- —VA _i3-«r^

^ , v; ^

^'W 'v- .^-v

\ SC

jiR

U

I ; |.

\A \ ,*■quot;• ' ■ J

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAE

FOR DUTCH SCHOOLS

WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES AND SETS OF EXERCISES FOR TRANSLATION

o. quot;V-A-Hsr tieIj

THIRD EDITION.

L E Y D E N.

E. J. BRILL.

1892.

CONTENTS.

THE ALPHABET..................

Principal Rules of Pronunciation........xn.

Sounds of the Vowels.............xu.

Sounds of the Digraphs and Diphthongs......xvm.

Sounds of the Consonants...........xxvn.

Mute or silent Consonants...........xl.

Sounds of Vowels in unaccented Syllabes and Terminations, xlii.

Accent and Quantity............xlvi.

ARTICLES..................1.

Use of the Articles..............2.

Definite Article...............2.

Indefinite Article...............5.

Repetition of the Article...........7.

Place of the Article.............7.

NOTJNS...................8.

Gender..................8.

Number..................9.

Observations on Number-Forms..........12.

Plural of Compounds.............14.

Plural of Proper Names............15.

Case....................16.

The Nominative...............16.

Place of the Nominative............17.

The Possessive................18.

Use of the Possessive.............18.

The Objective................20.

ADJECTIVES................21.

Use of the Adjectives.............24.

Adjectives used as Nouns............24.

Nouns used as Adjectives............25.

The Adjective followed by one..........25.

Comparative and Superlative..........26.

Place of the Adjective.............28.

NUMERALS.................28.

Use of the Numerals.............30.

VI

Page

PRONOUNS.................32.

Personal Pronouns..............32.

Use of the Personal Pronouns..........32.

Keflective Pronouns.............34.

Use of the Reflective Pronouns..........35.

Possessive Pronouns.............36.

Use of the Possessive Pronouns..........37.

Demonstrative Pronouns...........38.

Use of the Demonstrative Pronouns........39.

Relative Pronouns..............41.

Use of the Relative Pronouns..........41.

Interrogative Pronouns............44.

Use of the Interrogative Pronouns.........44.

Indefinite Pronouns.............46.

Use of the Indefinite Pronouns..........46.

The Dutch Pronoun Men............50.

VERBS...................51.

Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs.......51.

Conjugation of the verb To have.........51.

Conjugation of the verbs To be..........52.

Conjugation of the verbs Will, Shall, May, Caa, Must, Ought. 53.

Conjugation of the verbs To do , To dare, To need. . . 54.

Regular Verbs................54.

Rules for the Conjugation of Regular Verbs.....54.

Conjugation of a Regular Verb..........56.

To Call — Active Voice...........56.

To be called — Passive Voice.........57.

Progressive Form of the verb To study......58,

Empathie Form of the verb To study.......58.

Negative or Interrogative Form of the verbs .... 58.

Irregular Verbs...............59.

A List of Irregular Verbs............59.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs........66.

Use of the Passive Voice...........69.

Infinitive Mood...............73.

Accusative with Infinitive............74.

Use of the Infinitive with and without to......76.

Participles.................77.

Gerund..................79.

Gerandial construction.............80.

Use of the Auxiliaries............81.

Use of To have...............81.

Use of To be................82.

Use of May and Can.............83.

Use of Must and Ought............84.

Use of Willen and will............85.

Use of To do................86.

The Dutch verb Laten............89.

VII

____Page

The Use of the Tenses............90.

Present Tense................91.

Past Tense — Present Perfect Tense........92.

Past Perfect Tense..............94.

The Future — Use of Will and Shall.......94.

The Subjunctive Mood............98.

ADVEEBS................• . 100.

Use of the Adverbs.............102.

Position of the Adverbs............104.

PREPOSITIONS...............106.

Use of the principal Prepositions........106.

A List of words followed by their proper prepositions . 120.

CONJUNCTIONS...............129.

g?Use of the Conjunctions............130.

INTERJECTIONS...............134.

RULES FOB SPELLING............134.

ON PUNCTUATION..............137.

EXERCISES FOR TRANSLATION........141.

Synonymous Words explained, etc.

Nacht en dag................144.

Journey, voyage...............144.

To accompany, to attend............147.

Famous, celebrated, renowned..........148.

To make, to do...............152.

Mount, mountain..............152.

Brace, pair, couple..............152.

Behaviour, conduct ............................154.

Fortunate, happy..............154.

Wholesome, healthy.............155,

Stranger, foreigner..............159.

To say, to tell...............160.

To mix, to mingle..............167.

Verspreiden.................168.

To retire, to retreat, to withdraw........168.

Man, vrouw................177-

To carry, to bear, to wear...........177-

To bring, to take, to carry...........178.

Past, hard.................187.

Nearly, almost...............187.

To continue, to remain, to stay.........188.

Blijven....... ...........188.

Houden voor................188.

Habit, custom................191.

VOCABULARY................................209.

ERRATA.

Page 2, line 10 from foot, for happines read happiness. »26, »10 » » » materal » material. » 96, » 18 » » » rhetoric » rhetorical.

THE ALPHABET.

Observations. — 1. We see that in order to produce the English vowel sounds, our corresponding sounds must be lengthened and made to pass into an ie (j) or oe (tv). These final sounds are but slightly pronounced, and of the e and u (sound) they are altogether dropped when these vowels (vowel sounds) are followed by an r or by another vowel; as. Here, l}ear, hearing, real; sure, poor, cruel.

2. VV and Y are semi-vowels. When a vowel the w helps to form a diphthong, but is never pronounced; it is a consonant at the beginning of words or syllables. When a consonant the y sounds like our/; as, year.

2. The alphabetic or regular long sound of the vowels is heard —

X

1. At the end of a word or accented syllable; as, Me, paper, fever, moment, miser, music.

2. Before silent e; as, Die, toe , cue, eye.

3. In monosyllables ending in a silent e preceded by a single consotiant; as, Lake, here, kite, hone, tune.

4. Before a single consonant followed by le or re; as, Stable, sabre, idle, noble, bugle,

3. Besides the alphabetic or regular long sound the vowels have a regular short sound, and also some occasional sounds, produced by the influence of the consonant which they precede. Altogether they are the representatives of eighteen simple and diphthongal sounds which are heard in —

The sounds of a in fate, fat, care, far, all.

The sounds of e in mete, met.

The sounds of i in pine, pin.

The sounds of o in bone, not.

The sounds of u in tune, rude, full, fur, hut.

The sounds of oi (oy) in voice, boy.

The sounds of ou (ow) in cloud, now.

The sound of a in fate — the regular long sound — is like our ee, as in heel, passing into a short ie sound.

The sound of a in fat — the regular short sound — has no equivalent in our language; it is perhaps best produced by making our short a (as in man) pass into a short e.

The sound of a in care comes very near the ai of the French word air; it is a lengthening of the short a.

The sound of a in far — the open or Italian sound is like our aa in vaart.

The sound of a in all — the long broad sound — is produced by lengthening the sound of the o in our word pol.

The sound of e in mete — the regular long sound — is like our ie followed by a j (See 1. Obs. 1).

The sound of e in met — the regular short sound — is like our e in met.

The sound of i in pine — the regular long sound — is made up of the short English a in man and i in pin, or our j.

XI

The sound of i in pin — the regular short sound — is like our i in tin.

The sound of o in bone — the regular long sound — is like our oo passing into a short oe sound.

The sound of o in not — the regular short sound — is very much like our o in tot.

The sound of u in tune — the regular long sound — is like the Dutch joe followed hy a, w sound {See 1, Obs. 1).

The sound of u in rude is the regular long sound with the initial j sound omitted.

The sound of u in full is the same as that of rude, but pronounced very short.

The sound of u in fur has no corresponding sound in Dutch; the nearest approach to this sound is perhaps the oeu of the French coeur.

The sound of u in hut — the regular short sound — is like the u in fur, made very short.

The sound of oi (oy) in voice is made up of the sound of o in not and i in pin.

The sound of ou (ow) in cloud, is made up of a short English a sound and a short oo sound (m in full).

4. All these sounds occur in words and syllables which have the accent. In unacented syllables the vowels have their regular long or short sound slightly and indistinctly pronounced; and often passing into the sound of our short u (See 77).

5. The consonants which most influence the vowels are r and I, single or followed by another consonant. This influence holds in the obvious derivatives from words thus affected, when the accent is not shifted; as, tar, tarry; debar, debarring; bark, harking; call, calling; walk, walker; alter, alteration; err, erring; refer, referring; stir, stirring; lord, lording. When however one of the vowels occurs in an accented syllable before r or I, followed by a vowel, or by another r or I, in a word which is not a derivative, or in a derivative which has not the accent of the primary word, the e has its regular long or short sound, the other vowels their regular short

gt;

sound; as, baron, parrot, sparrow, to tarry, alley, ballad, gallery, pallet, herring, merry, peril, hero, reference, stirrup, porridge^

Observations. — 1. The initial w always giving the a a broad sound (See 6, 6) such words as wallet, swallow, etc. must be excluded from the rule.

2. The words (and their derivatives) in which the accented vowel is followed by ry as, vary, story, fury have a long vowel sound. The a has, in this case, the sound of a in care, and the o the sound of a in all.

PRINCIPAL RULES OF PRONUNCIATION.

SOUNDS OP THE VOWELS ').

A.

6, The a has six different sounds.

1. The regular long sound —

a. At the end of an accented syllabe, etc. (See 2); as, Paper, stable.

Exceptions. — Are, ate, axe, bade, have -).

b. Before ste and nge (g soft); as. Strange, stranger, angel, hasten.

Exceptions. — Caste ¹), orange.

c. In the following words —

Champagne.

Charlemagne.

Chamber.

HaZ/penny, halfpence ²).

¹

are also pronounced with the regular long a sound). 3) The a in caste has

²

the sound of a in glass-, in orange it has the sound of short i. 4) Letters printed in Italics and in black type are not pronounced. Half in halfpenny and halfpence is pronounced heeiquot;.

xiii A

V' vf

2. The regular short sound; as, Black, flash, flatter. Exceptions. — Any, many, Thames ¹).

3. The long sound modified by re; as, Care, fare ²). Exception. — Are.

4. The open or Italian sound.

a. Before r and r followed by a consonant; before lm, If, Iv (I silent), and before t/i; as. Bar, bark, palm, half, halve, path.

Exceptions. — Halm, hath, wrath, scarce, fathom, gather, lather, charwoman ³).

b. In the following words —

Ah. Father. Pa.

Almond. Hurrah. Papa.

Answer. Master. Plaster.

Are. Ma. Rather.

Drama. Mamma.

c. Before ss, sk, st, sp, ff, ft, nt, nee, and in the ending mand-, as. Glass, cask, cast, clasp, quaff, staff, shaft, waft, plant, grant, dance, command.

Exceptions. — ^lss, lass, mass, hast, cant, rant, pant, pantry, scant, scanty ⁴),

5. The long broad sound —

a. Before 11, ld, Ik (I silent), is; as. All (and its derivatives as always, also, altogether, etc.) bald, stalk.

Exceptions. — ShaU, Pall-Mall ^s).

b. Between w(wh) and r and qu and r; as. War, warm, wharf, quart.

¹

These words have the short e sound. 2) This sound is also heard in

²

Mary, vary, various, etc. (See 5, Observ. 2). 3) The a in halm has the long

³

broad sound; in hath (also with the Italian a sound) fathom, gather and lather the a has its regular short sound; wrath has the broad a sound, in scarce and charwoman the a has the sound of a in care. 4) In all these words the a has its regular short sound. Ass and mass in the sense of massa, have also the sound of a in glass. 6) ShaU has the sound of the short a; in

⁴

Fall-Mall the short e sound is heard.

XIV

c. In the following words —

Albany. Balsam. Palsy.

Alder. Bengal. Paltry.

Almanac. Falcon. Waltz.

Altar. Falchion. Water.

Alter. Jackal.

6. The short broad sound —

a. Between w{wh) and consonant, except gt;•; as, Want, was, wasp, wash, watch, what, swamp, swan.

Exceptions are waft, swam, and the words which have the a followed by g, ck, x; as, wag, whack, wax ').

h. In the following words —

Halt. Quantity. Wallet.

Halter. Quality. quot;Wallow.

Salt. Quarry. Walrus.

Malt. Quarrel. Warrant.

Quadrant ¹). Swallow. Yacht.

Observation. — The short broad sound is like the o in not.

E.

7. The e hau the following sounds —

1. The regular long sound {See 2); as, Me, here, fever. Exceptions^ — Were, where, there, ere, treble ²).

2. The regular short sound; as, Pen, met.

Exceptions. — England, English, pretty ³).

3. The sound of u in fur before r, and r followed by a consonant; as, Her, herd.

Exceptions. — Clerk and sergeant ⁴).

¹

with quad. 3) The e in were'sounds like the u in fur, the e in where, there

²

and ere has the sound of b in care; the e in treble is regular short. 4) The

³

e in these words sounds like the i in pin. 5) The e in these words sounds

⁴

like the Italian a.

XV

1.

8. The i has four sounds.

1. The regular long sound —

a. At the end of a word or an accented syllable, etc. (See 2); as, Kite, shire '), title.

Exceptions. — To give, to live, triple ^s).

b. Before Id, nd, gn, gh, ght; as, Child, kind, sign, high, light.

Exceptions. — Gild, wind (wind), children, to hinder, to bewilder, wilderness.

c. In the following words —

Climb. Indictment. . Viscount.

Christ. Pint. Isle, island.

2. The sound of long e in many French words —

Antiqwe. Invalid. Police.

Caprice. Machine. Eavine.

Chagrin. Magazine. Eoutine.

Fatigue.

Exceptions are exile, divine, confine, etc.

3. The regular short sound ; as, Tin, pin.

4. The sound of u in fur before r, and r followed by a consonant; as. Fir, bird.

O.

9. The o has the following sounds —

1. The regular long sound —

a. At the end of a word or an accented syllable, etc. {See 2); as. No, bone, noble.

1) In compounds the i in s/iire has the sound of a in fur, or with short ee sound. 2) The i in these words in short.

XVI

Exceptions. — Gone, shone '). — to, who, etc. — one, come, etc. (See below). 'A

b. Befote 11, Id, It, Ik (I silent); as, Roll, Ttnoll, hold, bolt, folk, ^ ■

Exceptions are —

Doll.rr Loll.

Moll. Poll ²).

c. In the following words —

Comb.¹'quot;quot;' Post. Both.'

Only. Host. Sloth ³). /

Job. d Bolster. Troth.

Gross. Holster. Quoth.

Most. Clothes.

2. The sound of the long broad a —

a. Before r and r followed by a consonant ⁴) —

For. Com. Born(e).

Or. Fork. Worn.

b. Before ff, ft, ss, st, th —ƒ

Off. Cross. . x Broth.

Crofts Toss. ^ Cloth.

Loft. Cost. Froth.

Soften. Frost. Moth. For Exceptions See above.

3. The regular short sound; as, Not, long, tongs, donkey.

4. The following words (and their derivatives which have the accent unsbifted) have all the sound of u in but or u in fur (See 3) in the accented syllable; the o before ve has generally the sound of u in but, between w and r the o has the sound of u in fur ⁵).

k

1) In gone the o has the broad a soond, in shone the o is^ regular short. 2) Foil and Moll are familiar names for Mary\ poll also familiar'for parrot. — In the meaning of head the o of poll has its long sound. 3) In sloth and troth the short o sound is also heard. 4) This sound is also heard in story, etc. (See 5. Ols. 2). 5) Exceptions are wore, worn and worsted.

XVII

5. The sound of u in rude is heard in do, too, two, luho, whom, whose, lose move, prove, ado, tomb.

¹

The oh in borough has the sound of long o. Colonel is pronounced Jcurnel. In comely two syllables are heard. In combat the short o sound is also heard. Comfort is pronounced kumfurt. Confront is konfrünt. Conjure (künjure) is bezweren {van geesten), to conjure is, bezweren (= onder eede bevestigen). Donjon is pron. dicnjun. One, once are pronounced wmi, mins. Stomack is pron. itümak. The ou in thorough sounds like short m or short o.] Twopenny, tivopence are pron. tüpenny and tiipens.

XVIII

6. The sound of u in full is heard in to, bosom, woman '), wolf, worsted, Worcester, Wolseij.

U.

40. The u has the following sounds —

1. The regular long sound (See 2); as, Tune, music, bugle.

2. The sound which is heard in rude (See 3).

a. When u is preceded by an r; as, Rude, true.

b. When it follows the I preceded by a consonant; as, Blue, flute.

3. The short sound heard in fidl (See 3)

a. When it is followed by 11 or I-, as, Ftdl, bidl, pulpit, fulfil, useful.

b. In the following words —

Bush. . Cushion. Puss.

Bushel. Pudding. Put.

Butcher. Push. Sugar¹).

Cuckoo.

4. The regular short sound; as, But, fun.

5. The short sound heard in ftir.

Exceptions. — Busy, business, to bury, Canterbury, Salisbury ²) — Truth, to impugn, to oppugn.

Y.

11. The y follows the rules given for the i; thus. Why, rhyme, system, myrrh.

SOUND OF THE DIGRAPHS AND DIPHTHONGS.

12. Two vowel sounds which are pronounced without a break in the utterance produce what is called a diphthong-, when of

¹

like sh. 3) The u in busy and business sounds like short in like short

²

the a in Salisbury has the long broad sound; the word is pronounced wry.

XIX

two vowels only one is sounded we have an improper diphthong or a digraph,

M.

13. As is found only in classical words, and has the sound of long or short e; as Ccesar, minutiae, (esthetics.

AI, AY.

14. Ai and ay sound like long a in fate-, before r like a in care; as, Laid, day, hair.

Exceptions are —

Aisle '). Plaid. Said.

Again(st). Quay. Says, saith.

Ay, aye. Raillery. Waistcoat.

and the unaccented ending am; as, fountain, mountain, etc.

AO. gt;

• ^

lo. Ao sounds like long a in gaoi, the only word in which it occurs ¹).

AU, AW.

16. Au and aw generally sound like broad a in all; as. Cause, pause, laureate, straw, laiv.

Exceptions. — 1. Au sounds like the a in far in laugh and draught ²), also when preceding n followed by another consonant; as. Aunt, laundress. it-v . ■ w

2. Au sounds like long a in gauge-, like long o in/iawJtoi/³);

and like short o in laurel, cauliflower and sausage.

------

¹

aye = ever, like long a; quay is pronounced ke; in, plaid and raillery the

²

ai has either the long or the short a sound; in againist) the prevailing sound is short e; in the other words ai sounds like short e. 2) In extraordinary the ao is usually sounded like broad a. 3) The gh is these words sounds

³

like f. 4) The t is silent.

XX

EA..

17. Ea is generally sounded like long e; as, Sea, clear, spear,

clean, tear (traan), heard, beast, least, each, peach

Ea sounds like long a in fate, and before r like a in care, in the words —

Great. Bear -)■ Tear.

Pear. Yea. Wear.

Steak. Break. Swear.

Ea sounds like the a in far in —

Heart(y). Hearth.

Hearten. Hearken.

Ea sounds like u in fur when it is followed by r and consonant; as, Learn, earth, earl, yearn, etc.

Exceptions are beard and the words in which the Italian a is heard.

Ea sounds like short e in many words, especially before d, and before two consonants (not before r and consonant and, save a few exceptions, not before st and c/i); as.

Bread. Head. Peasant.

Breast Health. ^quot;Pleasure.

Breakfast. Heaven. Pleasant.

Breath.^quot;' Heavy. _| Pheasant.

Bead (pt and pp).

Beady.

Realm.

Stead(y). quot;

Stealth(y).

Sweat.

Treachery. ^ Treacherous., Treasure. V-

1) The same sound is heard in creature, but in create, creative, creator, creation, the e and a are sounded separately. 2) The noun and the verb have the same pronunciation.

XXI

Tread. Threaten. Weather.

Thread, Wealth. Zealot. ^

Threat. Weapon. Zealous.

Observation. — To read, to lead, mead, and the adverb cleanly have the sound of long e.

EAU,

18. Eau sound like long o; as, Beau, bureau, porte-manteau, etc. It sounds like long u in beauty and its derivatives.

EB«

19. Ee sounds like long e; as, Green, street, etc. Exceptions are Greenwich '), breeches, threepence, in which

ee sounds like short i.

EI.

20. Ei generally sounds like long a in fate, before r like a in care; as, Eight, neigh, heinous, inveigtt~heir, their, etc.

Ei sounds like long e. \

a. When it is preceded by c; as, Ceiling, receipt, deceive, etc.

b. In the following words —

Inveigle.^¹ Seignior. Seisin.

Plebeian. Seize, u Weird.

Ei sounds like long t in — ^

Eeight. Sleight. V-'¹quot;

Hei(/7iten. Either (neither).

Ei sounds like short i in in in —

V

Foreign. Souvereign(ty). _v

Foreigner. Surfeit.

Forfeit.^' Counterfeit.

Ei sounds like short e in leisure ²), heifer and nonpareil.

¹

Also pronounced Grtn-idge, Grén-idge, Green-idge, Green-itsh. 2) Also

²

pronounced with ei = long e.

XXII

GO.

21. Eo sounds like long e in people and feoff; like short e in leopard, jeopardy, like long o in yeoman, and like the a in nor (long broad a) in George.

EIJ, EW.

22. Eu and ew sound like long u (time); preceded by I or r like u in rude; as, Feud, dew, sewer (riool) blew, crew.

Exceptions. — Ew sounds like long o in quot;sew, shew, strew (written also show and straw) and in Shrewsbury.

EY.

23. Ey when accented sounds like long a (fate), when unaccented like short i in pin; as, Prey, obey, convey; barley, alley, valley.

Exceptions. — Eye sounds like long i; in key and ley, more commonly written lea, the long e sound is heard.

IA.

24. la sounds like short i in parliament-, the only word in which it occurs besides in endings (See 78).

IE.

25. Ie sounds like long e; as, Field, piece.

Exceptions are friend, sieve, mischief, kerchief, diet, quiet '). Ie and ye sound like long i at the end of a word; as, pie, die, dye, rye. (See 2, 2.)

IEÜ.

26. leu sounds like long u (tune); as, Lieu, adieu. Exception. — Lieutenant which is mostly pron. lef-tén-ant. lew occurs only in view and interview.

1) The ie in friend sounds like short e; in the following three like short i. In die/ and quit:/ the i and e are pronounced separately, i with its long sound.

XXIII

OA.

27. Oa sounds like long o; before r it has the long broad a sound; as, Boat, coat, groats, hoar, hoard, hoar, hoary. {See 5 Observation 2).

Exceptions are broad, abroad in which oa sounds like broad a in all.

OE.

28. Oe sounds like long o; as, Doe, toe, etc.

Exceptions are shoe and canóe, in which oe sounds like u

in rude.

OEV.

29. Oeu occurs only in the word manuoevre in which it has the sound of oo in moon,

Ol, Ol.

30. Oi and oy (For pronunciation See 3); as, Oil, voice, boy. Exceptions are —

Avoir-du-pois '). Connoisseur.

Choir. Porpoise.

Chamois. Tortoise.

OO.

31. Oo sounds like u in rude-, as. Moon, poor, etc. Exceptions are door and floor in which the oo has the broad

sound of a in at/; blood and flood, in which oo sounds like short u, and brooch in which oo sounds like long o.

Oo has a shorter sound when it precedes K, as book, and also in the following seven words —

Good. Stood. Foot. Wool.

Hood. Wood. Soot.

1) Pronounce avur-du-poiz, kviirc, shammij or sfiammois, cotmissur, tortus, porpus.

XXIV

OU.

And in many words derived from French.

Accoutre. Eoute. Surtout.

Group. Soup. Tour(ist).

Ou sounds like u in full in could, would and should. Ou sounds like broad a in all before ght ⁵).

Bought. Fought. Sought.

Brought. Nought. Thought.

Besought. Ought. Wrought.

¹

digdheden. 2) In this word gh is pronounced ƒ. 3) Gh sounds like p in this

²

nounced and ou as in cloud) is a miry place. 5) In this case gh is silent.

³

word. 4) Slough {gh = /) is the cast skin of a serpent, slough (gh not pro

XXV

Ou sounds like short o in not in cough ') and trough '), lough (gh = k) and shough (gh = k).

OW.

33. Ow generally sounds like the diphthong ow; as, Crown, brown, flower, towel, etc.

Ow sounds like long a in the following words —

Observation- — In bow, buigen, buiging, boeg; row, standje-, lower, betrekken-, sow, zeug, the ow sounds like ow. In bow, boog-bowsprit, boegspriet; row, rij- lower, lager, laten zakken; sow, zaaien, the ow sounds like long o.

The ow in Ttnowledge sounds like short o in not.

IT A.

34. TJa sounds like wa.

Assuage. Equal. Antiquary.

Persuade. Suavity.

Exceptions. — The u is silent in guard, guardian, guarantee, piquant. The words victuals and to victual are pronounced vitt'lz and to vitt'l. Language is pronounced lang-gwidzje.

UK.

45. TJe sounds like long u; after I or r like u in rude. Sue. Eéscue. Blue. True.

¹

syllable it has a slight long o sound.

XXV[

TJe sounds like we after q, and in a few words after s.

Conquest. Desuetude.

Quench. Mansuetude.

Observation. — The u is silent in guess, guest, guerdon, conquer and conqueror.

UI.

30. TJi sounds like long u, after I or r like u in rude.

Bruise. Juice. Suit.

Cruise. Pursuit. Sluice.

Fruit Eecruit. Nui-'Gn^e.

Exception- — The word suite sounds like sweet.

Ui sounds like wi after c, g and q; as, Languid, vanquish, anguish, cuirass.

Ui sounds like long i in the words guide, guile, beguile, disguise.

Ui sounds like short i in guild, guilt, guilder, guitar, guinea, build, built.

Uy has the long i sound; as, buy, guy.

37. From the foregoing rules we see that the same sounds are represented in different ways. Thus —

Fate — day, laid, eight, prey, great, gaol, gauge.

Care — hair, heir, wear.

Far — clerk, sergeant, heart, laugh, aunt.

All — law, cause, broad, brought, nor, George.

Mete — green, pea, beard, chief, ceiling, people, Csesar, key,

quay.

Met — many, said, says, again, bread, friend, bury, heifer, leopard.

Pine — pie, dye, thy, buy, height, aisle.

Pin — busy, pretty, England, mischief, sieve, breeches, foreign,

valley.

Bone — boat, soul, door, crow, owe, doe, sew, beau, yeoman.

XXVII

Not — what, watch, laurel, cough, knowledge.

Tune — beauty, feud, adieu, sue, view.

Rude — moon, group, blue, fruit, shoe.

Pull — book, good, could.

Fur — herd, bird, earth.

But — love, does, country, blood.

SOUNDS OP THE CONSONANTS.

38. Many consonants have the same sound as in Dutch, but it should be observed that the distinction between the soft or flat and sharp or hard consonants, which, especially at the end of words, is totally disregarded in Dutch, is always clearly heard in English. Distinction should thus be made between mob and mop, leave and leaf, dog and dock etc.

When a soft and a sharp consonant conae together they assimilate i. e. the one takes the sound of the other. This is of great importance with regard to the pronunciation of the plural and possessive case of nouns, and the third person singular, the Past tense and Past Participle of verbs. Thus we write iads, mills, dog's, hegs, stopped, robbed and pronounce ladz, millz, dog'z, begz, stopt, roVd. In all these cases the inflectional s and the d take the sound of the preceding soft or sharp consonant, and the rule is that a soft sound must be followed by a soft one and a sharp sound by a sharp one.

In all other cases, however, the rule is that the first consonant takes the sound of the corresponding second, thus we write cupboard and pronounce cubboard.

C.

39. O sounds like s before e, i, y; in all other cases it sounds like k.

XXVIII

C sounds like sh ') when it is followed by ea, ia, ie, io, eons; as, Ocean, social, precious, etc.

C sounds like z in discern (See p. xxxiv) and its derivatives, in suffice and sacrifice.

Note that in sufficiency sufficient and sacrificial, the c sounds like sh.

CH.

40. Ch generally sounds like tsh.

Arch. Chair. Eich.

Child. Cherry. Beech.

Exception. — Ache ¹).

Ch sounds like sh after n and I, and also in French words. Bench. Charlatan. Chamois.

Clinch. Chevalier. Machine.

Belch. Chagrin. Marchioness.

Ch sounds like k in words derived from Greek and Latin.

Anchor. Chronic. Machiavélian.

Architect. Chaos. Machination.

Chasm. Echo. Monarch.

Character. Enoch. Orchestra.

Chorister. Epoch. Stomach.

Exceptions are Rachel, cheruh, choir and ostrich ²).

Observation. — The ch of arch sounds like tsh before a consonant; as, Archbischop, archduke, etc.; before a vowel it sounds like k; as, Archangel, architect, archives, archaism, archipelago, etc.

An exception is arch-enemy, in which word ch is pronounced tsh.

F.

41. Only in the preposition of this letter sounds like v, in

¹

sj; it is exactly like the French ch in chambre. 2) In this word the ch

²

sounds like k. 3) Pronounce kwire and ostritsh.

XXIX

all other cases (the compounds of of included) it has its sharp sound.

e.

42. G is hard (as in the French guide,

fore a, o, u, I, r, and at the end of a Gate. Goal.

Gone. Glove

Exception. — Gaol.

G has its soft sound before e, i, y Gentle. Change.

Giant. Page.

Exceptions are all the Teutonic and origin. The principal are —

CH.

43. Gh at the beginning of a word has the hard sound of g. Ghost. Ghastly. Gherkin.

Gh at the end of a word, and when followed by t, is commonly silent.

XXX

Exceptions are draught, laugh, laughter, enough, rough, slough '), tough, trough, cough in which the gh sounds like ƒ; and lough, shough in which gh sounds like k (See 32).

J.

44. J has the sound of soft g, except in the word Hallelujah in which it has the sound of our j.

W.

45. N sounds like our n. (See further NG).

WCr.

46. Ng sounds like ng in the Dutch word gang; as, Song, king, sing, ring.

The same sound is heard —

a. In words derived from words in ng.

Sing. Singing. Singer.

King. Ringing. Ringer.

b. In words which have an n followed by k, c hard, qu or x. In these cases the sound of ng is given to n.

Ink. Uncle. Banquet. | _

Thank. Concord. Vanquish. ) '^W/)

Monkey. Concrete. Anxious.

Ng sounds like ng g hard —

a. In words which are not obvious derivatives from words in ng.

Anger. Monger. Congress.

Finger. Angle. Language.

Hunger. Single. Languish.

Linger. Mingle. Languor, (u ~ w)

1) See Note p. XXIV.

XXXI

Exceptions are — 1. Angel, danger, manger, ginger, and the words in nge and their derivatives, as sponge, tinge, range, ranger, etc.

2. The comparatives and superlatives of long, strong, and young.

PH.

47. Ph sounds like f.

Pheasant. Philosophy.

Phial. Phantom.

Exceptions are the words Stephen and nephew in which ph sounds like u; diphthong in which ph sounds like f, ') and naphtha '²) in which ph sounds like p. In Sappho the pph sounds like f.

a.

48. Q is always followed by u, and qu has commonly the sound of kw.

Queen. Quart. Question.

Quill. Quarrel. Conquest.

In many words of French origin qu sounds like k, as coquet, étiquette, masque, masquerade, liquor, exchéquer, and also in conquer and conqueror.

R.

49. K which has about the sound of our r ³), has in some cases the sound of a short u and is in other cases dropped altogether.

1. R, is has its own sound when single or double it is followed by a vowel, either in the same or in the following word — Rose. Merit. Fearing.

Crust. Courage. Here is.

Prince. Merry. Far-away.

1) Also fh —p. 2) Also p/i = ƒ. 3) The English r is never trilled.

XXXII

2. B final or followed by another consonant is not heard after the Italian a sound, and the short e, i and u sound —

Bar. Her. Bird.

Bark. Herd. Fur.

Spark. Fir. Furl.

3. K followed by a consonant in the same word is not heard after o —

Poured. Pork. Board.

4. B. has the short u sound in all other cases —

Here. Fire. Pour.

Fear. Fired. Store.

Feared. Tired. More.

The influence of the r on the preceding vowel is always great. From the rules for the vowel sounds it may have been seen that: 4. It changes the short a (when not preceded by w) into the Italian sound of a in far. 2. It gives the lenghtened sound of short a to the long a sound, as in care. 3. In changes the o sound (long and short) into the broad a sound, as in for, bore. 4. It gives a peculiar sound to short u as in fur. 5. It gives e and i the sound of u in fur. 6. It modifies the long vowel sounds, the sounds of mete and mere, mile and mire, -pool and poor, etc. not being quite identical.

50. S has the sharp sound of the Dutch s, and the soft sound of our z.

S is sharp at the beginning of words.

Sun. Seat. Sound.

Sand. Sign. Suppose.

Compounds and derivatives made from such words retain the sharp sound. Thus, in reseat, resign (to sign again), resound (to sound again), presuppose, the s is sharp as these words are obvious derivatives from seat, sign, sound, suppose. When such is not the case s is soft as in resign (to give up), resound (to

xxxiii

be echoed back), etc. Hence s is sharp after separable, and soft after inseparable prefixes.

In the middle of a word s is either soft or sharp.

S is soft —

1. Between two vowels.

few others of less frequent occurrence. 2. Before soft consonants and liquids.

Husband.

Grisly.

S is sharp.

1. After a consonant.

Absurd. Gipsy.

Subside. False.

Insect. Dense.

Morsel. Purse.

Exceptions are 1. The following words

Absolve¹). Damsel. Crimson

Cleanse. Damson. Observe and derivatives.

¹

nounced also with s sharp. 3) s is always soft before and after m.

XXXIV

2. When sy comes after an accented syllable ending in I, m, n; as, Palsy, clumsy, pansy.

2. Before sharp consonants, as, Rascal, lisp.

3. In mis and some, and before ity and ive.

Misapply. Animosity.

Handsome. Conclusive.

4. In the prefix dis; as. Disperse, disgust, disable, etc. Exceptions are the following words and derivatives.

Disarm. Dishonest.

Disaster. Dishonour.

Discern, Dismal.

Disease. Disown.

Disdain. Dissolve.

At the end of words s is again either sharp or soft.

S is sharp after vowels and sharp consonants. Yes. Us. Basis.

Gas. Thus. Nervous.

Christmas. This. Shafts.

Exceptions are —

1. The words as, his.

2. The Latin ending es; as, Species, series.

3. When es is preceded by a liquid of soft consonant; as, James, besides.

S is soft after liquids and soft consonants; as, Ours, yours, theirs, Mars , Mobbs.

Observations on the inflectional s. The rules for the inflectional s are as follow —

1. The inflectional s is sharp after a sharp consonant with or without silent e; as, Books, caps, capes, tastes, admits, etc.

XXXV

2. The inflectional s is soft after vowels, soft consonants and liquids, and also after a sharp s or sh sound '). Thus in boys, plays, rags, stabs, houses, ¹) horses, faces, princes, pages, wishes, churches, tinal s sounds like z. — Is, has, was come under this rule.

The 's, the sign of the possessive case, follows the same rules. Observations on final se. — We have seen that s in final se preceded by a consonant is sharp, and that it is soft when it is preceded by a vowel. To the latter rule we may add the following exceptions in which the s is sharp.

1. Adjectives in se.

Close. Obtuse.

Loose. Profuse.

Exception is wise.

2. Words which have a non-historical e.

House ²). Goose.

Mouse Geese.

3. Words which in French have no e or a sharp s; as. Case, base, chase, purchase, etc.³)

4. Several nouns and adjectives in se to distinguish them from verbs of the same form in which s is soft.

Use. To use.

Abuse. To abuse.

Diffuse. To diffuse.

Excuse. To excuse.

Close. To close.

Grease. To grease.

Exceptions. — In promise and purpose the s is always sharp; in exercise it is always soft.

¹

wishes we have two syllables, but not in capes, tastes. 2) There is assimula-

²

tion of consonants in houses, the sharp s of the word taking the soft sound of the plural s, thus houziz, which is an exception to the rule. 3) These words were in Anglo-saxon hüs, mus, lt;j6s, gés. 4) These words retain the

³

sharp s sound when they are used as veris.

XXXVI

S sounds like zh.

1. In words ending in sion preceded by a vowel.

Evasion. Decision.

Explosion. Conclusion.

2. In words ending in sure preceded by an accented vowel.

Leisure, Pleasure.

Exposure. Treasure.

3. In most words ending in sier; as, Hosier, grasier.

SC.

51, Sc sounds like sharp s before e, i, y; in all other cases like sk.

Scene, Scythe. Scorn.

Scepter. Scale. Screw,

Exceptions. — Sceptic and its derivatives.

XXXVII

8CH.

52. Sch sounds like sk.

Scheme. School.

Exceptions are — Schism (pron. sizm) and schedule (pron. sedule or shedule) and derivatives.

SH.

53. Sh sounds like the French ch (as in charnbre); as, Shop , sharp, dish, fish.

Si.

54. SS has the sound of sharp s; as, Less. It sounds like z in the words —

Dissolve. Possess. Hussy.

Dessert. Scissors. Hussar.

The final ss in possess is sharp.

T.

55. T sounds like sh when it is followed by ia, ie or io. Nation. Partial.

Station. Patient.

Exceptions. — The t has its own sound in the word satiety and after s and a;; as, Celestial, question , mixture, etc.

Til.

56. Th has a sharp or a soft sound. Sharp th is produced by putting thel tip of the tongue between the teeth, or by placing it against Ithe back of the upper front teeth and then pronouncing an s. Soft th is produced by placing the tongue in the same position and pronouncing a d.

XXXVIII

Th is sharp at the beginning of words.

Exceptions are all pronominal words.

Exceptions are —

1. The words booth, smooth, with.

2. Verbs ending in th or the; as, to bequeath, to smooth, to mouth, to bathe, to breathe.

3. The words bath, lath, path, oath, mouth, etc. when they are followed by plural s ¹).

Observation. — Followed by the inflectional s, the th is soft when it is preceded by a long vowel, and sharp when it is preceded by a short vowel sound, as in deaths, cloths, months.

Th in the middle of a word is soft in English words; sharp in words derived from Latin and Greek.

¹

The s has the soft sound iu these words.

XXXIX

Note that the th is sharp in north, south and worth, so that the words northern, southern and worthy are exceptions to the rule that the th in derivatives has the sound of the primary word, as healthy and health, Gothic and Goth, pithy and pith, etc.

Th sounds like t in the words —

Anthony. Thames. Asthma.

Thomas. Thesis. JVithisis.

Thompson. Thyme. P/ithisic(al).

W, WH.

57. w is produced by making a short oe sound heard before pronouncing our Dutch w. Wh sounds like hoe short.

X,

58. X sounds like ks at the end of words, when it ends an accented syllable, and when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant.

Box. Exile (n). Excel.

Excellent. Exercise. Expect.

X sounds like gz when it is followed by accented an syllable beginning with a vowel or an h.

Exert. Exact. Ex/iale.

Exist. Exult. Ex/iort.

Exile. Example. ■ Ex/iaust.

Observation. — When the accent does not fall on the first or second syllable, x sounds like ks when it is followed by a consonant, like gz when followed by a vowel. Thus, Expectation, excommunicate, examination.

X at the beginning of words sounds like z; as, Xerxes, Xenophon, Xanthippe,

Xi sounds like fesTi; as, Anxious, noxious.

XL

Y.

59. Y sounds like our j at the beginning of a word or syllable; as, Yard, year, lawyer.

Z.

UO. z sounds like our z; as, Zeal, frozen. It sounds like zh in brazier, grazier, glazier, azure, seizure.

MUTE OR SILENT CONSONANTS.

61. B is silent before t and after m in the same syllable.

Debt. Lamb.

Doubt. Crumb.

B is also silent in subtle and its derivatives; in subtile the b is sometimes heard.

62. 0 is silent. — 1. In the words Czar, indict, victuals and their derivatives.

2. In the termination scle; as, Muscle.

3. When it is followed by e, i, y; as. Scene, science. Exceptions are sceptic and derivatives.

63. Oh is silent in drachm (not in drachma), schism, yacht, and derivatives.

64. D is silent in Wednesday, Windsor, ribband, handkerchief, handsome.

65. G is silent before n and m in the same syllable; as, Gnat, reign, phlegm.

XLI

67. H is silent. — 1. In the following words and their derivatives.

Heir(ess). Honour. Shepherd.

Hour. Humour. Naphtha.

Honest.

2. After x; as, exhaust, exhale , exhort, etc.

3. After r, and after a vowel; as, Rhubarb, John, Sarah.

68. K is silent before n in the same syllable; as, Knee, knife.

69. L is silent. — 1. When in the same syllable it is preceded by a or o, and followed by f, k, m; as, Halm, calm, walk.

2. In the following words —

Almond. Palmer. Could.

Balmy. Salmon. Would.

Palmy. Falcon(er). Should.

70. Kquot; is silent at the end of a syllable after m; as, Autumn.

74. P is silent. — 1. At the beginning of a word before n, s, and t; as, Pneumatics, psalm, ptarmigan.

2. Between m and t, as empty, attempt, comptroller (pron. controller); and in the -words receipt, corps, raspberry,

72. Ph is silent in phthisis, phthisic, phthisical, apophthegm.

73. S is silent in isle, island, aisle, demesne, puisne, viscount •, and at the end of words derived from French, as, corps, etc.

74. T is silent. — 1. When preceded by s and followed by le or en; as. Castle, bustle, ostler, mistletoe, listen.

2. In the words —

Christmas. Mortgage. Soften,

Chestnut. Often.

75. W is silent. — 1. Before r; as, Wrong.

2. Before h followed by o(oo); as, Who, whose, whole, whoop.

3. In the words Answer, sword, two, towards, boatswain, cockswain, gunwale ').

1) Pronounce óus'n, koks'n, gunnel.

XUI

SOUNDS OP VOWELS IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES AND TERMINATIONS.

76. In unaccented syllables the vowels comrr.only have their long or short sound, slightly and briefly pronounced. Such at any rate is the case in slow reading, in rapid utterance however the vowels sound mostly like short u (as in fur). Thus ^!) —

Observations. — 1. The a has a brief long sound when it makes a syllable by itself and is followed by another vowel; as, aerial, chaotic. The same sound is heard in verbs ending in ate; as, to educate (See 78).

2. The e has a brief long sound when it makes a syllable by itself; in the prefixes be, de, re, se, pre, when they are followed by the accented syllable; and when a syllable ends in a consonant with e.

Event. Descend. Sedate.

Because. Return. Prefer.

Delight. Secure. Obsolete.

3. The i has a brief long sound when it makes a syllable by itself; as, Idea, irony, in the first syllable of the following words: Biography, biology, criterion, primeval, tribunal ; and when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e; as suicide (For exceptions See 81—84). It has its regular short sound when a consonant ends the syllable ; as, Cupidity.

4. The o has a brief long sound when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e; as, Telescope, monotone. It has its regular short sound in the ending ogue preceded by g or I] as, Dialogue, demagogue.

5. The u bas a brief long sound when it makes a syllable

1) In the following words the letters in italics have the short » sound. Before the u in argument, the y sound is heard.

XLIII

by itself; as, Ubiquity; when preceded by t or s it ends a syllable, as virtuous '); and when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e, as gratitude.

Exceptions are the nouns minute and lettuce in which words the u sounds like short i.

6. The y has a brief long sound when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e; as, Anodyne, prosolyte; in verbs ending in fy, as magnify; and in the verbs occupy, multiply and prophesy.

77. In unaccented endings the vowel has in most cases the sound of short u (as in fur) slightly and rapidly pronounced. This is especially the case with a and o followed by a consonant; when the vowels are followed by r, and in the endings our and ous.

79. The same sound of short i pronounced in a slight, rapid

¹

In most words in el the e sound is dropped, as -flannel, travel_y level, etc.

XLIV

way is heard in ed, en, et, est, nesa, and the plaral ending es.

Bagged. Aspen. Velvet.

Crooked. Chicken. Horses.

Carried ¹). • Hyphen. Paces.

Married. Sudden. Honest.

Kitchen. Sloven. Forest.

Lichen. Violet. Wickedness.

Observations. — 1. The sound of e in the ending en is mostly dropped; thus, heaven sounds like heav'n; so also garden, oxen, even, etc. The ending en retains the e sound in the words given above, and further when it is preceded by a liquid as woollen, women, linen, specimen, etc. The words fallen, stolen and swollen are exceptions.

2. In the Past Tense and Past Participles of verbs the e sound of the ending ed is always dropped unless the verb ends in d or t. Thus, played, robbed, opened, asked, stopped are in speaking shortened to play'd, robb'd, operid, askt, stopt ²), but in rewarded, intended, expected, mounted, etc. the ending ed makes an additional syllable.

In a few participles used as adjectives, and adjectives in ed not derived from verbs, the e sound is commonly heard;

The e sound is retained in derivatives made from such words, as composedly, blessedness, but omitted in compounds, as full-fledged.

¹

The i preceding the verbal ed is not sounded. 2) See 38. 8) Picked

²

is sharp, pointed; in the meaning of selected the e is dropped; as, A band

³

of picked (pikt) men.

XLV

80. The endings ial, ian, iard, and ion preceded by I or n sound like yal, yan, etc.

Filial. Poniard. Million.

Italian. Opinion. Minion.

Exception. — Menial.

81. The endings ice, lie, ive have the i short.

Notice. Ductile. Native.

Service. Fertile. Motive.

Exceptions are. — Sacrifice — reconcile and camomile — exile, crocodile, reptile, juvenile, gentile ').

82. The ending ine is commonly long.

Confine. Countermine. Porcupine.

Feline. Columbine. Serpentine.

Exceptions are Determine, examine, discipline, feminine, genuine, heroine, jessamine libertine, masculine, medicine, palatine ').

83. The ending ise has the i long.

Advertise. Exercise.

Exceptions are promise, practise, franchise, mortise and their derivatives.

84. The endings on and eon. have the short u sound.

Lemon. Luncheon.

Pennon. Surgeon.

Observation. — After c, ck, d, t, s the o sound is commonly dropped; as, Bacon, reckon, pardon, mutton, treason.

85. The unaccented ending ow sounds like long o; as, Window, fallow, etc.

86. In the endings le and re, final e is silent and a very slight short u sound is heard before I and r; thus, apple, able, acre, sabre sound like app'l, ah'l, acW, sab'r.

1) And a few of less frequent occurrence.

XLVI

87. The ending ure, sure and ture. — These endings are often pronounced with the short u sound, especially when they are immediately preceded by the accented syllable, as figure, exposure, rupture, nature. The s of sure sounds like zh (See 50); the t of ture has its original sound or is pronounced tsh.

88. The endings gue and que sound like g hard and k, respectively; as. Fatigue, tongue, dialogue, antique, oblique.

89. We have seen that c, t and s before ea, ia, io sound like sh. Hence the endings cean, dan, cial, dent, science, cion, ceous, dous, seous, sdous, sian, sion, Hon, tious, tial, tient. Hence, sound like shan, shal, shent, shun, etc.

Ocean, Cetaceous. Conscious.

Social. Precious. Partial.

Musician. Nauseous. Transient.

Ancient. Persian. Patience.

Conscience. Mansion. Ambitious.

Suspicion. Nation.

Observation. — In conscience and conscious the sci sounds like sh, but in the words conscientious, conscientiously _t conscientiousness, the sci (= sh) does not run together with en but makes a separate syllable, though slightly and rapidly pronounced, thus conshe-enshus. In the same way ci and ti in the endings dable, date, liable; as, Sociable, associate, satiate, negotiate, negotiable.

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

90. Accent is the stress which in pronouncing a word is laid on one of its syllables.

91. Accent is of two kinds — primary and secondary; most polysyllables have besides a syllable with the primary accent, also one with the secondary; as. Beautiful, temporary, speculation, perambulator.

92. Words of two syllables- — Words of two syllables have, as a rule, the accent on the first syllable but as the accent

XLVII

very seldom falls on the prefix, the exceptions to this rule are very numerous.

Harbour. Moment. Accuse ').

Hazard. Virtue. Assist.

Létnon. Varnish. Concéal.

Crédit. Offénce. Decéive.

.Wisdom. Disguise. Eemain.

93. The following dissyllables when used as nouns or adjectives have the accent on the first syllable, when used as verbs on the second.

Nouns or Adjectives. Verbs. Nouns or Adjectives. Verbs.

XLvni

94. In the following words the accent marks a distinct difference of meaning.

96. Words of three or more syllables — Words of three or more syllables have, as a rule, the accent on the third syllable from the end (the antipenult, or antipenultimate syllable).

XL1X

Senator. Treasury. Catastrophe.

Eminence. Democracy, Oviparous.

Funeral. Affluent. Carnivorous.

Exceptions to the words ending in ate are remonstrate and demonstrate; to those in ator are creator and spectator; to those in orous are canorous and sonorous.

97. Words ending in ic(s), ish, and tive preceded by a consonant, have the accent on the preceding syllable (the penult or penultimate syllable.

Domestic. Heroic. Attractive.

Eepublic. Establish. Invective.

Exceptions are the following words —

Arithmetic. Liinatic. Adjective.

Catholic. Ehétoric. Substantive.

Héretic. Pólitic(s).

28. Words ending in ical, ulous, inous have the accent on the antepenultimate syllable; as, Poetical, herétical, political, ridiculous, voluminous.

99. When the two last syllables of a word are blended together so as to form but one sound, the accent falls on the antipenul-timate syllable.

Imperial ■). Opinion. Spontaneous.

Beneficial. Illusion. Anxious.

Barbarian. Information. Facetious

Subterranean. Courageous. Patience.

Delineate. Prodigious. Valiant.

Exceptions are idéal, hymenéal, hymenéan, Européan, epicuréan, Criméan, which have the accent on the penult, the e and a not forming one sound.

100. Words of three syllables which are obvious derivatives from

1) The vowel sounds can properly be said to form one sound only when the t or i is preceded by c. g, s, t and x. In other cases the vowel sounds are merely run together.

L

dissyllables commonly retain the accent of the dissyllable, except when the accent is influenced by the termination. Thus, appearance from appear, difference from differ; feverish from fever \ choleric from chóler\ etc. but, poëticaal) from poet.

101. Words of more than three syllables — also derivatives from dissyllables — commonly have the accent on the fourth syllable from the end, except when the accent is influenced by the termination.

Allegory. Persecutor. Promontory.

Imagery. Hereditary. Ceremony.

Melancholy. Temporary. Despicable.

Apoplexy. Predatory. Delineation.

102. Words adopted without alteration from foreign languages retain their original accent; as, asylum, corona, curator, decorum, horizon, pomatum, torpedo, octavo, etc.

103. The vowels of accented sylladles are either long or short; as. Paper, merit, nation, national.

104. Derivatives from words of two syllables oommonly retain the long or short vowel sound of the dissyllables; as, dispose disposal, fragrant — fragrancy, favour — favourite — favourable, glory — glorify, etc.

Exceptions are angelic, chastise, chastity, natural national, etc.

105. When the accent falls on the antipenultimate syllable, the vowel of the accented syllable is short, except when it is a m which is always long, as musical.

Exceptions to this rule are —

1. The following words —

Atheist. Equinox. Protocol.

Capable. Ivory. Vehement.

Evening. Irony. Vehicle.

LI

2. When the accented syllable is followed by two vowels forming one sound, the vowel of the accented syllable is long, except i, which is always short.

Patience. Atrocious. Period.

Precarious. Confusion. Imperial.

Ferocious. Opinion. Ingredient.

To this rule are a few exceptions as, companion, valiant, onion, poniard, noxious, precious, special, discretion.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

THE ARTICLES.

1. The articles are a or an and the.

2. A is used before words beginning with a consonant or a consonant sound, as u, eu, ew, y, one, once.

A house, een huis. A ewer, een lampetkan,

A university, een hoogeschool. A yard, een el.

A, European, een Europeaan. Such a one, zulk een,

3. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h, and also before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second or any following syllable.

An uncle, een oom. An historical event, een geschied-An hour, een uur. kundige gebeurtenis.

The words beginning with a silent h are heir, honest, honour, hour, with their derivatives, and alsu hostler (more proi)erly swelled ostler).

1

2

TJSE OP THE ARTICLES.

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.

4. No article is used when a noun is taken in a general sense.

Experience is the best teacher.

Tigers are bloodthirsty animals.

Gold is the king of metals.

The article, however, may not be omitted —

1. When a noun is taken in a limited or particular sense.

The experience of many years made him wise.

The iron of these nails is of the finest quality.

The leaves begin to fall from the trees.

The stars twinkled in the sky.

2. Before a class-noun in the singular, except man and woman.

The tiger is a bloodthirsty animal.

The rose is famous for its beauty.

Man is the protector of woman.

Observations. — A noun taken in a general sense may be preceded or followed by a qualifying word without requiring the article. Thus we say, True happines, base flattery, national greatness, civil liberty, human life, public opinion, Ehglish public opinion, etc.; Dutch cheese, French wine, Delft pottery; English literature, French history, etc. But we say, The English language, the Dutch language, etc.

Note that we say, Public opinion in England, civil liberty in France, etc., but, the public opinion of England, the civil liberty of France, etc. So also, English history, French literature, etc, but, the history of England, the literature of France, etc.

s

5. The names of titles, dignities, professions, etc. followed by the name of a person, take no article.

King William, Queen Emma, Prince Edward.

Duke William, General Murat, Admiral Monk. Exceptions are a few foreign titles as Emperor, Empress; Archduke, Archduchess; Grand Duke, Grand Duchess; Elector, Electress; Czar, Czarina; and in formal style the words Lady and Princess. Thus we say, The Emperor Napoleon, the Czar Alexander.

6. With regard to proper nouns the following points should be observed

1. The names of seasons, used in a general sense take no article.

% Without the article we use the following words — Providence, de Voorzienig- Hell, de Hel.

Pate, het noodlot. [heid. Mankind ¹), het menschdom. Nature, de Natuur. Society '), de maatschappij.

Heaven, de Hemel. God Almighty, do almachtige

Paradise, het Paradijs. God.

But we speak of the sky, the heavens, the universe, the sun, the moon, the soul, the Almighty , the north, the south, etc.

3. In familiar language the name of a person preceded by an adjective is often used without the article; as, Poor Jack, Little Dick, Bold Robin Hood.

4. The adjective saint followed by a proper noun takes no article; as, Saint Peter.

5. The names of buildings and places, named after persons or places, take no article; as , Windsor Park, Greenwich Hospital, Buckingham Palace.

¹

no article unless when taken in a particular sense. ^r/' lt;vamp;i.

4

6. The names of single mountains) and the words lake and mount followed by a proper noun, take no article; as, Vesuvius, Ben Neuis, lake Erie, mount Ararat.

Alsace, de Elzas; but the following geographical names have the article in English, and not in Dutch —

The Deccan. ⁰Tlie Tyrol.

The Downs, The Texel.

The Grisons. The East Indies.

The Morea. The West Indies.

Before the names of places and countries preceded by an adjective the article is often omitted; as, Old England, Ancient Rome, Sunny France, etc.

7. No article is used before the word table in the meaning of dinner; and before the names of buildings and places to indicate the use made of them.

We are at table, at school, in prison.

We go to school, to market.

We put something on the table.

We live near the school, the church.-

The prison was near the riverside.

Note that we say, lo go to the theatre, to go to the circus, to the opera.

8. No article is used before the names of meals, unless the food or a special occasion is referred to.

What will you have for breakfast?

After tea they had some music.

We shall meet him at dinner..

Dinner will be ready in half an hour.

The old servant is cooking the dinner.

The dinner seemed to be very long.

The dinner will come off next Friday.

I

5

9. The article is also omitted in most verbal and adverbial expressions. , ₁ J»'

To live in town. To attend church.

To lose sight of.^ v To be in mourning.W ' , ^ To put in prison. To be dressed in black. ^

To shake hands. ' . ^ To take dinner, supper, etc.

To weign7 to cast anchor. From head to foot.

To mount guard.From east to west. '■

To hoist, set sail. Arms, sword in hand.

In the following expressions the article is used — To become ■ the fashion, to take the alarm, to take the lead, to play the piano, etc. y

THE INDEI'INITE ARTICLE.

10. The Indefinite article is used —

4. Before a predicative noun denoting a title, dignity, profession, palling, nationality, etc.

*u-.

His brother is an officer, an exile.

He became a carpenter, a bookseller.

He was a Frenchman by birth.

His cousin was made a captain. ')

2. Before a noun connected by as with the word it qualifies.

As a biography the work is unsatisfactory.

She was proud of her success as a reader.

His power as a preacher is well known.

As a boy his tastes were all for science.

Exceptions to these rules are —

a. When the title or dignity is held by one person only.

He was appointed President of the Council.

His brother has been made captain of the Warrior.

--a

1) After the verbs benoemen, to make and aanstellen, io appoint, tot is not to be translated.

6

b. The verb to turn.

He turned soldier, informer.

Observation. — Just as in Datch we say. He obtained the title of Duke; but when the noun does not denote a title or dignity the article must be used; as, He learned the trade of a printer. Hence the article is not used after the expressions the title of, the rank of, the dignity of, the fast of, the name of.

3. Before nouns denoting time, number, weiglit, or measure.

Six miles a day. Once a year. ■.

Two shillings a bottle. Fifteen pence a yard.^;

5. Before few and little, and the numerals hundred, thousand, million.

A few passengers escaped without injury.

We had a thousand things to do.

7

Observation. — A few were in the secret means a small number; but few were in the secret denotes a still smaller number or perhaps none. Com-^ j)are also. He thought a little about it, with He thought little about it. A few answers to our eenige weinige{n), eenige, wat; feio^ to our weinige{n). A little answers to our een weinig, wat; little, to our weiniq.

REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE.

11. The article is not repeated before two or more nouns, unless we wish to draw special attention to each of them separately.

Give me a knife and fork.

The church, the town-hall, the theatre, and the museum were burnt down.

Notice the U3e of the ind. art. in the following cases — If we speak of a black and a yellow flag, we mean two flags; but a Hack and yellow flag means one flag. — He sent flor the secretary and the treasurer implies that two different persons are sent for; the secretary and treasurer denotes that the two offices are held by one person. Again. He is a better sailor than a horseman signities: He is a better sailor than a horseman would be; bat he is a better sailor than horseman means that he understands the art of navigating a vessel better than the art of riding a horse. We say, the 4th and the 5th chapter; or the 4th and 5th chapters; he studies the French and the Italian language, or he studies the French and Italian language.

PLACE OF THE ARTICLE.

Sr.

12. When the words as, so, too, how, however, precede an adjective, the article is put betweg^. the adjective and the noun. As great a man as Cesar.

So great a scholar.

Too great a responsibility. \

How clever a man he may be.

Observation. — The - word too is sometimes preceded by the article; as. Our friends lived in a too noisy street.

8

13. All, both, half, double, treble and triple, are placed before the article.

All the children were on the ice.

Both the prisoners.

Half the money. Double the sum.

Observation. — Half not denoting the half of a whole is preceded by the article. Thus we speak of half an hour but the half hour; half a bottle hut a half-bottle. Een halve gulden is half a guilder to denote the value of the coin; we say a half guilder to denote the coin itself. So also, half u sovereign and a half sovereign.

Een halve stuiver is always a half penny.

Double and treble (triple) are preceded by the ind. art.; as, A double blessing.

14. The article is put after such, many, just, quite; and after what in exclamations.

Such a book. Many a flower.

Just the thing. Quite another man.

What a price you ask me!

The article is omitted after what when it is followed by an abstract noun that cannot be used in the plural; as, What presence of mind!

NOUNS.

15. Nouns are varied by Gender, Number and Case.

GENDER,

16. The names of persons and animals are either masculine or feminine. All other words are neuter.

9

17. Masculine and feminine nouns are distinguished in three ways —

1. By the use of different words.

2. By a difference of termination.

Actor, tooneelspelen. Actress, tooneelspeelster.

Count, graafCountess, gravin.

Duke, hertog. Duchess, hertogin.

Director, directeur. Directress, directrice.

Czar, czaar. Czarina, czarina.

3. By the addition of another word.

Man-servant, knecht. Maid-servant, meid.

He-goat, bok. She-goat. geit.

Peacock, pauw. Peahen, pauwin.

18. Some words are used in reference to both sexes; they are said to be of common gender, as artist, cousin, friend, parent, servant, etc.

19. In case the names of animals do not indicate their sex , the larger and bolder animals as the elephant, the horse, the dog, the eagle, etc. are considered as male; and the smaller and gentler as the cat, the sheep, the hare, etc. as female.

Birds, insects and fishes are generally spoken of as neuter.

20. In ordinary style a vessel, the church, countries and towns, when spoken of as Powers are feminine.

NUMBER,

21. Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural.

10

22. The plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular; as, hook, books; horse, horses.

23. Nouns ending in a hissing sound, as s or ss, sh, ch soft, x, and z form the plural by adding es.

Crocus — crocuses. Church — churches.

Kiss — kisses. Fox — foxes.

Brush — brushes. Topaz — topazes.

Nouns ending in eh hard take s; as, Monarchs, patriarchs.

24. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, form the plural by adding es; as, cargo, cargoes; hero, heroes. The following are commonly written with s. —

25. Nouns ending in f or fe change the f or fe into ves in the plural; as, leaf, leaves; knife, knives.

Exceptions to this rule are —

1. The nouns ending in oof, ief, rf, and ff.

Eoof — roofs. L Scarf — scarfs. ■'M.

Hoof — hoofs. Dwarf — dwarfs. ,

Chief — chiefs. ' Muff — muffs, L

Thief makes in the plural thieves; and staff, stok, has staves in the plural, but its compounds are regular; as, flagstaff, flagstaffs.

2. The following words —

Fife, dwarsfluit. Safe, brandkast.

Gulf, afgrond. Strife, twist.

n

26. Nouns ending in y after a consonant, change the y into ies in the plural; as, fly, flies. But nouns ending in y after a vowel form the plural regularly; as, day, days.

27. Irregular plurals are the following —

Man — men. Mouse — mice. Foot — feet.

Woman — women. Louse — lice. Tooth — teeth.

Child — children. Goose — geese. Ox — oxen.

¹

At present this distinction is not kept up.

12

OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER-FORMS.

30. The names of materials take the plural form to denote the different sorts of the material; as, Wines, teas, silks, etc.

31. A noun referring to several objects individually takes the plural form.

Ten sailors lost their lives.

They turned their backs upon the enemy.

32. Horse, paardenvolk-, foot, voetvolk; cannon, geschut; sail, schip; and head, stuks are used in the singular form with a plural verb.

His force consisted of five thousand foot.

A thousand horse were ready.

He turned his cannon against the cowards.

A fleet of fifty sail. A hundred head of cattle.

Obs. Cannon, kanon-, sail, zeil; head, hoofd take s in the plural.

33. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers —

1. Deer, hert, herten. Means, middel, middelen.

Sheep, schaap, schapen. Series, reeks, reeksen.

Swine, zwijn, zwijnen. Species, soort, soorten.

2. The names of some sorts of fish, as salmon, pike, carp, peich, etc.; and the words fish and fowl when we refer to the species.

We had caught two salmon.

Pish live in water.

But, We gave him the two fishes we had caught.

3. Nouns denoting number, as pair, couple, brace, yoke, team, dozen, stone, score, gross, except when they are taken as nouns.

Two pair of gloves.

A gross is twelve dozen.

But, They walked in pairs. By hundreds and thousands.

Rem. Nouns denoting weight, measure, or value take the plural form, unless they form part of a compound. Five ounces. A wall of ten feet. A child of seven years. A sum of five hundred guilders. But, A ten-pound note. A ten-foot-high wall. A seven-year-old child.

43

34. Some nouns are used only in the plural.

2. Such nouns as consist of two equal parts.

Observe that alms is sometimes used in the singular; that een wapen is a weapon that we say, the ash of a cigar; that the singular wage is sometimes used for the plural wages; and that people in the meaning of nation takes s in the plural, as the peoples of antiquity.

Note also that nouns consisting of two equal parts are preceded by pair, as A pair of spectacles; but that pair is omitted when the word is used with a possessive pronoun, a demonstrative pronoun, or the definite article. Thus we say, My spectacles, these scissors.

Rem. The nouns used only in the plural drop the s when they form part of a compound. Thus we say, billiard lable, trouserpocket, scissor grinder, elc.

35. The following nouns are used only in the singular.

News , nieuws. Posterity, nakomelingschap.

Progress, vordering, voortgang. Small-pox, pokken.

Business, zaak, zaken. Strength, kracht, krachten. Advice, raad - Furniture, meubelen.

Counsel, raad. Information, inlichtingen.

Knowledge, kennis, kundigheden. Mathematics, wiskunde.

Property, bezittingen, eigendom. Mechanics, werktuigkunde.

14

Obs. — The names of sciences ending in ics, as mechanics, fhyties. Of tics, tactics, etc. are also often nsed as plurals. Mathematics is a science. Mathematics were well taught. Nowhere are politics so much discussed as in London.

36. Some nouns have a double signification in the plural.

armen, wapenen,

arms,

wapenschild, (familie)wapen. beads, kralen, rozenkrans.

colours, kleuren, vlag.

compasses, kompassen, passer. pains, pijnen, moeite.

scales, schubben, weegschaal.

spirits, geesten, sterke drank. stairs, treden , trap (vr.)

Observe that the word pains may be preceded by mucli; as, Much pains were taken. Instead of much the word great is often used.

PLURAL OF COMPOUNDS.

37. The plural of compounds is generally formed by adding s to the principal noun.

Bookcase, boekenkast. bookcases.

Court-martial, krijgsraad. courts-martial.

Son-in-law, schoonzoon. sons-in-law.

Hanger-on, aanhanger. hangers-on.

38. Compounds ending in full, and those also which contain no principal word, form the plural by adding s to the last word.

Spoonful, lepelvol. spoonfuls.

Forget-me-not, vergeet-me-nietje. forget-me-nots. Six-pence, zesstuiverstuk. six-pences.

39. The compounds in man form the plural like the simple word, as coachman, coachmen; man-of-war, men-of-war; Englishman, Englishmen. ^

15

40. The following not being compounds take s — German, Germans; Norman, Normans; Musselman, Musselmans; Roman, Romans; talisman, talismans; cayman, caymans.

PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES.

i

41. In forming the plural of proper names, we generally preserve the spelling unchanged, as the three Marys, the eight Henrys, the family of the Wolfs; except when they are used as class or common nouns, as the Venuses, the Catoes, etc.

42. The proper names of nations and sects ending in eh, sh, ss, and ese take no plural.

The French, de Franschen. The Swiss, de Zwitsers.

The Dutch, de Nederlanders. The Portuguese, de Fortugeezen.

The English, de Engelschen. The Javanese, de Javanen.

The names of nations ending in ss and ese have the same form in the singular.

A Swiss, een Zwitser. A Javanese, een Javaan.

A Chinese, een Chinees. A Portuguese, een Portugees.

But those ending eh and sh are used only in the plural and form their singular by the addition of man-

A Frenchman, een Franschman. A Dutchman, een Hollander.

An Englishman, een Engelschman. An Irishman, een Ier.

Obs. — The plural compounds Frenchmen, Englishmen, etc. indicate single individuals; the French, the English, etc. always indicate the whole nation, except when preceded by no; as. There one meets with no English.

43. In forming the plural of a proper name and a title we generally pluralize the name in conversation, and the title in addressing letters.

The two Miss Howards. The Mr. Howards.

To the Misses Howard. . To the Messrs Howard.

f

For married ladies, in both instances, the name is pluralized.

The Mrs. Wilsons. To the Mrs. Wilsons.

I

16

Rem. — In addressing a gentleman, we use sir without the name, and rar. with the name. Thus, How do you do. Sir? Hew are you, Mr. B ? In addressing a married lady, we use madam without the name, and mrs with the name. Thus, Hoto are you. Madam? How do you do, Mrs B. ? In addressing groWn-up unmarried ladies, we use madam without the name, or miss followed by the name. Jongejufïrouw is always miss followed by the name (Christian or family name). Jonseheer is master followed by the name. Thus, Miss Kate. Miss Brown. Master Peter. Master Brown.

Observe that the Dutch juffrouw, dame, followed by the name is never to be translated by lady.

44; Letters and numeral figures are generally pluralized by 's. Twelve a's. Dot your i's and cross your t's. Other parts of speech used as nouns form the plural by adding a, or es. The Noes, the Ayes have it.