geographical instruction as far as possible i„ ^„„„„y Jfor the young, to render

It is hoped that the present undertaking will meet with a favourable reception .. . . ...
.uring the progress of the work, proof-sheets of the different maps have berihl^ ^

educationists, who have one and all expressed their entire approval both of the plan and of ireTeculn'"'
believed that the Atlas may be found useful for the instruction of the Blind, ^ ' ' execution. It jg also

The Continent of Europe is the smallest (except Oceania), having an «rm of about 3,800,000 square miles. It contains

-t^ussia m Asia, Turkey in Asia, British India,
Persia, Afghanistan, Arabia, Central Asia, Thibet, China, Japan, Burmah, and Siam

North America contains an of 7,500,000 square miles. It is entirely occupied by the United States, the Dominion
of Canada, Mexico, and the States of Central America.

South America has an area of 6,500,000 square miles, and contains the countries of Brazil, Argentine Confederation,
Peru, Chili, Bolivia, Guiana, Uruguay, Paraguay, New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador.

Oceania consists principally of the islands known as Australasia, the principal of which is Australia, possessing
of 3,000,000 square miles. It contains the British Colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and
West Australia. The other islands are Tasmania, New Zealand, and a number of smaller ones in the Pacific Ocean.

Area —The area of Europe may be roughly stated at 3,800,000 square miles, i.e., about J of Africa, i of America, | of
Asia or -V part of the known land of the globe. Greatest length, N. to S. (North Cape to Cape Matapan), 2400 miles;
Neatest breadth, E. to W. (Lisbon to the Caucasus), 3000 miles. The outline of the sea-board (about 17,200 miles) is very
•regular with numerous deep inlets and corresponding peninsulas, the c\Cxti inlets bemg those of the White Sea, Baltic, Bay of
Biscay, GuKs of Lions and Genoa, Ionian, Adriatic, ^gean, and Black Seas, with Sea of Azov.

Rplief —The irregularity of outline is repeated in the irregular surface-level. The great European Lowland lies to the
N E encircling the Baltic, and extending through N. Germany, N. and W. France, to the foot of the Pyrenees.

TVfnUntain Ranges.—Two great systems of mountains run through Europe—viz., the Northern, seen principally in
-a and Britain ; and the Southern, stretching from Spain through southern France, Italy, south Germany, Austria, '

Scandinavia ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ j^^^ada and Morena, tlie Pyrenees dividing it from

Greece, ^'V ^^^ shares in the Fosges and the Al/>s with Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, the Alpine country occupying the

France. ^^^^j^nd, and, under the name of the Tyrol, as far as Austria. The Alps form also the northern boundary of
whole ot bv ^^^„tain chains of which are the Apennines. The countiy east of Hungary is marked by the great ranges
Italy, the while the Balkans are the characteristic mountains of Turkey in Europe. In Russia we find the

°V^^ndent ranges of the Ural Mountains, separating Europe from Asia. The following are a few of the heights of the

Hydrography.-The Fo/^a, the largest Eurnn • • " ' ' "

of commerce of Central and South Russia P^ncipal feeder of th

.„O. rap. ^^ -"-n r.Ver.

The chief rivers (all of immense importance) dr^fn" • "^^'ff^tion), and the flow ; .

JPouro (Oporto)- the Gironde T draining mto the AHnnf. .. '"to the

■iiiuuixta.iaaw/ .

Mont Blanc (Alps)

„ Rosa „
Maladttta (Pyrenees)
Mount Etna (Sicily)
Ymes-Feid (Norway)
Ural Mountains (Russia)

KlVPro I " —--—

VolgaTT ^ ^--	Length.
Danube	14
I^nieper	9H
Don . ■ •	7^
Vistula .
Elbe . ■ •
Loire . . '
Rhine .	4
Po . • •
Thames	^^
—---------	I

Divisions—The Continent of Europe is parcelled out into i8 different countries, under various forms of government.
Taking them alphabetically, they are as follows :—

1. Austria {cap. Vienna), including the separate nationalities of Hungary {cap. Pesth), Bohemia {cap. Prague), Moravia
{cap. Brunn), Tyrol, Styria, Illyria, Galicia, Dalmatia, Transylvania, Sclavonia, Croatia, and Bosnia. These are all united under
one Emperor, whose seat of government is Vienna.

2. Belgium, divided into nine provinces, and governed by a King, whose seat of government is Brussels.

3. Bulgaria, created a Principality by the Treaty of Berlin, 1878; governed by a Prince elected by the inhabitants.
Seat of government, Sophia.

4. Denmark, divided into Jutland and several islands, including the large and distant one of Iceland. Denmark is a
kingdom, and the seat of government is Copenhagen.

5. France, divided into 86 departments, is a Republic. The seat of government is Paris.

6. Germany, comprising the confederated kingdoms of Prussia {cap. Berlin), Saxony {cap. Dresden), Bavaria {cap. uni
Wurtemberg {cap. Stutgardt), together, with 22 smaller states, duchies, and free towns, is all united under one
whose seat of government is Berlin.

7. Greece, divided into 13 provinces or nomarchies, is under the rule of a King, whose seat of governmeni.

8. Holland, or the Netherlands, divided into 11 provinces, is under the rule of a King, whose seat o ^
The Hague.

9. Italy, including the large islands of Sicily and Sardinia, is divided into 69 provinces, and governea y
cap. is Rome.

10. Portugal is divided into six provinces, and governed by a King, whose cap. is Lisbon.

11. Roumania, including the Dobrudscha, is a principality, governed by an Hereditary Prince, whose cap- is uc

12. Russia; comprising Russia Proper, Finland, and Poland, together with a portion of BessaraDia v
Roumania), is divided into 52 governments, under one Emperor, whose cap.'is St. Petersburg.

13. Servia is a principality under an Hereditary Prince, whose seat of government is Belgrade.

14. Spain, divided into 14 provinces (which are now sub-divided into 49), is a kingdom, the seat o go
being Madrid.

15. Sweden and Norway (together called Scandinavia) are jointly governed by a King. Sweden is divided int
governments or Ian, and Norway into 20 provinces or amts. The seat of government is Stockholm.

16. Switzerland is a Republic, formed of 22 cantons, the seat of government being Berne. ^^

17. Turkey in Europe has been greatly reduced in size of late years, owing to misgovernment and disastrous wars,
is under the rule of a Sultan, whose cap. is Constantinople.

18. The United Kingdom, comprising the island of Great Britain (England and Scotland), and Ireland, is under the
rule of a Queen, whose seat of government is London.

Area.-"The arm of the United Kingdom is as follows :—England 50,922 square miles; Scotland 31,324 ; Ireland 32,509 ;
total 114,455- ^^^ greatest Imgtk of Great Britain is 640 miles; of Ireland, 300 ; the greatest breadth being 250, and 170 miles
respectively. Together with the various islands of Anglesea, the Isle of Wight, the Channel Islands, Isles of Man, Arran, Islay,

Mull Skye, the Hebrides, the Orkney Islands, and the Shetland Islands, the whole forms the most considerable group in
Europe.

on the Clyde; Leith, on the Forth ; Dundee, on the Tay ■ Aberdee ^^ ^^^ Jn Sc
on the Belfast Lough; Cork, on the Cork Harbour; Limerick, I ^ sT ^^^

inland towns in England are, Birmingham, Manchester Leeds B ' on the Barrow r^^'

■ 22,712,266
• 3,3<^0,oi8

■ 5,411,416

144,638

• 31,628,338

Area—England contains 51,000 square miles, and Wales 7340 ; total 58 540
Berwick-on-Tweed to the Lizard Point, 420 miles ; greatest breadth from (W. to E) T -
miles. The coast line is over 2000 miles, that on the W. side being very much mo

where, with the exception of the estuaries of the Humber and Thame, tin. .r indented than that on the E.,

Relief.—The surface of England is much broken and diversified, a fact to which she

capabilities, her mineral treasures, and her vast number of industries. The " • ^ g'^eat variety of agricultural

range, which extends like a backbone from the Scottish border into Derbyshire"^o^^tains consist of i. The Pennine
Ingleborough, and Pen-y-Ghent, averaging from 2000 to 3000 feet in height 2 The ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ Whernside,

land dividing Northumberland from Scotland. 3. The Cumbrian Mountains form ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^
Cumberland, and the N. of Lancashire, the highest points being Helvellyn Scaw fT Westmoreland,

4. The Cambrian Mountains occupy ^ the greater part of Wales thouc^h th ^ ' ^^^ all just over 3000 feet.

North Wales, where they attain in Snowdon a height of 3571 feet and Cader ^^^^ ^^^ ^^gge^ ^^

Mountains are of different character and outline, and in general the^hm ^^^^^ V/alcs, the Black

as the Cotswolds in Gloucestershire, and the Marlborough Downs in Wilts " ^^^^ Property high table-lands, such

what more mountainous aspect, as in the Mendip Hills in SomPi-Q.fcT,- ^ ' further S. W. they assume a some-

Cornwall attain to 1800 feet in Exmoor and Dartmoor. The South of E 1 d ' I'anges in Devonshire and

elevations called the North and South Downs, of no great height, but i • ^^ by parallel ranges of chalk

and N. E. of England as far as the Humber is characterized by low flat • ^ ^ ^^ ^ geological point of view, while the E.

Hydrography .-England is abundantly watered, the principal river basins being the Th
(5900); the Ouse and Trent, combining to form the estuary of the Humber (8800) Central '

the Severn, Avhich forms the estuary of the Bristol Channel; North Wales,by the Dee Tnd ^^^ ^^

Towy, Neath, Taff, Usk and Wye. The Thames in its course of 200 miles drains the countr''''^^' ^^ ^^^

the German Ocean, while the S. and S. W. of England are provided for by many smalkTri^Xs^ruira
Itchen,Test, Axe, Exe,Tamar,Torridge,Taw, Parrett, and Avon. Lancashire, on the N. W. colst k drabe^ b^^'"'''
and Mersey. The commerce of Northumberiand and Durham finds an outlet by the Tyne, Wear and tLs^^ ^^^
districts of Yorkshire are provided with abundant water supply from the Swale, Nidd, Aire, Calder anrD^T'^^ ^^^
outlet into the Ouse or the Trent, and thus into the North Sea. The rivers on the East Coa<.t sr. -

Orwell, Stour, and Blackwater being the principal. The river waterways of England are largely su le '

Divisi0ns.-England and Wales are divided into fifty-two counties or sliires, forty in England and twelve • ,
of the count,es vary greatly, Yorkshire, the largest, with an area of 6000 squa'e miles! betrLl " '
Rut and^whose square n,ileage is only ,;o n,iles. Yorkshire is again divided into three Rid ngs (« tS,! " " ^^

East, »d West R,d,ngs. In population the variations are still greater. The fifty-two counties lu^ } ""

The population of England is now nearly four times as great as it was at the beginning of this century.

PortS.-^^-^- (general shipping), with its area of 123 square miles, is the only great port of S E En . .
j^^rbour, the Thames, bemg crowded with ships from all quarters of the globe, filling the wLhouses round its dol? u'
products of every land. (.mber, wheat and general shipping), with the Tyne and Wear ports of .V^I'^^^

-on and glass trades) form the other great outlets on the East Coast zL/../with B ti ff
prov-ion trades) ranks even before London in maritime importance, and shares with Bnsf/iWcst InZ Z7

iron), Newport (coal and iron) and Gloucester (grain and malt). ^^rUtff (coal and

IndUSteS.-^e chief towns for the trade, the most important English industry, are :-Manchester P .

,, chiefly earned on in the West Rising of Yorkshire, in the great towns of Eeeds, Bradford, Haht Huddr/M'
Wakefield, and Dewsbury; while ^ manufactures centre at Barnsley. Kidderminster is noted for its Nottt f

perby, Leicester, and Macclesfie d for the «/i trades ; and Coventry for ribbons. The coal an/l j^T'

of England and Wales are twelve m nunjber, the most important and longest worked being those of Northumberlir T.
other chief coal basins are those of Yorkshire, South Wales, Staffordshire, Lancashire, and Cumberland These m
^bout 135 n^illio"^ of tons of coal; besides six and a half millions tons of iron-ore, a supply equal to that of the 2T
Tin and copper are found principally in Cornwall and Devonshire: lead mines in Cumberland and North Wales • salt
Northwich in Cheshire. The hardware trades centre round Sheffield and Birmingham, with the towns in the " Black Tn'"?
Stafford and Northampton are best known for boots; while the counties of Bucks, Herts, and Beds are occupied
plait and pillow lace manufacture. Agriculture is carried on throughout almost all the countiy, the principal cereals h
wheat, barley, and oats; the first is cultivated most largely in the southern counties, while oats are grown chiefly in
north; in the midland counties the proportions are about equal.

Exports.--^nnua\ value, about £^00,000,000, cotton goods alone amounting to £70,000,000.

value (excluding bullion and specie), ^350,000,000, mostly in raw material, a great portion of which is
manufactured and again exported. The imports comprise cotton, wool, sugar, tallow, timber, hides, wine, indigo, silk tobacco
wheat, and other grain.

Area—The area of Scotland is 31,324 square miles. Its greatest length N. to S,, from Pentland Firth to the^ ^^^ply
Galloway, is 281 miles; and greatest breadth, from Buchan Ness to Skye, about 150 miles. The coast is, however, ^^ ^^yde
indented, that the distance from the North Sea to the Atlantic is in some places very small, and, between the i^r ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^
only 32 miles. The east coast is more regular in outline than the west, though it is marked by several very deep ^^^^^^ ^y a
Firth of Forth, the Firth of Tay, the Moray Firth, and the Dornock Firth. The west coast, however, is princip^^

succession of parallel fiords, running inland for a considerable distance, and giving rise to beautiful scenery- ^ ^^^^^ ^och
of these from N. to S. are, Loch Broom, Loch Torridon, Loch Carron, Loch Hourn, Loch Linnhe, the Firth ^
Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Long, the Firth of Clyde, Loch Ryan, Luce Bay, Wigton Bay, and the Firth of Sohv^^'

Relief. —Scotland has a far greater preponderance of mountain ranges than England, and indeed is
little level ground. Even the Lowlands, so called, possess many fine ranges of hills. The chief of them are the La^^ ^ ^o^^
Moorfoot, and Pentland Hills on the E., while in Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, and Dumfriesshire, the country is wilder a
elevated. The highest points of these southern hills are Hart Fell, Broadlaw, Tintoc, Cairnsmuir, Black Larg, Cairn ^^^ ^^^^
varying from 2000 to 2600 feet. North of the Clyde and Forth the ranges become more marked, commencing ^^^^^^^
Ochill and Campsie Hills, gradually merging into the magnificent scenery of the Highlands. The counties o
Aberdeen, and Perth, are occupied by the Grampian Mountains, the loftiest ranges in Great Britain, of which the
pomts are Ben Nevis, 4406, Ben Macdhui, 4296, Ben Lawers, 3992, &c., and the rugged character of the country is P''®

south-westward into Argyllshire, where are the Cobbler, Ben Cruachan, and many other fine hills. Goatfell, in the ^^^
Arran, is 2875 feet. North of the Caledonian Canal are the mountain ranges of the counties of Inverness and Sutherland, ^^
what more disconnected, but with remarkably bold outlines. The chief of them are Ben Suilven, Ben Assynt, Ben ^^

In the Isle of Skye are the romantic group of the Cuchillons, while the more distant islands of the Hebrides are mar
mountain ranges, as are also the islands of Jura and Islay.

Hydrography .—There are but two or three Scottish rivers which are of note commercially, and indee

navigable, except for a very short distance. The principal are—i. The Clyde, which falls into the Atlantic Ocean ^^
picturesque course, having at its mouth the ports of Glasgow and Greenock ; 2, the Forth, which has Dut a short co ^ ^^^^^^ _
ing into the North Sea, under the shadow of Arthur's Seat and Edinburgh—at the mouth of the Firth is the port o ^^^ ^^^^^
3, the Tay, which has a very beautiful course, rising in the Perthshire mountains, and falling into the North Sea, below ^^^^
of Dundee : 4, the Don and the Dee, also flowing into the North Sea at the Port of Aberdeen. The other rivers are r
able mainly for their scenery or their excellent fishing. The most noted are the Coll, Stinchar, Ayr Water, and ^^^

the west coast; the Brora, Spey, Findhorn, Dovern, Ythan, Esk, Almond, Carron, White Adder, Black Adder,
Tweed on the east coast—the latter separating Scotland from England. As might be expected from the mountainous c
of the country, the interior of Scotland possesses very beautiful lakes, such as Loch Lomond, Loch Katrine, Loch
Loch Awe, Loch Rannoch, &c.

Divisions—Scotland is divided into thirty-three counties; of these, the twelve Northern are usually spoken of as the
Highlands, and the twenty-one more Southern ones as the Lowlands. The largest county is Inverness (4256 square miles),
and the smallest, Clackmannan (46 square miles). Some of them are divided into a number of detached portions, the county
of Cromarty having no less than fourteen separate parts.

Population.—The population of Scotland is under three and a half millions, or considerably less than that of London
alone. The principal towns are, Glasgow, with a population of 470,000 ; Edinburgh, 190,000 ; Dundee, 120,000; Aberdeen
80,000 ; Greenock, 50,000 ; Paisley and Leith, 40,000 each; and Arbroath, Kilmarnock and Perth, with about 10,000 each

Ports.—The principal ports are Glasgow, Leith, Greenock, Dundee, and Aberdeen, together with others of less
importance.

Exports.—Manufactured cotton and linen goods, yarn, coal, iron, and live stock.

Manufactures.—goods in the West, principally at Glasgow and Paisley. The manufacture of linen '
extensively engaged in at Dundee, Forfar, and other towns in the East. On the Clyde, iron ship-building is carried on to a
larger extent than on any river in the world. The iron trade is principally located in Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, and Stirling
shire, in which counties, as also in those of Fife and Edinburgh, are extensive coal beds. The fisheries are also very numerous
and important, giving employment directly and indirectly to 90,000 hands. Agriculture is largely carried on, but the soil is
very inferior in comparison to that of England, a large portion being so poor as to render cultivation unprofitable ; thus out
of a total area of about 20,000,000 acres, only about 15,000,000 are under cultivation. Scotch agriculturists are, however
famous for their systems of high farming. The manufacture of whisky is also an important industry, many of the best known
brands being distilled in the East and North and particularly in the counties of Argyle and Aberdeen.

Scotland was united to England in 1707, and is represented in the House of Commons by sixty members, thirty-two of
whom sit for the counties, and twenty-eight for the boroughs. The representation in the House of Lords consists of sixteen
noblemen, who are elected by their Peers for each Parliament.

Area and Coast Line.—The area of Ireland is 32,509 square miles, the greatest length being 302 miles, from Mali«
Head (N.) to Mizen Head (S.W.), and greatest breadth 210 miles, from the east coast of Down to Achill Island. The coast line,
which is greatly indented on the west, is about 2200 miles.

The principal bays and inlets, many of which are beautifully studded with islands, and run inland for a considerable
distance, are, commencing with the north coast, Lough Foyle, at the head of which Londonderry is situated.

Swilly and Sheep Haven ; on the west coast, Donegal Bay, Sligo Bay, Killaloe Bay, Broad Haven, Blacksod Bay, Clew Bay,
the Killeries, Galway Bay, Lisconnor Bay, the estuary of the Shannon, Tralee Bay, Dingle Bay, Kenmare Bay, and Bantry
Bay; on the south coast. Long Island Bay, Kinsale Bay, Cork Harbour, Youghal Harbour, Dungarvan Bay, and Waterford
Harbour ; on theeast coast, Wexford Harbour, Dublin Bay, Drogheda Bay, Dundalk Bay, Carlingford Lough, Dundrum Bay,
Strangford Lough, Belfast Lough, and Larne Lough.

Relief.—Ireland may be looked upon as a large central plain, girdled by hills, although there are none of very great
height. In the north are the Sperrin Mountains, and to the west of them the Donegal ranges—chief heights, Errigal
leet, Blue Stack 2219, and Slieve League 1972. In the west are the Nephin Mountains, and, a little further south, the
Connemara Mountains, conspicuous amongst which are the Twelve Pins, 2396, and Muilrea, 2639. The highest groups are
to be found in the south-west, where (in Kerry) they rise to 3404 feet in Carn-tual and the McGillicuddy Reeks. The Galtee
Mountains in Tipperary are 3008 feet; the Knockmealdown and the Commeragh Mountains in Waterford, about 2700. I^
county Wicklow is the very picturesque group of Lugnaquilla, 3939, and in the north-west are the Mourne Mountains, of which
Slieve Donard rises to 2796 feet.

Hydrography .—-With one exception the river system of Ireland is neither large, nor commercially important. This
exception is the Shannon, with a course of 214 miles, which, flowing southwards through a system of lakes, drains an area of
4544 square miles. The Barrow, with its tributaries the Nore and Suir, drains about 3400 square miles ; the other rivers m
the southern half of the country, being the Slaney, Avoca, Bandon, Lee, Blackwater, Cashen, and Feale. In the north, they are
of less size and volume, and consist of the Lififey, Boyne, Bann, Derg, Erne, and Moy. There are also some considerable fresh-
water lakes, such as Lough Neagh, with an area of 153 square miles. Lough Erne, Lough Rea, Lough Derg, Lough Corrib,
Lough Mask, and many other smaller ones. Owing to its position in the Atlantic, and to its being washed by the Gulf Stream,
the climate of Ireland is much moister and softer than that of England, and this, together with the comparative freedom from
frost, gives a peculiar greenness and freshness to the verdure, which has procured for it the names of the Emerald Isle and
Green Erin.

Divisions.—Ireland is divided into four provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster and Connaught These are again sub-
divided into thirty-three counties, of which nine are situated in Ulster, twelve in Leinster, six in Munster, and five in
Connaught.

Population.—The population is about five and a half millions, but is gradually decreasing, owing to emigration. The
principal towns are: Dublin, with a population of between 250,000 and 300,000; Belfast, 170,000; Cork, 80,000, Limerick,
40,000 ; Waterford and Londonderry, 20,000 each.

Imports.—Cotton and woollen goods, linen yarn, coal, iron, and others of less importance.

Industries.—The industrial importance of Ireland is not great, the only manufacture of note being that linen. Belfast
is the most noteworthy town in connection with this industry, though several other towns in Ulster are all more or less enc^aged
in it. The Fisheries are numerous, and of considerable value, giving employment to about 70,000 hands. Of the total area of
the country, about 21,000,000 acres, or about two-thirds are under cultivation for agricultural purposes, but owing to the poverty
of a large proportion of the occupiers, farming is not very profitable, many of the smaller tenants being only able to make
a bare living.

Government.—Ireland was united to England in 1800. The Sovereign is represented by a resident Viceroy, nomi-
minated by the Ministry in power. The representation in Parliament consists of 103 members in the House of Commons
and twenty-eight noblemen in the House of Lords, who are elected for life.

TU, 1 , • 1 M , ^^^^dth from W. (Brest to E. (Mt. Donon, Vosges) 532 miles.
The length of coast line is nearly 1550 miles, and the length of frontier lines 1406 miles.

lVr..v ^ T^ 1,- . ^ "^^^^ded into the separate groups of the Jura, Savoy, Graian,

points h.,-. M . .. ^ r ... cevennes, between the Rhone, Loire and Garonne basins, the highest

points being Mont Mezène, 5755 feet, and Mont Lozère, 5100 feet aT^xt i- , . ^/r 11. fliP

highest points being the Ballon de Guebwiller, 4481 feet. Ballon d'Akp.. ^ .. ^ .-or.

Hydrography—The chief river systems are those of i The T -i • 1 1 ^ -, - -i, •

Pyrénéet etc " '' "" departments of Somme, Maine et Loir, Hautes Alpes. Basses

of . Ï^'^T. InduStrieS-The^.^«/.,», as shown by the last census (,87.) was 36,.o.,9., ; being a decrease
her " " Alsace-Lorraine in ,87. to Germany. France, however, increases

important , while m the s,« manufacture France has no equal in the wnrU r. ■ , , , ^

Area.-The confederation of States, known as Germany, is about 210,000 square miles in arm, the greatest length being
(north to south) about 700 miles, and the greatest breadth (east to west) 640 miles.

Relief.—The coast line of Germany, altogether on the north, where it is washed by the German Ocean and Baltic Sea
is flat, low, and sandy. To this succeeds (S.) a great central plain, occupying nearly two-thirds of the Empire. The centre is
characterized by mountainous country, the chief ranges being as followsi. The Hartz Mountains in Rhenish Prussia and
Hanover, celebrated for their iron and silver ores. 2. The Black Forest in Baden. 3. The Hardt Mountains in Rhenish
Bavaria. 4. The Erzgebirge {pre mountains^ dividing Saxony from Bohemia (highest point the Fichtelgebirge) 5 The
Riesengebirge, dividing Silesia from Bohemia (highest point Schneekopf 5000 feet). South Bavaria contains a high table-
land, to south of which are the mountains separating it from Austrian Tyrol.

Hydrography.-The rivers of the German Empire are of great length and magnitude. Flowing (N.) into the German
Ocean is the Rhine, although the upper part of its course is Swiss and the lower Dutch. It has many large tributaries such as
the Neckar, Main, Lauter, Nähe, Moselle, Ruhr, Lahn, and Lippe, and its scenery throughout is very beautiful. Into 'the same
sea flow the Ems, the Weser, and its tributary the Aller, the Elbe with its tributaries the Havel, Saale, Mulde, and Elster
Into the Baltic flows the Oder, with its tributaries the Wartha and Neisse. The Polish river Vistula also flows through East
Prussia, and enters the Baltic at Dantzig. South Germany is watered by the magnificent Danube, rising in the Black Forest
receiving many tributaries such as the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn, and quitting Bavaria near Passau.

The total population of these and the 20 smaller States and Duchies, amounts to about 40,000,000, of which Saxony
the most populous in proportion to its size, and Mecklenburg the least. The seat of Government for the whole Empi
at Berlin.

J , , . __of Germany are all on the north coast, the chief being Bremen, Hamburg, Kiel, Stettin,

inaustries. The po ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ Westphalia, Silesia, and Rhenish Bavaria, while the chief seats of
Danzig, and Königsberg. oa^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ Cologne, Elberfeld, and Düsseldorf, and also in Rhenish

bIvZZ Co Talds^tl^oxes are found in the Hartz Mountains and the Erzgebirge. Textile trades are largely carried on ;

th^l f' tt d at Mulhouse in Alsace, at Chemnitz in Saxony, and the Rhine Provinces: woollens in all the

^^tes bTt c'v '1^311 while Bavaria is the great country for hops and beer, Nuremberg (in this Kingdom) and the towns in

, ^-^r' r^T-*^ ^^ L.-ncr relebrated for toys, watches, and clocks. Leipsic is noted for its great fairs and its book trade ;

Chemnitz (Saxonvi for its machinery; Magdeburg and North Germany generally for its beetroot growing and refining ;

Coblenz and the banks of the Rhine, Moselle, and other rivers for their wines; Stuttgart (Wurtemburg) and Berlin fox pianos ;

h """ "" '30,000 square miles ; its greatest length about 800 miles from the Swiss
border o the Russ.an border: greaUs, tr.aä.k from the Saxon, Prussian, or Polish border to that of Bosnia, about 500 miles.

Aust^^l^pf^st!^^'""^^^ ^^ ^^^^ extensive one, including, first and foremost, the Danube, which enters

Thaya Mar^'^^R hundred miles to enter the Turkish dominions. Its chief tributaries are the Leitha,

though somewh t^"^ ' ^^^os, Save, Temes, and Morava. It is navigable for the whole of its course,

p,,.. e ^ interrupted at certain places by rapids. Hungary contains some large lakes, such as Lake Balaton or
Platten See, 150 square miles in area. Lake Neusiedel, &c.

same^uk European country contains so many and so various an assemblage of nationalities under the

arl^rr ^ element of weakness to the Empire, as their interests are not always identical. The different States

(IJprT'(^^/-Gratz); 5. Illyria, including Carinthia, Carniola and Trieste Trieste); 6. Bohemia
10 Tran^^^' ' Hungary or Trans-Leithan States (i:«/. Buda-Pesth) ; 9. Galicia {cap. Lemberg);

{cap Klausenburg); 11. Croatia and Slavonia {cap. Agram) ; 12. Dalmatia {cap. Zara) ; 13. Bukowina

zernowitz). All these are ruled by the Emperor of Austria, whose seat of government is Vienna.

Industries.—Theis estimated at 35,000,000, of whom there are about 6,700,000 Germans;
Grel°k°°° 6.000,000 Magyars; 640,000 Jews; 170,000 Tartars; 77,000 Gipsies; 22,000 Arminians; 6000

exTen.s'ive^r^^ Illy"ans, &c. The Bohemians are usually called Czechs and the Hungarians Magyars. The industries are
ex ensive and varied. Agrtctdture, and especially wheat-growing, is predominant in the Plains of Hungary and what is
nown as the Banat, large quantities of wheat being sent from here to England. is mined in Bohemia and Moravia ;

principally in Gahcia. The and trade is largely carried on in Austria and Styria. The manufactures

^e rapicny increasing. and are the principal; the chief seats of the trade being Lower Austria (Vienna),

Moravia (Brünn particularly for woollens), and Galicia. Paper is made in Austria and Bohemia, which latter State is also the

grown for sugar refining. Vienna is specially celebrated for itsjezvellerj. and its leather work.

^rea—The of Switzerland is but 15,000 square miles ; its greatest length being 210 miles ; greatest breadth 140
miles. It is the only European State having no coast Ime, and consequently no ports.

Relief—No country in Europe presents such a continuity of mountains, nearly the whole of the interior consisting of
apparently confused masses, although these are referable almost entirely to one or two great groups.

The Alps under the various names of Pennine, Leopontine, and Rhstian, form the S. boundaries between Switzerland
Italy and Austria The chief centre of this great range is Mt St. Gothard (6808 feet). To the S. W. run the Pennine Alps in
which are found some of the highest mountains on the Continent, viz., Monte Rosa, 15,208 feet; Mont Cervin or Matterhorn
I. 771 feet • Weiss Horn, 15,ooo feet. The Pennine Alps are separated on the N. by the valley of the Rhone from the Bernese
AIDS of which the highest points are Finsteraar-horn, 14,106 feet and Jungfrau, 13,700 feet. To the N. of Mt. St. Gothard
the ran-es are not so high, though Mont Todi reaches to 11,887 feet. They then sink towards the valley of the Rhine, to rise
a^ain a^ Mont Sentis in Appenzell to 8232 feet. N. of the Bernese Alps is a rather more disjointed group, of which the
rLf summits are the Righi, Mont Pilatus, &c. The Jura ranges, which run in a parallel direction, divide Switzerland from
France. As many of the Swiss mountains are perpetually snow clad, glaciers or ice fields are formed, of which there are some
400 in the Alps.

Hydrography—Though none of the Swiss rivers are navigable, the mountains give birth to some of the most
Imoortant European streams. The Rhine rises in a glacier near St. Gothard, as does also the Rhone. The former river
hoLver runs nearly due N. to the Lake of Constance, and the latter due W. to the Lake of Geneva. The courses of both
rivers are rapid and precipitous, making a descent of from 4000 to 5000 feet before they quit Switzerland. They both have
„.any tributaries, though none of any size. The other S^viss rivers are the Ticino (a tributary of the Po), the Inn (a tributary
Tf the Danube), the Aar, Reuss and Thür, which flow into the Rhine between Constance and Basle. A very important
characteristic of Swiss hydrography is that of the Lakes which are numerous and beautiful The Lake of Geneva contains
3 30 square miles (being 50 miles long by 6 broad); that of Constance contams 290 square miles ; Neuchatel 90 square miles ;
whill of less area are Zurich, Lucerne, Thun, Biel, Zug, &c. The upper portion of Lago Maggiore is also in Swiss territory.

Divisi01is.-Switzerland is divided into twenty-two Cantons, all independent of each other and having separate
administrations, but united in a confederate Republic. They are:_i. Zurich {eap. Zurich); 2. Berne Berne);

f Lucerne Lucerne); 4- Schwyz Schwyz); 5- Un Altdorf) ; 6. Unterwaiden {eap. Stanz); 7. Glarus
Glarus) " 8 Zug ieap. Zug); 9- Fribourg {eap. Fribourg) ; lO. Soleure {eap. Solothurn); 11. Basle {eap. Basle); 12. Schaffhausen
/ !%.l.'.ffhausen) ■ 13- Appenzell Appenzell); 14. St. Gall (r^/. St. Gall); 15. Grisons Chur or Coire); 16. Aargau
il BrL) • 17 Thurgau {cap. Frauenfeld); 18. Ticino {cap. Locarno) ; 19. Vaud {cap. Lausanne) ; 20. Valais {cap. Sion) •
iT Ne-hatd Neuchatel); 22. Geneva Geneva).

population and Industries.-The population is estimated at 2,390,416. It is of a very industrious character

Geneva, Vaud, and Neuchatel are famous for the manufacture of watches and jewellery, the Cantons of St. Gall, Appenzell,

and Zurich for textiles, particularly cotton and silk, and Basle for ribbo7is. Agricidtnre is steadily practised, though under

difficulties, owing to the mountainous character of the country and the rigour of the climate. Dairy farming and the making
of cheese are specialities.

Greatest length : N. to S., 1200 miles, or double that of Great Britain ; greatest hreadth: E. to W., 450 miles.

Relief.—The coast of the Gulf of Bothnia is flat and sandy, and the numerous islets are also^ low. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^
however, is high and broken, with deep fjords, of surpassing loveliness. The Sogne Fjord (Norway) is the a ^
running inland for over 100 miles.

--------ioidxiu ^luup (^i>jorwayj is tnai 01 tne juuiuucns -""-/j -------- ' Lofoden

long The northern portion of the group is named the Vesteraalen, while the southern is more properly termed le ^ ^^ggels.
Islands, which latter give their name to the whole, and contain the celebrated Malstroem whirlpool, so dangerous o^^^^ ^^^^
Mageroe, the most northerly point of Norway, is inhabited by a few Lapps only, and is terminated by the or
970 feet high.

The most important mountain groups are found in Norway, although there is little but hill and dale m a ^^^^^^^tan,
except towards the south coast. The chief ranges are those of the Dovre Field (Lorn Field, 8450 feet, n ^ ^
7620 feet, being the highest points), and the Hardanger Field, all portions of the ranges of the Central Mountams ,
in Sweden, the most elevated ground is that of Mount Sulitelma, at the head of the Lulea

_ Hydrography.—Few countries are so copiously watered as Scandinavia, though the rivers are so broken by a s^ ^^^
rapids, that they are of comparatively little use for navigation. This peculiarity, however, makes them especially adap e ^^^^
transporting the timber from the forests to the shipping ports. The principal rivers (Elf), scarce any of which aje more ^^^
300 miles in length, are the Glommen, Klar, Dal, Liusne, Indals, Angermans, Umea, Skelleftea, Pite^, Lulea, Ka 1 ^
Tornea. The courses of the streams are principally from north to south.

Lake Wener, 2000 square miles in area (as large as Northumberland) lOO feet above the Baltic.

Divisions.—For administrative purposes Sweden is divided into 25 Idn, grouped within the three great regions of
or Svea Rike, Gothland or Gota Rike, and Norrland ; Norway into 20 amts, grouped within the six dioceses of Chris 1
Hamar, Christiansand, Bergen, Trondhjem, and Tromso.

Population and Industries.—The population is estimated at 6,238,000 (4,430,000 Sweden; 1,808,000 Norway)^
Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, has a population of 157,000, and Christiania, the capital of Norway, about 60,000. ^^^^
chief Swedish industries are agriculture, iron and copper mining, and cotton and woollen spinning. Most of the trade ^^^
in Stockholm and Gotenburg, the only large towns in the kingdom. The principal Norwegian industries are agriculture, ca ^^
rearing, fishing, and forestry. Enormous quantities of pine-trees are annually felled for export to Great Britain. Herrmi,
shoals visit the coast twice each year, and cod are caught at the Lofoden Islands early in the year.

Seaports: Christiania, Bergen, Trondhjem, Stavanger, and Christiansand export fish, timber, and copper; Drammen
the chief timber port ; while Tromso and Hammerfest are noted as being the most northerly ports of the world open all the
year round.

Area—Denmark is one of the smallest of European States, containing only 14,000 snuar. ^M t
(from the Skaw to the Little Belt) is 170 miles, and greatest breadth (of mainland) bein- 100 mil T '

Relief.—The low coast line of the mainland of Jutland and the islands is very extensiv b '
Parts of it are dyked like the coast in Holland, and especially on the W., which is fringed with great""' "d"^
There are no mountains or rivers of importance. ^^ sand-banks.

Divisions.—Since the cession to Germany of Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark consists of the m ' 1

the islands of Fyen (or Funen), Sjoeland (or Zeeland), Laaland, Falster, Moen and Bornholm. The lar^"^'" Jutland and

separated from Sweden by the narrow passage of the Sound, and on its E. Coast is Cooenhair^n i-h Zeeland,

Population and Industries—The total population of Denmark is about 1,500,000, of which the i 1
800,000. Though not a very fertile soil, agrieultiire is largely carried on and particularly in cattle reari^ contain over

The manufactures are few, comprising woollen cloth, paper and some iron works, but there is a very conside^"^ farming,
import trade carried on, and the Danish mercantile marine is on a large scale, compared with the size of theTou ^

Area.—The Danish island of Iceland, situated 700 miles W. of Norway, has an area of about 37,500 square miles • '
greatest breadth being 210 miles, and its greatest length 280 miles. The coast line, especially on the W., N.' and N^F
deeply indented. ' ' • ^^

Relief.—Nearly the whole of Iceland is rugged, consisting of chains of high mountains of igneous origin m
being in the state of active volcanoes, which find vent in different ways, sometimes as fiery craters, others a
eruptions of boiling water. The loftiest points are Oraefa Jokull (6405 feet); Hekla (5110) and Snafell (cqS geysers " or
tolerably numerous, but of no great size. The largest are the Laxea and the Thorsa. Though lyinc so fL J'^.u ^ ' ''''''
of Iceland is not so very severe, being much influenced by the Gulf Stream.

Population and Industries.-Theis estimated at 57,000, the only town being Reykjavik on th. AV
coast, /^^dnstrles are few, the chief being agrlenltnre and the rearing of cattle and sheep, it being too cold .nd bl. l r
cereals, ƒare largely knitted, and there is an export trade of wool, skins, eider down, fish, oil, and butier • and .
all their disadvantages, the Icelanders are a hardy, industrious race, and unusually well educated '

are inhabited, the largest being Stroma, twenty-seven miles Ion! bv . u ^^ ^^^ ^^^ole, seventeen

consist of very high ground. The population is estimated a^ tt " ^ their small size, tie n el"

Area.—The kingdom of Holland has an area of 13,600 square miles, its greatest length, from the Frisian Islands to the
River Maas, being 200 miles, zxid greatest breadth, from the Hague to the German border, about 120 miles.

Relief.-There is not a country in Europe, and perhaps not in the world, that has such a flat
Holland-the coast line being exceedingly low and the interior being in some parts even below the sea level
indeed for the minute care with which the Dutch construct and watch their dykes, the country would be untenab e ana y

at the mercy of the waves ; and even with the most jealous precautions, it has frequently been ravaged by terrible inundation^
Holland contains no mountains, but its system ramifies through the whole land, partly from the numerous rivers

streams, but chiefly from the canals which to a great extent answer the purpose of roads.

Hydrography.-The chief rivers are the Rhine, which finishes the latter part of its long career in a sluggish ^^^ cat-
like stream, having shoal openings to the North Sea; the Maas and Scheldt which communicate with the Rhine, and lorm
regular network of deep streams, in the midst of which are several large islands such as Walcheren, Schouwen Beijerland an
others, and the delta or mouth of these combined rivers contains 4000 square miles, or one-third of the whole kingdom, i n
northern parts of Holland are penetrated by an enormously large shallow inlet of the sea. called the Zuider Zee, which
proposed to drain and enclose.

Divisions.-Holland is divided into xi provinces, and contains a popdation of over ^^
ports are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Flushing, while inland are The Hague (the capital), Utrecht and Eey ^
university towns), Helder, Arnheim, and Nijmegen.

Area.-Belgium is also a small country, containing only 11,400 square miles, its greatest breadth being no miles (from
Ustend to Maastricht) ; greatest length 195 miles (from the Maas to the French border).

Relief.-The greater part of the country is flat like Holland but the south-east is characterized by picturesquely-wooded
hills and valleys. Of mountains proper there are none.

Hydrography.-The rivers Maas and Scheldt pass through Belgium on their way to the sea ; and the
rather large tributaries such as the Sambre, Ourthe and Lesse. The Meuse waters the province of Namur, and the tributaries
of the Moselle water the Duchy of Luxembourg.

Divisions.—Belgium is divided into the nine provinces of East and West Flanders, Antwerp, South Brabant, Hainault,
Namur, Liege, parts of Limbourg, and Luxembourg.

Population and Industries.—Belgium contains a population of 5,000,000 ; larger in proportion to its size than any
country m Europe except England. It is eminently an industrial country. Its chief ports are Antwerp, Bruges, and Ostend,
and Its principal inland cities are Brussels (the capital), Ghent (cotton and linen manufactures), Liege (iron, steel, hardwares,
and guns), Charieroi (coal-mining, glass, iron works), Mechlin (lace), Verviers (cloth and woollens), Namur (iron works),
Courtrai (flax and linen), Alost (brewing), Tournai and Möns (coal-mining), Louvain and Luxembourg (iron works). About
nine miles from Brussels is Waterioo, where the famous battle between the Duke of Wellington and Napoleon was fought.

_Spain, which with Portugal forms a large square-shaped peninsula, contains 179,000 square miles. Greatest

breadth (from C. Finisterre to C. Creux) 530 miles. Greatest length (from Santander to the Straits of Gibraltar) 640 miles ;
with the exception of the Portuguese and French borders, the coast line is unbroken.

_Spain is a very mountainous country, specially marked by a high central table-land extending from the Ebro

to the SierraVorena, which is a long range running through Murcia and Andalusia into Portugal. The Sierra Nevada in the
° - ^ ^ south is the highest chain (Mulhacen 11,600 feet). The Castile mountains run from Aragon between the provinces of
Ol^and New Castile, and into that of Leon (highest point Sierra de Credos 10,500 feet); while in the extreme N., running

Uel with the coast, are the Asturian or Cantabrian mountains, in reality a continuation of the Great Pyrenean range that
diVWes France from Spain. The highest points of the Pyrenees are Pic d'An^thou (Pic of Europe) and Mount Perdu.

Hydrography —Spain contains several large rivers, but they are not of great commercial value, nor have they many
tributaries • so that on the whole the country cannot be called well watered. The chief are, the Tagus 600 miles long; the
Douro 500'and the Guadiana 420, these three being Portuguese rivers m their latter course and falling into the Atlantic ; the
others are'the Guadalquiver 320 (an Andalusian river), the Ebro, Jucar, and Segura falling into the Mediterranean.

Divisions—Spain is now divided into forty-nine provinces, although the names of the fourteen old kingdoms and
provinces remain! These latter are Galicia, Asturias, Navarre, Catabnia, Aragon Old and New CastHe, Leon, Estremadura,

Population and Industries.-The population is about 16,000,000, or eighty-eight to a square rnile. The industries
of Spain are few IZt imperfectly developed. It is tolerably rich in .unerals, iron ore lead and quicksilver.
is backward, although fine wheat is grown. The textiles are principally represented by sslh made at Valencia and Barcelona.
The speciality of Spain however, is the mne trade, at Xeres, San Lucar and Malaga.

Area.—Portugal contains only 37.000 square miles, and is but 360 miles in length (from the R. Minho to C. St. Vincent)
by 145 broad (from Cintra to Elvas).

Relief.—The mountain ranges are a continuation of those of Spain, the principal being the Sierra d'Estrella in the
province of Beira.

Hydrography.—The rivers Tagus, Douro, Guadiana, and Minho have the greater part of their course in Spain.

Divisions.—Portugal is divided into six provinces of Minho, Traz os Montes, Beira, Estremadura, Alemtejo, and Algarve.

Population and Industries.—The population is estimated at about four and a quarter millions, or 115 to the square
mile, which is much more dense than the population of Spain. The country is more fertile than Spain, though agrictUtnre is
still backward. The greatest trade is that of wine, which is extensively shipped at Oporto. Lisbon is the capital and, with
Oporto, the only two ports of any note. The chief commerce of Portugal is carried on with Brazil.

Area.—The total area of Italy is 114,400 square miles, somewhat more than the British Isles.

Greatest Distances: N. to S. (Northern barrier of the Alps to Cape Leuca) 700 miles; E. to W. (Northern lowlands)
300 miles, though the average breadth does not exceed 100 miles, or about the distance between Hull and Liverpool.

Relief.—The Northern lowlands of Italy are but a few feet above the level of the sea, and were probably at one time a
portion of the bed of the Adriatic.

The chief elevations of the highland districts are Monte Velino (8867 feet), Monte Cimone, Monte Fatterona, Monte
Vultur, all different points of the great Apennine range. In addition to these, there are two of the most celebrated

vo cano in the Island of Stromboli, forming one of the Lipari group. Nearly the whole of Sicily is covered with mountains
o considerable height, while the Island of Sardinia contains Mount Genuargentu (6293 feet).

Hydrography.-The Po, the only extensive river system of Italy, winds through the plain of Lombardy, fed by
numerous tributaries, the chief of which are the Ticino, the Adda, the Oglio, and the Mincio. The Adige, which rises in the
mountams of the Tyrol above Verona, and runs parallel with the Po, may at some future time become a new tributary to it,
If the land extends further into the Adriatic, as seems probable.

Length of the Po, 400 miles, about 2\ times as long as the Thames.
" » Tiber, 185 „
" Arno, 150 „

Divisions.—The Kingdom of Italy is divided as follows : Piedmont {cap. Turin) ; Liguria {cap. Genoa); Lombardy {cap.
Milan); Venetia {cap. Venice); Emilia {cap. Parma) ; Tuscany {cap. Florence) ; Umbria {cap. Perugia) ; the Marches {cap.
Ancona); Latium {cap. Rome) ; the Abruzzi and Molise {cap. Aquila) ; Campania {cap. Naples); Apulia {cap. Bari); Basilicata
{cap. Potenza) ; Calabria {cap. Cozenza); the Island of Sicily {cap. Palermo), and the Island of Sardinia {cap. Cagliari).

Population and Industries.—The total population of Italy is estimated at 28,000,000. First and foremost amongst the
^ndustries is agriculture. The chief agricultural districts lie in the great Plain of Lombardy and the Campania of Naples (called
the Campania Felice, owing to its fertility), although sufficient grain is not raised for the home demand. Maise and wJuat form
the staple food of the lower classes, in the form oi polenta and macaroni. The olive and chestnut are cultivated all over the
peninsula. Most of the W of Italy is grown in the southern portions and in Sicily ; the horses are bred in Lombardy, where
cattle are most numerous, yielding enormous supplies of cheese. Tuscany has the mo'st sheep, Sicily the finest mules and
Xe The fisheries employ over 5000 boats and about 26,000 hands. The chief mineral product is

t^ e sulphur of Sicily. Iron ore is obtained in Lombardy, Liguria, and in the llland of Elba, lead in Tuscany, sea-salt in
^ ag lan (Sardinia), and white marble at Carrara and Massa in Tuscany. Silk is largely grown, spun, and woven in the towns

ombardy, such as Bergamo, Como, Milan, Turin ; also in Naples, and in Sicily at Catania and Palermo. Glass-makingAs

carried on very extensively in Intra on Lago Maggiore and at Venice,is made at Milan and Florence, and

at Leghorn and Vicenza. The chief seaports are : Genoa, which ranks first in importance, while Naples stands second ; these

are succeeded by Leghorn, Messina, Palermo, Civita Vecchia (the port of Rome), Brindisi (the port of the Indian mails),
Ancona, Chioggia, and Venice.

Area.—The area of Turkey in Europe, once very extensive, has been much reduced of late years, and is now about
130,571 square miles. The greatest breadth is about 690 miles (from Constantinople to Scutari), and the greatest length will
be from the Despoto Dagh Mountains to the southern border of Thessaly. The coastline is extensive and much indented
It is washed by the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmora, the ^gean Sea (which has several large gulfs), and the Adriatic.

Relief.—The mountain chains are of considerable height, the principal being the Balkans, forming the boundary
between Turkey and Roumania—loftiest points, Kara Dagh and Shar Dagh, 9000 feet. This range communicates on the W.
with the Dinaric Alps. In the S., between Thessaly and Albania, are the Grammos Mountains and the classic heights of
Pindus, Athos, and Olympus.

Hydrography . Previous to the dismemberment of the country, the Danube was the great Turkish river but it is
doubtful at present how far to consider it so. The other streams are numerous, but unimportant, mostly flowing into the
^gean Sea (the VVistritza, Vardar, Strumar, Moritza, &c.), and a few into the Adriatic (Drina and Ergent).

Divisions.—These are a matter of uncertainty, the whole state of afl^airs in Turkey being in a precarious condition
They may be said to consist of Roumelia (made up of Thrace and Macedonia), cap., Constantinople ; Thessaly, cap., Larissa •
Albania, cap., Janina. Bulgaria, which lies between the Balkans and the Danube, is now, or supposed to be, an independent
Principality; Roumania, between the Danube and the Carpathians, is in the same condition, as is also Servia, to the E. of
Bulgaria. Bosnia, to the E. of Servia, is at present occupied by Austrian troops.

Population and Industries.—The poptdation is roughly estimated at 8,971,000. The industries are suffering
from misrule and neglect. The soil is fertile, and yields wheat, maize, barley, and millet. Forests of beautiful timber are
abundant, while the mineral products are iron, lead, copper, and sulphur. The chief mannfacttires are woollen and cotton
stuffs, leather and firearms.

Area .—The area of Greece is about 15,000 square miles, including its islands; the greatest length being 210 miles
from the Othrys Mountains to Cape Matapan; greatest breadth about 160 miles. The coastline is very extensive and
deeply indented ; in fact, the greater part of the country is a large peninsula.

Relief.—Greece is mostly mountainous, the chief ranges being the Othrys Mountains, in the N. or continental portion
and Mount Liakoura (the ancient Parnassus), 8067 feet. In the peninsula (called the Morea) are the Kalavryta Mountains-
principal height. Mount Olonos, 7266 feet.

Hydrography.—The rivers are unimportant, and only interesting from their associations with classical history.

Divisions.—Greece is divided into 13 provinces, called Nomarchies. The seat of the kingdom is Athens.

Population and Industries.—The poptdation is estimated at 1,457,894. Like Turkey, the industries of Greece ar
in a very backward state, the people being wild and unsettled. The chief products are olives (producing immense quantities
of olive oil), currants, wine, and corn. The inanufactures are few, and chiefly domestic. A considerable export trade is carried
on with England in the shape of raw produce and fruit.

Area.—The area of this, the largest State in Europe, is 1,741,221 square miles, or about half the whole o e
The greatest length, from the Waigatz Straits to Sevastopol in the Crimea, is 2200 miles, and the greatest ^ ^O^cean iTthe S
Prussian frontier to the Ural Mountains, is over 2000 miles. The coast line is limited in the N. to the Arctic cean, ^^^^^^^^^
to the northern shores of the Black Sea, and in the N.W. to a portion of the Baltic. The indentations of this s or sea ^ar
are, however, considerable, consisting of the White Sea and the Gulf of Cheokaia on the N., the Gulfs of Fm an an
on the W., and the Sea of Azov on the S.

Relief.—Considering its great size, Russia is remarkable for the paucity of mountains, the only ones that PJ^PJ'"^^
deserve that name being the range of the Urals, which run from N. to S., separating Europe from Asia. Even these .

very great height. Mount Konjakofski barely reaching 6000 feet. Other portions of this range are called the Timan and ^
mountains. The Uvalli Heights and Valdai Hills are the principal elevations in Central^ and N E Russia ; but the grea
part of the country is characterized by vast plains, such as the Sarmatic and Arctic Plains in the N., the Plains of the Vol.a
the centre, the South Russian and the Caspian steppes in the S.

Hydrography.-The river system of Russia is on a much larger scale than the mountains, lowing ^o the
Ocean in the N. are the Onega, Dwina, Me.en, and Petchora. The Dwina has a course of 35° iTfl^rS.E.

White Sea. The Dnieper, with its tribu;aries of the Pripet, Berezina, and Desna^has a ^^ ^e ^ug. The

into the Black Sea, as do also the Pruth (the border river between Russ^ and Roumania), the Dme^ J ^^^^
Don is a river of Central Russia, having a course of 995 miles to join the Sea of Azov. The la ges

Volga, which rises in the Valdai Hills, and flows for .500 miles to fall m o t^« Casp.an S . I ^ coast is in Russian

area of 140,000 square miles, and lies about 83 feet lower than the Black Sea. The greater par

territory, but on the S. it is bounded by Persia. Lakes Onega, Ladoga, and Pe.pus are other large lakes

Divisi0ns.-Russia is divided into i. Baltic Provinces ; 2. Great Russia or Muscovy; 3- Little Russia; 4. South
Russia ; 5. West Russia ; 6. Kazan ; 7- Poland. All these are sub-divided into 52 governments.

Population and Industries.—The population is estimated at 71,000,000, consisting of Russians proper, Poles
Lithuanians, Finns, Tartars Mahometans, Jews, Armenians, &c. The chief industries are agriculture, includmg the growth ot
wheat, hemp, and flax in the Baltic and Upper Volga provinces, tobacco in the S.W., and the vine m the Crimea.^
copper are mined in the Ural Mountains ; the textiles, such as cotton, linen, and silk, are made at several towns , carpe s a
Smolensk; sailcloth at Archangel. The chiefare. Archangel on the White Sea; Helsingfors, Kronstadt, Revel, and
Riga on the Baltic ; Sevastopol, Kertch, and Odessa on the Black Sea; Taganrog on the Sea of Azov. The largest ii^and-
cities are St. Petersburg (the metropolis), Moscow, Nijni Novgorod (famous for its great fair), Wilna, Kiev, Smolensk, Tver,
Kharkov, Berdichev, Minsk, &c.

Area.—Asia, which is continuous with Europe, and is connected by the Isthmus of Suez w!tl Ar ■
about 17,000,000 square miles: its greatest lejtgth, from Bab-el-Mandeb to Behrincrg Straits b ' r

breadth, from the S.E. of China to the Ural Mountains, 3600 miles. It is separated from ^ox^'^'a ' Srcatcst

Outline .—The seaboard, paxticularly on the S., is remarkable for the number and vastness of tl
which are, commencing from W. to E., the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman tJie Ar.hf-m J^n a
Gulf of Martaban, Gulf of Siam, Gulf of Tonking, the Yellow Sea, the Sea of Japan, ai'id the Sea of o2ll V'
of course, the coast-line is characterized by promontories and peninsulas on a great scale and -dso f ' , ^

such as Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Celebes, the Philippines, the Moluccas, New Guinea Form'o^a a rf
all doubtless once formed part of the mainland. wJiid,

Relief.—From the Arctic Ocean to the Altai Mountains, the country between Europe and Bchrings Stnit k-
Russia in Asia, is a vast plain, from ^vhich the Altai ranges rise like a great wall. These mountains are continued to
of Okhotsh under the name of the Yablonoi Mountains. Central Asia, to the S. of the Altai's is occupied )rit "
elevated plateau of the Desert of Gobi—to the S. of which again are the Kuen-lun Mountains' one of tlie ^^

Asia, which extend (roughly speaking) from the northern frontiers of China to the J^lack Sea in Asia Milio
various names of the Dapsang Mountains, Hindoo Koosh, Paropamisan, Elburz Mountains, &c. Connected with"T' ^^^^

but sweeping southwards along the Indian border, are the vast chains of the Himalayas, which contain the lofti^ ^ ^^"en-lun,
the world. The following are the principal Asiatic heights :—Altai Mountains, 10,000 to 12,000 ft.; Koh-i-baba
17,905 ft; Kiang-Iah Mountains (Thibet), 24,000ft.; Dhawalagiri (Himalayas), 28,000ft.; Kuen-lun Mountains
Bonasson (Indian Ghauts), 7000 ft.; Snowy Mountains (China), 8000 ft. '

Hydrography.—The river system of the Asiatic continent is scarcely on such a gigantic scale as the
following are the principal streams :—

Divisions.—The Continent of Asia may be roughly divided into:—i, Russia in Asia, including Siberia and a great
part of Central Asia ; chief cities, Tobolsk, Irkoutsk, Tiflis. 2. Persia ; chief cities, Ispahan and Teheran. 3. Asia Minor, or
Asiatic Turkey; chief cities, Smyrna, Aleppo. 4- Arabia; chief city, Mecca. 5- Afghanistan; chief city, Cabul. 6. India;
chief cities, Calcutta, Bombay, Madras. 7. Burmah; chief city, Ava. 8. Chinese Empire; chicf cities, Pekin, Canton.
9. Thibet;' chief city, Lhassa. 10. Siam; chief city, Bankok. 11. Turkestan; chief city, ]},o]i\\axa. 12. Japanese Empire;
chief city, Yeddo.

Area.-The «r.« of that part of Asia Minor known as Palestine, or The Holy Land is about ii,ooo square miles-

nearly as large as Belgium ; its^..^^..^ length, from Beyrout to the southern point of the Dead Sea, being i8o miles, and

greatest breadth, E. to W., about 65 miles. It has a nearly straight western coast-line, with but two indentations-the Bay of
Sidon and the Bay of Acre.

cscine are ot considerable height, and of the greatest interest, from their associa-
tion with the scenes of the New Testament. On the N arf^ fl.^. . ^ 1 ■ 1 1 t- , 1 j

tne i\. are the ranges of Mount Lebanon, divided on the E. by the broad
valley of Caele Syria from the heights of Anti T ^ 1 1 • -r^

' , i^alestine, W. of the Jordan, is intersected by the Plains of Jezreel, which are

^ ^ , ' " ^^^ hy hills of Galilee, and on the S. by those of Samaria. The country of

y, lout containing any lofty mountains ; but on the E. side of Jordan are some considerable
ranges, including Mount Pisgah and Jebel Jelaad.

Hydrography.-The principal river of Palestine is the Jordan, which rises in Anti-Libanus in several streams, that
unite to flow through Lake Merom, and then through the Sea of Tiberias, running due S. into the Dead Sea. It has many
tributaries, such as the Yurmuk and Jabbok, but none of any importance. Several other streams flow into the Dead Sea, of
which the best known is the Kedron, that rises near Jerusalem. A similar series of small rivers flows through the coast
plains into the Mediterranean, the principal being the Kishon and Leontes.

Chief Towns and Industries.—Palestine forms part of the " pashalic " of Syria, under the Turkish Government,
but the chief towns of any importance in modern times are few. The capital is Jerusalem, with a population of about 15,000'
consisting of Moslems, Jews, and Christians. The others are, Damascus, pop. 120,000, with a trade in silk and cotton stuffs
jewellery, saddlery, and sword blades; Acre, a seaport,12,000; Beyrout,12,000, considered to be the port of Damas-
cus ; Joppa or Jaffa, a seaport, pop. 5000. Throughout the country, agriculture is more or less practised, the crops consisting
of wheat, barley, maize, vines, and olives. The land is naturally fertile, but centuries of neglect have brought it to the
appearance of almost a desert.

Population.—It is not known what the population of Palestine is numerically. As regards religion, it is principally
composed of Mahometans, Christians, and Jews. Amongst the Lebanon Mountains are some tribes known as the Druses and
Maronites, whose occupation, when not fighting with each other, is cultivating the silkworm and sheep farming.

Area.—The area of the British Empire in India is estimated at 1,486,319 square miles (about as large as the continent
of Europe without Russia). Its greatest length is about 1910 miles from N. to S., and greatest breadth some 1600 miles. The
coast line is very extensive, as what is known as Hindostan, is a large promontory projecting from the continent of Asia, and
washed on the W. by the Arabian Sea, on the E. by the Bay of Bengal, and on the S. by the Indian Ocean. The seaboard is
tolerably regular, the only indentations being formed by the deltas of the large rivers.

Relief.—India is an alternation of vast plains and mountain chains. It is divided on the N. from Central Asia by the
ranges of the Himalayas, which sweep with a south-easterly curve towards China, and by their height and massivencss
effectually prevent the Empire being invaded from that direction. In the Himalayas are some of the loftiest mountains in the
world, such as Dhawalagiri, 26,828 feet ; Mount Everest, 29,002 (believed to be the highest point known) ; Kinchin-junga
28,756; Tsgungou, 26,000 feet; together with a great number of peaks varying from 18,000 to 25,000 feet. The central
portions of India are occupied by two great river basins, and a tableland ; and this arrangement prevails as far as the narrow
south country, which, close to the seacoast, has E. and W. parallel ranges of mountains called Ghauts, in which Bonasson rises
to 7000 feet. The Eastern Ghauts form a junction with the Neilgherry Hills, about 50 miles from Madras. The Island of
Ceylon, which is separated from the mainland by the narrow and shallow Palk Strait, has a loftv Cfroup of mountains in its
centre, viz., Pedaradallagalla, 8326 feet, and Adam's Peak, 7383 feet.

HydroOTPhy.-The rivers of Hindostan are on a large scale. The most important .s the Ganges, which rises at the
base of a snow-bed in the Himalayas, and after a course of 1557 -iles falls into the Bay of Bengal, together with the
Brahmapootra at Calcutta, by an innumerable number of mouths, which form a great delta. With its many tributaries,
the chief of which are the Jumna (860 miles), Sone, Gogra, Gunduck, and Coosi, it drams an area of 432.480 square-
miles The Brahmapootra also rises in the Himalayas, 12,000 feet above the sea, and has a south-westerly course of ,500
miles through Thibet and Assam, to join the mouths of the Ganges. The Indus rises m the western part of the same
chain,' 22,000 feet above the sea, and after a course of 1814 miles, falls into the Arabian Gulf by a great delta near Kurrachee.
It is navigable between the latter port and the Punjab. With its tributaries, the Ravee, Sutlcj, Jhelion, &c., it drains an area
of 312 000 square miles. The other principal rivers of India are the Nerbudda (800 miles),'flowing into the Gulf of Cambodia ;
the Godavery (898 miles) ; Kistna ; and the Mahanuddy, all flowing into the Bay of Bengal.

Divisions.—For administrative and political purposes, the Indian Empire was formerly divided into the three large
Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, but now into eight Provinces, viz. :—

1. Bengal

2. Assam

3. North-West Provinces

4. Punjaub

5. Central Provinces

6. British Burmah

7. Madras

8. Bombay

In addition to these, are about 20 tributary States, such as those of the Nizam of Hyderabad (cap. Hyderabad), Scmdia
(m/. Gwalior), Bhopal, Rajpootana, Mysore, Baroda, Travancore, Cutch, &c. ; and many of them are subdivided
separate States. Again, there are a few independent States, such as Nepaul, and some possessions belonging to the J:-rencn
(Pondicherry) and Portuguese (Goa). These latter are very unimportant, and the only real power in India is British.

Population.—The population of India under British rule may be estimated very roughly at about 150,000,000, but so
constant are the changes, and the accessions of fresh territory by annexation or otherwise, that it is almost impossible to
ascertain with any precision the number of inhabitants. Bengal is the most populous Province (about 44,000,000), next to
which comes that of Madras.

Industries.—The industries of India are numerous and important, but they need much fostering by ^ri^î^h capital
Agriculture is largely carried on, but the native systems are defective, and the "ryots" or native farmers are gênerai 7 piy
in debt, and unable to apply improved machinery. Besides wheat, one of the staple crops is the most common t c^t he
people, the other industrial crops being cotton, sugar cane, poppy (from which opium is made), indigo, tea and cotte iin ng
industries are in their infancy, though gold and are both being rather largely worked. Textdes are ^-^ensively earned
on, weaving being prevalent in Cashmere, where .W. are made, while in the Bombay Presidency cotton is ^P^« ^^
after the English factory plan. The Indian forests are of enormous value, comprising banyan trees, the teak, so useful for
shipbuilding and the ciLhona, from whence we get our bark and quinine. T.a is cultivated to a great extent m Assam

Goyemment.-Indiais governed by a Viceroy or Governor-General appointed by the British
whom are Governors, Lieutenant-Governors, and Commissioners. The Viceroy is assisted by a Supreme
Governors by other Councils: but in reality the strings are pulled by the India Office in England, at the head of wh,ch ts

Population and Industries.-The population of the island of Ceylon is estimated at about 6000 whites or Europeans
and 1,500.000 Cinghalese or Tamils. The industries consist principally of the growing of coffee, rice, and cinnamon, the ftrst
and last of which are largely exported to England. The cocoa nut also is extensively cultivated. Pearl-fishmg, once a
most important industry, has rather decayed of late years. The natives are expert workers in gold and silver ware, and
also in weaving. The capital of Ceylon is Colombo, a thriving seaport, with a population of over 100,000.

Government.—The administration is carried on by a Governor, aided by an Executive and a Legislative Council.

_jjje area of the continent of Africa, which is a huge peninsula, joined on to Asia by the narrow Isthmus of

Suez, is about 12,000,000 square miles. The greatest length, from Cape Blanco (N.) to the Cape of Gooti Hope, may be stated
at Sooo miles • and greatest breadth, from Cape Guardafui (E.) to Cape Verde (W.), at about 4000 miles. The coast line is
of enormous extent, it being washed on every side by the sea—on the E. by the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea ; on the W. by
the Atlantic ; and on the N. by the Mediterranean.

Helief_In the N. are the great ranges of the Atlas Mountains, which rise to 12,000 feet, and extend E. as far as the

^Julf of Sidia. To the S. extends the vast plain of the Sahara or Great Desert, to which succecds the more fertile country of
the Soudan. On the E. coast (about lat. 10°) is the huge tableland of Abyssinia, the principal heights of which are upwards
of 15,000 feet. In Upper Guinea are the Kong Mountains ; and S. of the equator and W, of Zanzibar, is another great range
of the mountains of Lupata, of which Mount Kenia and Mount Kilima-njaro are nearly 20,000 feet. In the extreme south
(Cape Colony) are the ranges of the Snowy Mountains, with Mount Compass, 8000 feet, and the Drachenbcrg, between Natal

HydrOgraphy.^—The source and course of the great African rivers were wrapped in mystery, until the researches of
Livingstone, Grant, Speke, Stanley, and many other explorers unfolded them. The Nile, the largest on the continent, has its
main source a little S, of the Great Lake of Victoria Nyanza, through which it flows, emerging under the name of l?ahr-cl-
Abied. Another stream, the Bahr-el-Azrek rises in Abyssinia, and both together unite to form tlie Nile, which, after a course
of 3000 miles, flows into the Mediterranean at Alexandria. The Niger rises in the Kong Mountains, and under the names of
Joliboo and Quorra, flows past Timbuctoo, to fall into the Bight of Benin, after a course of 2300 miles. It has one largo
tributary, the Tschadda. On the same coast are the Senegal and Gambia rivers ; while S. of the equator is the great stream
of the Congo or Zaire, which, under the name of the Lualaba, rises in or near Lake Nyassa, and falls into the Atlantic. TJic
only other large stream on this side is the Orange River, separating Cape Colony from Namaqualand ; while on the E. coast
(from N. to S.) are the Juba, the Zambesi, and the Limpopo. Some of the African lakes are of enormous size, and particulariy
Lakes Albert and Victoria Nyanza, Lake Nyassa, Lake Ngami, Lake Bangwcolo, and Lake Tsad.

Divisions —The countries into which Africa is divided are Morocco, governed by a Sultan, ea/. Morocco ; Algeria, a
^^rench colony, eaj>. Algiers ; Tunis, governed by a Bey, cap. Tunis; Tripoli, governed by a Pasha, cap. Tripoli; Egypt,
governed by a Khedive, cap. Cairo. (All these, except Algiers, are tributaries of the Ottoman or Turkish Empire.) On the W.
t^oast are the British Settlements of Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast, the Free Republic of Liberia, and some French and
Portuguese Settlements; while in the centre are the High Soudan, cap. Timbuctoo, and Low Soudan. On the E. coast are
Nubia, subordinate to Egypt, and Abyssinia, an independent country governed by a King. Immediately S. of the equator,
and on the same coast, is Zanzibar, governed by a Sultan ; and in the extreme south are the states that form the British
^Possessions in South Africa, viz., Cape Colony, Natal, Basutoland, the Transvaal, Zululand, Griqualand, and the Free Orange

Area.-The Cape Colony, the principal British possession in South Africa, has an estimated area of 170,000 square
miles: greatest length, W. to E., 550 miles ; greatest breadth, N. to S., 250 miles. It has a coast line of about 1200 miles.

Relief.—There is a belt of about 20 miles along the sea coast, which is tolerably level; but from thence the country
consists of a succession of plateaux or lofty terraces, with three parallel ranges of mountains, viz., the Lange Kloof,
the Zwarteburg, and the Nieuweld Berge or Snowy Mountains, which rise to a height of 10,000 feet. Between the second and
third chains is a plateau of desert land, called the Great Karoo. The other principal ranges are Winterhoek, 6840 ; Tooren
Berg, 5000 feet; Hangklip, 6800 feet, and Great Winterberg, 7806 feet.

Hydrography.-The rivers of the Cape Colony are of no great size, owing to the proximity of the mountains to
the coast. The chief are the Orange River, with its tributary the Olifant, bordering the Colony on the N.W., and separatmg
it from Great Namaqualand; the Gauritz, Kouga, Gamtoos, Great Fish, Keiskamma, Kei, and St. John's rivers, all flowing
south into the Indian Ocean. Their streams are in many cases mere ravines, and they are useless for navigation.

Divisions.—The Cape Colony is divided into 48 fiscal divisions, which contain 57 magisterial districts. The principal
ports are Cape Town, the cap. of the colony, situated on Table Bay ; South Aliwal; Port Elizabeth ; ^st London ; Por
Alfred ; Mossel Bay ; Port Nolloth ; while the chief inland towns are Grahamstown, Cradock, Beaufort, Worcester, Zwe en-
dam, King William's Town, &c.

Population and Industries.—The population is estimated at about 721,000, of whom 237,000 are European^ the
rest being Hottentots, Kafirs, Fingoes, &c. The most important industries of the Cape are wine growing (near Cape^^ ^^^
and Constantia), wool, wheat-growing, and ostrich farming; while gold, copper, and diamonds are foun m the basin o
Orange River.

Area.-The area of the British Colony of Natal is 18,750 square miles, with a coast line of 200 miles. Greatest length,
N.W. to S.E., 210 miles ; greatest breadth, no miles.

Relief.-A high range of mountains called the Drachenberg separates Natal from Basuto-land, its » ^
Cathkin Peak, 10,357 feet, and Giants Kop, 965? fe<=t. From thence the country descends m a succession of terrace

industries are sheep-farming and the growing of sugar, coffee, arrowroot, &c. The cap. of Natal is Pietermar
only port is D'Urban, or Port Natal, the entrance to which has a troublesome bar.

Area.-About 10,000 square miles. It Hes W. of Natal, and contains the head waters of the Orange River.

A , , . -U ^ .r. Vaal and Limpopo Rivers, and has an area of about 114,000 square

Area.—It includes all the large tract between the Vaal and i^impop . ' . , - ^^e whiter

miles. The principal of the inhabitants is gold mining populatron is about 300,000, of whom 25,000 whites.

Area -TI. f .v nf the Caoe Colony is about 16,000 square miles, and the population 40,000, of whom

Area.-The area of this portion of the Cape Colony ^^ Diamond Fields," from the valuable discoveries of

12,000 are whites. Griqualand is generally known by the name of I he iJiamona riems,

Is an independent republic, lying S. of the Transvaal. Its area is 50,000 square miies , ^^ f
its chief industry wool-growing. Cap. Blomfontein.

This great continent is divided between the United States and the British Possessions of North America.

Area.—The area of the United States is estimated at 3,230,^y2 square miles, the grea/es/ breadth bcinj: from the
Atlantic coast to the Pacific, about 2400 miles, and the greatest length, from the Canadian boundary to tliat of Mexico about
2700 miles. The seaboard is between 12,000 and 13,000 miles; that on the E. being bounded by the Atlantic Occan and
Gulf of Mexico, and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean.

Eelief.—The great characteristic of the United States is vastness, whether of mountain, river, or plain. Theuwuntain
systems may be reduced to three in number, although two out of the three are on a very extensive scale, i. The Allcghanies,
running from Vermont State in S.W. parallel ranges, and dying out in Georgia and Alabama ; principal hciglits Mount
Washington (New Hampshire) 6652 feet, and Black Dome (N. Carolina) 6420. From the Allcghanies westward arc series of
vast plains rising into high table-land, and thence into the ranges of—2, the Rocky Mountains, which, with—3, the I'acific or
coast ranges, run parallel with the sea-line throughout the whole continent. The chief heights of these great ch.ains are
Mount Olympus (Washington Territory) 8197 feet ; Mount Shasta (California) 14,400 feet; Mount Hood 15,000; Fremont's
Peak (Idaho) 13,568; Longs Peak (Nebraska) 13,000, &c. Some of the plains arc remarkably fertile, and noted for their
wheat and maize crops.

Hydrography.—The rivers are on the same scale as the mountains, and from their size, length, and volume afford to
the interior of America an unrivalled amount of inland navigation. The principal rivers are: i, the combined streams of the
Mississippi and Missouri (4400 miles), which with their tributaries the Platta, Arkansas, Ohio, and Red Rivers drain an area
of T cino.ooo square miles, falling into the Gulf of Mexico below New Orleans. Indeed, about seven-tenths of tho Amr^nVnn

at the moutn 01 wmcn j.\ew lorK is piav-i.^. imj j^eiaware, juo iniies, nows into tne .^vrianiic oeiow I'iiiladelphia.
4. The James River (Virginia). 5. The Rio del Norte, flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. 6. The Colorado, flowing into the
Gulf of California ; and 7, the Columbia, into the Pacific Ocean. Nor must mention be omitted of the great chain of lakes
which the States share with Canada, forming a joint waterway, as well as a line of boundary.

Divisions.'—^The United States are divided into 47 states and territories (the latter, 11 in number, not being yet fully
received into the dignity of state-ship).

Population and Chief Cities.—The population of the United States is estimated at 47,983,000; but a census is
being- t^en (1880), which will probably alter these figures. The chief cities are New York, the cap., with a i)opulation of
1200561- Philadelphia, 842,000; Brooklyn, 554,693; Chicago, 477,500 ; St. Louis, 375,000; Bo.ston, 352,000; Baltimore,
3W,ooo; Cincinnati, 250,000; San Francisco, 227,350; New Orleans, 207,328 ; Washington, 160,000; Cleveland, 157,000;
Buffalo, 149,000, &c.

Industries._The industries of the United States are varied and extensive. The coal veins arc practically inexhaustible,

and particularly in the State of Pennsylvania, where the beds are of enormous thickness. The iron and steel trades arc of
great imporknce in the same state, and also in Ohio, Illinois, New York, &c. Machinery, and especially agricultural
machinery is largely produced in nearly every city. Petroleum oil is obtained from deep shaft.s, and taken to be rcfincil in
New York, Cleveland, and Pittsburg. Textiles are chiefly found in the New England States of Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
Connecticut, and Maine; also in Georgia and South Carolina. The New England States also make great quantities of
zvatches and' other small ware. Gold and silver are largely raised in the Pacific States of CahTornia, Nevada, Arizona, &c.
All the States are more or less devoted to agriculture and stock-raising, while the Southern States grow cotton, tobacco, ricc,

The BRITISH POSSESSIONS of North America consist of Canada with an area of 330,000 square miles ;
divided into Upper Canada {cap. Toronto), and Lower Canada {cap. Quebec), although taken as the Dominion of Canada,
the cap. is Ottawa : British Columbia and Vancouver's Island {cap. Victoria) ; Nezv Brunstvick {cap. h'rcdericton ;
JSfova Scotia {cap. Halifax) ; Newfoundland {cap. St. John's) ; Prince Edwards Island {cap. Charlotte Town.) The
area of the whole British Possessions is about 2^ million square miles ; the poptdation not being much above 5,000,000, or
about seven to the square mile. The Dominion is a territory of lakes and rivers, the mountains not being very numerous or

lofty, except the great range of the Rocky Mountains, which runs from the United States into the far North. _ Ihe chief
rivers are the St. Lawrence with its mighty chain of lakes, viz.: Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Next
in rank come the Ottawa and the Saskatchewan : but the St. Lawrence is the only one available for navigation. 1 he chief

industries areas follows:—Canada, agriculture, cattle-feeding, and lumber; British Columbia, gold-mining; Newfoundland
and Nova Scotia, &c., fisheries of cod and herring.

Area.—The huge peninsula of South America contains an area of about 6,150,000 square miles, ^^^

torrid and temperate zones. The greatest length, from Cape Gallinas (N.) to Magellan Straits (S.), is 4732 mi es , greatest
breadth, from Pernambuco (E.) to Parina Point (W.), 3180 miles.

Relief.—With the exception of a few miles at the Isthmus of Panama, connecting South with
washes the whole coast, which on the E. is more indented than on the W., for the reason that all the great river e as are o
side. The chief groups of mountains are the Cordilleras of the Andes, forming one of the most stupendous the wor

which, commencing in the extreme N., runs close to the West Coast for the whole distance, dying out only a e Pa pom o
Cape Horn, in Terra del Fuego. Some of the Andes mountains reach an enormous height, C Taxi'

23,907 feet; Arequipa volcano, 21,000; the plateau of Bolivia (on which is the great Lake of Titiaca) i3^o0^^ee

18,875 ; Chimborazo, 21,420; Tolima, 18,020; while the average general elevation of the parallel ^nains ay e a en a

from 8000 to 12,000 feet. Throughout the Northern states there are also very hign rangeb, s ^^ ^^^ Andes which

Venezuela, and Roraima in British Guiana ; but neither these nor the Brazilian mountains can countr Is the huge

from their colossal size dwarf everything else. On the other hand, the next great characteristic o ry is e^ ug

system of plains, which mav be divided into the llanos of the N., occupying 350,000 square ^

the woody plains of the Amazons, and, more particularly, the vast pampas of the l-a x idict h

HydrOfiraBhv-The river systems of South America are iu keeping with the mountains, nearly every one rising in
the eastln slfpeFof Ae Andes, and flowing into the South Atlantic Ocean. The largest of these r.vers are-. ^
flowing through Columbia and Venezuela. ,600 miles long with a basin of ™ ^ ^^e To ^^^^^^^^^^^^

is 200 miles; 2. the Amazon, the largest river m the world, wh.ch has a length of 358° irom its
and an area of 2,000,000 square miles, or nearly two-Bfths of South America. It has tr.butanes of
length, such as th Rio Negro, the Maranon. the Yapura, the Purus, and the Madura each ^ ,

pean rivers. 3. The Parana River rises in Brazil, and, with the Uruguay, forms the R.o De la Plata, ,,,

of about ,500 miles, and receives the great tributary of the Paraguay. The other ch.ef nvers on the E.
Araguay, Paranahyba, and St. Francisco, all Brazilian.

1. Brazil, an Empire

2. Venezuela, a Republic

3. New Granada „

8. Argentine Confederation

9. Uruguay

10. Paraguay „

11. Guiana, held respectively a;

a. British Guiana .

b. French „

c. Dutch

Capital.

Rio de Janeiro.
Caracas.

Santa Fc de Bogota.
Quito.

Cochabamba.
Lima.
Santiago.
Buenos Ayres.
Monte Video.
Asuncion.

Demerara.

Cayenne.

Paramaribo.

Population.—The population is roughly estimated at 12,500,000, but, where so much surface is unexplored, these
figures can only deal with the civilized inhabitants.

the size of America), and has a coast line of 8000 m.les. ^^ f ^ There are, however, both on the

hopelessly sterile, while others are covered j elevation, and presenting on their westc™

Lachlan, and Murrun,bidgee. Son,e .he W. coast are the Swan, Murchison, Gascoyne

Capital.
Sydney.

Melbourne.

Adelaide.

Brisbane.

Perth.

South Australia has of late years annexed a large area in the N., called the Northern Territory, and has connected its
chief town, Port Darwin, with Adelaide, a distance of some 2000 miles, by telegraph.

but as efvilization advances, their tendency is to gradua y d.sap^ ^est Austral.a .8,000

aocks of sheep and ),erds of cattle are to be ound a vast quantity of the surplus meat .s bo,led

depends for her riches The exportations o -^^tocons™ chirfy of which is especially plcnri ul m V,ctor,a

down and tinned, to be sent to England. ^^'■^^rr" , :; „„s. Copper is largely worked, especaUy m =,ou,n
colony, liallarat and Sandhurst being the two E-a' g^™ ^ i„ Queensland. The other mdustr.es are

Area. The British colony of New Zealand consists of two large islands and one very small one in the South Pacific
Ocean, of the aggregate area of 122,000 square miles. North Island is 400 miles long by 250 broad, and contains 48,000
square miles ; Middle Island is 500 miles by 130 broad, and contains 50,000 square miles ; while South or Stewart Island is
unimportant.

Relief. The coast of New Zealand is rather irregular, and contains several spacious bays and harbours, such as
Hawke Bay, Taranaki Bay, Bay of Plenty, and Pegasus Bay. A chain of high mountains runs through both islands, the
principal height in North Island being Mount Egmont (8270 feet), Ruapehu (8905), and Tongarico (6500); while in
Middle Island they rise to 13,200 feet and 12,200 feet respectively in the two peaks of Mount Cook. Mount Earnslaw is
9765 feet in height and Mount Aspiring 9915 feet.

Hydrography.—From the hilly nature of the country, the rivers are generally rapid and of no great length. The
principal streams in North Island are the Thames, in the Province of Auckland, and the Rangitiki, in the Province of
Wellington, while in Middle Island are the Buller, Dillon, Clutha, and Taieri rivers.

Divisions .—North Island (sometimes called New Ulster) is divided into the provinces of Auckland {cap. Auckland),
Wellington {cap. Wellington), Hawke Bay {cap. Napier), and Taranaki {cap. New Plymouth). Middle Island (sometimes called
New Munster) is divided into Marlborough {cap. Picton), Nelson {cap. Nelson), Canterbury {cap. Christchurch), Otago {cap.
Dunedin), and Westland {cap. Hokitika). On South (or Stewart's) Island there are no towns.

Population and Industries.—The total population of New Zealand is estimated at about 300,000, of whom some
40,000 are Maories or natives. These latter, however, with whom the Colonists have had several fierce wars, are rapidly
decreasing in numbers. Agriculture is the principal industry, much of the land being highly cultivated and yielding large crops
of wheat and maize, while in other parts sheep farming answers better. Gold mining and quartz crushing is extensively
carried on in Auckland on the banks of the Thames, and near Hokitika in Westland. Coal is found in the same province, but
not much worked. The chief exports are wool, gold, timber, and Kauri gum, a product of the pine tree ; and the imports are
manufactured goods (although these are fast lessening on account of the increased home supply), sugar, tea, and provisions.

Government. New Zealand has been an independent British Colony since 1841, and is administered by a Governor
appointed by the Crown), a Legislative Council appointed by the Governor, and a House of Representatives elected by the
people. As a Colony, it is generally prosperous, and, from its climate and soil, more adapted to English and Scotch settlers
than any other.

The chief of these States with their capitals and	population are as follows :—
	Capitals.	Population.
Prussia ....	Beriin .	. 25,000,000
Bavaria ....	Munich .	4,700,000
Saxony ....	Dresden	2,400,000
Wurtemberg	Stuttgart	1,700,000
Alsace-Lorraine (ceded by the
French in 1871) .	Strasburg	1,600,000
Bavaria	Carlsruhe	1,400,000