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THE KENNING
IN ANGLO-SAXON AND
OLD NORSE POETRY

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H. VAN DER MERWE SCHOLTZ

BIBLIOTHEEK DER
RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT
UTRECHT.

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THE KENNING
IN ANGLO-SAXON AND OLD NORSE POETRY

RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT TE UTRECHT

1775 9220

THE KENNING
IN ANGLO^^SAXON AND
OLD NORSE POETRY

PROEFSCHRIFT TER VERKRIJGING VAN DEN
GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE LETTEREN EN
WIJSBEGEERTE AAN DE RIJKS-UNIVERSITEIT
TE UTRECHT, OP GEZAG VAN DEN RECTOR-
MAGNIFICUS, DR. A. NOORDTZIJ, HOOGLEE-
RAAR IN DE FACULTEIT DER GODGELEERD-
HEID, VOLGENS BESLUIT VAN DEN SENAAT
DER UNIVERSITEIT, TEGEN DE BEDENKIN-
GEN VAN DE FACULTEIT DER LETTEREN EN
WIJSBEGEERTE TE VERDEDIGEN OP VRIJDAG
6 MEI 1927, DES NAMIDDAGS TE 4 UUR,

DOOR

HENDRIK VAN DER MERWE SCHOLTZ

GEBOREN TE VICTORIA-WEST (ZUID-AFRIKA)

n.v. dekker amp; van de vegt en j. w. van leeuwen
utrechtnbsp;1927nbsp;nijmegen.

BIBLIOTHEEK DER
RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT

UTRECHT.

.........

• ,nbsp;gt; ■ , fT^-w • • •

Vnbsp;-Tic-

AAN MY MOEDER
EN DIE NAGEDAGTENIS
VAN MY VADER.

«fr-nbsp;\'ivisgs;^ ■

Aan die einde van my akademiese studies neem ek
hierdie geleentheid te baat om my dank te betuig aan
almal wat tot my ontwikkeling bygedra het.

In die eerste plaas aan U, Hooggeleerde Promotor,
Prof. van Hamel, my hartelike dank, sowel vir U
boeiende kolleges, as vir U seer gewaardeerde leiding
by die samestelling van hierdie dissertasie. Nooit sal ek
die vriendelike belangstelling en die grote bereidwillig-
heid, waarmee U altijd U kosbare tyd vir my beskikbaar
gestel het, vergeet nie. Ook wens ek U te bedank vir
U advies in sake die taal waarin hierdie werk opgestel
is. Liewer sou ek my dissertasie in Afrikaans geskryf
het, dog na \'n onderhoud met U oor hierdie kwessie,
het ek die wenslikheid ingesien van dit in Engels te
doen; nie alleen om die aard van die onderwerp self
nie, maar ook om sodoende my werk toeganklik te
maak vir \'n breër kring van belangstellendes.

As \'n groot voorreg beskou ek dit my te kan reken
tot die getal van U studente, Hooggeleerde de Vooys.
Ek sal altyd met die grootste waardering terugdenk aan
U kolleges en persoonlike belangstelling.

Wat my uniwersitêre opleiding in Suid-Afrika betref,
spreek ek my dank uit aan die professore van die
Uniwersiteit van Stellenbosch, veral aan U, Hooggeleerde
van Niekerk, Pienaar, Smith en Bouman.

Met grote erkentlikheid maak ek hier melding van
die finansiële steun wat ek ontvang het van die Neder-
landsch Zuid-Afrikaanse Vereeniging.

Ook \'n woord van dank aan die beamptes van die
uniwersiteitsbiblioteek vir hulle bereidwillige hulp.

Ten slotte wens ek die vele huisgesinne te bedank
by wie my vrou en ek soveel gasvryheid en hartlikheid
geniet het tydens ons verblyf in Nederland. Ons stel
dit veral op prys omdat ons hierdeur in die geleentheid
gestel was om kennis te maak met die Nederlandse
gesinslewe waarvan ons die aangenaamste herinneringe
meeneem. Hoewel die vaderland ons trek, neem ons
met weemoed van U afskeid. Mag dit egter in meer as
een geval slegs \'n „tot weersiensquot; wees, wat ons U
toeroep, en ons die voorreg te beurt val om U later in
Suid-Afrika welkom te heet.

CORRIGENDA

blz. VIII. r.nbsp;19.nbsp;lees studente /. p. v. studende

p. 27 1.nbsp;19.nbsp;For Christan read Christian

„ 43 1.nbsp;15.nbsp;„ Kenning read kenning

„ 47 1.nbsp;4.nbsp;„ quot;brotherquot; read quot;bridequot;

„ 54 1.nbsp;23 f. „ On the other, hand read On the other hand

„ 176 1.nbsp;12.nbsp;„ languges read languages

„ 180 1.nbsp;12.nbsp;„ far-fatched read far-fetched

CHAPTER I.

General Survey and Discussion of
Existing: Literature.

The most comprehensive work on the Anglo-Saxon
kenningar is that of Wilhelm Bode, Die Kenningar in
der AngelsäcJisischen Dichtung, Darmstadt und Leipzig,
1886.

Bode has, however, done little more than collect and
arrange the Anglo-Saxon Kenningar for fifty-four con-
ceptions. Furthermore he adds, for comparison, parallels
from Greek, Latin, Old Norse, Old Saxon, Old High
German, Modern German, Modern French and Modern
EngHsh. Giving a few examples, Bode defines the ken-
ning as quot;eine etwas entlegene, seltene Bezeichnung für
einen Begriff, für den ein allgemein gebrauchter Terminus
vorhanden ist, ein Terminus, der so nahe liegt, dass man
ihn erst umgehen muss, um zu der Kenning zu ge-
langenquot; (p. 7).

Apart from its merits and demerits, this definition
is far too general and vague to be of much value in
assisting the reader to arrive at the true nature of the
kenning. The real difficulties in connection with the
kenning are not mentioned and, still less, discussed by
Bode. When consulting his lists of kenningar one is

1

often struck by the fact that, while certain words and
phrases are omitted, others of a similar nature are in-
cluded. As no motives are advanced for this procedure,
it appears somewhat arbitrary. Previous to proceeding
with his subject. Bode must have made up his mind as
to certain requirements and conditions which every
word or phrase had to fulfil before it could be regarded
as a kenning. What these requirements or criteria are,
the reader is left to conclude for himself. And yet the
grounds on which an expression is accepted or discarded
as a kenning are as important and instructive, for a
thorough grasp of the subject, as the kenning itself.
For which reason even a brief discussion of the motives
and considerations which led and influenced him in his
choice, would have added immensely to the value of
Bode\'s work. As the matter stands at present the student
very often finds it extremely difficult, if not impossible,
to account for the presence or absence of certain words
and phrases. Thus it is difficult to see why Bode gives
b o r d as a literal word for quot;shieldquot;, but 1 i n d as
a kenning for the same; unless it is that he has been
misled by Grein who gives for bord: (1) clypetis,
and (2) tabula, thus conveying the impression that
clypeus is the literal or primary meaning of bord,
whereas it is clearly the derived meaning, the original
being tabula. Similarly Bode gives a 1 d o r as the
literal term for quot;kingquot;, but afterwards includes, as
kenningar, the phrases tSioda aldor and w e r o d e s
a I d o r in which aldor appears as the basic word.
With Meissner I hold that the basic word — the way

in which it is used and the degree in which its new or
figurative meaning differs from its literal meaning — is
of the greatest importance when deciding whether an
expression is to be regarded as a kenning or not. With
the exception of the mythological kenningar, where it is
more a case of specialization than transference of meaning,
one may say that the greater difference there is between
the literal and the figurative meaning of the basic
word, the better kenning it is.

If, therefore, a 1 d o r is a literal term for quot;kingquot;, then
there is certainly nothing figurative about the phrases
Sioda aldor and w e r o d e s aider, for which
reason they cannot be regarded as kenningar. If, on the
other hand, these phrases are retained as kenningar,
then it must be on the express condition that aldor
is accepted as a figurative term for quot;kingquot;.

In the same way Bode often makes various statements,
some of which are interesting and appear quite plausible.
Instead, however, of proceeding to discuss and illustrate
them, he remains satisfied with the bare statement
followed, perhaps, by one example. Thus on page 7
one finds the following statements: quot;Die Kenning spielt
oft die gleiche syntaktische Rolle vvie das Pronomen,
sie macht die Wiederholung desselben Wortes entbehr-
lich .... Oft wird sie von vorn herein statt des eigent-

lichen Namens gebraucht____Am liebsten steht die

Kenning als Apposition.quot; As proof of these assertions
Bode gives one example of each, which is not only
unsatisfactory as proving very little, but also misleading.
Thus the idea is conveyed, firstly, that the motives which

led to the use of the kenning were essentially the same
as those which prompted the use of the pronoun; and,
secondly, that there is no difference between kenning
and apposition. This may be so or not. As far as Bode
is concerned the reader is left to agree or differ. He never
again returns to these statements which appear im-
portant enough to warrant more attention on the part
of both the author and the reader. Before proceeding
to the Anglo-Saxon kenningar. Bode adds, by way of
comparison, kenningar from other times and languages
in order to see the Anglo-Saxon kenningar in a clearer
light, as he puts it. Whether this deviation from the
subject is justified by the results seems doubtful. Ex-
pressions like quot;chimney potquot; (top^hat), quot;a weedquot; (cigar),
quot;growlersquot; or quot;feverboxesquot; (four-wheelers), etc. seem
to me to differ notably from the Anglo-Saxon kenningar
which are noted for their serious character^).

Furthermore, in speaking of the use of such kenningar
in modern languages. Bode goes on to say: quot;Personen
von guter logischer Schulung, von sog. formaler Bildung,
Gelehrte, die nach sachgemasser und bestimmter Auf-

1) Cf. R. M. Meyer, Anzeiger für Deutsches Alterthum u.
Deutsche Literatur, XIII, p. 136. In this article he strongly
disapproves of the examples cited from other languages: quot;Die
\'ausblicke auf fremde literaturen\' erheben sich nirgend über
das wilde eintreiben jeder parallelstelle, die zum Unglück gerade

des wegs einherkommt----Schon in der einleitung, ja hier

am schlimmsten zieht Bode alles mögliche hierher, z. b. alle
euphemismen (S. 8); ebenso geschmacklos als unpassend ist
das beispiel \'da geht das heupferd gerade vorbei\' statt \'herr
so und so geht vorbei.\' — die ganze betrachtung über das wcsen
der kenningar ist recht schwach.quot;

fassung der Begriffe streben, umgehen möglichst die
uneigentHchen Benennungen, die so oft die Begriffe ver-
dunkeln, die Phantasie ablenken und manchmal schwer
an Voraussetzungen sind, wie z. B. der Seelenbräutigam
für Christus und die unbefleckte Jungfrau für Christi
Mutterquot; (p. 9). This is only true to a very limited extent.
Such expressions do not obscure the conceptions for
which they stand, nor do they distract the attention.
The context in which they are used enables us to grasp
their meaning immediately and, instead of distracting,
they draw the attention to some particular characteristic
of the person or object to which they refer.

That they originate among the illiterate or semi-
illiterate is an assertion which can only be accepted with
reservations. Thus, for some of the examples given by
Bode, especially those of a witty or bantering character,
the above statement is true. Pleasantries of this kind
have always been in favour with street-arabs and wit-
crackers. But even to mention them in the same breath
with the kenningar, as found in Anglo-Saxon poetry,
seems to point to a lack of knowledge with regard to the
true nature of the latter. The very examples, quot;der
Seelenbräutigamquot; and quot;die unbefleckte Jungfrauquot;, in-
stanced by Bode, seem to me to contradict such a view.
In my opinion it would be safer to say that such ex-
pressions may originate among literati as well as among
the illiterate, but with this difference, that they generally
show forethought and careful consideration with the
former, whereas, with the latter they are often due to
casual resemblances and circumstances. To my thinking,

Bode falls into the fallacy of applying modern standards
when gauging the value of the Anglo-Saxon kenningar
from a literary point of view. Every age has its own
demands, its likes and dislikes. These must be judged
on their own merits and the person writing about them
should be sufficiently unbiassed to prevent his personal
taste from interfering with his judgment. What the aims
and ideals of the poet w^ere, and how far he has succeeded
in realizing these ideals, are the salient questions, and
not whether he has pampered to the particular taste and
pet theories of the writer. When Ronsard says in the
preface to his Franciade: quot;Les excellens poetes nomment
peu souvent les choses par leur nom propre,quot; then Bode
calls it an abominable idea, and no doubt rightly from
a modern point of view. Yet it is easy to imagine that,
at a time when such a taste or doctrine was in vogue, the
greatest poets of their day must have contributed to it.
To criticise them adversely for doing so would be as
absurd as condemning the choir of the old Greek tragedy
on the grounds that it no longer forms an integral part
of the modern drama. Only when place, time and cir-
cumstances are taken into account, can one expext to
arrive at a true estimate of such questions.

According to Bode quot;Gefühl und Phantasiequot; are the
mainspring of kenningar and especially of those standing
for conceptions which cause a strong emotional feeling;
although he admits that, contrary to expectation, ken-
ningar prompted by the love of man for woman, are
rarely found in Anglo-Saxon. For the rest he attributes

the many Anglo-Saxon kenningar to the demands of the
quot;Stabreimquot;, i. e. the alliterative verse of Old English,
but for which, Bode considers the kenningar would have
been but one third of their present number. Continuing,
he says: quot;Die Kenningar sind zumeist Verbindungen
zweier Nomina, sei es, dass sich dieselben zu einem
zusammengesetzten Worte vereinigen, sei es, dass sie
getrennt nebeneinanderstehen, das eine vom andern
abhängig: 1 i f f r u m a, 1 i f e s f r u m a. Das erste
Glied trägt den Stab. Nun lässt sich bei diesen Kenningarn
imd allen ähnlichenWortverbindungen oft beobachten, dass
das erste Glied für die Bedeutung des Ganzen, also auch
für die Uebersetzung des Sinnes^ herzlich wenig wichtig
ist; es liegt immer der Verdacht nahe, dass dieses erste
GHed nur seines Stabreims wegen vorhanden ist.quot; Giving
some examples, Bode asks: quot;Würde man nicht einfach
e n g e 1 sagen statt heahengel, wenn der Stab
vokalisch wäre? Was ist ü p h e o f o n, ü f h i m i 1,
mehr als h e o f o n? Was «eodcyning mehr als
cyning, sö^fajdcr mehr als faeder?quot;(p. 15).

AH these expressions he regards as otiose stop-gaps,
and comes to the conclusion that modern writers give
the Germanic poet far too much credit.

That the above assertion contains a great deal of truth
cannot be gainsaid. Nevertheless, Bode goes too far,
no doubt, when he attributes such a large proportion of
kenningar to the demands of the Anglo-Saxon alliterative
verse. Although the origin of kenningar is reserved for a
later chapter, there is a side to the matter to which I
should like to draw attention here, a side which Bode

seems to have overlooked when he regarded ë o d-
c y n i n g and cyning, söSdfseder and f ae d e r
as being absolutely synonymous, putting down their sole
right of existence to their usefulness in the second hemis-
tich of the line of poetry.

From a logical point of view it may, no doubt, be
maintained that Ôëodcyning means the same as
cyning; ï5ëodcyning means quot;king of the peoplequot;
which is literally true of all kings. Since Wundt, how-ever,
the old logical way of treating languages has made place
for a more psychological attitude, and, when viewed from
the latter standpoint, it appears that no two words in a
language are absolutely synonymous. Among others,
Erdmann has drawn attention to the emotional con-
notation (Gefühlswert) of words, i. e. a word, which
originally served as a mere statement of fact, comes to
express the speaker\'s feeling with regard to the fact.
Thus, the words quot;extraordinaryquot;, quot;enormousquot; and
quot;extravagantquot; are used to show that something excites
a person\'s wonder, indignation or disapproval. The
difference between synonyms is often due to the fact
that the one has emotional sense and the other not.
Thus, when comparing the following pairs of words, one
realizes that, although synonyms, they cannot be inter-
changed in the same sentence without affecting the
sense : quot;littlequot; and quot;smallquot;, quot;greatquot; and quot;largequot;, quot;stinkquot;
and quot;stenchquot;.

Erdmann instances the words quot;Leuquot; and quot;Löwequot;,
quot;Hosequot; and quot;Beinkleidquot; : quot;Der Mangel geeigneter und
anerkannter Fachausdrücke erschwert die Ausdrucks-

weise. Es erscheint auf den ersten Blick widerspruchsvoll,
zu behaupten, dass Wörter, die ganz offenbar quot;dasselbequot;
bezeichnen, einen verschiedenen Eindruck auf den Hörer
machen, dass Wörter zwar gleichen begrifflichen Inhalt
und Umfang, aber doch verschiedene quot;Bedeutungquot;
haben. Aber die Tatsache selbst is sehr bekannt und
alltäglich. Man vergleiche z. B. die sogenannten quot;poe-
tischenquot; Ausdrücke oder quot;vocabula solemniaquot; mit den
entsprechenden des gemeinen Sprachgebrauchs, etwa
quot;Leuquot; mit quot;Löwequot;. Wollte man die Identität des
Begriffsinhalts leugnen, so müsste man objektive Merk-
male anzugeben wissen, die wohl dem Leuen zukommen,
aber nicht dem Löwen, oder umgekehrt; und wollte man
die Identität des Begriffsumfangs leugnen, so müssten
gewisse Tierexemplare aufzufinden sein, die als solche,
unabhängig von der subjektiven Auffassung und dem
Zusammenhange, in dem man sie erwähnt, wohl als
quot;Leuenquot;, aber nicht als quot;Löwenquot; bezeichnet werden

dürften----Sehen wir also von sogenannten poetischen

Wörtern ganz ab und vergleichen wir zwei andere, die der
alltäglichen Sprache angehören, etwa quot;Hosequot; und
quot;Beinkleidquot;. Keine Frage, jedes Beinkleid ist eine Hose
und jede Hose ein Beinkleid. Aber während es in gewissen
Fällen beinahe anstössig wirkt, quot;Hosequot; zu sagen, klingt
es in anderen Fällen geziert oder zu quot;modernquot;, das Wort
quot;Beinkleidquot; zu verwendenquot;
Erdmann concludes that this difference must be

Karl O. Erdmann: Die Bedeutung des Wortes*, Leipzig,
1922, p. 1031.

attributed to the fact that, in each of the above pairs of
words, the one word has an emotional colouring and the
other not. It is due to the emotional connotation of
words that a person speaking a foreign language often
brings a smile or a look of surprise to the face of the
native, as, for instance, when the South African speaks
to a Netherlander of his quot;kopquot; instead of his quot;hoofdquot;.
For the same reason, many words and expressions used
by writers of former generations strike the reader of the
present day as objectionable and even vulgar. The emo-
tional sense of a word changes much more quickly than
its notional sense, with the result, that many words are
now tabooed which could have been used with impunity
in the most refined society, one or two generations ago.

In many words the emotional sense becomes so em-
phasized that the notional sense sinks into the back-
ground. In the phrase quot;awfully goodquot; the word quot;awfulquot;
no longer means quot;inspiring awequot;, but has come to be
a mere intensive. The same tendency is to be observed
in Anglo-Saxon. Rankin has already drawn attention to
the words e o d and s i g e in compounds. Discussing
the meaning of \'S 5 o d c y n i n g, he says: quot;It is difficult
to determine to what extent 5 o d as a prefix had
faded into an intensive. (Cf. \'Seodbealu, cruciatus
ingens-GRKiti). In Old Saxon, 1 o d seems certainly to
have become an intensifier — cf. \'5 i o d g u m o.
Deodcyning then may mean here {Red. der

Seel. I, 12.) quot;the mighty kingquot;----In A. S. sige

is used in a large number of compounds, and from such
formations as sigetorht it would seem that this

word like S e o d was becoming an intensive prefix.
The same is true of s i g o r and perhaps also of
sigora (es)quot; Similarly, I cannot agree with Bode when
he regards e n g e 1 and heahengel as absolutely
synonymous. Not only is heahengel used in the
majority of cases as a designation of an archangel, but
a consideration of the following compounds also leads to
the conclusion that h e a h must be regarded as an
intensive prefix: heahboda, archangelus; h g a h-
g e s t r 5 o n, thesaurus magnificus; h e a h g e w e o r c,
opus excelsum vel utagnificum; heahgnornung,
gemitus niaximus; h e a h 1 u f u, amor prcecipuus, amor
conjugalis; h e a h s £ 1, opportunitas, prosperitas; and
heahSegen, angelus — Grein.

By no means do I wish to convey the impression that
every kenning can be accounted for in this way. The
demands of the alliterative verse are undoubtedly res-
ponsible for the existence of a good many kenningar and
other compounds. On the other hand, I do not consider
that Bode is justified in making such a sweeping state-
ment without sufficient proof, and the few examples
given bj\'^ him in support of his assertion cannot be
considered as convincing. Granted that he did make a
proper study of this side of the question, and that his
investigations led him to the above conclusion, then,
surely, the reader is entitled to know along which lines
he has arrived at such a result. Such a conclusion can

J. W. Rankin, A Study of the Kcnnings in Anglo-Saxon
Poeirv (The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, VIII,
p. 404 ff.

only be based on a thorough and systematic study of the
kenning and the context in which it appears. Thus, taking
tS e o d c y n i n g as an example, the question to be
answered is whether this compound has been used for
the tyrannical, avaricious and petty king or for the kind,
liberal and powerful monarch, in other words, whether
the poet has shown any preference for certain words and
compounds under certain circumstances. Such and similar
questions must first be settled before any conclusions
can be drawn with regard to the part played by the
alliterative verse in connection with the origin and the
use of the kenningar.

To some extent this has been done by Richard Kisten-
macher, Die Wörtlichen Wiederholungen im Beowulf,
Greifswald dissert. 1898. He considers that the motives
which led to the repeated use of the same word or phrase
by the Anglo-Saxon poet are in many cases the same as
those which prompted the use of the kenningar (p. 28).
His conclusions are accordingly also applicable to the
kenningar. Incidentally it may be observed that Kisten-
macher\'s remarks and conclusions refer only to the use
of words and not to their origin. He points out (p. 8)
that the many synonyms in A. S. (cf. K. Schemann, Die
Synonyma im Beowtdfliede, Münster dissert. 1882, A. Ban-
ning, Die Verbalen Synonyma im Beowulf^ Marburg
dissert. 1886, G. Sonnefeld, Stilistisches und Wortschatz
im Beowulf, Strassburg dissert. 1892) made it easy for
the poet to use constantly new words for the same
conception. Such a view contains a fallacy in that it
conveys the erroneous impression that the great number

of synonyms in Anglo-Saxon led to their use on the part
of the poet, whereas it is more likely that a great many
of them are indebted for their existence to the require-
ments of the poet. In short, they are not used because
of their existence, but exist because of their use.

Returning to his subject proper, Kistenmacher
finds (p. 17) that the poet repeats himself intentionally:
I. quot;An Stellen, die besonders ins Ohr fallen:

a)nbsp;Anaphora,

b)nbsp;Epiphora;

II. um dadurch recht eindrucksvoll auf die Wichtig-
keit einer Sache hinzuweisen.quot;

The anaphora is used, firstly, for rhetorical purposes
(p. 24), cf. Beo. 2107 ff., Christ 668 ff.. Wand. 92 ff..
El. 131 ff.; secondly, to introduce a new movement,
with the object of drawing the attention of the reader to
its importance, cf. Beo. 702—710—720, El. 21—27—35,
Jud. 200—212—227.

According to Kistenmacher, the epiphora serves the
same purpose as the anaphora. Like the latter it is used
by the poet for rhetorical emphasis: quot;Es ist ein Zeichen
bewusster Technik des Dichters, wenn ein Wort an der
Stelle aufgenommen wird, die besonders stark ins Gehör
fällt, und hierher gehört der Schluss eines Verses, wo,
durch die natürliche Pause, die beim Recitieren sich
ergiebt, das betreffende Wort bedeutsam hervorgehoben
wird und dadurch dem Gedächtnis des Hörers sich um
so mehr einprägtquot; (p. 26). This view of Kistenmacher
seems to be borne out by the significant fact that, whereas,
of all the anaphora\'s in the Beowulf, not one is a kenning.

several of the epiphora\'s are also kenningar. Cf. 11.
1967 b—1972 b, 2330 b—2388 b, 2611b—2628 b. That
the kenning, in the above instances, appears in the most
important part of the line, seems to point to the fact
that, like the epiphora, it is often used as a rhetorical
ornament

Furthermore, Kistenmacher points out (p. 30) that
a number of instances goes to show that synonyms are
often made use of as a stylistic device for drawing the
attention of the reader to some feature which the poet
particularly wishes to emphasize. Thus the danger
involved by a fight against Grendel\'s Mother, is im-
pressed on the reader\'s mind by a description of her
dwelling :

(1. 1357 b)nbsp;Hie dygel lond

warigea«, wulfhleo^u,nbsp;windige nœssas,

frëcne fengelâd.

(I. 1377 b)nbsp;Eard gît ne const,

frëcne stowe.

That the poet did not choose his words for purposes of
alliteration only is shown, among others, by the use
of sinces brytta and goldwine gumena
(11. 1170—\'71). Briefly stated, the situation is as follows:

Compare furthermore W. J. Sedgefield, Beowulf, Man-
chester 1910, 2nd edn. 1913, Introduction p. XXIII: quot;In the
0. E. alliterating verse the repetition of the same idea in varying
phraseology is partly due to the metrical structure by which
a fresh advance or \'movement\' frequently begins with the
second half of the line, the idea being expanded or echoed in the
first half of tlie following line.quot; etc.

After the defeat of Grendel and the viewing of his arm,
Heorot is set in order. The company gathers and the
scop relates his stories. At the close of his narrative
queen WealhÖeow approaches and, while handing the
cup to king Hröögär, addresses him:

\'Onföh Öissum fülle, freodrihten min,
sinces brj\'tta; t5ü on sälum wes,
goldwine gumena, ond to Geatum sprasc
mildum wordum; swä sceal mon don.
B€o wit5 Geatas glsed, geofona gemyndig
nean ond feorran (Öe) Öü nü hafast.\'

(11. 1169—\'74).

Now, here again, it may be argued that the poet used
sinces brytta and goldwine gumena
purely for the sake of the alliteration. On the other hand
a careful consideration of the above lines shows that
these expressions could hardly have been chosen better.
The queen wishes to appeal to the king\'s liberality and
does so in a most skilful way. Instead of immediately
coming to the point, she begins by calling him the
quot;dispenser of treasurequot;, and the quot;gold-friend of menquot;,
thus preparing the way for her request by gradually
leading up to it. As a sinces brytta and a gold-
wine gumena he could hardly have refused to be
geofona gemyndig. In fact, the most astute
supplicant could scarcely have set about his object in a
more circumspect way. Similarly, the use of sinces
brytta (1. 1922) can be explained by paying due
attention to the context. The poet\'s mind is so much
occupied by the treasures brought home by Beowulf,

that it follows as a most natural thing for him to speak
of king Hygeläc in terms of that treasure:
Hët tSä üp heran aeöelinga gestrêon,
fraetwe ond fsltgold; naes him feor Öanon
tö gesëcanne sinces bryttan. (11. 1920—1923).

The above examples could easily be multiplied but,
for the present, these must suffice to show that there
are also other ways of accounting for the use of such
words than that of putting down their existence solely
to merely formal requirements of the Anglo-Saxon verse,
as Bode is inclined to do

After having written the previous remarks I was naturally
pleased to see that A. Brandl, in his review of Bode\'s book
in the Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1887, p. 898, comes to a some-
what similar conclusion. Having pointed out that Bode has
not distinguished between the kenning and the metaphor — a
distinction which I believe to be impossible — Brandl continues:
quot;Ein anderes principielles Bedenken kann man erheben, wenn
B. die Hauptaufgabe der Kenningar nur darin sieht, dass sie
quot;zum Flicken, zur Ausfüllung der zweiten Halbzeile, zum
Weiterkommen dienenquot; (p. 14). In der älteren Zeit wenigstens
hatten sie doch eine tiefere Existenzberechtigung, in dem
Streben nemlich, als Träger der stark markierten Assonanzen
auch möglichst markante Ausdrücke neben einander zu drängen.
Wie rasch verschwanden die Kenningar im 13 Jh., trotz viel-
facher Flicknot, als der Stabreim dem Endreim wich! Ueber-
haupt is B. geneigt, die Nachdrücklichkeit jener altgermanischen
Dichter, welche sich mit einschärfenden Widerholungen und
Paraphrasen kaum je genug tun konnten, zu rationalistisch zu
betrachten. Er sieht in Zusammensetzungen wie Öcodcyning,
söÖfaider, upheofon nichts als quot;Lückenstopferei und
hohlen Wortkram.quot; Müsten wir uns demnach nicht auch Formeln
wie quot;steinreichquot; und quot;stockblindquot; als bombastische Pleonasmen
abgewöhnen? Gar so kunstlos sind jene Epiker des 7. und 8. Jhs.
in ihrer Art doch nicht gewesen, dass man sie für unwürdig
erklären müste, quot;den Grössen späterer Zeiten den Schuhriemen
zu lösenquot; (p. 15).

Having accounted for two-thirds of the kenningar in
this way, Bode, for the remainder, attributes the origin
and the use of the kenningar to the phantasy of the
poet and his desire to express a conception as vividly
as possible: quot;Es ist für den Menschen ein Bedürfnis und
eine Freude, seine Kräfte gebrauchen, sich nach allen
Seiten hin ausleben zu können. Namentlich schafft es
ihm Vergnügen, wenn in guten Stunden diejenigen
Vermögen thätig werden, die gewöhnlich bei den nötigen
Beschäftigungen des Alltagslebens und aus Mangel an
Anregung in den Hintergrund treten. Zu diesen Vermögen
gehört besonders die Phantasie, zu den Mitteln, die
Phantasie zu lebendiger Thätigkeit zu veranlassen, die
Benennung der Begriffe durch Kenningarquot; i).

Thus, according to Bode, the kenning serves the same
end as the quot;Epitheton ornansquot;. The Anglo-Saxon poetry
is rich in kenningar, but poor in well-chosen, stirring ad-
jectives, differing in this respect from the Homeric poems
which contain few kenningar but many beautiful and
embellishing adjectives. Both adjective and kenning
serve the same purpose as the pars pro toto or synecdoche,
i. e. they emphasize a particular characteristic, function
or part of a conception and, by thus narrowing the
meaning of a word, make it the more striking and com-
prehensible. The kenning therefore. Bode concludes,
differs from the general word in respect of the fact that,
whereas the former is one-sided, the latter is compre-
hensive. This last remark is erroneous and misleading.

Bode, p. 15 f.

The kenning is as comprehensive in meaning as the Hteral
word itself. In fact, if this had not been the case, one
would not have been justified in regarding it as a kenning.
This is best explained by means of an example such as
garberend. As long as this word could be used only
for a spear-bearer, it was no kenning. It became such
only after it could be employed to signify the warrior
in general, whether spear-beafing or not; in other words,
after it had come to be as comprehensive as the word
quot;warfiorquot; itself. As far as its origin is concerned, the
kenning may be one-sided — so is the literal word — but
not from the point of view of its meaning and application.

Bode now proceeds to group the Anglo-Saxon
kenningar according to their nature. His five groups
may be shortly summarized as follows:

I. quot;Malende Kenningarquot;, i. e. those describing colour
and form: se blaca feond Devil, s e
deopa sea^5 Hell.

II. quot;Festhaltende Kenningarquot;, i. e. those based on tem-
poral and spatial relations: healsgebedda
Wife, goldes brytta king, lindhaebbend
warrior.

III. The quot;durch Vergleichung malende Kenningarquot;,
i. e. metaphorical kenningar, with the following
five subdivisions:

(a)nbsp;Comparison of living persons and animals
with each other: se steora God, s e
a w y r g d a w u I f Salan.

(b)nbsp;Comparison of living beings with things
inanimate: quot;5 je t Gee 1 G o h t God.

(c)nbsp;Comparison of inanimate things with living
beings : g û \'S w i n e sword, s u n d h e n-
g e s t ship.

(d)nbsp;Inanimate things compared with each other:
hwaeles ëSel sea, m e r e h û s ship.

(e)nbsp;Comparison of abstract with concrete nouns:
w i g a w ae 1 g i f r e Death.

IV.nbsp;quot;Definierende Kenningarquot; i. e. those defining the
nature and use of things : wœgdropa tears,
fingra gebeorh shield.

V.nbsp;quot;Episodische Kenningarquot;, i. e. those based on
side-issues and which, because of their highly
imaginative character, strike the reader as arti-
ficial and affected : Wëlandes geweorc,
fêla 1 â f sivord, 1 â m f œ t human body.

Whatever other value they may possess, these divisions
and subdivisions, based for the greater part on the tropes
of the old scholastic school, are not of much use in
enabling the reader to gain a better insight into the nature
and form of the kenning. The denominations metonymy,
synecdoche, metaphor etc. are nothing more than so
many labels for certain words or groups of words; they
name certain linguistic phenomena but do not explain
them. Furthermore, language, as a product of the human
mind, is, like the latter, far too complicated and subtle
to admit of such a division. To a certain extent this
difficulty has been realized by fioDE. He admits that
many of the above examples may fit into more than one
group, which is indeed the case. Thus I â m f îp t, where

the poet conceives of the human body as quot;a vessel of
clayquot;, is as much a metaphor as such expressions as
sundhengest and m e r e h u s where a ship is
thought of as a quot;steedquot; and a quot;housequot;, in other words,
the one is as much a comparison as the other.

Bode does not tell us what his object was in making
the above divisions. As he makes no further use of these
groups the reader is forced to the conclusion that Bode
regarded them as an end in themselves and not as the
means to an end. To my thinking, however, the only
value of these groups lies in their use for comparison.
Thus it will be seen that the last group, or episodic
kenningar, are much more strongly represented in Old
Norse than in Anglo-Saxon poetry.

This leads directly to another and much disputed
question in connection with the subject, the question,
namely, of how to account for the scarcity of simile and
metaphor in Anglo-Saxon poetry as compared with the
frequent use of these tropes in the Edda.

One of the first who attempted to explain this apparent
inconsistency in the two languages was R. Heinzel^).
He ascribes the limited use of figurative language,
notably of the simile, in the oldest English poetry to the
influence of Christianity and Romanism. His investigation
leads him to the conclusion that all rhetorical forms,
such as apposition, variation, simile and sensual expres-
sion were common to all Germanic poetry before the

Ueber den Slil der AUgernianischen Poesie, Quellen und
Forschungen X, Strassburg, 1875.

split into East- and West-Germanic. On the basis of this
hypothesis Heinzel concludes that the West-Germans,
especially the Anglo-Saxons and the High Germans, have,
since their separation from the parent stock, not only
given up the strophic form but also lost materially the
use of the simile and sensual expression (p. 49). Old
Norse, with its bold use of simile and metaphor, thus
represents an older stage than Anglo-Saxon. The loss of
these, in the latter language, Heinzel regards as a
quot;concession to a foreign culturequot; (p. 25). He considers,
namely, that the introduction and the spread of Chris-
tianity resulted in an quot;Erweichung des Gemiithesquot;, in a
tempering of the quot;Wuth der Leidenschaftquot; and the
quot;Wahnsinn der Kampflustquot; (p. 51). These softening
influences, says Heinzel, brought about the loss of the
simile.

Gummere^) refutes Heinzel\'s arguments on the fol-
lowing grounds:

1.nbsp;Heinzel\'s theory can only be maintained on the
assumption that Anglo-Saxon poetry found itself in a
period of decline at the time when it came into contact
with Romanism and Christianity. Such a view is however
impossible in view of the fact that Anglo-Saxon poetry
has all along testified to a strong national spirit. quot;Only
gradually did it borrow from its modelsquot; (p. 4).

2.nbsp;The Bible contains a great many similes and alle-
gories — Gummere regards the allegory as a simile, with

F. Gummere, The Anglo-Saxon Metaphor, Freibure dissert..
Halle, 1881.

the quot;likequot; repressed. Its influence could accordingly not
have been detrimental to the use and the development
of the simile.

3. Finally, Gummere contends that Heinzel is not
justified in regarding the simile as being originally
common to all Germanic poetry, simply because he
found it in the Vedas as well as in Old Norse. For, as
Heinzel himself remarks (p. 3), quot;it is quite possible for
similar processes to take place in separated nations,
without assuming a common germ before the^\'- parted com-
panyquot;. In contradistinction to Heinzel\'s theory, Gummere
regards the simile as a development which took place
after the break-up of Indo-Germanic into its various
branches. He now proceeds to give his own theory
(p. 9—10): quot;The absence of similes in A. S. is explained
by the fact that they require a certain balance and self-
containedness; the poet must pause in his narrative
proper, make a comparison, and point out its details ....
The passionate nature of the Germanic race is thoroughly
opposed to the use and development of the simile. The
lack of the latter in A. S. is entirely natural, and explains
itself: while the presence of the simile in Old Norse is an
inconsistency that must be cleared with special reference
to locality and the peculiar circumstances of Norse
literaturequot; i).

The weakness of Gummere\'s theory becomes clear

This theory of Gummere is hy no means new. The same
views had been advanced some four years before bv B. ten
Brink. Cf. his Geschichte der englischen Litteraiur, 2nd edn.,
Strassburg, 1899, I, 24 ff.

when viewed in the light of his concluding remarks about
Norse literature. Not only do such generalities serve no
purpose, but, in addition, it is by no means clear what
Gummere exactly means by a quot;special reference to
locality and the peculiar circumstances of Norse litera-
turequot;. Considering furthermore, that Old Norse, in spite
of its passionate nature, contains a comparatively large
number of similes, it becomes extremely doubtful whether
Gummere could have accounted for this quot;inconsistencyquot;,
even with a quot;special referencequot;, etc. This doubt has
indeed been raised by A. Hoffmann He agrees with
Gummere in admitting that the passionate nature of the
Germanic races is not conducive to an extensive use of
the simile. On the other hand he considers that the
former drives his theory too far when he altogether
excludes the possibility of the use of the simile by the
Germanic poet. Hoffmann considers that the solution
to this problem should be sought for in another direction,
namely in the difference between the styles of Old Norse
and Anglo-Saxon poetry. If Gummere had made a study
of the poetic styles of these respective languages, he
could not have failed to notice that certain conditions,
necessary for the use and the development of the simile,
were almost completely lacking in Anglo-Saxon poetry.
Hoffmann now proceeds to make a study of these
conditions, and, on comparing the style of the Beowulf
with that of the Edda, he comes to the conclusion that

Der bildliche Ausdruck im Deowulj u. in der Edda, Englische
Studien. VI, 163 ff.

in the case of the former the poet is dominated by his
feeling, whereas, in that of the latter he is swayed by his
imagination. According to Hoffmann, this difference of
style also accounts for the difference in the use of the
simile and the kenning in these two languages. Thus,
while the use of these figures was prevented by the
Anglo-Saxon poet\'s feeling, it was furthered by the
Old Norse poet\'s imagination. Highly interesting as it
may be, I can regard neither this theory nor the argu-
ments used in support of it as convincing. Hoffmann
seems to me to have adopted the objectionable method
of first forming a theory and then searching for facts
with which to support that theory. Such a method must
necessarily lead to one-sidedness, for, instead of making
the theory conform to the facts, the latter are contorted
to suit the former.

Firstly, Hoffmann maintains that the lack of the
simile in Anglo-Saxon must be attributed to the poet\'s
passionate nature which manifests itself in his feeling.
Secondly, he tells the reader that the temperament of the
Norse poet is even more passionate than that of his
Anglo-Saxon brother. But, as this very passionate nature
of the Norse poet is as detrimental to Hoffmann\'s theory
as to the use and development of the simile, he prefers
to ignore it completely. Instead, he assumes a new
influence, namely, the imagination of the poet. It hardly
needs to be pointed out that by such a method it would
be possible to prove almost anything. Such a way of
reasoning is expecting too much of the reader\'s credulity.
First the poet\'s temperament is used to explain the

absence of a certain linguistic feature; the very next
moment, when the presence of that feature is to be
accounted for, the reader is expected to forget all about
this temperament. The reader becomes still more sceptical
when, a few pages further (p. 198), he comes upon the
following conflicting statement: quot;Das gleichniss in der
Edda wird in der regel dann gebraucht wenn der dichter
die gefühle^) seiner helden recht stark zum ausdrucke
bringen will. Hiernach bestimmt sich auch der Charakter
desselben. Schmähend, klagend, lobpreisend oder spot-
tend, immer verräth es eine gehobene, leidenschaftlich
erregte Stimmung\'\'\'\' Hei^ thus the presence of the simile
in Old Norse is explained by the very same argument
which was used to account for its absence in Anglo-
Saxon, namely, quot;das Gefühlquot;. Comment is needless.

The weakness of Hoffmann\'s theory appears to me to
lie in his attempt to distinguish between feeling and
imagination. This distinction is impossible, since it is
impossible to keep the two apart. The highly emotional
person is, as a rule, also highly imaginative and vice
versa. It is therefore a mere juggling with words to
ascribe a thing now to the imagination and then again
to the feeling or the emotion of the poet. Furthermore,
the assertion, that imagination is a particular trait of the
Old Norse mentality, seems to me to rest on as shaky
a foundation as that of Gummere who regards its pas-
sionate nature as the distinguishing characteristic of the
Germanic race. It has never been satisfactorily explained

The italics are mine.

why this race should have a monopoly in this respect.
And, when one finds the same claim advanced on behalf
of the Romanic race, one is seriously inclined to consider
the question whether, perhaps, this theory has not even
a better claim than the simile to be regarded as a product
of the imagination. Undoubtedly, the nature of the
Old Norse poets, as revealed in the Edda, is passionate.
But that is not because they belong to the Germanic race,
but because they are members of the human race. Primi-
tive Man is passionate, and, if different races or tribes
of the same race differ in this respect, it must be due to
some influence or other w^hich, from time to time, has
been brought to bear upon them. Such an influence might,
according to its nature, either have given utterance to
this common trait or have relegated it to the background.
For this reason I inchne towards Heinzel\'s view, and
consider that the scarcity of figurative language in Anglo-
Saxon, in contradistinction to its lavish use in Old Norse,
must, to some extent, be attributed to the influence of
Romanism and Christianity. These were the influences
which tempered the passionate nature and, as a result,
the imagination of the Anglo-Saxon poet. In spite of
Gummere\'s assertions to the contrary, I believe that the
Anglo-Saxon race and language did undergo a decided
influence as a result of their contact with Romanism and
Christianity. A new religion has seldom, if ever, been
accepted more rapidly and whole-heartedly than Chris-
tianity in Saxon England. Since the time of Agricola
Britain ha? formed a part of the Roman Empire. During
the time of his stay in Britain, he not only subdued the

whole country with the exception of the highlands of
Caledonia, but, through his wise administration, he
succeeded in introducing among the inhabitants the
language and civilisation of Rome. Towards the end of
the 4th century, the Germanic tribes began to make
their appearance in Britain. At the beginning of the 5th
century they suffered a temporär}^ check, but when Rome,
pressed by the Goths, withdrew her legions, the Celtic
inhabitants of Britain were practically at the mercy of
the foreign invaders. Although they put up a strong
resistance they could not stem the tide of the invasion.
By the end of the 6th century, the greater part of the
western half of the country, up to the Firth of Forth,
was in the possession of the Germanic conquerors. At
this time a new influence appeared in the form of Chris-
tianity. Roman missionaries came to England, and their
activities were attended by so much success, that by the
end of the seventh century England could be regarded
jU as the most Christfan country in northern Europe. From the
very beginning, the missionaries insisted upon strict disci-
pline. On the other hand, they were wise enough to avoid
unnecessary collision with the existing state of affairs
in the country. As far as possible, they made the new
religion conform to the old order. Native customs and
national institutions were interfered with as little as
possible. Although the mission emanated from Rome and
was carried out under the auspices of the Roman Church,
the English Church was allowed to retain a large measure
of independence and to develop along national lines. The
success of the mission must, accordingly, to a large

extent be attributed to this wise conduct and skilful
administration of those to whom it was entrusted. The
zeal and activity of the people on behalf of their new
faith go to show that the seeds of the new religion had
indeed fallen into fruitfulsoil. \'Missionary work was under-
taken, churches were built, while monasteries and con-
vents arose one after another. In connection with the
latter, libraries were founded and continually enlarged,
so that, as time went on, thèse monasteries and convents
became centres of culture and learning and, for the
protecting walls of which, even kings and princesses
abandoned the outer world in order to lead a life of
seclusion, of study and of meditation. Anglo-Saxon
poetry reflects this spirit and attitude towards the world
practically from beginning to end. The Beowulf, heathe-
nish as it appears in parts, reflects this. Originating at
such an early date, this poem reveals, more than any
other, a certain dualism. The poet seems to be continually
swayed between his admiration for the heroic and the
teachings of Christianity. In his exhaustive investigation
F. Klaeber has, in my opinion, completely disproved
the old theory that this poem is the work of a heathen
poet and that it once existed as a whole without the
Christian allusions. Klaeber regards the material as
mythical and heathen, but clarified by natural filtration
through the Christian mind of the poet. In this attempt
to conciliate his conscience by giving a Christian colouring

Die Christlichen Elemente im Beowulf, Anglia XXXV
1912, 111 ff.. 249 ff., 453 ff.

to heathenish material, the Anglo-Saxon poet does not
stand alone. The early Christian literature of several
languages contains examples of this kind. Thus the poet
still takes an almost childish delight in relating the
heroic exploits of Beowulf and other champions, but in
the very midst of his narrative he is, as it were, pulled up
by the thought: Man is mortal, quot;the paths of glory lead
but to the grave.quot; Thus, when Beowulf sets out on his
adventures, the reader gains the impression that it is to
his own exceptional strength and to the quality of his own
arms and armour that the hero trusts, rather than to the
aid and protection of God. For, although he is thoroughly
convinced of the virtue and the justice of his cause, he
never thinks of appealing to the heavenly Father for
assistance in the coming strife. Only after the issue has
been settled does it strike the poet that, in the tumult
and excitement of the fight, he has forgotten to give
honour where honour is due. Then, as if to make up for
his negligence and worldliness, he commences praising
God as the 11 f f r 6 a and manna gehyld, the
Lord and Protector of life. Cf. Beo. 11. 928 ff., 1626 ff.,
1778 ff., 1997 ff., 2794 ff.

As time went on, the Christian attitude of the poet
to his subject-matter became more marked. Words and
phrases, founded on heathen conceptions, became scarcer
and went out of use. Such a process would account for
the comparative scarcity of mythological kenningar in
the language. The Anglo-Saxons must have brought with
them to England a big stock of myths and beliefs. Of
these, several traces are to be found in the literature in

the form of allusions, but these are so vague and meaning-
less that they may be regarded as the last link in the
chain which bound these people to their ancestral home
on the Continent: the belief in the divine origin of their
kings, the boar-image on their helmets, cremation, the
vendetta, such words and phrases as hell, m i d-
dangeard, eotenas, eotenas ond ylfe,
ealdsweord eotenisc, gealdre bewun-
d e n and Welandes geweorc — these and
similar expressions, the origin of many of which was in
all probability obscure to the Anglo-Saxon poet, are
dbout the only remnants of the beliefs of their Continental
forefathers. That Christianity played an important part
in connection with this, seems to me to be beyond doubt.
It hardly needs pointing out that the missionaries would
have done their utmost to suppress anything that flavou-
red of paganism. In this way existing words and phrases
of a mythological character were not only lost but many
of a similar nature were probably also prevented from
coming into general use. The sober tone and the subjective
attitude of the Anglo-Saxon poet must probably be
attributed to the same influence. He had as much imagi-
nation as the Old Norse poet but, unlike the latter, he
was prevented from giving free scope to that imagination.
His world was no longer inhabited by gods and other
supernatural beings revealing themselves as friendly or
hostile forces. That such monsters appear in the Beowulf
does not affect or detract from the truth of my remarks.
Grendel, Grendel\'s Mother and the Dragon are of
course not of the poet\'s own creation. They reflect a

much older stage. But even these are described in such
a vague and general way that it may be queried whether
the poet himself had a clear idea of the exact nature and
appearance of these monsters. Similarly, the way in
which other and lesser monsters are mentioned and
introduced by the poet, seems to point to the conclusion
that the Beowidf reveals the old mythology in its last
struggle for existence against the new faith. The spirit
of this new faith shows itself also in another respect.
The hero, Beowulf, is not represented as blood-thirsty.
However tempting it may be, fighting is not indulged in
for its own sake. Beowulf does not kill for the mere
pleasure of killing. In each of the three instances in the
poem, he champions the cause of the weak and the
oppressed. This subjective attitude of the poet could not
have been conducive to the development of a style
abounding in metaphors and similes. It curbed the
imagination and prevented the poet from completely
identifying himself with his subject. The self-control of
the Anglo-Saxon poet contrasts strongly with the wild
abandonment of the Old Norse poet. Of a nature corres-
pondingly wild as that of his natural surroundings, the
latter continued to regard fighting, feasting and drinking
as the noblest and most attractive of pastimes. Even the
idea of death could not stop the wild play of his imagi-
nation. Beyond the grave Valhgll was awaiting the
brave warrior. Here he would ride forth to battle everjr
morning, returning in the evening to be tended by the
Valkyrjur, and to eat and drink of a never-failing
supply of meat and mead. Such was the spirit that

animated the Old Norse poet. In his case there was
nothing to temper the passion and curb the imagination.
The result was a language daring in the extreme, wild,
fantastical and even bizarre, but rich in simile and
metaphor, and distinguished for its picturesqueness and
vividness of presentation.

Summing up, my views may be briefly stated as
follows: The passionate nature is common to all mankind.
If it appears to be less characteristic of one race than of
another, it must be due to the presence or absence of
some exterior influences, which, according to their nature,
may either calm or fan this nature. Furthermore, this
passionate nature is not averse to the use and development
of the simile and the metaphor. On the contrary, daily
experience goes to show that the inadequacy of language
is never felt more strongly than when a person is labouring
under strong emotion. Then, more than at any other
time, he feels the need of new words, combinations and
phrases in order to give vent to his feeling. That Old
Norse, with its passionate nature, developed the use of
the simile and the metaphor is, therefore, not an in-
consistency, as Gummere thinks. It is quite natural nnd
only what was toibe expected under the circumstances.
Anglo-Saxon would have developed these figures to the
same extent if it had not been for the presence of exterior
influences. One of these influences — for the possibility
of more than one is not excluded — is that of Romanism
and Christianity. The subjectivity and moral serious-
ness of Anglo-Saxon poetry, in contradistinction to the
objectivity and the sensuousness of Old Norse poetry,

must be due to this influence, which tempered the
passionate nature and the imagination of the poet,
affected his interests and changed his moral outlook on
life. The result is a language distinguished for its sober
tone and style and its scarcity of simile and metaphor,
in contradistinction to the lavish use of these figures
in Old Norse.

CHAPTER n.
The Kenning. — Its Scope and Meaning.

Although generally agreed as to the meaning of the
term kenning, most writers differ more or less in
their application of the word. While some use it in a very
limited sense, others go to the opposite extreme, and
regard as kenningar all words and phrases used in a
figurative sense.

As no definition, no matter how well formulated it
may be, will cover all cases, I shall refrain from attempting
to define the term kenning. Such a definition would
have to take into account both the meaning and the
scope of the term. The first may be comparatively simple,
but the latter hardly admits of being condensed into a
single sentence.

Besides, therefore, giving a general characterization
of the kenning and its meaning, I shall devote this
chapter chiefly to a consideration of questions and
difficulties which arise when one comes to consider the
field of application.

Although it is not my intention to give a chronological
resumé of what has been written in connection with the
subject, a brief consideration of Snorri\'s views, as given
in the Snorra Edda, will nevertheless be both interesting

and instructive. In his discussion of poetic style, he
considers diction and metre as the distinguishing features
of all poetry:

quot;hversu m^rg eru kyn skaldskaparins — tvenn
quot;eru kyn pau, er greina skéldskap allan — hver
quot;tvenn — mal ok haettir.quot; Sn. E. I. 230.
With regard to diction, Snorri confines himself almost
exclusively to the substantive and the ways by means
of which it may be expressed in the sentence:

quot;hvert maltak er haft til skóldskapar — J)renn
quot;er grein skaldskaparmals: 1. sva at nefna
quot;hvern lut sem heitirquot; or ukend setning
as he calls it later: quot;hvernig er ukend setning
quot;skaldskapar — sva at nefna hvern lut sem
quot;heitir.quot; Sn. E. I. 230.
This first group, therefore, includes all nouns or expres-
sions used in their ordinary, literal sense.

2.nbsp;quot;gnnur grein er sü, er heita fornQfnquot;.
Another name for this class is ü k e n n t h e i t i:

quot;hver eru ükend heiti skdidskaparins — hann
quot;heitir bragr ok hróör, ótJr, maerör, lof.quot; Sn. E.
I. 464.

Instead of f o r n 9 f n or ü k e n n t heiti, Snorri
very often simply uses the words n 9 f n or heiti:
quot;hvernig eru ngfn goSdanna — t)au heita
quot;bgnd, . . . hgpt, . . . Rggn, . . . Jólnar, . . .
quot;Dlar. pes.si ngfn himins eru rituS, en eigi
quot;hgfum vér fundit 1\' kvjEÖum gil [^essi heitiquot;
Sn. E. I. 468.

3.nbsp;quot;en iii mdlsgrein or kgllut er kenning, ok

er sü grein sva sett, at vér kQllum ÓÖin eöa
pór eöa Tf, eöa einhvern af Asum etSa Alfum,
at hverr peirra er ek nefni til, pé tek ek
mei5 heiti af eign annars Assins, et5a get ek
hans verka nokkvorra; pa eignast hann nafnit,
en eigi hinn er nefndr var. Sva sem vér
kalium sig-T}\'\'^, eÖa hanga-Ty, e^Sa farma-Ty:
pat er Jia ÓÖins heiti, ok kgllum vér pat
kennt heiti; sva ok at kalla reiÖar-Ty.quot;
Sn. E. I, 230.

The ükend setning of group 1 offers no diffi-
culty. It is when one comes to consider groups 2 and 3
that matters become somewhat complicated; a discussion
of Snorri\'s view of the subject will accordingly confine
itself chiefly to his second and third groups.

The first difficulty that presents itself in connection
with these is Snorri\'s nomenclature. For group 2 he uses
the terms forngfn, ü kennt heiti, ngfn and
heiti; for group 3 kenning, heiti and kennt
heiti. Though, therefore, groups 2 and 3 are generally
designated by the terms heiti and kenning, it
appears from the above that the heiti may also
include the kenning (cf. Ó «i n s heiti). This,
if not borne in mind, may lead to serious misapprehension
on the part of the reader consulting the Snorra Edda.
In the majority of cases this risk may be obviated by a
careful consideration of the context, from which it will
be possible to determine whether Snorri is discussing the
heiti of group 2 or the kenning of group 3.

From a study of the examples given by Snorri, as well

as of those places where he expresses his views on the
subject, the following conclusions may be drawn: In
contrast with the kenningar, the heiti of class 2 have a
very simple structure; usually they consist of either a
noun, or of an adjective or .a participle used as a noun.
The kenning, on the other hand, Snorri regards as a
periphrastic expression consisting of at least two words,
either as a compound or as two or more separate words:
quot;kenningar eru metJ lirennu moti greindar:
quot;fyrst heita kenningar, annat tvikennt, tiri\'Sja
quot;rekit. pat er kenning at kalla flein-brak
quot;orrostu, en l^at er tvikennt at kalla flein-
quot;braks-fiir svertSit, en er rekit ef lengra er.quot;
Sn. E. I, 600.

Meissner^) furthermore points out that the heiti
are to be found in poetry only, in which respect
they will therefore differ from the likend setning.
Although the above seems to be Snorri\'s conception of
heiti and kenningar, a study of the examples given by
him under the respective headings nevertheless leads
one to the conclusion that the difference between heiti
and kenning is not always very strictly observed by
Snorri. As heiti or n g f n for s 6 1 and t u n g 1
he gives: s u n n a, r g ^ u 1 1, e y g 1 6 a, a 1 s k i r,
s n i, f a g r a h v d 1, I i k n s k i n, D v a 1 i n s 1 e i k a,
alfrgtSull, ifrgCulI and m u 1 i n n. Several
of these such as D v a 1 i n s 1 e i k a and ji 1 f r 9 u 11

R. Meissner, Die Kenningar der Skalden, Bonn und Leipzie,
1921. p. 1.

are kenningar, even if one takes the term kenning
in a very hmited sense. In spite of the fact that this
distinction between heiti and kenning has been made
by most writers on the subject, a study of the examples,
usually given for each of these, has led me to the con-
clusion that such a distinction is not only of a very
arbitrary nature, but also misleading and unnecessary,
as it serves no purpose.

Fundamental^ there is no difference between the
kenning and the heiti. In the remainder of this chapter I
shall have occasion to return to a fuller discussion of this
assertion, when the arguments, which are advanced in
support of it, will be substantiated and illustrated by
means of examples. In the meantime the question may
be mooted as to how Snorri came to make such a dis-
tinction if, in reality, it does rest on such a shaky foun-
dation. One possible explanation, that has occured to
me, is that the examples, classed by him under the heiti,
had to a very large extent lost their figurative sense for
Snorri, but not to such an extent that he considered
himself justified in grouping them under the u k e n d
s e t n i n g. One may regard them as hackneyed
kenningar. The name ukennt heiti, which
Snorri sometimes employs instead of the single word
heiti, seems to point in favour of such a view.
Ukennt heiti must mean the opposite or nearly
the opposite of k e n n t heiti or k e n n i ng, and
therefore the literal, or what is felt as such, in contra-
distinction to the figurative expression. It is possible that
such words and phrases had partly come to lose their

figurative sense as a result of long and constant usage,
and had really become, as far as Snorri was concerned,
likennt heiti, that is, the opposite of k e n n t
heiti or kenningar. The fact that the majority
of the heiti consist of single words, adds additional
weight to such an argument. Single words lose their
figurative sense much sooner than compounds.

The latest and most comprehensive work on the
subject is that of R. Meissner, Die Kenningar der
Skalden. As no general definition is to be found in the
works of Icelandic writers, he tries to arrive at the
meaning of the term kenning by studying the
various uses of the verb k e n n a in the Snorra Edda:
quot;hvernig skal kenna man — hann skal kenna
quot;vitS verk sin .... hann ma ok kenna til
quot;eignar sinnarquot;, etc. Sn. E. I. 332.
From such an investigation Meissner concludes that
the simple kenning is a compound (zweigliedriger)
substitution for the single, specific name of a person
or thing. Of the two constituent parts of the kenning,
the one syntactically replaces the noun for which the
kenning is being used, whereas the other performs the
function of a qualifying or determinative word. For the
first Meissner uses the term Grundtvorl and for the
second Bestimmung, for which 1 shall employ as corres-
ponding terms basic word and determinant. Thus in
hreinbraut (Earth), hjalnis J) o 1 1 r (Man),
b a u g a land (Arm), the words b r a u t, J) o 11 r
and land are basic words, and hreinn, hjalmr
and b a u g r are determinants. The basic word is a

substantive or a word used as such. For the greater
number of kenningar also the determinant is a
substantive. Where this is not the case, Meissner
considers it better to exclude them, and accordingly
defines the simple kenning as a periphrastic compound
consisting of two substantives. He therefore excludes
from the kenningar phrases such as: enn einhendi
ass (Tyr), enn sfSskeggi ass (Bragi), b 1 a k k r
bjorr (Blood), stcfligir ytar (Poets), brgtt
b r a u t (Earth), heilagt blom (The Virgin),
hverfanda hvei (Moon), kveldrunnin
k o n a (Witch).

This discarding of words and phrases as kenningar
merely on the ground of their structure and composition
seems to me to be laying too much emphasis on form.
A discussion of the kenningar should take into
consideration the meaning and the function as well as
the form of such expressions. Although Meissner does
not separate style from syntax, he is incHned to subordi-
nate the one to the other, with the result that certain
linguistic tendencies are lost sight of. Style is not the
slave of syntax, for, in language the syntax may pass
through a process of development by means of which
syntactical groups may alter their outward appearance,
without, however, in the least thereby changing or
affecting their meaning. Thus it is well known that all
language tends to economize in the use of words j only
the essential is retained and made use of, while the rest
is discarded as superfluous ballast. If two or more words
are repeatedly used in the same syntactic relation, a

stage will be arrived at where one or more of such words
may be omitted without in the least affecting the meaning.
The modern German, ordering a glass of beer, confines
himself to the expression, ein lielles or ein dunkles, con-
sidering it unnecessary to add the word Bier.

Similarly the Englishman, asking for a railway ticket
from London to Liverpool, contents himself by merely
saying: one first, Liverpool. The circumstances under
which, as well as the place where, such phrases are
uttered generally suffice to make clear the speaker\'s
meaning. The possibility is however not excluded that
such phrases and words may, through constant and
repeated use, become perfectly clear in themselves,
independent of place and circumstances. Modern as well
as old languages contain many such words:
Fr. bonne lt;C bonne domestique.
Fr. capitale lt; ville capitale.
Eng. glass lt; drinking glass.
Eng. doctor lt;C doctor medicinae.
Lat. defunctus, Fr. défunt, Eng. defunct lt; vita defunctus
In such compound expressions the most striking of the
two component parts assimilates the meaning of the
other, until the single word is capable of conveying the
same meaning for which at first the compound expression
had to be used. From the above examples it appears that
either the basic word {ville, domestique) may be eliminated
or the determinant [drinking, medicinae). What has been
said above in connection with English, French and Latin
may also be maintained with an equal amount of certainty
in the case of Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse. It would be

difficult to explain how the Anglo-Saxon words h y r d e,
gold wine, hleo came to be used as synonyms
for quot;kingquot;, unless one assumes that they are elliptical
forms of some such phrases as rices hyrde, folces
hyrde, gold wine gumena; wigendra
hleo, aeSelinga hleo, etc.

Turning to Old Norse, one finds the word s v e i t i
(perspiration) used for blood:

Or Ymis holdi var igrS um skopoS
en or sveiti sior. Vm. 21.

S V e i t i must have acquired this meaning from the
use of such a kenning as soefis sveiti (the pers-
piration of the sword) II, 76, 54, 52). Abetter example
is the word h j a 1 d r, given by Meissner (p. 188).
As he points out, the word is very likely related to the
verb h j a 1 a (to chatter or talk). Kenningar like
skjaldar hjaldr 426, 1, 2^), vapnadoms
hjaldr II, 99,2,52) for quot;battlequot; therefore explain
themselves. When, however, the single word hjaldr
is used for quot;fightingquot;, the relation between the word
and its meaning is not so obvious:

hoegt vara at hialdri, hvars hon hendr festi!

Am. 49. 7—8.

The relation becomes quite clear, though, when one
regards hjaldr as a further stage in the development

Edda, cd. Neckel, p. 47.
2) These and similar references arc to: Den norsk-islandske
skjaldediglning udg. ved Finnur Jonsson, Vol. I, A and B.
Kop. 1912; Vol. II, A and B. Kop. 1915.

of phrases such as skjaldar hjaldr and
väpnadöms hjaldr.

A distinction between the single word and the phrase
will therefore have to be a purely formal one. Semantically
there is no difference between the two: hjaldr or
h y r d e means nothing more nor less than the kenningar
skjaldar hjaldr or rices hyrde. The single
words have therefore as nmch right as the phrases to be
regarded as kenningar. On these grounds I consider it
not only impossible, but also inadvisable to separate
the heiti from the kenning.

This has been realized by several writers on the subject,
among others, also by R. M. Meyer i). He admits that
it is very often impossible to draw the line between
heiti and Kenning. In connection with this he says:
quot;Ich mache übrigens darauf aufmerksam, wie nahe bei
der Benennung gerade von lebenden Wesen Kenning
und Epitheton sich berühren. Ein stehendes Beiwort
kann zur ausreichenden Kennzeichnung einer — gött-
lichen oder menschlichen — Persönlichkeit dienen, sobald
bekannte Elemente leicht zu ergänzen sind, deren Com-
bination mit dem Adjectiv eine rechte Kenning ergäbe.
So i n n a 1 d i n n für OÖinn, d. h. quot;der Aelteste unter
den Göttern.quot; — Uebrigens rechtfertigt es das Beispiel
der Skäldsk. selbst, wenn heiti, kenningar und forngfn
hier nicht streng geschieden werdenquot; (p. 165 f.). Meyer
points out that the Old Norse word f o 1 k v g r S r is

Die allgcrmanischc Poesie nach ihren fonnelhaften Elementen
beschrieben, Berlin, 1889.

really just as good a kenning as the phrase s v e r a
d e i 1 i r. I cannot, however, agree with him when, in
attempting to justify the separation of heiti and kenning,
he goes on to say: quot;Aber es (i. e. f o 1 k v 9 r 6 r) wird
doch als einheitliches Wort empfunden, denn es wird
mit einem neuen Genetiv verbundenquot; (p. 160). The fact
that it can be linked up to a new genitive forms no proof
of its being a heiti, as the same not only applies to, but
is, in fact, typical of the kenning. Thus one finds the
following phrase as a kenning for quot;ravenquot; : sara porns
sveita svanr (Hromundr halti I). Of this the
phrase sara porn is a kenning for quot;swordquot; in the
narrowest sense of the word kenning. Yet it is used in
conjunction with the genitive sveita as a kenning
for quot;bloodquot;. This feature, which Meyer claims as cha-
racteristic of the heiti, applies therefore also equally well
to the kenning itself.

Furthermore, I opine that Meyer lays too much
stress on the formal side of the question when he advances
as proof of its being a heiti the fact that folkvQr^r
is felt as a verbal unity (einheitliches Wort) in contrast
with sveri5a deilir as a phrase consisting of two
words. It is a question of semantic unities and not one
of verbal unities, and sver\'Sa deilir may form a
semantic unity just as well as f o I k v q r 6 r, in spite
of the fact that the former consists of two separate
words. Like the latter, it forms a substitute for the
single, specific word quot;kingquot;. Although the kenning may
consist of several words, it is, as regards its meaning, a
unity. This will be more fully discussed in the rest of

this chapter, when I shall, in fact, show that this quot;unity
of meaningquot; forms the most distinctive feature of the
kenning. In the meantime, I consider enough has been
said to show that it is a purel}\'^ formal distinction to say
that folkv^rtSr expresses its meaning with one
word, while sveröa deilir requires two words.
Semantically there is no difference between the single
word and the compound, the compound and the phrase.
As Meyer points out: quot;Der Wortstand ist im Ganzen
auf sein Alter zu prüfen und der sicherste Maasstab wird
dabei nicht sein, ob die Begriffe durch einfache oder
combinirte Ausdrücke gegeben w-erden, sondern welchen
Grad von künstlicher Entfernung von der Alltagssprache
die gebrauchten Worte und natürlich in erster Linie die
Substantiva aufweisenquot; (p. 190). For this reason no
distinction has been made between heiti and kenning in
the list of Anglo-Saxon kenningar as given in Chapter III.
Where these terms are employed by me in the discussion
of the subject, it is done solely for practical purposes and
not because of any fundamental difference between the
heiti and the kenning.

In the same way not only single words, but also
phrases consisting of parts of speech other than two
substantives should not be excluded from the kenningar
merely on the ground of their component parts. The
following phrases, which are discarded by Meissner,
I regard as kenningar: e n n e i n h e n d i a s s (Tyr),
enn siöskeggi dss (Bragi), enn p Q g 1 i Ass
(ViÖarr), et grdtfagra goÖ (Freyja), e t
hdrfagra go« (Sif), blakkr björr (Blood),

stefligir 5^tar (Poets), drjüpr salr (Heaven),
hverfanda hvel (Moon), heilagt blom
(The Virgin) p. 3 f.

Speaking of such phrases, Meissner says: quot;Verbin-
dungen dieser Art können natürhch ganz frei in der
poetischen Sprache auftreten, sie nähren sich der Kenning
um so mehr, als sie sich vom Wortsinne entfernen. Das
ist besonders deutlich, wenn in dem Grundwort ein
Vergleich vorliegt wie bei b 1 a k k r b j ö r r, Blut oder
der geistlichen Umschreibung heilagt b 1 ö mquot;
(p. 3). One can, however, hardly imagine phrases
in which the figurative sense differs more from the
literal meaning than in b 1 a k k r b j ö r r, d r j ü p r
salr and heilagt blom. The question may be
asked to what degree the meaning of such phrases must
differ from the literal sense of the words before one is
justified in classing them as kenningar.

The above statement of Meissner is also misleading
in so far as it conveys the impression that the component
parts of every kenning must necessarily consist
of words used in a figurative sense, which is not
always the case. From a mythological point of
view, phrases like Baleygs bruSr (Earth)
I. 6, 1, 48, and orms einbani (Thor) Hym. 22, 3
are literally true. Yet these phrases may be regarded

In spite of his objection to these phrases consisting of an
adjective and a substantive, Meissneu afterwards includes some
of them in his lists of kenningar. Thus heilagt b 1 6 m is
given as a kenning for the Virgin, p. 424.

as kenningar in so far as they are used in a speciahzed
sense. The basic words b r ü Ö r, and e i n b a n i
have become narrowed or specialized in meaning.
Instead of the general meanings quot;br^JbhfiF-quot; and j—td^ tnV«.
quot;single-handed slayerquot; they have come to refer to
a particular person or object. This specialized use of
these words is based on some relation, real or imagined,
between basic word and determinant. The statement,
that a kenning is a phrase used in a figurative sense, is
therefore only partly true, as it does not hold good for
all cases. The specialization of words, and not their
figurative use, forms the characteristic feature of
mythological kenningar. Generally speaking, it would
therefore be more correct to regard kenningar as words
and phrases used in a figurative or a specialized, as
opposed to the literal or general sense of such words
and phrases. Here, no doubt, one is faced by the difficulty
of determining whether such words and phrases are to
be taken in a figurative, a specialized or in a literal
sense, i. e. as kenningar or not: quot;Verbindungen, in denen
beide Bestandteile nach ihrem Wortsinne (als ükend
setning) zu nehmen sind und bei denen die durch
einfache Verbindung im Wortsinn entstehende Vor-
stellung so für den Zusammenhang wesentlich ist, sind
also an sich keine Kenningar, können aber im Zusammen-
hange dazu werden. Wird z.B. jartJar sonr für
Thor, B c 1 j a d o I g r für Freyr oder F li f n i s b a n i
für Sigurd in einem Zusammenhange gebraucht, in dem
dieses Verhältnis nicht unmittelbar von Bedeutung ist,
so haben wir eine Kenning____Was man hier Umschrei-

bung, was Kenning nennen will, ist schliesslich Sache der
Übereinkunft, denn nicht in allen Fällen lässt sich sagen,
ob die Verbindung der beiden Glieder für den Zusammen-
hang im Wortsinne zu nehmen istquot; i). However, while
some cases will ever remain open to dispute and lend
themselves to various interpretations, a study of the
context will, in the majority of instances, assist the
student in deciding whether an expression is to be taken
in a literal or a figurative sense.

A good example of this is found in Baldrs draumar:
Balder has had an evil dream; the Aesir are gathered to
discuss the dream and its portent. Odin goes to Hell to
consult the vglva (sibyl). There he finds preparations
afoot in anticipation of some new arrival. He asks for
whom these preparations are being made and is informed
that they are for Baldr who is about to enter the abode
of the dead.

Odin replies:

8.nbsp;pegiattu, vglva! Jjik vil ek fregna,
unz all kunna, vil ek enn vita:
hverr man Baldri at bana veröa
ok ÖÖins son aldri raena?

The Vglva:

9.nbsp;HgtJr berr havan hröörbarm t)inig:
hann man Baldri at bana veröa
ok ÖÖins son aldri raena.
NauÖug sagöak, nu mun ek l)egia.

Meissner, p. 13 f.

Odin:

10.nbsp;pegiattu, vglva! etc.

hverr man heipt HeSi hefnt of vinna
eSa Baldrs bana a bdl vega?

The Vglva:

11.nbsp;Rindr berr Vdla i vestrsQlom:

[sA man OSins sonr einnaettr vega,]
hgnd um Jjvaera, ne h^fuS kembir,
a«r d bdl um berr Baldrs andskota. i)

In the above strophes Hod is successively spoken of
as Baldrs bani and Baldrs andskoti.
Supposing, that this were the only place in Old Norse
poetry where the expressions Baldrs bani and
Baldrs andskoti are used as synonyms for Hod,
then one would hardly have been justified in regar-
ding them as kenningar, since the context explains,
not only the meaning of these phrases, but also how
they come to have such a meaning.

The sequence is Hg\'Sr — Baldrs bani —
Baldrs andskoti. As far as Baldrs draiiniar is
concerned, one can therefore at the most regard Baldrs
bani and Baldrs andskoti as variations for
Hod, but not as kenningar.

As this is the only place in Old Norse poetry where
the phrase Baldrs bani occurs, Meissner is
quite justified in excluding it from his list of kenningar.

Edda cd. Gustav Neckel, Heidelberg, 1914, p. 274—5.
Unless otherwise stated, all references arc to this edition.

A study of the following two strophes of the
Vqluspa, however, leads one to the conclusion that
the phrase Baldrs andskoti must be taken
as a kenning:

32.nbsp;Var6 af Jjeim meitSi, er m^r syndiz,
harmflaug hsettlig: HgtSr nam skiota.
Baldrs broSir var of borinn snemma,
sa nam, CSins sonr, einnaettr vega.

33.nbsp;p6 hann asva hendr ne hgfuS kembSi,
dtSr d bal um bar Baldrs andskota;
en Frigg um gret i Fensglom

vd Valhallar — vitoS ^r enn, etSa hvat?

Here it is not at all obvious from the text that Baldrs
andskoti refers to Hod, and it would have been
difficult, if not impossible, to make sense out of the
passage if it had not been for what is known from else-
where about Balder and Hod. The poet evidently takes
it for granted that the reader knows who Baldrs
andskoti is, and therefore deems it unnecessary to
enter into details. Hence his rather sudden transition
from the one to the other. One must therefore conclude
that Baldrs andskoti is not an occasional
phrase employed as a variation, but an expression
which has come to be generally recognized as a second
name or kenning for Hod. As such, this phrase may be

1) Edda p. 8.

substituted for the proper noun, Hod, even if it is not
clear from the context that Baldrs andskoti
and Hod are one and the same.

On the other hand, I am disinclined to accept as
kenningar the majority of phrases classed by Bode under
the heading: Kenningar flit Personen, and especially
those expressing a relationship, such as S c y 1 d e s
e a f e r a (Beowulf) and beam Healfdenes
(Heregär) As far as their composition is concerned,
such phrases correspond to the most typical form of the
kenning, namely, a compound or a phrase consisting of
two substantives. Meissner has, however, pointed out
that all such compound nouns and phrases are not
necessarily kenningar. He distinguishes between quot;freie
Verbindungenquot; and Kenningar: quot;Nicht jede Verbindung
zweier Substantive, auch wenn sie eine einheitliche
Vorstellung bezeichnet, ist eine Kenning. Die Skalden-
dichtung kennt natürlich freie Verbindungen, die sich
nicht den typischen Gruppen der Kenningar zuweisen
lassen. Allerdings ist es hier schwer eine Grenze zu ziehen.
yVesentlich für die Kenning ist, dass sie als Ersatz emp-
funden zvird^) und als solcher etwas allgemeingültiges,
typisches, variables hatquot; (p. 12). Of the above quota-
tion the concluding sentence, especially the italicized
part, is most important and may, in my opinion, be
I\'ogarded as the touchstone of the kenning. The most
characteristic difference between the kenning and the

Bode, p. 88 ff.
The italics are mine.

variation is embodied in this statement of Meissner.
The variation is an expression added to another term
for explanatory reasons or purposes of emphasis. This is
not the case with the kenning. It is not an auxiUary
term placed in apposition to another, but a substitute
for that term itself which, accordingly, does not appear
at all in the sentence. For this reason patronymics such
as Scyldes eafera and beam Healfdenes
cannot be regarded as kenningar. For not only do they
consist of words employed in their usual or Uteral sense,
but a study of the places where they occur, also shows
that they are never used by themselves as designations
for the persons to whom they refer, unless it is perfectly
clear from the context who is to be understood by them.
Instead they are employed as explanatory phrases placed
in apposition to the proper name. Characteristic of them
is their strong adjectival function:

Beowulf wa;s breme — blad wide sprang —
Scyldes eafera, Scedelandum in (1. 18—19).

Da waes Heregar dead,
min yldra maig unlifigende,

beam Healfdenes; se waes betera Sonne ic (1.467—\'9).

In both of the above instances the proper names
quot;Beowulfquot; and quot;Heregarquot; are accompanied, but not
supplanted, by the phrases Scyldes eafera and
beam Healfdenes. Here Scyldes eafera
is not used to introduce the hero Beowulf, but is added
to the proper name as a qualifying phrase with the
express purpose of telling the hearer something more

about Beowulf, namely, that he was the son of Scyld.
Taking a more simple example, such as: quot;John, the son
of Henry,quot; one would not be justified, strictly speaking,
in regarding quot;the son of Henryquot; as another name for
quot;Johnquot;. The phrase quot;John, the son of Henryquot; is equiva-
lent to quot;John, who is the son of Henryquot;. And as long
as the phrase quot;the son of Henryquot; can not supplant but
only accompany the proper name, it can not be regarded
as a kenning. This, of course, does not exclude the
possibility that after a time such phrases may become
sufficiently clear in themselves to replace the usual or
literal word. Thus, the poet may begin by using the
whole phrase Beowulf, Scyldcs eafera. After
it has been used a sufficient number of times, it will no
longer be necessary to repeat the whole phrase, the
second part Scyldes eafera being understood
by all to refer to Beowulf. When such a stage is arrived
at, the phrase Scyldes eafera has gone a long
way towards becoming a kenning. The final test would
be the use of this phrase in another poem where the name
quot;Beowulfquot; does not appear at all. As however Scyldes
eafera and similar patronymics, given by Bode, arc
used only in the Beowulf and the Nibelungen where it is
perfectly clear from the context to whom they refer, they
can not be regarded as kenningar. From this it appears
that the appositional word or phrase may develop into
a kenning. In the passages quoted above from Baldrs
Draumar and the Beowtdf, the phrases Baldrs
e i n b a n i and Scyldes eafera are variations
of the proper nouns quot;Hodquot; and quot;Beowulf, and form,

as such, an intermediate stage between the li k e n d
setning and the kenning, into the latter of
which they may develop. In fact, in my opinion the
origin of the kenning must be sought for in its earlier
use as variation, when it could accompanj\'^, but not
replace, the usual name. In the chapter on Kenning and
Variation I shall return to this statement.

What has been said in connection with patronymics,
applies also to the following groups, given by Bode as
kenningar: geboren werden, leben, sterben, gehen nnd
sonstige Bewegungen, reden, schweigen, anf Erden.
It seems to me best to exclude such expressions and to
take the kenning as applying onl}\'- to such words and
phrases as are used to express substantival conceptions.
In this sense the word was employed by Snorri and
succeeding writers, and there appears to be no reason
why the term should be extended so as to include also
substitutes for verbs and adverbs. The above groups
can be included only on the assumption that the kenning
comprises all more or less uncommon synonymical
expressions. From what has been said in the previous
pages, I trust, however, that it has become sufficiently
clear that such a view can not be maintained. On the
other^ hand I have pointed out that many of the mytho-
logical kenningar contain no figurative language. (Cf.
Baldrs andskoti (Hod), Orms einbani
(Thor). Furthermore, it is not obvious why Bode, while
giving these groups, excluded others of a similar nature.
If such phrases as w a c a n (to be bom), w o r u 1 d e
b r u c a n (to live), 11 f o f 1 ic t a n (to die), s t r S t e

m e t a n (to go), vvordhord onlucan (to
speak), hordcofan healdan (to be silent),
under vv o 1 c n u m (on earth) are regarded as
kenningar, then there seems to be no reason why others,
like the following, should not be included as such: o r d
forbygan Wid. 48, meodosetla ofteon
Beo. 5 (to defeat), drihten secean Beo. 187
(to go to heaven), manna C e a r f w e s a n Beo. 201
(to be in distress), h se 1 s c e a vv i a n Beo. 204 (to
contemplate success), last weardian Beo. 971
(to remain behind). The few examples given by me may
be amplified by many more. A study of Bode\'s intro-
ductory remarks, however, leads one to the conclusion
that he himself was not prepared to include all such
phrases as kenningar. Not only does he speak of quot;sub-
stantivische Umschreibungen in der altnordischen
Poetikquot; (p. 7), which he calls quot;Kenningarquot;, but in his
whole exposition of the subject the reader gets the
impression that Bode is discussing the kenning as the
name of an object, and not of an action, or as an adjunct
of place.

As a substitute for a noun, the kenning has a
substantival function in the sentence. For this reason
compounds and phrases which are used predicatively,
adverbially or adjectivally can not be regarded as
kenningar. Thus, in the following passages from the
Lokasenna, the expressions F i y r g y n s m a: r, v q r S r
g o 5 a, and B y g g v i s k v ae n are not kenningar for
Frigg, Heimdall and Beyla, although, as far as their form
is concerned, they answer to the most typical kenning:

26. Pegi J)ü, Frigg! t)ü ert Fi^rgyns mEer
ok hefir se vergigrn verit.

48. pegi JDÜ, Heimdallr! . . .

aurgo baki pü munt ae vera
ok vaka vgr^r goöa.

56. pegi lïü, Beyla! pü ert Byggvis kvaen,
ok meini blandin migk.

Similarly, in the following quotations, handgeweorc
heofoncyninges, gehyld manna and
mundbora can not be regarded as kenningar for
Eve, God and Christ:

Dä gieng tö Adame idesa scênost,
wïfa wUtegost, Se on woruld cöme:
fort5on hëo wses handgeweorc heofoncyninges.

Gm. 626—28.

Hè is gehyld manna. Beo. 3056.

Ac ic weorSige wuldres ealdor,
middangeardes ond m£egen^5rymnies,
ond him änum to eal bi\'Sence,
\'Saït he mundbora min geweor^Je,
helpend ond hajlend wiï5 hellesceaSum.

Jul. 153—157.

As complements to the verb such phrases as
Figrgyns maer, Byggvis kvaïn, hand-
geweorc heofoncyninges, etc. have a

strong adjectival function. That part of strophe 48,
cited from the Lokasenna, is rightly translated by
ViGFUssoN and Powell i) as follows: quot;Hold thy peace,
Heimdall! . . . . Thou must ever stand with a wet back,
and wake as the Gods\' watchman.quot; From this it appears
that the function of vgrSr goSa is that of an
adverbial phrase of manner modifying v a k a. All the
expressions, instanced above, differ from the kenning
in that they are not used as designations to introduce
the conceptions to which they refer, but rather to tell
the hearer something about them. Furthermore, the
literal meanings of these words and phrases impress
themselves much more strongly on the conscious mind
than in the case of the kenning. Thus, when the poet
says of God: he is g e h y I d manna, then
g e h y 1 d manna does not stand for the conception
quot;Godquot;, but refers to one of the many ways in which
God may reveal Himself, namely, as a quot;Protection of
Menquot;. Not onl}\'- is the poet himself conscious of the
literal meanings of g e h y 1 d and manna, but also
desires his hearer to be so. In distinction to such phrases,
the kenning is a conventional compound or phrase,
generally consisting of two substantives the literal
meanings of which hardly enter the conscious mind.
Instead, such compounds and phrases immediately call
up in the mind the conceptions for which they are in-
tended.

G. ViGFUssoN and F. Y. Powell: Corpus Poelicum Borcale,
Oxford, 1883, I, 108.

The different elements of the compound or phrase
constituting the kenning may be compared with the
separate notes of a musical chord, the basic word of the
former corresponding to the dominant of the latter.
In the same way as the different notes merge to form
one volume or a unity of sound, in which the different
tones are hardly distinguishable, so the elements of the
kenning lose their separate meanings and fuse into a
semantic unity.

Meissner comes to a somewhat similar conclusion,
when, in discussing the kenningar and the quot;freie Verbin-
dungenquot;, he says (p. 14): quot;Krachen, Zusammenstossen der
Waffen ist eine echte Kenning, wenn die Verbindung
den Kampf schlechthin bezeichnet, umsomehr als Ken-
ning empfunden, je weniger der eigentliche Inhalt der
Verbindung für den Zusammenhang wesentlich ist. Aber
die Dichter können auf diesen eigentlichen Inhalt mehr
oder weniger hindeuten, durch Epitheta oder die Satz-
fügung :

Pä var eggja at
ok odda gnat. 32, 9, 2.

remma rimmu gloSir

randa grand of jarli. II, 77, 57, 8,

var dra ymr

ok jarna glymr (hier nicht Kampf).

IL Hu. 1, 27, 2.quot;

The question to be settled in each case is whether the
poet wishes to direct the reader\'s attention to the literal

contents of such expressions or not. Thus the Old Norse
poet speaks of Christ as sannr hjalpari manna.
II, 585, 13, 2.

If sannr is represented by A, hjalpari by B,
and manna by C, then the question arises whether
the phrase sannr hjalpari manna is to be
regarded as A (B C) or as A B C. In other words,
does sannr qualify the whole phrase hjalpari
manna or only one of its elements, hjalpari?
Does sannr hjalpari manna accordingly mean
the quot;true G o dquot; or the quot;true helper (of men)quot;?
In the first case hjalpari manna would be a
kenning, in the second a quot;freie Verbindungquot;. This
question can not always be decided definitely. However
helpful the above considerations may be, they can not
be regarded as the acid test for the kenning proper. In
many instances it is impossible to decide, with any
amount of certainty, whether an expression is to be
taken as a kenning or not. In such cases the final decision
will have to depend on personal views and conside-
rations.

In view of this uncertainty I have included in the list
of Anglo-Saxon kenningar (Chap. Ill) expressions which,
perhaps, would have been better left out. To prevent
misunderstanding, I may state that the fact that an
expression appears in the list is not to be taken as a
proof of my regarding it as a kenning. The variation is
not a kenning in the narrowest sense of the word, and
yet the list contains many words and phrases which are
found as variations only. Furthermore I have included

a phrase like gehyld manna Beo, 3056, although,
as has been pointed out, I do not regard it as a kenning
for God. That these and similar expressions are included
is due, in the first place, to the difficulty of definitely
deciding whether they are kenningar or not. In my
endeavour to make the list of kenningar as complete as
possible I have also included a few disputable instances
and thus left it to the decision of the reader. Secondly,
variations have also been included, for, as will be shown
in the chapter. Kenning and Variation, these expressions
are valuable and instructive as showing the lines along
which a word or phrase may develop into a kenning.
They may be regarded as representing the kenning in an
intermediate stage of its development. For the rest, the
Anglo-Saxon kenningar have been collected and arranged
according to the conceptions which they express. The
expressions for each conception have in turn been grouped
according to their form. In each of the subdivisions so
obtained, the kenningar have been arranged in the
alphabetic order of the basic words. Here, as in all other
instances, I Iiave proceeded from the point of view that
a study of the kenning should concern itself primarily
with the meaning and function of words, and only in the
second place with their form. Thus, where compound
words were no longer felt as such, I considered myself
justified in regarding them as simple words. What has
been said by Krackow in connection with nominal com-
pounds in general, also applies to the kenning in parti-
cular: quot;Nicht um lautliche oder etymologische Mehr-
gliedrigkeit handelt es sich hier, sondern um begriffliche;

um solche Cpp. zu denen der Redende dem Hörer
nur zwei Wörter als Material gibt, aus denen sich der
letztere den gemeinten Begriff selbst zu kombinieren
hatquot; As a rule a word of which the first or the second
element is a prefix or a suffix, has not been considered
to be a compound.

Here again, however, different writers may hold
different opinions, especially in the case of those forms
which are employed not only as prefixes and suffixes,
but which are preserved also as separate and independent
words in the language, such as lac, lie and w e a r d.
When such forms are to be regarded as suffixes and
when as independent words forming the second elements
of compounds, is a question to which a final answer
can not always be given. From the following examples it
appears that the same word may form either the second
element of a compound or a suffix. Thus b e a d u 1 ä c
Beo. 1561, siragis actio] w y r m 11 c Wand. 88, serpentis
corpus and h o r d w e a r d Beo. 2293, thesauri custos
arc compounds, but in w 11 e 1 ä c Gen. 2554, supplicium;
h e t e 1 i c Beo. 1267, odiosus and i n n a n w e a r d
Beo. 1976, intus, the forms lac. He and weard
are word-forming elements or suffixes.

Similarly forms, in which assimilation has taken place
between the two elements or in which the vowels of the
second element have undergone a weakening, are not
regarded as compounds. In a word like 1 ä 11 C o w lt;

\') O. Krackow, Die Nomimlcomposiia als Kunstmitlcl im
(illciigl. Epos, Berlin dissert. 1903, p. 2.

1 ä d - Ö e o w the assimilation pleads for the comparative
antiquity of the compound and points to the likelihood
that it was no longer felt as such. In the same way the
weakening of the vowels in the second element of a
compound could have taken place only after that element
had lost its secondary stress and this, in turn, could have
happened only after the compound had ceased to be felt
as such. Apart from other sound-laws which might have
operated in a word like h 1 ä f o r d, the process may,
as far as the stress is concerned, be represented as follows:
hläf w e a r d gt; h 1 ä f - w amp; a r d gt; h 1 ä f w e a r d gt;
h 1 ä f o r d.

In conclusion, the following is still to be noted in
connection with the Anglo-Saxon kenningar as given in
the following chapter: For each word or phrase only one
reference has been given. As far as the Beowulf is con-
cerned the references are to the 2nd. edn. of this poem
by W. J. Sedgefield, Manchester, 1913. For the rest
all references are to C. W. M. Grein\'s Bibliothek der
Angelsächsischen Poesie, Göttingen, 1857; 2nd. edn. by
Richard P. Wülcker, Pt. I Kassel, 1883, Pts. II amp; III
Leipzig, 1894—1898. All abbreviations of the titles of the
different poems are the same as those employed by
Grein in his Angelsächsischer Sprachschatz, 2nd. edn.
by J. J. Köhler, Heidelberg, 1912. The letter 8 is used
for both Ö and J) of the text. An asterisk is prefixed to
words and phrases not given by Bode. Where the whole
conception has been omitted by him, the asterisk is
prefixed to the title only, thus quot;Clouds.

And lastly, in phrases like e a 1 I e s folces f r u m a,

eal Ira cyninga cyning, heah hordes
w e a r d etc., I have enclosed the words e a 11 e s,
ealira, heah etc. in brackets, as it is not certain
whether they form a part of the kenning itself, or are
merely used for purposes of emphasis.

CHAPTER in.
The Anglo-Saxon Kenningar.

EARTH.

One word.

grund Gloria 39; *hwyrft Dan. 320.

Compounds.

a. Subst. -f Subst.: *tS6os deatSdenu Cri. 344; eardgeard
Wand. 85; Öeodland Cri. 306; quot;grundsceat Cri. 42;
grundwseg And. 582; *grundwang Beo. 2588; eoröweg
El. 1015; foldweg And. 206; moldweg Jul. 334.

ß. Adj. Subst.: middaneard Sal. 165; middangeard
Gen. 136; brytengrund Cri. 357; yrmengrund Beo. 859;
*brytenwongas Cri. 380.
y. Prep. Subst.: ymbhwyrft El. 730.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: fajder ealdgeweorc Metr. XX, 16
frean ealdgeweorc Metr. XI, 40; burga gesetu Cri. 1240
*fira modor Zaub. I, 67; gumena rice Metr. IX, 41
*secga sitl Metr. IX, 41; quot;eodora ymbhwyrft Jul. 113.

ß. Adj. Subst.: se beorhta bosm Pan. 7; *öeos
Särge denu Ps. LXXXIII, 6; frod fyrngeweorc Ph. 84;
Seos läne gesceaft Sal. 326; ÖCos side gesceaft Sal. 368;

se ginna grund Wid. 51; se ruma grund Gen. 213; se
siSa grund Gen. 134; se wida grur^d Dan. 301; rume
rice Gen. 1790; Ses gr§na wong Rd. XLI, 83; se wlite-
beorhta wong Beo. 93.

SEA.

One word.

*grund And. 393, *holm Beo. 1914.

Bode does not give holm. As the word is employed
only in poetry in this sense, I consider myself justified
in regarding it as a kenning for quot;seaquot;. In prose it is
invariably used in its original sense of island. Cf. O. N.
h o I m r which means an island or a duel, the latter
from the fact that duels were generally fought on islands.

Compounds.

«. Subst. 4- Subst.: seolhbaj^5 Rd XI, 11; argeblond
(ear-) Aitelst. 26, And. 383; *y5geblond Beo. 1593;
lagufaesten El. 249; *saifiEsten Ex. 127; *Wffigholm Beo.
217; hronrad Beo. 10; seglrad Beo. 1429; swanrad Beo.
200; garsecg Beo. 49; fifelstream Metr. XXVI, 26;
firgenstrCam Ph. 100; fyrnstrSamas Waif. 7; »holmtSracu
Beo. 217; seolhwatS And. 1716; fifelwag EL 237; baiSweg
El. 244; ♦flodweg Ex. 106; »flotweg Bot. 41; •(h)w.xlweg
Seef. 63; arwela And. 855.

^ r- in a r g e b 1 o n d and arwela = ear (sea)
and not quot;oarquot; as Bode thinks.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: fisces bae« And. 293; ganotes baeö
Beo. 1861; flöda begang Beo. 1497; *gärsecges begang
And. 530; *holma begang And. 195; sioleöa begong
Beo. 2367; fifelcynnes eard Beo. 104; fisces ëöel Dom.
Dceg. 39; hwseles ëöel And. 21A; mäwes êöel Boi. 25;
yöa ful Beo. 1208; wa«ema gebind Wand. 24; ärySa
geblond And. 532; fifela gefeald Wald. II, 10; sealtyöa
geläc See/. 35; yöa geläc Klage 7; *holma gelagu Seef. 64;
yïSa geong Bot. 40; flöda genip Beo. 2808; *holma
geöring Beo. 2132; waetera geöring Edg. B. 27; *y«a
geSring And. 368; yöa gewealc Edg. B. 25; wSges welm
El. 230; flödes wylm Beo. 1764.

ß. Adj. Subst.: sëo fealu flöd Beo. 1050; dëop geläd
And. 190; se ginna grund Beo. 1551; *hrëo hrycg Cri. 859.
y. Subst. Participial Phrase: eoröe yöum Öeaht

Rä XVII, 3.

The noun w act er as well as the waeter-compounds,
some ol which are given by Bode, have been omitted.
They are too literal and are employed in this sense in
prose as well as in poetry.

W ä g f a t u 7?ä IV, 37 and 1 a g u s t r ë a m a ful
Rä IV, 38, given by Bode under this heading, I regard
as kenningar for quot;Cloudsquot;.

•SHORE, STRAND.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: ySläf Beo. 566; bordstae« And. 442;
strëamstffiÖ Gen. 1434; strëamweall Gen. 1494.

ICE.

Compounds.

a. Subst. -f Subst.: wasterhelm Dksp. II, 74; walrap
Beo. 1610.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: forstes bend Beo. 1609; *forstes
fetor Dksp. II, 76.

Rime and frost are also spoken of as h i 1 d s t a p a n.
(hildstapa = qui hostiliter incedit — Gr.): h r i m
and forst, hare hildstapa n, haeleSa et5el
lucon And. 1257 f.

♦SNOW.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: wintergewsde Ph. 250.
Cf. w i n t e r g e w e o r p Ph. 57 = snow-storm.

•CLOUDS.

One word.

bale Ex. 73; blace Ra IV, 52; segl Ex. 89.
Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: wtegfatu Ra IV, 37; hloSgecrod
Ra IV, 63; lyfthelm Ex. 60.

Phrases.

a. Subst. H- Subst.: Iagustr5ama full Rd IV, 38;
lyfte helm Rd IV, 64; da;gscealdes hleo Ex. 79.

Adj. Subst.: halig net Ex. 74; scrlCende scin
Rd IV, 53.

•LIGHTNING.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst. : rynegiest Rä IV, 58.

SUN.

One word.

*bëacen Ph. 107; gim Men. 109; lëoht Beo. 569.
Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst. : daegcondel And. 835 ; heofoncondel
And. 243; merecondel Metr. XIII, 57; sweglcondel Ph.
108; wedercondel And. 372; woruldcondel Beo. 1965;
heofonlêoma And. 838; dœgsceald Ex. 79; wedertäcen
Gu. 1267; wuldorgimm Rä LXXXIV, 25.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: (beorht) bëacen godes Beo. 570;
wederes bläst And. 837; godes condel Ph. 91; rodores
condel Beo. 1571; folca friöcondel Gen. 2539; faeder
fyrngeweorc Ph. 95 ; heofones gim Ph. 183 ; swegles gim
Ph. 208; wuldres gim Ph. 117; swegles lëoht Ph. 288;
lêohtes lëoma Ph. 116; swegles lëoma Ph. 103; *tâcen
godes Ph. 96; .swegles täpur Ph. 114; aeöeltunga wyn
Ph. 290; heofones wyn Beo. 1801; wyncondel wera
Gu. 1186.

ß. Adj. Subst.: «is lëohte beorht Sch. 59; sëo aeÖele
gesceaft ^^elst. 16; se aeöela glœm Gu. 1252; quot;hador
heofontungol Metr. XXII, 24; »lëoht lëoma Jud. 191;
•mœre tungol Jßtelst. 14; *forÖmäre tungol Sch. 69.

y. Adj. Part. Gen.: »beacna beorhtost And. 242;
•gimma gladost Ph. 289; »faegerust lëohta Men. 114;

*Ieohta mffist Gu. 1256; *m£erost tungla Ph. 119; *tungla
torhtast Men. 111.

The following expressions are used for the sun and
moon : *ae6elast tungla Cri. 607; *h a 1 g e
g i m m a s Cri. 692; *haedre heofontungol
Cri. 693; *m i c e 1 1 e o h t f a t u Ps. CXXXV, 7.

•MOON.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: lyftfset Rd XXX, 3.

•DARKNESS.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: nihthelm Beo. 1789, El. 78.

STARS.

Compounds.

o. Subst. Subst.: *godgim El. 1113; heofoncondel
Sch. 54; *heofonhyrst Gen. 2189.

MORNING STAR.

Compounds.

«. Prep. Subst.: forrynel Metr. XXIX, 25.
HEAVEN.

One word.

♦ceaster Sat. 657; »burg Cri. 530; *eard Sat. 93;
•rice Gew. 749; »seld Sat. 173; »wuldor Dan. 367.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: friCgeard Cri. 399; sceldburg Sat.
309; •maegen^rym Ph. 665; \'wuldorgesteald Gen. 64;

*heofonham Cri. 293; *heofonrIce Cn. 1260; *e8elsta3olas
Gen. 94; *eadwela Gu. 1064.

Adj. vSubst.: *cynest6l Sat. 298.
y. Prep. Subst.: upeard Gu. 1051.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: *tires blsed Cri. 122; wuldres burg
Ph. 588; godes ealdorburg Rd LX, 15; engla eard Mod.
74; *wuldres eard Cri. 1203; *engla etSel Cri. 630;
♦fseder eSel Gu. 773; wuldres eSel Rd LXVII, 7; »faeder
eSelstol Cri. 516; *meotodes gesceaft Dksp. I, 65;
sigefolca gesetu Dksp. I, 66; *heofona ham Ph. 483;
*engla rice EL 1230; *godes rice Gu. 632; *rodera rice
Gu. 764; *^5eodnes tSrySgesteald Cri. 354; neorxna wang
Men. 151; *wuldres wlite Sat. 233; woruld worulda And.
1686; wuldres wynlond Mod. 65.

Adj. Subst.: se beorhta boldwela And. 524
*seo halge burg Gu. 784; •beorhte burhweallas Sat. 295
*ece dream Ph. 482; ece eadwela El. 1315; ece eard Cri
1046; »«ffit uplic eSelrice And. 120; »ece geard Gu. 763
*g6dlice geardas Gen. 740; seo miere gesceaft Meir. XX
281; *se aeSela ham Cri. 350; »«es gadiga ham Sat. 660
•se betra ham Gu. 626; «se bliSa ham Ph. 599; quot;se
clffina ham And. 978; * se deora ham Sal. 219; *se
gca ham Cri. 305; se glada ham Ph. 593; quot;se halga ham
Cri. 1675; *heofonHc ham Kreuz. 148; quot;se leohta ham
Gu. 806; *se mSra ham A^id. 227; *sigefaESt ham Men.
150; •trumlicham Sal. 294; ♦uplic ham Sat. 362; •hyhtlic
heofontimber Gen. 146; ♦gee rice Men. 224; ♦heah ice
Gen. 545; ♦«ffit sglle rice Sch. 102; ♦upcund rice Sch. 34;

sîo scire scell Metr. XX, 174; *hëah seld Sat. 202;
*sweg(e)ltorhtan seld Gen. 95; wïdbràd wela Gen. 643.

y. Subst. Prepositional Phrase: *hàm in hëahtJu
Gu. 768.

ô. Adj. -f Part. Gen. : *earda sëlost Vater Unser III, 74.

HELL.

One word.

•festen Walf. 71; grund Sat. 269; grundas Sat. 134;
mortSer Gen. 342; *neowolnes El. 942; «rice Gen. 289;
*wîte Jul. 631 ; »wracu Gen. 71 ; ♦wylm El. 765.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *fyrba;6 El. 948; niobed Gen. 343;
*witebrôga El. 931; *bealuclam Hô. 65; *hellegrund Cri.
265; «hinsiegryre Hô. 91; *helheo6o Sat. 700; grornhof
Jul. 324; heolstorhof El. 763; morîSerhof El. 1303;
sûslhof Glaub. 31; *hellehûs Gu. 649; mânhûs Ex. 535;
mortSorhûs Cri. 1625; wîtehûs Cri. 1536; »fyrloca .Sat. 58;
hearmloca Gen. 9; »nlSloca Hô. 64; *wrà«scrœf Rà XLI,
41; wïtescrœf Sfl/. 691; dëatSsele Cri. 1537; windsele Sat.
320; wyrmsele Jud. 119; wrœcstôw Gen. 90; wearhtrafu
El. 927; edwylm = âdwylm Walf. 63.
/S. Adj. Subst.: cwicsûsl Cri. 561.

Phrases.

«. Subst. -f Subst.: *«es festa clam Gen. 408; *fëonda
burg Jul. 545; sûsla grund El. 943; *wylmes grund El.
1299; •belle hâm Sat. 88; sûsla hûs Cri. 1604; »liges

loca Cri. 1621; *scea\'6ena scraef Sat. 633; *wrât5ra wîc
Cri. 1535.

Adj. Subst.: *Sâs dëopan dalu Gen. 421; «aet
hâta dael Cri. 1542; *neowoI genip Sat. 446; *uncQ\'5 eard
Cri. 1418; *ëset engesta ë^elrice Sal. 106; *sëo mirce
gesceaft Dmn. Dœg. 26; *grim graefhûs Sat. 708; se
bitera grund Sat. 149; se calda grund Sat. 637; se hâta
grund Sat. 485; se neowla grund Sat. 31 ; *Ses atola hâm
Sat. 96; *se dimma hâm Sat. Ill; se enga hâm Jul. 323;
se heolstra hâm Jud. 121; *haeft hâm Sat. 148; se lâtSa
hâm Sat. 178; se rëonga hâm Jul. 530; se «ystra hâm
Jid. 683; *ëes wâlica hâm Sat. 100; *wr3eclic hâm Gen.
37; *ëaet rœdlëase hof Gen. 44; *neo\\vel naes Jud. 113;
*Sget atole scraif Sat. 26; *ëce scrœf Ex. 537; *tSœt hâte
scrsef Sat. 419; *Saet lâtSe scraef Sat. 727; *se neowla
scraef Jul. 684; se dëopa sëatJ Cri. 1545; *se wëriga sele
Sat. 332; *Ses aenga stede Gen. 356; tJœl swearte sûsl G«.
639; wœlceald wïc Sal. 468; *wïc unsyfre And. 1310;
*grundlêas wylm Walf. 46; *hât wylm El. 1296.
y. Adj. Part. Gen.: *landa sweartost Gen. iS7.

•PRISON.

One word.

Clam Metr. I, 83.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: clûstorcleofa And. 1021; nydcleofa
Jul. 240; mort5orcofa And. 1004; nëadcofa And. 1309;
gnornhof And. 1008; hearmloca And. 1029; heolstorloca
And. 1005; hlinrcEced And. 1463.

Phrases.

a. Adj. Subst.: dim hoi Metr. II, 1.

FISH.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: brimhlaest Gen. 200; *sundhw£et
Waif. 57.

Subst. Ptc. : *Iagusvvimmend Sal. 289.
Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: holmes hlaest Gen. 1515.
WHALE.

One word.

•se àglœca Waif. 52.

Compounds.

«. Subst. Subst.: mereweard Waif. 53; •waiterCisa
Waif. 50.

Phrases.

«. Subst. 4- Subst.: garsecges gajst IValf. 29; fyrn-
streama geflota Waif. 7.

•FALCON, HAWK.

One word.

se waelisca Wyrd. 90.

Compounds.

«. Subst. Subst.: heoruswealwe Wyrd. 86.

RAVEN.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: wselcêasiga Ex. 164; lyftsceaöa
Wyrd. 39; *herefugol Ex. 161.

Herefugol Ex. 161 may be a kenning for quot;eaglequot;.

EAGLE.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: güöfugol Rà XXV, 5; *gûÔhafoc

JE\'SelsL 64.

CUCKOO.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: sumeres weard Seef. 54.

WOLF.

One word.

se gregga Dksp. II, 151.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: mearcweard Ex. 168.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: *holtes gehlêöa El. 113.
/?. Adj. Subst.: *earm ânhaga Dksp. I, 19; dëor
cwyldrôf Ex. 166; quot;«set grœge dëor /Etelst. 64; hâr
hϔJstapa Wyrd. 13.

AUROCHS (URUS).

Phrases.

a. Adj. Subst. : mœre mörstapa Run. 6.

STAG.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: hœSstapa Beo. 1368.

THE HUMAN BODY.

I have not distinguished between the hving body and
the corpse. Bode has already remarked that some of the
following kenningar may refer to the cadaver.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst. : feorhbold Kreuz. 73 ; bäncofa Beo.
1446; bänfset Beo. 1116; eorÖfiet Red. der Seel. I, 8;
lâmfœt Red. der Seel. II, 134; lîcfaet Gu. 1063; ëadorgeard
And. 1181; *eaIdorgeard And. 1183; •selegescot Cri.
1481; fliêschama And. 154; lichama Beo. 812; »gästhof
Cri. 821; »feorhhord And. 1182; grëothord Gu. 1240;
sâwelhord IVyrd. 34; bânhûs Beo. 3148; feorhhûs Beo.
297; sâwelhûs Gu. 1003; bânloca Beo. 742; bânsele
Dôm. Dœg. 102.

Feorhhord, which Bode gives as a kenning for
quot;breastquot;, I have taken up here because of the parallel
expression ëadorgeard; cf. IStaÖ Iren ecgheard
ëadorgeard sceoran, fœges feorhhord.
And. 1181 f.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: gœstes hûs Gu. 774.
ß. Adj. Subst.: »«œt fœge hûs El. 880; *leomo
lœmena Cri. 15.

Bode erroneously regards 1 ä m e n as a kenning for
quot;bodyquot;. It occurs only in this instance and here as a
plural adjective qualifying the neuter noun 1 e o m o:
he fSaet hrä gesceop, leomo lämena Cri. 15.

The phrase leomo Ismena may therefore be
regarded as a kenning, but certainly not 1 ä m e n which
is only a determinant of the basic word leomo.

THE EYE.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: heafodgim Cri. 1331.

Phrases.

«. Subst. Subst.: *heafdes gim Gu. 1276; hgafdes
segl And. 50.

TEARS.

Compounds.

Subst. Subst.: hlgordropa Gu. 1315; waegdropa Gu.
1030; *wöpdropa = lamentationis gutta, Sal. 283;
heafodwylm EL 1132.

1 do not regard breostwylm Beo. 1877 as a
kenning for quot;tearsquot; as Grein does (Wtb. s.v. forberan).
With Bode I hold it to mean quot;breast-surgequot;, i. e. deep
emotion.

THOUGHT, MIND, HEART.

Bode regards these words and phrases as kenningar
for quot;Brust als Sitz der Seelequot; which is, strictly speaking,
not correct, as it conveys the impression that they arc

used as names for the quot;breastquot; itself, whereas they are
kenningar for the quot;mindquot; or quot;heartquot; which is conceived
as seated in the breast. They are all founded on the
conception of the breast as the seat of thought and
feeling, but not one of them is used for the single, specific
word quot;breastquot; itself.

One word.

•brëost Gti. 626; *hord Cri. 1048;incofaMe/r. XXII, 18.
Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst. : »ferhScleofa Ps. CXI, 2; brëostcofa
Wand. 18; *ferhScofa Ps. CVIII, 17; «gastcofa Leas. 13
hordcofa M\'^attd. 14; hreSercofa Cri. 1329; runcofa Meir
XXII, 59; »breosthord Beo. 1719; »modhord And. 172
brëostloca EL 1249; feorhloca Gu. 625; ferh«loca Meir
XXIV, 5; ferCloca Wand. 13; »fyrhSloca And. 58
gewitloca iVIetr. X, 12; *hordloca And. 671; hrei5erloca
EL 86; *wordloca And. 470; *heortscraEf Ddm. Dœg. 39.

Phrases.

Subst. -f- Subst.: heoroworda grund Fee. Larcw 84;
brCosta hord Gen. 1608; *hreCerlocena hord Cri. 1056.

SPEAR, JAVELIN AND ARROW.

One word.

œsc Beo. 1772; ord Beo. 1549; »sceaft (sceft) Beo. 3118.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *darot5aesc EL 140; sescholt Beo.
330; hildensedre Jud. 222; heresceaft Beo. 335; w^lsceaft
Beo. 398; *hildescur Gii. 1116; *isenscur Beo. 3116;
waelsteng Beo. 1638; campwudu EL 51; guSwudu
Finnsb. 6; maegenwudu Beo. 236; «recwudu Beo. 1246.

Campwudu 51 may be a kenning for quot;shieldquot;.

SWORD.

One word.

brand Beo. 1454; ecg Beo. 1524; iren (isen) Beo. 892;
isern Zaub. II, 14; laf Beo. 795; »maSm Rd LVI, 13.

L e o m a Beo. 1571 does not refer to sword, as Bode
thinks, but to the light which is mentioned earlier in the
poem, Beo. 1516.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: yrfelaf Beo. 1903; beadoleoma
Beo. 1523; hildeleoma Beo. 1143; hringmSl Beo. 1521;
guSwine Beo. 1810.

fi. Adj. Subst.: «brogdenmal (= brodenmSl) Beo.
1616; *sceadenmffil Beo. 1939; wundenmal Beo. 1531.

Maegenfultum Beo. 1455 cannot be regarded as
a kenning as is done by Bode.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: Welandes geweorc Wald. I, 2;
handweorc smiSa Rd. VI, 8; f6la laf Beo. 1032; homera
laf Beo. 2829.

/S. Adj. Subst.: *dêore mâôm Beo. 1528.

y. Adj. Part. Gen. : *mâÔma cyst Wald. I, 24 ; *irenna
cyst Beo. 802.

HELMET.

One word.

eofor Beo. 1328; «swyn? Beo. 1111.

If, as has been done by Bode, eofor Beo. 1112 is
taken as a kenning for quot;helmetquot;, then s w y n Beo. 1111
must also be regarded as such, as the two words are
clearly in apposition to each other:
£et Ôœm âde waes ëögesyne
swàtfâh syrce, swyn ealgylden
eofor ïrenheard. Beo. 1110 ff.

The difficulty is to determine whether s win and
eofor refer to the boar-image on the helmet only or
to the helmet as a whole. Only in the latter case would
one be justified in regarding them as kenningar. Similarly
c i n b e o r g Ex. ilb may be a pars pro toto, or it may
refer to the mentonnière or chin-piece only. The use of
the verb gespan nan points in favour of the latter
reading :

güöweard gumena grimhelm gespCon,
cyning cinberge. Ex. 174 f.

Compounds.

a. Subst. -f- Subst.: »cinbeorg Ex. 175; »heafodbeorg
Beo. 1030; eoforcymbol El. 76; beadogrlma Beo. 2257;
heregrlma Beo. 2049; wlgheafola Beo. 2661; quot;hSafodsegn
Beo. 2152.

Phrases.

a. Adj. Subst.: gylden grlma £1. 125.

CORSLET, COAT OF MAIL.

One word.

•hlence Ex. 218; »hraegl Beo. 454, 1195; *hring Beo.
1503; syrce Beo. 226.

Compounds.

«. Subst. Subst.: breostgewade Beo. 2162; *eorl-
gewffide Beo. 1442; *gu6gew£ede Beo. 227; *byrnhama
Wald. I, 17; fyrdhama Beo. 1504; goldhama El. 992
graeghama Finnsb. 6; *waelhlence Ex. 176; beadohraeg
Beo. 552; fyrdhrsegl Beo. 1527; hringloca By. 145
breostnet Beo. 1548; herenet Beo. 1553; hringnet Beo
2754; searonet Beo. 406; herepad Beo. 2258; hildesceorp
Beo. 2155; beaduscrud Beo. 453; *gutgt;scrud El. 258
beaduserce Beo. 21bb] heoruserce Beo. 2539; hildeserce
El. 234; heresyrce Beo. 1511; leotJusyrce Beo. 1505
licsyrce Beo. 550; heaSowad Beo. 39; herewad Beo. 1897.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: •jeSelinges rCaf Wald. B, 20.
Adj. Subst.: writSene waelhlenc El. 24.

Bode gives w I r a g e s p a n n El. 1134 as a kenning
for quot;corsletquot;. I have, however, omitted it as uncertain.

SHIELD.

One word.

•bord Beo. 2524; lind Beo. 2610; rand Beo. 682.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *gutSbord Gen. 2693; *hildebord
Beo. 397; *6ry6bord El. 151; *wigbord Beo. 2339;
hildefrofor Wald. II, 12; banhelm Finnsb. 31; hea^Solind
^Mst. 6; *bordrand Beo. 2559; hilderand Beo. 1242;
*bordwudu Beo. 1243; *holtwudu Beo. 2340.

Adj. Subst.: geolorand Beo. 438; siSrand Beo.
1289.

y. Prep. Subst.: oferholt Ex. 157.
Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: fingra gebeorg Dksp. I, 38; gu«billa
gripe Wald. II, 13.

BATTLE, FIGHT.

One word.

gehniESt Gen. 2015; *ni8 Beo. 2584; plega Gen. 1989;
•geslyht Beo. 2398.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: lindcroda Gen. 1998; earhfaru El.
44; cumbolgehnast jEMst. 49; *lindgelac Faia Ap. 16;
*gu«gem6t Gen. 2056; handgemot Beo. 1526; *torngemot
Beo. 1140; *billgeslyht .EMst. 45; svvyrdgeswing Jud.
240; waipengewrixle /EMst. 51; billhete And. 78;
cumbolhete? Jul. 637; ecghete Beo. 1738; •beadolac
Beo. 1561; garmitting JE^elsf. 50; garni« Dksp. 128
hereniC Beo. 2474; searoni« Beo. 582; spereni« Gen. 2059
tescplega217; ecgplega/«r/. 246; •guSplega By. 61
handplega Gen. 2057; •hearmplega Gen. 1989; lindplega

0

Beo. 2039; niSplega And. 414; secgplega And. 1353;
sweordplega Wald. 13; *wigplega By. 316; *garrss By.
32; hondrffis Beo. 2072; »sweordras Fata. Ap. 59;
wselrss Beo. 2101; *gegnslege And. 1356; sescSracu Gen.
2153; ecgSracu Beo. 596; *gar«racu El. 1186; wapen-
Sracu Gen. 2290; *wigSracu El. 658; *beadoweorc Beo.
2299; *hereweorc El. 656.

Prep. Subst.: setsteall Wald. I, 21.

Phrases.

Subst. Subst.: billa broga Beo. 583; borda gebrec
By. 295; ecga gelac Beo. 1168; sweorda gelac Beo. 1040;
mecga gemana M^elst. 40; *gumena gem5t jEMst. 50;
gares gilpplega Ex. 240; *wselgara wrixl Gen. 1989.

WOUND.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *sweordbite/«/. 603; *hea«uglem
Rd LVII, 3; bilswffiS Ex. 329.

Adj. Subst.: *la«bite Beo. 1122.

Phrases.

«. Subst. Subst.: billes bite Beo. 2060; sweordes bite
Fata Ap. 34.

BLOOD.

One word.

swat Beo. 1286.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *heorudrync Beo. 2358; hildegicel
Beo. 1606; heaSuswat Beo. 1460; »hildeswat Beo. 2558.

Heorudrync is given by Bode as a kenning for
quot;woundquot;, although he gives as its meaning quot;Schwert-
trunkquot;. Cf. O.N. hjçrlggr {lQgr = liquid) = blood.

SHIP.

One word.

ac Run. 77; *bêam Rà XI, 7; «bord Dksp. II, 188;
brenting Beo. 2807; flota Beo. 210; *hof Gen. 1345;
*hûs Gen. 1442; *lid And. 398; *stefn Beo. 212; \'stefna
495; wudu 216.

\'nbsp;J

For the meaning of brenting cf. brant, b r o n t
Beo. 238, Atid. 273, and brandstœfn( = brantstefn)
And. 504.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: Jiolmaern Gen. 1422; wâgbord
Gen. 1340; »ySbord And. 298; »merecist Gen. 1317;
«ellfœsten Gen. 1482; wudufaesten Gen. 1312; œgflota
And. 258; ha;rnflota Gu. 1307; »sœflota And. 381;
wœgflota Beo. 1907; sâ-genga Beo. 1882; brimhengest
And. 513; faroShengest El. 226; merehengest Rà XV, 6;
siëhengest And. 488; sundhengest Cri. 853; wœghengest
El. 236; yShof El. 252; geofonhûs Gen. 1321; merehûs
Gen. 1364; *y«lid And. 445; *sundlida Beo. 223; ySlida
Beo. 198; lagumearh Gu. 1306; siêmearh El. 228; ySmearh
Cri. 864; sundreced Gen. 1335; cSolîSel Bot. 8; wâigSel
Gen. 1358; brim«isa El. 238; ♦mere«issa And. 257;
•\\vaîter«issa Gu. 1303; brimvvudu El. 244; flôdwudu Cri.
854; sœwudu Beo. 226; sundwudu Beo. 1906.
/Î. Adj. -f Subst.: fâmigheals Beo. 1909; bundenstefna

Beo. 1910; *hringedstefna Beo. 32; wundenstefna Beo.
220.

Phrases.

rt. Adj. Subst,: naegled bord Gen. 1418; sahved bord
Gen. 148; *flota famiheals Beo. 218; *wudu wundenheals
Beo. 298,

It may be queried in how far one is justified in grouping
the kenningar for Noah\'s Ark with those for quot;shipquot;.
My reason for doing so is based on the fact that the
-kenningar, as used in Gen. for the Ark, go to show
that the poet conceived of it as a ship. He, in fact,
very often uses the word quot;shipquot; as a designation for the
Ark. I have not, therefore, considered it necessary to
class these kenningar as a group by themselves for the Ark.

C ë o 1 (=ship), although a pars pro toto, has not been
included. In A. S. it is always used in this sense in prose
as well as in poetry. In O.N. k j ó 11 is used in poetical
texts for quot;shipquot;, whereas k j 9 1 r may designate either
the keel or the ship.

SAIL.

One word.

•wad? And. 375.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: merehra;gl Beo. 1905.
According to Baskervill w £ d o g e w S 11 e And.

375 = wet weeds (sails), while Kemble regards it as
meaning quot;wet with watersquot;.

MEN.

One word.

Castas And. 1002.

Compounds.

а.nbsp;Subst. Subst.: folcbearn Gen. 1760; woruldbearn
/?d. LXXXIV, 32; burhwaran Metr. X, 47; »ceaster-
waran And. 1648; eor\'Swaran Metr. IV, 57.

L a n d w a r e Beo. 2321 may be a kenning or not.
It depends on whether one regards it as being used for
quot;menquot; in general, or as being employed to denote quot;the
people of the countryquot; in contradistinction to the
burgware or quot;townsmenquot;. Cf. C a n t w a r e,
R 6 m w a r e, etc.

/?. Subst. 4- Ptc.: feorhberend Gen. 1955; gastberend
Ra. XXI, 8; reordberend Cri. 381; sawlberend Beo.
1004; Cgbuend (igbuend) Eadg. 57; eor«buend Finnsb.
33; foldbuend Beo. 1355; grundbuend Beo. 1006; land-
bucnd Beo. 95; sundbuend Cri. 221; woruldbuend Metr.
VIII, 35; Seodbuend Cri. 1173; burhsittend Cri. 337;
dryhtwuniend Craft. 7; woruldwuniend Metr. XIII, 7.
•/. Adv. Ptc.: hgrbuend Jud. 96.

б.nbsp;Adj. Subst.: eormencynn Wyrd. 96.

Phrases.

«. Subst. Subst.: iElda beam Cri. 937; dryhta beam
Gu. 1103; fira beam Jud. 24; »folca beam Gen. 1087;

foldan beam Gen. 1664; gumena beam Beo. 1367;
gumSeoda beam Gen. 226; hseleSa beam Dan. 626;
leoda beam Cri. 119; monna beam Ex. 395; niSSa beam
Pan. 13; byre monnes Ph. 128; *aelda cynn Cri. 780;
*fira cynn 610; *hsele\'5a cynn And. 907; *monna cynn
Jul. 470; *manna gecynd El. 734; godes handgeweorc
Cri. 1415; *heofoncyninges handgeweorc Gen. 494;
*wera cneoris Ex. 3; worulde gesceafta Metr. XXX, 14;
*banhuses weard Ex. 523.

Adj. Subst.: cwica wihta Rd. XXIX, 8.

It is not clear why Bode excludes the phrases con-
taining cynn as basic word. Considering their frequent
occurrence in Anglo-Saxon poetry, he could hardly have
missed them, and must, accordingly, have omitted them
intentionally. Yet he instances eormencynn as a
kenning, and as the basic word is the factor which
decides whether a phrase is to be regarded as a kenning
or not, it is difficult to see why Bode objects to cynn
in fira cynn, haeletJa cynn, etc., while he
includes it in the case of eormencynn.

I have omitted the following phrases which Rankin
regards as kenningar: wer\'Seod, yrmen^5eoda,
eorlas on eor\'San, folc under wolcnum,
and folc under roderum.

That tJeod, eorlas and folc are literal terms
for quot;menquot; is also Rankins view, for, in spite of the fact
that these words are frequently used for quot;menquot;, he does
not regard the single words as kenningar. It is with

regard to such phrases that Meissner rightly remarks:
quot;Für die Hauptmasse der Kenningar, mögen sie nun ein
wirkliches Verhältnis zwischen Grundwort und Bestim-
mung bezeichnen oder mögen Grundwort und Bestim-
mung sich erst durch Übertragung verbinden, gilt als
Regel, die sich von selbst versteht, dass im Grundwort
nicht schon der Sinn der ganzen Kenning liegen darf,
m j Q ö r a n n Atlakv. 9, 7 ist also keine Kenning für
Haus, dagegen ? 1 k n q r rquot; (p. 28).

WertJeod, yrmen^eod, eorlas on eordan,
and folc under wolcnum (roderum) mean
nothing more nor less than «eod, eorlas and folc.

The phrase haeleöa beam occurring in Beo. 1189
may not be a kenning for the general conception quot;menquot;,
as Bode thinks, but refers more likely to the fighting
men, more particularly to the younger warriors, since
hffiletSa beam and geogo« are evidently

parallel expressions:

Hwearf Öä bi bence «äer hyre byre waeron,
HrgSrIc ond Hrötimund, ond hseleöa beam,
giogo« aetgajdre. Beo. 1188 ff.

MARINER, SEAFARER.

One word.

♦flota jE^elst. 32.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: ♦scipflota M^elst. 11; brimgaest
Rä. IV, 25.

Subst. Ptc.: *faroSlacend Waif. 5; *hea«ulit5end
And. 426; faroSridend And. 440.

WARRIOR.

One word.

*freca And. 1163; scea?5a Beo. 1803; sceotend Beo. 704.
Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: werbeam Ex. 486; hildefreca Beo.
2205; scildfreca Beo. 1033; sweordfreca Beo. 1468;
wigfreca Beo. 1212; lindgeborga El. 11; *eaxlgestealla
El. 64; *fyrdgestealla Beo. 2873; *Iindgestealla Beo. 1973;
hildetJremma Jul. 64; *herew£eSa Jud. 173; heorowulf
Ex. 181; herewulf Gen. 2015; hildewulf Gen. 2051;
waelwulf By. 96.

Subst. Ptc.: sBScberend And. 47; garberend Ex.
231; helmberend Beo. 2642; segnberend Rd. XLI, 20;
gQSfremmend Beo. 246; bordhaebbend Beo. 2895; lind-
hffibbend Beo. 245; rondhajbbend Beo. 861; searo-
hffibbend Beo. 237.

Phrases.

a. Subst. 4- Subst.: *Scyldinga freca Beo. 1563.

SON.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *yrfelaf Ex. 403; I5stweard Ex.
400; yrfeweard Beo. 2731.

HUSBAND.

One word.

♦frea Gen. 1822; wine Wald. I, 12.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *fr6adryhten Gen. 2729; *freo-
dryhten Beo. 1169; *sinfrga Beo. 1934; aetgeofa Dksp.
II, 98.

KING, RULER.

As it is impossible to decide for every case in how far
the person referred to is entitled to the rank of king,
I have taken the group quot;Kingquot; in a wider sense than
one would be justified in doing at the present day. Thus
the kenningar for the patriarchs of the Old Testament
have been included.

The kenningar for quot;kingquot; are also very frequently
employed for the the head of a family. Gen. 2782, Sarah
uses the expression beaga weard when addressing
Abraham. Bode puts it in a nutshell when he says:
quot;Die Familie ist ein Staat im Kleinen, der Staat eine
Familie im Grossenquot; (p. 44).

One word.

*aldor Beo. 346; dCma Jul. 594; fruma Ps. L (Cot- ,
toniana); dryhten Beo. 2789; hyrde Gen. 1200; *räswa
Dan. O\'iO; weard Gen. 1157; wine Wald. I, 12; *wlsa
Gcm. 1157.

I have left out the words e o d o r, helm and
h 1 e o, which are given by Bode. The single words are
never found for quot;kingquot;. They always occur as part of a
phrase; cf. e o d o r I n g w i n a Beo. 1044; h e I ni
Scyldinga Beo. 311, and eorla hl5o Beo. 791.

Not the isolated words eodor, helm and hleo,
but the phrases eodor Ingwina, helm Scyl-
d i n g a and e o r 1 a hleo must therefore be regarded
as kenningar for quot;kingquot;.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: aldordema Gen. 1156; *freadryhten
Beo. 796; *gumdryhten Beo. 1642; »hleodryhten IVid. 94;
*mandryhten Beo. 1978; *sigedryhten Beo. 391; wine-
dryhten Wand. 37; dadfruma Edm. 3; hildfruma Jul. 7;
landfruma Beo. 31; leodfruma Beo. 2130; *ordfruma Beo.
263; *wigfruma Beo. 664; leodgebyrga Beo. 269; wilgeofa
Beo. 2900; jetgifa Gen. 1361; beahgifa Beo. 1102; *go\\d-
gifa Beo. 2652; maSSumgifa Wand. 92; sincgifa Beo. 2311;
♦ealdorman Ps. LXXXI, 7; heretema Metr. I, 31;
bregoweard Gen. 2333; dryhtenweard Dan. 535; e\'Sel-
weard Dan. 55; hordweard Ex. 511; freawine Beo. 2437;
goldwine Wand. 22; *brimwisa Beo. 2930; heafodwisa
Gen. 1619; herewisa Beo. 3020; «hildewlsa Beo. 1064.

Yrfe weard, given by Bode, has been omitted
here as it forms the basic word of the expression y r f e-
weard ingefolca Ex. 142, which has been classed
with the phrases.

Subst. Ptc.: folcagend186.-
y. Adj. Subst.: •freodryhten Beo. 1169; frumgar
Beo. 2856; *frumgara Gen. 1169.

Phrases.

a. Subst. 4- Subst.: »burga aldor Dan. 677; *Dena
aldor Beo. 668; *East-Dena aldor Beo. 392; quot;Elamitarna

aldor Gen. 196; *gumena aldor Dan. 549; *lëoda aldor
Ex. 12; *Mêda aldor Dan. 688; *secga aldor El. 97;
•Sodoma aldor Gen. 2124; «ioda aldor Metr. XXVI, 7;
werodes aldor Gen. 1643; gumena baldor Gen. 2693;
*beorna bëaggifa ^telst. 1; *beorna bealdor Gu. 1332;
rinca bealdor Jud. 339; sinca bealdor Beo. 2428; wigena
bealdor Jud. 49; winia bealdor Beo. 2567; bëaga brytta
Beo. 35; goldes brytta Gen. 1997; sinces brytta Beo. 1140;
*eorla dryhten JE\'^elst. 2; *Gëata dryhten Beo. 1484;
*Grëca dryhten Metr. XXVI, 19; *gumena dryhten Dan.
613; Wedera (MS. wereda) dryhten Beo. 2186; *burga
ealdor Jud. 58; *folces ealdor Beo. 202; *Öegna ealdor
Beo. 1644 ; leÖehnga ealdorwîsa Gen. 1237; *folca frëowine
Beo. 430; »Gëata goldwine Beo. 2419; *gumena goldwine
Beo. 1171; gumena gûSweard Ex. 174; *herefolces
hëafodweard Jud. 239; aeÖelinga helm Gen. 1858; *b3\'rn-
wiggendra helm El. 224; herigea helm El. 148; •lid-
manna helm Beo. 1623; *Scyldinga helm Beo. 371;
•Scylfinga helm Beo. 2381; *Wedra helm Beo. 2462;
weoruda helm El. 223; œÔeHnga hlëo El. 99; »dugu\'Sa
hlëo Gu. 1034; eorla hlëo Beo. 899; *frëonda hlëo Gu. 985;
•haîle\'Sa hlëo By. 74; wîgena hlëo Citron. II, 12; •heria
hildfruma El. 101; *hœle\'Sa hordweard Beo. 1047; folces
hyrde Beo. 610; rïces hyrde Ex. 256; sinces hyrde Gen.
2101; *yrfes hyrde Gen. 1067; mecga mundbora Edm. 2;
folca ràëswa Dan. 667 ; hieleîSa rœswa And. 692 ; •weorodes
ràêswa Dan. 487; *Babilone weard Dan. 488; bëaga
weard Gen. 2782; bëahhorda weard Beo. 921; *burge
weard Dan. 173; folces weard Beo. 2513; gumena weard
Crœft. 59; »gumrlces weard Dan. 176; rîces weard Beo.

1390; werodes weard Dan. 552; wigena weard El. 153;
folces wisa Gen. 1198; *herges wisa Ex. 13; *maigenes
wisa Dan. 703; werodes wisa Ex. 258; *ingefolca yrfe-
weard Ex. 142.

MINSTREL.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *wö^Sbora Crceft. 35; hieahtorsmi«
Ex. 43.

HARP.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: gleobeam Beo. 2263; gomenwudu
Beo. 1066.

THE DEITY.

One word.

se aiÖeling Cri. 5030; se ägend Ex. 295; se almihtiga
Beo. 92; se äncenneda Red. der Seel. I, 51; *earendel Cri.
104; beorn Cri. 530; *se biliwita Jid. 278; cäsere Ph. 634;
se craeftga Metr. XI, 92; cyning Cri. 12; dema Sch. 58;
♦drihten Beo. 187; gee, se 6ce Metr. IV, 29, XI, 74;
fader Beo. 188; *se guma Kreuz. 49; hälend Cri. 634;
se hälga Ph. 399; *hcarra Gen. 358; »hlaford Cri. 461;
lätteow Gu. 335; nergend Cri. 398; se reccend Rä. XLI,
30; se scyppend Sal. 56; se steora Sch. 45; se torhta Sat.
294; *Öeoden Gen. 80; wealdend Beo. 2292; *wuldor Rä.
LXXXIV, 32.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: hälubearn Cri. 586; sigebearn
Ho. 43; sigorbeorht Cri. 10; gästcyning Gen. 2883;

heofoncyning Gen. 463; maegencyning El. 1247; rodor-
cyning Cri. 121] söiScyning Gen. 2635; swegicyning Gu.
1055; Öëodcyning Red. der Seel. II, 12; ÖryÖcyning
436; wuldorcyning Beo. 2795; *wundorcyning Geb. IV, 2;
heofondêma Sat. 658; sigedëma Cri. 1061; sigedryhten
Cri. 128; weorulddryhten Metr. XXIX, 1; »sööfseder
Cri. 103; wuldorfeder Men. 147; liffrëa Cri. 15; liffruma
Cri. 656; ordfruma Gen. 13; «iodfruma Metr. XXIX, 94;
se argifa Crceft. 11; wilgifa Cri. 537; feorhhyrde Gloria 8;
heofonmsegen Geb. IV, 35; sigetorht Sat. 240; maegenörym
Hö. 22; burgweard And. 660; heofonvveard Gen. 120;
lifweard El. 1035.

Adj. Subst.: cynebearn And. 566; aeSelcyning
Cri. 907; hëahcyning Gen. 1240; hëahfeder Kreuz. 134;
söÖfseder Cri. 103; ealwealda Beo. 1314; bj\'^rhtword
Sat. 238.

y. Subst. Ptc.: Örymsittend El. 810.
ó. Prep. Subst.: anwalda Beo. 1272.

Phrases.

Subst. -1- Subst.: »wuldres aeSeUng Cri. 158;
alweaida (ealra) gesceafta Metr. XI, 22; \'Sëoda bealdor
And. bM; •(eallre) sybbe bearn El. 446; *bearn waldendes
Jul. 266; »wuldres bearn Sat. 587; beorna brego And. 305;
engla brego Jul. 666; *gasta brego Ps. L (Cot.); gumena
brego And. 61; hëahengla brego Cri. 403; brego mon-
cynnes Dom. Deeg. 7; blÈêdes brytta El. 162; lifes brytta
Cri. 334; swegles brytta Cri. 281; tires brytta Jud. 93;
wuldres cynebearn Men. 159; cyning cwicera (gehwaïs)
And. 912; (ealra) cyninga cyning Cri. 136; cjming

ealwihta Cri. 687; engla cyning Cri. 715; haeleÖa cyning
Cri. 372; hëahengla cyning Cri. 528; heofonengla cyning
Cri. 1010; heofones (-na) cyning Cri. 61, And. 1505
maegena cyning Cri. 833; *monna cyning Sat. 688
rodora cyning El. 1074; wuldres cyning Kreuz. 133
dugeöa dffidfruma And. 75; *eorÖan dëma Ps. XCIII, 2
wuldres dëmsL Jud. 59; dryhtna dryhten Cri. 405; dugeöa
dryhten El. 81; engla dryhten Sat. 397; fëora dryhten
Sat. 435; gasta dryhten Dom. Deeg. 81; gifena dryhten
Gen. 2935; dryhten gumena Vater Unser II, 14; heofones
(-na) dryhten Kreuz. 64, Cri. 348; *lifes dryhten Ps.
CXIX, 2; maegena dryhten Ps. LXXXIII, 1; mihta
dryhten Geb. III, 33; sigora dryhten El. 346; weoruda
dryhten El. 896; wuldres dryhten Geb. III, 54; ëcra
ëadgifa Jul. 563; engla ëadgifa And. 451; eorla ëadgifa
Cri. 546; gaêsta ealdor Dom. Doeg. 91; heofona ealdor
Sat. 567; lifes ealdor Gen. 1113; *middangeardes ealdor
Jul. 154; sigores ealdor Geb. III, 20; swegles ealdor Jud.
124; Örymmes ealdor Jid. 448; weoruda ealdor Cri. 229;
wuldres ealdor Cri. 8; ealwcalda engelcynna Gen. 246;
faïder engla And. 83; fröfra faeder Gloria 8; faeder frum-
sceafta Cri. 472; faeder moncynnes And. 846; fjeder
swegles Cri. 110; folca feorhgifa Cri. 556; *frëa ealles
Beo. 2794; engla frëa Gen. 157; frëa folca (gehwaes) Dan.
401; •fyrnweorca frëa And. 1410; heofona frëa Gu. 1404;
lifes frëa Glaub. 5; moncynnes frëa Kreuz. 33; rices frëa
Glaub. 34; sigora (-es) frëa Gm. 1053, Cri. 404; *cyninges
frëobearn El. 672; *burhleoda fruma Sat. 561; (ealles)
folces fruma Hö. 41; *fyrnweorca fruma Cri. 579; herga
fruma El. 210; lifes fruma Cri. 44; miêrÖa fruma Edg. B,

21; moncynnes fruma Metr. XXIX, 42; sigores fruma
Cri. 294; *ûpengla fruma And. 226; swegles gâst Cri. 203;
manna gehyld Beo. 3057; wuldres gim Ph. 516; msegena
goldhord Cri. 787; heofones (-na) hëahcyning Cri. 150,
Gen. 50; heofona hëahfrëa Cri. 424; aeöelinga helm And.
277; helm ealwihta Cri. 274; engla helm Gen. 2751;
gâsta helm Gen. 1793; *hâhgra helm Cri. 529; heofona
helm Beo. 182; heofonrïces helm Cri. 566; wera helm Cri.
634; wuldres helm Cri. 463; *eallra hlâford El. 475;
heofona hlâford Kreuz. 45; *beorna hlëo Jtd. 272; *gœsta
hlëo Jul. 49; haligra hyht Jid. 642; hœleôa hyhtgifa El.
852; dugeöa hja\'de Gen. 164; gâsta hyrde Dan. 199;
heofona hyrde Dom. Dœg. 86; lëohtes (-a) hyrde Az. 121,
Edg. A, 13; rïces hyrde And. 807; tungla hyrde Geb. IV,
9; «ëoda hyrde Az. 150; Örymmes hyrde Jul. 280;
wuldres hyrde Beo. 931; »godes lomber Gu. 1015; lïfes
lâreow And. 1466; lifes lâttëow El. 898; lëohtes lëoht
Geb. III, 1; *söÖfcestra lëoht El. 7; lïfes lëohtfruma And.
837; *(sö*Sf0esta) sunna lëoma Cri. 106; wuldres lëoma
Sat. 85; aeöelmga ord Cri. 515; ëades ordfruma Cri. 1199;
engla ordfruma Sat. 239; ordfruma (ealra) gesceafta Cri.
402; lïfes ordfruma Cri. 227; werodes rœswa Dan. 487;
sigcbearn godes Hö. 11; *sâwla sööcyning Ps. CXX, 7;
sigora söCcyning Beo. 3055; sâwla symbelgifa And 1417;
engla fSëoden Ex. 431 ; \'llfes Örym Cri. 204; rodera «rym
Cri. 423; (ealra) cyninga Örym Vater Unser III, 45;
(ealra) Örymma Örym Gu. 1076; »«rynesse Örym Cri. 599;
•wigena Örym El. 1089; wuldres örym Cri. 83; Öëoda
Örymcyning Metr. XX, 205; Örymcyning Öëodenstöles
Mod. 620; brytenrices weard Az. 107; engla weard El.

1315; folca weard Cri. 946; gâsta weard Gu. 1177;
gumena weard Vater Unser II, 19; heofones (-na) weard
Sch. 52, Edg. B. 35; heofonrices weard Gen. 1484; (hëah)
hordes weard Sch. 39; lëohtes weard Ddm. Dceg. 53
llfes weard Gen. 144; middangeardes weard And. 82
moncynnes weard Gen. 2757; rodera weard Cri. 134
sigora (-es) weard Cri. 1517, 243; swegles weard Jud. 80
ûpengla weard Men. 210; wuldres weard Sat. 514
weoruda wilgeofa And. 62; beorna wuidor El. 186
cyninga wuidor And. 901; heeleîJa wuidor Ayid. 1463
weoruda (-es) wuldorcyning Gen. 2; weoruda wuldorgifa
Ho. 42; aetJelinga wyn Ho. 121; *eorla wyn Gu. 1179
lïfes wyn Geb. Ill, 1; wîgena wyn Jid. 641; wuldres
wyrhta Ph. 130.

a^. Subst. Subst. : fruma and ende And. 556; or and
ende Rà. LXXXIV, 10; wealdend and wyrhta Metr.
XXX, 14.

/S. Adj. Subst. : ëce anwalda Sat. 642; beorht blœdgifa
And. 84; »bregu sëlesta Ph. 620; cyning aelmihtig Gu.
794; œrfaest cyning Jud. 190; se œSela cyning Ph. 614;
cyning ânborn Cri. 618; beorht cyning Cri. 828; bll^heort
cyning Gen. 192; brème cyning Edg. A, 12; se 6ca cyning
Sch. 32; *se heofonlica cyning Ps. LXVII, 14; se hyhsta
cyning Jul. 716; se mihtiga cyning Ph. 496; sôCfœst
cyning Ex. 9; stiSferhS cyning Gen. 107; tîrëadig cyning
Geb. Ill, 2; tïrmeahtig cyning Cri. 1166; wâêrfaest cyning
And. 416; wuldorfaest cyning Az. 133; ëce dëma Cri. 796;
hàlig dëma Ps. LXVII, 6; se hëhsta dëma Jud. 4;
*rihtwïs dëma Vater Unser II, 7; •sôSfœst dëma Ps.
XCIII, 22; »blItJe dryhten Ps. LXXXIV, 1; ëce dryhten

Beo. 2796; *halig dryhten Beo. 686; »lëof dryhten Ps.
LXXVII, 5; •méêre dryhten Ps. LXXIX, 5; «mihtig
dryhten Jud. 92; •rïce dryhten Ps. XCVI, 1; «witig
dryhten Beo. 1841; ëce ëadfruma Cri. 532; *halig engel
Sat. 586; faeder aelmihtig Cri. 320; fader alwalda Beo. 316;
beorht faeder Dom. Deeg. 90; bilewit faeder Dan. 363;
faeder ëce Hym. 14; *halig faeder Metr. XX, 46; *svvffis
faeder Cri. 617; *frëa beorhta Geb. II, 1; frëa aelmihtig
Gen. 2710; »frëa mihtig El. 680; »fröfre gast El. 1036;
se micela helm Sat. 252; *heofoncyning hahg Gen. 1315;
halig hyrde Gu. 761; tSaet halige lamb Hym. 22; Öaet ëce
lëoht Geb. III, 30; *mild mundbora Jul. 213; se rïca
rsêdbora Vater Unser III, 38; se rica réêsbora And. 385
*ëce rex El. 1041; söÖ sigedryhten Vater Unser II, 34
*sëo sööfaïste sunne Ph. 587; »torht tirfruma Cri. 206
*m2êre Öëoden And. 94; rïce «ëoden And. 415; »Öëoden
Örymfaïst Cri. 457; vvulder ealwalda Dksp. 133.

j\'. Ptc. Subst.: haelend cyning Glaub. 10; nergend
cyning Geb. IV, 49; »hajlend dryhten Ps. CVII, 6;
•nergend dryhten Ps. CXIII, 9; *wealdend dryhten
Ps. LXV, 16; wealdend frëa Cri. 328; »Örymsittend
wuldorcyning And. 417.

(3. Subst. Ptc.: lifes agend Cri. 471; sigores agend
Cri. 420; swegles agend Cri. 543; wuldres agend Cri. 1198;
diëda dëmend Beo. 181; dugetSa dëmend And. 87; gSsta
gëocend Cri. 198; »helpend giësta Rd. XLIX, 50; hïeleöa
helpend Dan. 403; helpend wera Vater Unser 1, 7; flra
nergend El. 1173; niÖSa nergend Gu. 612; sawla nergend
Cri. 571; »nergend (ealra) woruldbüendra/«rf. 81; ealles
oferwealdend El. 1235; rodera nëdend Beo. 1555; rodera

7

ryhtend Cri. 798; selda scyppend Wand. 85; *eallra
scyppend El. 370; engla scyppend And. 119; *folces
scyppend Geb. II, 1; frymöa scyppend Ph. 630; gästa
scyppend Dan. 292; haeleöa scyppend Hym. 34; heofona
scyppend And. 192; manna scyppend And. 486; mihta
scyppend Gu. 1131; «scyppend tungla Metr. IV, 1
weoruda scyppend Fœ. Larcw. 62 ; sigora seilend Pan. 64
sigora settend Dan. 333; duge«a wealdend And. 248
ealles wealdend Vater Unser III, 1; wealdend engla Cri
474; eoröan wealdend Glaub. 6; fira wealdend Beo. 2741
folca wealdend Az. 104; frum«a wealdend Jud. 5; gästa
wealdend Gen. 2545; *h9eleÖa wealdend Ps. CXLI, 6;
heofones (-na) wealdend Gen. 260, 2385; lëohtes wealdend
Gloria 9; lifes wealdend Crceft. 92; maegena wealdend El.
347 ; meahta wealdend Cri. 823 ; rodera wealdend El. 206 ;
sigora wealdend Metr. XX, 204; *tires wealdend Ps.
LXXIX, 14; «ëoda wealdend And. 1453; weoruda
wealdend Cri. 1570; »wealdend weröëode Cri. 714; wihta
wealdend Sat. 125; wuldres wealdend Sat. 24; wyrda
wealdend El. 80; ylda wealdend Beo. 1661.

E. Adj. 4- Ptc. : *scyppend märe Ps. CHI, 23; sigeröf
settend Az. 47; ëce wealdend Geb. I, 2; quot;wealdend
mihtig Ps. LXXIX, 17.

Ç. Adj. Part. Gen. : •seöelust bearna El. 476; »bearna
sëlost Geb. III, 48; rëöust cyninga Hö. 36; cyninga sëlast
Hö. 119; *engla beorhtast Cri. 104 ; heofoncyninga hyhst.
Dom. Dœg. 108; quot;sööfaest sigora Ex. 433.

rj. Subst. Prepositional Phrase: cyning on roderum
El. 460; cyning on wuldre Vater Unser III, 2.

ANGEL(S).

One word.

âr Cri. 595; *boda Cri. 449; *gâst Dan. 526.
Compounds.

a. Subst. -f- Subst.: *sigorcynn El. 754; œrendgâst
Gen. 2296; wuldorgàst Gen. 2912; œrendraca Gen. 2434;
freotSuscealc Gen. 2301; *maegenöegn Gn. 1099; freoöu-
weard Gu. 144; friöowebba El. 88.
p. Adj. Subst.: hëahöegn Dan. 443.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: wuldres âr Cri. 493; bearn heofon-
wara Sal. 463; wuldres bearn Gen. 11; dryhtnes boda
Gen. 532; godes boda Cri. 1305; *wuldres boda El. 77;
metodes öegn Gen. 2907; wuldres tSegn Gen. 2568;
gâsta weard Gen. 12; wuldres wilboda Gu. 1220.

p. Adj. -f- Subst.: *hâlige gâstas Gen. 2399; »bilewit
hëap Sai. 242; »sâwelcund hyrde Gu. 288; *weorud
wlitescyne Cri. 493.

DEVIL(S).

One word.

se âglœca Jul. 268; se aida Sat. 34; se atola Saf. 413;
se âwyrgda Sat. 316; se balewa Sat. 484; se blaca Sat. 71 ;
bona Hö. 88; draca Sal. 26; se fêond Gen. 306; se hearma
Ph. 441; hettend Ph. 441; »se lâSa Gen. 489; sceaöa
Gen. 606; sceööend Cri. 761; *se unholda Cri. 1Qgt;2\\ se
wCrga Jul. 429.

Compounds.

a. Subst. 4- Subst.: feorhbana IValf. 41; gastbana Beo.
177; suslbana Sa/. 640; wrohtbora Cri. 763; *hellecinn
Cri. 1620; ceargsst Gu. 364; *hellegEest/«/. 457; *frum-
gar Jul. 685; wuldorgeflogena Zaub. IV, 47; gsstgeniSla
Jul. 245; *mangenitSla And. 916; ealdorgevvinna Gu. 505;
niSgyst Gu. 511; hellehinca And. 1171; warloga Jid. 455;
*wr£ecm2ecga Jul. 260; hellescealc Sat. 133; helsceaSa
El. 956; leodsceaSa Cri. 273; mansceatSa Gu. 622;
gryrnsmiS wdf. 917; teonsmiS Gm . 17 6; wrohtsmi S G«. 8 7 7;
*aldor«ffign Sat. 66; helletSegn Gu. 1042; helwaras Ho. 21.

Adj. Subst.: ealdfgond Ph. 401; •ligesynnig
feond El. 898; se bealufulla Cri. 259; ealdgeniSla And.
1341; fyrnscea\'Sa And. 1346.

V. Prep. Subst.: wiSerbroga Cri. 564; se witSermeda
And. 1195; andsaca Gu. 181.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: feonda aldor Sat. 76; godes andsaca
Gen. 442; bana moncynnes And. 1293; se wites bana Cri.
264; morSres brytta And. 1170; synna brytta El. 958;
helwarena cyning Jul. 322; feond mancynnes Jul. 317;
s5wla feond Jul. 348; feonda forespreca Cri. 733; fyrn-
synna fruma Jul. 347; »leahtra fruma El. 838; synna
fruma Jul. 362; facnes frumbearn 1294; (eabra) fQla ful
El. 769; *bealowes gast Sat. 682; haileSa gewinna Jid.
243; sawla gewinna Jul. 555; helle hjeftling And. 1342;
synna hyrde Gu. 522; morCrcs manfrCa And. 1313;
«ystra stihtend Jul. 419; susles Cegn Jul. 558; wuldres
witSerbreca Jul. 269; *wr6htes wyrhta Jul. 346.

Adj. Subst.: earme adloman Gu. 884; atol aglSca
Sai. 161; earm aglSca Sat. 73; se ofermöda cyning Gen.
338; deorc dadscüa Cri. 257; se blaca fëond Pan. 58;
ëce fëond Gen. 1261; *fah fëond Ph. 595; lacende fëond
El. 899; se atola folc Sat. 383; se atola géést Gu. 87;
se awyrgda gSst Cri. 1690; *gramhydig gëêst And. 1694;
se la«a gsêst Sal. 86; se swearta gÉêst Cri. 269; •unclSne
gast Jtd. 418; earme geëstas Gu. 876; *gêomre gastas
Gen. 69; se wêrga gast Beo. 1747; glëaw gyrnstsef Jul. 245;
*scyldwyrcende sceaÖan El. 761; wraÖ wéërloga And.
1297; awyrgde wrërlogan Gu. 883; *wërige wihte Geb. IV,
57; *w£êrlëas wnecca Jul. 351; »awyrged womscaSa Jul.
211; se awyrgda wulf Cri. 256.

QUEEN.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: freo«uwebbe Beo. 1942.
Subst. Ptc.: «goldhroden Beo. 1948, 2025.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: fri«usibb folca Beo. 2017.

Instead of fritSusibb folca Bode gives
f r i « u s i b b only. A queen, by her marriage, actually
becomes a pledge of peace between two or more nations,
and this conception is better expressed by the phrase than
by the single word.

WIFE.

One word.

Gebedda Beo. 665.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst. : healsgebedda Beo. 63 ; mundheals
Cri. 446; *healsmaBget5 Gen. 2155.

Subst. Ptc.: *sinchroden Bot. 13.

In connection with mundheals Cri. 446, cf. Cri.
280—1, where the Virgin is spoken of as bryd Öses
sêlestan swegles bryttan.

*THE VIRGIN.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: mœre middangeardes Cri. 275;
cyninges mödor Men. 93; dryhtnes mödor Men. 169;
mœgtSa weolme Cri. 445; wifa wuldor Men. 149; wïfa
wyn Cri. 71.

Adj. Subst.: sëo cleèneste cwën Cri. 276; fÊêmme
frëolicast Cri. 72.

y. Adj. Part. Gen. : cwëna sëlost Men. 168; feegerust
maeg\'Öa Men. 148.

CROSS.

One word.

»bëacen El. 92; *bëam Cri. 729; »trëow Ps. XCV, 9.
Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: sigebëacen El. 168; *sigorbëacen
El. 984; sigebëam El. 420; *gealgtrëow Kreus. 146.

Phrases.

a. Subst. 4- Subst.: *bëacen godes El. 109; quot;rodor-
cyninges bëam El. 886; wuldres bëam El. 217; *heofon-

cyninges täcen El. 170; *sigores tâcen El. 85; hœlendes
trëow Kreuz. 25; lïfes trëo El. 1026; *röde trëo/w/. 447;
wuldres trëo El. 828; wuldres wynbëam El. 843.

ß. Adj. Subst.: *se aetSela bëam El. 1073; se blaca
bëam El. 91; *Sact beorhte gesceap El. 789; tSaet bälge
trëo El. 107; *«aet mœre trëo El. 214; »tSset wlitige trëo
El. 165; *wudu sëlesta Kreuz. 27.

y. Adj. -f Part. Gen.: *mœrost bëama El. 1012; *sëlest
sigebëama El. 1027; »täcna torhtest El. 164.

DEATH.

One word.

SI« Gu. 1018.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *cwealmbealu Beo. 1940; ealdor-
bealu Beo. 1676; feorhbealu Beo. 2077; •mor«bealu
(MS. beala) Beo. 136; •mor«orbealu Beo. 2265; *endedaeg
Beo. 637; endedogor Beo. 2896; tidege Seef. 69; dea«gedal
Gu. 936; ealdorgedal Beo. 805; feorhgedal Gu. 1151;
*fri«gedal Gen. 1142; gastgedal Gen. 1127; lifgedal Wyrd.
45; nydgedal Gu. 906; sawelgedal Gu. 1008; »woruld-
gedal El. 581; ealdorlegu Gu. 1234; feorhlegu Beo. 2800;
woroldrieden? Beo. 1142; bealusi« Ex. 5; n5osI« Mod. 55.

/?. Adj. Subst.: *la«si« Ex. 44.

y. Adv. Subst.: hingong Gu. 783; »utgongy»/. 661;
ellorsi« Beo. 2451; forSsi« Gu. 911; heonansi« Z)om. Daig.
86; hinsi« Gen. 721; »utsl« Gu. 1241; for«weg Gti. 918.

In the case of the s I «-compounds it is very often
difficult to decide whether they are used literally or

figuratively. In some cases it appears that they denote
the journey of the soul after death rather than death
itself. Cf. fortJsi^ minne on ecne eard Gu.
1154.

Similarly I do not feel quite justified in regarding in
all instances e n d e d ae g and endedogor as syno-
nymous with quot;deathquot;.

Woroldrffiden Beo. 1142 is by no means certain.
Sedgefield, in his edition of the Beowulf, emends it to
worodrffiden and translates quot;troop-servicequot;. Up
to the present, however, no satisfactory explanation of
the word has been given, and the passage remains obscure.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: *leoma lifgedal Gu. 1019; lices
gedal Ph. 651; *dea«es swefn Gen. 720.

p. Adj. 4- Subst.: *enge anhaga Gu. 970; se deora si«
Sal. 361; wiga wselgifre Gu. 912.

GRAVE.

One word.

•beorg Gu. 1166; *faesten Sai. 521; grgot And. 794;
*Ieger Kl. 34; *Txst Ho. 6.

Compounds.

a. Subst. 4- Subst.: •eor«aern Ho. 19; foIdaErn Cri. 730;
moldaern And. 803; gaersbed Ps. CI I, 15; »legerbed Red.
der Seel. II, 158; heolstorcofa Ph. 49; *eeostorcofa Gu.
1168; •«eostorloca El. 485; eor«grap Ruin. 6; sandhof
Gu. 1169; »wffilrest Gu. 1006; d6a«reced Ph. 48.

Phrases.

Subst. Subst.: »foldraeste eard Cri. 1030; *eorSan
faeöm Ph. 487; grëotes faeöm Ph. 556; *hrûsan gripe
Ruin. 8; hrûsan heolstor Wand. 23.

GRENDEL.

One word.

ägläca 425; *eoton 761; fëond 984; »guma 973;
hœ«en 986; se lä«a 132; *se mära 762; *rinc 720;
»öyrs 426.

Compounds.

a. Subst. 4- Subst.: gästbona 177; cwealmcuma 792;
ellengœst 86; hellegœst 1274; *wœlgœst 1995 ; scadugenga
703; feorhgeniöla 969; hellehaefta 788; helrüna 163;
hearmscaöa 766; mänsca\'Sa 712; lëodsceaîJa 2093; syn-
scaöa 707; helleöegn 142; heorowearh 1267.

ß. Adj. Subst.: ängenga 449; ealdgewinna 1777;
dolscaSa 479.

3\'. Adv. Subst.: »ellorgäst 807.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst. : godes andsaca 786 ; fëond moncynnes
1276; fyrena hyrde 740.

ß. Adj. Subst.: atol âglœca 592; atol ängenga 165;
dëogol dädhata 275; deorc dëa«scûa 160; *sc grimma
gast 102; se wërga gœst 133; märe mearcstapa 103;
•sinnig secg 1379; •wonsœli(g) wer 105.
y. Subst. 4- Prep. Phrase: *fêond on helle 101.

GRENDEL\'S MOTHER.

One word.

ides 1260.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: *feorhgeniöla 1540; *grundwiergen
1518; àglsécwîf 1529; sëo brimwulf 1599.
Adv. Subst.: ellorgâst 1621.

Phrases.

a. Adj. Subst.: *mihtig mânscaSa 1339; *merewïf
mihtig 1519; *wœlgœst wéêfre 1331; »wif unhyre 2120.

THE DRAGON.

One word.

âglœca 2520; bona 2824; »fëond 2704; se lâ«a 2305;
•wiht 3038.

Compounds.

a. Subst. Subst.: »hringboga 2561; »gryrefàh 2576;
•gûtJfloga 2528; gryregœst 2560; *niegâst 2699; *{erht-
genïöla 2881; «ealdorgewinna 2903; âttorscea«a 2839;
*güÖscea«a 2318; se mânscea«a 2514; «ëodsceaSa 2688;
♦eoröweard 2334; »hordweard 2554.

Adj. H- Subst.: »stcarcheort 2288; se wldfloga 2347.

Phrases.

a. Subst. Subst.: *beorges hyrde 2304; »fraitwa
hyrde 3134; Myrena hyrde 2220; »beorges weard 2580.

/?. Adj. Subst.: *grim glëdegesa 2650; atöl inwitgast
2670; laS lyftfloga 2316; *ea\\d ühtfloga 2760; eald
ühtscea«a 2271.

The terms w y r m and hordes hyrde are
employed for the dragon killed by Sigemund. Cf.
Beo. 884—7.

CHAPTER IV.
Kenning and Variation.