunning Cinchona plants......... 56 Nagrak estate first mentioned . 64 ------self-sown plants at . . 130 Natives, culture not taken up by, 254-256 Natural occurrence ol Cinchona trees......... 28 Neilgherries indicated by Royle as suitable tbr Cinchona culture . 259 Netherlands, bark from Java sold i", ........ 219 ------questions asked in, relative to Javan Cinchona culture . . Sj New Caledonia, stock sent to 257266 New Grenada, now called Colum- bia, its Cinchona regions . . 31 ------bark, so called .... 242 ------Karsten\'s seeds from . . 54
		New York market, lias lost its im- portancc........268 New Zealand, introduction into . 265 Nipa fruticans as shading material 153 Numbers in reports, sec under respective names of species . Nurseries in the Malawar moun- tains, twelve laid out byjung- huhn.........$6 Nursery beds, their laying out . 152 Odour of Cinchona flowers in various species......36 Oelam-pahit, a destructive yellow larva........178 Ootacamund, Cinchona culture at, alluded to.......268 l.cdger\'s seeds sown at . 91 Oppenheim.Koch\'smanufactoryat 269 Oudcmans, A. C, discovers Cin- chonamine.......106 his "Handleiding" . . . 185 his researches.....108 ------ his statement as to Cin- cliona zone.......3¹ Faal, a measure defined ... 7Ü Packing bark.......205 Pagagan, a species of Hydrocotyle 1 5^ Pahud, Minister C.F., his initiative towards Cinchona culture . . 40 Palen (plural of paal), a measure defined........78 Para, Cinchona via .... 1617 Parent trees, the richest specimens always spared for.....105 Paricine from Buena hexandra . 106 Cinchona succirubra. . . 106 in succirubra barks . . . 271 - separated by Winckler. . 106 Paris, exhibition barks shown at, 257 ------manufacturers in, .... 269 - market, ranks next to Lon- don in importance . . 268269 Passangrahan, term explained as a resting place...... 5² Pasteur\'slaboursinconnectionwith Conchinine.......106 Patjol, or mattock, the common tooi of natives......155 1\'aths in nevvly cleared land . . 155 Patocha, original planting in . . 58

-ocr page 305-

288

Pavon in Peru.......

Perishable pots for Cinchona.
Pekalongan, pure type of bark

from private estate at . . .
Pelletier and Caventou, their dis-

covery of Cinchona alkaloids

--------------- their method . . .

Pengalengan table-land selected

for Cinchona culture ....
Pentland, seeds from Weddell,

forwarded by......

Peru, Cinchona regions of. . .
------Calisaya yielded by . . .

- climate of Andes in . . .
------Consul Sullivan in, hts fai-

lure to get secds.....

------Markham\'s mission to, .

Pharmaceutical bark, C. .succi-

rubra as......93-

Philadelphia, exhibition, barks

shown at,.......

quinine factories in . 268
Philippine Islands, Cinchona in .
Pisang or Musa leaves used to

enfold cuttings......

Pitayo bark from C. lancifolia .

------so called......

Plant-pits, for renovation . 174
Plantations.so-called exhaustion of,
Planting as donc originally . 57

-----in Bolivia,.....18

Planting-out Cinchona seedlings .
Pleischl on secondary alkaloids
Poeppig in South America .
Polarising power, artificial quinine

deficiënt in,.......

Pollen, conveys seeds to Réunion.
Portuguese colonies, stock sent

to,........257,

Porvers and Weigtman at Phila-

delphia........

Potting Cinchona seedlings
Pots of bamboo, use discontinued

- made by natives ....

------used for Cinchona seeds .

Poudre de Talbor.....

Preanger, nurseries chosen by

Junghuhn in.......

Premium offered for artificial
quinine........

Preservation of the seeds .
Prevention of loss of seed.
Prices of bark as affectcd by look

■------fluctuations in, ...

■ of quinine, fluctuation in,
Pricking-out Cinchona seedlings
"Prins Frederik Hendrik", ship-

ment of Hasskarl\'s plants by,
"Prins Hendrik", lost in Red Sea

vvith Calisaya bark . . . .
Pritchett in South America . .

- his mission to Huanaco. .
Private Cinchona estates in Java

217

--------------plantations . . . .

Produce in a given time .
Production and commerce.
Propagating house, first established

■ its use in grafting
-----the mode of erection

- the number of, increased .

- where situated. .
Propagation by art.....

- only done from the richest
trees.........

Protection given to young plants
Pruning whcn needed ....

Pulvis comitissae......

Pulvis jesuiticus......

üuadrant for surveying. . .
Ouantitative determination of al-

kaloids........

Ouills, how formed.....

------much in demand . . . .

Ouina, the native name
Ouina primitiva of La Condamine
Ouina soja of Mutis, alluded to,
Ouina-quina, a speciallyefficacious

kind of bark......

Quinamine in red bark. . . .

Quinetum........

------compounds found in,

contracts for, at the Hague.

- prepared by mixing bye-
alkaloids........

------prices tendered for supply of

Quinic acid in barks.....

Quinidine, composition of,

------found sometimes in Ledge-

riana bark .......

138
\'38
244
221
273
133

220

261

-218

254
196
217

57
145
150

.so

"4
138

105

176

4
161

272
207
207
4
5
195

4
106
212
106
273

274
274
107
270

181

130

I
1 12 ;

IO9 ;
271

52 ï

260

31
242

360
261

-100

257

-269

265

59
102

242

-175
166

-58
__22

\'34
212

1 1

246
267

265

269

134 |

80
130

4 j

52
14 .

-ocr page 306-



		2S9

		Quinidine, solubility of . ------stated not to be found na- turally in the bark .... Quinine amount not to bc guaged by bitterness...... ------cheap substitute for . ------composition of..... ------contents of bark augmentcd by stripping...... ------discovered by Pelletier and Caventou ........ ------factory, capital needed for ------from samples of bark . high per-centage of, in shavings........ ------import duties on, abolished by United States..... ------not easy to obtain pure from C. succirubra .... ------premium offercd for its arti- ficial production..... ------preparation of..... ------solubility of,..... Ouinine-barks, C. Calisaya and C. omcinalis........ Quinium......... Quinoidine..... . . Quinquina de Uritusinga of La Condaminc....... Quinquinine....... Quinovic acid from leaves ------ in barks ....... Quito, Consul Copc sends plants from......... Racks for drying barks Rampon in South America . Rantja-bolang estate ....		272 1 Renquifo in South America . . 11 Repairs, in a plantation, why they 107 do not usually succeed ... 160 Replacing nurseries.....164 243 Reported numbers, see under 107 respective names,..... 270 Resin-cells of bark.....[94 Re-transplantation of certain old 114 Cinchona trees......74 Réunion, stock sent to, ... 257 106------success in,......266 268 Rhytidomata or bark-scales, apt 85 to be cast off..... 123 Richard, Jussieu, and Gaudichaud 196 recommend culture ... 13 Richest trees spared for stock 268 parents........105 Rijk, preparcs a sample of quinine 100 from Javan bark.....268 Ringing as provocative of flower- 14 ing..........60 267 ^!------tried on Cinchona ... 74 272------done by a destructive larva 178 Rioeng-oenoeng estate .... 64 93 \'. Roacls, Cinchona planted by, . 57 213 !------laid out in newly-cleared 107 lands.........155 Rochussen, his opinion of the im- 5 portance of the culture ... 62 213 Rogueing Cinchona plants. . . 169 213 Romunde, R. van, his advocacy 107 j of close planting.....169 - his description of Cinchona 260 grafting in Java.....144 203 Root-barks, usually rich . 116118 11 j Rooting-out plantations, w hen ad- 64 \' visable.......188189 79 ; Rooting-up jungle not usually done.........153 19 ! Roots, alkaloids in,.....72 100 \|------of Cinchona, their form. . 38 242 Rosengarten\'s manufactory at Philadelphia.......269 39 Rotan hoops round bales . . . 209 Rough mixed alkaloid . . . . 212 158 Royle first urges Cinchona cul- 193 j ture in.........259 116 i his renewed urgency. . . 260 193 Rubiaceae, Cinchona a genus of, 34 179 Ruiz in Peru.......II

		changes at

		Recklessness of cxploitation in Bolivia........ Red-bark, C. succirubra . yielded by Ecuador . Reimvardt, mentioned in regard to Cinchona culture .... Rendeng, a species of llydro- cotyle......... Renewal of bark, how effected . Rencwcd bark . . . . 25, ------richer than mossed bark Renovation-pita......

-ocr page 307-



		290

		Russia, Cinchona in the Caucasus. Rust, on Cinchona, account of, on Cinchona officinalis . Saccharum spontaneum, blinds made of, ....... Sale-conditions in the Nctherlands 244- Salseignette, used in analysis. Samples taken by London brokers. Sandwich Islands, stock sent to, Sandy soil, its treatment . . Santa-Cruz, false bark from . - the southern-most limit of Cinchona ........ Santesban in South America . Saucers, water supplied to seeds by.......... Scalding red bark to heighten its colour......... Scales, term first used .... Schefifer\'s observations on Cin- chona rust.....180- Schefier and Moens, their report on scraping....... Scherzer in South America . Schilfers, or shavings of bark 1 11 - term first used .... Schraapsel or scrapings.term aban- doned ......... Schuhkraft, Consul-general, bis reports........ - dispatch (1864) of seeds, ----- his energy in procuring seeds variety named aftcr him Scions when to be cut. . . Scrapings of Ledgeriana bark.thei richncss....... - use of term abandoned . Scrobiculi in various species . not exclusively characteristic of C. Calisaya...... Scrub and low jungle to be grub- bcd up ........ Seasons as afiecting alkaloids. Secondary alkaloids in Succirubra bark.......114 Seed-bcds ........ ------- broadcast .... 134 Seed-crop, value set on, . heavy .......
		Seed-sowing....... 129 Seed-raised plants show great divergencies....... 103 Seedling Succirubra,used as stocks for Ledgeriana...... 143 Seeds, cleaning the, .... 138 - first obtained in Java at Tji- bodas......... 65 -------of various species ... 36 home-grown slovver in de- velopmcnt than foreign . 199 of Cinchona Ledgeriana first gathered on 1873..... 94 preventing the loss of, . . 138 - from Hasskarl..... 47 - few germinated . . 50 from various quarters, col- lected by Schuhkraft ... 30 Scitz on secondary alkaloids . 212 Selecting, first attempted . . . 220 Serons, account of,..... 8 Side-grafting Cinchona .... 143 Sikkim, a few of Ledger\'s seeds soh\'ii in........ 91 Shade as afiecting alkaloids . . 88 ------of forests deemed needful by Junghuhn for Cinchona . 57 Shaving, Moens\'s method of . . 191 its advantages..... 196 quicker than stripping . 194 renewal of bark after . . 193 Shavings of Ledgeriana bark, their richncss...... 111 term first used .... 220 Shell-grooves in bark .... 243 Shelter needed by young nursery stock.......-153 Shelter-plants occasionally used . 163 Skraup on Homocinchonine . . 215 Slopes, terracing.....156157 Snellen van Vollenhoven, on Helo- peltis Antonii...... 182 Soda, precipitation of alkaloids by 272 Soft barks, so called .... 243 Soil for sced sowing 130 -------to be kept loose by the fingers......... 134 Solvents for extraction of quinine 271 Sorting the bark .... 201205 ------first attempted .... 220
		zo₃ 179 99 j 152 -246 272 \| 241 257 158 : 29 32 11 132 204 220 181 125 ! 11 -116 220 220 \'5 23 75 75 146 1 111 220 1 35 55 \'55 122 115 130 -"35 ; 75; 75 ^;

-ocr page 308-



		291

		Sorting, its importance .... 205 South American rcpublics, their shifty policy...... io Sowing seed of Cinchona . . 129 Spacing-out the plants .... 163 Spaltpropfmesser, or German grafting knife...... [4S Spanish colonies, Cinchona in . 265 Species and varieties t<> bc exclu- sively propagated..... 88 Sporadic growth of Cinchona in native forests...... 28 Spruce in South America ... 11 Stanley, Lord. his work for Cin- chona culture in India . . 263 Statute lahour-question in Java Si Steam-ship, consignments pre- ferentially sent by .... 223 Steel knives not used for barking 200 Steeping Cinchona secds . . . 133 Stipules, their early fall ... 35 Stoeder, his researches. . . . 108 Stripping the bark . . 24, 25, 200 on Mclvor\'s plan. . 123 124 reasons against .... 190 enhancement of quininc by 1 14 Stripping, renewal after, slower than shaving...... 194 Stripping-knife, special .... 1 27 Stuttgart, manufactory at, . . 269 Subsoil, question regarding . 158 Sullivan, Consul, his failure to procure secds ...... 260 Sulphate of lime used to combat "rust"......... 180 ------of quininc, quinoidinc . . 107 Sulphuric acid used formerly in extraction....... 271 Sunlight, as affecting alkaloids . 88 Superintendents diminished . . 80 Sylhet selected for Cinchona cul- ture by Royle...... 259 Synthesis of Cinchona alkaloids. 216 Tafalla in Peru...... 11 Tahiti, stock sent to..... 266 Talbor\'s powder...... 4 Tangkoeban-Prahoe, first planting. 58 Tannic acid of bark, discoloration in barking by steel on . . . 200 ------in barks..... 107
		Tare of cases....... 208 bales........ 209 j ------ difference in, . . . 223224 Tea, Cinchona flowers mixed with 213 Tea-rust analogous to Cinchona rust.......... 182 Teijsmann, his method ofgermi- nation......... 132 - receives the first Cinchona plant......... 44 and Scheflfer\'s observations onrust.......180--181 Telaga-Patengan estate .... 64 - given up....... 79 Temperaturc affected by disaffo- resting........ 160 by Cinchona ... 33 of And es...... 33 Tenders for Ouinetum at the Hague......... 274 - for Quinine, at the Hague. 273 Terraces, method of laying out. 1 56 Testing barks chemically . . . 272 Teuscher, a superintendent under Teijsmann....... 48 Texeira\'s mission to the Cinchona regions........ 4 Theodolite for surveying . . . 1G1 Therapeutics of Cinchona . . . 211 Thibaut and Keteleer of Paris, rear a Cinchona plant..... 44 Thinning out.....186-190 not to be too longdelayed 170 treatcd as a method of cropping ........ 163 Thwaites, Dr., Cinchona establish- ed at I Iakgalle by, .... 262 Timber, how disposed of when felled, in Java...... 162 Time of flowering in Java. . . 13G Timor, Cinchona culture intro- duced into,....... 265 Tjangkokken, or laycrs, taken . 59 Tjibeurem estate...... 64 ■ nursery at...... 48 Tjibietong estate...... 64 Tjibodas, nursery at. . 48, 4952 objections to...... 52 ------seventy Cinchona plants reached........ 43

-ocr page 309-



		OU O *u \'1 u*

		Tjibodas transferred to botanie garden......... 80 ------the so called "\'Strawberry garden" the first Cinchona nur- sery at Java....... 44 Tjicao, shipment to Batavia from. 254 Tjinieroean, estate founded . . 53 Tjiomas, young seedlings at, self sown......... 129 Tjipannas, nursery at, .... 48 Tobacco, use of, in "Rust" . . 180 Trade circulars by Lewisand Peat 248251 Trade-names of bark . . . . 211 Traditional history of Cinchona . 3 Transit of bark...... 2IO Transplantation...... 131 ------of old Cinchona trees . . 74 Transportation of bark from forests to port........ 8 ------of seeds best method . . 138 Treatment of certain old Cinchona trees......... 73 Triana on Cinchona..... 11 Trinidad, introduction into . . 265 Turkey and Cinchona culture . 266 Utrecht, plants from .... 54 Variation in leaf of Cinchona Cali- saya ......... 55 Variations in seed-raised plants 123 Vcnation in various species . . 35 Veredlungscheere or German grafting shears...... 141 Vega, Juan de, his charges for the bark........ 4 Vegctablc mould soil .... 158 Venezuela, its Cinchona regions 31 Ventilation of propagating houses 152 Veuleman\'s sketch of grafting as practised in Java..... 144 Victoria, Cinchona culture in, . 265 Vienna, exhibition barks shown at....... .... 257 Vlaanderen, Dr. Van, his analysis of inorganic bodies in barks . 165 Vrolik on Cinchona culture . . 39 Wajang, planting hou\' done in, . 58 Warcewicz in South America . 11
		Wardian cases from Leyden with Cinchona plants..... 53 Waste in felling original forests . 18 ------in shipment, amount of, . 222 (gruis) usually poor . . . 1 ld Watering seeds and young plants, precautions necessary . . . 131 Watson, Dr. Forbcs, his help in Indian Cinchona culture . . 263 Wax for grafting..... 148 Weddell, his influence or Cin- chona culture .... 13, 39 ------plants raised from seeds collected by....... 260 --------------at Algeria .... 266 ------his visit to Leyden to dc- termine Cinchona there ... 55 Weeding plantations..... 172 Weeds allowed on edges of ter- races......... 157 Weir. a member of Markham\'s expedition....... 261 Weighing machines..... 223 Weight of bark lost in drying . 197 - of seeds....... 36 Weltevreden, false Cinchona plant at.......... 46 YVhiffen, a manufacturer in London 269 Wilson, Cinchona culture in Ja- maica by........ 264 Winckler discovers Cinchonidine and Paricine...... 106 Wind, danger in exposure to, . 161 Winds, prevailing, how the)^- affect the alkaloids...... 88 Wood, quinine separated from the 213 Wonodjambi, first planting at . 58 Wreek of \'Prins Hendrik\' and loss of bark......... 220 Wringin, original planting in,. . 58 Yellow bark (Calisaya) yielded by Peiu and Bolivia..... 242 Yield of Cinchona trees ... 37 Zea in Peru....... 11 Zigzag paths quite necessary on slopes......... 159 Zimmer, manufacturer in Frankfort 269 ------alluded t<....... 14