ENGLISH GEAMMAR.

/

Iffiquot;

' '■)

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

POR DUTCH SCHOOLS

WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES AND SETS OF EXERCISES FOR TRANSLATION

a. V-A-nsr ti:bx-i_

FOUKTH EDITION.

Bibliotheek MINDEfiBfWEOERS WEERT.

BOEKHANDEL EN DRUKKERIJ

VOORHEEN

E. J. BRILL.

LEIDEN — 1896.

H.DÊKOK

CONTENTS.

THE ALPHABET...............

Principal Rules of Pronunciation........xii.

Sounds of the Vowels.............xn.

Sounds of the Digraphs and Diphthongs.....xvm.

Sounds of the Consonants...............xxvll.

Mute or silent Consonants...........XL.

Sounds of Vowels in unaccented Syllables and Terminations xlii

Accent and Quantity............xlvii.

ARTICLES....................................1.

TJse of the Articles..............2.

Definite Article...............2.

Indefinite Article...............6.

Repetition of the Article...........8.

Place of the Article.............8.

NOUNS...................9.

Gender..................9.

Number..................9.

Observations on Number-Forms..........13.

Plural of Compounds.............16.

Plural of Proper Names............17.

Case....................18.

The Nominative...............18.

Place of the Nominative............19.

The Possessive................20.

Use of the Possessive.............21.

The Objective............................22

ADJECTIVES.................24.

Use of the Adjectives.............27.

Adjectives used as Nouns............27.

Nouns used as Adjectives............28.

The Adjective followed by one..........29.

Comparative and Superlative...........30.

Place of the Adjective.............32.

NUMERALS.................32.

Use of the Numerals.............34.

VI

Page

PRONOUNS.................36.

Personal Pronouns..............36.

Use of the Personal Pronouns..........36.

Reflective Pronouns.............38.

Use of the Reflective Pronouns..........39.

Possessive Pronouns.............40.

Use of the Possessive Pronouns..........41.

Demonstrative Pronouns...........43.

Use of the Demonstrative Pronouns........43.

Relative Pronouns..............45.

Use of the Relative Pronouns..........46.

Interrogative Pronouns............49.

Use of the Interrogative Pronouns.........49.

Indefinite Pronouns.............51.

Use of the Indefinite Pronouns..........51.

The Dutch Pronoun Men............56.

VERBS...................57.

Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs.......57.

Conjugation of the verb To have.........57.

Conjugation of the verb To be..........58.

Conjugation of the verba Will, Shall, May, Can, Must, Ought. 59.

Conjugation of the verbs To do. To dare. To need . . 60.

Regular Verbs................60.

Rules for the Conjugation of Regular Verbs.....60.

Conjugation of a Regular Verb..........62.

To Call — Active Voice...........62.

To be called — Passive Voice.........63.

Progressive Form of the verb To study......64:.

Empathie Form of the verb To study......64.

Negative or Interrogative Form of the verbs .... 64.

Irregular Verbs...............65.

A List of Irregular Verbs............65.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs........72.

Use of the Passive Voice...........76.

Infinitive Mood...............79.

Accusative with Infinitive............80.

Use of the Infinitive with and without to......83.

Participles.................85.

Gerund..................86.

Gerundial construction.............89.

Use of the Auxiliaries............90.

Use of To have...............90.

Use of To be................90.

Use of May and Can.............91.

Use of Must and Ought............93.

Use of Willen and will............94.

Use of To do................95.

The Dutch verb Laten............98.

VII

Page

The Use of the Tenses............100.

Present Tenae................101.

Past Tense — Present Perfect Tense........102.

Past Perfect Tense..............103.

The Future — Use of Will and Shall.......103.

The Subjunctive Mood............108.

ADVERBS..................111.

Use of the Adverbs.............113.

Position of the Adverbs............116.

PREPOSITIONS...............119.

Use of the principal Prepositions....., . .119.

A List of words followed by their proper prepositions . 134.

CONJUNCTIONS...............143.

Use of the Conjunctions............145.

INTERJECTIONS...............149.

RULES FOR SPELLING............150.

ON PUNCTUATION..............153.

EXERCISES FOR TRANSLATION........157.

Synonymous Words explained, etc.

Nacht en dag.................160.

Journey, voyage...............160.

To accompany, to attend............163.

Famous, celebrated, renowned..........164.

To make, to do...............168.

Mount, mountain...............168.

Brace, pair, couple..............169.

Behaviour, conduct..............171.

Fortunate, happy..............171.

Wholesome, healthy.............172.

Stranger, foreigner..............176.

To say, to tell...............178.

To mix, to mingle..............185.

Verspreiden.................186.

To retire, to retreat, to withdraw........186.

Glad...................191.

Man, vrouw................195.

To carry, to bear, to wear...........195.

To bring, to take, to carry...........196.

Fast, hard................. 206.

Nearly, almost............... 206.

To continue, to remain, to stay ......... 207.

Blijven.................. 207.

Houden voor................ 207.

Habit, custom................210.

VOCABULARY................ 229.

THE ALPHABET.

1. When compared with Dutch sounds, the names or alphabetic sounds of the English letters may be approximately represented as follows —

English vowel sounds, our corresponding sounds must be lengthened and made to pass into an ie or oe. These final sounds are but slightly pronounced ,, and of the e and u (sound) they are altogether dropped when these vowel sounds are followed by an r or by a vowel; as. Here, hear, hearing, real; sure, poor, cruel.

3. W and quot;Vquot; are semi-vowels. When following a vowel the w sometimes helps to form a diphthong, but is never pronounced; it is a consonant at the beginning of words or syllables. When a consonant the y sounds like our j'i as, year.

2. The alphabetic or regular long sound of the vowel is heard —

THE ALPHABET.

1. When compared with Dutch sounds, the names or alphabetic sounds of the English letters may be approximately represented as follows —

Observations. — 1. We see that in order to produce the English vowel sounds, our corresponding sounds must be lengthened and made to pass into an ie or oe. These final sounds are but slightly pronounced, and of the e and u (sound) they are altogether dropped when these vowel sounds are followed by an r or by a vowel; as. Here, hear, hearing, real; sure, -poor, cruel.

2. quot;W and Yquot; are semi-vowels. When following a vowel the w sometimes helps to form a diphthong, but is never pronounced; it is a consonant at the beginning of words or syllables. quot;When a consonant the y sounds like our ƒ; as, year.

2. The alphabetic or regular long sound of the vowel is heard —

I

X

1. At the end of a word or accented syllable; as, Me, paper, fever, moment, miser, music.

2. Before silent e; as, Die, toe, cue, eye.

3. In accented syllables ending in a silent e preceded by a single consonant; as, Lake, here, kite, bone, tune, inhale.

4. Before a single consonant followed by le or re; as, Stable, sabre, idle, noble, bugle.

3. Besides the alphabetic or regular long sound the vowels have a regular short sound, and also some occasional sounds, produced by the influence of the consonant which they precede or follow. Altogether they are the representatives of eighteen simple and diphthongal sounds which are heard in —

The sounds of a in fate, fat, care, far, all.

The sounds of e in mete, met.

The sounds of i in pine, pin.

The sounds of o in hone, not.

The sounds of u in tune, rude, full, fur, but.

The sounds of oi (oy) in voice, boy.

The sounds of ou (ow) in cloud, now.

The sound of a in fate — the regular long sound — is like our ee, as in heel, passing into a short ie sound.

The sound of a in fat — the regular short sound — has no equivalent in our language, it is a sound between our short a (pan) and our short e (pen), and is perhaps best produced by pronouncing a short e, with the mouth a little more open than in Dutch.

The sound of a in care comes very near the e of the French word père.

The sound of a in far — the open or Italian sound is somewhat like our aa in vaart.

The sound of a in all — the long broad sound — is very much like the sound of the o in our pot, made longer.

The sound of e in mete — the regular long sound — is like our ie followed by a short ie (See 1. Obs. 1).

The sound of e in met — the regular short sound — is like

our e in met, slightly inclining towards the i in pin.

■

XI

The sound of i in pine — the regular long sound — is made up of a sound like the short English a in man followed by the i in pin.

The sound of i in pin — the regular short sound — is very much like our i in tin.

The sound of o in bone — the regular long sound — is like our oo passing into a short oe sound.

The sound of o in not — the regular short sound — is very much like our o in tot.

The sound of u in tune — the regular long sound — is like the Dutch ^ieoe followed by a short oe sound (See 1, Obs. 1).

The sound of u in rude is the regular long sound with the initial ie sound omitted.

The sound of u in full is almost the same as that of rude, but is pronounced shorter (the last element being omitted).

The sound of u in fur has no corresponding sound in Dutch; the nearest approach to this sound is perhaps the oeu of the French coeur.

The sound of u in but — the regular short sound — is almost like the u in fur, made very short.

The sound of oi (py) in voice is made up of the sound of o in the Dutch tot and i in pin.

The sound of ou (ow) in cloud, is made up of a sound like the short English a, and a short u sound {u in full).

4. All these sounds occur in words and syllables which have the accent. In unaccented syllables the vowels have their regular long or short sound slightly and indistinctly pronounced; and often passing into the sound of a dull u sound (See § 10 Note and § 77).

5. The consonants which most influence the vowels are r and I, single or followed by another consonant. This influence holds in the obvious derivatives from words thus affected, when the accent is not shifted; as, star, starry; debar, debarring; bark, barking; call, calling; walk, walker; alter; alteration; err, erring; refer, referring; stir, stirring; lord, lording. When however the r or I, which follows the vowel stands at the end of a

XII

syllable and the next syllable begins with a vowel, or another r or in a word which is not a derivative, or in a derivative which has not the accent of the primary word, the e has its regular long or short sound, the other vowels usually their regular short sound; as, baron, parrot, sparrow, lo tarry, alley, ballad, gallery, pallet, herring, merry, peril, hero, reference, stirrup, porridge.

Observations. — 1. The initial w always giving the a a broad sound (See § 6, 6), such words as wallet, swallow, etc. must be excluded from the rule.

2. The words (and their derivatives) in which the accented vowel is followed by ry as, vary, story, fury have a long vowel sound. The a has, in this case, the sound of a in care, and the o the sound of a in all.

PRINCIPAL RULES OF PRONUNCIATION.

SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS ').

A.

6. The a has six different sounds.

1. The regular long sound — (ee^ie)

a. In the cases mentioned in § 2; as, Paper, stable, name. Exceptions. — Are, ate, axe, bade, have¹).

b. Before ste and nge (g soft); as, Strange, stranger, angel, hasten.

Exceptions. — Caste ²).

¹

accented syllables. 2) The a in axe, hade, have, has the regular short sound; in ate the a has the regular short e sound {ate and hade are also pronounced with the regular long a sound). 3) The a in caste has the sound

²

of a in glass.

xm

c. In the following words —

Ancient. Champagne.

Bass. Charlemagne.

Cambric. Chamber.

Cambridge. Hai/penny, hat/pence ■).

2. The regular short sound; as, Black, flash, flatter. Exceptions. — Any, many, Thames¹).

3. The long sound modified by re; as, Care, fare²). Exception. — Are.

4. The open or Italian sound.

a. Before r, and r followed by a consonant; before lm, If, Iv (I silent), and before th; as. Bar, bark, palm, half, halve, path.

Exceptions. — Halm, hath, wrath, scarce, fathom, gather, lather, charwoman ³).

h. In the following words —

Ah. Father. Pa.

Afrnond. Hurrah. Papa.

Answer. Master Pastor.

Are. Ma. Plaster.

Drama. Mamma. Rather.

c. Before ss, sk, st, sp, ff, ft, nt, nee, and in the ending mand; as. Glass, cask, cast, clasp, quaff, staff, shaft, waft, plant, grant, dance, command.

Exceptions- — ylss, lass, mass, hast, cant, rant, pant, pantry, scant, scanty ⁴).

5. The long broad sound —

a. Before 11, ld, Ik (I silent). Is; as. All (and its deri-

¹

1) Letters printed in Italics and in black type are not pronounced. Half

²

in halfpenny and halfpence is pronounced heeü. 2) These words have the

³

short e sound. 3) This sound is also heard in Mary* vary, various, etc. {See

⁴

Observ. 2). 4) The a in halm has the long broad sound; in hath (also with the Italian a sound) fathom, gather and lather the a has its regular short sound; wrath has the broad a sound, in scarce and chanooman the a has the sound of a in care. 5) In all these words the a has its regular short sound. Ass, and mass in. the sense of massa, have also the sound of ara glass.

XIV

vatives as always, also, altogether, etc.) bald, stalk. Exceptions. — Shall, Pali-Mall¹).

h. Between w(wh) and r and qu and r; as, War, warm,

wharf, quart.

c. In the following words —

Albany. Balsam.

Alder. Bengal.

Almanac. Paicon.

Altar. Falchion.

Alter. Jackal.

6. The short broad sound —

a. Between w{wh) and consonant, except r; as. Want, was, wasp, wash, watch, what, swamp, swan:

Exceptions are waft, swam, and the words which have the a followed by a guttural {g, ck, x); as, wag, whack, wax ²).

b. In the following words —

Halt. Quantity. Wallet.

Halter. Quality. Wallow.

Salt. Quarry. Walrus.

Malt. Quarrel. Warrant.

Quadrant³). Swallow. Yacht. Observation. — The short broad sound is like the o in not.

E.

7. The e has the following sounds —

1. In the cases mentioned in § 2; as, Me, here, fever. Exceptions. — Were, where, there, ere, treble¹).

2. The regular short sound; as, Pen, met. Exceptions. — England, English, pretty'quot;).

¹

Shall has the sound of the short a; in Fall-Mall the short e sound is

²

heard. 2) These words have the short a sound. 3) And all the words be

³

ginning with quad. In which case we may also use the long broad a sound in

XV

3. The sound of u in fur before r, and r followed by a consonant ; as, Her, herd.

Exceptions. — Clerk and sergeant').

I.

8. The i has four sounds.

1. The regular long sound —

a. In the cases mentioned in § 2; as, Kite, shire²), title. Exceptions. — To give, to live, triple ³).

b. Before Id, nd, gn, gh, ght; when these combinations occur in one syllable; as, Child, kind, sign , high, light; — but: bewilder, kindred, signal with short i.

Exceptions. — Gild, wind (wind), children.

e. In the following words —

Climb. Indictment. Viscount.

Christ. Pint. Isle, island.

2. The sound of long e in many French words —

Antiqwe. Invalid. Police.

Caprice. Machine. Ravine,

Chacrrin. Magazine. Eoutine.

O O

Fatigwe.

Exceptions are exile, divine, confine, etc.

3. The regular short sound; as. Tin, pin.

4. The sound of u in fur before r, and r followed by a consonant; as, Fir, bird.

O.

9. The o has the following sounds —

1. The regular long sound —

a. In the cases mentioned in § 2; as, JVo, bone, noble.

1) The e in these words sounds like the Italian a. 2) In compounds the i in s/dre has the sound of the dull u {See § 10. Note), 3) The i in these words is short.

XVI

Exceptions. — Gone shone¹). — to, who, etc. — one, come, etc. [See below).

b. Before 11, Id, It, Ik (I silent) st; as, Roll, quot;knoll, bold, bolt, folk, most.

2. The sound of the long broad a —

a. Before r (re), and r followed by a consonant ⁴) —

For. Corn. Born(e).

Or. Fork. Worn.

b. Before ff, ft, ss, th ⁵) —

Off. Soften. Broth.

Croft. Cross. Cloth.

Loft. Toss. Moth.

For Exceptions See above.

3. The regular short sound; as, Not, long, tongs, donkey.

4. The following words (and their derivatives which have the accent unshifted) have all the sound of u in but or u in fur (See § 3) in the accented syllable; the o before ve has generally the sound of u in but, between w and r the o has the sound of u in fur ⁶).

¹

In gone the o has the broad a sound, or the regular short o sound; in

²

gular short o sound; in cost, lost, and frost the long broad a sound is also

³

heard. 3) Toll and Moll are familiar names for Mary ; poll also familiar for •parrot. — In the meaning of head the o of poll has its long sound. 4) In sloth and troth the short o sound is also heard. 5) This sound is also heard

⁴

in story, etc. {Sec 5. Ols. 2). 6) The regular short o is also heard in these

⁵

words. 7) Exceptions are drove, grove, cove, clove, clover, cloven; wore, worn,

⁶

worsted, swore, sword.

XVII

5. The sound of u in rude in heard in do, too, two, who, whom, whose, lose move, prove, ado, tomb.

1) The ou in iorougk has the sound of brief long o. Colonel is pronounced kürril. In comely two syllables are beard. In combat the short o sound is also heard. Comfort is pronounced kümfurt, Confront is konfrunt. Cónjure (kunjure) is bezweren (van geesten), to conjure is, bezweren (= onder cede bevestigen). Donjon is pron. dünjun. One, once are pronounced wun, wuns. Hjtomach is pron. stumuk. The ou in thorough sounds like dull «. Twopenny, twopence are pron. tup nny and tüp'ns.

b

xvni

6. The sound of u in full is heard in to, bosom, woman '), wolf, worsted, Worcester, Wolsey.

U.

10. The u has the following sounds —

1. In the cases mentioned in § 2; as, Tune, music, bugle.

2. The sound which is heard in rude (See § 3).

a. When u is preceded by r or j; as. Rude, true, June.

b. When it follows the I preceded by a consonant; as Blue, flute.

3. The short sound heard in full (See § 3).

a. In the ending ful; as, useful.

b. In the following words —

Bull. Butcher.

Pull. Cuckoo.

Pull. Cushion.

Bush. Pudding.

Bushel. Push.

4. The regular short sound; as. But

5. The sound heard in fur.

Exceptions. — Busy, business, to bury, Canterbury, Salisbury ¹) — Truth, to impugn, to oppugn.

Note. — In unaccented syllables u has a dull sound like the second u in the word murmur.

T.

11. The y follows the rules given for the i; thus. Why, rhyme, system, myrrh.

SOUND OF THE DIGRAPHS AND DIPHTHONGS.

12. Two vowel sounds which are pronounced without a break in the utterance produce what is called a diphthong ■, when of

¹

the a in Salisbury has the long broad sound; the word is pronounced Salzbri.

XIX

two vowels only one is sounded we have an improper diphthong or a digraph.

43. Ae is found only in classical words, and mostly has the sound of regular long or short e, as Ccesar, minutiae, aesthetics.

AI, AY.

14. Ai and ay sound like long a in fate; before r like a in care; as. Laid, day, hair.

Exceptions are —

Aisle '). Plaid.

Again(st). Quay.

Ay, aye. Eaillery.

and the unaccented ending ain in which as i in pin; as, fountain, mountain, etc.

AO.

15. Ao sounds like long a in gaol, the only word in which it occurs ¹).

AIT, AW.

16. Au and aw generally sound like broad a in all - as, Cause, pause, laureate, straw, law.

Exceptions. — 1. Au sounds like the a in far, in laugh and draught²); when it precedes n followed by another consonant — laundress — we may pronounce au like a in far, or like a in all. Exc. aunt.

2. Au sounds like regular long a in gauge; like regular long o in hautboy*)-, and like regular short o in laurel, cauliflower and sausage.

¹

aye = ever, like regular long a-, quay is pronounced fee; in, plaid the ai has

²

either the regular long or the short a sound; in raillery the ai has the regular long a sound; in again{st) the prevailing sound is short e\ in the other words ai sounds like short e. 2) In extraordinary the ao is usually sounded like broad a and the i is mute. 3) The gh in these words sounds like f.

XX

EA.

17. Ea is generally sounded like regular long e; as, Sea, clear, spear, clean, tear (traan), beast, least, each, peach

Ea sounds like long a in fate, and before r like a in care, in the words —

Great. Bear²). Tear (scheuren).

Pear. Yea. Wear.

Steak. Break. Swear.

Ea sounds like the a in far in —

Heart(y). Hearth.

Hearten. Hearken.

Ea sounds like u in fur when it is followed by r and eon-sonant ; as, Learn, earth, earl, yearn, etc.

Exceptions are heard and the words in which the Italian a is heard.

Ea sounds like short e in many words, especially before d, and before two consonants (not before r and consonant, and, save a few exceptions, not before st and c/i); as,

XXI

Tread. Threaten. Weather.

Thread. Wealth. Zealot.

Threat. Weapon. Zealous.

Observation. — To read, to lead, mead, and the adverb cleanly have the sound of regular long e,

EAU.

18. Eau sounds like the regular long o; as, Beau, bureau, porte-manteau, etc. It sounds like the regular long u in beauty and its derivatives.

EE*

19. Ee sounds like the regular long e; as. Green, street, etc. Exceptions are Greenwich '), breeches, threepence, in which

ee sounds like short i.

£1.

20. Ei generally sounds like long a in fate, before r like a in care; as, Eight, neigh, heinous, inveigh, heir, their, etc.

Ei sounds like the regular long e.

a. When it is preceded by c; as, Ceiling, receipt, deceive, etc.

b. In the following words —

Inveigle. Seignior. Seisin.

Plebeian, Seize. Weird.

Ei sounds like long i in —

Height, Sleig/it.

HeiiyMen. Either (neither)²).

Ei sounds like short i in pin in —

Foreign. Sovereignly).

Foreigner. Surfeit.

Forfeit. Counterfeit.

Ei sounds like short e in leisure ²), heifer and nonpareil.

1) Also prouounced Grin-idge, Gren-idge, Oreen-idge, Green-itsh. 2) Also pronounced with ei = e.

XXII

EO.

21. Eo sounds like the regular long e in 'people and feoff] like short e in leopard, jeopardy, like the regular long o in yeoman, and like the o in nor (long broad a) in George.

EU, EW.

22. Eu and ew sound like long u (time); preceded by I, r orj like u in rude-, as, Feud, dew, sewer (riool) blew, crew,jew.

Exceptions. — Ew sounds like regular long o in sew, shew, strew (written also show and strow).

EY.

23. Ey when accented sounds like long a {fate), when unaccented like short i in pin-, as, Prey, obey, convey, barley, alley, valley.

Exceptions. — Eye sounds like the regular long i; in key and ley, more commonly written lea, the regular long e sound is heard.

IA.

24. la sounds like short i in parliament; the only word in which it occurs besides in endings (See § 78).

IE.

25. le sounds like the regular long e; as. Field, piece. Exceptions are friend, sieve, mischief, kerchief, diet, quiet'). Ie and ye sound like long i at the end of a word; as, pie,

die, dye, rye and in the middle of words which are derived from words in which an i occurs as dies, died (See § 2, 2).

IEU.

26. leu sounds like long u (tune); as, Lieu, adieu. Exception. — Lieutenant which is mostly pron. lef-tén-ant. lew occurs only in view and intervieuw.

1) The ie in friend sounds like short e; in the following three like shcrt i. In diet and quiet the i and e are pronounced separately, i with its regular long sound.

XXIII OA.

27. Oa sounds like the regular long o; before r it has the long broad a sound; as. Boat, coat, groats; boar, hoard, hoar, hoary. (See § 5 Observation 2).

Exceptions are broad, abroad, in which oa sounds like broad a in all.

0£.

28. Oe sounds like regular long o; as, Doe, toe, etc. Exceptions are shoe and canóe, in which oe sounds like u

in rude.

OEIJ.

29. Oeu occurs only in the word manoeuvre, in which it has the sound of oo in moon,

Ol, OT.

30. Oi and oy (For prommciation See § 3); as, Oil, voice, boy. Exceptions are —

Avoir-du-pois'). Connoisseur.

Choir. Porpoise.

Chamois. Tortoise.

OO.

34. Oo sounds like u in rude; as, Moon, poor, etc.

Exceptions are door and floor, in which the oo has the broad sound of a in all-, blood and flood, in which oo sounds like short u in but; and bi'ooch, in which oo sounds like regular long o.

Oo has the sound of the u in full when it precedes ft, as book, and also in the following seven words —

Good. Stood. Foot. Wool.

Hood. Wood. Soot.

1) Pronounce amr-du-jpoiz gt; kioire, shammy or sAammois, camp;nnissur, tortus gt; porpus.

XXIV

or.

32. Ou has its diphthongal sound (See §3); as, Cloud, house •), found, sour, etc.

Ou sounds like regular long o; before r like long broad a

in all —

Dough. Soul. Course.

Moult. Shoulder. Pour(teen).

Mould. Smoulder. Gourd.

Poultice. Thougr/i. Mourn.

Poultry. Court. Pour.

Poulterer. Courteous. Source.

Ou sounds like short u in but; before r not followed by a vowel like u in fur, in —

Country. Flourish.

Couple. Hiccough²).

Cousin. Journal.

Courage. Journey.

Courtesy. Nourish.

Double. Rough³).

Enough²). Scourge.

Ou sounds like u in rude in —

Througf/i Wound.

Uncouth. You.

And in many words derived from French.

Accoutre. Route. Surtout.

Group. Soup. Tour(ist).

Ou sounds like u in full in could, would and should.

¹

Housewife is pronounced huzzif, in the meaning of etui met naaibtnoo-

²

word. 4) Slough (jh = f) is the cast skin of a serpent, slough (gh not pronounced and ou as in cloud) is a miry place. 5) In this case gh is silent.

³

digdheden, 2) In this word gh is pronounced ƒ. 3) Gh sounds like p in this

XXV

Ou sounds like broad a in all before ghl ⁵).

Bought. Fought. Sought.

Brought. Nought. Thought.

Besought. Ought. Wrought.

Exception is Drought in which ou has its diphthongal sound.

Ou sounds like short o in not in cough *) and trough '); lough {gh = k) and shough {gh = k).

OW.

33. Ow generally sounds like the diphthong om; as, Crown, brown, flower, towel, etc.

Ow sounds like regular long o in the following words —

Below. Growth. Snow.

Bestow. Know. Sow.

Blow. Low. Strow.

Bow. Lower. Show.

Bowl. Mow. Throw.

Crow. Owe. Tow.

Flow. Own. Willow^J).

Glow. Kow. Window.

Grow. Slow.

Observation- — In bow, huigen, buiging, boeg; row, standje; lower, betrekken-, sow, zeug, the ow sounds like ou. In bow, boog; bowsprit, boegspriet; row, rij; roeien; lower, lager, laten zakken; sow, zaaien, the ow sounds like regular long o.

The ow in Ttnowledge sounds like short o in not.

CA.

34. Ua sounds like wa.

Assuage. Persuade. Suavity.

Exceptions. — The u is silent in guard, guardian, gua-

1) In this word gh is pronounced f. 2) When ow forms an unaccented sellable it has a slight long o sound.

XXVI

rantée, 'piquant. The words victuals and to victual are pronounced vit'lz and to vit'l. Language is pronounced langgwidzh.

HE.

*gt;

35. Tie sounds like regular long m; after I or r like u in rude.

Sue Eéscue. Blue. True.

t)e sounds like we after q, and in a few words after s.

Conquest. Desuetude.

Quench, Mansuetude.

Observation. — The u is silent in guess, guest, guerdon, conquer and conqueror.

UI.

36. TJi sounds like regular long u; after I preceded by a consonant, and after r or j like u in rude.

Nuisance. Sluice. Juice.

Suit. Bruise. Juicy.

Exception. — The word suite sounds like sweet.

ITi sounds like wi after c, g and q; as, Languid, vanquish, anguish, cuirass.

Exceptions. — The words guide, guile, beguile, disguise, have the sound of long i.

Ui sounds like short i in guild, guilt, guilder, guitar, guinea, build, built, biscuit, circuit¹), harlequin.

TJy has the long i sound; as, buy, guy.

37. From the foregoing rules we see that the same sounds are represented in different ways. Thus —

Fate — day, laid, eight, prey, great, gaol, gauge.

Care — hair, heir, wear, there.

¹

In circuitous, circuity, and in ruin, ruinous, assiduity, incongruity, puissant, puissance, gratuity, gratuitous the u and i (short) are sounded separately.

XXVII

Far — clerk, heart, aunt.

All — law, cause, broad, brought, nor, door, George.

Mete — green, pea, beard, chief, ceiling, people, CaBsar,

key, quay.

Met — many, said, says, again, bread, friend, bury, heifer,

leopard.

Pine — pie, dye, eye, aye, thy, buy, height, aisle.

Pin — busy, pretty, England, mischief, sieve, breeches,

foreign, valley, built.

Bone — boat, soul, crow, owe, doe, sew, beau, yeoman.

Mot — what, watch, laurel, cough, knowledge.

Tune — beauty, feud, adieu, sue, view, new.

Rude — moon, group, blue, fruit, shoe, brew.

Pull — book, good, could, bosom.

Fur — herd, bird , earth , word.

But — love, does, country, blood.

SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS.

38. Many consonants have the same sound as in Dutch, but it should be observed that the distinction between the soft or flat and sharp or hard consonants, which, especially at the end of words, is totally disregarded in Dutch, is always clearly heard in English. Distinction should thus be made between moh and mop, leave and leaf, dog and doch, etc.

When a soft and a sharp consonant come together they assimilate i. e. the one takes the sound of the other. This is of great importance with regard to the pronunciation of the plural and possessive case of nouns, and the third person singular, the Past tense and Past Participle of verbs. Thus we write lads, mills, dog's, begs, stopped, robbed and pronounce ladz, milz, dog'z, begz, stopt, rob'd. In all these cases the inflectional s and the d take the sound of the preceding soft or sharp consonant, and the rule is that a soft sound must be followed by a soft one and a sharp sound by a sharp one.

XXVIII

In all other cases, however, the rule is that the first consonant takes the sound of the corresponding second, thus we write cupboard and pronounce cuhhoard.

C.

39. C sounds like s before e, i, y; in all other cases it

sounds like k.

Cell. Circle. Cake.

Cigar. Cypress. Crime.

Call. Cylinder. Victim.

C sounds like sh ') when it is followed by ea, ia, ie, io,

eous; as Ocean, social, precious, etc.

C sounds like z in discern (See p. xxxiv) and its derivatives , in suffice and sacrifice.

Note that in sufficiency, sufficient and sacrificial, the c sounds like sh.

CH.

40. Ch generally sounds like ish.

Arch. Chair. Kich.

Child. Cherry. Beech. Exception. — Ache*).

Ch sounds like sh after n and I, and also in French words.

Bench. Charlatan. Chivalry.

Clinch. Chamois. Machine.

Böloh. Chevalier. Marchioness.

Ch sounds like k in words derived from Greek and Latin,

Anchor. Chronic. Machiavélian.

Architect. Chaos. Machination.

Chasm. Echo. Monarch.

1) The sound of sh can be represented only approximatively by the Dutch sji it is almost like the French ch in chambre.

2) In this word the ch sounds like k.

XXIX

Character. Enoch. Orchestra.

Chorister. Epoch. Stomach.

Exceptions are Rachel, cherub, choir and ostrich '). Observation. — The ch of arch sounds like tsh before a consonant; as, Archbishop, archduke, etc.; before a vowel it sounds like k; as, Archangel, architect, archives, archaism, archipelago, etc.

An exception is arch-enemy, in which word ch is pronounced tsh.

F.

41. Only in the preposition of this letter sounds like v; in all other cases (the compounds of of included) it has its sharp sound.

42. G is hard (as in the French guide, the German gold) in all English words; in words of French origin before a, o, u, l,r; and at the end of a word or syllable.

Gate. Giddy. Garnet.

Goose. Gig. Goal.

Geese. Gimlet. Gutter.

Gertrude. Girth. Glove.

Gear. Target. Dog.

Exceptions. — Gaol, Gibe.

G has its soft sound in words of French origin before e,i,y, and the ending ge.

Gentle. Gibbet. Bridge.

Giant. Gypsy. Targe.

Exceptions are gizzard, tiger and eager, in which words the g is hard.

«H.

43. Gh at the beginning of a word has the hard sound of g.

Ghost. Ghastly. Gherkin.

1) Pronounce iwire and osiritsA.

xxx

Gh. at the end of a word, and when followed by t, is com

monly silent.

Neigh. Plough. Caught.

Weigh. Bough. Thought.

High. Though. Height.

Sigh. Through. Fight.

Exceptions are draught, laugh, laughter, enough, rough, slough '), tough, trough, cough in which the gh sounds like f; and lough, shough in which gh sounds like k (See § 32).

J.

44. J has the sound of soft g, except in the word Hallelujah in which it has the sound of our j.

sr.

45. N sounds like our n. {See further BTQ-).

BTCr.

46. Ng at the end of a word, sounds like ng in the Dutch word gang-, as, Song, king, sing, ring.

The same sound is heard —

a. In words derived from words ending in ng.

Sing. Singing. Singer.

Eing. Einging. Einger.

h. In words which have an n followed by k, c hard, q'j, or x. In these cases the sound of ng is given to n.

Ink. Uncle. Banquet. ) , _,

Tnank. Concord. Vanquish. ) ^

Monkey Concrete. Anxious.

Ng sounds like ng -j- g hard —

1) See Note p. XXIV.

XXXI

a. In words which are not obvious derivatives from words ending in ng.

Anger. Monger. Congress.

Finger. Angle Language.

Hunger. Single. Languish.

Linger. Mingle. Languor. (u = w)

Exceptions are — Some words of Eomance origin — Angel, danger, manger, ginger, and the words in nge and their derivatives, as sponge, tinge, range, ranger, etc.

h. The comparatives and superlatives of long, strong, and young.

PH.

47. Ph sounds like f.

Pheasant. Philosophy.

Phial. Phantom.

Exceptions are the words Stephen and nephew in which ph sounds like v; diphthong and naphtha in which ph sounds like f or like p. In Sappho the pph sounds like ƒ.

a.

48. Q is always followed by u, and qu has commonly the sound of kw.

Queen. Quart. Question.

Quill. Quarrel. Conquest.

In many words of French origin qu sounds like k, as coquet, étiquette, masque, masquerade, liquor, exchéquer, and also in conquer and conqueror.

R.

49. R which has about the sound of our r'), has in some cases the sound of dull u, and is in other cases dropped altogether.

1) The English r is never trilled.

XXXII

1. E has its consonantal sound when single or double it is followed by a vowel, either in the same or in the following word_

Rose. Merit. Fearing.

Crust. Courage. Herefis.

Prince. Merry. Par~quot;iway.

2. R final, or followed by another consonant, is not heard after the Italian a sound, and the u sound in fur —

Bar(k). Her. Bird.

Clerk. Herd. Fur.

Heart. Fir. Furl.

3. R followed by a consonant in the same word is not heard after the long broad a sound.

Poured. Pork. Board.

4. B has the dull u sound in all other eases —

Here. Fire. Pour,

Fear. Fired. Store.

Feared. Tired. More.

The influence of the r on the preceding vowel is always great. From the rules for the vowel sounds it may be seen that: 4. It changes the short a (when not preceded by w) into the Italian sound of a in far, 2. It gives the lengthened sound of short a to the long a sound, as in care. 3. In changes the o sound (long and short) into the broad a sound, as in for, bore. 4. It gives a peculiar sound to short u as in fur. 5. It gives e and i the sound of u in fur. 6. It modifies the long vowel sounds, the sounds of mete, mile, poor, etc. being not quite identical with those of mere, mire, poor, the latter three having

dropped the second element of the diphthong.

amp;

50. S has the sound of the Dutch s, and the sound of our z. S is sharp at the beginning of words.

Sun. Seat. Sound.

Sand. Sign. Suppose.

xxxm

Compounds and derivatives made from such words retain the sharp sound. Thus, in reseat, resign (to sign again), resound (to sound again), presuppose, the s is sharp as these words are obvious derivatives from seat, sign, sound, suppose. When such is not the ease s is soft as in resign (to give up), resound (to be echoed back), etc. Hence s is sharp after separable, and soft after inseparable prefixes.

In the middle of a word s is either soft or sharp.

S is soft —

i. Between two vowels.

Ease '). Pleasant. Miserable.

Easy. Peasant. Deserve.

Rose, rosy. Thousand. Desire.

Cosy. Accusation. Result.

Chinese. Position. Prosaic.

Javanese. Musical. Preserve.

Enfranchise. Complaisance. Presence.

Please. Miser.

Exceptions are the following words —

Asylum. Nuisance. Philosophy.

Designation. Obeisance. Philosophize, etc. ^s).

Desist. Prosody. Proselyte.

Desolate. Prosecute. Presage.

Desultory. Prosecution. Presentiment.

The classical words in sy preceded by an unaccented vowel, as jealousy, heresy, fantasy, extasy, hypocrisy, etc.; the s before is in classical words, as basis, crisis, oasis, thesis-, and a few words of less frequent occurrence.

2. Before soft consonants and liquids.

Husband. Cosmetic.

Grisly. Prismatic.

1) For final se See helow Observation. 2) In philosóphe the s is soft.

XXXIV

S is sharp —

1. After a consonant.

Absurd. Gipsy. Adversary.

Subside. False. Absolute.

Insect. Dense. Absolution.

Morsel. Purse. Minstrelsy.

Exceptions are — 1. The following words —

Absolve¹). Damsel. Crimson²). Jersey.

Cleanse. Damson. Observe and derivatives.

2. When sy comes after an accented syllable ending in I, m, n; as, Palsy, clumsy, 'pansy.

2. Before sharp consonants: as, Rascal, lisp.

3. In mis and some, and before ity and ive.

Misapply. Animosity. Conclusive.

Handsome. Curiosity. Decisive.

4. In the prefix dis; as, Disperse, disgust, disable, etc. Exceptions are the following words and derivatives.

Disaster. Disease. Dissolve.

Discern. (c = z) Dismal.

At the end of words s belongs to the word or is inflectional. S is sharp when it belongs to the word.

Yes. Us. Basis.

Gas. Thus. Nervous.

Christmas. This.

Exceptions are —

1. The words as, his; is, has, was³).

2. The Latin ending es; as, Species, series.

3. When es is preceded by a liquid or soft consonant; as, James, besides,

4. In the word Mars.

Observations on the inflectional s. The rules for the inflectional s are as follow —

¹

Absolve and absolver are also pronounced with s sharp. 2) s is always

²

soft before and after m. 3) In his and /ias the s is really inflectional.

XXXV

1. The inflectional s is sharp after a sharp consonant with or without silent e; as, Books, caps, capes, tastes, admits, etc.

2. The inflectional s is soft after vowels, soft consonants and liquids, and also after a sharp s or sh sound '). Thus in boys, plays, rags, stabs, houses,²) horses, faces, princes, pages, wishes, churches, final s sounds like z. —

The 's, the sign of the possessive case, follows the same rules.

Observations on final se. — We have seen that s in final se preceded by a consonant is sharp, and that it is soft when it is preceded by a vowel. To the latter rule we may add the following exceptions in which the s is sharp.

1. Adjectives in se.

Close. Morose. Obtuse.

Loose³). Jocose. Profuse.

Exception is wise.

2. Words which have a non-historical e.

House⁴). Goose.

Mouse. Geese.

3. Words which in French have no e, or a sharp s; as, Case, base, debase, chase, purchase, recluse, etc. ⁵)

4. Several nouns and adjectives in se to distinguish them from verbs of the same form, in which s is soft.

Use. To use.

Abuse. To abuse.

Diffuse. To diffuse.

Excuse. To excuse.

Close.^G) To close.

Grease. To grease. ⁷)

1) In this case s or es forms an additional syllable, thus in faces, pages, wishes we have two syllables, but not in capes, tastes. 3) There is assimu-lation of consonants in houses, the sharp s of the word taking the soft sound of the plural s, thus houziz, which is an exception to the rule. 3) The s in to loosen is also sharp. 4) These words were in Anglo-saxoa hüs, mus, gós, gés. 5) These words retain the sharp s sound when they are used as verhs. 6) The noun close has soft s, when it means einde, besluit-, when it means a kind of paddock, the s is sharp. 7) The verb has also s hard; in the derivatives the s is soft.

XXXVI

Exceptions. — In 'promise and purpose the s is always sharp in exorcise and rise it is always soft.

5. The following words —

1. In words ending in sion preceded by a consonant. Aversion. Mansion. Passion.

Diversion. Dimension. Expulsion.

Exceptions are Scission, abscission and rescission, in which s of sion sounds like zh.

2. In the word sure, and the ending sure preceded by a consonant.

Sure(ty). Censure. Pressure.

Assure. Insure. Tonsure.

3. In the following words —

Asia. Issue. Nausea.

Sugar. Tissue.

S sounds like zh.

1. In words ending in sion preceded by a vowel.

Evasion. Decision.

Explosion. Conclusion.

2. In words ending in sure preceded by an accented vowel.

Leisure. Pleasure.

Exposure. Treasure.

3. In casual and usual and in most words endings in sier and zier as, Hosier, grazier.

¹

The s in rase is soft. 3) The verb to premise has s soft.

XXXVII

SC.

51. Sc sounds like sharp s before e, i, y; in all other cases like sk. ,

Scene, Scythe. Scorn.

Scepter. Scale. Screw.

Exceptions. — Seeptic and its derivatives.

§CH

52. Seh sounds like sk.

Scheme. School.

Exceptions are — Schism (pron. sizm) and schedule (pron. sedule or shedulé) and derivatives.

SH.

53. Sh sounds almost like the French ch (as in chambre); as, Shop, sharp, dish, fish.

SS.

54. SS has the sound of sharp s; as, Less. It sounds like z in the words —

Dissolve. Possess. Hussy.

Dessert. Scissors. Hussar.

The final ss in possess is sharp.

T.

55. T sounds like sh when it is followed by ia, ie or io.

Nation. Partial.

Station. Patient.

Exceptions. — The t has its own sound in the word satiety, and after s and x; as, Celestial, question, mixture, etc.

TH

56. Th has a sharp or a soft sound. Sharp th is produced by putting the tip of the tongue between the teeth, or by placing

XXXVIII

it against the back of the upper front teeth and then pushing out the breath. Soft th is produced by placing the tongue in the same position and pronouncing a d.

Th is sharp at the beginning of words.

Thank. Thick. Throat.

Think. Thin. Thunder.

Exceptions are all pronominal words.

The. Thee. Therefore.

This. Thy. Thither.

These. They. Than.

That. Their. Then.

Those. Theirs. Thence.

Thou. Them. Thus.

Thine. There. Though.

Th is sharp at the end of words.

Breath. Mouth. Path.

Death. Tooth. Bath.

Beneath. Month. Lath,

Exceptions are —

1. The words booth, smooth, with.

2. The words blithe and scythe, and the verbs ending in th or thequot;, as, to bequeath, to smooth, to mouth, to bathe, to breathe.

3. The words bath, lath, path, oath, mouth, etc. when they are followed by plural s').

Observation- — Followed by the inflectional s, the th is soft when it is preceded by a long vowel, and sharp when it is preceded by a short vowel sound, as in deaths, cloths, months.

1) The s has the soft sound in these words.

XXXIX

Th in the middle of a word is soft in English words; sharp in words derived from Latin and Greek.

Brother. Farthest. Author.

Brethren. Farthing. Authentic.

Mother. Weather. Catholic.

Father. Northern. Cathedral.

Feather. Southern. Panther.

Farther. Worthy. Athens.

Note that the th is sharp in north, south and worth, so that the words northern, southern and worthy are exceptions to the rule that the th in derivatives has the sound of the primary word, as healthy and health, Gothic and Goth, 'pithy and pith, etc.

Th sounds like t in the words —

Anthony. Thames Asthma.

Thomas. Thesis. Phthisis.

Thompson. Thyme. P/ithisic(al).

W, WH.

57. W is produced by making a short oe sound heard before pronouncing our Dutch w. Wh sounds like hoe short.

X.

58. X sounds like ks at the end of words, when it ends an accented syllable, and when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant.

Box. Exile(n). Excel.

Excellent. Exercise. Expect.

X sounds like gz when it is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel or an h.

Exert. Exact. Ex/iale.

Exist. Exult. Exhort.

Exile. Example. Exhaust.

Observation. In derivatives the x has, as a rule, the sound of the original word. Thus, in expectation, vexation, taxation,

i

XL

relaxation, etc. the x — ks; in examination, exhalation, etc. the x = gz.

Note. — In luxury the x = ks; in luxurious and all the other derivatives the x — gz.

In execute and the derivatives execution and executioner the x = ks, in executive and the other derivatives the x = gz.

In exemplar, éxemplary, exemplification, exemplify the x = gz.

X at the beginning of words sounds like z; as, Xerxes, Xenophon, Xanthippe.

Xi sounds like ksh; as, Anxious, noxious. In luxury the x has the same sound.

IT.

59. Y sounds like our j at the beginning of a word or syllable; as, Yard, year, lawyer.

1.

60. Z sounds like our z; as. Zeal, frozen. It sounds like zh in brazier, grazier, glazier, azure , seizure.

MUTE OE SILENT CONSONANTS.

61. B is silent before t, and after m, in the same syllable.

Debt. Lamb.

Doubt. Crumb.

B is also silent in subtle and its derivatives; in subtile the b is sometimes heard.

62. C is silent. — 1. In the words Czar, indict, victuals and their derivatives.

2. In the termination scle; as, Muscle.

3. When it is followed by e, i, y; as. Scene, science. Exceptions are sceptic and derivatives.

XLI

63. Ch is silent in drachm (not in drachma), schism, yacht, and derivatives.

64. D is silent in Wednesday, Windsor, ribband, handkerchief, handsome.

65. G- is silent before n and m in the same syllable; as, Gnat, reign, coign, phlegm.

67. H is silent. — 1. In the following words and their derivatives.

Heir(ess). Honest. Shepherd.

Hour. Honour. Naphtha.

2. After x; as, exhaust, exhale, exhort, etc.

3. After r, and after a vowel; as, Rhubarb, John, Sarah.

68. K is silent before n in the same syllable; as. Knee, knife.

69. L is silent. — 1. When in the same syllable it is preceded by a or o, and followed by f, k, m; as. Half, calm, folk, walk.

2. In the following words —

Almond. Palmer. Could.

Balmy, Salmon. Would.

Palmy. Falcon(er). Should.

70. N is silent at the end of a syllable after m; as, Autumn.

71. P is silent. — 1. At the beginning of a word before n, s, and t; as, Pneumatics, Psalm, ptarmagan.

2. Between m and t, as empty, attempt, comptroller (pron. controller); and in the words receipt, corps, raspberry

1) The s in this word sounds like z.

XLII

72. Ph is silent in phthisis, phthisic, phthisical, apophthegm,

73. S is silent in isle, island, aisle, demesne, puisne, viscount;, and at the end of words derived from French, as, corps, etc.

74. T is silent. — 1. When preceded by s and followed by le or en; as, Castle, bustle, ostler, misletoe, listen.

2. In the words —

Christmas. Mortgage. Soften.

Chestnut. Often.

75. W is silent. — 1. Before r; as, Wrong.

2. Before h followed by o(oo); as, W/io, whose, whole, whoop,

3. In the words Answer, sword, two, towards, boatswain, cockswain, gunwale ').

SOUNDS OF VOWELS INquot; ITNACCENTED SYLLABLES AND TERMINATIONS.

76. In unaccented syllables the vowels may have their long or short sound, slightly and briefly pronounced; but in most cases they have either the dull u sound, or a sound somewhat like short i.

Observations. — 1. The a has a brief long sound when it makes a syllable by itself and is followed by another vowel; as, aerial, chaotic. The same sound is heard in verbs ending in ate; as, to educate. (For nouns and adj. in ate. {See § 78).

1) Pronounce 608*8, kofcs'n, gunril.

XL1II

2. The e has a brief long sound when it makes a syllable by itself; in the prefixes e, be, de, re, se, pre, when they are followed by the accented syllable, in which case it may also be pronounced like short i; and when a syllable ends in a consonant with e.

Event, Descend. Sedate.

Because. Return. Prefer.

Delight. Secure. Obsolete.

3. The i has a brief long sound when it makes a syllable by itself; as, Idea, iambus, identical, irate, itinerate-, in the first syllable of the following words: Biography, biology, criterion, migration, primeval, vibrate, vivacity, etc.; and when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e; as suicide (For exceptions See § 81—§ 84). In other eases the i has its regular sort sound, slightly pronounced; as, Habit, cupidity, vigil, etc.

4. The a has a brief long sound when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e; as, Telescope, monotone. It has its regular short sound in the ending ogue preceded by g ov I; as, Dialogue, demagogue.

5. The u has a brief long sound when it makes a syllable by itself; as, Ubiquity, utensil; when preceded by t or s it ends a syllable, as virtuous '); and when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e, as gratitude.

Exceptions are the nouns minute and lettuce in which words the u sounds like short i.

6. The y has a brief long sound when the syllable ends in a consonant followed by e; as, Anodyne, prosolyte; in verbs ending in fy, as magnify, and in the verbs occupy, multiply and prophesy.

77. In unaccented endings the vowel has in most cases the sound

1) The ti retain its j sound. In this case t is often sounded like tsh.

XLIV

of dull u. This is especially the case with a and o followed by a consonant; when the vowels are followed by r; and in the endings our and ous.

79. The same sound of short i pronounced in a slight, rapid way is heard in ed, en, et, est, ness, and the inflectional endings.

Bagged. Chicken. Horses.

Carried¹). Sudden. Faces.

Married. Sloven. Honest.

Kitchen. Violet. Wickedness.

Observations. — i ■ The e in the endings en, et, est and ness is also often pronounced like dull t(, and even this sound is mostly dropped. Thus, sudden sounds like sudd'n; so also garden, oxen, even, etc. The short i or dull u sound is, however, retained when these endings are preceded by a liquid, as

¹

The i preceding the verbal ed is not sounded.

XLV

in woollen, women, linen, specimen, etc. The words fallen, stolen and swollen are exceptions.

2. In the Past Tense and Past Participles of verbs the e sound of the ending ed is always dropped unless the verb ends in d or t. Thus, played, robbed, opened, asked, stopped are in speaking shortened to play'd, robb'd, open'd, askt, stopt¹), but in rewarded, intended, expected, mounted, etc. the ending ed makes an additional syllable.

In a few participles used as adjectives, and adjectives in ed not derived from verbs, the e sound is commonly heard; they are —

Aged. Deuced. Eagged.

Beloved. Dogged. Eugged.

Blessed. Jagged. Sacred.

Crabbed. Learned. Striped.

Cragged. Legged. Wicked.

Crooked. Naked. Winged.

Cursed. Picked Wretched.

The e sound is retained in derivatives made from such words, as composedly, blessedness, but omitted in compounds, as full-fledged.

80. The endings ial, ian, iar(d) and ion preceded hy I, n or st sound like yal, yan, etc.

Filial. Poniard. Million.

Italian. Opinion. Minion.

Familiar. Companion. Bastion.

Exceptions — Menial, Baronial.

81. The endings ice, ile, ive have the i short.

Notice. Ductile. Native.

Service. Fertile. Motive.

Exceptions are Sacrifice — reconcile and camomile — exile, crocodile, reptile, juvenile, gentile ²).

¹

See § 38. 2) Picked is sharp pointed; in the meaning of selected the e

²

occurrence.

XLVI

82. The ending ine is commonly long.

Confine. Countermine. Porcupine.

Feline. Columbine. Serpentine.

Exceptions are Determine, examine, discipline, feminine, doctrine, genuine, heroine, jessamine, libertine, masculine, medicine, palatine, rapine ').

83. The ending ise has the i long.

Advertise. Exercise. Franchise²).

Exceptions are promise, practise, mortise and their derivatives.

84. The endings on and eon have the dull u sound.

Lemon. Luncheon.

Pennon. Surgeon.

Observation. — After c, ck, d, t, s the o sound is commonly dropped; as, Bacon, reckon, pardon, mutton, treason.

85. The unaccented ending ow sounds like brief long o; as, Window, fellow, etc.

86. In the endings le and re, final e is silent and a very slight dull u sound is heard before I and r; thus, apple, able, acre, sabre sound like app'l, ab'l, ac'r, sab'r,

87. The endings ure, sure and ture. — These endings are often pronounced with the dull u sound, especially when they are immediately preceded by the accented syllable, as figure, exposure, rupture, nature. The s of sure sounds like sh or zh (See § 50); the t of ture has its original sound or is pronounced tsh.

88. The endings gue and que sound like g hard and k, respectively; as, Fatigue, tongue, dialogue, antique, oblique.

Exceptions are ague and argue.

89. We have seen that c, t and s before ea, ia, io sound like

1) And a few of less frequent occurrence. 3) Also pronounced with i short.

xLvn

sh. Hence the endings cean, dan, cial, date, dent, science, don, ceous, dous, seous, sdous, sian, sion, tion, tious, tial, tiate, tient, tience, sound like shun, shul, shunt, or sh'n, sh'l, sh'nt, etc.

Ocean. Cetaceous. Conscious.

Social. Precious. Partial.

Musician. Nauseous. Transient.

Ancient. Persian. Patience.

Conscience. Mansion. Ambitious.

Suspicion. Nation. Associate.

Observations. 1- This blending together of vowel and consonant so as to form one sound is always heard when e or i is preceded by c, g, s, t and x.

2. In the endings date and Hate, the a has its long brief sound in verbs, and the slight short i sound in nouns and adjectives.

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

90. Accent is the stress which in pronouncing a word is laid on one of its syllables.

91. Accent is of two kinds — primary and secondary; most polysyllables have besides a syllable with the primary accent, also one with the secondary; as, Beautiful, temporary, speeulation, perambulator.

92. Words of two syllables. — Words of two syllables have, as a rule, the accent on the first syllable, but as the accent very seldom falls on the prefix, the exceptions to this rule are very numerous.

Harbour. Moment. Accuse').

Hazard. Virtue. Assist.

Lémon. Varnish. . Conceal.

Crédit. Offence. Deceive.

Wisdom. Disguise. Remain.

1) But with the accent on the first syllable — effort, décent, concord, succour, office, óffer, etc. mischievous, miscreant, hut: misdeed.

XLVIII

93. The following dissyllables when used as nouns or adjectives have the accent on the first syllable, when used as verbs on the second.

94. In the following words the accent marks a distinct difi'e rence of meaning.

August (the month).

Commune (a parish).

Compact (a contract).

Conjure (to practise sorcery).

Désert (waste, wild).

Désert (a waste).

XLIX

Gallant (brave). Gallant (courteous).

Incense (perfume). Incénse (to enrage).

Invalid (a sick person). Invalid (of no legal force).

Minute (sixtieth part of an hour). Miniite (small).

Object (thing, purpose). Objéct (to make an objection).

Eéfuse (worthless remains). Eefdse (to decline).

Undress (not full uniform). Undréss (to take off one's clothes).

95. French words of two or more syllables ending in ade, ier, eer, ee, oon, in or ine have the accent on the last syllable.

Lemonade. Career. Dragoon.

Grenadier. Grandee. Capuchin.

Observe the difference between committee and committée.

96. Words of three or more syllables — Words of three or more syllables have, as a rule, the accent on the third syllable from the end (the antepenult, or antepenultimate syllable)').

L

Exceptions to the words ending in ate are remonstrate and demonstrate; to those in ator are creator and spectator; to those in oroits are canorous and sonorous; an exception to the ending ative is creative.

97. Words ending in ic(s), ish, and tive preceded by a consonant, have the accent on the preceding syllable (the penult or penultimate syllable.

Domestic. Heroic. Attractive.

Republic. Establish. Invective.

Exceptions are the following words —

Arithmetic. Héretic. Pólitic(s).

Arsenic. Liinatic. Adjective.

Catholic, Rhetoric. Substantive.

Note that the adjectives arithmétic and arsénic have the accent on the penult.

98. Words ending in sion and tion have the accent on the preceding (penultimate) syllable; as, Illusion, education, demonstration, etc.

99. Words ending in la, lac, ial, ian, eal, ean, eous, ious have the accent on the preceding syllable.

¹

See j 89. Ois. 1.

LI

Exceptions are Idéal, hymeneal, hymenéan, epicuréan, European, Crimean, which have the accent on the penult.

100. Words of three syllables which are obvious derivatives from dissyllables commonly retain the accent of the dissyllable , except when the accent is influenced by the termination. Thus, appearance from appear, difference from differ; feverish from fever; choleric from chóler; etc. but, poétic(al) from poet.

101. Words of four or more syllables — also derivatives from dissyllables — commonly have the accent on the fourth syllable from the end, except when the accent is influenced by the termination.

102. Words adopted without alteration from foreign languages retain their original accent; as, asylum, corona, curator, decorum, horizon, pomatum, torpédo, octavo, etc.

103. The vowels of accented syllables are either long or short;

as, Paper, mérit, nation, national.

104. Derivatives from words of two syllables commonly retain the long or short vowel sound of the dissyllables; as, dispose— disposal, fragrant—fragrancy, favour—favourite—favourable, flavour—flavorous, regent—regency, glory—glorify, etc.

Exceptions are angelic, chastise, chastity, natural, national, etc.

105. When the accent falls on the antepenultimate syllable, the

Lil

vowel of the accented syllable is short, except when it is a u, which is always long, as musical.

Exceptions to this rule are —

1. The following words —

See also § 104.

2. When the two last syllables form one sound (See § 80 and § 89), or are easily run together (See § 99), the vowel of the accented syllable is long, except i, which is always short.

Patience. Atrocious. Period.

Precarious. Confusion. Imperial.

Ferocious. Opinion. Ingredient.

To this rule are a few exceptions as, companion, valiant, Italian, onion, poniard, noxious, precious, special, discretion.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

THE ARTICLES.

1. The articles are a or an and the.

2. A is used before words beginning with a consonant or a consonant sound, as u, eu, ew, y, one, once.

A house, een huis. A ewer, een lampetkan.

A university, een hoogeschool. A yard, een el.

A European, een Europeaan. Such a one, zulk een,

3. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h, and also before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second or any following syllable.

An uncle, een oom An historical event, een geschied-An hour, een uur. kundige gebeurtenis.

The words beginning with a silent h are heir, honest, honour, hour, with their derivatives.

USE OP THE ABTICLES.

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.

4. Wo article is used when a noun is taken in a general sense.

Experience is the best teacher.

Tigers are bloodthirsty animals.

Gold is the king of metals.

Observations. — A. noun so used is in most cases either an abstract noun, a material noun, or a common noun in the plural. Nouns of this sort may be preceded or followed by a qualifying word without requiring the article. Thus we say True happiness, base flattery, national greatness, civil liberty, human life, public opinion, English public opinion, etc Dutch cheese, French wine, Delft pottery; English literature, French history, etc. But we say The English language, the Dutch language, etc. The Christian religion, the Protestant religion, etc.

Note that we say Public opinion in England, civil liberty in France, etc., but the public opinion of England, the civil liberty of France, etc. So also, English history, French literature , etc., but the history of England , the literature of France, etc.

5. The Definite article is used —

•lt; . . ' -v»

1. When a noun is taken in a particular or limited sense.

The castle stood on a high rock.

The leaves begin to fall from the trees.

The stars twinkled in the sky.

The brass of that candle-stick is tarnished.

The experience of many years made him wise.

3

... - ¹ • y-

2. When one individual is taken as the representative of its class, except man and woman.

The tiger is a bloodthirsty animal.

The rose is famous for its beauty.

Man is the protector of woman.

3. Before collective nouns.

/ . _ .... t,...

The poor, the peasantry, the navy, the fleet.

Observations. — d. The collectives antiquity, mankind , society, christendom take no article.

^ ^C3Ti^ry' ⁱⁿf^antry gt; artillery, people, cattle, fish, poultry, game take the article only when used in a particular sense. Thus: Cavalry is of little use in mountainous countries.

3. With Parliament, Government and Congress (the American parliament) usage varies.

6. The names of titles, dignities, professions, etc.followed by the name of a person, take no article.

King William, Queen Emma, Prince Edward.

Duke William, General Murat, Admiral Monk.

Exceptions are a few foreign titles, as Emperor, Empress , Archduke, Archduchess; Grand Duke, Grand Duchess; Elector, Electress; Czar, Czarina; and in formal style the words Lady and Princess. Thus we say The Emperor Napoleon, the Czar Alexander.

7. With regard to proper nouns the following points should be observed —

4. The names of seasons, days and festivals used in a general sense take no article.

2. Without the article we use the following words — Providence, de Voorzienig- Paradise, het Paradijs.

Pate, het noodlot. \heid. Hell, de Hel.

Nature, de Natuur. God Almighty, de almachtige

Heaven, de Hemel. Scripture, de tl. Schrift. [God.

4

{s~ viA-¹ ''

But we speak of the sky, the heavens, the universe, the sun, the moon, the soul, the understanding, the inteïlect, the Almighty, the north, the south, etc.

3. In familiar language the name of a person preceded by an adjective is often used without the article; as, Poor Jack-Little Dick remained all night in the streets,

4. The adjective saint followed by a proper noun takes n5 article; as, Saint Peter.

5. The names of buildings, streets, squares, parks, etc. take no article.

Westminster Abbey, Buckingham Palace,

Oxford Street, Broad Street, High Street,

Hyde Park, Eussell Square, Victoria Station.

Note that the names of buildings are for the greater part made up of a proper name and a common noun. Hence names not formed in such a way take the article; as, The Tower, The Royal Exchange, The British Museum, The Mansion House, The Crystal Palace, etc. We also say The Albert Hall, The Alexandra Palace.

6. The names of single mountains, and the words lake and mount followed by a proper noun, take no article; as,- Vesuvius, Ben Nevis, lake Erie, mount Ararat.

Alsace, de Elzas; but the following geographical names have the article in English, and not in Dutch —

The Deccan. The Tyrol.

The Downs ') The Texel.

The Orisons. The East-Indies.

The Morea. The West-Indies.

Before the names of places and countries preceded by an adjective the article is often omitted; as, Old England, Ancient Rome, Modern Greece, Sunny France, etc.

¹

The roadstead between Goodwin sands and Kent.

8. No article is used before the word table in the meaning of dinner; and before the names of buildings and places to indicate the use made of them.

We are at table, at school, in prison.

We go to school, to market.

We put something on the table.

We live near the school, ihe church.

The prison was near the riverside.

Note that we say To go to the theatre, to go to the circus, to the opera.

XT • • o^je^^vC

9. No article is used before the names of meals, unless the food or a special occasion is referred to.

What will you have for breakfast?

After tea they had some music.

We shall meet him at dinner.

Dinner will be ready in half an hour.

The old servant is cooking the dinner.

The dinner will come off next Friday.

10. The article is also omitted in most verbal and adverbial

expressions. • . £,U f

To give offence. To attend church.

To live in town. To be in mourning.

To lose sight of. To be dressed in black.

To put in prison. To take dinner, supper, etc.

To set foot on From head to foot, from top to toe.

To shake hands. From east to west.

To tread under foot. From hand to mouth.

To weigh, to cast anchor. From first to last.

To mount guard. From cover to cover.

To hoist, set sail. Arms, sword in band.

In the following expressions the article is used — To become the fashion, to take the alarm, to take the lead, to take the law of one, to play the piano, etc.

6

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

11, The Indefinite article is used —

1. Before a predicative noun denoting a title, dignity, profession, calling, nationality, party, or sect.

His brother is an officer, an exile.

He became a carpenter, a bookseller.

He was a Frenchman by birth.

His cousin was made a captain ').

2. Before a noun connected by as with the word it qualifies.

As a biography the work is unsatisfactory.

His power as a preacher is well known.

As a boy his tastes were all for science.

Exceptions to these rules are —

1. When the title or dignity is held by one person only.

He was appointed President of the Eepublic.

His brother was made captain of the Warrior.

2. With the verb to turn-

He turned soldier, informer.

3. When the name of a title or dignity is preceded by one of the phrases the rank of, the name of, the post of, the dignity of, the- title of.

He obtained the title of Duke.

The name of king was hateful to these men.

But: He learned the trade of a printer.

1) After the verbs benoemen, to malce, and aanstellen, to appoint, tot is not to be translated.

3. Before nouns denoting time, number, weight, or measure.

and little, the numerals hundred, thou-

and the phrase part of, in the meaning

A few passengers escaped without injury.

We had a thousand things to do.

Part of the ceiling came down.

Observations. — 1. J few, as also a little, has a positive sense, but the omission of the article renders the sense negative. A few were in the secret means a small number; but few were in the secret denotes a still smaller number or perhaps none. Compare also He thought a little about it, with.

8

He thought little about it. A few answers to our eenige weinige{ri), eenige, wai; few, to our weinige{n). A little answers to our eert weinig, wat; little, to our weinig.

2. Fart of not used in the sense of partly, requires the ind. art. In 1815 Belgium was made part of Holland.

REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE.

12. The article is not repeated before two or more nouns, unless we wish to draw special attention to each of them separately.

Give me a knife and fork.

The church, the town-hall, the theatre, and the museum were burnt down.

Note the use of the ind. art. in the following cases — If we speak of a Hack and a yellow flag, we mean two flags; but a black and yellow flag means one flag. — He sent for the secretary and the treasurer inplies that two different persons are sent for; the secretary and treasurer denotes that the two offices are held hy one person. Again, He is a letter sailor than a horseman signifies; He is a better sailor than a horseman would be; but he is a letter sailor than horseman means that he understands ths art of navigating a vessel better than the art of riding a horse. quot;We say The 4th and the 5th chapter; or the 4th and 5th chapters; he studies The French and the Italian language, or he studies the French and Italian languages.

PLACE OF THE ARTICLE.

13. When the words as, so, too, how, however, precede an adjective, the article is put between the adjective and the noun.

He is as noble a man as his brother.

In so large a town we were safe.

Too great a responsibility, a desire.

You do not know how serious a thing is separation.

However clever a man he may be, I despise him.

Observation. — The word too is aometimes preceded by the article; as, Our friends lived in a too noisy street.

9

14. All, both, half, double, treble and triple, are placed before the article.

All the children were on the ice.

Both the prisoners.

Half the money. Double the sum.

Observation. — Half is sometimes preceded by the article to vary the meaning. Thus we speak of half a bottle and a half-bottle (a small bottle), The form of a half moon, etc. Een halve gulden is half a guilder to denote the value of the coin; we say a half guilder to denote the coin itself. So also, half a sovereign and a half sovereign. Een halve stuiver is always a half penny.

Note that we say Half an hour, half a dozen, half a pound, half a crown, etc.; but That half-hour, my half dozen, my half-crown, etc. Also a full half-hour, an extra half-dozen, etc.

Double and treble (triple) are preceded by the ind. art.; as, A double blessing.

15. The article is put after such, many, just, quite, and after what in exclamations.

Such a book. Many a flower.

Just the thing. Quite another man.

What a price you ask me!

The article is omitted after what when it is followed by a _ material noun or an abstract noun that cannot be used in the plural; as, What delicious wine! What presence of mind!

NOUNS.

16. Nouns are varied by Gender, Number and Case.

GENDER.

17. The names of persons and animals are either masculine or feminine. All other words are neuter.

10

18. Masculine and feminine nouns are distinguished in three ways —

1. By the use of different words.

Boy, jongen. Girl, meisje.

Brother, broeder. Sister, zuster.

Cock, haan. Hen, hen.

Earl, graaf. Countess, gravin.

King, koning. Qüeen, koningin.

Son, zoon. Daughter, dochter.

2. By a difference of termination-

Actor, tooneelspeler. Actress, tooneelspeelster.

Count, graaf. Countess, gravin.

Duke, hertog. Duchess, hertogin.

Director, directeur. Directress, directrice.

Czar, czaar. Czarina, czarina.

3. By the addition of another word.

Man-servant, knecht. Maid-servant, meid.

He-goat, bok. She-goat, geit.

Peacock, pauw. Peahen, pauwin.

19. Some words are used in reference to both sexes; they are said to be of common gender, as artist, teacher, cousin, friend, parent, servant, etc.

20. In case the names of animals do not indicate their sex, the larger and bolder animals, as the elephant, the horse, the dog, the eagle, etc. are considered as male; and the smaller and gentler, as the cat, the sheep, the hare, etc. as female.

Small birds, insects and fishes are generally spoken of as neuter.

21. In ordinary style a vessel (boat, steamer, frigate, etc.) is regarded as feminine, as also are, countries and towns, when spoken of as Powers.

11

NUMBER.

22. Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural.

23. The plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular; as, book, books; horse, horses.

'I ' , . iU¹

24. Nouns ending in a hissing sound, as s or ss, sh, ch soft, x, and z form the plural by adding es.

Crocus — crocuses. Church .— churches.

Kiss — kisses ^^. 2 Fox — foxes. Km

Brush — brushes. Topaz — topazes.

Nouns ending in ch hard take s; as, Monarchs, patriarchs.

25. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, form the plural by adding es; as, cargo, cargoes; hero, heroes. But; Folio, folios; cameo, cameos; cuckoo, cuckoos; bamboo, bamboos; etc. The following are commonly written with s —

Canto, zang. Octavo, octavo.

Grotto, grot. Piano, 'piano.

Motto, motto, zinspreuk. Salvo, salvo.

Portico, zuilengang. Solo, solo.

Duodecimo, duodecimo. Zero, nul.

Quarto, kwarto. Violoncello, violoncel.

26. Nouns ending in f or fe change the f or fe into ves in the plural; as, leaf, leaves; knife, knives.

Exceptions to this rule are —

1. The nouns ending in oof, ief, rf, and ff.

J,-. -

Eoof — roofs. Scarf — scarfs.

Hoof — hoofs. Dwarf — dwarfs.

Chief — chiefs. Muff — mufifs.

Thief makes in the plural thieves; and staff, stok, has staves in the plural, but its compounds are regular; as, flagstaff, flagstaffs.

12

2. The following words —

Coif, kap. Keef, rif, reef.

Fife, dwarsfluit. Safe, brandkast.

Gulf, afgrond. Strife, twist.

27. Nouns ending in y after a consonant, change the y into ies in the plural; as, fly, flies. But nouns ending in y after a vowel form the plural regularly; as, day, days.

Soliloquy makes soliloquies, because qu — ku.

28. Irregular plurals are the following —

Man — men. Mouse — mice. Foot — feet.

Woman — women. Louse — lice. Tooth — teeth.

Child — children. Goose — geese. Ux — oxen.

29. The following words have both a regular and an irregular plural form —

brothers, in letterlijken zin. brethren, in figuurlijken zin. dies, muntstempels.

dice, dobhelsteenen.

indexes, bladwijzers, registers. indices, exponenten,

geniuses, genieën.

genii, beschermgeesten.

peas, voor enkele erwten. pease, voor de soort,als voedingsartikel ').

pennies, voor de stuiverstukken, pence, voor de waarde.

staffs, staven (van legers). staves, stokken.

1) At present this distinction is not kept up.

13

30. Nouns derived from foreign languages generally retain their original plurals.

Oasis — oases. Madame — mesdames.

Datum — data. Monsieur — Messieurs.

Erratum — errata. Bandit — banditti, bandits.

Phenomenon — phenomena. Dilettante — dilettanti. -

Fungus — fungi, funguses. Virtuoso — virtuosi.

■ . l/,.! I .

OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER-FORMS.

'i . '. / lt;_'

31. The names of materials take the plural form to denote the different sorts of the material spoken of; as, Wines, teas, silks, etc.

32. A noun referring to several objects individually takes the plural form.

Ten sailors lost their lives.

They turned their backs upon the enemy.

33. Horse, paardenvolk; foot, voetvolk; cannon, geschut; shot, kogels; sail, schip; and head, stuks are used in the singular form with a plural verb.

His force consisted of five thousand foot.

A thousand horse were ready.

Several shot had entered the ship.

He turned his cannon against the cowards. 0~

A fleet of fifty sail. A hundred head of cattle.

.

Obs. The cannon were nailed; bat the singular is also mostly used when ^ numeral precedes; as. Twenty cannon were nailed.

34. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers —

1. Deer, hert, herten. Means, middel, middelen.

Sheep, schaap, schapen. Series, reeks, reeksen.

Swine, zwijn, zwijnen. Species, soort, soorten.

14

2. The word fish and the names of some sorts of fish, as salmon, pike, carp, perch, trout, cod, mackerel.

At the months of these rivers are plenty of salmon, trout

and other fish.

The fish were turned out on the grass. There were ninety trout and two salmon.

3. Words denoting number, as pair, couple, brace, yoke, team, dozen, stone, score, gross, except when they are taken as nouns.

Two pair of gloves. A gross is twelve dozen.

But: They walked in pairs. By hundreds and thousands.

Observations. — 1. Swine is now used only in a collective sense, as A swineherd. Swine disease. A herd of swine. In other cases we nse pig.

2. Ifisli preceded by a number is also met with in the plural, as The Story of the three Fishes. The word is also pluralized when we refer to the species.

Rem. Nouns denoting weight, measure, or value take the plural form, unless they form part of a compound. — Five ounces, A wall of ten feet, A child of seven years, A sum of five hundred guilders. But: A ten-pound note, A ten-foot-high wall, A seven-year-old child.

35. Some nouns are used only in the plural.

15

2. Names of things composed of two equal parts.

Compasses, passer. Snuffers, snuiter.

Nutcrackers, notenkraker. Spectacles, bril.