Member of the Asiatie Society at Calcutta, Honorary Member of the Literary Society at Bombay,
md late President of the Society of Arts and Sciences at Batavia,

PRINTED FOR BLACK, PARBIJRY, AND ALLEN, BOOKSELLERS TO THE HON. EAST-INDIA
COMPANY, LEADENHALL STREET; AND J OHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

The gracious permission which I have received
to dedicate these volumes to your Royal Highness,
affords me an opportunity of interesting your Royal
Highness in favour of the amiable and ingenuous people
whose country they describe. The high respect they
entertain for British valour and justice, and the lively
gratitude they retain for the generous system of Bri-
tish Legislation, will, I am sure, give them a strong
claim upon your Royal Highness\'s good opinion.

To uphold the weak, to put down lawless force,
to lighten the chain of the slave, to sustain the honour
of the British arms and British good faith ; to promote
the arts, sciences, and literature, to establish humane
institutions, are duties of government which have been
most conspicuously performed during your Royal High-
ness\'s regency. For a period of nearly five years, in
which I have had the honour, as a servant of the East-
India Company, to preside over a mild and simple people,
it has been my pride and my ambition to make known
to them the justice and benevolence of my Prince, whose
intentions towards them I could only fulfil by acting
up to the principles of the Authority which I represented,
and by doing every thing in my power to make them happy.

To those who judge that the right to express their
sentiments requires no more than smcerkj, or that their
praise is of a value to overbalance the disrespect of offer«
mg It, I shall leave the usual language of dedications.

Conscious that the assurances of respect and of loyal
attachment can never be offered to your Royal High-
ness by the humblest British subject, without meeting a
gracious reception,

As it is possible that, in the many severe strictures passed, in the
course of this work, upon the Dutch Administration in Java, some
of the observations may, for want of a careful restriction in the
words employed, appear to extend to the Dutch nation and charac-
ter generally, I think it proper explicitly to declare, that such obsef-
vations are intended exclusively to apply to the Colonial Government
and its Officers. The orders of the Dutch Government in Holland
to the Authorities at Batavia, as far as my information extends
breathe a spirit of liberality and benevolence; and I have reason to
beheve, that the tyranny and rapacity of its colonial officers, created
no less indignation in Holland than in other countries of Europe.

For such, and all other inaccuracies, as well as for the defects of
style and arrangement which may appear in this work, an apology
is necessary; and in the circumstances under which it has been
prepared, it is hoped, that an admissable one wiil be found. While
in the active discharge of the severe and responsible duties of an
extensive government, it was not in my power to devote much time
to the subject : the most that 1 could do, was to encourage the exer-
tions of others, and to collect in a crude state such new or interest-
ing matter as feli under my personal observation. I quitted Java in
the month of March in last year : on the twelve months that have

since elapsed, illness during the voyage to Europe and subsequently,
added to the demands on my time arising out of my late office, and
the duties of private friendship after an absence of many years, have
made great encroachments; but engaged as I am in public life, and
about to proceed to a distant quarter of the globe, I have been induced,
by the interest which the subject of these volumes has excited, and the
precarious state of my health, rather to rely on the indulgence of
the public than the attainment of leisure, for which I must wait

into hands more able to do it justice. There was one,* dear to me
in private friendship and esteem, who, had he lived, was of all men
best calculated to have supplied those deficiencies which will be
apparent in the very imperfect work now presented to the Public,
From his profound acquaintance with eastern languages and Indian
history, from the unceasing activity of his great talents, his other
prodigious acquirements, his extensive views, and his confident hope
of illustrating national migrations from the scenes which he was
approaching, much might have been expected ; but just as he reached
those shores on which he hoped to slake his ardent thirst for know-
ledge, he fell a victim to excessive exertion, deeply deplored by
all, and by none more truly than myself.

The plates which accompany this work, not otherwise distinguished,
are from the graver, and many of the designs from the pencil of Mr.
William Daniell, who has devoted his undivided attention in
forming a proper conception of his subject, and spared neither time
nor exertion in the execution. Some irregularity may possibly exist

# Dr. J. C. Leyden, the bard of Tiviotdale, who accompanied the expedition to Batavia ia
1811, and expired in my arms a few days after the landing of the troops.

in the arrangement of them : this has arisen from an uncertainty
with respect to the number which could be completed in time for the
present publication, and that which it would be necessary to postpone
for a future work, intended to exhibit, with greater minuteness,
many of the more striking architectural and other remains of anti-
quity in the island of Java.

My acknowledgments are due to the Right Honourable Sir Joseph
Banks, Bart., the venerable President of the Royal Society, for his
kindness and encouragement; and particularly so to Mr. Charles
WiLKiNS, Librarian to the East-India Company, as well as to Mr.
William Marsden, for many suggestions, of which I regret that
I have not been enabled to avail myself so much as I could wish, in
consequence of the haste with which the work has been got up. I
am also indebted to Mr. Thomas Murdoch, not only for access to
his valuable library, but for illustrations from Portuguese authors,
which the reader will find in the Introduction and Appendix.

For all that relates to the Natural History of Java, I am indebted
to the communications of Dr. Thomas Horsfield. Though suffi-
cient for my purpose, it forms but a scanty portion of the result of
his long and dihgent researches on this subject. Of this, however,

I am happy to say, that the public will shortly be able to judge for
themselves.

In sketching the state of the Dutch East-India Company, and
the measures adopted by the Dutch government respecting Java,
subsequently to the year 1^80, I have availed myself of much very
valuable information communicated to me by Mr. H. W. xMun-
tinghe, President of the Supreme Coart of Justice at Batavia;
and as, in the course of this work,, I have often been obliged to
condemn the principles and conduct of the Dutch colonists, I am

anxious to acknowledge the distinguished merit of this excellent
magistrate, and that of Mr. J. C. Cranssen, President of the
Bench of Schepenen, both selected by the late EaRl of Minto to
be members of the British Council in Java.

The English came to Java as friends. Holland had ceased to be
an independent nation, and for the time there could be but two par-
ties, the one English, the other French. The emissaries of the late
ruler of France had perverted the minds of the majority : many
were doubtful on which side they should rally. At this critical junc-
ture these two gentlemen declared for England and the ancient order
of things ; and to the influence of their decision and conduct is to be
ascribed, not only the cordiality and good understanding which soon
prevailed between the English and Dutch, but in a great measure
also that general tranquillity of the country, without which the re-
transfer of it to the rule of its former masters might have been
impracticable.

Of the wisdom and benevolence which determined the late Earl
of Minto to place two members of the Dutch nation at the Board
of the British Council in Java, it is unnecessary to speak. The
measure was in the same spirit which uniformly actuated that en-
lightened and virtuous statesman, my revered patron and ever la-
mented friend. The selection of the two gentlemen whom I have
mentioned, was no less advantageous. To their countrymen it was
peculiarly so, and I am happy to have this opportunity of publicly
expressing my acknowledgments to them for the good counsel, firm
support, and unwearied exertions, by which they were dislingwished
while members of the Board.

The principles of Orthography, recommended by Sir William
Jones, and adopted by the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, have been
adopted in this work, with some slight modifications. The conso-
nants preserve the same sounds generally as the same letters in the
English alphabet : the vowels are used as in Italian. To avoid con-
fusion, the emphatic syllables are alone accented, and the inherent
vowel a has invariably been adopted.

Geographical Situation of Java—Name.-Extent and Form.—Divisions.—Har-
bours.—Mountains and Volcanos.—Rivers and Lakes.—General Appearance
of the Country.—Mineraiogical Constitution.—Seasons and Climate—Metals.
Mmerals.-Soil.—Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms........................

t,ve .-Manners.-Fopuiation.-Inequaiity of it accounted for.-Population
lables.-Increase of Population. _ Foreign Settlers.Chinese—Bùgis.-

loors.-Arabs—Slaves.-Gradations of Rank among the J
— Iheir Habitations, Dress, and Food..............

Import3„ of Agriculture to Java.-Soil.-State of the Peasantry-Price of
TntT^.nbsp;Peasantry.-Dwellings.-Agricultural Stock.-Imple-

Commerce.—Advantageous Situation of Java for Commercial Intercourse.—Im-
portance of Batavia in particular.—Native Trade.—Roads and Inland Carriage.
—Markets—Influence of the Chinese.—Coasting Trade.—Exports and Im-

Character of the Inhabitants of Java.-Difference between the Sùndas and the
Javans.—The Lower Orders.—The Chiefs.—Nature of the Native Govern-
j^gnt,_Different Officers of the State.—Judicial Establishments and Institu-
tions._Laws, and how administered.—Police Institutions and Regulations.—

Ceremonies of the Court.—Deference paid to superior Rank.—Regalia.—Pro-
cessions.—Pomp.—Rank and Titles.—Ambassadors.—Ceremonies attending

Births, Marriages, and Funerals.—Account of the People called Kaiang, and
of the\' Inhabitants of the Téng\'ger Mountains.-The Bedui.- Festivals.-
Amuseraents.- The Drama.-Wayangs.-The Dance.-Tournaments.-The
Chase.—Tiger Fights.—Combat of Criminals with Tigers.—Bull Fights, amp;c.—

Language.-Little known to Europeans.-Different Languages or Dialects.-
Those of Sunda, Madura, and Bali, compared with that of Java Proper—The
polite Language, or Language of tlonour.— fhe Kawi, or Sacred and Classic
Language.—Numerals.—Chandra Sangkala,—Literature.—Compositions in the
Kawi Language, and in the modern Javan.—Influence of Hindu Literature.
—Introduction of Arabic Literature.—Poetry.—The Brata Yud\'ha, a Poem.—
Music._Painting.—Sculpture.—Architecture.—Arithmetic.—Astronomy.....

The first arrival of the Portuguese in the Eastern Islands was in the year quot;sit.

When Alphonzo de Albuquerque first visited Sumatra. In the following
year, Albuquerque conquered the city of Malacca, and sent to announce that
ev^nt to those countries and islands which had traded thither, inviting
them to continue their intercourse, and promising them protection and
encouragement.* To Java and the Moluccas he sent Antonio de Abrew
however, previously prepared the way by a Moor or Maho\'
metan, of the name of Nakoda Ismaek who was trading i„ a merchant
vessel. Antonio de Abrew sailed on his mission with three vessels, and
took with him several Javans and Malayus who had been accustomed to
trade with Malacca. The first port on Java at which he arrived was the

1 ad done at every port at which he had touched. One of the
vessels was Incf ■ *

mace, which were carried to that port by the natives of the Moluccas in
their own vessels.

Nahoda Ismael returning from the Moluccas with a cargo of nutmegs, his
vessel was wrecked on the coast of Java, near Tuhan. The cargo of the
Nakoda\'s vessel having been saved, Joam Lopez Alvrin was sent (A. D.
151S) by the governor of Malacca with four vessels to receive it. Alvrin
was well received in all the ports of Java where he touched, but parti-
cularly at Sidayu belonging to Pdteh Unrug, a prince who had been

The Straits oîSlnga pûra¹ being infested by the cruisers of the former king
of Malacca, who had been expelled from his dominions by the Portuguese
in 1511, the straits oïSdban were the usual route of the Portuguese vessels
from Malacca to the Spice Islands, and in this voyage they generally touched

About the year 1520 or 1521, Antonio de Britto, with six vessels
under his command, bound to the Moluccas, touched first at Tuban
and proceeded afterwards to Agaçai, where he remained seventeen days,
during which time he sent a boat to the island of Madura, for the pur-
pose of exploring it j but the men landing incautiously were surprised
and made prisoners, and were not ransomed without much difficulty, and
the friendly intervention of the governor of Agacai.

Antonio de Britto had scarcely accomplished the ransom of his men,
when he was joined by Don Garcia Henriquez with four vessels bound to
Banda for spices, and at the same time a Javan vessel arrived from Banda.
This vessel had been furnished with a pass from the Spaniards, under Fernan
de Megalhaen, who having passed by the straits which bear his name, had
\'arrived at the Spice Islands. This was the first intelligence which the Por-
tuguese received of Megalhaen\'s discovery of the route round the southern
extremity of the American continent, and they were the more mortified at it,

\'theKW f , ® ^^\'^quot;querque, governor of Malacca, Henriquez Leme concluded with
quot; We m V r ?nbsp;^^ that kingdom.

I or feunda being one of those of the island of Java, it will be best to begin with a ^enJ.}
aescnption of that island, that what follows may be understood.

quot; The land of Java we consider as two islands, whose position is from east to west, and

Java, speak of it as separated bv thnbsp;quot;^^\'g^tors; so that the natives, in

to thTeastwaX Thot\'^ot\'^ V ^nbsp;kingdoms along the northern coast; and begin-

race and eat human flesh t^ ™erous class of chiefs, called G unos : they are a savage
the Christian era, on their passage f^ inhabitants were Siamese, who about the year 800 of

Arrival of the The first voyage made by the Dutch was in 1595, in which year their
first fleet, under the command of Houtman (who had been previously
employed by the Portuguese in the East-India service), sailed direct to

Java, until that period undiscovered; but, which on account of its size and fertility was
quot; immediately peopled by Passara, son of the king of Siam: and the city of Passaraan,
quot; called after his own name, was founded at a very good seaport, and this was the first settle-
quot; ment on the island.

quot; The Javans are proud, brave, and treacherous, and so vindictive, that for any slight
quot; offence (and they consider as the most unpardonable the touching their forehead with your
quot; hand) they declare amok to revenge it. They navigate much to every part of the Eastern
quot; Archipelago, and say that formerly they used to navigate the ocean as far as the island of
« Madagascar (St. Laurence).

quot; The city of Bintam, or Banta, which is in the middle of the opening of the sti-aits of Sunda,
stands in the centre of a large bay, which from point to point may be about three leagues
quot; wide, the bottom good, and the depth of water from two to six fathoms. A river of suffi-
quot; cient depth for junks and galleys, falls into this bay, and divides the town mto two parts.
« On one side of the town there is a fort, built of sun-dried bricks: the walls are about seven
quot; palms thick, the bulwarks of wood, well furnished with artillery.

lt;lt; The island of Sunda is more mountainous than Java. It has six good seaports : Chiamo,
quot; at the extremity of the island; Chacatara, or Caravam i Tangaram, Clieginde, Pandang, and
- Bintam, which have a great traffic, on account of the trade carried on, not only with

quot; The principal city of this kingdom is called Daro, situated a little towards the interior^

quot; and we are assured that when Henriquez Leme first visited it, this town had upwards of fifty

thousand inhabitants, and that the kingdom had upwards of one hundred thousand fighting

quot; «The soil is very rich. An inferior gold, of six carats, is found. There is abundance of
« butcher\'s meat, game and provisions, and tamarinds which serve the natives for vmegar.
lt;« The inhabitants are not very warlike, much addicted to their idolatries, and hate the Maho-
quot; medans, and particularly since they were conquered by the Sangue Pdti Damn,

quot; Here four or five thousand slaves may be purchased, on account of the numerous popula-
quot; tion, and its being lawful for the father to sell the children. The women are handsome, and
« those of the nobles chaste, which is not the case with those of the lower classes. There are
monasteries or convents for the women, into which the nobles put their daughters, when
quot; they cannot match them in marriage according to their wishes. The married women, when
« their husbands die, must, as a point of honour, die with them, and if they should be afraid
quot; of death they are put into the convents.

quot; The kingdom descends from father to son, and not from uncle to nephewgt; (son of the
« sister,) as among the Malabars and other infidels in India.

quot; They are fond of rich arms, ornamented with gold and inlaid work. quot;Tlieir krises are gilt,

^^ and also the point of their lances. Many other particulars might be added (but we reserve
^nbsp;«« them

Bantam. At this period the Portuguese were at war with the king of Ban-
tam, to whom Houtman offered assistance, in return for which he obtained

quot; them for our geography),* concerning the productions of this island, in which upwards of
quot; thirty thousand quintals of pepper are collected annually.quot;

quot; In the year 1522, Jorge Albuquerque, governor of Malacca, equipped a vessel to carry
Henriquez Lerne, with a competent suite and certain presents, to the king Samiam above
mentioned, for the purpose of establishing a commercial intercourse. Lerne was well re-
quot; Ceived by the king, who was fully sensible of the importance of such a connexion, in the
quot; war in which he was then engaged with the Moors (Mahomedans) ; and, therefore, he re-
quot; quested that, for the protection of the trade, the king of Portugal should erect a fortress,
quot; and that he would load as many ships as he chose with pepper, in return for such merchan-
dize as the country required. And further, he (the king) obliged himself, as a pledge
quot; of his friendship, to give him annually a thousand bags of pepper, from the day on which

quot; These things being concluded and presents exchanged, Lerne returned to Malacca, where
\'\' he was well received by Albuquerque, who immediately communicated the result to the

quot; Francisco de Sa was in consequence dispatched with six vessels (the names of which and
\'I of their commanders are enumerated), with which he called at Malacca, and accompanied
the expedition against Bintam (then in the possession of the expelled king of Malacca) on

, .nbsp;\' edcneatne port ot Calapa (where the fort was to . be built), where she

^^ was driven on shore, and all the crew perished by the hands of the Moors (Mahomedans), who
^^ were then masters of the country, having a few days before taken the town from the native
quot; kmg who had concluded the treaty with the King of Portugal, and given him the site on

^^ quot; But although the intended establishment on Java was thus frustrated, the Portuguese
^^ ^ontmuea to have intercourse with that island, at which they frequently touched on their
voyage to and from the Moluccas.quot;nbsp;.nbsp;^

Malay junics under hisnbsp;command. From thence he proceeded to the town of Tagasam,

cloves, which he had dispatched to Malacca, and they even attempted to take the vessel in

to lus Treatise on Geography, in which he had descnbed particularly all the countries
-eut.oned m h. Decadas j ^ut it „ev,r wa. punished, ha.ing been left in an imperfect state at Ms

permission to build a factory at Bantam, which was the first settlement
formed by the Dutch in the East-Indies.

quot; which he himself was, which occasioned his quitting that place, having however first captured
quot; a junk laden with provisions.quot;

quot; In July, 1528, Don Garcia Henriquez appears to have touched at the port of Paneruca,
quot; (Panarukan) for the purpose of taking in provisions on his way to Malacca; and it also
quot; appears, that the king or chief of Paneruca sent ambassadors to the Portuguese governor of
quot; Malacca in the same year 1528.quot;

The following is the substance of a description of Java from the Decada of Diego de Couto.
—Decad. iv. Book iii. Chapter i.

Couto describes the wreck of a Portuguese vessel, and the destruction of her crew by the
Moors, who had just become masters of the kingdom of Sundaj in nearly the same words as
Barros. He then proceeds to state, that Francis de Sa ran before the storm along the coast
of Java, and collected his scattered vessels in the port of Paneruca, and gives a general de-
scription of Java in nearly the following words.

quot; But it will be proper to give a concise description of this country, and to shew which
quot; were the Greater and the Lesser Java of Marco Polo, and clear up the confusion which has
quot; prevailed among modern geographers on this subject.

quot; The figure of the island of Java resembles a hog couched on its fore legs, with its snout
quot; to the channel of Balaherao, and Its hind legs towards the mouth of the Straits of Sunda,
quot; which is much frequented by our ships. This island lies directly east and west; its length
quot; about one hundred and sixty, and Its breadth about seventy leagues.

quot; The southern coast (hog\'s back) is not frequented by us, and its bays and ports are not
quot; known ; but the northern coast (hog\'s belly) is much frequented, and has many good ports :
quot; and although there are many shoals, yet the channels and the anchorages are so well known,
quot; that but few disasters happen.

quot; There are many kingdoms along the maritime parts, some of them subordinate to the
quot; others; and beginning at the east (head of the hog), we will set down the names of such as
quot; are known: Ovalle, Paneruoa, Agasai, Sodayo, Paniao (whose sovereign resides thirty leagues
quot; inland, and is a kind of emperor over these and others hereafter mentioned), Tahuo, Berdoao,
quot; Cajoao, Japara (whose principal city or town is called Cerinhama, three leagues inland,
quot; while Japara is situated on the sea shore), Damo, Margao, Banta, Sunda. Andreguir (where
quot; there Is much pepper, which is exported by a river called Jande). In the mountainous in-
quot; terlor there are many kings, called Gunos; they live among rugged mountains, are savage

quot; These mountains are exceedingly high, and some of them emit flames, like the island of
quot; Ternati. Every one of these kingdoms which we have named has a language of its own ; yet
quot; they mutually understand each other, as we do the Spaniards and Galicians-

quot; The kingdom of Sunda is thriving and abundant; it lies between Java Sumatra, hav-
\'\' ing between it and the latter the Straits of Sunda. Many islands Jie along the coast of

Following the example of the Dutch, the EngHsh East India Company, Anivai of t.e
immediately after their incorporation by Queen Elizabeth in 1601, fitted

« this kingdom within the Straits, for nearly the space of forty leagues, which in th^ .

^^ mstance. All the islands are well timbered, but have little water. A small one, called

Macar, at the entrance of the Straits, is said to have much gold.
^^ Ihe pnncipal ports of the kingdom of Sunda are Banta, AcU, Chacatara (or, by another
^^ name, Caravao), to which every year resort about twenty Sommas, which are a kind of
quot; vessel belonging to Chienhec (Cochin China), out of the maritime provinces of China to
quot; load pepper. For this kingdom produces eight thousand lahars, which are equal to thirty
quot; thousand quintals of pepper annually.

« and fifty fathoms and the seaport extends about four hundred, A river capable of ad-
quot; TiS^rd\'^^^^^^^^^^^^nbsp;the middle of the town: a small branch ^of this river

others a sandy bottom, the depth from two to six fathoms.
^^ The Kmg, Don John, conceiving that if he had a fortress in this situation he should be
^^ master of the straits, and of all the pepper of those kingdoms, recommended it strongly to
^^ the lord admiral to have a fort built by Fr.ncisco de Sa ; and even now it would be perhans

^^ possessed three fortresses, one m this situation, one on Acheen head, and one on the coast oi

I^egu the navigation of the east would in a manner be locked by these keys, and the kin^

quot; ™ th^t from It Malacca, Acheen, and other neighbouring countries, derive their sup-

quot; country stan?^^\' ^™nbsp;^^^ng the street, and saw a native of any other

Javan would kxnh.m, for he will permit no person to stand above him; nor wouW a Javan

They are a brave determined race of men, and for any slight offence will run amok
to be revenged; and even if they are run through and thrLgh with a lance, thevl^S
quot; advance until they close with their adversary.nbsp;^

out a fleet of four ships, the command of which was entrusted to Captain
Lancaster, who sailed from London in 1602, first to Acheen CAche) on Su^
matra, where he procured part of his cargo, and entered into a treaty with
the king, of which a copy is yet in existence. From Acheen he went to
Bantam, and settled a factory there, which was the first possession of the
English in the East Indies. Captain Lancaster brought home a letter from
the\\ing of Bantam to Queen Elizabeth in 1602, which is still in the State

In 1610, the first Dutch governor general, Bdli, arrived at Bantam,
and finding the situation of his countrymen in that province not favourable
to the establishment of a permanent settlement, removed to Jdkatra.
On the 4th of March, 1621, the name of Batama was conferred upon
the new establishment of the Dutch in Jdkatra, which from that period

In 1683, the English, who had hitherto maintained a successful rivalry
with the Dutch, withdrew their establishment from Bantam.

In the year 1811, Holland having become a province of France, the French
flag was hoisted at Batavia; and on the 11th September, in the same year,

« The men are expert navigators, in which they claim priority of all others ; although
quot; many give the honour to the Chinese, insisting that they preceded the Javans. But it is
quot; certin that the Javans have sailed to the Cape of Good Hope, and have had intercourse with
\'\' the island of Madagascar on the off side, where there are many people of a brown colour,
and a mixed Javan race, who descend from them.quot;

There here follows the refutation of a ridiculous story told by Nicolas Couti, the Venetian,
about a tree that produced a rod of gold in its pith, at which some well informed Javans, of

quot; Marco Polo mentions the greater and the lesser Java. We are of opinion, that the Java ot
which we are treating is the lesser, and that the island of Sumatra is the greater Java; for he
says that the greater Java is two thousand miles in circumference, and that the north star is
a not visible, and that it has eight kingdoms, Taleh, Basma, Camara, Dragojdo, Lamln I\'ara-
quot; fur from which it is very clear, that he means Sumatra, for it has nearly the dimensions which
quot; he assigns it The north pole is not visible, as this island lies under the equinoctial line,
quot; which IS not ihe case with any of the islands situated to the northward, on all of which the north
.. star is seen: and it is still more evident from the names of the kingdoms for there cannot
. be a doubt thatnbsp;is the same as Camaira (the 9 being soft like s). Bragojao which is

. ^ronomcei Dra^,oiang) or Jndreguir, mdLamH still retain their names on that island.

the British government was declared supreme on Java, by a proclamation of
that date signed by the Earl of Minto, Governor General of Bengal On
the 17th of the same month, a capitulation was entered into, by which all
the dependencies fell into the hands of Great Britain.

On the 13th August, I8I4, a convention was entered into by Viscount
Castlereagh, on the part of his Britannic Majesty, restoring to the Dutch the
whole of their former possessions in the Eastern Islands; and on the 19th
■August, 1816, the flag of the Netherlands was again hoisted at Batavia.

Without adverting to the political importance to Great Britain of the
conquest of Java, or to the great commercial advantages which both coun
tries might eventually have derived from its remaining in our hand, I shall
merelynotice that the loss of it was no immediate or positive evil to the
Uutch For many years prior to the British expedition, Holland had
derived httle or no advantage from the nominal sovereignty which she con-
tinued to exercise over its internal affairs. All trade and intercourse be-
tween Java and Europe was interrupted and nearly destroyed; it added
nothing to the commercial wealth or the naval means of the mother country •

the controul of the latter over the agents she employed had proportionally di-
minished j she continued to send out EPOvernn™nbsp;,
. quot; governors, counsellors, and commis-
sioners, but she gained from their inquiries little information on the causes

cumstances were^erely temporary ; that they arose out of a state of poli.
f cal relations which affected internal improvement, and that the resouL
of the colony were progressively increasing, and would become available
»hen peace or political changes should allow trade to flow in its ftquot;\'

channels. Whether the Dutch could not indulge such prospects, or whe-
ther the system on which the internal government of their eastern dominion
was conducted was in itself ruinous under any circumstances, a view of
the financial and commercial state of Java before the conquest, and of tlie
causes which led to the losses and dissolution of the Dutch East India
Company, will assist the reader in determining.

Financial and In tracing thesc causes, it is hardly necessary to go further back than

^uest.nbsp;J^g^^ rj.^^ accidental calamities of that war brought it to the brink of

ruin, and its importance in the past transactions of the country being borne
in mind, a general concern existed in Holland for its preservation, and for
the restoration and maintenance of its credit. With the view of affording
it the most effective and beneficial assistance, inquiries were set on foot,
not only to discover some temporary means of relief, but to provide a more
permanent remedy for threatened decline. It is impossible to ascer-
tain what might have been the result of the measures which were then in
contemplation, as the convulsed state of Europe, and especially of Holland,
subsequently to this period, left no room for their operation, and did not
even admit of making the experiment of their efficiency. The free inter-
course of the mother country with her colonies was interrupted ; the
trade was thrown into the hands of neutrals ; several possessions were lost
for the want of due protection, and those which remained were left to
support or defend themselves in the best way they could, without any
assistance or reinforcement from home.

For ten years preceding the year I78O, the average annual sales of the
Company amounted to upwards of twenty millions of guilders, which was
considerably more than in former years, and the prices of the different
articles were nearly the same as they had been from the years 1648 to I657,
when the sales only amounted on an average to about eight milli^^\'^s a year ;
it was therefore clear, that the decline of the Company was not to be attri-
buted to the decrease of trade.

On an examination of the Indian books, it was found, that from the year
1613 to 1696, the profits in India, though moderate, had always kept
equal pace with the profits in Europe.

In the yeav 1696, the nett profit from the same year (I6l3) amounted
to only 40,206,789 guilders, being full eight millions less than it had been
in 1693, only three years preceding; and the average nett annual profit
from 1613 was reduced to 484,371 guilders, But from I697 to I779
comprehending a like period of eighty-three years, the losses were so exor\'
bitant as to overbalance and absorb, not only the contemporary, but all the
Precedmg profits in Europe, and even a large amount of fictitious profit
\'^teci to screen the government in India.

of the war of 1780, twenty ships of about nine hundred tons each, and eight
or ten of about eight hundred tons each, which, to the number of twenty^
two or twenty-three, returned with cargoes: four from China, three from
Ceylon, three from Bengal, one from Coromandel, and twelve or thirteen
from Batavia. They annually exported to India provisions and Other arti-
cles of trade to the amount of two millions six or eight thousand florins,
and in cash from four to six millions, and sold yearly to an amount gene-
rally of twenty or twenty-one millions; and it was estimated that the
Indian trade maintained, directly and indirectly, all the external commerce
of Holland, employing a capital of about two hundred and sixty millions of

From the inquiries of a commission appointed by the government of
Holland, in the year 1790, to ascertain the real state of the Company\'s
finances, and to report how far the nation would be warranted in giving
its further support to the credit of an institution which had so rapidly
declined, it appeared that in 1789, the arrears of the Company amounted
toseventy-four millions of florins, and that this amount had since increased
to eighty-four or eighty-five milHons, of which sum no less than 67,707,583
florins had been advanced by the nation.

The Cominissioneis, however, being of opinion, that the affairs of the
Company were not irretrievable, recommended a further loan of seven
millions of florins.

A meritorious servant of the Company, Mr. C. Tetsingh, had offered to
the Commissioners a memorial, in which he proposed that the Company
should abandon the trade to private merchants under certain restrictions j

but on this proposal the Commissioners stated that they were not then
prepared to offer an opinion.

This Commission, in reporting upon the manner in which the Company\'s
affairs had been managed in I„dia, declared that quot; they could not con-
quot; ceal the deep impression which the same had made upon their minds,
» and that they could not fix their thoughts upon it, without being affected

« with sentiments of horror and detestation.quot;____quot; When,quot; said they,

quot; we take a view of our chief possession and establishment, and when we
quot; attend to the real situation of the internal trade of India, the still increas-
« ing and exorbitant rate of the expenses, the incessant want of cash,
quot; the mass of paper money in circulation, the unrestrained peculations
quot; and fiuthlessness of many of the Company\'s servants, the consequent
quot; clandestme trade of foreign nations, the perfidy of the native princes
quot; the weakness and connivance of the Indian government, the excessivl
quot; expenses m the military department and for the public defence; in a
quot; word, when we take a view of all this collectively, we should almost
quot; despair of being able to fulfil our task, if some persons of great talents
quot; and ability among the directors had not stepped forward to devise
• means by which, if not to eradicate, at least to stop the further progress
quot; of corruption, and to prevent the total ruin of the Company.quot;

The improvements proposed by the directors extended to every branch
of the administration abroad. They proposed, first, with regard to the
Cape of Good Hope, the yearly arrears of which settlement had latterly
counted to a million and a half of florins, that the same should be
leauced to one half of that sum. With regard to the further eastern

possessions, the measures proposed for consideration were chieflv the f 1
lowing.nbsp;^

abandon several factories in that quarter, and to reduce the rest to mere
residencies. To make considerable reductions in the establishment on the
coast of Malabar and in Bengal. To reduce the establishments on the
Coast of Coromandel to three factories. To abandon the establishments on the
West Coast of Sumatra, and to leave it open to a free trade. To diminish
the expenses at Ceylon by a reduction of the military force, and by every
other possible means to animate the cultivation and importation of rice into
that settlement. To open a free trade and navigation to Bengal and Coro-
mandel, under the superintendence of the Company, on paying a certain
recognition. To encourage, by every means, the cultivation of rice in the
easternmost possessions, and especially at Amboina and Banda, for the sake
of preventing the inducements of a clandestine trade, which the importation
of rice to those places might afford. To abandon several small factories
to the eastward. To adopt a plan for the trade of Malacca proposed by
Governor De Bruem. To introduce a general reduction of establishment
at Batavia and elsewhere. To introduce new regulations with regard to the
sale of opium at Batavia. To improve the Company\'s revenue, by a tax
upon salaries and a duty upon collateral successions. And finally, to send
out commissioners to India, with full powers to introduce a general reform

In a memorial subsequently submitted by the Commissioners, which form-
ed the basis of all the measures recommended and adopted at this time,
for the better administration of affairs in India, after shewing that, from
the year 1770 to 1780, the Company had on the whole of its trade and
establishments on the coast of Coromandel, Bengal, Malabar, Surat, and
the western coast of Sumatra, averaged a profit of only 119,554 florins a
year, they recommended the introduction at Batavia of a public sale of
the spices, Japan copper, and sugar, wanted for the consumption of West-
ern India, and the establishment of a recognition of ten per cent, on the
piece goods from Bengal, and of fifteen per cent, on the piece goods from

the diminution of the Companyestablishments in Western India, and
the abohtion of several small forts and factories to the eastward, it was
highly probable that the administration in India would, in future, cover
its own expenses, and thereby save the Company from utter ruin.

It was on these calculations that the Commissioners appointed by the
States of Holland founded their hopes of the future relief of the Company,
and with these prospects they closed their report, the care and future fate of
the Company devolving from that time chiefly on the Commissioners ap-
pointed at their recommendation to proceed to India, in order to carry into
effect, on the spot, the reforms proposed. Of these new Commissioners,

of their trust was undoubtedly to be discharged in India, where they arrived
in 1793.nbsp;\'tiiiveu

If the talents of these Commissioners were to be estimated by the bene
fits which resulted from their labours, we may safely pronounce them to
have been incompetent to the task they had undertaken j but such a cri-
tenon cannot with any justice be applied. A continuance of peace with
^reat Bntam was of course reckoned upon in all their calculations, and war
witMhat power broke out almost immediately afterwards.

It regard to the abandonment of several forts and factories to the
eastward, to which their attention had been particularly directed, the result
of their dehberation and inquiry was, that the continuance of the Com-
pany\'s establishment on Celebes was indispensable for the protection of the
Moluccas; that at Timor reductions had been made, in consequence of
which the revenues covered the expenses , that after mature investigation

the Japan trade was shewn to yield a nett profit of 200,000 florins; that
with regard to the West Coast of Sumatra the revenues had been made
to exceed the expenses, and the pepper collected in that neighbourhood left
still some profit to the Company.

With respect to the institution of public sales at Batavia for Japan cop-
per, spices, and sugar, on the introduction of which it was supposed the
establishments in Western India might be for the most part reduced, they
were of opinion, after deliberating with the Council of India, and after a
personal inquiry into the actual state of the private trade at Batavia, that
chiefly for the want of an adequate means among the purchasers such sales
were entirely impracticable, and that it would therefore be preferable, after
making some partial reductions in the expense, to continue the establish-
ments in Bengal and the Coast of Coromandel, but that Cochin on the
Malabar Coast might, perhaps, be advantageously abandoned.*

To determine the mode in which the trade with India should in future
be conducted; these Commissioners assumed a general calculation of the
receipts and disbursements which would occur at home and abroad, on
the supposition that the Company should, in future, navigate with hired
vessels only, and that all marine estabhshments should be abolished. The
result of this calculation was in abstract as follows. The estimate may be
considered as affording an interesting view of the hopes and prospects which
were at that time entertained of the resources of the Eastern Islands.

The whole estimate was framed on the principles of monopoly, and with
a view to an increase of the trade on the one hand, and a reduction of
expenses on the other. The quantity of coflPee stated at eighteen million
pounds, was calculated upon the produce which might be expected after
two years. In the calculation of the quantity of pepper, an augmentation
of 1,500,000 pounds beyond the produce of the preceding year was anti-
cipated, from the encouragement given to the growth of that article in

* This is the factory which by the recent convention has been exchanged with England for
the Island ofBanka.

Bantam and other parts of Java. With regard to the sugar, calculated at
eight millions of pounds for the home cargoes, it is stated, that the actual
deliveries

For the consumption of the Company\'s own establish-
ments ---------------------------------------200,000

Or 5,100,000 pounds more than the actual produce. The whole of that
quantity, however, the Commissioners felt confident might be produced in
three years, by encouraging the manufacture in the Eastern Districts of
Java. Among the retrenchments was a tax upon the salaries of all civil
servants, which reduced the average salary of each to the sum of fifteen
Spanish dollars per month.

ESTIMATED ACCOUNT of the COMPANY\'S RECEIPTS and DISBURSEMENTS «f HOME and in INDIA, exclusively
of the direct Trade to China, upon the Plan of the Commissioners of Inquiry, A. D. 1795.___

In Japan, on divers Europe and Indian
Articles................ ........... 76,000

And for Sundries at the Coast of Coroman-
del ............................... 33,000

Coffee, 18,000,000 lbs., deduct Wastage, amp;c. is
16,000,000 lbs. at Si stv^eis ^er \\\\i. .,

For Freight on Returns of homeward-bound Car-
goes .....................................

Pepper, 3,765,000 lbs., deducting Was-
tage, amp;c. is 3,263,789 Jbs. at 12 sti-
vers per lb. ...................... 1,958,273

Tin, 530,000 lbs. deducting Wastage, amp;c.
is 490,913 lbs. at 40 florins per cwt. .. 196,365

Sugar, 8.000,000 lbs. deducfing Was-
tage, amp;c. is 7,068,000 lbs. at 10 stivers
per lb........................... 1,767,000

Saltpetre, 1,650.000 lbs. deducting Was-
tage, amp;c. is 1,285,350 lbs. at 30 flo-
rins per cwt, is.................... 385,605

513,000 lbs. at 12 florins per cwt. .. 61,560
Cowries, 160,000 lbs. or nett 101,460 lbs.

Cinnamon, 400,0001bs. at 5 florins per lb. 2,000,000
Cloves, 250,000 lbs. at 65 stivers per lb. 812,500

These Commissioners seemed to entertain no very favourable ideas of the
benefits which would arise to private trade from the license it already en-
joyed. As a measure much more beneficial to the general trade of Europe
and to the Company, they proposed, in lieu of it, to throw open to indi-
viduals, under certain restrictions, the tra^e and navigation from Europe to
Bengal and Coromandel.

Thus we see these Commissioners sent out with the view of introducing
something like free trade on Java, coming to a resolution to take away from
it even the little private trade which it had previously been allowed to
enjoy.

The Company\'s trade with continental India had already been so much
encroached upon by foreigners, that it was judged expedient no longer
to exclude the Dutch free trader from his share in the spoil; but it was
hoped, by increased strictness, to preserve entire to the Company the ex-
clusive trade in spices, Javan coffee, pepper as far as it was the produce of
her own possessions, Japan copper, the opium which was consumed in Java
and in the Moluccas, and Javan sugar.

The trade of the Dutch Company has thus been brought to the period,
when its monopoly was proposed to be almost exclusively confined to Java
and the Eastern Islands, including Japan. The causes which operated to
destroy the Dutch influence on the continent of India, are too well known
to require any particular description.

The Dutch had long maintained a decisive superiority, as well on the
continent of Asia, as among the Indian islands, until the active exertions of
their competitors in trade succeeded in undermining and overturning their
monopoly; and as it was natural their weak side should suffer first, it was
on the continent where their establishments were far removed from the
chief seat of government, and where they had not been able to insure to
themselves those exclusive privileges from the princes of the country which
they had exacted from the weaker princes of the Eastern Islands, that

Other nations, chiefly the French and English, first endeavoured to intro-
duce themselves^

After reciprocal jealousies had for some time prevented both nations from
making any considerable progress, a successful war at last turned the scale
entirely in favour of the English, whose influence, from that period,TaI
been paramount in continental India, and the Dutch East India Company
was no longer able to enforce its system of exclusive trade there.

Without inquiring into the practicability of realizing the flattering esti.
mate made out by the Indian Commissioners, or the policy which dictated
a stilLmore rigoiws monopoly of the produce of the Eastern Islands, it
ough to be remarked, although it seems never to have been adverted to
by the Commissioners, whose calculations and plans were exclusively of a

last century of considerable territorial possessions, especially on the island
ot Java.

To use the words of one of the most enlightened men who now adorns
his country, and is prepared to give enpro-xr f i

\' from thquot;\'quot;quot;\'*\'nbsp;quot;ere made by a delegated authority derived

government itself was entitled to a direct share in the acquisi.
trons made and how far it was bound to controul and superintenLe
exerc.se of those duties which were newly contracted. A consideration of

« renewal of the Company\'s charter, it would be requisite to alter and
« modify its conditions according to existing circumstances, and especially
quot; how far it would have been expedient, in future, to leave the Company
« the exclusive trade, and at the same time the uncontrouled sovereignty

But however natural it may be, at the present moment, to consider
questions of this kind, it was perhaps at that time beyond the common
course of human thought to entertain doubts on the subject. From an
honourable regard for ancient institutions, the mercantile system of the
Company was still considered with reverence and respect j it had been at
all times the boast and pride of the nation j the services which the Company
had rendered to the state in its earlier days, and the immense benefits
which the government had been enabled, by its means, to spread among
the community at large, had rendered the East-India Company and all its
privileges, objects of peculiar care and tenderness. The rights of sove-
reignty which the Company afterwards required, were obtained by degrees
and almost imperceptibly. Every acquisition of the kind had been con-
sidered, at the time, merely as the means of increasing its mercantile
profits, and all its territorial rights were looked upon as subservient to its

In consequence of these ideas, after the whole of the northern and east-
ern coast of Java had been added to the Company\'s territorial dominions,
by a cession in the year 1749, no step seems to have been taken for improv-
ing these acquisitions, by any direct use of the supremacy obtained. Some
contracts were instituted with the native chiefs, for delivering gratis, or at
the lowest possible price, such articles as would serve the Company\'s
investments home-, but taxation, the levy of produce, and the manage-
ment of police and justice in the inferior courts, were left to the care and

of power, on the part of the Company, to assume any direct contrOul over
the native population- But whatever influence these ideas may have had
on the conduct of the Company, it may be affirmed that an European
government, aiming only to see right and justice administered to every
class of the population, might and ought to have maintained all the native
usages and institutions, not inconsistent with those principles ; and that the
power, for want of which it withheld its interference, would have been
supplied and confirmed by the act of exercising the power which it possessed,
and by the resources it might have been the means of drawing from the
country.

Considering, therefore, the propensity inherent in every native authority
to abuse Its influence, and to render it oppressive to the population at large;
the ascendancy of Europeans in general, even over the class of native chiefs
tarns ; the scantiness of r.any of the establishments proposed in the plan of
the Indian Commissioners ; the manifest inadequacy of the remuneration of
the civd servants which it recommended, and the narrow scale on which all
expenses were calculated ; no very durable benefits could have been reason-
ably expected from it. The discretionary power being left in the hands of

would have subjected both to peculations, which the insufficiency of their
salaries would constantly have tempted them to practice; the administra
tmn of justice not meeting with a proper remuneration would have been

origina sources of the Company\'s revenues in India remaining the same, it
seems probable, that in a short time, the same scenes which had hitherto
met with so much reprobation, would have been acted over again and to I
stdl more disgraceful extent.nbsp;\'

But of whatever merit might have been the plans snggested by the Com
missioners in India on the 4th July X795, the calamities which had already

befallen the mother country were followed by an event, which it seems the
Commissioners had hardly dared to suspect, and which, in every case, would
have frustrated all their designs. This was the dissolution of the Company,
in consequence of a resolution taken to that effect on the 24th December,
by the body then representing the government of the United States of
Holland.

New views of policy were of course suggested by this important change.
In the year 1800 there appeared a small volume, entitled « A Description
« of Java and of its principal Productions, shewing the Advantages to be
quot; derived therefrom under a better Administration, by Mr. Dirk Van Hogen-
quot; dorp,quot; in which the writer, after observing that the true state of Java
and its importance to the mother country had hitherto been little known,
or at least that no correct ideas had yet been formed in Holland with regard
to its value, fertilityj population, and advantageous situation for trade,
establishes,

«1. That the system on which the trade in India had hitherto been con-
quot; ducted and the possessions administered, was no longer good under present
quot; circumstances, but contained in itself the seeds of decline and ruin.

quot; 3. That under a different system, those colonies would flourish, and
quot; yield much greater advantages than ever.

4f. That a revenue, founded on the principles of freedom of trade,
** property in the soil, and equality of imposts, could be easily introduced.

« 5. And finally, that all the benefits which would thereby accrue to the
quot; mother country, from the territorial revenue, the duties on trade, the
« industry and wealth for which that trade would furnish employment, and
« the treasures which the distribution of produce throughout Europe must
quot; bring into the mother country, would greatly exceed the highest advantages
quot; that could be calculated upon, even under the most favourable prospects,

quot; by the means of the fallen Company or a continuation óf its former svs
quot;tem.quot;nbsp;^nbsp;•

Many parts of this pamphlet abound in violence and invective, and others
are too highly coloured ; but with these exceptions, it may be safely asserted
that it contains a more correct view of the state of society, and of the
resources of the country, than any paper which had preceded it, and the
author is most justly entitled to all the credit of having chalked out to his
countrymen the road to honour andprosperity, in the future administration
of the Dutch East-Indian colonies.

theDntch East-India Compatiy, exhibited a satement of these resources
under the inercantile system of the Company, it may be interesting also to
state what, gt;„ the opinion of Mr. Hogendorp, the island of Java alone
was capable of affording eventually, under a system founded on the princi
pies of property in the soil, fi-eedom of cultivation and trade, and the impar-
üal admmistration of justice according to equal rights. quot; When the
quot; exclusive and oppressive trade of the Company, the forced deliveries,
quot; the feudal semces, in short, the whole system of feudal government is
done away with, and when the effects of this important revolution are felt
m the certain increase of cultivation and trade, then.quot; observes Mr.
Hogendorp, quot; the limits of probability will by no means be exceeded in
quot; estnnatmg the aggregate of the revenues of Java, in progress of time at

ofÏw\'\'\'quot;\'\'\'^\'\' calculated with reference to the comparative produce

Isexribitr^ Islands, has been generally considered by the colonists
asex 1 itmg avery exaggerated view, of what the island could, under anv
circumstances, affo.d, and bynrany as too wild a speculation to deservl
«tentron but to this it should he added, that the plan on which it was
founded, V.Z. an entire change in the internal management of the country
\'«S considered as equally wild and romantic by those who declaimed thé

loudest against the possibility of these advantages accruing, and that not-
withstanding the doubts then entertained of its practicability, that mea-
sure has been actually carried into effect, without producing any one
of the consequences depicted by the advocates of the old system, and as fai-
as a judgment can yet be formed, with all the advantages anticipated by Mr.
Hogendorp.

It is not surprising to find, that the enlightened views of this writer were
never acted upon, when we find it asserted by a commission, who sat at the
Hague in 1803, composed of the highest, and perhaps best qualified persons
in the state of Holland, and of which he was himself a member (of course
a dissenting one), that quot; it appeared to them to have been admitted gene-
quot; rally, and without contradiction, that according to ancient regulations,
quot; of which the first institution was lost even among the Javans themselves,
the manner in which that people are used to live rests on principles, with
quot; which a free and. unlimited disposition of the gi\'ound and its productions
quot; absolutely inconsistent j that they were, for their parts, convinced that
quot; such a change could not he efiTected, without causing a general fermenta-
quot; tion among all classes of people ; that though, in this case, violent mea-
« sures might suppress an insurrection, they would rather advise to bid an
quot; eternal farewell to Java, than to resort to such means j that if they
quot; adverted to the question in a commercial point of view, the same uncer-
quot; tainty, the same dangers presented themselves. These arose from the
** natural disinclination of the Javan to work, which has been observed by
« many eminent persons ; the danger of new monopolies, which would fall
heavier upon the common people than the present forced deliveries ; the
exorbitant charges to support a great number of native chiefs and priests,
« who are at present provided for and ought to be supported j an undoubted
« deficiency in the revenues, and a considerable expenditure during the
quot; first years, without the probability of a remedy. All this,quot; say they,
seems to forebode a neglect of the cultivation ; and after long and labo-
jious researches, we are compelled to lay it down as a general principle,

^^ that property of the soil among the common Javans, and the abolition
quot; of pubhc services, cannot be adopted as the basis of an improvement, of
« which the internal management of Java would be susceptible. The con-
« tingents and forced deliveries ought therefore to be continued and
« received on account of the state, which has succeeded to the prerogatives

Marshal Daendels, who was recalled from the government of Java only
a few months before the British conquest, and who was by far the most
active and energetic governor who had for a long time been at the head of
the colony, has written an account of his own administration, of the state
in which he found the island, of the measures he proposed and executed, of
the improvements which he projected or carried into effect, of the revenues
that might be expected, and of the expenditure that the public service
required. Although he enters into some free and bold strictures on the con-
duct of the Commissioners, the estimates they formed, and the policy they
recommended, he does not seem himself to have avoided many of the faults
which rendered their policy objectionable, or to have entertained any hope
of estabhshing a more liberal system. Forced services and contingents and
all the tyranny which they render necessary, still constituted the grLtest
par of the ways and means of the colonial treasury, and the grand source of
profits for the Company,

The difficulties he had to struggle with, and the peculiar habits and cha-
racter formed by his profession, seem to have determined his proceedings, more
^n any matured scheme of general administration, or any dehberate prin-

acquning audacity in proportion as they saw proofs of our weakness
« thought the moment had arrived for prescribing the law to their former
« superiors. The very existence of our dominions on Java was thus in the

Report of a Committee appointed to investigate East-India Affairs, made to th. P

Batavian Republic, dated 31st of August 1803, consisting of M^^quot;™quot;
Sic, Ponloe, Verhuell, D. Van Hogendorp, Nederburgh, and Voute.nbsp;Munmn,

quot; greatest danger. Our internal resources of finance were exhausted, while
quot; a stagnation of trade, caused by the blockade of our shores, cut off all
« hopes of procuring assistance from without. In the midst of such disas-
quot; trous circumstances, and the failure of so many attempts to introduce re-
quot; form, and to maintain the dignity of government, I found it necessary to
quot; place myself above the usual formalities, and to disregard emry law, but
quot; that quot;Which enjoined the preservation of the colony entrusted to my manage-
\'\' ment. The verbal order which I received, at my departure from Holland,
quot; had this for its object, and the approbation bestowed upon my ear by
attempts to carry it into execution, encouraged me in the course of pro-
quot; ceeding which I had began.quot;

The situation in which the Marshal found the colony is justly drawn ; but
the result of his operations, and the condition in which he left the govern-
ment to his successor, are described in colours by far too flattering. His
partialityfor his own work, and the consciousness of having made great exer-
tions to accomplish it, seems to have influenced his mind too easily, in con-
vincing him of the advantage and success of the measures he had adopted.
quot; In spite,quot; says he, of all the obstacles I encountered, I obtained the follow-
quot; ing results. I made the general government the centre of authority, from
quot; which every inferior authority descended in a determined proportion, with
a definite responsibility and a salutary controul. Into all the local
quot; and subordinate administrations, clearness and simplicity were intro-
« duced ; agriculture was encouraged, protected, and extended; general
« industry was promoted; the administration of justice and of the police
quot; was put on a sure footing; the means of defence were increased
quot; as much as possible; many works were undertaken, both for the
quot; service of government and other useful ends; new roads were made
« and old ones improved ; the condition of all the inhabitants, as well native
quot; as European, was ameliorated, and every cause of misunderstanding re-
moved; the relations of the colonial government with the courts of the
quot; native princes were regulated on principles conformable to the dignity,

diture, they will furnish a surplus of fi.e millions, free of all charge a. a
quot; nett return to Holland.quot;nbsp;^ \' ^^ ^

Marshal Daendels, in this memoir, sufficiently showed the fallacy con
taxnedm the report of the Commissioners, concerning the estimated revenuequot;
and profits of the Company. Instead of the receipt of 1,250.000 florins,
accrumg from the profit of the sale of opium (as marked in the table which
I have transcribed), he assures us that not one farthing was actually obtain-
ed. Many of the conclusions of the Commissioners, concerning the temper
of ^e inhabitants the nature of the soil of particular districts, and the
gene^nbsp;^^P-d to be founded on

Pepper, 30,000 pi^w^s • •
Tin, . 36,000 pikuls . . .
Japan Copper,nbsp;pikuls .

1nbsp; In a note on this source of revenue, Marshal Daendels says that he is sensible of the evils

■ in from the use of this drug, but that the Javans are so addicted to it, that no prospect of

arising^ could be entertained from any project for reducing its consumption. Yet even while

, . , . . „u.prvntioa he tells us that the Comnlissioners fixed the sale at 1,200 chests,
he xs makmg this oDservanou, -nbsp;. „„^ ^nbsp;, , ■■ i .i.

and that he in his estimate has only taken it at 800. It was afterwards reduced to less than 300
chests, without any fear of disturbance or any danger of illicit trade.

Geographical Situation of Ja.a,^Name,^E.tent and Form.^Bi.isions,
J^arbours.^Mountains and Volcanos,—Rivers and Lakes.—General
Appearance of the Country.—Mbieralogical Constitution,^Seasons and
Uimate.-Metals.-Minerals. -Soil.-. Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms.

fourteen miles; and on the south-east by the Straits of n\'T T
wide, which divide it from the island nf I .nbsp;»smiles

from Acheen to Pegu on one side, and from Timor to Papua, or New
Guinea, on the other: they constitute on the west and south, as do
Bdnha, Biliton, the great islands of Borneo and Celebes, and the Moluccas
on the north, the barriers of the Javan Seas and the Malayan Archipelago.
From the eastern peninsula of India, Java is distant about one hundred and
forty leagues, from Borneo about fifty-six, and from New Holland two
hundred. ^

Name.nbsp;Xo what cause the island is indebted for its present name of Java (or Jdwa

as it is pronounced by the natives) is uncertain. Among the traditions of
the country (which are more particularly mentioned in another place) there
is one, which relates, that it was so termed by the first colonists from the
continent of India, in consequence of the discovery of a certain grain,
called Jd\'wa-\'wut,* on which the inhabitants are supposed to have subsisted
at that early period, and that it had been known previously only under the
term of Nilsa hdra-hdra, or Nusa Mndang, meaning the island of wild
uncultivated waste, or in which the hills run in ridges.

In the tenth chapter of Genesis we are told, that « the isles of the
quot; Gentiles were divided in their lands; every one after his tongue, after
their families, in the nations:quot; and in the twenty-seventh chapter of
Ezekiel we find among the rich merchants, those of Javan quot; who traded
quot; the persons of men, and vessels of brass, to the market of Tyre, and
quot; who going to and fro, occupied in her fairs, brought bright iron, cassia,
quot; and calamus.quot; But we shall leave it to others to trace the connection
between the Jatan of Holy Writ and the Java of modern times. It appears,
that the Arabs, who had widely extended their commercial intercourse,
and established their religious faith over the greatest portion of the Indian
Archipelago, long before the Europeans had navigated round the Cape of
Good Hope, designate the whole of the nations and tribes which inhabit
those regions by the general term of the people of Jawi, as in the fol-
lowing passage taken from one of their religious tracts.—« The people of
quot; Jam do not observe with strictness the rule laid down for keeping the fast,
quot; inasmuch as they eat before the sun sets, while the Arabs continue the
quot; fast until that luminary has sunk below the horizon.quot; Jawa ox Jam is
also the name by which Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Malayan Peninsula
and the islands lying amongst them, are known among the nations of
Celebes, who apply the B^gis diminutive Jawa-Jawdktti or Java minor, to

the Moluccas, Ambon, Bdnda, Timor, and Mnde, Jabadios Insulse, from
Jaha, and dib, div or dio, has been employed in the largest sense by Euro-
peans, and it is probable this was once generally the case among the Asiatics,
with the terms Jam, Jawa, Jmei, and Jaha* which, as the appellations of
people inhabiting the countries beyond the continent or distant, some have
derived from the wovAjau, of very general acceptation in eastern languages,
and meaning beyond, distant.^

It is, perhaps, in consequence of these names having embraced the whole,
or at least several of the islands collectively, that the accounts given by
Marco Polo, and other early European voyagers, of particular islands, as
Java Major and Java Minor, are so inconsistent with one another.. The
country described by Marco Polo as Java Minor, seems, beyond doubt, to

* The term Zapag^ or Zahaja seems also to have been a corruption from Jaw«, and to have
been used with the same latitude, according to the following notices by Major Wilford.

There was a constant intercourse, both by sea and land, between the kingdom of Magad\'hi
quot; and China, on the authority of Chinese history; and they traded to an island and king-
^^ dom, called Founan, to the eastward of Siam, during the third and fourth centuries. This was
^^ probably a Malay kingdom ; but we cannot ascertain its situation. It seems that the Malay
quot; emperors and kings, as those of Zapagi and Founan, did what tliey could to introduce trade
quot; and learning into their dominions, but their exertions proved ineffectual; at least they were
not attended with much success ; and their subjects soon relapsed into their former mode of

Z ......quot;nbsp;countries called Maharaja, which are often confounded together •

the first, at the bottom of the Green Sea, including Bengal and all th^ . •nbsp;,

Zapage or Zahaja, which is a corruption from J«.« or as it was called n the w t

travellers\'quot; f«^\'nbsp;Ptolemy. It remained so till the time of the two Musselman

«■i that the townbsp;as large as the Euphrates, according to these travellers; who add,

n ot Calabar, on the coast of Coromandel, and ten days to the south nf
. belonged to the Maharaja of Zabaje. The wars of this Maharaja with the KW fnbsp;\'

ninth century and it seems that, at that time, the Malavl
quot; splendor.quot; Asiatic Researches, vol. ix.nbsp;^^^nbsp;g\'^eatest

t Others again have derived the term Ja^a from Fa««, ^hich in Sanscrit mean, n i
whence Java has occasionally been termed the land of barley.nbsp;Parley,

have been the eastern coast of Sumatra; but that expression, quot; or Little
Java,quot; is now applied exclusively to Bali, as quot; Great Javaquot; is to the
island we are now describing. It is on the latter only, if we except what
has been observed of the names given to the Archipelago generally by the
natives of Celebes, that the islanders themselves apply the name of Jaxm,
in any of its forms, to their own country. It has there even a still more
confined application, being generally limited to the eastern districts of the
island, which may be considered as Java proper, in contra-distinction to the
western districts, which are for the most part inhabited by a people called
Sunda, from whom the Straits and Isles of Sunda have been named by
Europeans.

Whether Sumatra, Java, or any other island of the Archipelago, or the
whole or several of them collectively, may not have formed the Taprohane
of the ancients, is perhaps still an undecided question, notwithstanding the
claims to this distinction which have of late years been rather admitted than
proved in favour of Ceylon. The most striking fact detailed in the accounts
which have reached us of this ancient country, and one which, from its
nature, is least likely to have been disfigured or perverted by the misrepre-
sentations or prejudices of travellers, is, that it was bisected in nearly equal
portions by the Equinoctial line, and that to the southward of it the polar
star was not visible. How can this statement be evaded, or in any way
applied to Ceylon ? Major Wilford seems inclined to consider Taprohane
as - derived from the Sanscrit words tapa (penance) and mna (forest or
grove), a derivation equally favorable to the claims of the Javans, tapa
and wana, or wowo, having the like signification in their language j and
if, as there is reason to believe, an extensive intercourse subsisted in very
remote times between Western India and these islands, where was there a
country that could more invite the retreat of holy men, than the evergreen
islands which rise in endless clusters on the smooth seas of the Malayan
Archipelago, where the elevation and tranquillity of devotion are fostered
by all that is majestic and lovely in nature ?

Although in Sumatra no traces of their residence have yet been discovered,
except in the languages and customs of the people j on Java, which is almost
contiguous to it, it is abundantly attested by monuments still existing in
stone and brass. In few countries, with which we are yet acquainted, are
more extensive ruins to be found of temples dedicated to an ancient worship.
If tradition may be trusted, every mountain had its tapa, or recluse, and

the whole energies and resources of the country would appear to have been
applied to the construction of those noble edifices, the ruins of which still
strike the spectator with astonishment and veneration.

That these splendid and magnificent piles were erected under the superin-
tendance of a foreign people, more skilled in the arts than the rude and
simple natives of the islands, can scarcely be doubted ; and that they were
sacred to the rites of the Hindu religion, according to some persuasion or
Other, is equally clear, from the numerous images of deities and attributes by
which they are adorned, many of which are still preserved in their original
state. Further investigation may perhaps establish Java and Sumatra, or
rather the Malayan ports (in which general term we may include all the
islands containing the Malayan Ports) as not only the Ta\'prohane or Tapa-
mna of the ancients, but also the Sacred Isles of the Hindus.

the government of the Marshal that these objects were pursued with much
energy or success.

At the period of the arrival of the English, topographical surveys of
Semdrang and several of the eastern districts had been completed j and
although somewhat deficient in accuracy of measurement and neatness of exe
cution, yet as they appeared sufficiently correct for many valuable purposes,

and as the Government was anxious to obtain, without loss of time, a better
acquaintance with the geography of the country, it was determined to make
some sacrifice of accuracy to the considerations of economy and expedition,
and to survey the other districts upon the same plan. While these surveys
were in progress, the territorial interest which the European government
obtained in the central provinces, induced them to turn their attention to
the improvements of which the Solo River might be susceptible. This river,
the most considerable in the island, passes through Sûra-Mrta, the capital
of the Susûhûnany or (as he is termed by Europeans) Emperor of Java, and
discharges itself into the sea near GrésiJc. An actual survey was accord-
ingly made by a British officer of experience, particularly instructed to
ascertain how far it might be practicable to improve its navigation by the aid
of artificial cuts and dams.

A greater object soon called for more extensive measures. When it was deter-
mined to introduce an entirely new system of internal management, by the abo-
j lition of feudal service and the establishment of a more permanent property in
1 the soil, it was deeined essential that a detailed survey should be made of the dif-

ferent districts successively, in whichthe new system was to be introduced. This
was intended to form the basis of a general agricultural survey of the coun-
try, then about to be made. In several of these districts this detailed survey
has been completed ; and, with the exception of the provinces still unedr na-
tive jurisdiction, and called Native Provinces, nearly the whole of the land
on Java, not in a state of absolute forest, has been measured with more or less
accuracy. Of the native provinces but a very small part has been actually
surveyed : with regard to the rest, the materials from which the present map
is taken, were principally obtained from observation made during occasional
routes through them. The southern division of Bantam being principally fo.
rest, has not been actually surveyed j neither has the island of Madura been
yet surveyed by Europeans : the eastern part of it was measured by the na-
tives, and it was principally upon their authority that the map now presented
of that island was drawn. The best charts of both the north and south coast
have been consulted. The three harbours of Wyn Coops Bay, Chelachap,
and Pachitan, on the latter, are laid down from actual survey, as well as the
entrance to the harbour of Surabaya. On the whole, therefore, although the
map now engraved is far from perfect, and of course suffers from the reduc-
tion necessary to adapt it to the rest of the work, it is presumed that
it will aid the reader in most of the geographical objects to which this

volume will refer, and that its superiority over those that have previously
appeared is such as to justify its publication.

The length of Java, in a straight line drawn between its extreme points,
(Java Head, and the south-east point of the island) is five hundred and
seventy-five geographical, equal to six hundred and sixty-six statute miles:
its breadth varies from one hundred and seventeen geographical, or one
hundred and thirty-five and a half statute miles (between the south-west
pomt of Pachita7ih2iy and the north point oi Japdrd) to forty-eight geo-
graphical or fifty-six statute miles, (between the mouth of the Serdyu river
and the Marahdya, five degrees east of TegdT) and it is estimated to contain
an area of about fifty thousand statute miles.

Numerous small islands are scattered in its immediate vicinity, particularly
along the northern coast, and contribute, with the projecting points and head-
lands inclosing the different bays, to form harbours of various capacities.
The most important of these islands is that of Madura, which is separated
from the main land of Java by a strait in one part not more than a mile broad,
and serves to form the important harbour o^ Surabaya. This island has the
appearance of being a continuation of the main land of Java, and having been
long subjected to the same political authority, has generally formed one
of the provinces of the Javan empire. In length Madura is about seventy-
nine geographical, or ninety-one and a half statute miles; and its narrowest
part is about twenty-seven geographical, or thirty-one and a quarter statute
miles. The small islands lying to the east of it are considered as its de-
pendencies.

The form of Java is chiefly remarkable for the rectangularity of its outline For„,
which IS such that the island might be divided into five or six parts, each
a rectangular parallelogram drawn by an unsteady hand. Its western and
Borthern coasts abound with bays and inlets. The outline of Madura is more

e coast from Bantam to the river Chi-mdnok, about two degrees in
lengt on the north, is nearlyp arallel to that which extends from Wyn
Coops Bay to a point about twenty miles west of N/isa kamhdng\'an the
breadth throughout being about seventy-eight geographical miles • and from
the same point to the river Manchingan, a distance of about one degree and

three-quarters, the coast is nearly parallel to that which lies between CM-
rihon and Semdrang, the breadth throughout being about fifty-seven geo-
graphical miles. From the west point oUapdra to point PdngJca on the north,
distant from it about two degrees, and along the corresponding coast on the
south, the average breadth is seventy-three geographical miles; and from
Surabaya to the north-east point of the island, distant about one degree and
a half, and along the south coast opposite to it, the average breadth is forty-
five geographical miles.

Divisions. At the time when Europeans first visited Java, the whole of the island
acknowledged the supremacy of one sovereign : but there was a period in
its history when it was nearly equally divided under the independent
administration of two powers, one established in the eastern, and the other
in the western districts j and as there is a marked distinction between the
descendants of these two nations, the most general division of the country
is still into the western and eastern districts, to the latter of which alone the
term Java is appHed by the natives. They are separated by the river Losdri,
which forms the boundary between Cheribon axid. Brebes ; and all the western,
the northern, with a few of the inland districts and the Island of Madura,
are under the immediate authority and administration of the European
government. The rest of the island remains subject to the native princes,
and on that account is designated on the map and elsewhere, with more re-
gard to convenience than correctness of language, as the Native Provinces.

The provinces under European authority have latterly been divided into
fifteen residencies, or separate administrations, exclusive of the seat of
government, which, as they will be frequently referred to in the course of
this work, it may be convenient to notice in this place.

Commencing from the west, the province, or as it is usually termed, the
kingdom of Bantam (properly Bdntan) occupies the first place. This exten-
sive province forms a, large portion of the island. It is washed on three sides
by the sea. At the east it joins with the environs and highlands of Batavia
and the district of Chi-dnjur, and on the west it is bounded by the Straits
of Sunda J and in this quarter comprises dependant islands scattered along
its shore, and the two harbours of Mew and Merdk, which, with other
bays, deeply indent the coast. Bantam, the native capital of this pro.
vince, has been latterly deserted by the European establishment for Sirang
(commonly called Ceram), an elevated and healthy station about seven miles
further inland.

Next in succession towards the east is the division of Batavia, which
comprises whatformerlycons^^^^^

The northern part of this division, towards the coast, includes the city of
Batavia, populous and important on account of its excellent roads for
hipping, Its advantageous position for European commerce, and as JZ
the long established seat of the Dutch goLnment, but less fertile aquot;!
Healthy than the more eastern provinces of the island.

Jgt;outh and east of the division of Batavia and its environs lie what are
termed by Europeans the Preanger {Pridng*en) Regencies,* the central
and southern districts of which, stretching from Bantam to Cheribon, are
extremely mountainous. This extensive portion of the island, which\'now
includes a large part of Cheribon, consists of the districts of Krdwam
(^htasem Famanuhan, Kdndang-aur, and Dramdyu or Indramdyu. aW
the northern coast, and of the inland and southern districts of ChUnJul

rom th, boundary of Bantam to that of Ch6ribon, being included within
ttie subdivisions of Chi-dnjur, and Suka-pura.

To the eastward of these districts, and crossing the island from north to
^uth, IS the province of Cheribon, divided into ten principal districts.

These durmg the British government of the island, were comprised under
«ae admimsh-atmns of Teoa., Pakal^jno^a., SemW, JapIra, and
liembane, which under the Dutch East-India Company constituted what was
Se^T government of the North-east Coast, the seat of which was at
which ZV rnbsp;SurabIya, Pasijruan, Bisijki, and BanyuwIngi,

same authority, the division of the Cost Hook, or East Point of the island of
wmcn i^israbaya was the principal station. Inland of SemXrang and P.l.
lungan, and bounded by those divisions, and by the provinces of the Itlequot;
prmces, is situated the rich and fertile district of Kedij, which witrth!
more eastern districts of Groboga., W.kosIh, B.6ba, jL.g, Jll^ z

WiRASABA, Stretching inland from Semarang to Surabaya, were ceded to
the British government in the year 1812.

The capitals of all the northern districts bear the same name with the
districts themselves, and are generally situated on small rivers at no great
distance from the sea.

The Native Provinces are divided between two native sovereigns: the
Susuhunan, or Emperor of Java, who resides at Sura-Jcerta¹ on the Solo
River j and the Sultan, who resides at Yugya-kerta,\\ near the south coast,
in the province of Matdrem. These provinces comprise several of the richest
districts of the island, among which are Bdnyumas, Roma, Bdgalen, and
Matdrem, to the west; and Mddion, Jagardga, Suka\'wdti, Pranardga, Kerta-
sdna, BUtar, and Kediri, to the east; and with the exception of the small
district of PacUtan, which has been recently ceded to the European go-
vernment, occupy the whole of the southern coast from Cheribon to Mdlang,
a distance of not less than two hundred and fifty miles, and form about a
fourth part of the whole island.

The districts near the coasts are generally separated from each other by
rivers j those in the interior often by ranges of hills and mountains. The
districts are again divided, each subdivision including numerous villages.

HarWs. The principal harbour of the island is that of Surabdya in the eastern
districts, formed by the approaching extremities of Java and Madura. It
is broad and spacious, secure against the violence of the sea and wind, and
may be rendered impregnable to any hostile attack.

The next in importance is that of Batavia, more properly, perhaps,
called the roads of Batavia, which are sheltered by several islands lying
in the outer part of the bay. These roads, however, not admitting
of any means of permanent defence from the attack of a superior naval
force, the Dutch government, during the late v/ar, were induced to fortify
the small harbour of Merdk Bay, on the north-west coast of Bantam.

1nbsp; Sura-lcerta, ox Sura-lcerta dining rat, is the name given to the seat of empire; but as the
capital was only removed to its present site about the middle of the last century, it is still fre-
quently called Solo, the name of the village in or near which this capital was established.

t This capital is indiiferently turned YoJcya, JoJeya, Juju, \'Ngyugya, or Yugya-herta, and
is the Djojo-Carta, according to the Dutch orthography. The turn Yugya has been selected
on account of its nearer approximation to the supposed derivation of the word from the
Na-yud-ya of the Ramaya».

Along the northern coast, there are perhaps other positions which admit of
being improved into convenient harbours; but where the whole coast affords
excellent anchorage at nearly all seasons of the year, and where vessels of
any burthen can approach all the principal stations, at a convenient distance
for the barter of their merchandize, the purposes of commerce are in that
respect already sufficiently provided for. The sea being usually smooth,
and the weather moderate, the native vessels and small craft always find
sufficient shelter at the change of the monsoon, by running under some of
the numerous islands scattered along this coast, or passing up the rivers,
which, though in general difficult of entrance on account of their bars,
are for the most part navigable to such vessels, as far up as the maritime
capitals, through which they run.

The south coast, on account of its exposure to the open ocean, the con-
sequent high swell or surf which breaks on it, and its general want of good
anchorage, is seldom visited by shipping. But even here harbours may be
found 5 and those of Cheldchap and PacMtan might, no doubt, be frequented
with safety, were it considered desirable to attract commercial adventurers
to this side of the island.

Passing from the coast to the interior of the country, the stranger cannot Mountains and
fail to be struck with the bold outline and prominent features of its scenery.
An uninterrupted series or range of large mountains, varying in their ele-
vation above the sea from five to eleven, and even twelve thousand feet*
and exhibiting, by their round base or pointed tops, their volcanic origin,
extend through the whole length of the island.

The first of this series, commencing from the westward, is in Bantam.
This mountain (GunungMrangJ, though of moderate elevation compared
with others on the island,t is seen at a considerable distance from sea, and
IS a well known landmark to mariners. It lies due south of the town of
Bantam, at a considerable distance from the sea.

The next mountain of the series is the Sdlak, the eastern foot of which
is connected with the Gede or Panarang\'o, situated about fifty miles south

* The height of the mountain Arjuna, in the eastern part of the island, has been deter-
mined at 10,614 feet above the level of the sea; and this mountain is by no means so lofty
those of Semiru and Tegal, the exact height of which has not yet been ascertained.

t The height of this mountain has been ascertained to be 5,263 English feet above the level
of the sea.

from the appearance they exhibit, are usually termed by mariners the\' Blue
Mountams.

From the eastern part of the Gedé, the volcanic series separates into two
nidependent branches, one of which indines to the south ; the other pro-
ceeds almost due east, slightly verging to the north. The former breaks into
an u-regular transverse range, which extends across the island, till it approaches
the northern branch, from whence the general series is continued in an
easterly direction as far as the mountain Sindbro, the western of the two moun-
tains known by mariners as the Two Brothers. The mountain SumUng, or
Sinddri (the second of The Brothers), is somewhat further to the south.

At a short distance from the eastern foot of the mountain SûmUng are
three large volcanos, m a direction almost north and south, dividing the
large series transversely 5 these are the mountains Ung\'drang, Merbdbu,
and Merdpi. The next volcano, in an eastern direction, is that of Japdra
whxch deviates more than any other from the regular series, and forms I
peculiar peninsular appendage to the island. The series is then continued
m an easterly course from the Merâpi as far as the mountain Telâga-
quot;wûrmg, which is in contact with the ocean at the eastern end of the island

The several large mountains comprized in this series, and which are in
number thirty-eight, though different from each other in external figure
agree in the general attribute of volcanos, having a broad base gradually
verging towards the summit in the form of a cone.

They all rise from a plain but little elevated above the level of the sea,
and each must, with very few exceptions, be considered as a separate
mountain, raised by a cause independent of that which produced the
others. Most of them have been formed at a very remote period and
are covered by the vegetation of many ages; but the indications and re-
mains of their former irruptions are numerous and unequivocal. The cra-
ters of several are completely extinct ; those of others contain small aper-
tures, which continually discharge sulphureous vapours or smoke. Many
of them have had irruptions during late years.*

* To the above general observations, which are made on the authority of Dr. Horsfield, it
quot;lay not be uninteresting to subjoin a more particular account of two or three of the volcanos
which have been examined by that gentleman; those of Tâtihuban-Prahu, Papandâyang, and

Besides the mountains of the larger series above described, there are ex-
tensive ranges of mountains of an inferior elevation, sometimes connected

Guntur are, therefore, extracted from a paper published by Dr. Horsfield in the Batavian Trans-
actions.

quot; Tankuban-Prahu—This mountain (which has derived its name from its appearance at
quot; a distance, resembling a prahu, or boat, turned upside down) forms a vast truncated cone.
quot; Its base extends to a very great distance, and it belongs to the largest mountains of the
quot; island, forming one of its most interesting volcanos. Although it has had no violent erup-
quot; tion for many ages, as is evident from the progress of vegetation, and from the depth of black
quot; mould which covers its sides, its interior has continued in a state of uninterrupted activity.

quot; The crater is one of the largest, perhaps the largest of the island. It has, in general, the
quot; shape of a funnel; but its sides are very irregular. The brim, or margin, which bounds it at
quot; the top, has also different degrees of elevation, rising and descending along the whole
course of its circumference. The perpendicular depth at the side, where I descended (in the
quot; south), is at least two hundred and fifty feet: in the west the margin rises considerably higher.
quot; The regular circumference of the crater I estimate one English mile and nearly an half. The
quot; south side of the interior crater, near the top, is very steep. I found it impossible to descend,
quot; without the assistance of ropes tied to the shrubs at the margin. It consists here of small frag-
quot; ments of lava. About one-third of its depth it becomes more oblique or inclining, and the
quot; lower part consists of large piles of rocks, through which the descending streams of water
quot; have excavated a winding channel. The east side descends gradually about one half of the
» depth, where it is terminated abruptly by a perpendicular pile of large rocks, which con-
\'\' tinues to the bottom. The north side is more gradually shelving than the others, and is
quot; partly covered with vegetation. The west side is one perpendicular pile of rocks. The
quot; nucleus of the mountain consists of large masses of basaltes, in which the volcanic opening
lt;lt; is situated ; and the sides exhibit piles and strata of this stone in every possible variety of
quot; configuration. In some places, the rocks have the appearance of a regular wall, which is
quot; suddenly diversified by large fragments suspended apparently by a small base, and threaten-
quot; ing to fall down every instant. Sometimes they rise in an oblique manner, and appear to
have been disposed by art. But I shall not attempt a minute description of the disposition
\'\' of the rocks and the strata which form the internal walls of the crater, which, without an
quot; accurate drawing, would be tedious and scarcely intelligible. The surface of the rocks
quot; which line the interior of the crater is completely calcined, generally of a white colour,
quot; sometimes inclining to grey or yellow. In many places, small fragments of lava adhere
to and cover the rocks of basalt: these are of diiferent sizes, and of great variety of form
« and colour; but the most are calcined or burnt, or the surface like the rocks themselves.
quot; The diiferent sides of the internal crater are excavated in many places, by furrows made by
(I the descending water, which penetrate to a considerable depth, and expose more com-
{{ pietely the interior basaltic composition. The bottom of the crater has a diameter of three
quot; hundred yards, but is not completely regular ; its form depends on the gradual meeting of
quot; the sides below. Its surface is much diversified: it is strewed, like the sides, with immense
quot; blocks of basalt, the interstices between which are excavated, in a similar manner, by the
« streams of the descending water.

with the larger series, and sometimes independent of them, which are also
for the most part volcanic. Numerous ridges of hills traverse the country

Near the centre, somewhat inclining to the west side, it contains an irregular oval lake,
quot; or collection of water, whose greatest diameter is nearly one hundred yards : it dilates into
\'\' several branches. The water is white, and exhibits truly the appearance of a lake of milk,
quot; boiling with a perpetual discharge of large bubbles, which rise with greatest force from the
quot; eastern side. The heat is lig» of Fahrenheit\'s scale : the apparent boiling arises from a
quot; constant development of fixed air. The water has a sulphureous odour ; its taste is astringent
« somewhat saline. Shaken in a bottle it explodes its fixed air with great violence. The sides
quot; of the lake, to somè distance, are lined by a white aluminous earth, most impalpably fine, and
quot; very loose, on which account it is very difficult to approach the water. In attempting to
quot; examine its temperature, and to collect for analysis, I sunk into the earth to a considerable
;; distance, and found it necessary to dispose l.rge fragments of basaltes before I was able
to pass over it. This earth consists of the clay (alumina) of the lavas dissolved by the
« sulphureous steams on the bottom of the crater; it is of the purest kind, and divided to
\'\' a degree minute almost beyond conception. Large quantities have been several times thrown
out of the ancient craters of the island. One eruption of this substance occurred in the
year 1761 from the mountain Gedé: it was considered as an eruption of ashes.

I was witness to a similar eruption, which occurred from the mountain of Klüt, in the

month of June last year. The earth very much resembled ashes, and was so impalpably

quot; fine and light, that the common breeze of the monsoon carried it from this mountain

quot; situated in the longitude of Surabaya, to Batavia and farther westward. It possessed thé

quot; properties of the purest clay, and being mixed with water became viscid and ductile. It

« can easily be formed into vessels, and if procurable in large quantities, might usefullv be

quot; employed in the arts. All its properties indicated sufficiently that it was the alumine of the

lavas, divided m an extreme degree by the causes above-mentioned. The Javanese are not

« wholly unacquainted with the properties of this earth. It is a custom amongst silversmiths to

quot; collect the ashes thrown out by similar eruptions, for the purpose of making moulds for the
quot; finest works.

quot; Towards the eastern extremity of the lake are the remaining outlets of the subterrane
« fires: they consist of several apertures, from which an uninterrupted discharge of sul h

ous vapours takes place. Two of these are larger than the rest; they are several 7et
quot; distant from each other. The apertures are of an irregular oblong form, and covered w^h
quot; crystals of impure sulphur, which form from the discharged vapours, and adherlTo tlTose
quot; incrustations of the aluminous earth which have formed themselves in a great variet of
\'\' configurations (hollows, tubes, amp;c ) near the apertures. The vapours rush out wkh irredible
quot; force, with violent subterraneous noises, resembling the boiling of an immense cauldron
in the bowels of the mountain: their colour is white, like the concentrated vapours of
quot; boiling water. The apertures cannot be approached without the greatest danger, as their
true extent cannot be discovered : they are surrounded by incrustations of sulphur adhering
^^ to delicate lamin® of the aluminous earth, which are extremely brittle. The greatest
aiameter of the large opening is nearly twelve inches.

in various directions, and the surface of the island in general, independently
of these more striking features, is in most parts undulating and uneven,
except on the sea coast.

« To give an adequate description of the interior of this crater would furnish matter for an
quot; able pen : the force of the impression is increased, perhaps, by the recollection of the danger
quot; which has been overcome in descending to the bottom. Every thing here contributes to fill
quot; the mind with the most awful satisfaction. It doubtless is one of the most grand and terrific
quot; scenes which nature affords ; and, in the present instance, the extent of the crater, as well
quot; as the remains of the former explosions, afforded a view and enjoyment which is not in my
quot; power to describe.

Papandayang.—The Papandayang, situated on the western part of the district of Cheri-
bon, in the province of Suka-pura, was formerly one of the largest volcanos of the island;
\'\' but the greatest part of it was swallowed up in the eartii, after a short but very severe
quot; combustion, in the year 1772. The account which has remained of this event asserts, that
quot; near midnight, between the 11th and 12th of August, there was observed about the moun-
quot; tain an uncommonly luminous cloud, by which it appeared to be completely enveloped. The
quot; inhabitants, as well about the foot as on the declivities of the mountain, alarmed by this
quot; appearance, betook themselves to flight ; but before they could all save themselves, the
quot; mountain began to give way, and the greatest part of it actually fell in and disappeared in
quot; the earth. At the same time, a tremendous noise was heard, resembling the discharge of
quot; the heaviest cannon. Immense quantities of volcanic substances, which were thrown out
quot; at the same time and spread in every direction, propagated the effects of the explosion
quot; through the space of many miles.

quot; It is estimated, that an extent of ground, of the mountain itself and its immediate envi-
quot; rons, fifteen miles long and full six broad, was by this commotion swallowed up in the
bowels of the earth. Several persons, sent to examine the condition of the neighbourhood,
quot; made report, that they found it impossible to approach the mountain, on account of the
quot; heat of the substances which covered its circumference, and which were piled on each
quot; other to the height of three feet ; although this was the 24th of September, and thus full
quot; six weeks after the catastrophe. It is also mentioned, that forty villages, partly swallowed
quot; up by the ground and partly covered by the substances thrown out, were destroyed on this
quot; occasion, and that 2,957 of the inhabitants perished. A proportionate number of cattle was
also destroyed, and most of the plantations of cotton, indigo, and coffee, in the adjacent
districts, were buried under the volcanic matter. The effects of this explosion are still very
quot; apparent on the remains of this volcano ; but I defer an account of it, till I have had an
quot; opportunity of making a more minute examination.

quot; Guntur.—The whole of the eastern part of this mountain is completely naked, and
quot; exposes to view, in a striking manner, the course of the lavas of the latter eruptions : the
ii top is a regular cone, and covered with loose fragments of lava. I shall give a very
quot; concise abstract of the observations on the mountain, and on the different streams of lava
quot; which have lately flowed from its crater. I could distinctly trace, from the base of
quot; the conical top to the roots of the mountain, five different eruptions. The latest stream of

A country which abounds in mountains is seldom deficient in rivers ; ac-
cordingly, no region is perhaps better watered. Java is singularly favoured

quot; lava which I examined (the mountain has since had a later eruption) was thrown out in 1800.
quot; Its course along the top cannot be distinctly observed, being completely covered with
quot; sand and small fragments of lava, which generally rise towards the end of an eruption.
« At the place where the stream first appeared distinctly, it was about five yards broad
quot; and completely even on the surface : having proceeded about twenty yards further it
quot; gradually widened, and was formed into a connected stream, higher in the middle, the
quot; sides tapering or inclining towards the top, forming a ridge with a pointed or sharp back.

As the stream arrived at the foot of the mountain, it spread more and more, and pursued its
quot; course to the eastward, about six hundred yards over the adjacent country. Its greatest
quot; breadth, from north to south, is about one hundred and sixty yards, and it terminates
quot; abruptly by a rounded margin, consisting of large blocks of lava piled upon each other,
quot; nearly perpendicularly, to the height of fifteen to twenty feet.

lt;lt; This stream of lava, like all the others of later date which I have examined on the island,
quot; does not consist of a connected mass of fluid lava, united like a stream of melted metal ; at
least on the surface where it is exposed to view. It is made up of separate masses, which
quot; have an irregular (generally oblong or cubical) shape, and lie upon each other as \' loose
quot; disjointed clods\', in an immense variety of disposition. In some of these fragments I think
quot; I could observe a tendency to assume the regular basaltic figure. During its course down
the steeps of the mountain, the stream, as has been observed, forms the long connected
quot; ridge (which has been described above, in tlie account of the volcanos, as generally cover-
« ing the sides) ; but having arrived at the foot and spread more at large, these lumps of lava
lt;lt; dispose themselves, in some instances, in plains, bounded by deep vallies : now they rise to
quot; a considerable height, and form a steep perpendicular eminence ; then again they are piled
quot; upon each other more gradually, and appear rising by steps and divisions. But to give an
accurate description of the arrangement of these fragments of lava would be unnecessarily
quot; prolix, and would require, to be clearly understood, a good drawing. In different places,
« the sulphureous vapours have forced their way through the interstices of the blocks of lava.
quot; The sides of their outlets (whose form is very irregular) is covered with a white calcareous
quot; crust; and the heat is so great, that small pieces of paper thrown into them are imraediate-
« ly singed.

quot; This stream of lava is bounded on the north by another, of the same nature and disposi-
quot; tion, thrown out of the mountain (according to an estimate made from the commencement
and progress of vegetation upon it) about thirty years ago. In its course along the sides of
quot; the mountain it forms the same pointed ridges above described. It affords a plain demon-
« stration of the manner in which the surface of lava is decomposed and rendered fit for vege-
« tation. A third district of lava bounds the new stream first described in the south : it is
quot; more extensive than the others, and consists of several distinct regions, probably thrown out
during one eruption (which appears to have been more violent than the others), but in suc-
quot; cessive periods shortly following each other. It extends farther to the eastward than the
quot; others, and covers a great portion of the foot of the mountain. Vegetation has already made
quot; considerable progress upon it : in the vallies between the separate streams of lava are found

in the number of its streams. The size of the island does not admit of the
formation of large rivers, but there are probably fifty, that in the wet
season bear down rafts charged with timber and other rough produce of
the coimtry, and not less than five or six at all times navigable to the dis-
tance of some miles from the coast. It would be vain to attempt numbering
those which are precious to the agriculturist j they are many hundreds, if

it is termed by the natives Beng\'d\'wan (the great) Solo, whxch takes its nse
It IS termed ^^jnnbsp;after collecting the waters of the surround-

•quot;^hills\' bTcofefa stream of considerable depth and breadth at SMerta.
Xrl it is further increased by the waters collected from the adjacent dis-
tricts. Its general course from the capital is in an east-north-easterly direc-
tion, till it discharges itself by two principal outlets into the sea, near
Gresik and Siddyu. After leaving Matdrem, it traverses the provinces of
SuJcawdti, Jagardga, Mddion, Jipang. Blirra, Tuhan, Siddyu, and Grestlc.

At Am near the boundary of Mddion andi jagardga, on the eastern side
of the river, a large branch from t^e south-eastern provinces,

« not only plants but also small shrubs. At one place, near the termination of this Stream, the
- lava is piled up in two irregular ridges to the height of twenty feet; and at a small distance
quot; from its eastern extremity, in a spot which has escaped the effects of the later eruptions, and
is covered by a pleasant wood, are three different hot wells, within the circumference of a
quarter of a mile. In the south, this district of lava is bounded by a recent stream, which\'

a ears to have been thrown out in 1800, by the same eruption which produced the first men-

tfoMd stream. It differs from the others only in the colour of its lava, which has a reddish

hu^ it is less considerable in extent than any of the others, and cannot be traced far from

the foot of the mountain. The fifth stream of lava which I examined is still farther towards

crater. Near the foot of the mountain, vegetation has made greater progress than m any o

iT/fragments have much the appearance of the scoria, of a blacksmiths forge: on being
tLown against each other, they emit a sound like two bricks commg into contact. The in-
TZ crier of this mountain, as it has remained after the eruption of 1800, is less m erest-

others which I have examined. Its shape is somewhat oval, the greatest diame-
ut one hundred yards: its depth is not very considerable. Its structure, in
ter being a ounbsp;^^^^ ^^ Tankuban-praJiu. It has one remaining aperture, which

called the river of Mddion, unites itself with that of Sblo, and from hence
its course, which in various places has been rapid, and in a few places im-
peded with rocks, is cairn, regular, and steady to its discharge. It has
been estimated, that the extent of the windings of this river is not less than
three hundred and fifty-six English miles, from Sdra-kerta to Gresik, which
in the chart only gives a straight line of one hundred and forty English miles,
and during its whole course no serious impediment appears to its navigation.

This river is of great importance to the inland trade of many of the eastern
provinces. During the rainy season, boats of considerable si^e convey the
produce of an extensive tract of country to the sea ; and, except durmg the
Lnths of August, September, and October, and in seasons uncommonly
dry, it bears down boats of middling or small size during the whole yeai,
from a considerable distance above Ss^cra-kerta, The boats employed in the
navigation of the river are of very different sizes, and of a peculiar construc-
tion : they are very long in proportion to their breadth, have flat bottoms,

and draw very little water. Those generally used in conveying the produce
from one village to another in the vicinity of Sura-kerta, carry only a few
tons and have a temporary covering of straw mats, or kajang-, others,

These are generally used by individuals in their adventures io Gresik and
Surabaya. The largest, which are the property of the Prmce, load nearly
two hundred tons. They are employed in transporting the produce of se-
veral of the interior provinces, consisting chiefly of pepper and coflee, to
Gresik, and return laden with salt and foreign merchandize for the con-
sumption of the interior. They require a considerable depth of water, and
can only pass when the river is swollen by continued rams. They mostly
depart from Sura-kerta in the month of January. Their course down the
river is rapid: they generally arrive at GrSsik in eight days ; but they can
perform but one voyage in a season, as they require nearly four months to
work up the stream.

«ya river The river of Surabaya, the second in magnitude of the whole island, nses

ture numerous augmentations from the southern ridge of mountains. The
chief of these is the Lésti, a considerable river coming from the east,
which joins it near the boundary of Malang and Sering\'at. Continuing its
course in a northern direction, it traverses the provinces of Row and
Kediri, being joined on the way by the river Ubwo : here it attains its
utmost magnitude, and is distinguished by the name of Beng\'âwan Kediri.
From the capital of this district to its mouths, it is navigable for boats^ of
very considerable size, and its course is steady and uninterrupted. Havmg
crossed the district of Wirasâba and Jâpan, it enters that of SuraUya. It
discharges itself into the ocean by five outlets, which form as many separate
rivers The first of them, taking an easterly course, is called the river
Tânông: then follow those of Tang\'golângHng, SidoMri, Kedmg, and
lastly of Wano-krmo, which again subdividing sends off the branch which
passes Surahdya.

Several smaller rivers, which fall into the sea heiv^ee^ Semârang and
Ldsem, are highly important for the conveyance of teak timber from the
central forests to the coast -, and the waters from some of them being
directed into canals, particularly through the low district of Demdk, tend
considerably to increase the inland navigation of the country.

In the western districts, the principal ri.ers which discharge themselves
into the sea on the northern coast are the Chi-kdndt, which forms the present
boundary between Bantam and the environs of Batavia; the Ch-ddnt,
which discharges itself below Tdng\'ran ; the Chi-tdrom, which falls into the
sea below Krdwung ; and the CJii-manok, which forms the present boundary
between Dramdyu and Chéribon. The principal rivers which discharge
themselves by the south coast are the Chi-mandiri, which falls into the sea
at Falahuan-rdtu, or Wyn Coops Bay ; the Chi4andui, which disembogues
near Nûsa-kambâng\'an) and the Serdyu, which taking its rise in the
mountain Meng or Prdhu, traverses the rich districts of Bdnyumas, and
falls into the sea a short distance to the east of Cheldchap; but these rivers,
though of considerable depth, are choked up at their mouths by heavy banks
or bars, and in consequence of the heavy surf which constantly breaks on

Along the northern coast, almost every district has its prmcipal river, and
most of them are navigable up to the maritime capitals for native vessels of
considerable burthen ; but they all have the disadvantage of being partially
blocked un at their discharge by extensive bars and mud-banks, an evil which
^nbsp;D gnbsp;is

is extending with the increase of agriculture, by reason of the quantity of soil
necessarily washed down in the process of irrigating the land for the rice
cultivation. Most of them require the application of jetties or piers to

There are no lakes of any considerable size on Java, for that name cannot
be given to the rawas, or swamps,, which though swelled to a considerable
size in the wet season, are for the rest of the year either dried up or choked
by vegetation. Of this description are two extensive tracts; one inland of
Japdra, usually termed by the Dutch the Binnen Zee, or inland sea; and
another in the district of Semdrang. In Bdglen also (one of the native
provinces on the southern side of the island) there is a lake wh^h supplies
the neighbouring country with fish, and along the coast of which a traüic is

and in the mountainous districts of the Sunda country. Several very beau-
tiful lakes, of small dimensions, are discovered among the hills, and some
of them can evidently be shewn to have been formed of the craters of extinct

Oe^eraiAspee. The general aspect of Java on the northern coast is low, in ma^^^
swampy and overgrown with mangrove trees and bushes, particulaily
toward the west. The southern coast, on the contrary, consMs a most
entirely of a series of rocks and cliffs, which rise perpendicularly to
a considerable height. In the interior, stupendous mountains stretch longi-
tudinally throughout the island, while others of an inferior elevation, and
innumerable ranges of hills running in various directions

confine plains and valleys of various elevations and extent. On the noUhern
side, the ascent is in general very gradual, from the sea coast to the imme-
diate base of the mountains j particularly in the western parts of the island,
where it has the greatest breadth, and where the mountains are situated far
inland In approaching the mountains, which lie at the back of Batavia,
there \'is a gradual but almost imperceptible acclivity for about forty mi es
In other parts, where the mountains and hills approach nearer to the coast
the ascent is of course more abrupt, as may be observed in the vicinity ot

\' h world • uniting all the rich and magnificent scenery, which waving
fquot; \'t * ever failing streams, and constant verdure can present, heightened
bvt Dure atmosphere and the glowing tints of a tropical sun.

The largest of the elevated plains are; in the west, that of £andung,
formed between the two ranges of voloanos which branch off from the
fo^of the mountainnbsp;and in the east, those

r Tvf .itr of Seramp;yu bends its winding and romantic course, are
Sips the richest parts of the island. The low lands, however, are
LtwLout their claims to that distinction; especially the flats of
once an extensive swamp, and the Delta of SuraUya Large tac^
particularly in the mountainous ranges of the western districts, st.11 remam

brighter scL. At length he .hes
the high lands. Here the boldest forms of nature are tempered by the ru-
ral arts of man: stupendous mountains clothed with abundant har^-est im-

basaltes occasionally project, and in several instances the valleys form the
beds of rivers towards the tops of the volcanos j in the rainy season they all
convey large volumes of water.

Next in importance to this extensive series of primary mountains, there
are various ridges of smaller mountains, or hills, extending in different di-
rections, with nearly an equal degree of elevation; sometimes originating
from or connected with the primary volcanos, sometimes forming inde-
pendent ranges, and arising separately and at a distance from the great series.
These, which have been termed secondary mountains, though evidently
of a volcanic nature, differ in many particulars of their constitution from
those of the larger series. They generally extend in long narrow ridges,
with but a moderate elevation, and their sides are less regularly com-
posed of the vertical ridges above mentioned. In most cases, a stratified
Structure and submarine origin may be discovered. They are generally
covered with large rocks of basaltes; and in some instances they consist of
wacken and hornblende, which is found along their base in immense piles.

Hills of calcareous constitution, with only a moderate degree of elevation,
occur in smaller ridges, often with a flat or tabular top ; or in steep rocks
and eminences. These are sometimes found in the centre of the island,
covering the volcanic districts, but much more frequently near the northern
and southern shores.

Hills of a mixed nature, partly calcareous and partly volcanic, are also
found. The southern coast of the island consists almost entirely of them,
rising in many places to the perpendicular height of eighty or one hundred
feet, and sometimes much higher. These, as they branch inward and approach
the central or higher districts, gradually disappear, and give place to the
volcanic series, or alternate with huge masses of basaltic hornblende, that
appears to assume a regular stratification. At the base of these, or in the
beds of the rivers which proceed from them, are frequently found various
silicious stones, as common flints, prase, hornstone, jasper, porphyry, agate,
cornelian, amp;c.

Alluvial districts, evidently of recent origin, are noticed in several parts of
the island. These are formed from the sediment and near the discharge of
large rivers, and at the borders of the calcareous ridges, which are in many
instances partially covered by them: their boundary can easily be traced,
and most of them are still in a state of constant progression. Among other

phenomena are mineral wells of various temperature and impregnation ; wells
of naptha, or petrolium; and rivers arising, in a few instances, from the
craters of volcanos, impregnated with sulphureous acid.*

# Mineral wells, of various qualities, are found in almost every part of the island. As an in-
ce of the hot wells, the following, account of those found in Cheribon is selected. - At the
.Jlage oiBongas (situated about ten miles to the north-east of Karang-Samhong) I directed
my route to the large mountain, in order to examine part of the hills along its foot, called
quot; the hills of Pana-wangan, and several hot wells which are found near their borders. On
\'\' approaching these hills, after a very gentle acclivity covered entirely by calcareous stones,

,, Tnbsp;.nbsp;cnot of the hot wells. They are found on a gently inclining plain,

about one hundred yards in circumference. This plain is perfectly white ; and on approach-

« tn \'\'it it is perceived at some distance by a sulphureous vapour, arising from the whole

quot; neighbourhood. The water springs from several apertures, but their temperatures are

quot; not equal; the hottest indicates the degree of one hundred and thirty of Fahrenheit\'s scale.

quot; They all contain a very large quantity of calcareous earth in solution and suspension, which

quot; coming into contact with the air, immediately separates, and adheres to the surrounding

quot; objects, or is precipitated to the ground. The branches of the shrubs in the vicinity are all

quot; enveloped by a stalactical incrustation. The water from the different wells gently descending

quot; the white calcareous plain, is collected in a rivulet below. A large number of calcareous rocks

quot; are found in the vicinity of the plains ; some are covered with elegant crystals of calcareous

quot; spar, others have a coralline appearance, and some have the fracture of alabaster. On proceed-

quot; ing up the hills, immense irregular blocks of calcareous rocks are found strewed about in the

quot; valleys. About one hundred yards above this district are several wells of naptha, or petroleum.

quot; It rises in small plashes of water, about twelve or eighteen inches in diameter, upon which it

quot; drives its black specks, emitting the peculiar odour of the petroleum. The earth in the cir-

quot; cumference of these plashes is strongly impregnated with this oil: it is very tough, and from

quot; that immediately bounding apertures, the naptha flows out on its being pressed ; some por-

quot; tions exactly resemble asphaltum. A considerable space of ground is occupied by these

quot; wells. The stones are all calcareous. A few hundred yards above this spot, the borders of the

quot; hills become very steep. I examined them to some extent. They are composed exclusively

quot; of calcareous stones. Several extensive stalactitic caves are found at no great distance

quot; above the wells ; they exhibit the usual appearances of calcareous caves and vaults. The

quot; process of incrustation is continually going on. In some places, deep perforations exten

» into the heart of the hills.quot;—Essat^ on the Mineralogy of Java, hij Dr. Horsfie . Bat.

^^ong other objects of curiosity, which can only be illustrated by particular description,
are the explosions of mud, situated between the district of Grobogan on the west, and of Blora
and Jipang on the east. By the natives they are termed Bledeg, and are described by Dr.

quot; These salt wells,quot; he observes, quot; are dispersed through a district of country several miles
quot; in circumference, the base of which, like that of other parts of the island which furnish mi-
quot; neral and other saline waters, is limestone. They are of considerable number, and force

From these, and all other investigations yet made, the constitution of
Java appears to be exclusively volcanic. From the vast Asiatic chain of
mountains, one branch of which terminates in Ceylon, proceeds another,
which traversing Arakan, Pegu, and the Malayan Peninsula, extends to
Sumatra, BdnJca, and BUiton, where it may be said to disappear. On Java
no granite has been discovered. In its constitution, as in its direction, it
may be considered as the first of a series of volcanic islands, which extend
nearly eastward from the Straits of Sunda for about twenty-five degrees.

At what period the island assumed its present shape, or whether it was
once joined to Sumatra and Bali, is matter for conjecture. The violent
convulsions which these islands have so often suffered, justify a conclusion
that the face of the country has been frequently changed, and tradition

quot; themselves upwards, through apertures in the rocks, with some violence and ebullition. The
« waters are strongly impregnated with sea-salt, and yield upon evaporation very good salt for
quot; culinary purposes. (In quantity not less than two hundred tons in the year.)

« About the centre of this limestone district, is found an extraordinary volcanic phenome-
quot; non. On approaching it from a distance, it is first discovered by a large volume of smoke
quot; rising and disappearing at intervals of a few seconds, resembling the vapours arising from a
quot; violent surf- a dull noise is heard, like that of distant thunder. Having advanced so near,
that the vision was no longer impeded by the smoke, a large hemispherical mass was observed,
consisting of black earth, mixed with water, about sixteen feet in diameter, rismg to the height
- of twenty or thirty feet in a perfectly regular manner, and as it were pushed up, by a force
« beneath; which suddenly exploded with a dull noise, and scattered about a volume of black
quot; mud in every direction. After an interval of two or three, or sometimes four or five seconds,
quot; the hemispherical body of mud or earth rose and exploded again. In the same manner this
volcanic ebullition goes on without interruption, throwing up a globular body of mud and
« dispersing it with violence through the neighbouring plain. The spot where the ebullition
quot; occurs is nearly circular and perfectly level, it is covered only with the earthy particles im-
quot; pregnated with salt water, which are thrown up from below; the circumference maybe esti-
a ^ated at about half an English mile. In order to conduct the salt water to the circumfe-
quot; rence small passages, or gutters, are made in the loose muddy earth, which lead it to the
\'\' borders where it is collected in holes dug in the ground for the purpose of evaporation.
quot; A strong, pungent, sulphureous smell, somewhat resembling that of earth-oi], is perceived
on standing near the explosion; and the mud recently thrown up possesses a degree of heat
a greater than that of the surrounding atmosphere. During the rainy season these explosions
« are more violent, the mud is thrown up much higher, and the noise is heard at a greater dis-

quot;^quot;rhis volcanic phenomenon is situated near the center of the large plain which interrupts
quot; the large series of volcanos; and owes its origin to the general cause of the numerous vol-
quot; canic eruptions which occur on the island.quot;nbsp;^^^^^^ ^^^^

mentions the periods when Java was separated from those islands ; * but the
essential difference which has been found in the mineralogical constitution of
Java and Sumatra, would seem to indicate a different origin, and to support
the opinion that those two islands were never united. Whether, at a period
more remote, the whole Archipelago formed part of the continent of Asia,
and was divided from it and shattered into islands ; whether they were origi-
nally distinct from the main land, or whether they were formed at the
same time, or subsequently, are questions we cannot resolve. Yet, when
we reflect on the violence of those dreadful phenomenat which have occur-

* The tradition is as follows :—quot; It is related, that in former times the islands of Sumatra,
Java, Babquot;, and Sumbawa were united, and afterwards separated into nine different parts; and
it is also said, that when three thousand rainy seasons have passed away, they will be reunited.

The separation of the lands of Palembang (Sumatra) and Java took place in the Javan

See Chronological Table, under the head quot; History of Javaquot;
f In order to give the reader some idea of the tremendous violence with which nature
sometimes distinguishes the operations of the volcano in these regions, and enable him to form
some conjecture, from the occurrences of recent experience, of the effects they may have
produced in past ages, a short account of the extraordinary and wide spread phenomena that
accompanied the eruption of the Tomboro mountain, in the island of Sumbawa, in April
1815, may not be uninteresting. Almost every one is acquainted with the intermitting convul-
sions of Etna and Vesuvius, as they appear in the descriptions of the poet and the authentic
accounts of the naturalist, but the most extraordinary of them can bear no comparison, in
point of duration and force, with that of Tomboro. This eruption extended perceptible
evidences of its existence over the whole of the Molucca Islands, over Java, a considerable
portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo, to a circumference of a thousand statute miles
from its centre, by tremulous motions, and the report of explosions ; while withm the
range of its more immediate activity, embracing a space of three hundred miles around
it, it produced the most astonishing effects, and excited the most alarming apprehensictos.
On Java, at the distance of three hundred miles, it seemed to be awfully present. The
sky was overcast at noon-day with clouds of ashes, the sun was envelloped in an atmos-
phere, whose quot; palpablequot; density he was unable to penetrate ; showers of ashes covered
the houses, the streets, and the fields, to the depth of several inches; and amid this darkness
explosions were heard at intervals, like the report of artillery or the noise of distant
thunder. So fully did the resemblance of the noises to the report of cannon impress the
minds of some officers, that from an apprehension of pirates on the coast vessels were
dispatched to afford relief. Superstition, on the other hand, on the minds of the natives,
was busily at work, and attributed the reports to an artillery of a different description
to that of pirates. All conceived that the effects experienced might be caused by erup-

red in our own times in the smaller islands of the volcanic series, and view
this range, as it is now presented to us on the map of the world, a conjec-
ture

tlons of some of the numerous volcanos on the island ; but no one could have conjectured
that the showers of ashes which darkened the air, and covered the ground of the eastern
districts of Java, could have proceeded from a mountain in Sumbawa, at the distance of several
hundred miles. Conceiving that it might be interesting and curious to preserve an authentic
and detailed account of the information that could be gained of this wonderful phenomenon,
while the event was still recent and fully remembered, I directed a circular to the different
residents, requiring them to transmit to the Government a statement of the facts and circum-
stances connected with it, which occurred within their own knowledge. From their replies, the
narrative drawn up by Mr. Assey, and printed in the ninth volume of the Batavian Transactions,

quot; The first explosions were heard on this island (Java) in the evening of the 5th of April:
quot; they w^ere noticed in every quarter, and continued at intervals until the following day. The
quot; noise was, in the first instance, universally attributed to distant cannon: so much so, that a
quot; detachment of troops was marched from Djocjocarta, under the apprehension that a neighbour-
quot; ing post had been attacked; and along the coast boats were in two instances dispatched in quest
*\' of supposed ships in distress. On the following morning, however, a slight fall of ashes removed
quot; all doubt as to the cause of the sound ; and it is worthy of remark, that as the eruption
quot; continued, the sound appeared to be so close, that in each district it seemed near at hand,
« and was generally attributed to an eruption either from the mountains Merapi, Klüt, or
Bromo. from the 6th the sun became obscured ; it had every where the appearance of being
quot; enveloped in a fog. The weather was sultry and the atmosphere close, and still the sun seemed
shorn of its rays, and the general stillness and pressure of the atmosphere seemed to forebode
quot; an earthquake. This lasted several days. The explosions continued occasionally, but less
** violently, and less frequently than at first. Volcanic ashes also began to fall, but in small quan-
quot; titles, and so slightly as to be hardly perceptible in the western districts. This appearance of
quot; the atmosphere continued, with little variation, until the 10th of April; and till then it does not
appear that the volcano attracted much observation, or was considered of greater importance
than those which have occasionally burst forth in Java. But on the evening of the 10th, the
quot; eruptions were heard more loud and more frequent; from Cheribon eastward the air became
darkened by the quantity of falling ashes ; the sun was nearly darkened ; and in some
«« situations, particularly at Solo and Rembang, many said that they felt a tremulous motion of
the earth. It was universally remarked in the more eastern districts, that the explosions were
quot; tremendous, continuing frequently during the llth, and of such violence as to shake the
houses perceptibly. An unusual thick darkness was remarked all the following night, and
the greater part of the next day. At Solo candles were lighted at 4. p. m. of the l2th; at
quot; Magelan in Kedu, objects could not be seen at three hundred yards distance. At Gresik,
quot; and other districts more eastward, it was dark as night in the greater part of the Igth ^pril,
and this saturated state of the atmosphere lessened as the cloud of ashes passed along and
quot; discharged itself on its way. Thus the ashes that were eight inches deep Bänyuwängi
quot; were but two in depth at Sümenap, and less in Gresik, and the sun does ^ seem to have
lt;lt; been actually obscured in any district west of Semarang.nbsp;Jf

quot; All reports concur in stating, that so violent and extensive an erupti^ias not happened

ture might perhaps be hazarded, that the whole may have once formed but
the southern side of one large island or continent, within which much of

within the memory of the oldest inhabitant, nor within tradition. They speak of similar
quot; effects, in a lesser degree, when an eruption took place from the volcano of Karang Asam in
Bali, about seven years ago, and it was at first supposed that this mountain was the seat of
« the eruption. The Balinese on Java attributed the event to a recent dispute between the two
« Rajahs of Bali Saliling, which terminated in the death of the younger Kajah by order of

quot; The haziness and heat of the atmosphere, and occasional fall of volcanic ashes, continued
un41 the 14th and in some parts of the island until the 17th of April. They were cleared

hv a heavy fall of rain, after which the atmosphere became clear and
awav universally oynbsp;jnbsp;,nbsp;„nbsp;, i • . ^ ^r

quot; crops, and removed an appearance of epidemic disease which was beginning to prevail.

quot; This was especially the case at Batavia, where for two or three days preceding the rain,

quot; many persons were attacked with fever. As it was, however, no material injury was felt

« beyond the districts of Banyuwangi. The cultivators every where took precaution to shake

« off the ashes from the growing paddy as they fell, and the timely rain removed an appre-

» hension very generally entertained, that insects would have been generated by the long

lt;lt; continuance of the ashes at the root of the plant. In Rembang, where the rain did not

fall till the 17th, and the ashes had been considerable, the crops were somewhat injured;

- but in Banyuwangi, the part of the island on which the cloud of ashes spent .ts force the

injury was more extensive. A large quantity of paddy was totally destroyed and all the

quot; plantations more or less injured. One hundred and twenty-six horses and eighty-six head

lt;lt; of cattle also perished, chiefly for want of forage, during a month from the time of the

quot; From Sumbawa to the part of Sumatra where the sound was noticed, is about nme
\' f hundred and seventy geographical miles in a direct line. From Sumbawa to Temate is a
distance of about seven hundred and twenty miles. The distance also to which the cloud of
quot; ashes was carried, so quickly as to produce utter darkness, was clearly pointed out to have
quot; been the island of Celebes and the districts of Grgsik on Java: the former is two hundred
and seventeen nautical miles distant from the seat of the volcano; the latter, in a direct

on the island of Sumbawa. quot; On my trip towards the westernnbsp;.j-j^g extreme

. through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part^nbsp;■ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^

. bL interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, thesurviv-

.. LTilbitants having dispersed in search of food. The Rajah of Sang\'.r came to wait

..nbsp;.Dompo, on the 3d instant. The suffering of the people there appears, from hi»

on me at v r ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ Dompo. The famine has been so severe that even one of

quot; account, to ^ ^^^^ hunger. I presented him with three coyangs of rice in your
quot; his own daughterhnbsp;. 7 i .t, i p i

the main land has fallen in, and subsequently disappeared on the influx
of the sea.

Metals.nbsp;The constitution of the island is unfavourable to metals. All the examina-

tions hitherto made confirm this assertion, and it may be laid down as a
general position, that no metals occur, in such a quantity, or with such rich-
ness of ore, as to reward the operations of the miner. The only notice we have
of the existence of gold or silver is contained in the first volume of the Trans-
actions of the Batavian Society; and the attempts on the mountain of Parang,
in 1723, and on the Megemendung, in 1744, were soon abandoned. Iron
pyrites is found in small quantity in several districts, as well as red ochre j
which, however, often contains so little iron, as scarcely to serve for the

quot; As the Rajah was himself a spectator of the late eruption, the following account which
quot; he gave me is perhaps more to be depended upon than any other I can possibly obtain.
quot; About 7 p. ra. on the 10th of April, three distinct columns of flame burst forth near the
quot; top of the Tomboro mountain (all of them apparently within the verge of the crater),
quot; and after ascending separately to a very great height, their tops united in the air
in a troubled confused manner. In a short time, the whole mountain next Sang\'ir
« appeared like a body of liquid fire, extending itself in every direction. The fire
and columns of flame continued to rage with unabated fury, until the darkness caused
quot; by the quantity of falling matter obscured it at about 8 p. m. Stones, at this time,
« fell very thick at Sang\'ir; some of them as large as two fists, but generally not larger than
quot; walnuts. Between 9 and 10 p.m. ashes began to fall, and soon after a violent whirlwind
quot; ensued, which blew down nearly every house in the village of Sang\'ir, carrying the
. quot; ataps, or roofs, and light parts away with it. In the part of Sang\'ir adjoining Tomboro
quot; its effects were much more violent, tearing up by the roots the largest trees and
carrying them into the air, together with men, horses, cattle, and whatever else came
quot; within its influence. (This will account for the immense number of floating trees seen at
quot; sea). The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been known to do before, and
quot; completely spoiled the only small spots of rice land in Sang\'ir, sweeping away houses and
every thing within its reach. The whirlwind lasted about an hour. No explosions were heard
quot; till the whirlwind had ceased, at about 11 a. m. From midnight till the evening of the 11th,
quot; they continued without intermission; after that time their violence moderated, and they were
quot; only heard at intervals, but the explosions did not cease entirely until the ISth of July-
« Of the whole villages of Tomboro, Tempo, containing about forty inhabitants, is the only
« one remaining, in Pekate no vestige of a house is left: twenty-six of the people, who
quot; were at Sumbawa at the time, are the whole of the population who have escaped. From the
quot; most particular inquiries I have been able to make, there were certainly not fewer than
quot; twelve thousand individuals in Tomboro and Pekate at the time of the eruption, of whom
quot; only ave or six survive. The trees and herbage of every description, along tf^® whole of the
quot; north and west sides of the peninsula, have been completely destroyed, with the exception
« of a high point of land near the spot where the village of Tomboro stood.quot;

Goinmon purpose of paint. The existence of mercury in the low lands of
Demak, where it is distributed in minute particles through the clay of the
rice grounds bounding one of the principal rivers of that district, has not
been considered as an indication of a mine, or of the ores of that metal.

jS[o diamonds are found, nor other precious stones, but many minerals of Minerals,
the schorl, quartz, potstone, feldspar, and trap kind. They mostly exist
in mountains of secondary elevation, towards the southern shores of the
island, sometimes in extensive veins ; but separate fragments are carried
down by the rivers, and found far from their original deposition. Prase
is found in very extensive veins; hornstone is also abundant in particular
situations, as well as flint, chalcedony, hyalite, common jasper, jasper-agate,

The soil in Java is for the most part rich, and remarkable for its depth j So\'i-
probably owing to the exclusively volcanic constitution of the country, and
the constant accession of new mould, which is washed down the side of its
numerous mountains. It has the character of being in a high degree richer
than the ordinary soil of the Malayan countries in general, particularly of
Sumatra and the Malayan peninsula. The best soil resembles the richest
garden-mould of Europe j and whenever it can be exposed to the inundation
necessary for the rice crop, requires no manure, and will bear without
impoverishment, one heavy and one light crop in the year : the poorest,
with this advantage, will yield a liberal return to the husbandman. In an
island of such extent and variety of surface, the soil is necessarily various,
but its general character is that of extraordinary fertility. The red and
very light soil of the western districts is generally considered inferior to
the dark brown and stiffer soil which prevails in the eastern. The best soil
is usually found near the beds of rivers, in the valleys, and on the slopes of
the largest mountains: the worst on the ranges of low calcareous hills, which

The seasons, in all the countries situated within about ten degrees of the Se^ms and
equator, agree in this: that as one eternal summer prevails, they are not
distinguished as hot and cold, but as wet and dry. On Java the seasons
depend upon the periodical winds. The period of the setting in of these
winds is not determined within a few weeks j but generally the westerly
winds which are always attended with rain, are felt in October, become
more\'steady in November and December, and gradually subside, till in

March or April they are succeeded by the easterly winds and fair weather,
which continue for the remaining half year. The heaviest rains are in the
months of December and January, and the driest weather is in July and
August ; at which latter period, also, the nights are coldest and the days
hottest. The weather is most unsettled when the season is changing,
particularly at the first setting in of the westerly winds : hut those violent
storms and hurricanes, which are so often felt in the West Indies and in
higher latitudes, are here unknown. With the exception of a few days at
these periods, or when the westerly winds are at then- height, vessels of
any description may ride in safety, in most of the bays along the northern
coast of the island ; and on shore, the wind is never so violent as to do
damage. Thunder storms are, however, frequent, and the lightning is
extremely vivid. In the vicinity of the hiUs, and elsewhere during the dry
season, seldom a day passes without thunder and lightning ; and although
these grand exhibitions of nature cause less consternation in general within
the tropics than beyond them, it cannot be denied that they are destructive
of many lives. Earthquakes are to be expected in a volcanic country, and
are frequent in the vicinity of the volcanos ; but the European towns have
never sustained any serious injury from them.

During the rainy season there are many days free from showers. The
mornings are generally clear, and although the rains sometimes continue
without intermission for several days, and frequently fall in torrents, they
are not marked on Java by that decided character, either of permanence or
violence, which distinguishes the periodical rains of the continent of India ;
neither is the dry season distinguished by that excessive aridity which
attends the hot seasons of that country. Even in July and August, the
atmosphere is refreshed by occasional showers, and the landscape is at all
times of the year covered with the brightest verdure. The thermometer of
Fahrenheit has been known to rise along the northern coast as high as 90°
about three in the afternoon, and even higher, particularly in the large and low
capitals of Batavia, Semarang, and Surabaya ; but from observations made
during a course of some years at Batavia, and published under the authority
of the Dutch government, it has been found usually to range between 70
and 74° in the evenings and mornings, and to stand about 83° at noon.
By similar observations at Semarang, the same thermometer, placed in 3
spacious and open apartment, has averaged 871° at noon.

At a distance inland of not more than thirty or forty miles, where the
ascent is gradual, and of fifteen or twenty or less where it is rapid, the
thermometer falls from five to ten degrees lower. At Chi-serüa, situated
about forty miles inland of Batavia, and Chi-pdnas, about twelve miles
further, on the opposite slope of the mountain Gedé, the thermometer
ranges generally between 60 and 70\'\'. In the morning, at six o\'clock, it
is sometimes as low as 57° ; and in the afternoon, at three, its usual height
is from 67 to 70°, but seldom rising to 72°. On some of the hills inland
of Semdrang, on which Europeans frequently reside during the dry season,
at an elevation of about four thousand feet, the thermometer is frequently
seen as low as 45°, and generally, in the clear season, ranges from 50
to 62°, and on the summit of one of the mountains {Sindoro) it has been
observed as low as 27° * Ice, as thick as a Spanish dollar, has been found j
and hoar frost, denominated bohon upas, or the poisonous dew, has been
observed on the trees and vegetation of some of the higher regions.

By its insular situation, the climate of Java enjoys the benefit of land
and sea breezes, which in its least favored parts subdue the fierceness of the
tropical rays, while the great elevation of its interior affords the rare
advantage, that from the sea shore up to the tops of the mountains, there is,
almost from one end of the island to the other, a regular diminution of
the temperature, at the rate of two or three degrees of Fahrenheit for every
ten miles.

The general inference which has been drawn by professional men, from
the experience which the occupation of Java by the British has afforded, is,
that with the exception of the town of Batavia, and some parts of the
northern coast, the island of Java stands on a level, in point of salubrity,
with the healthiest parts of British India, or of any tropical country in the
world.

The principal stations of the British army, composed of Europeans and
Sepoys, were at Weltevreden, within three miles of the town ot üatavia,
and at Semdrang and Surahdya, spots certainly less favourable to health
than the rest of the island taken generally , but detachments from it have
occasionally done duty in every district of the isknd.

the troops laboured under many disadvantages and privations, in point of
accommodation, amp;c. to which they would not have been subjected in a
more permanent settlement, and that they were otherwise exposed to dis-
eases unconnected with those of the climate, the average casualties were
not excessive. From the 1st of November 1813 to the same month in
1814, the average number of troops is stated to have been 7,470, the
deaths 504, making a proportion of 1 to 14-8: the average number of
sick in the same period was 862, making a proportion of sick to well as 1
to 8, From the beginning of November 1814 to the same month in 1815,
out of an average number of troops stationed in different parts of the
island, in corps and detachments amounting tonbsp;there were 252

deaths, 63 of which were caused by fever, 123 by dysentery, and 65 by
other diseases, making an average number of deaths of 21 per month, or
in the proportion of one death to thirty men in the year, a proportion not
exceeding that of some of the healthiest possessions in temperate climates.

To this general result may be added the comparative casualties in his
Majesty\'s 78th regiment, during the period of its being stationed in India
and Java. This regiment has occasionally been cantoned at each of the
principal stations, and has remained on the island from the first conquest
of Java. By the table will be seen the number of rank and file of which
this regiment consisted at difierent periods, since 1797 to 1815, and the
number of casualties in the same periods. It might not be proper to select
the years in which it landed on the continent of India or on Java but
those in which it was stationed in either country may be brought together,
as fit subjects for comparison. By calculation, upon the data of the table,
it will appear, that from December 1800 to December 1801 the deaths
were to the number of troops as 1 to aboutnbsp;in 1801-2, as 1 to ;

in 1803-4, as 1 to 5^; in 1804-5, as 1 to 8^; in 1805, as 1 to about 20;
in 1806-7, as 1 to 28 nearly; in 1807-8, as 1 to 24^; in 1809-10, as 1 to
about 23 ; in 1811-12, as 1 to 3| j in 1813-14, as 1 to 6; and in 1814-15,
as 1 to about 20 nearly. The places at which the regiment was stationed at
these different periods will be seen by the table ; and the cause of the unusual
mortality that prevailed in 1811-12, and which exceeds any of the years on
the continent, will be found in an extract from the letter of Dr. Currie, the
surgeon, inclosing the return. The mortality in the last year was as 1 to 20
in the regiment, and among the whole troops, according to the data above,

That the climate of Java, in general, is congenial to the human frame,
at least to that of an Asiatic, i^ corroborated by the great extent of its native
Dopulation, compared with that of the surrounding islands, notwithstanding
^he checks which it experienced both from the native princes and the Euro-
pean government; and the convincing proof which the records of the British
army now afford, are perhaps sufficient to remove the unfavourable impres-
sion which existed against the climate of the island, as affecting Europeans.

time, however, that Java has to boast this general character
f r h tahibrity, comparatively with other tropical climates, it is not to be
Lnild thlt^\'there\' are some spots upon it which are decidedly unhealthy.
xTese are to be found along the low swampy marshes of the nothern coast,
which are mostly recent encroachments upon the sea: the principal of these
is Batavia, the long established capital of the Dutch eastern empire.

The climate of this city has ever been considered as one of the most bane-
ful in the world. It has even been designated the storehouse of disease j
with how much justice, is too woefully demonstrated by the writings of those
visitors who have survived its perils, and the records ofJh^ ^tch East-India
Company itself. If we may credit Raynal,- there perished between the years
1714 and 1776, in the hospitals of Batavia, above eighty-seven thou-
sand sailors and soldiers. From the table, No. 1, imperfect as it is, on
account of the loss of many of the registers at the period of the British
conquest, it will be seen what a large proportion the deaths bore to the
whole population-, and from the table. No. of the same Appendix, dis-
covered among the Dutch records, it appears further, that the total amount
of deaths in this city, from the year 1730 to the year 115% was in twenty-

tiat o je , colonists who were entrusted with its details, can scarcely be
interests ol tne woivnbsp;i / ,

doubted. From the moment the walls of the city were demolished, the
draw-bridges let down, and free egress and ingress to and from the country
was permitted, the population began to migrate to a more healthy spot, and
they had not to go above one or two miles beyond the precincts before they
found themselves in a different climate. But this indulgence, as it gave the
inhabitants a purer air, so it gave them a clearer insight into the resources
of the country, and notions of a freer commerce, which, of all things, it
was the object of the local government and its officers to limit or suppress.

Necessity might have first determined the choice of the spot for the Euro-
pean capital} but a perseverance in the policy of confining the European
population within its walls, after so many direful warnings of its insalubrity,
cannot but lead to tlie inference, that either the monopoly of the trade was
*quot;{nbsp;considered a greater object to the nation than the lives of the inhabitants, or

that the more liberal views of the government were defeated by the weakness
or corruption of its agents.
Vegetable king- Of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, as of the mineral, we shall con-
tent ourselves with such an account as may be necessary to convey to the
reader a general notion of the nature of the country and its resources,
referring the man of science to the intended publication of Dr. Thomas
Horsfield, a gentleman whose sole attention has, for the last seven years,
been directed to the natural history of Java.

Java is distinguished not only by the abundance of its vegetation, but by
its extraordinary variety. Upwards of a thousand plants are already con-
tained in the herbarea of Dr. Horsfield, of which a large proportion are new
to the naturalist. Between the tops of the mountains and the sea-shore, Java
may be considered as possessing at least six distinct climates, each furnishing
a copious indigenous botany, while the productions of every region in the
world may find a congenial spot somewhere in the island.
Esculent ve.e- Vegetable productions, which contribute to the food and sustenance of
\' man, are found in great variety. Of these the most important is rice,
which forms the staple grain of the country, and of which there are upwards
of a hundred varieties. Maize, or Indian corn, ranks next, and is principally
cultivated in the higher regions, or in those tracts where the soil is unfavour-
able to the rice cultivation. The bean, or kdchang, of which there are
many varieties, is an important article of food. Of the sugar-cane, which
is used by the natives only in its raw state, they distinguish eight varieties,
an account of which, as well as of the cultivation of coffee» pepper, indigo,

tobacco, amp;c. will he found in the chapter on agriculture. Anniseed,
mungsi, cummin-seed, mdrkha (black pepper), chdbi Jdgt;wa (long pepper),
Jcumiikus (cubebs), socha dilichos, and mendeking, plants of considerable im-
portance, may be considered as indigenous to the island, and are collected
for various uses in diet and medicine.

Besides the cocoa-nut and other productions more generally known, quot;there
are many trees growing spontaneously, of which the seeds and kernels are
used as food ; the principal of these are the petS, jengkol, and khmlan--
dingan, several species of the mimosa, and the puchang and hamiri. The
bread-fruit tree grows on Java, and is of the same species (although inferior
in quality) with that of the South Sea Islands: but the fruit is comparatively
very little esteemed or employed as an article of food.

Of tuberous roots, besides those furnished from the principal genera, con-
volvulus, dioscorea, and arum, are those from the hangkwang (dolichos
bulbosus), the roots of which are much esteemed by the natives, and the
kentmig jdwa (ocymum tuberosum) or Java potatoe. Most of the nume-
rous varieties of the convolvulus and dioscorea, which furnish food for the
natives, have been enumerated in one of the first volumes of the Batavian
Transactions. Thejatropha manihot, called utvi Uanda, or wudo, has been
propagated through all parts of Java, and is found growing in the hedges.

The true sago of Amboina and the Eastern Islands, is found only
solitary in a few low and marshy situations, and the preparation of it from
the pith of the tree is not known to the inhabitants of Java: the leaves
only are employed for covering houses; but from the dren^ or sagurus
rumphii, which grows abundantly in every part of the island, and on
account of its variously extensive uses, ranks next in importance to the
cocoa-nut, a substance is prepared, similar in all respects to the true sago
of the Eastern Islands. The tops of various trees of the palm kind, which
are sought after in other parts of the east as food, are, on account of the
abundance of rice and other esculent vegetables, but little regarded m Java ;
but the young shoots of many varieties of the bambu are used in the diet of the
natives. Wheat and potatoes, with almost every species of European vege-
tables, are cultivated with success. Of the oil-givmg plants a particular
account wiH be given when describing the agriculture of the country.

Java in common with the Malayan islands in general, abounds in indige- Fruits
nous fruits quot; No region of the earth,quot; observes Mr. Marsden, « can boast

« an equal abundance and variety of indigenous fruits.quot; The mangustin, which
on account of its acknowledged pre-eminence amongst Indian fruits, has been
termed the pride of these countries ; the durian, or diiren, to which the natives
of these islands are so passionately attached; the rdmhutan, the Idnseh or Idn-
seh, with an extensive variety of the jack, the mango, the plantain, the guava,
the pine-apple, the papaw, the custard-apple, the pomegranate, and almost
every species of fruit which grows within the tropics, are here found in the
greatest variety. The tamarind tree is general. The island also pro-
duces many kinds of oranges, citrons, lemons, and in particular the pum-
plemoos (known in Bengal under the name of the Batavian lembu, or
lime, and in the West Indies as the shaddock), besides the sdwu, klidung,
pachitan, and a variety of others, not generally known tO Europeans,
but well calculated for the table. Of the mango, at least forty varieties
are enumerated ; the wild raspberry, which is found in the higher regions,
is not destitute of flavour: one kind, in particular, with dark violet
coloured fruit, approaches in taste to the European species. In some of the
mountainous tracts are to be found peaches, Chinese pears, and some other
fruits imported from Japan, the Cape of Good Hope, and China.

Among innumerable flowers which bloom in perpetual succession through-
out the year, and impregnate the air of these countries with their fragrance,
those of the champdka, tdnjong, meldti, handng\'a and ndgasdri, hold the first
rank j they are used by the natives in the ornament of their persons, and are
remarkable for their fragrance. The myrtle and rose are found in the gardens
of Europeans. A great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs, many of
them overlooked in the catalogues of Rhumphius and Van Rheede, have been
noticed, as deserving cultivation for their utility as well as beauty.

The medicinal plants of Java have been described in an account published
in the Batavian Transactions : among these are many which are employed in
the daily practice of the natives, of which a large proportion have not been
subjects of investigation or experiment by Europeans, and others which had not
previously been botanically described or classed. In a country hitherto im-
perfectly explored, and abounding in profuse vegetation, it was natural to
calculate on the discovery of many useful medicinal plants; and among
upwards of sixty, described, for the first time, by Dr. Horsfield, he parti-
cularly notices several, as likely to become most valuable articles m general
medicinal practice.

Besides abundance of coir, termed sepit by the natives, prepared from ^^^^
the fibres which surround the cocoa-nut, and gamuti (callednbsp;pre-

pared from those of the ^ tree, both of which are well known, another
species of pali«» the gehdng, also yields valuable ropes, the fibre of which
is obtained from the large petioles or stalks of the leaves by pounding
and beating. Intelligent natives assert, that ropes prepared from these are
particularly valuable, exceeding in strength all other kinds of equal size. The
fibres and ropes are called has. The cotton shrub (gossypium herbaceum) is
universal: and hemp, though its uses are unknown to the Javans, is found in
,, J onnbsp;settlers. Besides these, the island affords various kinds

the gardens of foreign sei-uei a.nbsp;.nbsp;\'nbsp;.nbsp;•nbsp;inbsp;jnbsp;i ^t,

f etables, the fibrous bark of which is made into thread, rope, cloth,
they are never cultivated, and when required for use are collected
in their wild state. The general denomination, in the Javan language, of
the internal bark of all vegetables which can be manufactured into cords,
thread, amp;c. is luluh. This being freed, by beating or maceration, from the
adhering particles of the exterior bark, yields the fibrous substance, which
is twisted by the most simple process, commonly by the hands alone. The
trees which afford the lulub are the wdru which is very abundant, and is

Of the bambusa, the pring-dpus, the stem of which may be considered
arborescent, furnishes the cheapest ropes. These are made with great
expedition, being split into thin strips, which are twisted on the spot into
cords fit for all common purposes, although they are serviceable only for
a few days. They are uniformly used, in travelling, for securing bag-
gage, amp;c. Among shrubs principally employed for these purposes are the
werting, uris-urisan, daUmpangy che-pldhan and glugo; among plants, the
xeiduri andrawwquot;; the fibres of the latter afford very strong and durable cords,
which are chiefly employed for nets or lines, and used in fishing: they
greatly resemble the sunn of western India, and would probably be found to
answer the same purpose, as well in furnishing the bags called in India gunny-
bao-s for the transportation of goods, as for the manufacture of paper in
Europe. This remark applies also to the UMb of several of the other shrubs
mentioned. Several species of pisang or plantain yield the materials for
ropes and cords of various fineness, and according to the methods employed

in preparing them. In the Manilla Islands, cables are made from these fibres;
and in the first volume of the Batavian Transactions a mode is described of
preparing from them a substance resembling cotton. The leaves of the
quot;nanas, or pine-apple, contain also abundance of useful fibres, which are
easily separated in a bundle, after scraping off the coriaceous substance.
It is very fine, and the separate fibres are employed by the natives in sewing,
without any preparation; but it may also be spun, and is made into a kind
of stuff resembling silk, gauze, amp;c.

Mats are made from several species of pandanus, from a kind of grass
Qd^Qd mendong, and from the leaves of various palms, particularly the
gehdng, The latter affords the most common kinds, coarser and less
durable than the others, as well as bags (straw sacks) resembling very coarse
mats.

1nbsp; It is remarkable that the teak tree, which, as far as our information yet extends, is not to
be found on the peninsula of Malacca, or on Sumatra or the adjacent islands, should grow in
abundance on Java and several of the islands which lie east of it; as on Madtira and
its dependent islands, Bali, Sumbawa, and others. Sumbawa produces a considerable quan-
tit The whole of the hills on the north-east part of that island under Bima are covered with
it f but from the constant demand for the timber, the trees are seldom allowed to grow to
more than a foot in diameter, except in the forests exclusively appropriated to the use of the
sovereign. In D6mpo, which occupies the central division of the same island, the teak cannot
be used by any but the sovereign, and the trees are in consequence allowed to attain then- full
size. The timber is here uncommonly fine, and by the natives considered superior to that of
Java; but the forests being surrounded by steep hills, and the population but scanty, it
cannot be transported to the sea coast without great labour and expence- ^^ ^ ®bes the
teak tree is only known in a few spots. The principal forest is in the district of Mario; and

central districts, situated inland between Semdrang and Siddyu, and parti-
cularly in the districts of Blbra, Jipang, and Paddng\'an.

Of the teak tree there is but one species known, the tectona grandis of Teak tree.
Linnaeus, the tekka of Van Rheede, and the jatus of Rhumphius. Its
natural history has been already fully detailed, and all the kinds generally
enumerated are merely varieties. These are usually distinguished among
the natives of Java by names derived from the quality and colour of the wood.
The principal are the jdti Mpur, the chalky teak, and a kind varying in co-
lour, and on account of its excellence termed j«^? sung\'gu, or the true teak.
The former is the i^ost common : its wood is of a whitish hue, and it
sometimes contains calcareous concretions in nodules or streaks. This sort
is chiefly employed for common domestic purposes, and thongh inferior in
quahty to many others, from its abundance and comparative cheapness,
is perhaps the most generally useful. The jdti sung\'gu is harder, closer,
and more ponderous, and particularly selected for ship-building. The
colour of the wood is of different shades, from light to intense brown,
with a cast of violet verging sometimes to red or black. If the stem is
covered with spines, or rather pointed scales, it is called jdti ddri, but in
its texture and quality it agrees with the s^mg\'gu. Besides these the
natives distinguish, as jdti gSmhol, those excrescences or protuberances
which are produced from a variety of the jdti, furnishing materials for
handsome cabinet-work.

The teak tree on Java grows at a moderate elevation above the level of the
ocean. It is generally conceived, that the timber afforded by forests grow-
ing on a soil of which the basis is limestone, and the surface uneven, gravelly,
or rocky, is the hardest, the freest from chalky concretions, and in all respects
the best 5 but in laying out a teak plantation, a soil consisting in a great
proportion of black vegetable mould, is always selected for the purpose of
obtaining a rapid growth. The teak tree is slender and erect. It shoots
up with considerable vigour and rapidity, but its expansion is slow. Like
all other trees affording useful timber of a close grain, it is many years in
arriving at maturity. Under favourable circumstances, a growth of from
twenty to twenty-five years affords a tree having about twelve inches dia-
meter at the base. It requires at least a century to attain its perfection,

this does not appear to be indigenous, as the natives assert that the seed from which the
forest has grown, was brought from Java about eighty years ago by one of the sovereigns of
Tanete.

but for common purposes, it is usually felled when between thirty and fifty
years old.¹

other timber. Notwithstanding the extent to which cultivation has been carried in
many districts of the island, large portions of its surface are still covered
with primeval forests, affording excellent timber of various descriptions.
Besidesthe teak, there are several kinds of wood or timber employed for
various domestic\'purposes, as the suren (the tuna of Bengal), of which the
wood is very light, stronger, and more durable than all other kinds of si-
milar weight produced on the island: as the grain is not fine, it is not
employed in making furniture, but it is useful for chests, trunks carriages,
amp;c.; its colour is red, and its odour somewhat resembling that of the cedar.
Its height is probably inferior to that of the larch.—The WUflgU or hetdngl
is often used instead of teak: the grain is somewhat finer : when in full
blossom, it is perhaps the most beautiful tree existing.—The wddang or
hdyur, a light and tolerably durable wood, is employed for masts and spars
of small vessels ; but the surface must be well covered with resinous sub-
stances to prevent its splitting.—The gintungani^ employed in the same
manner, but grows to a larger size j the colour of the wood and bark is
red.-The lampean or Ulan is light but durable, and affords materials for the
handles of the spears or pikes borne by. the natives.-The nangha abounds
in several districts where teak is not found, and is almost exclusively used
in the construction of houses, and other domestic purposes: the wood is
more close and ponderous than the S\'hren, which it otherwise resembles ; it

rnbsp;takes a tolerable polish, and is sometimes employed for furniture. The co-

lour is yellow ; but it is made to receive a brownish hue, by the application
of the young teak-leaves in polishing: its bark is used as a yellow dye—
The luren resembles the ndngka, but is generally of rare occurrence, though
in some tracts it furnishes the only timber: its use in the neighbouring
islands, particularly on Sumatra, is well known.—The kusdmbi is uncom-
monlv\'heavy, hard, and close: it supplies anchors for small vessels, blocks,

1nbsp; The Dutch, apprehensive of a failure In the usual supply of teak timber, have long been
in the habit of forming extensive plantations of this tree; but whether from a sufficient period
not having yet elapsed for the trial, or that the plantations are generally madenbsp;®

situations ill calculated for the purpose, experience, as far as it has yetnbsp;®

that the trees which are left to the operation of nature, attain to greater P®nbsp;^^

a comparatively barren soil unfit for any other cultivation, than those which arc wi great care
and trouble reared in a fertile land. Their wood is more firm, more durable, and of a les«
chalky substance than that of the latter.

useful wood; the colour resembles that of mahogany, but the grain is
closer, and it is more ponderous : its chief use is for handles of tools for
carpenters and other artificers, for machinery, especially for the teeth of the
wheels of mills, and other purposes where a hard and durable wood is requir*
ed. On account of its scarcity, it is uniformly cut down on Java before it
arrives at the necessary size for cabinet-work. Forests of it grow on the
hills of Bâli, opposite the Javan shore, whence it is brought over by boat
loads for sale.

The pilang is a very hard wood, and employed in the eastern districts, in-
stead of hgnum-vitse, for the construction of ships\'-blocks, amp;c.—The pung
is equally hard, and uniformly employed by the natives for pegs in con-
structing their prahus.—The wâîi Jtûkun is equal to the husambi in weight,
and exceeds it in hardness : it is employed for anchors, naves of wheels,
machinery, amp;c.—The tang\'gulun is a hard wood of a close grain, and
employed by turners for various small works.-—The kelwmpit is a very large
tree : sections are employed by the natives for cart wheels.—The jâran is a
white wood taking the tool easily : the natives prefer it to all others for the
construction of their saddles, which consist principally of wood.—The
dembh affords a light wood, which is made into planks, and employed where
durability is not much required.—The wood of the kedawung is whitish
and moderately hard.—The laban is a yellowish and hard wood : it is em-
ployed for the handles of axes and various utensils.—^The janglot is con-
sidered by the natives as the toughest wood produced in the island, and is
always employed for bows when procurable : the tree is of a moderate size.
—The béndo is a light wood, useful for canoes.—-The séntul is a light
close-grained wood, and easily worked : it resembles the suren.

For household furniture, cabinet-ware, he. are employed—the sono Ming
of the Malayus, the colour of which is a deep brown, inclining to black :
—the sono kombang, which has some resemblance to the Imgtta wood of the
Moluccas-.—the gt;war\'m-lot, dark brown; and prôno-sôdo, resembling the
walnut, both scarce :—the *wer*n, of a brown colour, of a close substance
and light, abundant in some districts :—the mentaus and jumberit, the
wood of which is white and fine grained, uniformly used for inlaying
the randu kuning, yellowish and close-grained-.—and the mg[as, of a-
brownish red colour, and very brittle.

which the black and white variegated fragments are called pelet. These are
of various kinds.—The aruman, variegated white and black, is also employed
for canes, handles, and spears, he. and is very heavy.—The tiU, yellowish,
closed and marbled,—the mdngu,—the dti dti,—t\\\\e hrdminan,-^^^ pur*wo-
huning and several others, are employed for the same purposes.—The
hamming is of a brownish colour and very fine grain the tayuman resem-
bles the last and is very much esteemed:—the quot;wuni steldgo affords a reddish
wood.

Among the most extensively useful productions ought not to be forgotten
the hdmhu, or pring, which abounds on Java, and seems, from the greater lux-
uriance and variety by which it is here distinguished, to find the soil and
climate more congenial to its growth than those of any other country. It blos-
soms in different parts of the island. The rattans (rdtaii) of .Java are on the
whole inferior to those of Sumatra and Borneo: the improved state of
cultivation is unfavourable to their growth and propagation.

Many woods afford excellent fuel. The charcoal prepared from the
kusdmbi is equal perhaps to that of any other wood with which we are
acquainted, and is universally preferred in cooking, and in the other
branches of domestic economy. Charcoal, for gunpowder, is uniformly
prepared from the celtis orientalis, called dn^grung.

Among the useful trees must be noticed: the soap tree, of which the
fruit is used to a very great extent in washing linen :—the Imsemak, from
the bark of which is made a varnish for umbrellas :—the sdmpang, from the
resin of which the natives prepare a shining varnish for the wooden sheaths
of krises :—the cotton tree, from which a silky w^ool is obtained for stuffing
pillows and beds :—the wax tree, which though scarce on Java, grov/s
abundantly on some parts of Madura : (the kernel, by expression produces
an oil, which some time after becomes hard and bears a resemblance to wax j
it may be burnt in lamps or converted into candles, and affords an agree-
able odour)the hendid, a shrub producing the substance of which the
elastic gum, commonly called Indian rubber, is prepared. The art of
preparing it in this form is however unknown in Java. Torches are made
of it, for the use of those who search for birds\'nests in the rocks, and it
serves for winding round the stick employed to strike musical instruments, as
the gong, amp;c. to soften the sound. The minyak kdxvon or nidt^ is a very
useful tree, which grows solitary in all, and abundantly innbsp;P^^ts of

Ddmar, or resin, is distinguished by the inhabitants of these countries Resins,
into two kinds: ddmar-Mtu or sela, and ddmar-pdti, comprising numerous
varieties obtained from different trees. None of these are, however, pro-
duced on Java. Besides the rdsamdla, which is very limited as to its
place of growth, the Candram, and a peculiar resin employed by the natives
for varnishing the wooden sheaths of their krises, called sdmpang, few
odoriferous resins are found. The camphor-tree, which abounds on Sumatra
and Borneo, is unknown on Java. The wood oil, distinguished among
the Malays by the name of hvdming (which in Java is applied to all resinous

•1 U i «oa pmoloyed in the construction of vessels), is not a native
or oily substances eiuf jnbsp;t^ , i o

None\' of what are called the finer kinds of spices, namely, the nutmeg, spices.
clove, and cinnamon, are indigenous to Java ; but the few trees which have
been planted in the gardens of Europeans have thriven well: and, from
the nature of the soil and climate, there seems little doubt that the nutmeg
and clove, in particular, might be extensively cultivated throughout the
island, did it suit the policy of the European government to admit of their

The vine was once extensively cultivated in some of the eastern provinces The Vine,

of the island, in which the soil and climate appear well calculated for its
growth J but an apprehension, on the part of the Dutch East-India Com-
pany, that its cultivation on Java might interfere with the wine trade of
the Cape of Good Hope, induced them to discourage it, and the prepa^
ration of wine from the grape was strictly prohibited. Lieutenant-Colonel
Mackenzie, when noticing the vast quantities of ashes thrown up from the
different volcanos, makes the following observation on the eastern part of
Java. quot; The soil of the country is evidently enriched by the ashes and
« earth emitted by these eruptions, and there is reason to conclude, what
« persons well acquainted with the south of Europe assert, that the vines
u of Italy and the Cape would thrive in perfection, in a soil and climate

Among the vegetable productions of Java, none has excited more in- Upas,orpoiso«

terest than the celebrated upas, or poison-tree. Mr. Marsden, in his His-
tor of Sumatra,¹ has referred to various concurring authorities, m refuta-
tion of the very extraordinary tales told of this tree j and, in this general

account of the productions of Java, it may perhaps be sufficient to refer the
reader to the particulars contained in the subjoined note.*

* Although a serious refutation of the gross Imposition practised on the people of Europe,
by the romance of Foersch on the subject of the upas, or celebrated poison-tree of Java, may
at this day be in a great measure superfluous, as the world has long ceased to be the dupe of
his story, and as regular series of experiments have been instituted, both in France and in
England, to ascertain the nature and potency of the poison; yet it may not be altogether dis-
pleasing to the reader to see in this place an authentic account of the poison, as drawn out by
Dr. Horsfield at my request, and published in the seventh volume of the Batavian Transactions.
Almost every one has heard of its fabulous history, which, from its extravagant nature, its
susceptibility of poetical ornament, its alliance with the cruelties of a despotic government, and
the sparkling genius of Darwin, whose purpose it answered to adopt and personify it as
malignant spirit (in his Lives of the Plants), has obtained almost equal currency with the won-
ders of the Lerna hydra, the Chimera, or any other of the classic fictions of antiquity.

quot; Although the account published by Foersch, in so far as relates to the situation of the
quot; poison-tree, to its effects on the surrounding country, and to the application said to have
quot; been made of the upas on criminals in different parts of the island, as well as the description
quot; of the poisonous substance itself, and its mode of collection, has been demonstrated to be
an extravagant forgery,—the existence of a tree on Java, from the sap of which a poison
is prepared, equal in fatality, when thrown into the circulation, to the strongest animal poi-
quot; sons hitherto known, is a fact which is at present my object to establish and illustrate. The
quot; tree which produces this poison is the anchar, and grows in the eastern extremity of the
quot; island. The work of Rhumphius contains a long account of the upas, under the denomina-
quot; tion of arbor toxicaria. The tree does not grow on Amboina, and his description was made
quot; from the information he obtained from Makasar. His figure was drawn from a branch of
quot; what is called the male-tree^ sent to him from the same place, and establishes the identity of
quot; the poison-tree of Makasar, and the other Eastern Islands, with the anchar of Java. The
simple sap of the arbor toxicaria (according to Rhumphius) is harmless, and requires the ad-
quot; dition of several substances, of the affinity of ginger, to render it active and mortal. In
quot; SO far it agrees with the anchar, which, in its simple state. Is supposed to be inert, and
quot; before being employed as a poison, is subjected to a preparation which will be described
quot; after the history of the tree. Besides the true poison-tree, the upas of the Eastern
quot; Islands, and the anchar of the Javans, this island produces a shrub, which, as far as obser-
quot; vations have hitherto been made, is peculiar to the same, and, by a different mode of
quot; preparation, furnishes a poison far exceeding the upas in violence. Its name is chetik, and
quot; its specific description will succeed to that of the anchar : the genus has not yet been disco-
vered or described.

\'\' Description op the Anchar.—The anchar belongs to the twenty-first class of linn^us,
quot; the monoecia. The male and female flowers are produced in catkins (amenta) on the
quot; same branch, at no great distance from each other : the female flowers are in general above
quot; the male. The characters of the genus are ;—Male flower, calix, consisting of several
quot; scales, which are imbricate. Corol; none. Stamens; filaments many, very short, covered

Of the useful or domestic quadrupeds it may be observed, that neither Quadruped®
the elephant nor the camel is a native of Java: the former is rarely im-
ported,

« with scales at the receptacle. The receptacle, on which the filaments are placed, has a

«« conical form, abrupt, somewhat rounded above.—Female flower ; catkins, ovate. CaHx ;

quot; consisting of a number of scales (generally more than in the male), contammg one flower.
» Corol; none. Pistil; germ single, ovate. Styles; two, long, slender, and spreading.

Stigmas ; single and acute. Seed-vessel; an oblong drupe, covered with the calix. Seed;
quot; an ovate nut, with one cell.

quot; Specific Description.—The anchar is one of the largest trees in the forests of Java,
quot; The stem is cylindrical, perpendicular, and rises completely naked to the height of sixty,
\'\' seventy or ei^^-hty feet. Near the surface of the ground it spreads obliquely, dividing into
quot; numerous bt oad appendages or wings, much like the canarium commune (the canary-tree), and
i! several other of our large forest trees. It is covered with a whitish bark, slightly bursting
quot; in longitudinal furrows. Near the ground this bark is, in old trees, more than half an inch
quot; thick, and upon being wounded yields plentifully the milky juice from which the celebrated
quot; poison is prepared. A puncture or incision being made into the tree, the juice or sap ap-
quot; pears oozing out, of a yellowish colour (somewhat frothy) from old, paler or nearly white
quot; from young trees; exposed to the air, its surface becomes brown. The consistence
quot; very much resembles milk: it is more thick and viscid. This sap is contained in the
quot; true bark (or cortex), which, when punctured, yields a considerable quantity, so that
quot; in a short time a cup full may be collected from a large tree. The inner bark (or
quot; liber) is of a close fibrous texture, like that of the morus papyrifera, and when separated
from the other bark, and cleansed from the adhering particles, resembles a coarse piece of
quot; linen. It has been worked into ropes, which are very strong ; and the poorer class of people
quot; employ the inner bark of the younger trees, which is more easily prepared, for the purpose of
quot; making a coarse stuff which they wear in working the fields. But it requires much bruising,
quot; washing, and a long immersion, before it can be used, and when it appears completely
quot; purified, persons wearing this dress being exposed to rain, are affected with an intolerable
quot; itching, which renders their flimsy covering insupportable. It will appear from the account
quot; of the manner in which the poison is prepared, that the deleterious quahty exists in the gum ;
quot; a small portion of which still adhering, produces, when exposed to wet, this irritating effect :
quot; and it is singular, that this property of the prepared bark is known to the Javans in all
quot; places where the tree grows, while the preparation of a poison from its juice, which produces
quot; a mortal effect when introduced into the body by pointed weapons, is an exclusive art of
quot; the inhabitants of the eastern extremity of the island. The stem of the anchar having
u arrived at the above-mentioned height, sends off a few stout branches, which spreading
quot; nearly horizontally with several irregular curves, divide into smaller branches, and forma
quot; hemispherical, not very regular crown. Previous to the season of flowering, about the
quot; beginning of June, the tree sheds its leaves, which reappear when the male flowers
quot; have completed the office of fecundation. It delights in a fertile, not very elevated, soil,
quot; and is only found in the largest forests. One of the experiments to be related below was
quot; made with the upas prepared by myself. In the collection of the juice I had some difficulty
in inducing the inhabitants to assist me ; they feared a cutaneous eruption and inflammation,

ported, the latter unknown. Neither the ass nor mule is found ; but the
island has a fine breed of small horses (jdran), strong, fleet,, and well made.

\'\' resembling (according to the account they gave of it) that produced by the ingas of this
quot; island, the rhus vernix of Japan, and the rhus radicans of North America. The anchar,
quot; like the trees in its neighbourhood, is on all sides surrounded by shrubs and plants: in no
quot; instance have I observed the ground naked or barren in its immediate circumference. The
quot; largest tree I met with in Balambangan, was so closely environed by the common trees and
quot; shrubs of the forests in which it grew, that it was with diflEculty I could approach it. Several
quot; vines and climbing shrubs, in complete health and vigour, adhered to it, and ascended
to nearly half its height; and, at the time I visited the tree and collected the juice, I
quot; was forcibly struck with the egregious misrepresentation of Foersch. Several young trees
quot; spontaneously sprung from seeds that had fallen from the parent, put me in mind of a line
quot; in Darwin\'s Botanic Garden:—

quot; while in recalling his beautiful description of the upas, my vicinity to the tree gave me reason
quot; to rejoice that it was founded in fiction.

quot; Description of the Chetik.—The fructification of the chetik is still unknown: after
quot; all possible research in the district where it grows, I have not been able to find it in a
quot; flowering state. It is a large winding shrub. The root extends creeping a considerable
quot; distance parallel to the surface, sending off small fibres at different curves, while the main
quot; root strikes perpendicularly into the gound. The stem, which in general is shrubby, some-
quot; times acquires the size of a small tree. The poison is prepared from the bark of the root.
quot; The chetik grows only in close, shady, almost inaccessible forests, in a deep, black, fertile
quot; vegetable mould. It is very rarely met with even in the wildernesses of Balambangan.
quot; Pkeparation of the Poison fkom the Anchar.—This process was performed for
me by an old Javan, who was celebrated for his superior skill in preparing the poison; about
quot; eight ounces of the juice of the anchar, which had been collected the preceding evening in the
quot; usual manner, and been preserved in the joint of a bambu, was carefully stramed into a
quot; bowl. The sap of the following substances, which had been finely grated and bruised, was
quot; carefully expressed and quot;poured into it, viz. arum (nampu), kempferia galanga (kenchur),
anomum (bengli) a variety of zerumbed, common onion and garlic, of each about half a
quot; dram. The same quantity of finely powdered black pepper was then added, and the mixture
quot; stirred. The preparer now took an entire fruit of capsicum fructicosum or Guinea pepper,
quot; and having opened it, he carefully separated a single seed, and placed it on the fluid in the
« middle of the bowl. It immediately began to reel round rapidly, now forming a regular
f circle, then darting towards the margin of the vessel, with a perceptible commotion on the
quot; surface of the liquor, which continued about one minute. Being completely at yest, the
« same quantity of pepper was again added, and another seed of the capsicum laid on as
quot; before. A similar commotion took place in the fluid, but in a less degree, and the seed
quot; was carried round with diminished rapidity. The addition of the same quantity of pepper
quot; was repeated a third time, when a seed of the capsicum being carefully placed in the
quot; centre of the fluid, remained quiet, forming a regular circle about itself, in the fluid,

A still finer breed is imported from Bima, on the neighbouring island of
Sumbawa, which by competent judges has been said to resemble the Arab in

quot; resembling the halo of the moon. This is considered as a sign that the preparation of the
quot; poison is complete.

« Pbeparatiojt of the Poison prom the Chetik.—The bark of the root is carefully
a separated and cleared of all the adherent earth, a proportionate quantity of water is poured
quot; on, and it is boiled about an hour, when the fluid is carefully filtered through a white cloth ;
quot; it is then exposed to the fire again, and boiled down to nearly the consistence of an extract:
quot; in this state it much resembles a thick syrup. The following spices, having been prepared as
quot; above described, are added in the same proportion as to the anchar, viz. bempferia galanga
quot; (kenchur), (s6nti)/ anomum ^ingfiher (shai), common onion, garlic, and black pepper.

Th ex ressed juice of these is poured into the vessel,\' which is once more exposed
quot; to the fire for a few minutes, when the preparation is complete. The upas of both kinds
must be preserved in very close vessels.

Dr. H. then details the particulars of twenty experiments made on different animals with these
poisons, as well in their simple state as procured from the bark powerfully prepared in the man-
ner as above stated, in which the violence of the poison was manifested ; and concludes with
some general observations, from which the following are extracted.

quot; The operation of the two different poisons on the animal system is essentially different.
quot; The first seventeen experiments were made with the anchar. The rapidity of its effect
quot; depends in a great degree upon the size of the vessel wounded, and on the quantity of
quot; poison carried into the circulation. In the first experiment (which is that above quoted), it
quot; induced death in twenty-six minutes: in the second, which was made with the sap collected
quot; at Pugar, in thirteen minutes. The poison from different parts of the island has been found
quot; nearly equal In activity.—The common train of symptoms is ; a trembling and shivering of
lt;lt; the extremities, restlessness, erection of the hair, discharges from the bowels, drooping and
faintness, slight spasms and convulsions, hasty breathing, an increased flow of saliva,
quot; spasmodic contractions of the pectoral and abdominal muscles, retching, vomiting, excre-
quot; mentatious vomiting, frothy vomiting, great agony, laborious breathing, repeated con-
quot; vulsions, and death. The effects are nearly the same on quadrupeds, in whatever part of
quot; the body the wound is made. It sometimes acts with so much force, that not all the
quot; symptoms enumerated are observed. In these cases, after the premonitory symptoms

quot; (tremors, twitchings, faintness, an increased flow of saliva), the convulsions come on sud-

quot; denly, and are quickly followed by death. The upas appears to affect quadrupeds with
nearly equal force, proportionate in some degree to their size and disposkion. To dogs it
a proved mortal in most experiments within an hour; a mouse died in ten minutes; a monkey
in seven ; a cat in fifteen; a buffalo, one of the largest quadrupeds of the island, died In
quot; two hours and ten minutes.

If the simple or unprepared sap is mixed with the extract of tobacco instead of the spices
mentioned, it i® rendered equally, perhaps more active. Even the pure juice, unmixed and
quot; unprepared, appears to act with a force equal to that which has undergone the preparative
« process. Birds are very differently affected by this poison. Fowls have a peculiar capacity to

every respect except size. They seldom exceed thirteen hands, and in
general are below this standard.

quot; resist its effects: a fowl died in twenty-four hours after the wound ; others have recovered
quot; after being partially affected.

quot; The eighteenth and succeeding experiments were made with the poison prepared from the
quot; chetik. Its operation is far more violent and rapid than that of the anchar, and it affects
quot; the animal system in a different manner. While the anchar operates chiefly on the stomach,
quot; alimentary canal, the respiration and circulation, the chetik is determined to the brain and
quot; nervous system : a relative comparison of the appearances on dissection, demonstrates in a
quot; striking manner the peculiar operation of each. A general view of the effects of the chetik
quot; on quadrupeds is given in these experiments. After the previous symptoms of faintness,
quot; drowsiness, and slight convulsions, it acts by a sudden impulse, which like a violent apo-
quot; plexy prostrates at once the whole nervous system. In two of these experiments this sudden
quot; effect took place in the sixth minute after the wound, in another in the seventh minute: the
quot; animals suddenly started, fell down head foremost, and continued in convulsions until death
ensued. This poison affects fowls in a much more violent manner than that of the anchar.
quot; They are first affected by a heat and itching of the breast and wings, which they shew by
quot; violently pecking those parts; this is followed by a loose discharge from the bowels, when
quot; they are seized with tremors and fluttering of the wings, which having continued a short
time, they fall down head foremost, and continue convulsed till death. In some instances,
quot; particularly young fowls, the poison acts with great rapidity ; death has frequently occurred
quot; within the space of a minute after a puncture with a poisoned dart.

quot; Taken into the stomach of quadrupeds, the chetik acts as a most violent poison; but it
quot; requires about thrice the period to produce the same effect which a wound produces. But
quot; the stomach of fowls can resist its operation. Having mixed about double the quantity
quot; generally adhering to a dart with the food of a fowl, it consumed it without shewing any
quot; marks of indisposition. The poison of the anchar does by no means act as violently on
quot; quadrupeds as that of the chetik, I have given it to a dog ; it produced at first nearly the
quot; same symptoms as a puncture; oppression of the head, twitchings, faintness, laborious res-
quot; piration, violent contraction of the pectoral and abdominal muscles, amp;c., which continued
\'\' nearly two hours ; but after the complete evacuation of the stomach by vomiting, the
« animal gradually recovered.

« I have but little to add concerning the operation of the anchar on the human system. The
quot; only credible information on this subject is contained in the work of Rhumphius, who had
quot; an opportunity of personally observing the effect of the poisoned darts and arrows as they
quot; were used by the natives of Makasar, in their attack on Amboyna about the year 1650T
« They were also employed by the inhabitants of Celebes in their former wars with the Dutch.
«« Speaking of their operation he says, \' the poison touching the warm blood, it is instantly
lt; carried through the whole body, so that it may be felt in all the veins, and causes an
quot; « excessive burning, particularly in the head, which is followed by fainting and death.\'
quot; This poison (according to the same author) possesses different degrees of virulence,
according to its age and state of preservation. The most powerful is called upas raja, and

The bull and cow {sdpi or Umhu) are general, but much more so in the
central and eastern districts than in the western. The breed has been
greatly improved by the species introduced from continental India. But the
animal of most essential and general use in the agriculture of the country
is the buffalo (hdhu, maisa, or munding), a particular account of which will
appear in the chapter on Agriculture. Goats (wedus) are numerous and of
a small size : sheep (called here European goats) are scarce and small.
As in other sultry climates, the latter have a coarse woollen coat, which
is employed for stuffing saddles, pillows, amp;c. but it is in so little request
that the inhabitants are rarely at the trouble of shearing for it. The hog
(cMleng) is reared principally among the Chinese.

Of beasts of prey may be enumerated several species of the tiger, as
the mdchan loreng (felis tigris), mdchan gogor (a variety), mdchan t{ttul
(probably the small leopard of Pennant), mdchan hbmbang and Mmuk,
the smallest kind, called tiger cats. The jackal, and several varieties of
the wild dog j as the dsu \'wdwar, dsu djag, or dsu Mki; and among other
wild quadrupeds, the rhinoceros, and hdnteng, or wild Javan ox, the wild
hog and the stag: the last, as well as the rib-faced and axis deer, is
tamed and fattened for food. The aggregate number of mammalia on Java
have been estimated at about fifty. The habits and manners of the
larger animals, the tiger, leopard, black tiger, rhinoceros and stag,
and two species of deer, the varieties of the wild hog, amp;c. are sufficiently
known ; but the bdnteng, or Javan ox, the Javan buffalo, the varieties of
the wild dog, those of the weasel and squirrel, and most of the other
smaller quadrupeds, still present curious subjects for the study of the na-
turalist. Next to the rhinoceros, which sometimes (though rarely at pre-
sent) injures plantations, the wild hogs are the most destructive animals.

its effects are considered as incurable; the other kinds are distributed among the soldiers on
« going to war. After having proved mortal to many of the Dutch soldiers in Amboyna and
^^ Makasar, they finally discovered an almost infallible remedy in the root of the radix toxi-
quot; caria of Rhumphius, which, if timely applied, counteracted, by its violent emetic effect,
« the force of the upas. An intelligent Javan of Banyuwangi informed me, that a number of
years ao\'O an inhabitant of that district was wounded in a clandestine manner, by an arrow
quot; thrown from a blow pipe, in the fore arm near the articulation of the elbow. In about
quot; fifteen minutes he became drowsy; after which he was seized with vomiting, became
delirious, and in less than half an hour he died. From the experiments above related, we
may form an analogous estimate of its probable effects on man.quot;

consume) by the hâlâk Mmhing, or by the remains from the preparation
of brom. The practice of suspending rags impregnated with urine, at
small distances around the plantations, is universal over the whole
island. These animals are said to have so violent an aversion to this
odour, that even this quot; feeble barrierquot; is useful in preserving the plan-
tations.

Bezoars. Although the same qualities are ascribed to them here as in other coun-
tries, bezoars are comparatively scarce in Java; and those occasionally
found in the maritime capitals are uniformly brought from other countries.
The hog-deer and Nicobar pigeon are not natives; and although wild hogs,
in which bezoars are said to be found, are very abundant, they are never ex-
amined or approached by the natives. Every extraordinary concretion,
calculus, ossification, amp;c. found in any part of an animal, is called mustika,
which corresponds to the bezoar of the Arabs, Persians, he. A concre-
tion of feathers found in the stomach of a fowl is called mustika dyam, and
is carefully preserved. A stony concretion, discovered accidentally by the
rattling of a human skull exposed for many years to the action of the sun,
has been denominated mustika brang, and the most salutary virtues ascribed
to iL Analogous to the bezoars, must be considered the horns of the rhino-
ceros, whose virtues are highly prized.

paratively scarce, and chiefly raised for the tables of Europeans ; the goose,
which is very common near all the establishments of Europeans ; the
bébek, or duck, abundant in every part of the island ; the common fowl
and pigeons. Among the birds of prey, the eagle is not found ; but there
are several varieties of the falcon, of which the joko wuru is the largest ;
also the carrion crcw and the owl. Of the parrot kind, two only, the bétet
and selindit, are found on Java. The peacock {merdk), is very common
in large forests. The number of distinct species of birds has been esti-
mated not greatly to exceed two hundred, of which upwards of one hundred
and seventy have been described, and are already contained in the col-
lections made on account of the English East-India Company.

The dorsal feathers of the white heron, and the vent feathers of the
sdndang lâwé, are employed as substitutes for ostrich feathers by the
natives for plumes, he. It is very rarely that the feathers of geese, amp;c.
are employed for beds or pillows, the silky cotton of the kdpok being.

preferred on account of its coolness. For ornamenting the arrows of the
natives, the feathers of some of the falcon tribe are chiefly employed.

Among the interesting subjects which still remain open for research, are EdiWe birds\'
the habits and constitution of the hirundo esculenta, the small swallow
which forms the edible nests, annually exported in large quantities from
Java and the Eastern Islands for the Chinese market. These birds not only
abound among the cliffs and caverns of the south coast of the island,
but inhabit the fissures and caverns of several of the mountains and hills in
the interior of the country. From every observation which has been made
on Java, it has been inferred, that the mucilaginous substance, of which
the nests are formed, is not, as has been generally supposed, obtained from
the ocean. The birds, it is true, generally inhabit the caverns in the
vicinity of the sea, as agreeing best with their habits, and affording them
the most convenient retreats for attaching their nests to, but several caverns
are found inland, at a distance of forty or fifty miles from the sea, contain-
ing nests similar to those -on the shore. From many of their retreats along
the southern coast they have been observed to take their flight in an inland
direction, towards the pools, lakes, and extensive marshes, covered with
stagnant water, as affording them abundance of their food, which consists
of flies, musquitoes, gnats, and small insects of every description. The
sea that washes the foot of the cliffs, where they most abound, is almost
always in a state, of the most violent agitation, and affords none of those
substances which have been supposed to constitute the food of the esculent
swallow. Another species of swallow on this island forms a nest, in which
grass or moss, amp;c. are merely agglutinated by a substance, exactly similar
to that of which exclusively the edible nests consist. This substance, from
whatever part of these regions the nests be derived, is essentially uniform,
differing only in the colour, according to the relative age of the nests. It
exhibits none of those diversities which might be expected, if it were
collected casually (like the mud employed by the martin, and the materials
commonly employed in nest-making), and applied to the rocks. If it con-
sisted of the substances usually supposed, it would be putrescent and
diversified.

Dr. Horsfield thinks that it is an animal elaboration^ perhaps a kind of
secretion j but to determine its nature accurately, it should be carefully
analyzed, the anatomy of the bird should be investigated, and its character
and habits watched.

Amphibious The kayman of the Dutch, the hoâya of the Malays, and the hôyô or
hajul of the Javans, which abounds along the shores and in the principal
rivers of the island, resembles more the crocodile of Egypt than that of the
Ganges or the American alligator. The character of the lacerta crocodiles,
as given in the Systema Naturae, applies to the Javan crocodile, with this
difference, that in the latter the two crests of the tail coalesce towards the
extremity, in which respect it agrees with that of the Ganges j but its head
and jaws are broad, and rounded. In its manners, habits, and destructive
qualities, it resembles the largest animals of this genus. Next to the crocodile
in size is the héwah of the Malays, or menyawak or selira of the Javans, It
sometimes attains the length of six or seven feet, and lives near the banks
of rivers and marshes. Its character agrees with those of the lacerta
monitor. It is erroneously denominated the guana by Europeans. The
eggs of this animal, as well as of the crocodile, are eaten by the natives,
and the fat is collected for medical purposes. A small lizard, the bunghn
of the Javans, is erroneously called the caméléon, in consequence of the
property of changing its colour. It has the specific characters of the
guana, but is much smaller, seldom exceeding eighteen or twenty inches
in length. There are various other lizards.

Turtle, or Tor- Xwo Varieties of the turtle, pényu pényu komhang, are found in the
seas surrounding Java. Both yield the substance called tortoise-shell, but
they are seldom taken of sufficient size to render it valuable : the flesh is
excellent. Another kind, of which the species is unknown, renders a
thicker shell. Kuro is the name of the common land-tortoise, which is
found very abundantly in particular districts.

Frogs.nbsp;Besides the rana esculenta, green frog (jkbdoh iju of the Javans) which is

frequently eaten, and the kbdok benju, there is the common toad, kodok,
and the hdnkong and kintel The frog fish (rana paradosa), or a variety of
it, is also found on the island, and has been exhibited in the same supposed
metamorphosis as in other countries. No noxious quality of any of these
animals is here known.

It is uncertain whether the boa constrictor be found on Java. The
serpent usually called the ûlar sâwa is a species of coluber, and has been
described in one of the volumes of the Batavian Transactions j but several
other species are found which arrive at a very large size. C)ne of them,
the ûlar lânang, is very much dreaded by the natives, and said to be
poisonous. Of the ûlar sâwa there are several varieties, one of which,

Mar soma mdchan, is most beautifully variegated. Upwards of twenty
serpents are enumerated as poisonous. The -dlar Idmpe is found at or near
the discharge of large rivers into the ocean, and is more abundant in some
districts than in others. This is greatly dreaded by the natives; its bite
however is rarely mortal, and the effects are comparatively slow, death
seldom occurring within twenty-four hours from the time of its infliction.
No remedies which deserve notice are known by the natives : charms and
superstitious applications are generally resorted to. The most remarkable
serpent is the ular kddut, or kdrang. The ular Idnang, and some of the
varieties ular sdwa are slender, and possess considerable agility. According
to the account of the natives, they frequently ascend trees, and suspending
themselves by the extremity of their tail, seize upon small animals passing
below; but the true Mar sdwa of the Eastern Javans is slow, thick, and
unwieldy. Nothing which could illustrate its supposed power of fascination
has been noticed.

Of the tish most commonly used for food by the natives, many of which Fishes,
are excellent and abundant, thirty-four species of river fish, seven found
chiefly in pools or stagnant waters, and sixteen sea flsh, are already enume-
rated by Dr. Horsfield. The classes of amphibia and pisces, doubtless
afford many new subjects for investigation. Valentyn enumerates five hun\'

dred and twenty-eight uncommon kinds of fish found in the waters of the
Eastern Islands.

Honey and wax are produced by three species of bees, inhabiting the insects,
largest forests, but they are both collected in very inconsiderable quantities
Bees are occasionally domesticated by the Arabs and Indians near the large\'
settlements, but never by the natives. Silk-worms were once introduced by
the Dutch near Batavia, but attention to them did not extend among the
natives. The chrysaHs of the large atlas aflfords a coarse silk, which is
however not collected for use. To the fruit, several insects, and to the
corn while m the ear, a peculiar species, generally known by the name
of wdlang-sdngit, are most destructive. The latter has in some years
destroyed the growth of whole districts, and occasioned partial scarcity.
The natives attempt, in some instances, to extirpate it by burning chaff and
brimstone in the fields. There are scorpions and centipedes, but their
bite is considered of little consequence: the natives generally apply a
cataplasm of onions to the wound.. The class of insects afibrds many new

Origin of the Natives.—Javans compared with Maldyus and Bugis.—Compa-
rative Progress of the three Races.—Foreign l7fiuenx:e,—-Persons of the
Natives._Manners.—Population.—Inequality of it accounted for.—Popu-
lation TaUes.—Increase of Population.—Foreign Settlers.—Chinese,—
Bugis.^Maldyus.—Moors.—Arabs.—Slaves.—Gradations of Rank among

The inhabitants of Java seem to owe their origin to the same stock, from origin of the
which most of the islands lying to the south of the eastern peninsula of Asia
appear to have been first peopled. This stock is evidently Tartar, and has,
by its numerous and wide spreading branches, not only extended itself over
the Indian Archipelago, but over the neighbouring continent. « To judge
quot; from external appearance, that is to say, from shape, size, and feature,quot;
observes Dr. Francis Buchanan, in his Notices on the Birman Empire,*
quot; there is one very extensive nation that inhabits the east of Asia. It
quot; includes the eastern and western Tartars of the Chinese authors, the
quot; Calmucs, the Chinese, the Japanese, and other tribes inhabiting what is
quot; called the Peninsula of India beyond the Ganges, and the islands to
quot; the south and east of this, as far at least as New Guinea.quot;—quot; This
quot; nation,quot; adds the same author, quot; may be distinguished by a short, squat,
quot; robust, fleshy stature, and by features highly different from those of an
« European. The face is somewhat in shape of a lozenge, the forehead
« and chin being sharpened, whilst at the cheek bones it is very broad.
« The eyebrows, or superciliary ridges, in this nation, project very little,
« and the eyes are very narrow, and placed rather obliquely in the head, the
« external angles being the highest. The nose is very small, but has not,
quot; like that of the negro, the appearance of being flattened, and the
quot; apertures of the nostrils, which in the European are linear and parallel, in
quot; them are nearly circular and divergent, for the septum nariura being

quot; much thickest towards the face, places them entirely out of the parallel
quot; line. The mouths of this nation are in general well shaped; their hair
quot; is harsh, lank, and black. Those of them that live even in the highest
quot; cHmates do not obtain the deep hue of the negro or Hindu ; nor do such
quot; of them as live in the coldest climates acquire the clear bloom of the
quot; European.quot;

But although the Javans are to be included under this general description,
it does not follow that they bear an exact, or very striking resemblance, in
person and feature, to the Chinese or Japanese, nor even that they are
liable to be confounded with the Birmans or Siamese. From the former,
indeed, they are far removed by many obvious characteristics; and
though more nearly resembling the latter, they possess many peculiarities,
which mark them out to the most careless observer as a race distinct and
separate for ages, though still retaining general traces of a common origin.
As we approach the limits of savage life, and recur to that inartificial,
unimproved state of society, in which the primitive divergence may be
supposed to have taken place, we shall find the points of resemblance
increased, and the proofs of a common descent multiplied. The less civi-
lized of the tribes inhabiting the islands, approach so nearly, in physical
appearance, to that portion of the inhabitants of the peninsula, which has
felt least of the Chinese influence on the one side, and of the Birman and
Siamese on the other, and exhibit so striking an affinity in their usages and
customs, as to warrant the hypothesis that the tide of population originally
flowed towards the islands, from that quarter of the continent lying between
Siam and China. But at what era this migration commenced ; whether, in
the first instance, it was purely accidental and subsequently gradual; or
whether, originally, it was undertaken from design, and accelerated, at any
particular periods, by political convulsions on the continent, we cannot at
present determine with any certainty, as we have no data on which to rely
with confidence. It is probable, however, that the islands were peopled at
a very remote period, and long before the Birman and Siamese nations rose
into notice.

yusandBugis. ^hese islauds and the neighbouring peninsula, the striking resemblance
in person, feature, language, and customs, which prevails throughout the
whole Archipelago, justifies the conclusion, that its original population issued
from the same source, and that the peculiarities which distinguish the

dijfFerent nations and communities into which it is at present distributed,
are the result of a long separation, local circumstances, and the intercourse
of foreign traders, emigrants, or settlers.

Excluding the Philippines, as distant from the scene of our present obser-
vations, it may be noticed, that of the three chief nations in these islands,
occupying respectively Java, Sumatra, and Celebes, the first has, especially
by its moral habits, by it superior civilization and improvements, obtained a
broader and more marked characteristic than the others. Both the Malayan
and Bugis nations are maritime and commercial, devoted to speculations of
gain animated by a spirit of adventure, and accustomed to distant and
hazardous enterprizes; while the Javans, on the contrary, are an agricul-
tural race, attached to the soil, of quiet habits and contented dispositions,
almost entirely unacquainted with navigation and foreign trade, and little
inclined to engage in either. This diflference of character may perhaps be
accounted for, by the great superiority of the soil of Java to that of the
other two islands.

It is to be regretted, that our information on the state and progress of
society in these islands is scanty, as Europeans only became acquainted
with them when they were on their decline. The Malayan empire, which
once extended over all Sumatra,* and the capital of which is still nominally
at Mendng\'kdhau on that island, had long been dismembered; but its
colonies were found established on the coasts of the peninsula and through-
out the islands, as far east as the Moluccas. The Mahometan institutions
had considerably obliterated their ancient character, and had not only ob-
structed their improvement, but had accelerated their decline. Traditional
history concurs with existing monuments, in proving them to have formerly
made considerable advances in those arts, to which their industry and inge-
nuity were particularly directed, and they still bear marks of that higher
state of civilization which they once enjoyed.

What the Malayan empire was on Sumatra, in the western part of the
Archipelago, that of Guah, or Menghdsar, was on Celebes in the east j but
the people of this latter nation, whom we may generally designate by the
name of Bug\'^s, had not been equally influenced by foreign settlers nor exposed
to the inroads of the Arab missionaries, and they consequently maintained
their ancient worship and their native institutions for a longer period.
Like the Maldyus, they sent forth numerous colonies, and at one period

extended the success of their arms as far west as Acheen on Sumatra, and
Kéddah on the Malayan peninsula, and in almost every part of the Archipe-
lago, Malayan and Bugis settlers and estabhshments are to be found.

The Javans, on the contrary, being an agricultural people, are seldom
met with out of their native island. At one period of their history, indeed,
their power seems to have been exerted, in acquiring or perpetuating fo-
reign dominion ; and they seem to have sent out colonies to Borneo, the
peninsula, Sumatra, and probably Celebes : but when Europeans became
acquainted with them, their external influence appears to have been con-
tracted, and their sovereignty nearly confined within the limits of Java it-
self. Their foreign establishments thus receiving from them no protection,
and deriving no advantage from nominal obedience, declared their inde-
pendence J and, having but little communication with the mother coun-
try, soon became assimilated to the character, and merged into the body
of the Malayan nation.
Comparative The comparative advancement of these three nations in the arts of civi-
threé raceL^quot;^ lized life, seems to be directly as the fertility of the soil they occupied,
or the inducements they held out to foreign intercourse ; and inversely, as
the indulgence of their own roving, adventurous spirit, and piratical habits.
The arts never fix their roots but in a crowded population, and a crowded
population is generally created only on a fertile territory. Egypt, from the
fertility of soil and the consequent density of its population, led the way in
science and refinement among ancient nations ; while the sterile tracts
contiguous to that favoured land have been inhabited, from primeval times,
by dispersed tribes of unimproved barbarians. In like manner, Java hav-
ing become populous from its natural fertility, and having, by its wealth
and the salubrity of its climate, invited the visits of more enlightened
strangers, soon made great progress in arts and knowledge j while the
Bugis, being more deficient in these advantages, have been left consider-
ably behind in the race of improvement. They may lay claim, however,
to the most originality of character.
flueS quot;quot; It will be the object of another part of this work, to trace the source of
that foreign influence, to which these three nations are principally indebted
for their civilization : here, therefore, it may not be necessary to advert
to the circumstance further, than by generally observing, that ùom western
Asia they received the rudiments and impulse of improvement ; an infe-
rence abundantly justified by the extensive remains of the arts, institutions,

and languages of that country, which are still to be found throughout the
Archipelago.

The inhabitants of Java and Madura are in stature rather below the Persons of the
middle size, though not so short as the Bugis and many of the other
islanders. They are, upon the whole, well shaped, though less remarkably
so than the Maluyus, and erect in their figures. Their limbs are slender,
and the wrists and ankles particularly small. In general, they allow the
body to retain its natural shape. The only exceptions to this observation
are, an attempt to prevent the growth, or to reduce the size of the waist,
by compressing it into the narrowest limits j and the practice still more
injurious to female elegance, of drawing too tightly that part of the dress
which covers the bosom. Deformity is very rare among them. The fore-
head is high, the eyebrows well marked and distant from the eyes, which
are somewhat Chinese, or rather Tartar, in the formation of the inner
angle. The colour of the eye is dark ; the nose small and somewhat flat,
but less so than that of the islanders in general. The mouth is well formed,
but the lips are large, and their beauty generally injured by the practice of
filing and dying the teeth black, and by the use of tobacco, siri, amp;c. The
cheekbones are usually prominent 5 the beard very scanty ; the hair of the
head generally lank and black, but sometimes waving in curls, and partially
tinged with a deep reddish brown colour. The countenance is mild, placid,
and thoughtful, and easily expresses respect, gaiety, earnestness, indiffe-
rence, bashfulness, or anxiety.

In complexion, the Javans, as well as the other eastern islanders, may
be considered rather as a yellow than a copper-coloured or black race.
Their standard of beauty, in this respect, is quot; a virgin gold colourquot; : except
perhaps in some few districts in the mountainous parts of the country, where
a ruddy tinge is occasioned by the climate, they want the degree of red
requisite to give them a cgpperish hue. It may be observed, however,
that they are generally darker than the tribes of the neighbouring
islands; especially the inhabitants of the eastern districts, who may
indeed be considered as having more delicate features, and bearing a
more distinct impression of Indian colonization, than those of the Wes-
tern or Sénda districts. The Sundas exhibit many features of a moun-
tainous race. They are shorter, stouter, hardier, and more active
men, than the inhabitants of the coast and eastern districts. In some
respects they resemble the Madurese, who display a more martial and

independent air, and move with a bolder carriage than the natives of
Java. A considerable difference exists in person and features between
the higher and lower classes; more indeed than seems attributable to
difference of employment and treatment. The features and limbs of
the chiefs are more delicate, and approach more nearly to those of the
inhabitants of Western India, while those of the common people retain more
marked traces of the stock from which the islands were originally peopled.
In colour there are many different shades in different families and different
districts, some being much darker than others. Among many of the chiefs
a strong mixture of the Chinese is clearly discernible : the Arab features
are seldom found, except among the priests, and some few famihes of the

The women, in general, are not so good looking as the men ; and to
Europeans many of them, particularly when advanced in years, appear
hideously ugly. But among the lower orders, much of this deficiency of
personal comeliness is doubtless to be attributed to the severe d uties which
they have to perform in the field, to the hardships they have to undergo in
carrying oppressive burdens, and to exposure in a sultry chmate. On the
neighbouring island of Bali, where the condition of the women among
the^peasantry does not appear by any means so oppressed and degraded,
they exhibit considerable personal beauty; and even on Java, the higher
orders of them being kept within doors, have a very decided superiority
in this respect.

Maiums.nbsp;In manners the Javans are easy and courteous, and respectful even to

timidity j they have a great sense of propriety and are never rude or abrupt.
In their deportment they are pliant and graceful, the people of condition
carrying with them a considerable air of fashion, and receiving the gaze of
the curious without being at all disconcerted. In their delivery they are
in general very circumspect and even slow, though not deficient in anima-
tion when necessary.

Goitres.nbsp;Here, as on Sumatra, there are certain mountainous districts, in which

the people are subject to those large wens in the throat termed in Europe
goitres. The cause is generally ascribed by the natives to the quality of the
water ; but there seems good ground for concluding, that it is rather to be
traced to the atmosphere. In proof of this it may be mentioned, that there
is a village near the foot of the Teng\'gar mountains, in the eastern part of
the island, where every family is afflicted by this malady, while in another

village, situated at a greater elevation, and through which the stream
descends which serves for the use of both, there exists no such deformity.
These wens are considered hereditary in some famihes, and seem thus
independent of situation. A branch of the family of the present Adipdti of
Bandung is subject to them, and it is remarkable that they prevail chiefly
among the women in that family. They neither produce positive suffering
nor occasion early death, and may be considered rather as deformities than
diseases. It is never attempted to remove them.

The population of Java is very unequally distributed, whether we COn- population,
sider the fertility or the extent of the districts over which it is spread.
The great mass of it lies in the eastern and native districts, as will be per-
ceived from the annexed tables.

appointed on the first establishment of the British government, to enquire
and report on the state of the country. It will be found to illustrate, in
some degree, the proportionate numbers of the different ranks and classes
of society, in the island. Beyond this, however, it cannot be depended
upon, as the returns of which it is an abstract were made at a period when
the Dutch system of administration provisionally remained in force; and
every new enquiry into the state of the country being at that time consi-
dered by the people, as a prelude to some new tax or oppression, it became
an object with them to conceal the full extent of the population : accord-
ingly, it was found to differ essentially in amount from the results of infor-
mation subsequently obtained on the introduction of the detailed land
revenue settlement, when an agreement with each individual cultivator
becoming necessary to the security of his possession, he seldom failed to
satisfy the necessary enquiries. The table No. II, here exhibited, at least
as far as regards the European provinces, may therefore be considered as
faithful a view of the population of the country as could be expected, and
as such, notwithstanding the inaccuracies to which all such accounts are
liable, it is presented with some confidence to the public.

It was formed in the following manner. A detailed account of the pea- ,
santry of each village was first taken, containing the name of each male
inhabitant, with other particulars, and from the aggregate of these village
lists a general statement was constructed of the inhabitants of each subdi-
vision and district. An abstract was again drawn up from these provincial
accounts, exhibiting the state of each residency in which the districts were

respectively included, and the totals of these last, collected into one tabular
view, constitute the present abstract. The labour of this detailed survey
was considerable, for as each individual cultivator was to receive a lease cor-
responding with the register taken, it was necessary that the land he rented
should be carefully measured and assessed.*

* The Javan mode of taking account of population is by the number of chacha, or
quot; families,quot; as it is usually rendered, though the word strictly

When the sovereign assigns lands, it is not usual for him to express the extent of land, but
the number of chacha attached to it. But as the population of the land

the original expression becomes inaccurate. In the native provinces, the number of chachas
reckoned is almost invariably less than the number actually existing, a clear proof, if the
original census was correct, that in those provinces population has increased. An account of
the number of chachas was taken some few years back by the Sultan of Yugya-kerta, with a
view to a new distribution of the lands; but the measure was very unpopular, and no accurate
results were obtained. The Dutch relied entirely upon this loose system of enumeration.

_ZJZ^quot;nbsp;\'\' \'quot;^\'\'■quot;•\'-quot;\'f\'quot;- R-quot;- \'B12-1S, under ,ke ijfferen, DUii.cUo„s of European.,nbsp;CMnc.,nbsp;of a^^f^^ Gov.««,,-,


445	711
994	1,070
3,524	2,910
1,625	1,718
1,097	1,051
1,463	1,149
2,769	2,527
7,359	6,956
1,330	1,382
670	687
447	400
71	47
167	140
2,425	2,808
232	329
303	327
869	1,616
4,521	4,426
3.839	4,619
4,364	5,228

257
1,421
5,123
8,460

24,660

39,451
1,399
4,339
2,342
2,962
41,944
4,229
4,939
26,411
702
4,000
18,782
10,041
5,443
6,967
69,424
28,999
15,000
12,006
20,247
7,670

32,557

7,625
5,224
11,943
10,990
30,557
9,106
3,380
1,300
170
1,500

8,320

4,723
1,668-
3,569
17,463
1,246
28,040
30,573

203,042

193,670
6,486
13,138
6,158
9,337

144.405
21,591
27,488
122,037

3,985
14,586
58,480
34,392
19,534
28,362
153,727

120.406
53,000
42,688
82,274
29,646

103,593

38,649
29,618
51,754
51,662
133,057
42,630
16,278
7,490
933
863

39,135

23,667
9,490
14,139
67,151
10,0^6
105.305

m,5l

i\'18,777
47,083
13,411
6,210
9,425
144,465
21,591
27,488
133,592
3,985

1109,930

20,596
28,462
154,660
122,384
54,840
43,694
83,027
31,296

108,009

40,440
30.179
53,334
53,431
137,959
44,075
16,571
^ 7.148
\'912
6,924

40,162

24,109
8,070
14,139
69,338
9,798
109,995
122,944

TABLE exhibiting the POPULATION of JAVA and MADURA, according to a Censm taken h^ the Bbitish gorebnment

Mem —The Population of the principal European capitals included in the above, is esti-
mated as follows:—nbsp;r ^nbsp;,

f®ng.......................................; i \'..■.■.■.■.■.quot;.■.;■.;;; 2o;ooo

The Popuhitiou of Sura-kerta, tiie principal Native capital, is estimated at 105,000
That of Yugya-herta. at somewhat less.

* This includes the Population of PacMtan under the European governraent, amountiuK
to about 22,000.nbsp;^

t Tliis does not include the flependent islands, on which a considerable portion of the
jjopulation is scattered.

By the last table, it appears that in some districts the population is in
the ratio of two hundred and eighty-one to a square mile, while in others
it is not more than twenty-four and three quarters : in the districts of
Banywwdngi it is even as low as seven. The soil in the eastern districts is
generally considered superior to that in the western, and this circumstance,
added to the superior facilities which they afford to commerce, may serve
to account for their original selection as the chief seat of the native govern-
ment, and consequently for their denser population at an early period.

This disproportion was also promoted by the policy of the Dutch Com-
pany. The Dutch first established themselves in the western division, and
having no confidence in the natives, endeavoured to drive them from
the vicinity of Batavia, with the view of establishing round their metropolis
an extensive and desert barrier. The forced services and forced deliveries,
which extended wherever Dutch influence could be felt, and of which
more will be said hereafter, contributed to impoverish, and thereby to depo-
pulate the country. The drain also of the surrounding districts, to supply
the place of the multitudes who perished by the unhealthy climate of
Batavia, must have been enormous; and if to these we add the checks to
population, which were created over Bantam, the Fridng\'en Regencies, and
Cheribon, in the pepper and coffee cultivation, of the nature of which an
account will be given when treating of the agriculture of the country ; we
need go no further to account for the existing disproportion. It was only
about sixty years ago, that the Dutch government first obtained a decided
influence in the eastern districts, and from that moment, the provinces
subjected to its\' authority ceased to improve, and extensive emigrations
took place into the dominions of the native princes. Such were the effects
of this desolating system, that the population of the province of Banyu-
wdngi, which in 1750 is said to have amounted to upwards of eighty thou-
sand souls, was in 1811 reduced to eight thousand.

The Pridng\'en Regencies, from their inland situation and mountainous cha-
racter, may probably have at all times been less closely peopled than other
parts of the island, and their insufficient population would furnish no proofs
of the oppressions of government, did we not observe extensive tracts, nay
whole districts, exhibiting the traces of former cultivation, now lymg waste,
and overgrown with long rank grass. Cheribon and Bantam have shared
the same fate. These provinces, according to authentic accounts, were,
at the period of the first establishment of the European government, among

the richest and most populous of the island. In 1811, they were found in
a state of extreme poverty, affording little or no revenue, and distracted by
all the aggravated miseries of continued insurrections.

If we look at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, the capitals of the British
government in India j if we look at the great cities of every nation in Eu-
rope J nay, if we even confine ourselves to the capitals of the native princes
on Java, we shall find that population has always accumulated in their
vicinity. And why was this not the case with the Dutch capital ? The
I cHmate alone will not explain it. Bad government was the principal cause ;
a system of policy which secured neither person nor property—selfish, jea-
ous, vexatious, and tyrannical. It is no less true than remarkable, that,
wherever the Dutch influence has prevailed in the Eastern Seas, depopulation
has followed. The Moluccas particularly have suffered at least as much as
any part of Java, and the population of those islands, reduced as it is, has
been equally oppressed and degraded.

It was fortunate for the interests of humanity, and for the importance of mtei-nai migra-
Java, that the native governments were less oppressive than the sway of
their European conquerors, and that their states afforded a retreat from a
more desolating tyranny. It has been ascertained, that, on the first esta-
blishment of the Dutch in the eastern part of the island, the inhabitants of
whole districts at once migrated into the Native Provinces. Every new act
of rigour, every unexpected exaction, occasioned a further migration, and
cultivation was transferred to tracts which had previously scarcely a family
on them. This state of things continued down to the latest date of the
Dutch government. During the administration of Marshal Daendels, in
the years 1808, 1809, and 1810, nearly all the inhabitants of the province
of DemdJc, one of the richest in the eastern districts, fled into the Native
Provmces ; and when an order was given for the rigid enforcement of the
coffee monopoly, every district suffered in its population, in proportion to
the extent of service levied upon it. Of the sacrifice of lives by thousands
and tens of thousands, to fill the ranks of the Dutch native army, and to
construct roads and public works, we shall speak more at large hereafter.

The total population of Java and Madura appears, from the table No. Distribution of
II, to amount to 4,615,270, of which about four millions and a half
may be considered as the indigenous population of the country, and the
rest as foreign settlers. Itinerants, who are principally found along the
coast in the different maritime and commercial capitals, are not included ;

neither is the nautical population, which cannot be estimated at less than
30,000 souls; so that the whole population of these two islands may, per-
haps, be taken in round numbers at not much less than five millions. Of
these not less than three millions are in the provinces immediately subject
to European authority, and upwards of a million and a half in the Provinces
of the native princes.

While the British were in possession of Java, there is reason to believe
that the population of the island was rapidly increasing ; that of the pro-
vinces immediately under the European authority was certainly augmented
by the return of numerous families from emigration : but previously to that
period, no such authentic registers were kept as might enable us to ascertain
with precision the variations in the number of the inhabitants during the
Dutch government.

Nothing can more completely shew the vague and defective information
formerly attainable on this subject, than the loose and contradictory state-
ments pubhshed by those who took most pains to be well informed, and
who felt it their duty to collect all the light that could be attained\'. In
some accounts which have met the public eye, the population of Java is
placed on a level with that of the most powerful European states, and
assumed as high as thirty millions, while in others, where one would expect
more accuracy,* it is rated at only a million. The most respectable autho-
ritiest state the population about a century ago at three millions; but the
slightest reflection will convince us, that such an estimate must have pro-
ceeded upon data merely conjectural, for from our knowledge of the Dutch
maxims of administration we may safely say, that until very lately, they
never thought it an object to prosecute statistic enquiries, and that, if ever
they had done so, under the old system, they could have obtained no results
deserving of confidence or credit.

About the year 1750, a certain number of families were assigned bv the
stipulations of a treaty to one of the native princes and on his death iout
thirty years afterwards, when an account was taken of this population, it
appeared that the number of families had nearly doubled. But this increase
cannot be taken as the average increase of the island, for at this period the
native provinces received a considerable accession to their numbers, in
consequence of the emigrations from the Dutch territories.

If any inference can be drawn from this and other corresponding circum-
stances, it would seem, that notwithstanding the drains on the existing race,
and the preventive checks to an increase, which were experienced during
the latter years of the Dutch administration, the island v^^as actually more
populous in 1811, when it was surrendered to the British, than in 1750,
when, at the termination of a destructive war, the Dutch acquired the
greatest portion of it from the natives.

To support the opinion of an increase within the last half century (which
is every where asserted) we have the assurance, that during that period the
greatest internal tranquillity prevailed in the provinces subject to native
administration ; that no years of scarcity and famine were experienced, and
that the island was blessed with genial seasons and abundance of subsis-
tence. But, to place in the opposite scale, we have the government
oppressions to which we formerly alluded, and which one would suppose
sufficient to counteract the natural tendency of these advantages. As
demonstrative of the strength of that principle of population, which could
even maintain its stationary amount in conflict with political drains and
discouragements, it may be proper to mention cursorily a few of them.
Great demands were, at all times, made on the peasantry of the island, to
recruit the ranks of the Dutch army, and to supply the many other wants
of the public service j the severities and consequent mortality to which
the troops were liable, may be calculated, from the reluctance of the unfor-
tunate wretches, selected as victims of military conscription, to engage in
the duties of a military life. Confined in unhealthy garrisons, exposed to
unnecessary hardships and privations, extraordinary casualties took place
among them, and frequent new levies hpc^me necessary, while the anticipa-
tion of danger and suffering produced an aversion to the service, which
was only aggravated by the subsequent measures of cruelty and oppression.
The conscripts raised in the provinces were usually sent to the metropolis
by water j and though the distance be but short between any two points of
the island, a mortality, similar to that of a slave ship in the middle passage,
took place on board these receptacles of reluctant recruits. They were
generally confined in the stocks till their arrival at Batavia, and it is calcu-
lated that for every man that entered the army and performed the duties of
a soldier, several lives were lost. Besides the supply of the army, one half
of the male population of the country was constantly held in readiness for

other public services; and thus a great portion of the effective hands were
taken from their famihes, and detained at a distance from home, in labours
which broke their spirit and exhausted their strength. During the adminis-
tration of Marshal Daendals, it has been calculated that the construction of
pubHc roads alone, destroyed the lives of at least ten thousand workmen.
The transport of government stores, and the capricious requisitions of
government agents of all classes, perpetually harassed, and frequently carried
off numbers of the people. If to these drains we add the waste of life occa-
sioned by insurrections, which tyranny and impolicy excited and fomented
in Chéribon, the blighting effects of the coffee monopoly, and forced services
in the Fridng\'en Regencies, and the still more desolating operation of the
policy pursued and consequent anarchy produced in the province of Bantam,
we shall have some idea of the depopulating causes that existed under the
Dutch administration, and the force of that tendency to increase, which
could overcome obstacles so powerful.

Most of these drains and checks were removed during the short
period of British administration; bnt it is to be regretted (so far as accu-
rate data on this subject would be desirable) that there was not time to
learn satisfactorily the result of a different system, or to institute the
proper registers, by which alone questions of population can be deter-
mined. The only document of that kind, to which I can venture to refer
as authentic, is a statement of the births and deaths that occurred in the
given general population of the Pridng\'en Regencies for one year. From
this account it would appear, that even in these Regencies, where, if we
except Batavia, the checks to population are allowed to be greater than
elsewhere, the births were to the total existing population as 1 to 39, and
the deaths as 1 to 40 very nearly ; that the births exceed the deaths by 6l8,
or about 1 in 40, in a population of 232,000, and that, at that rate, thé
population would double itself in three hundred and seventy-five years! A
slow increase, certainly, compared with England, where the births in the
three years ending 1800, were to the persons alive as 1 in 36, and the deaths
as 1 to 49, and where, consequently, the nation would double itself in one
hundred and sixty years (or taking the enumeration of iBll as more
correct, where the population would be doubled in eighty ye^i\'O : but
not much slower than that of France, where, according to the statements
of numbers in 1700 and 1790, about three hundred years would be required

to double the inhabitants. It has been estimated that the population in
some more favourable districts would double itself in fifty years. One
inference cannot fail to be drawn from the register to which I have refer-
red; that the births and deaths, though they nearly approach each other
are low, compared with the existing numbers; and that, consequently, the
climate is healthy, and the marriages not very prolific, as far as this district
is concerned.

In the absence of authentic documents, which would have enabled us to
resolve many interesting questions regarding the population, such as the
number of children to a marriage, the ordinary length of life, the propor-
tion of children that die in infancy and at the other stages of life, the
ratio between the births and deaths and the consequent rate of increase,
the effect of polygamy and multiplied divorces, the comparative healthiness
of the towns and the villages, and several others,—I shall state a few ob-
servations on some of these heads, and a few facts tending to shew, that
under a better system of government, or by the removal of a few of the
checks that previously existed, Java might, in a short time, be expected
to be better peopled.

The soil is in general extremely fertile, and can be brought to yield Encourage-
its produce with little labour. Many of the best spots still remain un- population,
cultivated, and several districts are almost desert and neglected, which
might be the seats of a crowded and happy peasantry. In many places,
the land does not require to be cleared, as in America, from the overgrown
vegetation of primeval forests, but offers its service to the husbandman,
almost free from every obstruction to his immediate labours. The aori-
cultural life in which the mass of the people are engaged, is on Java,
as in every other country, the most favourable to health. It not only
favours the longevity of the existing race, but conduces to its more rapid
renewal, by leading to early marriages and a numerous progeny. The term
of life IS not much shorter than in the best climates of Europe. A very
considerable number of persons of both sexes attain the advanced age of
seventy or eighty, and some even live to one hundred and upwards; nearly
the same proportion survive forty and fifty, as in other genial climates.

While life is thus healthy and prolonged, there are no restraints upon the
formation of family connexions, by the scarcity of subsistence or the
labour of supporting children. Both sexes arrive at maturity very early,

and the customs of the country, as well as the nature of the climate, impel
them to marry young; the males at sixteen, and the females at thirteen
or fourteen years of age : though frequently the women form connexions at
nine or ten, and, as Montesquieu expresses it, « infancy and marriage go

together.quot; The conveniences which the married couple require are
few and easily procured. The impulse of nature is seldom checked by the
experience of present deficiencies or the fear of future poverty. Subsistence
is procured without difficulty, and comforts are not wanting. Children
which are for a very short period a burden to their parents, become early
the means of assistance and the source of wealth. To the peasant who
labours his field with his own hand, and who has more land than he can
bring into cultivation, they grow up into a species of valuable property, a
real treasure ; while, during their infancy and the season of helplessness,
they take little from the fruits of his industry but bare subsistence.

Their education costs him little or nothing; scarcely any clothing is
required, his hut needs very little enlargement, and no beds are used.
Many of them die in infancy from the small-pox and other distempers, but
never from scanty food or criminal ncglect of parents. The women of all
classes suckle their children, till we ascend to the wives of the regents and
of the sovereign, who employ nurses.

Though women soon arrive at maturity, and enter early into the married
state, they continue to bear children to an advanced age, and it is no
uncommon thing to see a grandmother still making addition to her family.
Great families are however rare. Though there are some women who have
borne thirteen or fourteen children, the average is rather low than other-
wise. A chacha, or family, is generally less numerous than in Europe,
both from the circumstance that the young men and women more early
leave the houses of their parents to form establishments for themselves and
from an injudicious mode of labouring among women of the lower ranks.
Miscarriages among the latter are frequently caused by overstraijning them-
selves in carrying excessive burdens, and performing oppressive field work,
during pregnancy, xhe average number of persons in a family does not
ej^ceed four, or four and a half. As the labour of the women is almost
equally productive with that of the men, female children become as much
objects of solicitude with their parents as male: they are nursed with the
same care and viewed with the same pride and tenderness. In no class

of society are children of either sex considered as an incumbrance, or the
addition to a family as a misfortune; marriage is therefore almost universal.
An unmarried man past twenty is seldom to be met with, and an old maid
is considered a curiosity. Neither custom, law, or religion, enjoins celibacy
on the priesthood or any other order of the community, and by none of
them is it practiced. Although no strictness of principle, nor strong sense
of moral restraint, prevails in the intercourse of the sexes, prostitution is
not common, except in the capitals.

As the Javans are a quiet domestic people, little given to adventure,
disinclined to foreign enterprize, not easily roused to violence or bloodshed,
and little disposed to irregularities of any kind, there are but few families
left destitute, in consequence of hazards incurred or crimes committed by
their natural protectors. The character of blood-thirsty revenge, which
has been attributed to all the inhabitants of the Indian Archipelago,
by no means applies to the people of Java; and though, in all cases
where justice is badly administered or absolutely perverted, people may be
expected to enforce their rights or redress their grievances, rather by their
own passions than by an appeal to the magistrate, comparatively few lives
are lost on the island by personal affray or private feuds.

Such are a few of the circumstances that would appear to have encou-
raged an increase of population on Java. They furnish no precise data
on which to estimate its rapidity, or to calculate the period within
which it would be doubled, but they allow us, if tranquillity and good
government were enjoyed, to anticipate a gradual progress in the augmen-
tation of inhabitants, and the improvements of the soil for a long course of
time. Suppose the quantity of land in cultivation to be to the land still in
a state of nature as one to seven, which is probably near the truth, and that,
in the ordinary circumstances of the country, the population would dou-
ble itself in a century, it might go on increasing for three hundred years
to come. Afterwards the immense tracts of unoccupied or thinly peopled
territories on Sumatra, Borneo, and the numerous islands scattered over
the Archipelago, may be ready to receive colonies, arts and civilization
from the metropolis of the Indian seas. Commercial intercourse, friendly
relations, oi\' political institutions, may bind these dispersed communities in
one great insular commonwealth. Its trade and navigation might connect
the centre of this great empire with Japan, China, and the south-western
countries of Asia. New Holland, which the adventurous Bugis already

frequent, and which is not so far Histant from Java as Russia is from
England, might be included in the circle, and colonies of Javans settled
on the north, might meet with the British spreading from the south, over
that immense and now uncultivated region. If we could indulge ourselves
in such reveries with propriety, we might contemplate the present semi-
barbarous condition, ignorance, and poverty of these innumerable islands,
exchanged for a state of refinement, prosperity, and happiness.

SSn^ po- I formerly alluded to the oppressions of government, as the principal
checks to the increase of population on Java. There are many others,
such as the small-pox, and other diseases, which are common to that
country with the rest of the world. From the scattered state of the popu-
lation, any contagious distemper, such as the small-pox, was formerly less
destructive on Java, than in countries where the inhabitants are more
crowded into large towns, and it is hoped that, from the establishment for
vaccine innoculation which the British government erected, and endea-
voured to render permanent, its ravages may, in time, be entirely arrested.
The diseases most peculiar to the country, and most dangerous at all ages,
are fevers and dysenteries: epidemics are rare. There are two moral
causes which, on their first mention, will strike every one as powerfully
calculated to counteract the principle of population : I mean the facility of
obtaining divorces, and the practice of polygamy. A greater weight should
not, however, be given them, than they deserve after a consideration of
all the circumstances. It is true, that separations often take place on the
slightest grounds, and new connexions are formed with equal frivolity and
caprice ; but in whatever light morality would view this practice, and how-
ever detrimental it would be to population in a different state of society, by
leaving the children of the marriage so dissolved to neglect and want, it has
no such consequences on Java. Considering the age at which marriages
are usually contracted, the choice of the parties cannot be always expected
to be considerate or judicious. It may be observed also that the women,
although they do not appear old at twenty, as Montesquieu remarks,
certainly sooner lose that influence over their husbands, which depends
upon their beauty and personal attractions, than they do in colder climates.
In addition to this, there is little moral restraint among many classes
of the community, and the religious maxims and indulgences acted upon
by the priesthood, in regulating matrimonial sanctions, have no tendency
to produce constancy or to repress inclination. Dissolutions of marriage

are, therefore, very frequent, and obtained upon the slightest pretences ;
but, as children are always valuable, and as there is very little trouble in
i-earing or providing for them, no change of mate, in either party,
leads to their abandonment or neglect. Indeed, the ease of supporting
children, which renders the practice less detrimental to the increase of po-
pulation, may be one of the paincipal causes why it is generally followed
and so little checked. No professed prostitution or promiscuous intercourse
is the consequence of this weakness of the nuptial tie. It is rather brittle
than loose ; it is easily dissolved, but while it remains it generally insures
fidelity.

Polygamy, though in all cases it must be injurious to population and Poiymagy.
happiness, so far as it goes, is permitted on Java, as in other Mahometan
countries, by religion and law, but not practiced to any great extent. Per-
haps the ease of obtaining matrimonial separations, by admitting of succes-
sive changes of wives, diminishes the desire of possessing more than one
at a time.

It is plain, likewise, that whatever be the law, the great body of the
people must have only one wife ; and that, where there is nearly an equality
of number between the sexes, inequality of wealth or power alone can
create an unequal distribution of women. On Java, accordingly, only the
chiefs and the sovereign marry more than one wife. All the chiefs, from
the regents downwards, can only, by the custom of the country\' have
two ; the sovereign alone has four. The regents, however, have gene-
rally three or four concubines, and the sovereign eight or ten. Some
of the chiefs have an extraordinary number of children; the late
Regent of Tuban is reputed to have been the father of no fewer than
sixty-eight. Such appropriations of numerous women as wives or concu-
bines, were owing to the political power of native authorities over the in-
ferior classes ; and as, by the new system, that power is destroyed, the evil
may to a certain extent be checked. If we were to depend upon the state-
ment of a writer whom Montesquieu refers to, that in Bantam there were
ten women to one man, we should be led to conclude with him, that here
was a case particularly favourable to polygamy, and that such an institution
was here an appointment of nature, intended for the multiplication of the
species, rather than an abuse contributing to check it. There is not
the least foundation, however, for the report. The proportion of males
and females born in Bantam, and over the whole of Java, is nearly the same

as in Europe, and as we find generally to exist, wherever accurate state-
ments can be obtained. From the information collected in a very careful
survey of one part of the very province in question, the preponderance
seemed to be on the side of male children to an extraordinary degree ; the
male children being about forty-two thousand, and the females only thirty-
five thousand five hundred. There were formerly, it is true, great drains
on the male population, to which I have before alluded, and which in the
advanced stages of life, might turn the balance on the other side j but as
they were never so destructive as to render polygamy a political institution,
so that institution was not carried to such an extent, as to render it a pe-
culiar obstacle to the progress of population. Upon the whole, we may
conclude that in Java, under a mild government, there is a great tendency
to an increase in the number of inhabitants, and to the consequent im-
provement and importance of the. island.

Besides the natives, whose numbers, circumstances, and character I have
slightly mentioned, there is on Java a rapidly increasing race of foreigners,
who have emigrated from the different surrounding countries. The most
numerous and important class of these is the Chinese, who already do not
fall far short of a hundred thousand j and who, with a system of free trade
and free cultivation, would soon accumulate tenfold, by natural increase
within the island, and gradual accessions of new settlers from home. They
reside principally in the three great capitals of Batavia, Semdrang, and
Surabaya, but they are to be found in all the smaller capitals, and scattered
over most parts of the country. A great proportion of them are descended
from families who have been many generations on the island. Additions
are gradually making to their numbers. They arrive at Batavia from China,
to the amount of a thousand and more annually, in Chinese junks, carrying
three, four, and five hundred each, without money or resources j but, by
dint of their industry, soon .acquire comparative opulence. There are no
women on Java who come directly from China j but as the Chinese often
marry the daughters of their countrymen by Javan women, there results a
numerous mixed race which is often scarcely distinguishable from the
native Chinese. The Chinese on their arrival generally marry a- Javan
woman, or purchase a slave from the other islands. The progeny from this
connexion, or what may be termed the cross breed between the Chinese
and Javans, are called in the Dutch accounts perndkans. Many return to

China annually in the junks, but by no means in the same numbers as they
arrive.

The Chinese, in all matters of inheritance and minor affairs, are governed
by their own laws, administered by their own chiefs, a captain and several
lieutenants being appointed by government for each society of them. They
are distinct from the natives, and are in a high degree more intelligent, more
laborious, and more luxurious. They are the life and soul of the commerce
of the country. In the native provinces they are still farmers of the revenue,
having formerly been so throughout the island.

Although stiil numerous, they are considered to have much decreased
since the civil war in 1742, during which not only a large proportion of
the Chinese population was massacred by the Dutch in the town of Batavia,

but a decree of extermination was proclaimed against them throughout the
island.

The natives of the Coromandel and Malabar coast, who reside on Java, Moors,
are usually termed Moors. They appear to be the remnant of a once exten-
sive class of settlers ; but their numbers have considerably decreased, since
the establishment of the Dutch monopoly and the absolute extinction of the
native trade with India, which we have reason to believe was once very
Extensive. Trading vessels, in considerable numbers, still continue to pro-
fceed from the Coromandel coast to Sumatra, Penang, and Malacca, but
they no longer frequent Java.

Bugis and Maldyus are established in all the maritime capitals of Java. B6gis ai^d Ma-
They have their own quarter of the town allotted to them, in the same
manner as the Chinese, and are subject to the immediate authority of their
respective captains.

Among the Arabs are many merchants, but the majority are priests. Arabs.
Their principal resort is Gresih, the spot where Mahometanism was first
extensively plauted on Java. They are seldom of genuine Arab birth, but
mostly a mixed race, between the Arabs and the natives of the islands.

There is another class of inhabitants, either foreigners themselves or the Slaves,
immediate descendants of foreigners, whose peculiar situation and consider-
able numbers entitle them to some notice in the general sketch of the
population: I mean the class of slaves. The native Javans are never reduced
to this condition; or if they should happen to be seized and sold by pirates
a satisfactory proof of their origin would be sufficient to procure thei^

enfranchisement. The slave merchants have therefore been under the
necesssity of resorting to the neighbouring islands for a supply, and the
greatest number have been procured from Bali and Celebes. The total
amount may be estimated at about thirty thousand. According to the
returns obtained in 1814, it appeared that the following were the numbers
in the principal divisions of the island.

These slaves are the property of the Europeans and Chinese alone : the
native chiefs never require the services of slaves, or engage in the traffic of
slavery. The Mahometan laws, which regulate their civil condition, and
permit this abomination in all its extent, are modified by the milder preju-
dices and more humane temper of the country. The Dutch, who, like
us, valued themselves on their political liberty, are here the great promo-
ters of civil servitude, and carried with them into their eastern empire, the
Roman law regarding slavery in all its extent and rigour. But although
they adopted principles that admitted of the most cruel and wanton treat-
ment of slaves, I would not be understood to say, that they carried these
principles into common practice. The contrary was almost universally the
case, and the condition of slaves on Java, where they were employed princi-
pally in domestic offices, formed a complete contrast to the state of those
employed in the West-India plantations. It is remarked by Montesquieu,
that quot; in despotic countries, the condition of a slave is hardly more burdeu-
quot; some than that of a subject,quot; and such has been the case in Java. The
grounds on which the Dutch justified the practice of making slaves, was not
that they could not command the services of the natives with a sway suffi-
ciently absolute, and that they were compelled to seek, beyond the limits of
the island, for unfortunate agents to perform what the natives shewed a reluc-
tance to undertake, but that they found the class of foreigners more adroit
and docile than the Javans in the conduct of household affairs, and that
leaving reduced them to the state of property, they remained in the family
for Hfe, and saved the trouble of a new training.

Upon the conquest of the island by the British in 18H, the condition of
this class of its subjects excited the attention of government 5 and though we
could not, consistently with those rights of property which were admitted
by the laws that we professed to administer, emancipate them at once
from servitude, we enacted regulations, as far as we were authorized, to
ameliorate their present lot, and lead to their ultimate freedom. Steps were
immediately taken to check further importation, and as soon as it was
known that the horrid traffic in slaves was declared a felony by the British
parliament, it was not permitted for an instant to disgrace a region to which
the British authority extended. The folly and perfect uselessness of slavery
on Java has been often pointed out by Dutch commissioners and Dutch
authors.*

* It is remarked in the text, that the condition of the slaves on Java is very different from
that of the same class in the West Indies. The former are employed rather as administering
to the luxuries than the necessities of their proprietors; and, with few exceptions, exclusively
for domestic purposes. There are some who having taught their slaves when young to
embroider, or exercise some useful handicraft or trade, obtain a livelihood by means of their
services, and some few employ their slaves on their estates, or let them out to hire ; but the
general condition of the slaves is that of domestic servants.

The regulations and colonial statutes respecting slavery seems to have been framed on the
prmciples of humanity, and with attention to the genius of the Christian religion; yet, in
consequence of the supplementary force of the Roman law in the Dutch system of legislature,
there appeared to be one capital defect in the code, viz. that a slave was considered as a real
property, incapable of personal rights, from which consideration the ill treatment of a master
towards his slave was not so much estimated on the principle of personal injury, as that of a
proprietor abusing his own property; and although a slave, under such a system, might
obtain a portion of property for himself with the consent of his master, his possession was
always precarious, and depended on the discretion of his proprietor, (in the same manner as a
jpeculium adventitium with the Romans), becoming only the unlimited property of the slave, if
the master allowed him to keep it after his emancipation.

It was conceived, that considering the civil law only as a supplement to the positive law, .
continued m force on Java under the proclamation of the Earl of Minto of llth September
1811, tne code respecting slavery might, together with the other parts of legislation, be
amended and established, on principles more consistent with humanity and good sense, by a
declaration, that slaves in future should not be considered as objects of real property, but as
objects possessing personal rights, and bound only to unlimited service ; and that, in conse-
quence thereof, slaves should never be transferred from one master to another, without their
own consent given before witnesses or a notary. That a master should possess no other power
over his slave, than to exact service in an equitable manner; that he should inflict no corporal
chastisement on him after he had attained a certain age, nor beyond such a degree as Would be
given to his children or common apprentices ; that all personal wrongs done to a slave either

Having thus attempted a brief description of the different classes of the
Asiatic population of the island, I shall proceed to a short detail of the habita-

by his master or by others, should be estimated by the common rules of personal injuries, and
• not by the prmciple of a proprietor abusing his own property ; that the punishment for murder
committed by a master on his slave, should be the same as that of ^nrder committed on a
free person; that every slave should have a right to acquire property of hi^ .
industry or labour, or by the bounty of others ; that this property should never be removeable at
the discretion of the master ; that by this property the slave should always LvT^^^\'^h^^*
redeem his liberty, after having continued with his master for the term of seven yLrs quot;fnd on
paying the sum which on estimation, subject to the approval of the magistrate, shouldTt the
time be thought an adequate equivalent for his personal services.

These fundamental alterations in the code were submitted by the local government to a
higher authority, at a period when the principal proprietors evinced a concurrence in the
measure; but the provisional tenure of the government, and the expectation of tl 1
transfer of the island to the crown, induced a delay, until the re-estabUshment of Holl A
a kingdom precluded the adoption of so essential a change.nbsp;quot;

The excuse offered by the colonists for the origin and continuance of slavery on Jav«
that on the first establishment of the Dutch in the Eastern Islands, there did not exist as t
Western India, a class of people calculated for domestic service; that they had, in\'conse
quence, to create a class of domestic servants, in doing which they adopted the plan of rearing
children in their families from other countries, in preference to those in their immediate neigh-
bourhood, who, from their connexions and the habits of their relatives, could never be
depended upon. Whether necessity dictated this system in the earlier periods of the Dutch
establishment, or not, is at least doubtful; but it is certain that this necessity no longer exists
nor IS there the shadow of an excuse for continuing on Java this odious traffic and condition.\'
The Javans durmg the residence of the British on Java, have been found perfectly trustwor-
thy, faithful, and industrious; and the demand was alone wanting in this, as in most cases,
to create a sufficient supply of competent domestics. The continuance of the traffic for one
day longer serves but to lower the European in the eyes of the native, who, gratified with the
measures adopted by the British government in its suppression, stands himself pure of the foul
sm. lothe credit of the Javan character, and the honour of the individual, it should be
known, that when the proclamation of the British government was published, requirin the
registration of all slaves, and declaring that such as were not registered by a certain day sLuld
be entitled to their emancipation, the Panambahan of Sumenap, who had inherited his
family domestic slaves to the number of not less than fifty, proudly said, quot; Then I will not
quot; register my slaves—they shall be free; hitherto they have been kept such, because it was
quot; the custom, and the Dutch liked to be attended by slaves when they visited the palace ;
quot; but as that is not the case with the British, they shall cease to be slaves : for long have I
\'\' felt shame, and my blood has run cold, when I have reflected on what I once saw at Ba-
quot; tavia and Semarang, where human beings were exposed for public sale, placed on a table,
quot; and examined like sheep and oxen.quot;

The short administration of the British government on Javajbas fortunately given rise to
another class of domestic servants. The numerous officers of the army, and others whose funds

tions, dress, food, and domestic economy of the natives; but, in order to enable
the reader to understand some of the terms in the tables, and likewise in the
subsequent observations, it may not be improper simply to state the names
and titles expressive of the different gradations of rank, leaving a more par-
ticular account of the power and authority with which they are connected
to another opportunity. The sovereign, who is either called SusuMnan,
Susman, or Sultan, is the fountain of honour and the source of all distinc-
tion. His family are called Pang\'érans, his queen Râtu, the heir apparent
Pangéran adipâti, and the prime minister Râden adipâti. Governors of
provinces, called by the Dutch Regents, are styled by the natives Bopatis,
Tumungungs, or Ang\'ahéis ; and are ranked among the chief nobility of the
country. All the inferior chiefs, including those termed Rddens, Mdntris,
Demdngs, Luras, and others, except the heads of villages, termed Kéwus,
Bûkuls, Fatmg\'gis, amp;c. who are elected by the common people out of
their own number for the performance of specific duties, may be consi-
dered as petite noblesse.

The cottage or hut of the peasant, called umah limdsan, may be esti- Dwellings,
mated to cost, in its first construction, from two to four rupees, or from

did not admit, or whose temporary residence did not require a permanent establishment of ser-
vants, for the most part usually took Javans into their service ; and though these might, in
the first instance, not be so well acquainted with European habits, as slaves who had been
brought up from their infancy in Dutch families, yet they gradually improved, and were, in
the end, for the most part very generally preferred. Let not, therefore, necessity be again
urged as a plea for continuing the traffic.

The measures actually adopted by the British government may be summed up in a few-
words. The importation was, in the first instance, restricted within a limited age, and the
duty on importation doubled. An annual registry of all slaves above a certain age was taken,
and slaves not registered within a certain time declared free. A fee of one Spanish dollar was
demanded for the registry of each slave, the amount of which constituted a fund for the relief
of widows and orphans. On the promulgation of the act of the British legislature, declaring
Ihe further traffic in slaves to be felony, that act, with all its provisions, was at once made a
colonial law. Masters were precluded from sending their slaves to be confined in jail at their
pleasure, as had hitherto been the case, and all committals were required ,to be made through
the magistrates, in the same manner as in the case of other offenders.

These general regulations, with the more rigid enforcement of the prohibition of further
importations, and of such parts of the code of regulations for ameliorating the condition of the
slaves as had become obsolete, were all to which the local government felt itself competent ;
but it gave its sanction to an institution set on foot by the English, and joined in by many
of the Dutch inhabitants, which took for its basis the principles of the African institution, and
directed its immediate care to a provision for the numerous slaves restored to liberty.

five to ten shillings English money. It is invariably built on the ground,
as on continental India, and in this respect differs from similar structures
in the surrounding islands. The sleeping places, however, are generally a
little elevated above the level of the floor, and accord in simplicity with
the other parts of the dwelling. The sides or walls are generally formed of
bdmhus, flattened and plaited together : partitions, if any, are constructed
of the same materials, and the roof is either thatched with long grass,
with the leaves of the nipa, or with a kind of bdmhu sirap. The form and
size of these cottages, as well as the materials employed in their construc-
tion, vary in the different districts of the island, and with the different
circumstances of the individuals. In the eastern districts, where the popu-
lation is most dense and the land most highly cultivated, a greater scarcity
is felt of the requisite materials than in the western, and the dwellings of
the peasantry are consequently smaller and slighter. In the latter the
frame work of the cottages is generally made of timber, instead of bdmhus,
and the interior of them, as well as the front veranda, is raised about
two feet from the ground. The accommodations consist of a room parti-
tioned off for the heads of the family, and an open apartment on the oppo-
site side for the children : there is no window either made or requisite.
The light is admitted through the door alone; nor is this deficiency
productive of any inconvenience in a climate, where all domestic opera-
tions can be carried on in the open air, and where shade from the sun, rather
than shelter from the weather, is required. The women perform their
usual occupations of spinning or weaving on an elevated veranda in front,
where they are protected from the rays of a vertical sun by an extended
projection of the pitch of the roof. In some of the mountainous districts,
where the rains descend with most violence, the inhabitants frequently pro-
vide against their effects, by constructing their roofs of bdmbus split into
halves, and applied to each other by their alternate concave and convex
surfaces, all along the pitch of the roof, from the top down to the walls.
On the whole, it may be aflirmed that the habitations of the peasantry of
Java, even those constructed in the most unfavourable situations and inha-
bited by the lowest of the people, admit of a considerable degree of com-
fort and convenience, and far exceed, in those respects, what falls to the
lot of the peasant in most parts of continental India.

The class of dwellings inhabited by the petty chiefs are termed umah
chehluk or umah joglo. These are distinguished by having eight slopes or

roofs, four superior and four secondary. Their value is from seven to eight
dollars, or from thirty-five to forty shillings.

The largest class of houses, or those in which the chiefs and nobles
reside, are termed {imah tumpang, and are of the same form as the preceding •
they are generally distinguished from them by their greater size, which
varies with the means and rank of the possessor, and usually contain five
or SIX rooms. The supports and beams are of wood. The value of such ^
a habitation, calculated to answer the circumstances of an ordinary chief of
the rank of a Pdteh, or assistant to the governor of a province, may be
about fifty or sixty dollars, or from ten to fifteen pounds sterling.

monopoly of the teak forests, which were formerly open to the natives of
all classes.

Brick dwellings, which are sometimes, though rarely, occupied by the
natives, are termed ^ah gedbng. This kind of building is for the most part
occupied by the Chinese, who invariably construct a building of brick and
mortar whenever they possess the means. The Chinese Mmpongs may
always be thus distinguished from those of the natives.

The cottages, which I have already described, are never found detached Cottages formed
or solitary: they always unite to form villages of greater or less extent
acco^ng to the fertility of the neighbouring plain, abundance of a strean,;
or other accidental circumstances. In some provinces, the usual number of
inhabitants in a village is about two hundred, in others less than fifty. In
the first estabhshment or formation of a village on new ground, the intended
settlers take care to provide themselves with sufficient garden ground round
^eir huts for their stock, and to supply the ordinary wants of their families.
Ihe produce of this plantation is the exclusive property of the peasant, and
exempted trom contribution or burden ; and such is their number and extent
in some regencies (as in Kedu for instance), that they constitute perhaps a
tenth part of the area of the whole district. The spot surrounding his simple
habitation, the cottager considers his peculiar patrimony and cultivates with
pecuhar care. He labours to plant and to rear in it those vegetables that
may be most useful to his family, and those shrubs and trees which may at
once yield him their fruit and their shade : nor does he waste his efforts on a
thankless soil. The cottages, or the assemblage of huts, that compose the

village, become thus completely screened from the rays of a scorching sun,
and are so buried amid the foil age of a luxuriant vegetation, that at a small
distance no appearance of a human dwelling can be discovered, and the
residence of a numerous society appears only a verdant grove or a clump of
evergreens. Nothing can exceed the beauty or the interest, which such
detached masses of verdure, scattered over the face of the country, and
indicating each the abode of a collection of happy peasantry, add to scenery
otherwise rich, whether viewed on the sides of the mountains, in the
narrow vales, or on the extensive plains. In the last case, before the grain
is planted, and during the season of irrigation, when the rice fields are
inundated, they appear like so many smàll islands, rising out of the water.
As the young plant advances, their deep rich foliage contrasts pleasingly
■with its lighter tints ; and when the full-eared grain, with a luxuriance that
exceeds an European harvest, invests the earth with its richest yellow, they
give a variety to the prospect, and afford a most refreshing relief to the
eye. The clumps of trees, with which art attempts to diversify and adorn
the most skilfully arranged park, can bear no comparison with them in rural
beauty or picturesque effect.

As the population increases, the extent of individual appropriations is
sometimes contracted ; but when there is sufficient untenanted ground in
the neighbourhood, a new village is thrown out at some distance, which
during its infancy remains under the charge, and on the responsibility of the
parent village. In time, however, it obtains a constitution of its own, and
in its turn becomes the parent of others. These dependent villages are in the
eastern districts termed duku, and in the western or Sunda districts chdntilan.

Every village forms a community within itself, having each its village
officers and priest, whose habitations are as superior to those of others as
their functions are more exalted. To complete the establishment in most
large villages, a temple is appropriated for religious worship. Here is
found that simple form of patriarchal adrnimstration, which so forcibly
Strikes the imagination of the civilized inhabitants of this quarter of the
world, and which has so long been the theme of interest and curiosity to
those who have visited the Indian continent.

Towns.nbsp;In the larger villages, or chief towns of the subdivisions, in which the

Kdpah, chutag, or division-officer, resides, a square place, coi\'responding
with the dlun aim of the capital, is reserved} and, in like manner, the

mosque is found to occupy one side, and the dwelling of the chief another.
The villages, whether large or small, are fenced in by strong hedges of
hdmbu, and other quick growing plants. All the large towns and capitals
are formed on the same principle, each hut and dwelling being surrounded
by a garden exclusively attached to it. In this respect, they are but large
villages, although usually divided into separate jurisdictions. A newly-
formed village contains but a few families, while in the capitals the popu-
lation often amounts to several thousand souls. Sura-kerta^ the capital
of the chief native government, though its population is estimated to
exceed one hundred thousand, may be teamed an assemblage or group of
numerous villages, rather than what in European countries would be called,
a town or city.

In the larger towns, however, and in the capitals, considerable attention
is paid to the due preservation of broad streets or roads crossing in diffe-
rent directions. The inland capitals in the Sunda districts are distinguished
by an extreme neatness and regularity in this respect; and although both
these, and the greater native capitals at Solo and Y\'dgy*a-kerta, may have
been laid out principally at the suggestion of Europeans, it may be ob-
served, that the same conveniences are also to be found in the extensive
capital of Banyumas, the planning of which must be ascribed entirely
to the natives.

The dwelling or palace of the prince is distinguished by the terms ka- Paiaces.
ddton or krdion,, being contractions, the former probably from ka-datu-nan^
and the latter from ka-ratu-nan, the place of the Ddtu or Rdtu (prince).
Those of the Regents, or Bopdtis (nobles entrusted with the government
of provinces), are styled ; a term which is applied to the inmost
hall or chamber of both buildings j and by which also, particularly in the
Sunda districts, the chiefs themselves are often distinguished.

The krdton, or palace of the prince, is an extensive square, surrounded
by a high wall, without which there is generally a moat or ditch. In the
front, and also sometimes in the rear, an extensive open square is reserved,
surrounded by a railing, which is termed the dlun dlun. On the Wall of the
krdton, which may be considered as the rampart of a citadel, are usually
planted cannon ; and within it, the space is divided by various smaller
walls, which intersect each other, and form squares and compartments,
each having a particular designation, and answering a specific purpose ; se^

parate quarters being assigned within the walls to all the families who may
be considered as attached to the person of the sovereign, or that of the
princes. The circumference of the wall of the Jcrdton of Yugy\'a-herta is
not less than three miles j and it was estimated that, at the period of the
assault in 1812, it did not contain fewer than from ten to fifteen thousand
people. That of Sdra-herta is neither so extensive, nor so well built.
After crossing the dlun dlun, or square in front of the krdton, the principal
entrance is by a flight of steps, at the top of which it is usual -for the new
sovereign to be invested with his authority, and on which he is seated on
those occasions in which he she\\lt;^s -himself in pubKc. This is termed the
setingel, from seti-ingel, the high ground. On these occasions, the Pang\'erans
and nobles are ranged below. Proceeding into the interior of the building,
and after descending a flight of steps, we find the next principal gateway
or entrance is called the hrlyo nolo. After passing another court, the next
gateway is termed hdmandungan ; and beyond this again is the last passage,
distinguished by the term s\'rimendnti. Still farther on, in the centre of a
square, is the hall, mendopo or hdngsal, of the prince. On one side ofnbsp;|

where the Fang\'erans assemble to wait the appearance of the sovereign in
the principal mttidbpo ; and on the opposite side is the dwelling, or umahnbsp;j

tumpang^ of the prince, termed probo yohso. The hdngsal, or mendopo, is a
large open hall, supported by a double row of pillars, and covered with
shingles, the interior being richly decorated with paint and gilding. The
ceiling of the mendopo of Yugy\'a-kerta is remarkable for its splendour and
richness, being composed according to that peculiar style of architecture
frequently observed throughout Java, in which several squares, of gradually
decreasing sizes, are arranged one above and within the other ; a style
which is general among the Hindus, and strongly marks the architecture
of the Burmans and Siamese.

In the centre of the dlun dlun, and in front of the setingel, are two
warmg-ew trees (the Indian fig or banyan), c^Wamp;A miring\'en kurung, which
have been considered as the sign or mark of the royal residence from the
earliest date of Javan history.

In the dwellings of the nobles and governors of provinces, the same form
and order, with some slight modifications, are observed. These have like-
Vlt;\'ise the a/MW dlun in front. The outer entrance corresponding with the

utingel of the krdton is however with them denominated the Id\'wang seJteting,
the second pasddong, and the third regol, within which is the mendopo, or
ddlam. The mosque forms one side of the dim dlun.

The furniture of the houses or huts of the lower orders is very simple, Furniture,
and consists of but few articles. Their bed, as with the Sumatrans, is a
fine mat with a number of pillows, having some party-coloured cloths ge-
nerally extended over the head, in the form of a canopy or valance. They
neither use tables nor chairs, but their meals are brought on large brass
or wooden waiters, with smaller vessels of brass or china-ware for the
different articles served up. They sit cross-legged, and, in common with
other Mahometans, only use the right hand at their meals. They usually
take up their food between the finger and thumb, and throw it into their
mouth. Spoons are used only for liquids, and knives and forks very rarely,
if at all.

In the dwellings of the higher classes, the articles of furniture are
more numerous and expensive. Raised beds, with many pillows piled one
above the other, and mats and carpets, are common in all j but, in the
European provinces, many of the rooms of the chiefs are furnished with
looking-glasses, chairs, tables, amp;c. Most of these were at first quot;-^troduced
for the accommodation of European visitors, but are now g. ually be-
coming luxuries, m which the chiefs take delight.

They are partial to illuminations, and, on days of festivity, ornament the
grounds adjacent to their dwellings with much taste and design, by working
the young shoots of the cocoa-nut, the hdmhu, and various flowers, in festoons
and other contrivances. The canopy or valance over the table, bed, or
other place selected for any particular purpose, is universal. This canopy
is generally of chintz, from Western India.

In all the provinces under the European government, the chiefs have
several rooms fitted up in the European style, for the accommodation of
the officers of government, and none of them hesitate to sit down at table
with their visitors, and join in the entertainment.

The natives of Java are in general better clothed than those of Western Dress.
India. In many provinces of the interior, and in the elevated parts of the
island, warm clothing is indispensable. They are for the most part clothed
from the produce of their own soil and labour; but there are parts
of their dress which they willingly derive from foreign countries. Blue

cloths and ch\'ntzes, in particular, have always formed an extensive article
of importation from Western India; and the chiefs consume considerable
quantities of broadcloths, velvet, and other fabrics, in the jackets, panta-
loons, and other articles of dress, in imitation of Europeans. Persons of
condition are particular in being what they conceive well-dressed. A sloven
is an object of ridicule? and, in point of expensive attire, they may be
considered as restricted only by their means. Although the general cha-
racter of the native costume is preserved, they seem inchned to adopt
many of the more convenient parts of the European dress; and, in proof
of their having but few prejudices on this score, it may be observed, that,
on occasions when the population of the country has been called out in the
Native Provinces, the assemblage of the provincials presented themselves
habited, many of them in cocked hats and stockings of Europeans, form-
ing a most grotesque appearance. By the institutions of the country a
particular kind of dress is assigned to each different rank; and there are
some patterns of cloth, the use of which is prohibited, except to the royal
family: but these sumptuary laws are for the most part obsolete in the
l^uropean provinces, and gradually becoming so in those of the native
princes, particularly since those princes have engaged by treaty to discon-
tinue their enforcement. There are also dktmctions of rank expressed by

It is part of the domestic economy, that the women of the family should
provide the men with the cloths necessary for their apparel, and from the
first consort of the sovereign to the wife of the lowest peasant, the same
rule is observed. In every cottage there is a spinning-wheel and loom, and
m all ranks a man is accustomed to pride himself on the beauty of a cloth
woven either by his wife, mistress, or daughter.

The principal article of dress, common to all classes in the Archipelago,
is the cloth or sdrongy which has been described by Mr. Marsden to be
quot; not unhke a Scots highlander\'s plaid in appearance, being a piece of
« party-coloured cloth, about six or eight feet long and three or four feet
« wide, sewed together at the ends, forming, as some writers have des-

cribed it, a wide sack without a bottom.quot; With the Maldyus, the sarong
IS either worn slung over the shoulders as a sash, or tucked round the waist
and descending to the ankles, so as to enclose the legs like a petticoat.

The patterns In use among the Malayus and Bugis are universally Tartan j
but besides these, the Javans pride themselves in a great variety of others,
the common people only wearing the Tartan pattern, while others prefer
the Javan bdtek, or painted cloths. On occasions of state they wear, in
lieu of the sarong ovjdrit* (the ordinary cloth of the country, which differs
from the sdrotig in not being united at the ends), a cloth termed dodot^
which is made either of cotton or silk, and much larger. This is worn in
the same way; but from its size, and the manner of its being tucked up,
it falls in a kind of drapery, which is peculiar to Java.

The men of the lowest class generally wear a pair of coarse short drawers,
reaching towards the knee, with the jdrit or cloth folded round the waist,
and descending below the knees like a short petticoat.t This cloth is
always tucked up close round the waist, while the labourer is at work or
moving abroad, but loosened, and allowed to descend to its full length,
when in the presence of a superior. It is fastened round the waist by a
narrow waistband or belt (sdbuk). In general, the Javans are also provided
with a jacket (kaldmbi), having short sleeves reaching to the elbow^s. This
is either white, or more frfiqupnfljr nf li^tit and dark blue stripes. A hand-
kerchief or tie Qikat) is always folded round the head. With the Malayus
this handkerchief is generally of the Tartan pattern, but among the Javans
it is of the bdteh cloth, and put on more in the manner of a turban than
the handkerchief of a Maldyu is the crown of the head is covered with
it, and the ends are tucked in.t While abroad, they generally wear over it
a large hat of leaves or of the split and plaited bambu, which shelters them
like an umbrella from the sun and rain. A coarse handkerchief is usually
tucked into the waistband, or a small bag is suspended from it, containing
tobacco, siri, amp;c. The kris or dagger, which is universally worn by all
classes, completes the dress. To that of the labourer, according to the
work he may be employed upon, is superadded a large knife or hatchet for
cutting wood, brushwood, or grass.

The women, in like manner, wear the cloth tucked round their loins,
and descending in the form of a petticoat as low as the ankles.t It is
folded somewhat differently from the cloth worn by the men, and never
tucked up as with them. The waistband or girdle by which they fasten it,
is termed udatgt; Round the body, passed above the bosom and close under

the arms, descending to the waistband, is rolled a body cloth called hemhan.
They also commonly wear a loose gown reaching to the knees, with long
sleeves buttoning at the wrists.* This gown is almost invariably blue,
never being of any variegated pattern, and as well as the jacket of the men
is usually termed kaldmbi. The women do not wear any handkerchief on
their head, which is ornamented by their hair fastened up in a glung or
knot, and by an appendage of large studs, either of buffalo horn or brass,
which they use for ear-rings. Both men and women, even of the lowest
class, wear rings on their fingers. Those worn by the men are either of
iron, brass, or copper ; those of the women of brass or copper only. The
value of a man\'s dress, as above described, may be estimated at about five
rupees, twelve and sixpence ; and that of the women at about six rupees,
or fifteen shillings.

The children of the lower orders go naked, from the age of fifteen or
eighteen months to six or seven years j but the children of persons of con-
dition always wear ihe jdrit round their loins, together with a jacket.

The higher orders wear a jdrit, of about seven or eight cubits long and
about three cubits wide, which with the men is folded once round the loins
and allowed to descend to the ankles in the form of a petticoat, but so
as to admit of the leg being occasionally exposed when set forward in
the act of walking. The part which is folded in front commonly hangs
somewhat lower than the rest of the garment.t The sdbuk or waistband is
generally of silk of the chindi or patoU pattern. When at leisure within
doors, the men usually wear a loose cotton gown descending as low as
the knees ; but when abroad, or in attendance on public service, they for
the most part wear a jacket of broadcloth, silk, or velvet if procurable,
frequently edged with lace and ornamented with filagree buttons. This
jacket is called sikapan, (from sikap ready) as it intimates, when worn,
that the party is ready for duty. The jacket used by the Regents or chiefs
of provinces, and other officers of distinction, closely resembles the old
Friesland,jacket, as worn about two centuries ago, and is probably modi-
fied, if not entirely taken from it. Under the jacket the men always wear
a vest, usually of fine white cloth, with a single row of fillagree buttons,
buttoning close to the body and at the neck hke a shirt. If the party is
upon a journey or without doors in the sun, the tudang ox shs^de, which is
usually of broad cloth or velvet, is fixed over the face, having niuch the

appearance of a large jockey cap. Th^ petty chiefs, particularly in the
western districts, instead of this shade wear a large hat, in the form of a
wash-hand bason reversed, made of split bambu of various colours, and
highly varnished to throw off the rain. This is fastened by a string under
the chin, in the same manner as the hat of the common people.

The dress of the women of the higher classes does not in fashion differ
essentially from that of the lower orders, but the articles are of finer tex-
ture and better quality, and gold studs and rings, ornamented with coloured
and precious stones, are substituted for those of copper and brass. Both
men and women of condition wear sandals, shoes, or slippers in the house;
and in the European districts, the Regent and other chiefs, when in atten-
dance on the public officers, on journeys or otherwise, usually superadd
to the native dress tight cloth or nankeen pantaloons, with boots and spurs,
according to the European fashion.

It is difficult to estimate with precision the value of the dress of the
higher orders. That of an ordinary petty chief and hi« wife, costs about
fifty Spanish dollars, or between twelve and thirteen pounds sterlings
including the siri box, which is a necessary appendage. The siri box of
the man is termednbsp;that of the woman chepiiri.

Neither men nor women cut their hair, but allow it to grow to its natural
length: in this they differ from the Malayus and B-amp;giSy who always wear
it short. The men, except on particular occasions, gather it up on the
crown of the head, twist it round, and fasten it by means of a semicircular
tortoiseshell comb fixed in front j but among the higher classes, it is
considered a mark of the greatest respect to let it flow in curls in the pre-
sence of a superior. The princes and chiefs at the native courts usually
confine it on the neck, and allow it to descend down the back in large
curls ; but in Cheribon and the Sdnda districts, the chiefs, on occasionsof,
ceremony, let their locks flow in curls and ringlets loose over their shoulders.
The women confine their hair by gathering and twisting it into one large
glung or knot at the back of the head, in the manner of performing which
there are several modes, distinguished by as many names. The short down
encircling the forehead is sometimes cut or shaved, to give the brow a
better defined appearance when the hair is combed back, and on particular
occasions the fine hair in the same place, which is too short to be combed
back and gathered in the knot, is turned in small curls like a fringe. All
classes, both of men and women, apply oils to their hair. The women

frequently use scents in dressing it, and on state days ornament it with a
great variety of flowers, diamond-headed pins, and other jewellery. Both
sexes perfume their persons with different species of fragrant oils, as the
Idng\'a chanddna (sandal-wood oil), Idng\'a kandng\'a, Idng\'a gdru, Vang\'a
gandapura, and Idng\'a jeru, and adorn the skin with a variety of powders
called hore; as the hore k-dning (yellow powder), hamp;re erangnbsp;bore

sdriy and bore k\'lambak. To these may be added the general use of musk,
termed by them dedes. In the houses of the higher orders, dupa or
incense of benjamin, and other odoriferous gums, is generally burnt.

Such is the ordinary costume of the bulk of the population, as it is
usually seen in all that part of the island peculiarly called Java. In the
western or SMa districts, the common people are by no means so well
supplied with articles of dress as in the eastern. They are often seen
with little or no covering, beyond a piece of very coarse cloth tied round
the waist. Th^ B.egPnts or chiefs of provinces in these districts generally
wear, when on public duty with the officers of the European government
a velvet cap ornamented with gold lace, differing in fashion in each pro-
vince, but usually calculated to shade the face from the direct rays of the
sun. In the eastern districts the chiefs, on similar occasions, wear the cap
called kdluk, which will be more particularly mentioned as part of the court
dress.

Besides what may be thus termed the ordinary dress, two grand distinc-
tions are noticed in the costume of the Javans: these are the war dress
and the court dress.* The former consists of cJieldna or pantaloons, but-
toned from the hip down to the ancles j the kdtok, short kilt or petticoat of
coloured silk or fine cotton, descending just below the knee; and the
dmben or girth, rolled tightly round the body seven or eight times, like a
military sash, and securing the whole body from below the arms to the hips :
this is made either of silk or very fine cotton. Over this is drawn a tight
vest without buttons, termed sdngsang, and over this again the ordinary
vest or kotan with buttons, buttoning close round the body and neck, the
sikapan or jacket being worn over the whole. The tddung, or shade for the
face, is usually worn on this occasion, as well as shoes or sandals. The
O\'ng\'ger or sword belt, which goes round\'the waist, also forms an essential

Zo7Lden ^uèfished hy Ji/.ir/c. Hirdury ^yfUm Mfade/i7ujl2 , \'•rri-^tjamp;i\'j. \'

part of the war dress, in which the peddng or sword is suspended on the
left side. Three krises are usually worn in the waist on these occasions,
one on each side and the other behind. These consist of the kris which the
wearer particularly calls his own, the kris which has descended to him from
his ancestors, and the kris which he may have received on his marriage
from his wife\'s father. The latter is often placed on the left side for imme-
diate use. This dress is worn in going into the field of battle, on which
occasion it is the custom to appear in the richest attire their means admit, and
to wear the rings and the other valuable jewels or trinkets which they
possess.

In the court or full dress, the shoulders, arms, and body down to the
waist, are entirely bare ; the drapery descending from the loins downwards,
cheldna, and what may be worn on the head, being the only covering.
quot;When a subject, whatever be his rank or family, approaches his prince, he
must wear cheldna or pantaloons of coloured silk or of fine cotton, without
buttons; and instead of the jdrit or ordinary cloth, he must wear the dodoty
a cloth which is of nearly double the dimensions. This is put on, however,
nearly in the same manner as the jdrit, but so as not to descend on the
right side further than just below the knee, while on the left it falls in a rich
drapery, until it touches the ground in a point. The sdbuk or waistband
must be of gold lace, the fringed ends of which usually hang down a few
inches, and the party must only wear one kris, which is tucked in the waist-
band on the right side behind, while on the left he wears a weapon, or
rather implement, called a wedung, in the shape of a chopper, together
with a small knife, indicative of his readiness to cut down trees and grass
at the order of his sovereign. On his head he must wear a peculiar kind of
cap (Imluk), said to have been introduced by the Sultan Pdjang in imitation
of the scull cap of the Arabs; it is made of fine cloth, and either white or
light blue, stiffened with rich starch: on more ordinary occasions, and
generally, except in full dress, the chiefs prefer a cap of the same form
made of black velvet, ornamented with gold, and sometimes a diamond on
the crown. The part of the body which is left uncovered is generally
rubbed over with white or yellow powder. The sovereign himself is usually
habited in the same manner on state occasions, his body and arms being
covered with a bright yellow powder. When women approach the sovereign,
besides having their hair ornamented with diamonds and flowers, they must
wear a semhong or sash round the waist, which is generally of yellow silk

with red at the two ends. It is brought once round the body from behind,
and the long ends are allowed to descend towards the ground, one over
each hip.

Since the loss of the makbta, or golden crown of Majapdhit,, which dis-
appeared on the banishment of Susunan MangMrat, both the Susunan and
Sultariy on public occasions, when they have to meet the European authori-
ties, wear a velvet hat or cap of a particular fashion, somewhat different at
each court; that of the Susdnan resembling what is distinguished by the
term of the Madura hat in consequence of its being still worn by the Madura
family, and that of the Sultan having a golden garuda affixed at the back,
and two wings of gold extending from behind the ears. They both wear
breecheSj stockings, and buckles, after the European fashion.

The jdmang or golden plate, which was worn over the forehead, as well
as a variety of golden ornaments round the neck and arms, and which
formerly formed the most splendid part of the costume, are now disused;
except at marriages, or in dramatic or other entertainments, when the
ancient costume of the country is exhibited in all its rich and gorgeous
variety.

The following picture of a Javan beauty, taken from one of the most
popular poems of the country, will serve better than any description of
mine, to place before the reader the standard of female elegance and
perfection in the island, and to convey an accurate idea of the personal
decorations on nuptial occasions, in dances and dramatic exhibitions ; it
will at the same time afford a representation of what may be considered
to have formed the full dress of a female of distinction, before the innova-
tions of Mahometanism and the partial introduction of the European fashions.
The extravagant genius of eastern poetry may perhaps be best employed in
pourtraying such fantastic images, or celebrating such extraordinary tastes.

quot; Her face was fair and bright as the moon, and it expressed all that
« was lovely. The beauty of Rdden Putri far excelled even that of the
quot; mdaddri Dewi Rati: she shone bright even in the dark, and she was
quot; without defect or blemish.

quot; So clear and striking was her brightness, that it flashed to the sky
« as she was gazed at: the lustre of the sun was even dimmed in her
quot; presence, for she seemed to have stolen from him his refulgence. So
quot; much did she excel in beauty, that it is impossible to describe it.

Her shape and form were nothing wanting, and her hair when
quot; loosened hung down to her feet, waving in dark curls : the short
quot; front hairs were turned with regularity as a fringe, her forehead
quot; resembling the cJienddna stone. Her eyebrows were like two leaves
« of the imbo tree; the outer angle of the eye acute and slightly
« extended ; the ball of the eye full, and the upper eyelash slightly

quot; Tears seemed floating in her eye, but started not. Her nose
quot; was sharp and pointed; her teeth black as the kombang; her lips
quot; the colour of the newly cut mangustin shell. Her teeth regular and
brilliant; her cheeks in shape like the fruit of the duren j the
quot; lower part of the cheek slightly protruding. Her ears in beauty
like the gidnti flowers, and her neck like unto the young and grace-
quot; ful gddung leaf.

quot; Her shoulders even, like the balance of golden scales ; her chest
quot; open and full; her breasts like ivory, perfectly round and inclining
quot; to each other. Her arms ductile as a bow ; her fingers long and
quot; pliant, and tapering like thorns of the forest. Her nails like
quot; pearls; her skin bright. yellow; her waist formed like the pdtram
quot; when drawn from its sheath ; her hips as the reversed Umas leaf.

quot; Like unto the pMak flower when hanging down its head, was the
quot; shape of her leg; her foot flat with the ground; her gait gentle
quot; and majestic like that of the elephant. Thus beautiful in person,
quot; she was clothed with a chmdi patbla of a green colour, fastened
quot; round the waist with a golden Ulut or cestus : her outer garment
quot; being of the wiim mendung {dark clouded) pattern. Her kemban
quot; (upper garment) was of the pattern jing^gomosi, edged with lace of
quot; gold ; on her finger she wore a ring, the production of the sea,
quot; and her ear-rings were of the pattern noto hrmgto.

quot; On the front of the ear-studs were displayed the beauties of the
« segdra mincJiar pattern {emeralds encircled by rubies and diamonds),
quot; and she bound up her hair in the first fashion, fastening it with the
« gUng (^knot) bobokoran, and decorating it with the green champdka
« flower, and also with the gdmbir, meldti, and minor flowers ; and in
quot; the centre of it she fixed a golden pin, with a red jewel on the top,
quot; and a golden flower ornamented vath emeralds. Her necklace was
composed of seven kinds of precious stones, and most brilliant to

« behold ; and she was highly perfumed, without it being possible to
« discover from whence the scent was produced.

quot; Hex jdmang (tiara or head ornament) was of the fashion sbdo sdler
quot; and richly chased j her bracelets were of the pattern glang-kdna,
quot; and suited the jdmang. Thus was the beauty of her person height-
quot; ened and adorned by the splendour of her dress.^\'

To this we may add, from one of the popular versions of the work called
Jdya Langhdra, the notions which the Javans have of the virtues, beauties,
and dress, that should adorn a young man of family.

quot; In a youth of noble birth there are seven points which should
quot; strike the observer, and these are indispensible. In the first place,
quot; he should be of good descent; in the second, he should possess
quot; understanding ; in the third, he should know how to conduct him-
« self. In the fourth place, he should recollect what he learns in the
quot; sdstras j in the fifth, his views must be enlarged j in the sixth, he
must be religious j in the seventh, he must exert the qualifications
he possesses unhesitatingly. These are the seven points which must
quot; strike the immediate attention of the observer.

quot; In his heart and mind he must be quiet and tranquil. He should
quot; be able to repress his inclinations, and to be silent when necessary:
quot; never should he on any account tell a falsehood. He should not
quot; think long concerning property, neither should he fear death : in his
quot; devotions he should be free from pride, and he should relieve the
quot; distressed.

quot; It should be observed by all, that whatever he undertakes is
quot; quickly executed. He should quietly penetrate other men\'s thoughts
quot; and intentions j his inquiries should be discreet, intelligent, and
quot; active. Whenever he meets with an able man, he should attach
quot; himself to him as a friend, and never leave him till he has drawn all
quot; his knowledge from him; and in whatever he does, his actions
should be rather what is generally approved, than the result of his
quot; mere will.

quot; As long as he lives he must continue to thirstquot; after more know-
quot; ledge; and he must constantly giiard his own conduct, that men may
quot; not say it is bad. His recollection should be clear and distinct, his

« speech mild and gentle ; so that people\'s hearts may be softened, an
« possessing these qualifications his dependants may praisehim.

« His appearance and stature should not be deficient. The light
« of his countenance should be sweet, like that oi Batdra Asmdra (the
« god of love) when he descends to the earth. When men look upon
« him, they should be struck with the idea, \' how great would he not
quot; \'be in war ?\' In the form of his body no part should be ill shaped.
« His skin should be like unto virgin gold before it has undergone the
« process of fire 5 his head rather large j his hair straight and long.
quot; His eyes wateiy and ready to overllow ; his brows hke the imbo leaf;
« his eyelash like the tdnjung flower ; his nose sharp and prominent,
« with but little hair above the upper lip; his lips like the newly cut
« mangustin shell; his teeth as if painted, shining and black like the
« komhang; his breast and shoulders wide.

« A bright circle should irradiate his face and breast, and he should
« stand unrivalled. Whatever he says should make an impression on
« all who hear him, and his speech should be playful and agreeable.

« He should wear the cheldna chindi, with a dark green dddot of the
« pattern gddong^eng-dkup ; his sash of golden lace. His should
\'\' have the sheath of the sdtrian fashion, and the handle should
« be that of tdng\'gdksmi. The sdmping {an imitation offowers or
leaves which hang over the ear) should be of gold, and of the
« fashion sureng jpdti (brave to death)-, and on his right thumb (
quot; guna) he should at the same time wear a golden ring.\'*

In common with the Sumatrans, and other inhabitants of the Archipelago
and southern part of the peninsula, both sexes of all ranks have the custom
of filing and blackening the teeth, it being considered as disgraceful to
allow them to remain quot; white like a dog\'s.quot; The operation is perfomed
when the children are about eight or nine years of age and is a very paintul
one. The object is to make the front teeth concave, and by fihng away
the enamel, to render them better adapted for receiving the black dye.
This extraordinary and barbarous custom tends to destroy the teeth at an
earlv age, and with the use of tobacco, siri, and lime, which are continually
chewed, generally greatly disfigures the mouth. The Javans, however, do
not file away the teeth so much as is usual with some of the other islanders ;

do they distend the lobe of the ear, to that enormous extent practised on
Bali and elsewhere, and which is observed in the representations of BMh.
This has been discontinued since the introduction of Mahometanism.

Compared with the western Asiatics, ^he Javans have but few prejudices
regarding food. They are Mahometans, and consequently abstain rigidly
from swine\'s flesh, and commonly from inebriating liquors ; and some few
families, from the remains of a superstition which has descended to them
from their Hindu ancestors, will not eat of the flesh of the bull or cow;
but with these exceptions, there are few articles which come amiss to them.
They live principally upon vegetable food, and rice is on Java, what it is
throughout Asia, the chief article of subsistence ; but fish, flesh, and fowl
are likewise daily served up at their meals, according to the circumstances
of the parties. With fish they are abundantly supplied 5 and what cannot be
consumed while fresh, is salted, or dried, and conveyed into the inland pro-
vinces. They do not eat of the turtle nor other amphibious animals, but
none of the fish known to Europeans are objected to by them. The flesh of
the buffalo, the ox, the deer, the goat, and various kinds of poultry, are
daily exposed for sale in their markets, and are of very general consumption.
The flesh of the horse is also highly esteemed by the common people; but
the kiUing of horses for food is generally prohibited, except when maimed
or diseased. The hide of the buffalo is cut into slices, soaked, and fried as
a favourite dish. The flesh of the deer, dried and smoked, is well known
throughout the Malayan Archipelago, under the term dinding, and is an

The dairy forms no part of domestic economy of Java, neither milk itself
nor any preparation from it, being prized or used by the natives: a circum-
stance very remarkable, considering that they were undoubtedly Hindus at
one period of their history ; and that, if so essential an article of food had
once been introduced, it is probable it would always have been cherished.
No good reason seems to be assigned for their indifference to milk ; except
perhaps the essential one, that the cows of Java aflbrd but a very scanty
supply of that secretion. The udder of a Javan cow is sometimes not
larger than that of a sheep, and seems to aflbrd but a bare subsistence for
the calf; yet the buffalo gives a larger quantity, and butter or ghee might
equally be prepared from it. The cows of the Indian breed are distinguished
by a hump between the shoulders and a larger udder; and it has been found

particular care has been taken by Europeans even of the Javan cows, they
have in a short time afforded double the usual quantity. Jt has been con-
jectured, that on the introduction of the Indian breed by the Hindu
colonists, the use of milk was forbidden, in order that the number of cattle
might more rapidly increase ; but the Javans have no tradition to this effect.
It is however remarkable, that an absolute aversion to this aliment exists on
that part of the continent of Asia, in which many popular usages are found
similar to those of the east insular nations. In a recent pubhcation it is
stated of the people between Siam and China, who are not by the by very
nice in what they eat, quot; qu\'ils ne se permettent pas le lait des animaux, et
« qu\'ils ont pour cette boisson la répugnance que peut inspirer la boisson du
quot; sang. Cette répugnance va même jusqu\'à exclure du nombre de ses
quot; alimens le beurre et le fromage.quot;¹

Sait is obtained in abundance throughout every part of the island, but
being manufactured on the coast, is proportionally higher in price in the
inland districts. The sugar used by the natives is not prepared from the
sugar-cane, but from the âren and other palms. It is manufactured by the
simple process of boiling down the târi, or liquor which exudes from these
trees, which are tapped for the purpose.

None of the palms of Java furnish the worms which are employed for food
in other eastern countries, but similar worms are found in various kinds of
rotan, sblak, amp;c. which are considered as dainties, not only by the natives
but by the Chinese and by some Europeans : they are called géndon. Worms
of various species, but all equally esteemed as articles of food, are found in
the teak and other trees. White ants, in their different states, are one of
the most common articles of food in particular districts : they are collected
in difïerent ways, and sold generally in the public markets. Their exten-
sive nests are opened to take out the chrysalis ; or they are watched, and
swarms of the perfect insect are conducted into basins or trays containing a
little water, where they soon perish : they are called laron.

The cooking utensils are, as might be supposed, of the most simple kind. Cooking
and either of coarse pottery or copper. Rice, after several poundings in a
trough or mortar, is generally dressed by steam, though not unfrequently
boiled in a small quantity of water. In the former case, it is remarkable for
its whiteness and consistency when dressed ; and in this state it is publicly
exposed for sale in the markets and along the high roads. Indian corn is

usually roasted in thô ear, and offered for sale in the same manner. Other
aliments are for the most part prepared in the manner of curry, termed by
the Malâyus gûlai : of these they have almost an endless variety, distin-
guished according to the principal ingredients. Besides what may be
considered as the principal dishes, they excel in a variety of preparations
of pastry and sweetmeats (particularly of the hétan\\ of which many are
by no means unpleasant to an European palate. They are fond of colour-
ing their pastry, as well as other articles of their food. They occasionally
make their rice yellow and brown, and even turn their boiled eggs red
for variety.

Black pepper, as among the Malâyus, is scarcely ever used, on account of
its supposed heating quality. The most common seasoning employed to
give a relish to their insipid food, is the lomboTc ; triturated with salt, it is
called sambel, both by the Malâyus and Javans, and this condiment is indis-
pensible and universal. It is of different kinds, according to the sub-
stances added to increase or diversify its strength or pungency ; the most
common addition is trasi, denominated by the Malâyus, blâchang. The name
lalab \'is given to various leaves and kernels, mostly eaten raw with rice and
sâmhel : many of these substances possess a pungency and odour intole-
rable to Europeans. If several vegetables are mixed together, and pre-
pared by boiling, they constitute what is called jang\'an, or greens for the
table, of which there are several distinctions. The various legumes are
of great importance in the diet of the.natives. Padomoro, pin\'dang, and
semur, are dishes to which the flesh of the buffalo or fowls is added, and
which resemble the Indian curry. Rûjah is prepared from unripe mangos
and other fruits, which, being grated, receive the addition of capsicum
and other spices, and thus constitutes a favourite dish with the natives,
though very disagreeable to Europeans.

The Chinese prepare from the gédelé a species of soy, somewhat inferior
to that brought from Japan. The kdchang-iju is highly useful as a general
article of diet, and is a good substitute for various legumes, which form the
common nourishment of the continental Indians : it contains much fari-
naceous matter. Trdsi or blâchang is prepared in many situations along the
northern coast, but is mostly required for the consumption of the mterior.
It is prepared from prawns or shrimps, and extensive fisheries for the pur-
pose are established in many parts of the coast. The shrimps being taken .
are strewed with salt, and exposed to the sun till dry ; they are then pounded

in wooden mortars, dressed, and formed into masses resembling large
cheeses : in this state they constitute an article of trade, and are distributed
through the country. The putrescent fluid remaining after the expression
strongly impregnated with the odour of the shrimps, is evaporated to the
consistence of a jelly, and affords a favourite sauce callednbsp;An inferior

kind of trdsi is prepared from small fish, and, when made into the form of
small balls, is called blenyek. Trdsi hluro is of a reddish colour, and much
esteemed at the native capitals. Another kind oi petis is prepared from
the flesh of the buffalo, chiefly in the interior districts.

Salted eggs are also an important article in the diet of the Javans. The
eggs of ducks being most abundant, are chiefly preserved in this way.
The eggs are enveloped in a thick covering made of a mixture of salt and
ashes in equal parts, or salt and pounded bricks, and being wrapped each in
a large leaf, they are placed on one another in a tub, or large earthen
vessel. In ten days they are fit for use; but they are generally kept longer
in the mixture, and, being thoroughly impregnated with salt, can be kept
many months. In some districts, the eggs of the Muscovy duck are par-
ticularly employed for the purpose.

In preparing their food, the Javans may be considered to observe the
same degree of cleanliness which is usual with Asiatics in general; and in
point of indulgence of appetite, they may be, perhaps, placed about mid-
way between the abstemious Hindu and the unscrupulous Chinese. In a
country where vegetation is luxuriant, and cultivation is already conside-
rably advanced, it follows that there must be an abundant supply for a
people who subsist principally on vegetable productions; and it maybe
asserted, that, except where the manifest oppressions of government, or
the effects of civil discord, for the moment deprive the labourer of his just
reward, there are few countries where the mass of the population are so
well fed as on Java. There are few of the natives who cannot obtain their
Jcdti, or pound and a quarter of rice a day, with fish, greens, and salt, if
not other articles, to season their meal. Where rice is less abundant, its
place is supplied by maize or Indian corn, or the variety of beans which
are cultivated ; and even should a family be driven into the woods, they
would still be able to obtain a bare subsistence from the numerous nutritious
roots, shoots, antl leaves, with which the forests abound. Famine is un-
known ; and although partial failures of the crop may occur, they are sel-
dom so extensive as to be generally felt by the whole community. Thus

abundantly supplied, the Javans seem by no means inclined to reject the
bounties of Providence: they are always willing to partake of a hearty
meal, and seldom have occasion to make a scanty one. Yet among them
a glutton is a term of reproach, and to be notoriously fond of good living
is sufficient to attach this epithet to any one.

practice, eat their meals off the ground. A mat kept for the purpose is
laid on the floor, which, when the meal is over, is again carefully rolled up,
with the same regularity as the table-cloth in Europe, and a plate of rice
being served up to each person present, the whole family or party sit down
to partake of the meal in a social manner. A principal dish, containing
the sdmhel, jdngan, or other more highly seasoned preparation, is then
handed round, or placed in the centre of the company, from which each
person adds what he thinks proper to the allowance of rice before him.

-Water is the principal and almost exclusive beverage, and, among people
of condition, it is invariably boiled first, and generally drunk warm. Some
are in the habit of flavouring the water with cinnamon and other spices j
but tea, when it can be procured, is drunk by all classes at intervals during
the day.

On occasions of festivals and parties, when many of the chiefs are assem-
bled, the dishes are extremely numerous and crowded; and hospitality
being a virtue which the Javans carry almost to an excess, due care is taken
that the dependants and retainers are also duly provided for. These, par-
ticularly in the highlands of the Sunda districts, where the people are
furthest removed from foreign intercourse, and the native manners are
consequently better preserved, are arranged in rows at intervals, according
to their respective ranks ; the first in order sitting at the bottom of the
hall, andt helowest at some distance without, where each is carefully
supplied with a bountiful proportion of the feast: thus exhibiting, in the
mountainous districts of Java, an example of rude hospitality, and union
of the different gradations of society in the same company, similar to
that which prevailed in the Highlands of Scotland some centuries ago,
where, it is said, quot; those of inferior description were, nevertheless, consi-
quot; dered as guests, and had their share, both of the entertainment and of
\' the good cheer of the day.quot;

It is at these parties that the chiefs sometimes indulge in intoxicating
liquors, but the practice is not general; and the \'use of wine, which has

been introduced among them by the Dutch, is in most instances rather
resorted to from respect to Europeans, than from any attachment to the
bottle.

The Javans have universally two meals in the day ; one just before noon
and one between seven and eight o\'clock in the evening : the former,
which is the principal meal, corresponding with the European dinner, and
distinguished by the term mdngdn-cuwan, or the day meal; the latter,
termed md?igd?i rvenge, or evening meal. They have no regular meal cor-
responding with the European breakfast; but those who go abroad early in
the morning, usually partake of a basin of coffee and some rice cakes before
they quit their homes, or purchase something of the kind at one of the
numerous ivdrongs, or stalls, which line the public roads, and are to the
common people as so many coffee or eating-houses would be to the Eu-
ropean; rice, coffee, cakes, boiled rice, soups, ready dressed meats and
vegetables, being at all times exposed in them. What is. thus taken by the
Javans in the morning to break the fast, is considered as a whet, and
termed sarap.

By the custom of the country, good food and lodging are ordered to be
provided for all strangers and ti\'avellers arriving at a village; and in no
country are the rights of hospitality more strictly enjoined by institutions,
or more conscientiously and religiously observed by custom and practice.
quot; It is not sufficient,quot; say the Javan institutions, quot; that a man should place
quot; good food before his guest; he is bound to do more : he should render
quot; the meal palatable by kind words and treatment, to soothe him after his
« journey, and to make his heart glad while he partakes of the refreshment.quot;
This is called hojo kromo, or real hospitality.

The chewing of betel-leaf {siri), and the areka-nut {pinang), as well as b^te!.
of tobacco {tambdko\\ gdmhir, is common to all classes. The siri and
pinang are used much in the same manner as by the natives of India in
general. These stimulants are considered nearly as essential to their com-
fort, as salt is among Europeans. The commonest labourer contrives to
procure at least tobacco, and generally siri ; and if he cannot afford a siri
box, a small supply will be usually found in the corner of his handkerchief.
Cardamums and cloves compose part of the articles in the siri box of a
person of condition.

The inhabitants of Java, as a, nation, must be accounted sober ; although Fermented
Europeans, in order to serve their own purposes, by inducing some of the

chiefs to drink wine to excess, have succeeded, to a certain extent, in
corrupting the habits of some individuals in this respect. Two kinds of
fermented liquor are however prepared by the Javans, called hâdeh and
hrom : the former from rice j the latter almost exclusively from Mtan or
glutinous rice. In making bâdelc, the rice previously boiled is stewed with
a ferment called ragi, consisting of onions, black pepper, and capsicum,
and mixed up into small cakes, which are daily sold in the markets. After
frequent stirring, the mixture is rolled into balls, which are piled upon
each other in a high earthen vessel, and when fermentation has commenced
the bâdek exudes and is collected at the bottom. The remaining rice,
strongly impregnated with the odour of fermentation, has a sweetish taste,
and is daily offered for sale in the markets as a dainty, under the name of

tapé. Bâdek is, in comparison with brôm, a simple liquor, producing only
slight intoxication : it is often administered to children to dislodge worms
from the intestines. In making hrom, the Mtan is boiled in large quantities,
and being stewed with râgi, remains exposed in open tubs till fermentation
takes place, when the liquor is poured off into close earthen vessels. It is
generally buried in the earth for several months, by which the process of
fermentation is checked and the strength of the hquor increased : sometimes
it is concentrated by boiling. The colour is brown, red, or yellow, accord-
ing to the kind of kétan employed. Brbm, which has been preserved for
several years, is highly esteemed among the natives, constituting a powerful
spirit, which causes violent intoxication followed by severe head ache in
persons not accustomed to its use. The substance that remains after separ
ration is a deadly poison to fowls, dogs, and various other animals. Arrack
is prepared by distillation : an inferior kind, made in a more simple and
economical manner, is called chiu. Both are prepared by the Chinese, and
a particular account of the method employed will be found under another
head.* A kind of small beer is made at SûraMrta in a mode similar to the
European process of brewing, by exciting fermentation in a solution of
Javan sugar, with several spices and the leaves of the pari instead of hops.
When fresh, the Hquor is sprightly, and not unpleasant to the taste j but it
cannot be preserved longer than four or five days.
Opium.nbsp;The use of opium, it must be confessed and lamented, has struck deep

into the habits, and extended its malignant influence to the morals of the
people, and is likely to perpetuate its power in degrading their character

and enervating their energies, as long as the European government, over-
looking every consideration of policy and humanity, shall allow a paltry
addition to their finances to outweigh all regard to the ultimate happiness
and prosperity of the country. It is either eaten in its crude state as mdnta,
or smoked as mddat or chdndu. In the preparation of mddat, the crude
opium is boiled down with the leaves of tobacco, siri, or the like, and used
in a sticky or somewhat liquid state. In chdndu, the opium is merely
boiled down without any admixture, to a still thicker consistency, and
rolled into small balls or pills, in which state, when dry, they are inserted
into hdmhus, and thus smoked. The crude opium is eaten principally by the
people in the interior of the country, in the provinces of the native princes :
the opium prepared for smoking is used along the coast, and generally in
the other islands of the Archipelago ; it is prepared by the Chinese. The
use of opium, however, though carried to a considerable extent, is still
reckoned disgraceful, and persons addicted to it are looked upon as aban-
doned characters, and despised accordingly. The effects of this poison on
the human frame are so well described by the Dutch commissioners who
sat at the Hague in 180S, and who much to their honour declared, quot; that
quot; no consideration of pecuniary advantage ought to weigh with the Euro-
quot; pean government in allowing its use,quot; that together with the opinion of
Mr. Hogendorp, who concurred with them, I shall insert their statement
here. The wish to do justice to authorities, whose views were so creditable
to their country and their own character, and the importance of their
opinion to an extensive population, will plead an apology for the length of
the extract w^hich I now present.

quot; The opium trade,quot; observe the Commissioners, « requires likewise
quot; attention. The English in Bengal have assumed an exclusive right to
quot; collect the same, and they dispose of a considerable number of ehests
« containing that article annually at Calcutta by public auction. It is
« much in demand on the Malay coast, at Sumatra, Java, and all the
« islands towards the east and north, and particularly in China, although
quot; the use thereof is confined to the lower classes. The effect which it
quot; produces on the constitution is different, and depends on the quantity
quot; that is taken, or on other circumstances. If used with moderation, it
quot; causes a pleasant, yet always somewhat intoxicating sensation, which
« absorbs all care and anxiety. If a large quantity is taken, it produces a
kind of madness, of which the effects are dreadful, especially when the

quot; mind is troubled by jealousy, or inflamed with a desire of vengeance or
« other violent passions. At all times it leaves a slov/ poison, which under-
quot; mines the faculty of the soul and the\' constitution of the body, and
quot; renders a person unfit for all kind of labour and an image of the brute
creation. The use of opium is so much more dangerous, because a
quot; person who is once addicted to it can never leave it olf. To satisfy that
quot; inclination, he will sacrifice every thing, his own welfare, the subsistence
of his wife and children, and neglect his work. Poverty is the natural
quot; consequence, and then it becomes indifferent to him by what means he
quot; may content his insatiable desire after opium j so that, at last, he no
quot; longer respects either the property or life of his fellow creature.

quot; If here we were to follow the dictates of our own heart only, and
quot; what moral doctrine and humanity prescribe, no law, however severe,
quot; could be contrived, which we would not propose, to prevent at least that
quot; in future, no subjects of this Republic, or of the Asiatic possessions of
quot; the state, should be disgraced by trading in that abominable poison.
quot; Yet we consider this as absolutely impracticable at present with respect
to those places not subject to the state. Opium is one of the most
« profitable articles of eastern commerce: as such it is considered by our
merchants j and if the navigation to those parts is opened to them (which
«\'the interest of the state forcibly urges), it is impossible to oppose
trading in the same. In this situation of affairs, therefore, we are rather
quot; to advise, that general leave be given to import opium at Malacca, and
quot; to allow the exportation from thence to Borneo and all the eastern parts
noi in the possession of the state.quot;

Opium,quot; says Mr. Hogendorp, quot; is a slow though certain poison,
which the Company, in order to gain money, sells to the poor Javans.
« Anv one who is once enslaved to it, cannot, it is true, give it up without
quot; great difficulty; and if its use were entirely prohibited, some few per-
quot; sons would probably die for want of it, who would otherwise languish
on a little longer: but how many would by that means be saved for
« the future. Most of the crimes, particularly murders, that are now
committed, may be imputed to opium as the original cause.
quot; Large sums of money are every year carried out of the country in
quot; exchange for it, and enrich our competitors, the English, Much of it
\'\' is smuggled into the interior, which adds to the evil. In short, the
trade in opium is one of the most injurious and most shameful things

which disgrace the present government of India. It is therefore neces-
sary at once, and entirely, to abolish the trade and importation of opium,
and to prohibit the same, under the severest penalties that the law
permits, since it is a poison. The smuggling of it will then become
almost impracticable, and the health, and even the lives of thousands,
will be preserved. The money alone which will remain in the country
in lieu of it, is more valuable as being in circulation, than the profit
which the Company now derives from the sale of it.

quot; This measure will excite no discontent among the Javans, for the
princes and regents, with very few exceptions, do not consume any
opium, but, as well as the most respectable of their subjects, look upon
it as disgraceful. The use of opium is even adduced as an accusation of
bad conduct, and considered as sufficient cause for the removal or banish-
ment of a petty chief.quot;

mce.-—Subsistence of the Peasantry.—Dwelling.—Agricultural Stock.--
Implements of Farming.—Seasons.^Different Kinds of Land.—Rtce Cultv-
vation.—Maize, ^c.Sugar.—Coffee.—Pepper.—Indigo.—Cotton.—To-
bacco.—Tenure of landed Property.

Importance of The island of Java is a great agricultural country j its soil is the grand
agrkaitureto ^^^^^^ ^^ wealth. In its cultivation the inhabitants exert their chief

industry, and upon its produce they rely, not only for their subsistence,
but the few articles of foreign luxury or convenience which they purchase.
The Javans are a nation of husbandmen, and exhibit that simple structure
of society incident to such a stage of its progress. To the crop the me-
chanic looks immediately for his wages, the soldier for his pay, the magis-
trate for his salary, the priest for his stipend {ovjakat), and the government
for its tribute. The wealth of a province or village is measured, by the
extent and fertility of its land, its faciHties for rice irrigation, and the

When government wishes to raise supplies from particular districts, it
does not enquire how many rupees or dollars it can yield in taxes, but what
contribution of rice or maize it can furnish, and the impost is assessed
accordingly : the officer of revenue becomes a surveyor of land or a mea-
surer of produce, and the fruits of the harvest are brought immediately
into the ways and means of the treasury. When a chief gives his assistance
in the police or the magistracy, he is paid by so much village land, or the
rent of so much land realized in produce ; and a native prince has no other
means of pensioning a favourite or rewarding a useful servant. quot; Be it
« known to the high officers of my palace, to my Bopdtis (regents), and to
quot; my Mdntris (petite nohlesse),quot; says a Javan patent of nobility granted by
Sultan Hamdngku Bdana, that I have given this letter to my servant to
« raise him from the earth, bestowing upon him, for his subsistence, lands

quot; to tlie amount of eleven hundred chdchas, the labour of eleven hundred
quot; men.quot; By the population returns, and by the number of leases granted
under the late settlement, it appears, that sometimes there is not more
than a tenth part of the inhabitants employed in any other branch of industry.
Out of a population of 243,268 in iho, Fridng\'en regencies, 209,125 are
stated as employed in agriculture. In Surabaya, the proportion of house-
holders who are cultivators, is to the rest of the inhabitants as 32,618 to 634 ;
in Semdrang, as 58,206 to 21,404 ; in Rembang it is as 103,230 to 55,300 j
and in other districts there are considerable variations : but it rarely happens,
that the people employed in trade, in manufactures, in handicrafts, or other
avocations, amount to a half of those engaged in agriculture, or a third of the
whole population. The proportion, on an average, may be stated as three
and a half or four to one. In England, it is well known, the ratio is reversed,
its agricultural population being to its general population as one to three or
two and a half. By the surveys lately made under the orders of the British
government, we are enabled to describe the processes of Javan agriculture,
and to state its results with more accuracy and in greater detail, than can
be attained on many subjects of superior public interest. If we avail our-
selves of these means prettly largely, it is not so much in the hope of
increasing the stock of agricultural knowledge, as of assisting the reader to
form an estimate of the character, habits, wants, and resources of the Javan.

The soil of Java, though in many parts much neglected, is remarkable Soii.
for the abundance and variety of its productions. With very little care or
exertion on the part of the cultivator, it yields all that the wants of the
island demand, and is capable of supplying resources far above any thing
that the indolence or ignorance of the people, either oppressed under the
despotism of their own sovereigns, or harrassed by the rapacity of
strangers, have yet permitted them to enjoy. Lying under a tropical sun,
it produces, as before observed, all the fruits of a tropical climate ; while,
in many districts, its mountains and eminences make up for the difference
of latitude, and give it, though only a few degrees from the line, all the
advantages of temperate regions. The bdmbu, the cocoa-nut tree, the
sugar-cane, the cotton tree, and the coffee plant, here flourish in the
greatest luxuriance, and yield products of the best quality. Rice, the
great staple of subsistence, covers the slopes of mountains and the low fields,
and gives a return of thirty, forty, or fifty fold ; while maize, or even wheat
and rye, and the other plants of Europe, may be cultivated to advantage on

Mgh and inland situations. Such is the fertility of the soil, that in some
/ places after yielding two, and sometimes three crops in the year, it is not
necessary even to change the culture. Water, which is so much wanted, and
which is seldom found in requisite abundance in tropical regions, here flows
in the greatest plenty. The cultivator who has prepared his sdwaJi, or rice
field, within its reach, diverts part of it from its channel, spreads it out into
numerous canals of irrigation, and thus procures from it, under a scorching
sun, the verdure of the rainy season, and in due time a plentiful harvest.
Nothing can be conceived more beautiful to the eye, or more gratifying to
the imagination, than the prospect of the rich variety of hill and dale, of
rice plantations and fruit trees or forests, of natural streams and artificial
currents, which presents itself to the eye in several of the eastern and
middle provinces, at some distance from the coast. In some parts of
Kedu, Banyumds, Semdrang, Pasuruan, and JMdlang, it is difficult to say
whether the admirer of landscape, or the cultivator of the ground, will be
most gratified by the view. The whole country, as seen from mountains of
considerable elevation, appears a rich, diversified, and well watered garden,
animated with villages, interspersed with the most luxuriant fields, and
covered with the freshest verdure.

Over far the greater part, seven-eighths of the island, the soil is either en-
tirely neglected or badly cultivated, and the population scanty. It is by the
produce of the remaining eighth that the whole of the nation is supported;
and it is probable that, if it were all under cultivation, no area of land of
the same extent, in any other quarter of the globe, could exceed it, either
in quantity, variety, or value of its vegetable productions. The kind of
husbandry in different districts (as shall be mentioned afterwards more par-
ticularly) depends upon the nature and elevation of the ground, and the
facilities for natural or artificial irrigation. The best lands are those situated
in the valhes of the higher districts, or on the slopes of mountains, and on
the plains stretching from them, as such lands are continually enriched with
accessions of new earth washed down from the hills by the periodical rains.
The poorest soil is that found on the ranges of low hills, termed Jcendang,
extending along many districts, and particularly in the southern division of
the island; but in no part is it so sterile or ungrateful, as not to afford a
liberal return for the labour bestowed upon its cultivation, especially if a
supply of water can be by any means directed upon it.

But when nature does much for a country, its inhabitants are sometimes state of the
contented to do httle, and, satisfied with its common gifts, neo-lect to
improve them into the means of dignity or comfort. The peasantry of Java
easily procuring the necessaries of life, seldom aim at improvement of their
condition. Rice is the principal food of all classes of the people, and the
great staple of their agriculture. Of this necessary article, it is calculated
that a labourer can, in ordinary circumstances, earn from four to five Mtis
a day; and a Mä being equivalent to one pound and a quarter avoirdupois,
IS reckoned a sufiicient allowance for the daily subsistence of an adult in
these regions. The labour of the women on Java is estimated almost as
highly as that of the men, and thus a married couple can maintain eight
or ten persons; and as a family seldom exceeds half that number, they
have commonly half of their earnings applicable for the purchase of little
comforts, for implements of agriculture, for clothing and lodging. The two
last articles cannot be expensive in a country where the children generally go
naked, and where the simplest structure possible is sufficient to afford the
requisite protection against the elements.

The price of rice, which thus becomes of importance to the labourer, of rice,
varies in different parts of the island, according to the fertility of the
district where it it produced, its situation with regard to a market, or its
distance from one of the numerous provincial capitals. As the means of
transport, by which the abundance of one district might be conveyed to
supply the deficiencies of another, and to equalize the distribution of the
general stock, are few and laborious, this variation of price is sometimes
very considerable: even in the same district there are great variations
according to the nature of the crop. In the Native Provinces, a p/ku/
(weighing 133i lbs. English) sometimes sells below the fou\'rth part
of a Spanish dollar, and at other times for more than two Spanish dollars ;
but m common years, and at an average over the whole island, including
the capital, the estimate may be taken at thirty Spanish dollars the koyan
of thirty pikuls, or three thousand katis. A kdti of rice, according to this
estimate, may be sold to the consumer, after allowing a sufficient profit to
the retail merchant, for much less than a penny.

But though the price of this common article of subsistence may be of ®quot;i5sistence of
some consequence to the Javan labourer, when he wants to make any p^.
chase with his surplus portion, he is rendered independent of the fluctu
tions of the market for his necessary food, by the mode in which he procures

it. He is generally the cultivator of the soil; and while he admits that
law of custom, which assigns to the superior a certain share of the produce,
he claims an equal right himself to the remainder, which is generally suffi-
cient to support himself and his family : and he sometimes finds in this law
of custom, sanctioned by the interest of both parties, a security in the pos-
session of his lands, and a barrier against the arbitrary exactions of his
chief, which could scarcely be expected under the capricious despotism of a
Mahometan government. In addition to this reserved share, he raises on
his own account, if he is industrious, within what may be termed the cottage
farm, all the vegetables, fruit, and poultry requisite for his own consump-
tion. His wife invariably manufactures the slight articles of clothing,
which, in such a climate, the common people are in the habit of wearing.
What can be spared of the fruits of their joint industry, from the supply
of their immediate wants, is carried to market, and exchanged for a little
salt fish, dried meat, or for other trifling comforts, hoarded as a store for
the purchase of an ox or a buffalo, or expended in procuring materials
for repairing the hut and mending the implements of husbandry.
Agricultural The farming stock of the cultivator is as limited as his wants are few

and his cottage inartificial: it usually consists of a pair of buffaloes or
oxen, and a few rude implements of husbandry. There is a small propor-
tion of sheep and goats on the island ; but, with the exception of poultry,
no kind of live stock is reared exclusively either for the butcher or the
dairy. By the returns made in 1813 of the stock and cattle of the pro-
vinces under the British government, containing a population of nearly two
millions and a half, it was found that there were only about five thousand
sheep and twenty-four thousand goats. The number of buffaloes, by the
same return, and in the same space, was stated at 402,054, and of oxen at
12\'2,691. Horses abound in the island, but are principally employed about
the capitals, and not in husbandry, further than in the transport of produce
from one district to another.

The buffalo and ox are used for ploughing. The former is of a smaller
size than the buffalo of Sumatra and the peninsula, though larger than that
of Bengal and of the islands lying eastward of Java. It is a strong trac-
table animal, capable of long and continued exertion, but it cannot bear
the heat of the mid-day sun. It is shy of Europeans, but submits to be
managed by the smallest child of the family in which it is domesticated.
The buffalo is either black or white: the former is larger and generally

considered superior. In the Sunda, or western and mountainous districts
nine out of ten are white, which is not at all the case in the low countries •
no essential difference in the breed has been discovered to be connected
with this remarkable distinction of colour. The usual price of a buffalo
in the western districts is about twenty-four rupees for the black, and
twenty rupees for the white; in the eastern districts the price varies\'from
twelve to sixteen rupees. The Sunda term for a buffalo isnbsp;; the

Javan, mdlsa and Uho : and in compliment to LaUan, the prince who is
supposed to have introduced cultivation into the Sûnda districts, that prince
and his successors on the Sunda throne are distinguished by the appellation
Mûnding or Maisa. The name of the individual sovereigns enters into a
compound with these general terms for the dynasty, and they are called
Mâisa-laléan, Mûnding-sdri, and so of others.

The ox of Java derives his origin from the Indian breed. Two varieties Ox.
are common : that which is called the Javan ox has considerably degene-
rated ; the other, which is termed the Bengal or Surat ox, is distinguished
by a lump on the shoulder, and retains in his superior strength other traces
of his origin. The bull after castration is used as a beast of burden, for
the draught, and sometimes for the stall. Cows are chiefly employed in
husbandry, and are particularly useful to the poorer class ; but in the sdgt;wah
and the extensive inundated plantations of the low districts of the island

The cows on Java, as well as throughout the Archipelago, remarkably
degenerate from those properties, for which, in a state of domestication,
they are chiefly prized in other quarters of the world, and afford little or no
milk beyond what is barely sufficient for the nourishment of the calf: but
the draught ox does not partake of a similar change, and in the central and
eastern districts, particularly where the pasture is good, becomes a strono-
active animal. The degenerate domestic cows are sometimes driven into
the forests, to couple with the wild bdîiténg, for the sake of improving
the breed. A single pair of oxen, or buffaloes, is found sufficient for the
yoke both of the plough and harrow; and these form by far the most

expensive part of the cultivator\'s stock. The price of a draught ox, in
the central and eastern districts, in which they are more generally used
in agriculture, varies from eight to sixteen rupees, or from twenty to forty
shillings English, and a cow may be purchased for about the same price.
Either from the luxuriance of the pasture, the greater care of the husband-
man, or a more equal climate, both the buffalo and the ox are usually in
better condition on Java than in many parts of India: indeed, those
miserable half-starved looking animals, with which some of the provinces
of Bengal abound, are never seen in this island, except, perhaps, occa-
sionallyquot;! in some of the few herds belonging to Europeans, in the vicinity
of Batavia.

Buffaloes, however, more than other domestic animals, are subject to an
epidemic disease, the symptoms and nature of which have not been hitherto
carefully noted, or satisfactorily explained. It prevails throughout the whole
island, and generally re-appears after an interval of three, four, or five
years : it makes great ravages in the stock of the peasantry, and is checked
in its progress by no remedies which have hitherto been discovered or
applied: it is of an infectious nature, and excites great alarm when it
appears: it bears different names in different parts of the island. As the
bull and cow are not liable to this disease; and as, in addition to this
advantage, they are less expensive in their original purchase, they are

Eor draught, the buffalo and cow are employed; and for burden, the
horse (particularly mares) and the ox. In level districts, and in good
roads, the use of the latter is preferred. The usual burden of a horse is
rather less than three hundred weight, and that of an ox rather more than
four; but in mountainous districts, and where the roads are neglected, one
half of this weight is considered as a sufficient, if not an excessive load.

The comparatively higher price of cattle on Java than in Bengal has
been accounted for from the demand for them as food, and the absence of

Implements of When implements of husbandry are mentioned in British agriculture,

processes and artful contrivances, of which a Javan could form no concep-
^nbsp;tion.

tion. He could form uo idea of the fabrication or advantages of our different
kinds of ploughs ; of our swing ploughs, our wheel ploughs, and our two-
furrow ploughs; of our grubbers, cultivators, and other instruments for
pulverizing the soil; of our threshing and winnowing machines, and other
inventions. A plough of the simplest construction, a harrow, or rather rake,
and sometimes a roller, with a pdchul, or hoe, which answers the purpose
of a spade; an drit, which serves as a knife or small hatchet; and the dni
dni, a peculiar instrument used by the reapers, are all the implements
employed by him in husbandry and the total cost of the whole does not
exceed three or four rupees, or from seven to ten shillings.

The plough (waluJcuJ, in general use for the irrigated land, consists of
three parts, the body, beam, ^and handle. It is generally made of teak
wood, where that material can be provided, or otherwise of the most du-
rable that can be found: the yoke only is of hdmbu. Simple as it is, it
appears, both in its construction and durability, superior to the plough of
Bengal, as described by Mr. Colebrooke, from which it differs, m having
a board cut out of the piece which forms the body, for throwing the earth
aside. The point of the body, or sock, is tipped with iron, which in,«ome
districts is cast for the purpose. There is another kind, of more simple construc-
tion, in use for dry and mountain cultivation: this is termed brujul, and con-
sists of but two parts. Both kinds are so light, that, when the ploughman has
performed his morning\'s work, he throws the plough over his shoulder, and
without feeling any inconvenience or fatigue, returns with it to his cottage.
For gardens, and for small fields adjoining the villages, the small luTcu china
or Chinese plough, is used with one buffalo : the cost for a good plough
seldom exceeds a rupee and a half. The harrow {gam), which is rather a
large rake having only a single rough row of teeth, costs about the same sum,
and is in like manner made of teak where procurable; except the handle,
beam, and yoke, which are of hdmhu. When used, the person who guides
it generally sits upon it, to give it the necessary pressure for levelling or
pulverizing the soil.

The pdchul is a large hoe, which in Java serves every purpose of the spade
in Europe, and is consequently, next to the plough, the most important
implement in Javan husbandry. The head is of wood tipped with iron ; and
the handle, which is about two feet and a half long, frequently has a slio«ht

rupee. The drity or weeding knife, costs about eight pence j and the am
dni, with which the grain is reaped, about three pence. The latter is a small
instrument of peculiar shape. The reaper holds it in a particular manner,
and crops off with it each separate ear, along with a few inches of the straw.
This mode of reaping has been immemorially practised and is universally
followed. Some of the most intelligent people being questioned respecting
the origin of this operose process answered, that it was reported to have
been established in ancient times as a s\'ldmat, or grateful acknowledgment
for an abundant harvest; that when his field was covered with the bounty
of Ceres, no reaper could refuse her this acknowledgment j and that the
religious discharge of this obligation was guarded by the belief, that if he
ceased to offer this tribute of his labour at the season of harvest, the field
would not continue to yield him the same abundant return.

The lands are ploughed, harrowed, and weeded by the men, who also
conduct the whole process of irrigation ; but the labour of transplanting,
reaping, and (where cattle are not used for the purpose) of transporting the
different crops from the field to the village, or from the village to the
market, devolves upon the women.

Besides the two general divisions, of the year, marked out by nature in
the great changes of the earth and the atmosphere, there are other periodical
distinctions, depending on less obvious or more irregular phenomena. These
variations have been ascertained by a reference to the course of the heavenly
bodies, or the calculations of the wuku, which are described in another part
of this work. It is the office of the village priest to keep this reckoning,
and to apprize the cultivators when the term approaches for the commence-
ment of the different operations of husbandry. Of these minor seasons of
the year, the first, commencing after the rice harvest which falls in August
or September, lasts forty-one days. During this season, the leaves fall from
the trees, vegetation is interrupted, and the only field labour performed is
the burning of grass and vegetables, as a preparation of the iegal or gagas.
In the second season, which lasts twenty-five days,

its vigour. The third, which lasts twenty-four days, is considered the most
proper for planting sweet potatoes, yams, and such other vegetables as
usually form the second crop j the wild flowers of the forest are now in
blossom, and the period of what is termed dry cultivation commences.
The fourth, which lasts also twenty-four days, is the natural season for the
pairing of wild animals: high winds now prevail, the rains descend, and

the rivers begin to rise. During the fifth, which lasts twenty-six days, the
implements of husbandry are prepared, and the water courses examined and
renewed : this is the commencement of the wet cultivation. In the sixth
season the ploughing of the sdwahs and sowing of the libit for the great rice
crop takes place: this season lasts forty-one days. In the seventh, which
also lasts forty-one days, pari is transplanted into fields, and the courses of
the water properly directed. In the eighth, which lasts twenty-six days,
the plants shoot above the water and begin to blossom. In the ninth season,
which consists of twenty-five days, the ears of the grain form. In the tenth,
also consisting of twenty-five days, they ripen and turn yellow. The
eleventh, which lasts twenty-six days, is the period for reaping ; and in the
twelfth, which consists of forty-one days, the harvest is completed, the
produce gathered in, and that dry clear weather prevails, in which the days
are the hottest and the nights the coldest of the whole year. The accurate
assignment of the number of days by the natives themselves to the different
operations of husbandry, affords such complete information on this interest-
ing subject, that any further account would be superfluous. It riiay, how-
ever, be proper to observe, that the periods above described chiefly refer to
the progress of the principal rice crop, as influenced by the annual rains ;
but there are many lands rendered quite independent of these rains, by the
vicinity of streams which afford a plentiful supply of water at all times of
the year. In many favoured situations, it is even common to observe at
one view the rice fields in almost every stage of their cultivation j in one,
the women engaged in planting the newly prepared soil, and in another,
the reapers employed in collecting the fruits of the harvest.

Lands in Java are classed under two general divisions ; lands which are Different kinds
capable of being inundated directly from streams or rivers, and lands which
are not so. The former are termed sdwaJi, the IdiiiQX tegal ov gdga. It is
on the sdwahs that the great rice cultivation is carried on ; and these admit
of a subdivision, according to the manner in which the land is irrigated.
Those which can be irrigated at pleasure from adjacent springs or rivers,
are considered as the proper sdwah ; those which depend on the periodical
rains for the whole or principal part of the water by which they are ferti-
lized, are termed sdwah tddahan. The former are by far the most valuable,
and lands of this description admit of two heavy crops annually, without
regard to any particular time of the year: the fields seldom exceed
■forty or sixty feet in breadth, and the water is retained in them by means

of a small embankment of about a foot in height. On the slopes of
the mountains, where this mode of cultivation is chiefly found, these fields
are carried gradually above each other in so many terraces, for the purpose
of irrigation, the water admitted in the upper terrace inundating each of
them in its descent. The tegal lands are appropriated to the culture of
less important crops, such as the mountain rice, Indian corn, he.

The vast superiority of the sdwah, or wet cultivation, over that of tegal,
or dry, is shewn in their relative produce, and may be still further illus-
trated by a comparison of the rents which the two descriptions of land are
calculated to affijrd. The quantity of tegal land, or land fit for maize, as
compared with that of sdwah land, varies in different districts. In Cheribon^
the tegalXdXidi, by the late survey, amounted only to 2,511, while the sdwali
exceeded 16,000. In Tegal proportions were even more widely varied,
the number ofnbsp;of the former to the latter being as 891 to 11,445.

In Surabaya they were as 1,356 to 17,397 ; in Kedu and Besdki they were
nearly equal, being respectively as 8,295 to 10,757, and as 6,369 to 7,862.

The succession of crops, next to the facility of irrigation, depends upon
the quality of the soil, which in the native provinces is divided by the cul-
tivators into three principal kinds, tdna Iddu, tdna Unchad, and tdna pdsir.
The first is the best, consisting of rich vegetable mould, and a certain pro-
portion of sand, and exists chiefly near the banks of large rivers j\' the
second is almost pure clay, and is found in the central plains ; and the third
is alluvial, and covers the maritime districts. The term pddas pereng is
applied to the oblique tracts enriched with a fertile mould, which form the
acclivities of hills, and from which the water readily disappears. Tdna
Iddu will bear a constant succession of crops. Tdna Unchad yields only a
single annual crop of rice : during the rainy season the soil constitutes a
Stiff mud, in which the plants find the requisite moisture and display all their
luxuriance; when it is afterwards exposed to the rays of the sun, it bursts
into extensive fissures, which admitting the scorching heat by which they
were produced, become detrimental to every species of vegetation.

Besides the annual crop of rice which is raised on the sdwah lands, a variety
of plants are^ raised upon them as a second or light crop within the same year.
Among these are several species of kdchang or bean, the cotton plant, the
indigo, and a variety of cucumbers, amp;c. But the more generally useful
and profitable vegetables require nearly the same period as the rice, and
only yield their increase once in a season : they mostly grow in situations,

on which the supply of water can be regulated, and a continued inundation
prevented. Among the most important are the gûdé, Jcâchang pénden, or
Tcâchang china, Jcâchang iju, Mdéle, jcigung or Indian corn, jaguno- chdntcl
jâwa-wût, jâli, tvijen, jdrah or palma christi, térong, and liéntangjâwa.

In tégal lands of high situations a particular method of planting is some-
times practiced, which produces a result similar to a succession of crops.
Together with the rice are deposited the seeds of other vegetables, which
arrive to maturity at different periods, chiefly after the rice harvest. The
most common and useful among these is cotton j and, in some tracts, great
quantities of this valuable product is thus obtained, without any exclusive
allotment of the soil. Next to this are various leguminous and other plants,
which do not interfere with the rice. No less than six or eight kinds of
vegetables are sometimes in this manner seen to shoot up promiscuously in
a single field.

Rice, however, as has been repeatedly observed, is the grand staple of Rice cuitira-
Javan, as well as Indian cultivation, and to this every other species of hus-
bandry is subordinate. The adjacent islands and states of Sumatra, Ma-
lacca, Borneo, Celebes, and the Moluccas, have always in a great measure
depended on the Javan cultivator for their supply, and the Dutch were in
the habit of transporting an annual quantity of between six and eight
thousand tons to Ceylon, to Coromandel, to the Cape, and their other
settlements. Even at the low rate at which it generally sells, a revenue of
near four milhons of rupees, or about half a million sterling, has been esti-
mated as the government portion of its annual produce.

According to the modes of cultivation by which it has been reared this
grain is called pâri sdwah, or pâri gâga ; corresponding, with some excep-
tions, to the pddi sâwah and pddi Iddang of Sumatra. In the western, and
particularly the Sunda districts, the term gaga is changed for tipar, the
term gâga, in these districts, being only occasionally applied to the grain
which is cultivated on newly cleared mountainous spots.

The low land and the mountain rice, or more correctly speaking, the rice
raised in dry lands and the rice raised in lands subjected to inundation, are
varieties of the same species (the oriza sativa of Linnaeus) although both of
them are permanent : but the rice planted on the mountainous or dry ground
does not thrive on irrigated lands ; nor, on the contrary, does the sdmh rice
succeed on lands beyond the reach of irrigation. The mountain rice is sup-
posed to contain in the same bulk more nourishment than the other, and is

more palatable j but its use is limited to the less populous districts of the
island, the greater proportion of the inhabitants depending exclusively on
the produce of the sdwahs, or wet cultivation, for their support.

Stavorinus asserts, that the mountain rice is not so good as that of the
low lands. Mr. Marsden informs us, on the contrary, that the former
brings the higher price, and is considered of superior quality, being whiter,
heartier, and better flavoured grain, keeping better, and increasing more
in boiling. quot; The rice of the low lands,quot; he says, quot; is more prolific from
quot; the seed, and subject to less risk in the culture; and on these accounts,
quot; rather than from its superior quality, is in more common use than the
quot; former.quot; In general, the weightiest and whitest grain is preferred; a
preference mentioned by Bontius, who includes in the character of the best
rice its whiteness, its clearness of colour, and its preponderating weight,
bulk for bulk. Dr. Horsfield conceives that Stavorinus formed his opinion
in the low northern maritime districts of Java, and Mr. Marsden from a
more extensive observation. Many intelligent natives state, that they
prefer the mountain rice when they can procure it, on account of its white-
ness, strength, and flavour ; and that they are only limited in its use, by
the impossibility of raising as much of it as can satisfy the general demand,
all the mountain or dry rice not being sufiicient to feed one-tenth of the
population. In less populous countries, as in many parts of Sumatra, the
inhabitants can easily subsist the whole of their numbers exclusively on
mountain rice, or that produced on Iddangs, which are fields reclaimed
from ancient forests for the first time, and from which only one crop is
demanded. The grain here, as in the mountain rice of Java, is highly
flavoured and nutritious; but in countries where the population is crowded,
where a scanty crop will not suffice, and where a continued supply of new
land cannot be obtained, the peasantry must apply their labour to such
grounds as admit of uninterrupted cultivation, and renew their annual
fertihty by periodical inundations, even although the produce is not so
highly prized.

In the sdwahs of Java the fields are previously ploughed, inundated, and
laboured by animals and hoeing, until the mould is converted into a semi-
fluid mire : they then are considered fit to receive the young plants. No
manure is ever used. Oil-cakes {bungkil), which are by some writers sup-
posed to be used for this purpose generally, are only employed in the
gardens about Batavia. One of the chief characteristics of the soil on

Java, is an exemption from the necessity of requiring manure: on the
sdwah lands, the annual inundation of the land is sufficient to renovate its
vigour and to permit constant cropping for a succession of years, without
any observable impoverishment.

In the cultivation of the sdwahs, the plants are uniformly transplanted or
removed from their first situation. In those of tegal or gaga, they grow to
maturity on the same spot where the seed was originally deposited, whether
this be on high mountainous districts, or on low lands, the distinction of
sd\'waJi and gdga depending exclusively not upon the situation of the field,
but in the mode of culture, whether wet or dry.

In raising rice in the sdwahs, inundation is indispensible till it is nearly
ripe. The seed is first sown on a bed prepared for the purpose, about one
month before the season for transplanting it, and the plant is during that
time termed hibit. Two methods are in use. According to the first, called
urit, the ears of pdri are carefully disposed on the soft mud of the seed
bed; in the second, called ng^eber, the separated seeds are thrown after
the manner of broadcast in Europe. In by far the greatest portions of the
island, the ground is prepared, the seed sown, and the plant removed,
during the course of the rainy season, or between the months of November
and March. In situations where a constant supply of water can be obtained
from springs, rivulets, or rivers, two crops are produced in the course of
twelve or fourteen months ; but the advantage of double cropping, which
exhausts the soil without allowing it time to recover, has been considered as
very questionable. If in some situations commanding a supply of water, the
earth is allowed to rest after the preceding harvest, during the latter end of
the rainy season, and the transplantation made in the months of June and
July, it generally yields more profitable crops than the common method of
working the sdwah. This, which is termed gddu by the natives, has been
recommended by the experience of European planters.

Irrigation is exclusively effected by conducting the water of rivers and
rivulets from the more or less elevated spots in the vicinity, and in this
respect, differs materially in its process from that of Bengal, for although
considerable labour and ingenuity are exercised in detaining, regulating,
and distributing the supply, by means of dams, called handdng\'ans, no
machinery whatever is employed in raising water for agricultural purposes in

The rice grown on sawahs, is of two kinds, pari génja and pari dâhim.
In the former, the harvest takes place four months after the transplantation y
in the latter, six months. Pari génja having the advantage of a quicker
growth, is therefore often planted when the rainy season is far advanced.
Pari dalam is more prolific, and yields a grain of superior quality, com-
prizing those varieties in which the ears are longer and more compound.
The varieties of each kind are distinct and permanent.

The subvarieties are very numerous, amounting, with those of Mtan, to
more than a hundred. Kétan is a distinct variety, with very glutinous seeds,
seldom employed as an article of food, except in confections, cakes, and
the like. Of the varieties of the pdri génsha, mentilc and anchar bdntap are
preferred. Of the pdri ddlam, those of hrentidan and suka ndndi are most
esteemed, being remarkably well flavoured and fit for keeping. S\'ldmat
jdwa yields also rice of good quality. The bearded kinds of pdri are
always preferred for keeping, as the grains do not readily fall off. Near
Sûra-hérta, the principal native capital, close to the site of the former
capital Kérta-sûra, there is a peculiar tract inundated by water from a
fountain at Ping\'ging, which is said to produce a grain of very superior
flavour,- from which the table of the Susuhunan is supplied. Suka ndndi is
the kind uniformly preferred for these plantations.

For pdri gaga, whether in high or low situations, the ground is pre-
pared by ploughing and harrowing, and the seed is planted after the
manner called setting in some parts of England. The holes are made by
pointed sticks, cûleà ponchos, and into each hole two seeds are thrown.
Only careless husbandmen, or those who cannot procure the requisite
assistance in their labour, sow by broadcast. In high situations the earth is
prepared before the rains commence : the seed is sown in the months of
September or October, and the harvest takes place in January and February
following. Gâgas of low situations are planted about a month after the
harvest of the sdwah is got in, and frequently receive temporary supplies of
water from a neighbouring rivulet. In high situations, to which water
cannot be carried, they are sufficiently moistened by the first rains of the
season. During their growth, they receive several hoeings from the careful
husbandman.

As the grain ripens, an elevated shed is frequently erected in the centre
of a plantation, within which a child on the watch touches, from time to
time, a series of cords extending from the shed to the extremities of the

field, like the radii of a circle, and by this cheap contrivance, and an
occasional shout, prevents the ravages of birds, which would otherwise
prove highly injurious to the crops. These little elevated sheds in the inte-
rior, and particularly in the district of Bânyumâs, are very neatly con-
structed of matting.

The reapers are uniformly paid, by receiving a portion of the crop
which they have reaped : this varies in different parts of the island, from
the sixth to the eighth part, depending on the abundance or scarcity of
hands ; when the harvest is general through a district, one-fifth or one-
fourth is demanded by the reaper. In opposition to so exorbitant a claim,
the influence of the great is sometimes exerted, and the labourer is obliged
to be content with a tenth or a twelfth.

The grain is separated from the husk by pounding several times repeated.
The first operation is generally performed in wooden troughs, in the villages
near which it grows, and before it is brought to market.* The pâri being
thus converted into hras or rice, afterwards receives repeated poundings,
according to the condition or taste of the consumer.

With the exception of the rice raised in sa^ahs, all other produce is Maize,
cultivated on dry grounds, either on the sâwah fields during the dry season,
or on iégal land, at all times exclusively appropriated to dry cultivation.
The principal article next to rice, as aflbrding food to man, is maize or
Indian corn, termed jâgung. It is general in every district of Java, but is
more particularly an object of attention on Madéra, where, for want of
mountam streams, the lands do not in general admit of irrigation. In the
more populous parts of Java, likewise, where the sdvmhs do not afford a
sufiicient supply of rice, the inhabitants have lately had recourse to the
cultivation of maize. It is now rapidly increasing in those low ranges of
hills, which, on account of the poverty of the soil, had hitherto been
neglected, and is becoming more and more a favourite article of food. In
the more eastern districts, it is procured from the inhabitants of Madura in
exchange for rice. It is generally roasted in the ear, and in that state is
exposed while hot for public sale J but it is never reduced to flour, or
stored for any considerable time.

The maize, or common jâgung, is a hardy plant, and grows on any
soil. In common with every other production of Java it thrives there

most luxuriantly ; nor is there any reason to believe, that the Javan soil is
less adapted to it than that of Spanish America, where Humboldt estimates
its produce at a hundred and fifty fold. It is planted in fertil^ low lands in
rotation with rice, and in high situations without intercession, often forming
in the latter the chief, if not the only,support of the inhabitants. There
are three different kinds, distinguished from each other by their respective
periods of ripening. The first kind requires seven months, and is a large
rich grain • the second takes only three, and is of inferior quality ; and the
third, which seems valuable only on account of its rapid growth, ripens
in forty days, but has a poor small grain. They may be planted at all
seasons of the year ; and of the two inferior kinds, several crops are often
raised from the same ground within the year.

Of Other cerealia, the jdgung chdntel is raised very partially in particular
districts, at no great distance from the capitals of the interior, and mostly
for the purpose of preparing from it, by fermentation, a liquor sometimes
drunk by the natives; as a general article of food it cannot be enume-
rated. The jdwa-wut mdjdli are still more confined in their use j although
the natives have a tradition, that on the first arrival of the Indian colonists
on Java, the former was the only grain found on the island: it yields a
pleasant pulp, and is made into several articles of confectionary. As a
principal article of food, or a substitute for rice, Indian corn can alone be
considered.

In times of scarcity, the natives make use of various kinds of the plain-
tain (musa), also the yam (ubi of the Malays, and wwi of the Javans), the
sweet potatoe, katelo (convolvulus batatas), the varieties of which are des-
cribed in one of the early volumes of the Batavian Transactions, and a
number of leguminous vegetables, the various kinds of beans (Jidchang), toge-
ther with a species of grass with minute yellow seeds, called tuton, which
in ancient times is said to have formed a principal article of food, and the
dried leaves of some other plants ; but, happily, these times seldom occur,
and the use of the jdgung chdntel and jdwa-tsM, as well as of the various
roots and leguminous vegetables to which I have alluded, is too limited to
produce any sensible effects on the inhabitants. Those natives who make
use of the Indian corn exclusively, inhabit the highest districts, where the
purity of the atmosphere counteracts any injury which their health might
otherwise sustain from the want of rice.

From the dren (sagiirus rumphii), which grows abundantly in many parts The aien-tree.
of Java, a substance is prepared, similar in all respects to the true sago of
the Eastern Islands. It is particularly useful in times of scarcity, when
large numbers of these valuable trees are felled, for the purpose of collecting
the pith. The sap yields an excellent sugar of a dark colour, in common
use with the natives. The wine or timak (toddy) prepared from it is
superior to that obtained from most other palms.

A very agreeable pulp is prepared from the pith of this tree, pounded with
water, and exposed one night to spontaneous evaporation: it is eaten withpalm
suo\'ar and found by no means unpleasant by Europeans. The tuberous
roots of a species of cucurma, temu Idwak, grated and infused in water,
yields a similar pulp. Both are denominated pdti, and daily offered for sale
along the roads and in the interior.

All the varieties of the cocoa-nut tree, noticed on Sumatra, are to be cocoa-nut.
found on Java, where its quicker and more luxuriant growth is accounted
for by the superiority of soil. The principal varieties of the cocoa-nut are
enumerated in one of the early volumes of the Batavian Transactions.

Of the oil-giving plants there are many. The hdchang gdring of the ^Hjiving
Malay countries, or, as it is indifferently termed by the Javans, kdchang
china, penden, or tana, is cultivated almost exclusively for the purpose of
obtaining its oil, near the capitals of the principal districts, both central
and maritime. It requires a very strong soil for its support, and as the
cultivation is profitable, the lands which produce it yield high rents. It
is never employed as an article of food by itself; but what remains of it
after the oil is expressed, forms an ingredient for the seasoning of rice, in
one of the common dishes of the natives. The oil is obtained by grinding
the seeds between two grooved cylinders, and then separating it either by
expression or boiling. The former is chiefly used by the Chinese, and
yields as a refuse the oil-cakes, which I formerly observed were employed
as manure in some of the gardens near Batavia. Where these -cylinders
are not in use, the following mode is adopted: the nut having been
taken from the ground, is dried by exposure to the sun for a few days;
after which the kernel is extracted, and reduced, by successive beatings in
the Javan Usung or mortar, to a grain sufficiently small to pass through a
sieve; it is then boiled by steam, and having been allowed to cool for
twenty-four hours, is put into a basket, and in that state placed between
two oblong planks, which, being joined together at one extremity, are

forced to meet at the other, on the prmciple of a lemon-squeezer. The
oil exuding from the interstices of the basket is caught on an ox\'s hide,
placed below to convey it to an earthen receiver.

The jdrah, or palma christi, is cultivated in nearly the same manner as
maize, and thrives on similar soils : from this plant is obtained most of the
oil for burning in lamps. In extracting the oil from this as well as from the
cocoa-nut, various processes are employed, most of which tend to accelerate
the rancidity of the oil. A pure cold-drawn oil is not known. In the cocoa-
nut, if the oil is obtained by expression, the broken nuts from which it is
made are exposed till putrefaction commences. In other cases they are
grated, and water b eing poured upon them, the parts mixed with it form
sdnten, a white milky fluid, which is evaporated till the oil alone remains.
As this process requires much time and fuel, a more economical method
is often resorted to: the milky fluid is left exposed for a night, when the
oily parts rise to the top, and being separated from the water are purified by

Sugar-cane. Of the sugar-cane, or according to the native term, tebu (the name by
which it is designated, not only on Java, but throughout the Archipelago),
there are several varieties. The dark purple cane, which displays the
greatest hixiirianre, and shoots to the length of ten feet, is the most highly
prized. By the Javans the sugar-cane is only cultivated to be eaten in an
unprepared state, as a nourishing sweetmeat. They are unacquainted with
any artificial method of expressing from it the saccharine .juice, and, con-
sequently, with the first material part of the process by which it is manu-
factured into sugar. Satisfied with the nourishment or gratification which
they procure from the plant as nature presents it, they leave the compli-
cated process to be conducted exclusively by the Chinese.

The cane, as in the West Indies, is propagated by cuttings of about a
foot and a half long, which are inserted in the ground in an upright direct
tion, previously to*the setting in of the rains. The Chinese occasionally
use oil-cake for enriching the lands; but where the plant is only raised
for consumption in its fresh state, no manure whatever is thought requisite;
and a good soil, without such preparation, will yield three or four crops in
succession.

The cane is extensively cultivated for the juice in the vicinity of Batavia,
where there are numerous manufactories, principally owned by the Chinese.
It is also cultivated for this purpose in considerable tracts at Japctra and Pa-
suruan,

sûruan, and partially in other districts of the eastern provinces^ where
mills are established for expressing it. Previous to the disturbances in
Chérihon, sugar likewise was manufactured in that district in considerable
quantities, and furnished an important article of export.

The coffee-plant, which is only known on Java by its European appella- CofTee.
tion, and its intimate connexion with European despotism, was first intro-
duced by the Dutch early in the eighteenth century, and has since formed
one of the articles of their exclusive monopoly. 1\'he labour by which it is
planted, and its produce collected, is included among the oppressions or
forced services of the natives, and the delivery of it into the government
stores amono- the forced deliveries at inadequate rates. Pieviously to the
year 1808, the cultivation of coffee was principally confined to the Sunda
districts. There were but comparatively few plantations in the eastern
districts, and the produce which they were capable of yielding did not
amount to one-tenth part of the whole ; but, under the administration of
Marshal Daendels, this shrub usurped the soil destined for yielding the
subsistence of the people, every other kind of cultivation was made sub-
servient to it, and the withering effects of a governraent monopoly extended
their influence indiscriminately throughout every province of the island.

In the Sûnda districts, each family was obliged to take care of one thou-
sand coffee plants ; and in the eastern districts, where new and extensive
plantations were now to be formed, on soils and in situations in many in-
stances by no means favourable to the cultivation, five hundred plants was
the prescribed allotment. No negligence could be practised in the execu-
tion of this duty : the whole operations of planting, cleaning, and col-
lecting, continued to be conducted under the immediate superintendance
of European officers, who selected the spot on which new gardens were to
be laid out, took care that they were preserved from weeds and rank grass,
and received the produce into store when gathered.

A black mould intermixed with sand, is considered the best soil for the
coffee plant. In selecting a situation for the gardens, the steep declivities
of mountains, where the plant would be endangered either by the too power-
ful heat of the sun or an entire want of it, or where torrents in the rainy
season might wash away the rich earth necessary for its growth, are avoided.
The best situation for them is usually considered to be in the vales along the
foot of the high mountains, or on the gentle declivities of the low range of
hills, with which the principal mountains are usually skirted; and it is

found that, cmteris parihuSf the greater is the elevation of the garden, the
longer is the period of its productiveness, and the finer is the berry.

Having selected a proper spot for the garden, the first operation is to
clear the ground of trees, shrubs, and the rank grass or reeds, the latter of
which, termed galdga, are often found in these situations, and generally
indicate a rich soil. In clearing the ground, it is the practise to collect
together into heaps, and burn the trees, roots, and other rubbish found on
it, the ashes of which serve to enrich the soil: when the trees are very large,
the heavy labour of rooting them up is avoided, and the trunks being cut
about five feet from the ground, are left in that state to rot, and in their
gradual decay still further to enrich the land. As soon as the ground is thus
cleared, it is levelled by three or four ploughings at short intervals, and laid
out to receive the plants. A fence is planted round them, about twelve
feet from their outer row, generally of thejdrah, or palma christi, intermixed
with either the dddap, or the silk cotton tree ; and, in low situations, outside
of this a ditch is dug to carry oif the water. These operations commence in
August or September, and by the time the ground is in perfect readiness
for planting, the heavy rains are nearly over. It then only remains to select
the young plants, and prepare the dddap which is intended to shade them.

Of the dddap tree there are three kinds ; the serdp, dórt, and gt;wdru • but
the first is preferred on account of the greater shade it affords. It is propa-
gated by cuttings, and in selecting them for the coffee plantations, care is
had that they are taken from trees at least two or three years old, and that
they be three or four feet long, of which one foot at least must be buried in
the ground. After the dddaps are planted, holes are dug, from a foot and
a half to two feet deep, for the reception of the coffee plant, which is then
removed from the seed place or nursery, and transplanted into the gardens.

In coffee gardens of four or five years old, are found quantities of young
plants, that have sprung up spontaneously from the ripe berries dropping off
the trees, and when these can be obtained about fourteen inches long, of a
strong healthy stem, large leaves, and without branches, they are preferred
to others: but as the plants thus procured are seldom found in sufficient
quantities, nurseries for rearing them are formed as follows. When the
berries are allowed to remain on the shrub after maturity, they become black
and dry : in this state they are plucked, and sown in seed-beds lightly
covered with earth : as soon as two small leaves appear, the plants are
taken from the bed, and transplanted, about a foot asunder, under the

cover of sheds prepared for that purpose ; in about eighteen months, these
plants are fit for removing into the garden or plantation where they are
destined to yield their fruit. In taking the young plant up, the greatest
care is necessary not to injure the roots, especially the tap root, and with this
view it is generally removed with as much earth attached to it as possible.
This precaution has the additional advantage of not too suddenly bringing
the plant in contact with a new soil.

The plantations are generally laid out in squares. The distance between
each plant varies according to the fertility of the soil: in a soil not consi-
dered fertile, a distance of six feet is preserved, and in each interval is a
dddap tree for the purpose of affording shade ; but in a rich soil, where the
plant grows more luxuriantly, fewer dddaps are necessary, and the plants
are placed at a greater distance from each other.

On Java a certain degree of shade seems necessary to the health of the cof-
fee-plant, especially in low situations and during its early age; and the dddap
is found better calculated for affording this protection than any other shrub in
the country. It is a common saying, that where the dddap flourishes, there
also will flourish the coffee: but they are not always constant or necessary
companions; for in high lands many of the most flourishing gardens are to
be observed with very few dddaps. The coffee tree yields fruit for a period
of twenty years, yet in the low lands it seldom attains a greater age than
nine or ten years (during six or seven of which only it may be said to bear),
and the fruit is comparatively large and tasteless.

About the end of the rainy season, such coffee plants and dddaps as have
not thriven are replaced by others, and the plantations cleaned: this latter
operation, in gardens well kept, is generally performed three or font times
in the year ; but the tree is never cut or pruned, and is universally allowed
to grow in all its native luxuriance. In this state, it often in favoured
situations attains the height of sixteen feet, and plants of not less than eight
inches broad have frequently been procured from the trunk. The general
average produce of a coffee tree is not estimated at much more than a Mti,
or a pound and a quarter Enghsh, notwithstanding some yield from twenty
to thirty kdtis.

There does not appear to be any fixed or certain season for the coffee to
arrive at maturity. In the Sunda districts the gathering usually commences
in June or July, and it is not till April that the whole crop is delivered into
store. The season, however, generally gives what is termed three crops;

of which the first is but small, the second the most abundant, and the third,
being what is left to ripen, may be considered rather as a gleaning. When
the berries become of a dark crimson colour, they are plucked one by one,
with the assistance of a light bamhu ladder or stage, great care being taken
not to shake off the blossoms which are still on the tree, or to pluck the
unripe fruit. The women and children usually collect the crop, while the
husband is elsewhere engaged in harder labour. Attached to every princi-
pal village, near which there are coffee plantations of any extent, there is a
drying-house, to which the newly gathered coffee is brought: it is there
placed on hurdles, about four feet from the floor, under which a slow wood
fire is kept up during the night. The roof of the drying-house is opened in
the mornings and evenings, to admit the air, and the berries are frequently
stirred to prevent fermentation. As the heat of the sun is considered preju-
dicial, the roof of the house is closed during the day. This operation is
repeated till the husk is quite dry. The berries dried in this way are small,
and of a sea green or greyish colour, and are supposed to acquire a peculiar
flavour from the smoke, although it does not appear that any particular
kind of wood is used for fuel. When dried in the sun, the bean becomes of
a pale bleached colour, is larger, specifically lighter, and more insipid to the
taste than the former. The most common mode of freeing the bean from
the husk is, to pound the berries when dry in a bag of buffalo\'s hide, great
care being taken not to bruise the bean. A mill of simple construction is
sometimes used, but is not found to answer so well. The coffee being then
separated from the husk, is put into bags or baskets, and kept on raised
platforms till the season of delivery, when it is carried down to the store-
house, sometimes by men, but generally on the backs of buffaloes and mares,
in strings of fifteen hundred or tw^o thousand at a time.

In the Sunda districts there have been, for many years past, three prin-
ci al depots for receiving the coffee from the cultivators, mz. at Buitenzorg,
quot;quot;mdn, and Karang^sdmhang. From Buitenzorg it is either sent direct
to Batavia by land in carts, or by the way of Linhong, whence it is for-
warded in boats by the river CU-ddni. From Chtkdn the coffee is sent m
boats dow the river CM4dram, and thence along the sea-coast to Batavia.
From Karang-sdmhang it is sent down the river Cht-mdmk to Indra-mayu,
where it is received into extensive warehouses, and whence it isnbsp;gene-

Under this system, the Sunda districts were estimated to afford an annual
produce of one hundred thousandnbsp;of one hundred and thirty-three

pounds and a quarter each, and it was calculated that the young plantations
in the eastern districts, when they should come into bearing, would produce
an equal quantity; but in this latter quarter, many of the gardens had
been fixed on ill-judged spots, and the inhabitants were averse to the new
and additional burden which this cultivation imposed upon their labour.
Had the system, therefore, even been persevered in, and enforced by a
despotic authority, it is questionable, whether the quantity anticipated in
the above estimate, or even one half of it, would have been obtained from
the eastern districts. The Sundas living in an inland and mountainous
country, and having been long accustomed to the hardship of the coffee
culture, are less sensible of its pressure than the rest of their countrymen:
time and habit have reconciled them to what was at first revolting, and
what must always be considered as unjust; their modes of life, their arts,
their domestic economy, and other social habits, have all adapted them-
selves to a species of labour, which was at first forced upon them ; and a
state of servitude, which the philosopher would lament as a degradation, is
scarcely felt to be a grievance by them. Instances, however, are not
wanting, in which the usual measure of exaction having been surpassed,
they have been awakened to a sense of their wretchedness. A government
of colonial monopolists, eager only for profit, and heedless of the sources
from which it was derived, sometimes subjected its native subjects to dis-
tresses and privations, the recital of which would shock the ear of huma-
nity. Suffice it to say, that the coffee culture in the Sunda districts has
sometimes been so severely exacted, that together with the other constant
and heavy demands made by the European authority on the labour of the
country, they deprived the unfortunate peasants of the time necessary to
rear food for their support. Many have thus perished by famine, while
others have fled to the crags of the mountains, where raising a scanty sub-
sistence in patches of gaga, or oftener dependent for it upon the roots of the
forest, they congratulated themselves on their escape from the reach of
their oppressors. Many of these people, with their descendants, remain hi
these haunts to the present time : in their annual migrations from hill to
hill, they frequently pass over the richest lands, which still remain uncul-
tivated and invite their return; but they prefer their wild independence

It is difficult to say what was the recompense received by the cultivator
previous to the year 1808. The comphcated system of accounts which
then prevailed, seemed only calculated to blind the government, and o
allow the European commissary to derive an income of from eighty to
one hundred thousand dollars {£35.000 per annum), at the expence o± the
authorities by whom he was employed, and the natives whom he oppressed.
This, in common with most of the establishments on the island, underwent
a revision in the time of Marshal Daendels ; and it was then directed that
the cultivators should receive on delivery at the storehouses, three rixdollars
copper for each mountain pikul of two hundred and twenty-five pounds
Dutch, being little more than one dollar per hundred-weight, or one halt-
penny\'per pound. This same coffee was sometimes sold at Batavia, withm
fifty miles of the spot where it was raised, at twenty Spanish dollars the
hundred-weight, and has seldom been known to bring in the European
market less than eleven pence the pound. This, however, was deemed a
liberal payment by the Dutch, though in some cases it had been transported
over sixty miles of an almost impassable country, where two men are
required to carry a hundred-weight of coffee, on their shoulders, at an expence
of labour which one would suppose at least equal to this remuneration.

Under the administration of the British government, the free culti-
vation of coffee, in common with that of all other articles, was permit-
ted to the inhabitants of Bantam, Cheribon, and all the eastern dis-
tricts; and at the time when the island was again ceded to the Dutcn

arrangements were in progress for extending the same provision thiougnout
the Sunda districts, under a conviction, that the quantity produced would
I ss under a system of free cultivation and free trade, than under a
Ivstem in which it was found necessary, as one of the first acts of Eui^-

TLtion of the\'coffee culture within their domini^ secure by t.a 7
with them the destruction and confiscation of all coffee found in the hands
of the natives.- A considerable portion of the peasantry as a - y
observed, have long been accustomed to the cultivation, and it is oj S to
their skill and experience, as much as to any direct

interference of the European officers (who generally derive their infor-
mation from the native chiefs, and have little more to do, than occasionally
to ride through the garden with a pompous suite, keep the accounts, and
examine the coffee as it is received), that the coffee has so long been fur-
nished for the European market; the experience obtained in the eastern
districts, during the last three years, proves at least that coercive measures
are unnecessary. There are many parts of Java, particularly the Friang\'en
regencies, where the soil is peculiarly and eminently adapted to the cultiva-
tion ; and although it is difficult yet awhile to fix the exact rate at which the
coffee might be produced under a free system, it may be calculated to be
raised for exportation at about forty shillings per hundred-weight.

Of the quality of the Javan coffee, in comparison with that of other
countries, it may be observed, that during the last years, it has invariably
maintained its price in the European market in competition with that of
Bourbon, and rather exceeded it, both of them being higher than the pro-
duce of the West Indies. During the last years of the British administration
on Java, and after the opening of the European market again afforded a
demand, about eleven millions of young coffee shrubs were planted out
in new gardens.

Pepper, which at one time formed the principal export from Java, has p^p»\'^^-
for some time ceased to be cultivated to any considerable extent. It was
prmcipally raised in Bantam, and the dependencies of that province in
the southern part of Sumatra ; and in the flourishing state of the mono-
poly, these districts furnished the Dutch with the chief supply for the
European market.

But the system by which it was procured was too oppressive and unprin-
cipled in its nature, and too impolitic in its provisions, to admit of long
duration. It was calculated to destroy the energies of the country, and
with them, the source from whence the fruits of this monopoly proceeded.
In the year 1811, accordingly, neither Bantam or its dependencies furnished
the European government with one pound of this article.

That pepper may be produced on Java, and supplied at a rate equally
moderate with that at which other productions requiring similar care are
furnished, cannot admit of a doubt, and this reasonable price may be estimated
at about six or seven Spanish dollars (thirty to thirty-five shillings) the plhiil
The plant grows luxuriantly in most soils, and when once reared requires
infinitely less care and labour than coffee. The cultivation of it on Sumatra

and Mnce of Wales\'s Island having been so accurately and minutely des-
cribed by Mr. Marsden and Dr. Hunter, it would be unnecessary here to
detail the system followed on Java, as it is in most points the saine. xne
only peculiarity regarding it which may deserve notice is, that on th.s .sland
the plant is allowed to grow to a much greater size, entwining .tself round

Indigo called torn by the Javans, and by the Smdas tarum, is geneial, ano
raised fn most parts of the island. The indigo prepared by the natives is
of an indifferent quality, and in a semi-fluid state, and contains mnch quick

An inferior variety, denominated iom-menir, having smaller seeds and
being of quicker growth, is usually planted as a second crop
which one rice crop has been raised. In these situations, the plant rises to
the height of about three feet and a half. It is then out, and the cuttings
are reputed three, or even four times, till the ground is again reqmredior
the aLual rice crop. But the superior plant, when cultivated on^ tegal
lands and on a naturally rich soil, not impoverished by a previous heavy
crop ■ Is in height above five feet, and grows with the greatest luxuriance
ThLlants intended for seeds are raised in favoured spots on the ridges of

Te Jce fields in the neighbourhood of the f^^lT ^\'T^^ Zl
district is frequently exchanged for that of another That of he rich
mountainous Lricts being esteemed of best quahty, is »-asio^lly int^-
duced into the low lands, and is thought necessary to prevent that ^gene-
ration, which would be the consequence of cultivating for a long time the
same ;iant upon the same soil. In the province ofnbsp;where indigo

is most extensively cultivated, it is sold in the market in bundles, as low as
eieht pence the piMt weights but in the vicinity of Semarang, and in
dfetricts where it is not produced in great abundance, it bears an advance

quot;^rkttlfanrsr of society on Java seem to offer peculi.
advantages to the extensive cultivation of this plant; and under the direc

a few months in the year, - quot;Jj^^j/ronghout
plant might, in favoured situations, benbsp;quot;^\'\'\'J^i^d „

that kind of weather, necessary for the cutting. The soil is superior, and a
command of water affords faciHties, seldom to be met with elsewhere ;
while, from the tenure on which the cultivators hold their land, and the
state of society among them, advances on account of the ensuing crop,
which in Bengal form so ruinous a part of an indigo concern, are here
unnecessary, and would be uncalled for.

The dye {nila blue) is prepared by the natives in a liquid state, by infus-
ing the leaves with a quantity of lime : in this state it forms by far the
principal dye of the country. Besides the quantity of it consumed within
the island, it is sometimes exported to neighbouring countries by native
traders, and sold at the rate of from a dollar and a half to three dollars the
pikul, according as the plant may be in abundance or otherwise.

It is impossible to form any idea of the rate at which this species of dye
can reasonably be manufactured for the European market, from the prices
paid by the Dutch, both because the article was one of those classed by
them under the head of forced deliveries, and because the regents, who
were entrusted with its exclusive management, not fully understanding the
process of making it, conducted it always in a very expensive way, and
were frequently exposed to entire failures.

The cotton of the country, distinguished by the name of Upas jama, is Cotton,
a variety of the gossypium herbaceum j but it is inferior to that generally
cultivated on the Indian continent, which is also found on Java, and called
by the Javans kdpas m{iru The plant of the former differs from the latter,
in having a smaller stem, and in yielding a material, both of coarser fibre
and in less quantity. There is a third variety, with a subarborescent stem,
called Hpas tdhon, which is very scarce. Trials remain to be made, to
determine how far the culture of the Indian cotton might be extended, so as
to supersede the Javan cotton. The inferior kind, which forms the prm-
cipal, and indeed with the mass of the people the only material for cloth-
ing, is cultivated in almost every part of the island. The soil, however,
is not considered as universally favourable to its growth: xnany of the
low lands, consisting of a clay, which bursts in the dry season, are unfit for
if and on several of the more fertile districts, where the plant itself
flourishes, little cotton is obtained from it: the declivities of the hills, in
which the mountain rice is raised, yield in general the best and most abun-
dant supply. At present, scarcely a sufficient quantity is produced on the
island to employ the female part of the inhabitants; and one district often

depends upon another for the principal part of what it uses. The cotton
of Bdnyumas is exported to Bdgalen, to TSgal, and the western parts of
Matdrem, where it is manufactured; the environs of Wong\'go, Adi-langic,
and other places towards the southern hills, supply both the capitals m the
interior; Kediri, Pranardga, and the vicinity, likewise furnish consider-
able quantities for other parts of the island. In the Su7ida districts,
the principal supply is received from the east and west Jdmpang. The cul-
ture of cotton, and the manufacture of yarn, are in some degree promoted
by an ancient custom, which imposes on every householder or village a
certain contingent of cotton yarn for the sovereign, or for the person who
holds the land on his account: this custom is called panyumpleng. Ihe
chiefs on Java, and particularly on BdU, frequently wear a skein of cotton
yarn entwined round the handle of the kris ; a custom, which sufficiently
indicates the respect paid to this species of cultivation.

The Javan cotton is a hardy plant, which grows to about the height of
a foot and a half. It is generally planted on the sdwahs after the reaping of
the rice crop, and yields the cotton in less than three months. The Indian
cotton grows to a larger size, and produces a material of an infinitely supe-
rior quality • but it is more delicate in its nature, must be watched with
greater care, and requires a month longer to attain to maturity. Cotton cul-
tivated on tegal, or dry land, is considered as generally better than that
raised as a second crop on sdwah; and this mode of cultivation has been
adduced as the cause of the superiority ascribed to the cotton of Bdli,

Tobacco, termed by the natives tomhdJcu, or sdta, is an article of very
general cultivation, but is only extensively raised for exportation m the
central districts oi Kedu and Bdnyumas as it requires a soil of the richest
mould but at the same time not subject to inundations, these districts hold
out peculiar advantages to the tobacco-planter, not to he found on the low
lands. For internal consumption, ^mall quantities are raised in convenient
spots every where; but the most eastern districts andnbsp;are prina-

pally supplied from Pugar. Bantam receives its supply from Bdnyumas
by means of native traders from Pahalungan visiting that port in small cratt
The produce of Kedd is conveyed by men to Semdrang, the great port ot

In Kedlc it forms, after rice, by far the most important article cultiva-
tion; and, in consequence of the fitness of the soil, the plant grows to the

height of from eight to ten feet, on lands not previously dressed or ma-
nured, with a luxuriance seldom witnessed in India. Cultivated here
alternately with rice, only one crop of either is obtained within the year j
but after the harvest of the rice, or the gathering of the tobacco-leaves, the
land is allowed to remain fallow, till the season again arrives for preparing
it to receive the other. The young plant is not raised within the district,
but procured from the high lands in the vicinity j principally from the dis-
trict of Kdli-heber, on the slope of the mountain Dieng or Prdhu, where
it is raised and sold by the hundred to the cultivators of the adjoining
districts. The transplantation takes place in the month of June, and the
plant is at its full growth in October.

Wheat has been introduced by the Europeans, and cultivated with sue- vvheat, Pota-
cess to the extent required by the European population. It thrives in \'
many parts of the interior of the country: it is sown in May, and reaped
in October ; and, where the cultivation has been left to the Javans, the
grain has been sold at the rate of about seven rupees the pikul.

Potatoes have been cultivated during the last forty years, in elevated
situations, near all the principal European establishments, and are reck-
oned of a quality superior to those ordinarily procured in Bengal or
China. Few of the natives, however, have as yet adopted them as a com-
mon article of food. Besides potatoes, most of the common culinar
vegetables of Europe are raised, in the gardens of the Europeans and
Chinese. It must be confessed, however, that they degenerate, if perpe-
tuated on the soil without change; and that their abundance and quality
depends, in a great measure, on the supplies of fresh seed imported from
Europe, the Cape, or other quarters.

Having now given an account of the different kinds of produce raised Agricultural
within the island, and the arts of husbandry practised by the natives, I
shall conclude this short sketch of Javan agriculture by an account of the
tenure of landed property, the rights of the proprietor and tenant, the
proportion of the produce paid for rent, the division of farms among the
inhabitants of villages, and the causes that have obstructed or promoted
agricultural improvements.

The relative situation, rank, and privileges of the village farmer and the
native chief in Java, correspond in most instances, with those of the Ryot
and Zemindar of Bengal j but the more frequent and more immediate inter-
ference of the sovereign, in the former case, with any tendency to estabhshed

usage or prescriptive claim, has left no room for that difference of opMtjn,
concerning proprietary right, which exercised the ingenuity of the highest
authorities in the latter. In Bengal, before the introduction of the perma-
nent revenue settlement, there were usages, institutions, and established
modes of proceeding with regard to landed estates, that rendered it doubtful
in which of the three parties more immediately interested, the proprie^tary right
should finally and lawfully be settled. The claim of the Ryot to retain the
land which he cultivated, so long as he paid the stipulated contribution,
seemeil to raise his character above that of an ordinary tenant removeable
at pleasure, or at the conclusion of a stipulated term. The situation of
the Zemindar, as the actual receiver of the rents, standing between the
sovereign and the cultivator, although merely for the purpose of paying
them over, with certain deductions to the sovereign, and his frequently trans-
mitting the office with its emoluments to his children, although held only
during pleasure, gave his character some affinity to that of an European
landholder. And lastly, the sovereign himself, who ultimately received the
rents, and regulated them at his pleasure, and removed both Zemindar and
Ryot, in case of negligence or disobedience, was arrayed with the most
essential attributes of proprietary right, or at least exercised a power that
could render any opposite claims nugatory. Thus the Ryot, the Zemindar,
and the sovereign, had each his pretensions to the character of landholder.
After much cautious inquiry and deliberate discussion on the part of our
Indian government, the claims of the Zemindars, rather perhaps from con-
siderations of policy than a clear conviction of their superior right, were
preferred. In Java, however, except in the cases of a few alienated lands
and in the Sunda districts, of which more will be said hereafter, no such
pretensions are heard of, as those which were advocated on the part
of the Zemindars of western India -, although inquiries to ascertain the
equitable and legitimate rights of all classes of the people, were known to
be in progress, and a plan was declared to be in contemplation for their per-
manent adjustment. From every inquiry that was instituted under the
British government, and every fact that was presented to the view of its
quot; officers, it appeared that, in the greatest part of the island, in the eastern
and middle districts, and in short in those provinces where rent to any
considerable amount was attainable, there existed no proprietary right
between that of the sovereign and that of the cultivator, that the government
was the only landholder.

There are lands, indeed, which contribute nothing to the state, some on
which the cultivator pays no rent whatever, and others of which the rent
remains in the hands of his immediate superior; but the manner in which
individuals acquire, and the tenure by which they hold such lands, form
illustrations and proofs of the proprietory right of the sovereign. As
his resources arise almost entirely from the share of produce which be
exacts, and as he considers himself invested with an absolute dominion
over that share, he burthens certain villages or estates with the salaries
of particular officers, allots others for the support of his relatives or.
favourites, or grants them for the benefit of particular charitable or religious
institutions; in the same manner as, before the Consolidation Act in
this country, the interest of particular loans were fixed upon the produce
of specific imposts. Here the alienation shews the original right: the
sovereign renounces the demand to which he was entitled; he makes
no claim upon the farmer for a share of the crop himself, but orders it to
be paid over to those whom he thus appoints in his place, so far as the gift
extends. With the exception of the Sunda districts, as already stated, and
a comparatively inconsiderable portion of land thus alienated on different
conditions, the proprietary right to the soil in Java vests universally in the
government, whether exercised by native princes or by colonial authority,
and that permanent and hereditary interest in it so necessary to its improve-
ment, those individual rights of property which are created by the laws and
protected by the government, are unknowii. With these exceptions, nei-
ther law nor usage authorizes the oldest occupant of land in Java to consider
the ground which he has reclaimed from waste, or the farm on which he has
exerted all his industry, as his own, by such a tenure as will enable him,
and his successors for ever, to reap the fruits of his labour. He can have ^
gained no title, even to a definite term of occupancy, but from the capri- ;
cious servant of a capricious despot, who himself is not legally bound by ,
his engagement, and whose successor is not even morally bound by it.

As a matter of convenience, the same cultivator may continue to occupy
the same portion of land for life, and his children, after his decease, may
inherit the ground which he cultivated, paying the dues to which he was
liable. The head of a village, whether called Bukul, Feting^gi, or Liirah,
may be continued in the collection of the village rents for life, and may
be succeeded in office by his heirs; the superior officer, or Demdng, with
whom he accounts, may likewise hold his situation for a long period, and

transmit it to Ms family j but none of tbem can stand in the possession
against the will of their immediate superior, or of the sovereign, by any
claim of law or custom.

Little of the revenue collected from the occupants is transmitted, to the
government treasury ; the greatest part of that which is raised, and which,
in other countries, would come into the hands of government, for subse-
quent distribution among its servants and the support of its various esta-
blishments, is intercepted in its progress by those to whom the sovereign
immediately assigns it. The officers of police, of justice, of the prince\'s
household, and, in short, public servants of all classes, from the prime
minister down to the lowe^ menial, are paid with appropriations of the
rent of land.

To this general principal of Javan law and usage, that the government is
the only landholder, there are exceptions, as I mentioned before, in some dis-
tricts of the island. These are chiefly in the districts inhabited by the Sundas,
who occupy the mountainous and woody country in the western division of
the island. Among them, private property in the soil is generally established;
the cultivator can transmit his possession to his children : among them, it
can be subdivided, without any interference on the part of a superior; the
possessor can sell his interest in it to others, and transfer it by gift or cove-
nant. He pays to his chief a certain proportion of the produce, in the same
manner as the other inhabitants of Javaj because, in a country without
trade or manufactures, labour or produce is the only shape in which he can
contribute to support the necessary establishments of the community. So
long as he advances this tribute, which is one-tenth or one-fifth of the
gross produce, he has an independent right to the occupancy of his land
and the enjoyment of the remainder. The reason why the landed tenure
of these districts differs, in so important a particular, from that of the
most extensive and valuable part of the island, may perhaps be ex-
l plained from their nature, without resorting to any original difference in
the laws of property or the maxims of government. Where the population
is small in proportion to the extent of soil, and much land remains unoc-
cupied, the best only will become the subject of demand and appropriation.
The latter alone is valuable, because it yields great returns for little
labour, and therefore offers inducements to engage in its cultivation, in
spite of many artificial disadvantages : it alone can afford a desirable surplus,
after maintaining the hands that call for its fertility, and consequently

tempts power to reserve unalienated the right to this surplus. On the
other hand, when waste ground is to be reclaimed, when forests or jungle
are to be cleared, or when a sterile and ungrateful spot is to be cultivated
the government have less interest in reserving the surplus, and must offer
superior inducements of immunity, permanency, or exemption, to lead to
the cultivation. On this principle, the tenure of land in the Sunda districts,
and on some parts of the coast, may be accounted for. It may be concluded,
that many of these lands were reclaimed from waste by the present
occupiers or their immediate predecessors, and their rights to possess them,
which is similar to that which the discoverer of an unappropriated field,
forest, or mine would have, by nature, to as many of their products as he
could reahze by his labours, has not been crushed or interfered with by the
sovereign j a forbearance, probably, more to be attributed to motives of
prudence than to the restraint of law. Nearly coincident with this con-
clusion is the supposition which assumes, that before the introduction of the
Mahometan system and the encroachments of despotic sovereigns, all the
lands on the island were considered as the property of those who cultivated
them; but that, as the value of the most fertile spots became more appa-
rent, while the labour which had been originally expended in clearing them,
and constituted the title to their originaLoccupancy, was: gradually for-
gotten, the government found inducements and facilities to increase its
demands, and thus became possessed of the rights of some by violence,
whde It rendered those of all unworthy of being preserved, l^e land
tenures of the Sunda districts, according to this hypothesis, are only wrecks
of the general system, which have been protected against encroachment,
because they did not so powerfully invite rapacity. Whatever truth therfe
may be in this opinion, the fact is undoubted, that in the mountainous and
less fertile districts of Java, and in the island of Ball, where the Maho-
metan sway has not yet extended, individual proprietary right in the soil is
fully estabhshed, while in that portion of Java where the Mahometan rule
has been most felt, and where proprietary right amounts to the greatest
value, it vests almost exclusively in the sovereign,

The situation, however, of the cultivator in the Sunda districts, who
is a proprietor, is not much more eligible than that of the tenant of
the government: he may, it is true, alienate or transfer his lands, but
while he retains them» he is liable to imposts almost as great as they gan
bear j and when he transfers them, he can therefore expect little for sur-

rendering to another tbe privilege of reaping from his own soil, what is
only the average recompense of labour expended on the estate of another.
The Revenue Imtructions, therefore, bearing date the 11th February 1814,
and transmitted from the local government to the officers intrusted with Ae
charge of the several provinces subject to its authority, lay down the folio wmg
general position. quot; The nature of the landed tenure throughout the island is
quot; now thoroughly understood. Generally speaking, no proprietary right in
the soil is vested in any between the actual cultivator and the sovereign ;
« the intermediate classes, who may have at any time enjoyed the revenues
quot; of villages or districts, being deemed merely the executive officers of
quot; government, who received these revenues from the gift of their lord,
quot; and who depended on his will alone for their tenure. Of this actual
quot; proprietary right there can be no doubt that the investiture rested solely
quot; in the sovereign j but it is equally certain, that the first clearers of the
« land entitled themselves, as a just reward, to such a real property in the
quot; ground they thus in a manner created, that while a due tribute of a certain
quot; share of its produce was granted to the sovereign power for the protection
quot; it extended, the government, in return, was equally bound not to disturb
« them or their heirs in its possession. This disposal of the government
« share was thus, therefore, all that could justly depend on the will, of the
« ruling authority j and consequently, the numerous gifts of land made in
« various periods by the several sovereigns, have in no way affected the
r « rights of the actual cultivators. All that government could alienate was
« merely its own revenue or share of the produce. This subject has come
quot; fully under discussion, and the above result, as regarding this island, has
« been quite satisfactorily established.quot; It is remarked, in a subsequent
paragraph of the same instructions, quot; that there have been, it is known, in
« many parts of the country, grants fiom the sovereign of lands in per-
« petuity, which are regularly inheritable, and relative to which the original
« documents still exist. Of these, some have been made for religious pur-
« poses, others as rewards or provision for relatives or the higher nobihty.
« These alienations, as far as it was justly in the power of the soveijign
« to make, must certainly be held sacred; but their extent should be
« clearly defined, that the rights of others be not compromised by them.
« The government share, when granted, will not be reclaimed ; but-the
quot; rights of the cultivator must not be affected by these grants. Such proprie-
« tors of revenue, as they may be termed, shall in short be allowed to act,

« with regard to the cultivators on their estates, as government acts towards
those on its own lands, that is, they shall receive a fixed share of the pro-
« duce, but whilst that is duly delivered, they shall neither exact more nor
remove any individual from his land.quot; It is remarked by Major Yule,
the British resident, in his Report on Bantam, that there, quot; all property in
« the soil is vested exclusively in the hands of the sovereign power; but in
quot; consequence of its having been long customary to confer grants of land
quot; upon the different branches of the royal family, and other chiefs and
quot; favourites about court, a very small portion was left without some
\'\' claimant or other. The pusdkas granted to the relations of the Sultan
quot; were considered as real property, and sometimes descended to the heirs
quot; of the family, and at others were alienated from it by private sale. To
effect a transfer of this nature the previous sanction of the Sultan was
necessary, after which the party waited on the high priest, ot Mangku-humi,
quot; who made the necessary inquiries, and delivered the title deeds to the
quot; purchaser, in which were specified the situation, extent, boundaries, and
quot; price of the land sold. A register of sales was kept by the priests, the
quot; purchaser paying the fees ; and it rarely occurred that landi\' sold in this
manner were ever resumed by the crown, without some adequate com-
quot; pensation being made to the purchaser. Pusdkas given to chiefs for
quot; services performed, were recoverable again at pleasure, and always
reverted to the crown on the demise of the chief to whom they had been
granted: m all other respects, the same privileges were annexed to them
\'\' as to the former. The holders of pusdha lands were very seldom the
occupants ; they generally remained about the court, and on the approach
quot; of the rice harvest deputed agents to collect their share of the crop.
quot; They do not let their lands for specific periods. The cultivators are liable,^
quot; to be turned out at pleasure, and . when ejected, have no claims to•
quot; compensation for improvements made while in possession, such as water-
» courses, or plantations of fruit trees xnade by themselves or their
« parents.quot;

« We must make a distinction,quot; say the Dutch Commissioners appointed
to investigate this subject in 1811, quot; between the Pr/^w^ew regencies, the
quot; province of Chéribon, and the eastern districts. Throughout the whole
quot; extent of the Priangén regencies exists a pretended property on unculti-
vated lands, on which no person can settle without the consent of the
« inhabitants of that désa, or village. In the sdwah fields, or cultivated

lands, every inhabitant, from the Regent down to the lowest rank, has a
share, and may act with it in what manner he pleases, either sell, let, or
otherwise dispose of it, and loses that right only by leaving the village in
â clandestine manner.

\'\' In the province of Chéribon^ according to the ancient constitution,
each quot;district oxxà désa, Wke ï\\\\q Pr tangen regencies, has its own lands;
with the difference, however, that whilst those regencies are con-
sidered as belonging to villages and individuals, here the villages and
lands are altogether the pretended property of the chiefs, or of the
relations or favourites of the Sultans, who even might dispose of the
same, with one exception, however, of that part allotted to the common
people. Sometimes the Sultans themselves were owners of désas and
chiefs of the same ; in which case the inhabitants were better treated
than in the former instances. If an individual thought himself wronged
by the chief, who either sold, hired out, or otherwise disposed of his
lands, he took his revenge, not on that chief, but on the person who
held possession of the property. To corroborate this statement it may be
mentioned, that the lands in the district of Chéribon were for the most
part farmed out to Chinese, who increased their extortions in proportion,
as the chief raised his farm or rent, and thus almost deprived the common
people of all their means.

quot; On the north-east coast of the eastern districts, no person can be called
a proprietor of rice fields or other lands: the whole country belongs to
government, and in this light do all the Regents consider it. The rice
fields of a regency are divided among the whole of the population : in
the division the chiefs have a share, according to their rank, occupations,
or taxes they are paying.

quot; The chief enjoys his lands as long as he holds his station ; the common
people for a year only, when it falls to the share of another inhabitant of
the désa, or village, that all may reap a benefit from it in turn. The ideas
of the Javans concerning tenures, thus appear to be of three kinds : in
the Sûnda division they consist in allotting to the villages of uncultivated,
and to individual persons of certain portions in the cultivated or sdwah
fields : in Chéribon, the sultans and chiefs, as well as the common people,
assert pretensions to similar allotments : in the eastern districts, on the
contrary, no body pretends to the possession of land ; every one is satis-
fied with the regulation laid down, but if a man\'s share is withheld, he is

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quot; apt to emigrate. No person considers himself bound to servitude. The
« Javans, however, in the Friang\'eu regencies, in Chéribon, and iin the
eastern districts, pretend to have an unquestionable right to all the fruit
« trees and siri plants, at or near their kampung or désa.\'\'

« There is not,quot; says Mr. Knops, another of the Dutch Commissioners,
« a single Javan, who supposes that the soil is the property of the Regent*
« but they all seem to be sensible that it belongs to government, usually
« called the sovereign among them; considering the Eegent as a subject like
themselves, who holds his district and authority from the sovereign. His
quot; idea of property is modified by the three kinds of subjects, to which
« it is appHed : rice fields, gagas, and fruit trees. A Javan has no rice
« fields he can call his own j those of which he had the use last year will
quot; be exchanged next year for others. They circulate (as in the regency of
« Semarang) from one person to another, and if any one were excluded, he
« would infallibly emigrate. It is different with the gdga^, or lands where ,
dry rice is cultivated : the cultivator who clears such lands from trees or 1
« brushwood, and reclaims them from a wilderness, considers himself as I
*\' proprietor of the same, and expects to reap its fruits without diminution
quot; or deduction. With regard to fruit trees, the Javan cultivator claims
quot; those he has planted as his legal property, without any imposts: if a

quot; Th^^r^quot;^^ trespass against this right, the village would soon be deserted,
,, e Javan, however, has not, in my opinion, any real idea of property }
even in his frmt trees, but usage passes with him for a law. All disposi-\'
« tions made by the chief, not contrary to custom or the ddaf, are consi-
dered as legal, and likewise all that would contribute to ease the people,
« by lessening or reducing the capitation tax, the contingent, the feudal
« services, in short all the charges imposed upon them. A different system
quot; would be contrary to custom. Whatever favours the people is legal,
whatever oppresses them is an infraction of the custom.\'\'
The tenure of land in the native provinces is the same generally as in the
eastern districts. Thus stands the question with regard to the proprietary
right to the soil in Java ; but it is of more consequence in an agricultural
point of view, and consequently more to my present purpose, to inquire
how that right is generally exercised, than in whom it resides. Though
the cultivator had no legal title to his lands, there might still be such a I
prevalent usage in favour of his perpetual occupancy, as would secure him

in the enjoyment of his possession, and eîiable him to reap the fruits of his
industry equally with the protection of his positive law.

But unfortunately for the prosperity of the people, this was far from
being generally the case. The cultivator had little security for continued
occupancy, but the power, on his part, of enduring unlimited oppression
without removing from under it, or the interest of his immediate superior
in retaining a useful slave j and as he could not expect to reap in safety the
fruits of his industry, beyond the bare supply of his necessities, he carried
that industry no farther than his necessities demanded. The sovereign knew
little about the state of his tenantry or the conduct of his agents, and
viewed the former only as instruments to create the resources, which the
latter were employed to collect or administer. All his care was to procure
as much from the produce of the soil and industry of his subjects as possible,
and the complaints of the people, who suffered under the exactions of these
chiefs, were intercepted in their way to the throne, and perhaps would have
been disregarded had they reached it. The sovereign delegates his authority
over a province of greater or less extent, to a high officer called Adipâti,
Tumûn^gung, or Ang\'ehâi, who is himself paid by the rent of certain portions
of land, and is responsible for the revenues of the districts over which he is
appointed. He, in his turn, elects an officer, called Demâng or Mantri-
désa, to administer the sub-divisions or districts of the province, to appoint
the chiefs, and to collect the rents of several villages. The village chief,
Bukul, Lurah, or whatever designation he bears in the difïerent parts of the
island, thus appointed by his immediate superior, is placed in the adminis-
tration of the village, required to collect the government share of the crop
from the cultivator, and to account for it to the Demâng. In some provinces,
the village elects its own chief, called Feting\'gi, who exercises similar func-
tions with the Biàul appointed by government, as will be afterwards more
particularly observed in the account of the native administration. all
the officers of government, of whatever rank, are paid their salaries in the
produce of the land, Bûkuls and the Demdngs become responsible for
\\ the share of the appropriations of villages to this account, as much as if it
went into the government treasury. They are themselves paid by the
reservation of a certain share of what they collect, and of course are always
ready to please their employers, and to increase their own emoluments, by
enforcing every practicable exaction. Every officer has unlimited power

over those below him, and is himself subject to the capricious will of the
sovereign or his minister. When the Regent makes any new or exorbitant
demand upon those whom he immediately superintends, they must exact it
with an increased degree of rigour over the chiefs of villages, who are thus,
in their turn, forced to press upon the cultivator, with the accumulated
weight of various gradations of despotism.

The BMul, or the Feting\'gi is the immediate head of the village, and
however much his authority is modified in particular districts, has always
extensive powers. To the cultivators, he appears in the character of the
real landholder, as they have no occasion to look beyond him to the supe-
rior, by whom he is controuled. He distributes the lands to the different
cultivators in such shares, and on such conditions, as he pleases, or as
custom warrants, assesses the rents they have to pay, allots them their village
duties, measures the produce of their fields, and receives the government
proportion. He sometimes himself cultivates a small portion of land, and
in so far is regarded only as a tenant, like the rest of the villagers. He is
accountable for all the collections he realizes, with the reservation of a
fifth part for his trouble, which share must be viewed merely as the emo-
luments of office, and not as the rent of the landlord, or the profits of a
farmer. He sometimes holds his situation immediately of the sovereign,
or by the election of the cultivators; but more generally from the inter-
mediate agent of government, whom I have mentioned above, to whom he
IS accountable for his receipts. By his superior he may be removed at
pleasure; although the local knowledge and accumulated means, which
are the consequence of the possession of office, generally insure its duration
to his person for a considerable period, or as long as his superior himself
retains his power.

The lands which he superintends and apportions range from six or seven
to double that number of jquot;^, or from forty or fifty to an hundred acres
English, and these are divided among the inhabitants of his village, generally
varying Irom about two acres to half an acre each. That this minute division
of land takes place, may be shewn from the surveys made under the British
government in the eastern provinces, which nearly resemble those under
the dominion of the native princes, and consequently may be taken as indi-
eating the general state of the island. The inhabitants in the agricultural
districts of the residency of Surabaya amount in all to 129,938 : these
compose 33,141 families, of which 32,618 belong to the class of cultivators.

and 523 belonging to other professions pay only a ground rent for their
houses. The area of the province contains about twelve hundred square
miles, or 34,,Q55 jungs, about 20,000 only of which are cultivated, so as
to become of any consequence in the division of lands among the villages,
the number of which amount to 2,770. By a calculation founded on these
data, it would appear, that each village averages about twelve families, that
a family falls considerably short of the average of four, and that a little
more than sevennbsp;are allotted to a village. In Kedu the population

amounts to 197,310, the number of villages to 3,879, and the quantity of
cultivated land to 19,052 jungs; so that in this province there are about
five jungs attached to a village; and a village is inhabited by fifty-one souls,
or about twelve or thirteen families. In Gresik, the number of villages
amount to 1,396, the quantity of cultivated land to 17,018 jungs, and the
population to 115,442 souls. In Proholing\'o ^iud Besuki, the numbers are,
of inhabitants, 104,359 ; of villages, 827; of cultivated land, 13,432

jungs. In these two last the proportions vary, the number of jungs to a
village in the former being more than twelve, and of inhabitants more than
eighty, or about twenty families j and in the latter, the proportion is more
than one hundred and twenty souls to a village possessed of more than
mxteen jungs of land. It would be superfluous to state any more examples.
In different parts of the island, there are variations within certain limits;
but the quantity of land occupied by one cultivator seldom exceeds a hdhu,
(or the quarter of jung), although the quantity occupied by a village, as
will be seen by the above instances, varies from five to sixteen, according
to the extent of the population.

The land allotted to each separate cultivator is managed by himself ex-
clusively ; and the practice of labouring in common, which is usual among
the inhabitants of the same village on continental India, is here unknown.
Every one, generally speaking, has his own field, his own plough, his own
buffaloes or oxen ; prepares his farm with his own hand, or the assistance
of his family at seed-time, and reaps it by the same means at harvest. By
the recent surveys, when every thing concerning the wealth and the re-
sources of the country became the subject of inquiry, and means were em-
ployed to obtain the most accurate information, it was ascertained, that the
number of buffaloes on that part of the island to which these surveys
extended, was nearly in the proportion of one to a family, or a pair to
two families j and that, including the yokes of oxen, which are to those of

buffaloes as one to three, this proportion would be very much exceeded.
In some provinces, more exclusively devoted to grain cultivation, the num-
ber of ploughs, and of course oxen or buffaloes, nearly amounts to one to a
family. In other cases, where they fall much short of this proportion, a
considerable part of the inhabitants must be engaged in labours unconnected
with agriculture, or the cultivators must be engaged in rearing produce,
where the assistance of those animals is not required. Thus in Japara and
Jawdna, where the number of inhabitants is 103,290, or about twenty-six
thousand families, the number of ploughs amount to 20,730, and of buffaloes
to 43,511 ; while in the Batavian Kegencies, where the coffee culture
employs a considerable part of the inhabitants, the number of families
is about sixty thousand, and of ploughs only 17,366. The lands on Java are
so minutely divided among the inhabitants of the villages, that each receives
just as much as can maintain his family and employ his individual industry.
quot; A time there was, ere England\'s griefs began,
quot; When ev\'ry rood of ground niaintain\'d its man ;
quot; For him light labour spread her wholesome store,
quot; Just gave what life requir\'d, and gave no more :
quot; His best companions, innocence and health ;
quot; And his best riches, ignorance of wealth.quot;

But situated as the Javan peasantry are, there is but little inducement
to invest capital in agriculture, and much labour must be unprofitably
wasted: as property is insecure, there can be no desire of accumulation ;
as food IS easily procured, there can be no necessity for vigorous labour.
There exists, as a consequence of this state of nature and of the laws, few
examples of great affluence or abject distress among the peasantry ; no rich
^en, and no common beggars. Under the native governments and the
Regents of the Dutch Company, there were no written leases or engage-
ments binding for a term of years; nor could such contracts well be ex-
pected to be formed with an officer, who held his own place by so unstable
a tenure as the will of a despot. The cultivator bargained with the Bukul
or Feting\'gi for a season or for two crops, had his land measured off by the
latter, and paid a stipulated portion of the produce either in money or in
kind. When the crop had arrived at maturity, the cultivator, if his engage-
ment was for so much of the produce in kind, cut down his own share, and
left that of the landlord on the ground.

The proportion of the crop paid as rent varied with the kind of land, Remof Jand.
or produce, and the labour employed by the cultivator. In the sdwak

lands, the share demanded by the landlord rarely exceeded one-half,
and might fall as low as one-fourth, according as the quality of the soil was
good or bad, or the labour employed in irrigating or otherwise preparing it
was greater or less. In tégal lands, the rent paid varied from one-third to
one-fifth of the produce ; a diminution to be attributed to the uncertainty
of the crop, and the necessity of employing more labour to realize an equal
produce than on the other species of cultivation. In cases where there was
a second crop of less value than the principal rice or maize crop, no addi-
tional demand was made upon the additional grain reaped by the farmer.

If such rates had been equitably fixed, after a dehberate estimate of the
proportion between the labour of the cultivator and his produce, and if
from the best kind of sœœah no more than the half had been required, with a
scale of rents diminishing as labour increased or the soil deteriorated the
peasant could have had no reason to complain of the exactions of govern-
ment. Kjung of the best sœœah lands will produce between forty and fifty
amats oï pari, crnat weighing about one thousand pounds. Suppose
a cultivator occupied a quarter of a jung of such land, he would reap ten
amats, or ten thousand pounds of pari, and allowing a half for the govern-
ment deduction, would still retain five thousand pounds, which is equal to
about eight quarters of wheat. The best sâwah lands return about forty-
fold ; sâwah lands of the second quality yield from thirty to forty âmats the
jung J and they are considered of inferior quality when they yield less than
thirty. From these last, two-fifths or one-third was required as the land-
lord\'s share. Tégal lands were assessed at one-third, one-fourth, or one-fifth
of their produce, according to their quality, and their produce in value is
about a fourth of sâwah lands of the same relative degree in the scale. In
Bengal, according to Mr. Colebrooke\'s excellent account of its husbandry
quot; the landlord\'s proportion of the crop was one-half, two-fifths and a
quot; third, according to the difference of circumstances.quot; The value in
money of a crop of rice grown on a jung of the best land under the wet
cultivation, may amount- to one hundred and sixty Spanish dollars ; and on
a hahu (the space occupied by an individual cultivator), forty dollars. I
formerly stated the price of the implements of husbandry, the price of
buffaloes or oxen, the expence of building a house, and providing it with
the necessary furniture. The whole farming stock of a villager may be
purchased for about fifteen or sixteen dollars, or for little more than a third
part of the produce of his land in one year. The price of labour, the

price of cattle and of grain, as well as the fertility of the soil, varies in
different parts of the island; but, in general, it may be laid down as an
indisputable proposition, that from the natural bounty of the soil, the peagt;
santry might derive all the means of subsistence and comfort, without any
great exertion of ingenuity, or any severity of toil, if their government
made no greater demand than the shares stated above.

But besides the rent which the cultivator paid for his land, he was liable
to many more grievous burdens. The great objection to a tax levied on
land, and consisting in a certain share of its produce, arises from the effect
that it has in obstructing improvements; but there were other imposts and
contributions exacted from the peasantry, which were positively and imme-
diately oppressive. A ground-rent for houses, called pachumplang, was
prevalent over many parts of the island, amounting, in the provinces sub-
ject to the native princes, to one-sixth or seventh of a dollar for each dwel-
ling or cottage. The cultivator, in some parts of the country, instead of
paying this tax, was obhged to pay for his fruit trees. In some districts
there was a capitation tax ; arbitrary fines were levied in others, and contri-
butions on the birth or marriage of the children of the superior, regent, or
the prince. There were several charges made on the villages, that had a
more immediate reference to their own advantage, but which nevertheless
were felt as burdens; such as contributions for the repair of roads, of
bridges, for the making or repair of water-courses, dams, and other works
necessary for irrigation. Demands on the inhabitants for charitable and
religious objects or institutions are universal, though not very oppressive.
Every village has its priest, who depends upon the contributions of the
peasantry for his support, receiving so much rice or pdri as his salary. The
taxes on the internal trade of the country extended to every article of
manufacture, produce, or consumption, and being invariably farmed out
to Chinese, who employed every mode of extortion that their ingenuity
could invent, or the passive disposition of the people would allow them to
practice, constituted an inexhaustible source of oppression: to these we
may add the feudal services and forced deliveries required under the Dutch

The following observations extracted from two reports, the one on Ban-
tarn, at the western side of the island, and the other on Basuruan, almost
at its other extremity, were unhappily by no means inapplicable to the
greatest part of the intermediate space, and contain by no means an exag-
gerated

gerated representation. The holders of piisalm lands in Bantam were
« very seldom the occupants ; they generally remained about court, and
quot; on the approach of the fdri harvest deputed agents to collect their share
quot; of the crop. But what proportion their share would bear to the whole
« produce does not appear to be well defined ; it is by one stated at a fifth,
« and by some (which I suspect to be nearest the truth) at as much as the
quot; cultivator could afford to pay, the agents of the proprietors being the
« judges of the quantity. The proprietors of the piisaMs have also a claim
quot; to the services of the cultivators : a certain number of them are always
quot; in attendance at the houses of their chiefs, and on journies are employed
« in carrying their persons and baggage. The lands not pusalia used to pay
quot; the same proportion of produce to the Sultan as the others did to the
« proprietors; but the cultivators of the royal dominions laboured under
« greater disadvantages than the others. Every chief or favourite about
quot; court had authority to employ them in the most menial offices ; and
« chiefs possessing pusakas, often spared their own people and employed
quot; the others. The Sultan always had a right to enforce the culture of any
quot; article which he thought proper to direct; and, in such cases, a price
quot; was paid upon the produce, which was generally very inadequate to the
quot; expences.quot;

« It may be very desirable, says Mr. Jourdan, in his report on the com-
pletion of the settlement of Fasiiruan, quot; that I should mention a few of the
quot; oppressions from which it is the object of the present system to relieve the
quot; people. I cannot but consider the greatest of these, the extent of the per-
quot; sonal service demanded, not only by the Tumung\'gung and his family, but the

Mdntris and all the petty chiefs, who had trains of followers that received
quot; no stipendiary recompence. These added to the individuals employed in the
quot; coffee plantations (to which they appear peculiarly averse), in beating out
« the rice for the contingent, in cutting grass for and attending thejdyang
quot; sekdrs, post carriage and letter carriers, may be calculated to have
quot; employed one-fifth of the male popidation of the working men. Another
« great source of exaction was the large unwieldy establishment of jay ang

sekdrs, and police officers : the former were liberally paid, the latter had
quot; no regular emoluments. Both these classes, however, quartered them-
quot; selves freely in whatever part of the country their functions demanded
quot; their attendance. This was equally the case with any of the Regent\'s
quot; family or petty chiefs who travelled for pleasure or on duty. Whatever

quot; was required for themselves and their followers, was taken from the poor
quot; inhabitants, who have now been so long accustomed to such practices,
« that they never dare to complain or to remonstrate. The European
quot; authority did not escape the taint of corruption. Monopolies, unpaid
« services, licences, forced or at least expected presents, were but too
« common even in the best times, and must have contributed to estrange
« the affections and respect of the natives from that power which should

have afforded them protection. From this faint sketch it will be deduced,
quot; that while the men of rank were hving in pampered luxury, the poor
quot; provincials were suffering penury and distress.quot;

The Dutch Company, actuated solely by the spirit of gain, and viewing
their Javan subjects with less regard or consideration than a West-India
planter formerly viewed the gang upon his estate, because the latter had
paid the purchase-money of human property which the other had not,
employed all the pre-existing machinery of despotism, to squeeze from the
people their utmost mite of contribution, the last dregs of their labour, and
thus aggravated the evils of a capricious and semi-barbarous government, by
working it with all the practised ingenuity of politicians and all the mono-
polising selfishness of traders.

Can it therefore be a subject of surprise, that the arts of agriculture, and
the improvement of society, have made no greater advances in Java ? Need
It excite wonder, that the implements of husbandry are simple ; that the
cultivation is unskilful and inartificial; that the state of the roads, where
European convenience is not consulted, is bad; that the natural advantages
of the country are neglected; that so little enterprize is displayed or capital
employed; that the peasant\'s cottage is mean, and that so little wealth and
knowledge arc among the agricultural population j when it is considered,
that the occupant of land enjoys no security for reaping the fruits of his in-
dustry ; when his possession is liable to be taken away from him every season,
or to suffer such an enhancement of rent as will drive him from it j when
such a small quantity of laud only is allowed him as will yield him bare
subsistence, and every ear of grain that can be spared from the supply of
his immediate wants is extorted from him in the shape of tribute j when his
personal services are required unpaid for, in the train of luxury or in the
culture of articles of monopoly ; and when, in addition to all these discou-
ragements, he is subject to other heavy imposts and impolitic restraints ?
No man will exert himself, when acting for another, with so much zeal as

when stimulated by his own immediate interest; and under a system of
government, where every thing but the bare means of subsistence is liable
to be seized, nothing but the means of subsistence will be sought to be
attained. The Dutch accuse the Javans of indolent habits and fraudulent
dispositions; but surely the oppressor has no right to be surprized, that the
oppressed appear reluctant in his service, that they meet his exactions with
evasion, and answer his call to labour with sluggish indifference.

The mode of dividing land into minute portions is decidedly favourable
to population, and nothing but those checks to the progress of agriculture,
to which I have referred, could have limited the population of Java to num-
bers so disproportion ed to its fertility, or confined the labours of the pea-
santry to so small a space of what would reward their industry with abun-
dance. The cultivated ground on the island has already been estimated at
an eighth part of the whole area. In ProboUng\'o and Besuki, the total

number ofjungs of land amount to 77^,483, the total of land capable of
superior cultivation Yl^^^ö jmgs, while the space actually cultivated
amounts only to IS,iS^jungs. In Rembang, the land belonging to villages
is about ^QfiQQijungSy and not the half of that quantity is under cultiva-
tion. In Fasuruan, the same appearances are exhibited. From this last
district the Resident\'s report on the settlement states, as a reason for his
assessing the same rent on all the land, quot; that the cultivated part bearing so
quot; small a proportion to the cultivated, the inhabitants have been enabled to
quot; select the most fruitful spots exclusively: hence arises the little variety I
quot; have discovered in the produce.quot; Chéribon, Bantam, thePriang\'en regen-
cies, the eastern corner of the island, the provinces under the native go-
vernments, and in short the greatest and most fertile districts, furnish
striking illustrations of this disproportion between the bounty of nature and
the inefficient exertions of man to render her gifts available, to extend
population, and to promote human happiness; or rather they supply an
example of unwise institutions and despotic government, counteracting the
natural progress of both;

Measures of When the British arms prevailed in 1811, the attention of jrovernment

vernmeut. was immediately turned to the state and the interests of its new subjects.

It saw at once the natural advantages of the island and the causes which
obstructed its prosperity, and it determined to effect those changes which,
having succeeded in Western India, and being sanctioned by justice and
expediency, were likely to improve those advantages and to remove those

obstructions. In consequence of the instructions of Lord Minto the
Governor General, who was present at the conquest and took a great interest
in the settlement of the island, no time was lost to institute inquiries and
to collect information on the state of the peasantry, and the other points,
the knowledge of which was necessary, before any attempt to legislate could
be wisely or rationally made. Tne following principles, laid down by his
Lordship, were those on which the local government acted.

Contingents of rice, and indeed of other productions, have been
quot; hitherto required of the cultivators by government at an arbitrary rate :
this also is a vicious system, to be abandoned as soon as possible. The
quot; system of contingents did not arise from the mere solicitude for the
quot; supply of the people, but was a measure alone of finance and control,
quot; to enable government to derive a revenue from a high price imposed on
the consumer, and to keep the whole body of the people dependent on its
quot; pleasure for subsistence. I recommend a radical reform in this branch to
quot; the serious and early attention of government. The principle of encou-
« raging industry in the culti%-ation and improvements of lands, by creating
quot; an interest in the effort and fruits of that industry, can be expected in
quot; Java only by a fundamental change of the whole system of landed pro-
perty and tenure. A wide field, but a somewhat distant one, is open to
this great and interesting improvement ; the discussion of the subject,
quot; however, must necessarily be delayed till the investigation it requires is
« more complete. I shall transmit such thoughts as I have entertained, and
« such hopes as I have indulged in this grand object of amelioration ; but
quot; I am to request the aid of all the information, and all the lights, that this
« island can afford. On this branch, nothing must be done that is not
quot; mature, because the exchange is too extensive to be suddenly or ignorantly
quot; attempted. But fixed and immutable principles of the human character
quot; and of human association, assure me of ultimate, and I hope not remote
« success, in views that are consonant with every motion of action that
« operate on man, and are justified by the practice and experience of every
« flourishing country of the worid.quot;

In compliance with these instructions, the object of which was embraced
with zeal by the local government, to whom his lordship entrusted the ad-
ministration of the island, a commission was appointed, under the able
direction of Colonel Mackenzie, to prosecute statistic inquiries ; the results
of which, as corrected and extended by subsequent surveys, will frequently

appear in the tables and statistic accounts of this work. The nature of the
landed tenure, and the demand made upon agriculture, in all the shapes of
rent and taxes, were ascertained; the extortions practiced by the Dutch
officers, the native princes, the regents, and the Chinese, were disclosed;
the rights of all classes, by law or usage, investigated; the state of the
population, the quantity and value of cultivated land, of forests, of plan-
tations of cotton and coffee, the quantity of live stock, and other resources
of the country subject to colonial administration, inquired into and made
known. The result of these inquiries, with regard to landed tenure, I have
given above j and, as it will be seen, it was such as opposed the rights of no
intermediate class between the local government and the beneficial changes
it contemplated in behalf of the great body of the people. After attaining
the requisite information, the course which expediency, justice, and po-
litical wisdom pointed out was not doubtful, and coincided (as in most cases
it will be found to do) with the track which enlightened benevolence and a
zealous desire to promote the happiness of the people would dictate.

The peasant was subject to gross oppression and undefined exaction : our
object was to remove his oppressor, and to limit demand to a fixed and
reasonable rate of contribution. He was liable to restraints on the freedom
of inland trade, to personal services and forced contingents: our object
was to commute them all for a fixed and well-known contribution. The
exertions of his industry were reluctant and languid, because he had little
or no interest in its fruits : our object was to encourage that industry, by
connecting its exertions with the promotion of his own individual welfare
and prosperity. Capital could not be immediately created, nor agricultural
skill acquired; but by giving the cultivator a security, that whatever he
accumulated would be for his own benefit, and whatever improvement he
made, he or his family might enjoy it, a motive was held out to him to
exert himself in the road to attain both. Leases, or contracts for fixed rents
for terms of years, in the commencement, and eventually in perpetuity,
seemed to be the only mode of satisfying the cultivator, that he would not
be liable, as formerly, to yearly undefined demands j while freedom from all
taxes but an assessmeht on his crop, or rather a fixed sum in commutation
thereof, would leave him at full liberty to devote the whole of his
attention and labour to render his land as productive as possible.

In conformity with these views, an entire revolution was effected in the
mode of levying the revenue, and assessing the taxes upon agriculture.

The foundation of the amended system was, 1st. The entire abolition of
forced deliveries at inadequate rates, and of all feudal services with the
establishment of a perfect freedom in cultivation and trade / sd The
assumption, on the part of government, of the immediate superintendanci
of the lands, with the collection of the resources and rents thereof: 3d.
The rentmg out of the lands so assumed to the actual occupants, in largj
or small estates according to local circumstances, on leases for a moderate
term. In the course of the following years (1814 and 1815) these mea-
sures were carried into execution in most of the districts under our govern-
ment, with a view to the eventual establishment of a perpetual settlement

on the principle of the ryotwar, or as it has been termed on Java, thé
tidng-dlit system..

appear from the followmg extracts from a work, which ouly came into my possession sub«,,
quemly to the mtroduction of the new system by the British gorernment. quot; Property of the
J sou must be mtroduced by granting all the cultivated lands to those who have hitherto culti

quot; produce a better and nearer r\'rL r„ quot; fquot;quot;
quot; cultivated and made it product lid

arehapp, free, - wL setulr^itrt Ir;:™^ ^ ^ \' --
quot; and all the Wngdoms of Europe, afford the mos, direct „00607« Lfl

5 ,, advantageous tonbsp;us. Java is alone able to relieve our com-
quot; monwealth from all its difficulties.

« In order to collect a land-tax properly, a general and correct survey should, in the first

« instance, be effected in all the districts belonging to us, according to an established land

quot; measure, to be introduced generally throughout Java ; for this is, at present, very irresul
quot; All the lands should then be divided into three classes, first, second, and third ]
quot; according to the proportionate fertility of the soil, and according to the same proporf

land tax should be established. I am very ready to admit, that this will naturally be d\'ffi ^ i
quot; and troublesome ; but what system of government is exempt from these inconvenquot; ?

law or usage, to the interference of government, in regulating the conditiofi
of the peasantry; and it was resolved, therefore, that it should take into
its own hands the management of that share of the land produce which
was allowed to be its due, and protect the cultivator in the enjoyment and
free disposal of the remainder. The undue power of the chiefs was to be
removed, and so far as they had a claim for support, founded either on
former services or deprivation of expected employment, they were to be
remunerated in another way. The lands, after being surveyed and esti-
mated, were to be parcelled out among the inhabitants of the villages, in
the proportions established by custom or recommended by expediency.
Contracts were to be entered into with each individual cultivator, who was
to become the tenant of government, and leases specifying the extent and
situation of their land, with the conditions of their tenure, were to be
granted for one or more years, with a view to permanency, if at the end
of the stipulated term, the arrangement should be found to combine the
interest of the public revenue with the welfare and increasing prosperity of

quot; and particularly In this country, where it is necessary to effect a radical change and reform
quot; in order to produce any beneficial results ? But with diligence, zeal, and deliberation,
quot; all difficulties may be overcome ; and even should the survey not be exactly correct in the
quot; first instance, it might be improved from year to year. The word jung is now used by the
quot; Javans for a certain measure of land; but this differs so much in different districts, that it
quot; is impossible to ascertain how many square roods of land a jung ought to contain. The
quot; name might be retained, however, and after having found by experience how^many square
quot; roods, in general or on an average, are contained in amp;jung, the proportion might be once
quot; for all established, introduced throughout the island, and fixed as the regular land measure
quot; of the country. It would be difficult, and as yet unnecessary, to calculate how many jungs
quot; of land our territories on Java contain, and how much might be collectcd as a land-tax
quot; from each jung, in order to ascertain what this tax would amount to. I think it should be
quot; taken as a principle, that the land-tax can and ought to produce as much as the head-
quot; money, (namely, a rix-dollar per head): the land-tax would then yield an annual and
quot; certain income of at least two millions and a half of rix-dollars. Every spot of cultivated
quot; ground being measured and settled to which class it belongs, every owner will correctly
quot; know, how much he must pay for land-tax annually, and be completely at liberty to plant
quot; his land with whatever he may prefer, and may conceive most conducive to his advantage.
quot; I am of opinion, that during the first years it would be difficult, on account of the scarcity
quot; of specie, or rather its absence from circulation, to collect the land-tax; but, m the
quot; same way as with the head-money, it would be expedient, in the first years, to be somewhat
quot; indulgent in the collection, or else to receive produce in lieu of money, which might be
quot; done in this tax better than the capitation. But after five years of good administration, I
quot; am certain that the land-tax would be fully and without difficulty collected.

the occupant. If that was not the case, room was thus left for a new-
adjustment, for a reduction of rate, or for any change in the system which
might adapt it more to the interests and wishes of the people, without pre-
judice to the rights of government.

This experiment hazarded nothing, and held out every prospect of suc-
cess ; it committed no injustice, and compromized no claim. The peasantry
could not suffer, because an assessment less in amount, and levied in a less
oppressive manner than formerly (all rents, taxes, and services included),
was required of them : the chiefs could not complain, because they were
allowed the fair emoluments of office, and only restrained from oppressions
which did not so much benefit themselves as injure their inferiors. Most of
the latter were not only allowed an equivalent for their former income,
but employed in services aUied to their former duties,—the collection of
the revenue, and the superintendance of the police. As the cultivator
had acquired rights which the chief could not violate, as the former
held in his possession a lease with the conditions on which he culti-
vated his farm, no infringement of which could be attempted on the part
of the latter with impunity, no evil could result from employing the
chiefs in collecting the revenue of districts, while, from their practical
knowledge of the habits and individual concerns of the peasantry, of the
nature of the seasons and the crops, they were the fittest persons for the
office. For these services it seemed most expedient to pay them, either by
allowing them a certain per-centage on their collections, or by allotting
them portions of land rent free. The village constitution (which will be
more particularly noticed in treating of the institutions of the country) was
preserved inviolate ; and the chiefs or head men of the villages, in many
instances elected by the free will of the villagers,, were invariably con-
tinued in office as the immediate collectors of the rents, and with sufficient
authority to preserve the police, and adjust the petty disputes that might
arise within them ; the government scrupulously avoiding all unnecessary
interference in the customs, usages, and details of these societies.

In looking at the condition of the peasantry, and in estimating the fer-
tility of the soil, the wants of the people, and the proportion of produce
and industry that they formerly were accustomed to pay for supporting
the establishments of government, it was thought reasonable to commute all
former burdens into a land rent on a fixed principle ; all sœœah lands being
estimated by the pan, or unhusked rice, they could produce, and all

tegdl lands by their produce in maize. The following (as stated in the
eighty-third article of the Revenue Instructions) was considered as the
fairest scale for fixing the government share, and directed to be referred
to, as much as possible, as the general standard:

quot; Government,quot; it is said in the eighty-fifth section, « think it necessary
quot; to declare explicitly, that they will be satisfied when the land revenue
shall be productive to them in these proportions, determining at no
future period to raise the scale j so that the inhabitants, being thus
quot; exactly acquainted with what will form the utmost demand on them, and
quot; resting in full confidence that government will not exact any thing
quot; fnrther, may in that security enjoy their possessions in undisturbed hap-
piness, and apply their utmost industry to the improvement of their
quot; lands J assured that, while they conduct themselves well, that land wall
quot; never be taken fi om them, and that the more productive they can ren-
\'\' der it, the more beneficial it will be for themselves.quot;

The government share might either be received in money or in kind
from the sdwah lands 5 but the tegal produce, though estimated in maize,
was always, if possible, to be commuted into money at the lowest p rice in
the market; and as cultivators generally held portions of both, this rule, it
was conceived, could not be considered generally as a hardhip.

In the first settlement, leases were only granted for a year, or at the
utmost three years, and were given to intermediate renters; but in the
more detailed settlement of 1814, after sufficient information had been col-
lected on the state of the country, government determined to act directly
with the individual cultivator, and to lay the foundation of a permanent
system. By this latter period, the experiments had been tried to a certain

extent, and had succeeded beyond the most sanguine expectation. Diffi-
culties met us in the way, but they were by no means insurmountable : there
were at first imperfections in the system, but they did not affect its
principle and were easily removed. By the zeal, the ability, and in-
dustry of the various officers entrusted with the execution of the duty,
whatever was practicable in furtherance of the object in which they
felt deeply interested, was accomplished. In the course of the years
1814 and 1815, the new system was introduced into Bantam, GMribon,
and the eastern districts, over a population of a million and half of culti-
vators, not only without disturbance and opposition, but to the satisfaction
of all classes of the natives, and to the manifest increase of the public
revenue derivable from land. In several journies which I undertook into
the different provinces, for the purposes of examining in person the effect
of the progressive system of reform which I had the happiness to introduce,
and of lending the sanction of official authority to such modifications of it
as local circumstances might render advisable, I was a pleased spectator of
Its beneficial tendency, and of the security and satisfaction it universally
diffused. The cultivator, protected against all vexatious exactions, and no
longer at the beck of a tyrannical chief who made unlimited demands upon
his personal services, was beginning to feel additional stimulants to his
industry, to acquire a superior relish for property, and to acknowledge that
government and power were not always the enemies of the lower rLks of
society, or as they modestly call themselves, the little people itiang-halit). The
British administration of Java, with all its agents, having watched the pro-
gress of the amended system at first with vigilant anxiety, at last saw it
nearly completed with success, and rejoiced in its beneficial operation on
the prosperity, improvement, and happiness of the people. During the
two years that we retained possession of the island, after the greatest part
of its arrangements were carried into effect, we had daily proofs of the
amelioration they were producing. The cultivation was extending, the
influence of the chiefs appeared to be progressively weakening, and the
number of crimes, both from the superior industry of the people now be-
come interested in the result of their labours, and from the contented tran-
quillity produced by an increase of the means of subsistence, as well as
from the amended system of police (mentioned in another part of this
work), was gradually diminishing. Without troubling the reader with fur-
ther details, I may mention that, in the beginning of December I815 a
few months before I left the island, not satisfied with my own observation

or the vague report of others, I circulated specific queries to the different
residents, on the comparative state of cultivation in the different provinces,
before the introduction of the detailed settlement and at the latest date to
which an answer could be returned, and on the comparative number of
crimes at the same two periods, and the return was as gratifying to humanity
and benevolence as it was corroborative of the opinions previously formed.
I shall quote a few extracts from these reports. The Resident at Chéribon
quot; cannot, from certain data, tell what progress has been made in extending
quot; the cultivation of that province, but thinks it has been considerable
and adds, quot; I have no doubt but that a few years of the amended system
quot; of government would render the district of Chéribon, so notorious for
quot; crimes, one of the most flourishing and valuable in any part of the
island.quot; The Resident of Tégal is nearly in similar circumstances with
regard to authentic documents, but gives a very favourable opinion, both
with regard to the increase of industry and the reduction of crimes. The
return from Kedu is more definite : it states a positive increase of tégal land
to the amount of ûiiïiy-ûxjungs, but a much greater increaamp;e of produce
from improved culture. The revenue afforded a sufficient proof of the
latter fact. The same favourable account is given of the state of police
and the diminution of crime. No data are given in the report from Paka-
lung\'an to ascertain the additional quantity of rice lands brought into culti-
vation ; but an opinion is expressed, that it has increased ; and an assurance
is afforded, that the culture of indigo and tobacco has sensibly extended.
As an evidence that the means of subsistence are raised in greater abun-
dance than formerly, their price has very considerably diminished.

A commission which was appointed to inquire into the state of the revenue,
report from Japdra the great faciUty there was in collecting the revenue
under the amended system, and certify its beneficial effects in extending cul-
tivation, securing tranquillity, promoting industry, and diminishing crimes.
The same commission conclude their report of GrésiJc with similar assurances
of the happy results of the revenue, and judicial arrangements for the pros-
perity of that province. The Resident oï Rembdng an increase of culti-
vation of fifty-two jung s of sdwah and about thirteen of tégal land, and
accounts for the smallness of this increase from the comparative sterility of
the soil and the precarious supply of water. Indigo had not increased, but
tobacco had to a great degree. The vigilance of the police, and the amelio-
orating effects of the revenue settlement, are seen, it is said, in the improved
state of morals. In Surabdya it is stated, that during the time the amended

system had been in action, there had been an increase of three hundred and
twenty governmentnbsp;making upwards of two thousand English acres.

In the residency of Pasurmn there is an increase of cultivation to the
amount of three hundred and six jungs : this, however, does not compre-
hend the whole advantage that the new system produced in that province for
industry had been so much promoted by it, as to obtain two crops within
the year, on many of the lands where the cultivator was formerly content
with one. It is needless to enter into any further particulars, to shew the
advantages of the regulations adopted with regard to the settlement of the
landed revenue.

By a steady adherence to a system which, even in its origin, was produc-
tive of such fruits, by continuing to the peasant the protection of laws made
for his benefit, by allowing full scope to his industry, and encouraging his
natural propensity to accumulate, agriculture on Java would soon acquire a
different character : it would soon become active and enterprizing j there
would soon be created a difference in farms and in the circumstances of
individuals; capital would be fixed and augmented in the hands of the
skilful and the industrious among the cultivators ; the idle and the indiflferent
would relinquish their possessions in their favour ; roads, intercourse, and
markets would be increased, the organisation of society would be chano-ed,
and an improved race would shew themselves, in some measure, worthy of
the most fertde region of the globe. What Egypt and Sicily were in diffe-
rent ages to the south of Europe, Java might become to the south of Asia
and the Indian Archipelago. From the exertion with which the British
government endeavoured to lay the foundation of such improvements, at
first amid the embarrassments of a recent conquest, and latterly with\'the
prospect of only an intermediate possession ; from the attachment it cherished
for a people whose gratitude it deserved and acquired, and from the interest
that every friend of humanity must feel in the anticipation of seeing this
highly favoured island, the metropolis, the granary, and the centre of civi-
lisation to the vast regions between the coast of China and the Bay of Bengal,
it might have been expected, that those who were instrumental in introduc-
ing the late arrangements, should watch with peculiar anxiety the first
movements of the power to which the colony was transferred, and should
look into the regulations for its Indian empire for the support, or the death
blow, of the most animating hopes. It must therefore be with pec 1quot; \'
satisfaction that we see, with regard to the freedom of cultivation the
Dutch government sanctions what we had done, and gives our regulltions

permanency bv embodying them in its colonial poHcy. In articles seventy-
eight and seventy-nine of the fundamental laws for the civil, judicial, and
mercantile administration of India,¹ we find the following enactments.
quot; The free cultivation of all articles of produce which may be raised in the
quot; possessions of the state in India, is granted to the inhabitants of these
quot; possessions; with the exception of cloves, nutmegs, and opium, and
quot; without prejudice to the regulations which might be adopted concerning
the contingents and forced deliveries, which on a resumption of these
quot; possessions out of the hands of the English, will be found to be continued
quot; in force. All the fruits of cultivation raised within the possessions of the
quot; states beyond the forced deliveries, and every kind of produce not com-
quot; prehended under the exceptions mentioned above, are to be the lawful
property of the cultivator. The free unrestrained disposal thereof belongs
quot; to him of right, as soon as the land rent assessed thereon, either in kind
or money, shall be paid. It is the duty of the Indian administration to
quot; maintain him in these rights.quot; Let him be maintained in those rights,
and the Dutch government will realise a revenue far beyond the amount of
their former assessments, without, as formerly, disgracing the Europeans in
the eyes of the Asiatic, by their weakness, corruption, and injustice,

the common arts and handicrafts, and m one or two of the more extensive
manufactures ; their docility in working under European direction, and some
other observations, which could not be so appropriately placed in any other
part of this work. I have already had occasion to notice the limited skill
and simple contrivances with which they carry on the labours of agriculture,
and prepare the produce of the soil for consumption, in the various ways
that their taste or their habits require. In a country like Java, where the
structure of society is simple, and the wants of the people are few; where
there is no accumulation of capital and little division of professions,\' it can-
not be expected, that manufacturing skill should be acquired, or manufac-
turing enterprize encouraged, to any great extent. The family of a Javan
peasant is almost independent of any labour, but that of its own members.
The furniture, the clothing, and almost every article required for a family,
being prepared within its own precincts, no extensive market of manufac-
tured commodities is necessary for the supply of the island itself; and for
foreign trade, the produce of their soil is more in demand than the fruits
of their skill or industry. In a country where nature is bountiful, and
where so much of her bounty can be collected with so little labour to pay
for manufactures from abroad, there is but little encouragement to withdraw
the natives from the rice field, the forest, or the coffee-garden, to the loom,
the forge, or the workship ; and it is not in this respect, certainly, that a
change of their habits would be beneficial. This short notice of Javan
manufactures, therefore, must be very limited, both in the number of the
articles that it embraces, and in the importance that Europeans may attach

to them: for Java can neither send us porcelain, likeChinaj nor silks,
shawls, and cottons, like Western India. To a nation, however, so much
accustomed as we are to the exertions of manufacturing skill and perfection
of manufacturing machinery, it may not be uninteresting to see the simple
means, by which a half-civilized people accomplish the objects which we attain
by such expeditious and ingenious processes. The most experienced naval
architect may be interested by the manner in which a savage scoops his canoe.

The following enumeration of terms applied to trades and professions will
shew the extent to which the division of labour is sometimes carried, while
the foreign extraction of some of them may, perhaps, serve to point out
the source whence they were derived.

I shall proceed to describe a few of the manufactures of the island,
without attending much to the order in which it might be proper to ar-
range them. The construction of a habitation is among the first and most
necessary arts of uncivilized man, as the perfection of architecture is one
of the most convincing proofs and striking illustrations of a high state of
refinement. I have already described the hut of the peasant, and have men-
tioned that it is generally constructed of wood. Such structures suit the
climate of the country, and save the labour of the people ; but they are
not rendered necessary by an ignorance of more durable materials.

Bricks are manufactured in almost every part of the island, being generally Bricks,
employed in the better sort of buildings, not only by Europeans and Chinese,
but by the natives of rank. The quality of the clay varies greatly in different
districts. It is all obtained from the decomposition of the basaltic stones
and possesses different degrees of purity, according to the proportion and
nature of the other earths which are adventitiously mixed with it. In some
parts ot the island it is very pure, and might be advantageously employed
m the manufacture of porcelain ; but the natives are unacquainted with the
principles of this art : some instruction in the glazing of their pottery would

be of very general benefit. They are unacquainted with the process of
making glass.

Cut stones are, at present, but rarely used by the Javans, and stone-
cutting is almost exclusively performed by the Chinese. But although the
Javans do not, at present, possess or practice any considerable skill in this
art, the extensive remains of edifices constructed in stone, and of idols
carved from the same materials, aflTord abundant testimony that the arts of
architecture, sculpture, and statuary in stone, at one period reached to a
very high pitch on Java. As, however, these arts have long been lost to
the Javans, the consideration of them rather falls within the department of
antiquities than that which we are now upon.

In the vicinity of Gresik there are several hills composed of a soft white
stone, which hardens on exposure to the air. Stones are here cut in the
quarry into regular squares of various sizes, from that of a brick to the
largest tomb-stone. They are principally required for the latter purpose,
and in the cymetries of Gresik and Madura the inscriptions upon them are
very neatly executed. Beyond this, the skill of the natives in stone-cutting
does not at present pretend.

Thatch.nbsp;The covering of the native houses is generally of thatch. In the maritime

districts, dtap, or thatch, is made almost exclusively from the leaves of the
nipa or huyu. In the preparation, the leaflets separated from the common
petiol are employed. Being doubled, they are attached close to each other
on a stick of three feet in length, and when thus arranged are placed on the
roof, like shingles or tiles. The leaves of the gebang, on account of their
fan-like form, are differently arranged: they constitute large mats, which
are chiefly employed for sides of houses or for composing temporary sheds,
but they are too large and brittle to form durable atap. In the interior dis-
tricts, where nipa does not grow, the houses are almost uniformly thatched
with a species of long grass called alang-alang (the Idlang of the Malay
countries). Near large forests, where hdmhu abounds, the natives cover
their houses with this reed. The leaflets of the cocoa-nut cannot be made into
thatch, but wherever the sago and nipa grow, it is made from their leaflets.

Mats.nbsp;An article of household furniture in use among all classes, and displaying

in some cases considerable beauty and delicacy of execution, is matting.
Mats are made from several species of pandanus, from a kind of grass
called mendong, and from the leaves of various palms. A species of the
latter affords the most common kinds, coarser and less durable than others,
as well as bags (straw sacks) resembling coarse mats : the leaves being divided
into laminaB, about one hne in breadth, are woven in the same manner
and on the same frames as coarse linen. These fibres, called dgel, are some-
times manufactured ifito twine, which possesses but little strength. The
mats or bags, called kdrong, are much inferior to the gunny-bags of India.

The coarsest kinds of mats, employed chiefly by the lower class, are
called in the central districts Ho^o hongko ; those prepared from grass, kloso
mendong; and the others, klbso psdntrem (from the place where they are
made). The materials of all these are plaited by hand. The kloso psdntrem
are of superior quality, and in use through the central and eastern parts of

Ae island ; especially among the natives of the first class, with whom they
constitute the principal furniture of the dwelling-house. A person of the
highest rank aspires to no luxury, more dehcate or expensive in this way,
than the possession of a bed composed of mats from famp;dntrem.

A kind of umbrella hat worn by the common people, and universal in the
Sunda districts denominated chdpeng, is also manufactured in this manner,
principally from bamhu, dyed of various colours, which being shaped in the
form and of the size of a large wash-hand basin worn reversed, is rendered
impervious to the wet by one or more coverings of varnish.

A great part of the manufacturing ingenuity of every people must be Dress,
displayed in collecting the materials, or arranging the fabrics of those arti-
cles of clothing, required for protection, decency, or ornament. Whether
these materials are derived from the fleece, the fur, or the feathers of the
larger animals, from the covering of an insect, the bark of a tree, or the
down of a shrub, they have to undergo several laborious and expensive pro-
cesses before they are fit for use; and in conducting these processes, or
forming machinery for rendering them more expeditious, complete, and
easy, the superior manufacturing skill of one nation over another is chiefly
evinced. The sheep on Java, as in all tropical climates, loses its fleece
before it can be used with advantage. The silkworm has never succeeded
although no reason can be given why it should not, and therefore the chief
material of Javan clothing is cotton.

Cotton, in its rough state, is called Mpas, and when cleaned kdpoJc. Cotton
The process of separating the seeds is performed by means of a giling\'an,
which is a roller, consisting of two wooden cylinders revolving in opposite
directions, between which the fibre is made to pass. This operation is very
tedious, two days being necessary for one person to clean a Mti, equivalent
to a pound and a quarter English. After the separation of the seed, it is
geblek, or beaten with a rattan, and pindi or picked. The finer sort is then
bowed after the Indian manner j this operation is called wusoni. The
cotton thus prepared is afterwards pulled out and drawn round a stick,
when it is called pusuk. To perform the process upon a single Mli will
employ one person about two days. The cotton is now ready for spinning
{\'ngdnti), and requires ten additional days\' labour of one person, to convert
the small quantity above mentioned into yarn, when the result is found
to be three tukal, or hanks, of the ordinary kind.

Previous to the operation of weaving, the yarn is boiled, and afterwards
dressed and combed with rice-water. When dry, it is wound round a sort
of reel, termed Hngan, and prepared for weaving. These are the last ope-
rations it undergoes till it is put into the hands of the weaver, and requires,
in ordinary circumstances, three days for its completion. Four days are
required even by an expert weaver, and five or six by an ordinary one, to
manufacture a sarong, or piece of cloth, a fathom and a half long and five
spans broad (equal to three square handkerchiefs of the ordinary size worn
on the head). The cloths thus prepared, while uncoloured, are distin-
guished by the term

The spinning-wheel is termed jdntra, and the spindle Msi. The loom,
with all its apparatus, is called dbaJi dbah tenun, the shuttle tropong, the
woof mdni, and the warp pdkan.^ Both machines resemble those described
onthe continent of India, but are neater and much betrer made : the loom
especially is more perfect: the weaver^ instead of sitting in holes dug in
the ground, invariably sits on a raised flooring, generally in front of the
house, her legs being stretched out horizontally under the loom. The
price of the spinning-wheel varies from less than half a rupee to a rupee,
and that of the loom from a rupee to a Spanish dollar. The operations of
spinning and weaving are confined exclusively to the women, who from the
highest to the lowest rank, prepare the cloths of their husbands and their
families.

Coloured cottons {jdrif) are distinguished into luri or luri ging\'gang,
those in which the yarn is dyed previously to weaving; and hdtik, those
which are dyed subsequently. The process of weaving the former is similar
to that of the gingham, which it resembles, and need not therefore be
detailed j but the latter, being peculiar to Java, may deserve a more par-
ticular description.

The cloths termed hdtik are distinguished into hdtik Idtur piiti, hdtik Idtur
irang, or hdtik Idtur h\'angi as the ground may be either white, black, or
red. The white cloth is first steeped in rice water, in order to prevent the
colour with which the patterns are intended to be dra\\yn, from running, and
when they are dried and smoothed (calendered), commences the process of
the hdtik, which gives its name. This is performed with hot wax in a liquid
state, contained in a small and light vessel, either of copper or silver, called

chdntingy\'^ holding about an ounce, and having a small tube of about two
inches long, through which the liquid wax runs out in a small stream.f
This tube, with the vessel to which it is attached, being fixed on a stick
about five inches long, is held in the hand, and answers the purpose of a
pencil, the different patterns being traced out on both sides of the cloth
with the running wax. When the outline of the pattern is thus finished,
such parts of the cloth as are intended to be preserved white, or to receive
any other colour than the general field or ground, are carefully covered in
like manner with the Hquid wax, and then the piece is immersed in what-
ever coloured dye may be intended for the ground of the pattern. To
render the colour deeper, cloths are occasionally twice dipped. The parts
covered with wax resist the operation of the dye, and when the wax is
removed, by being steeped in hot water till it melts, are found to remain in
their original condition. If the pattern is only intended to consist of one
colour besides white, the operation is here completed ; if another colour is
to be added, the whole of the first ground, which is not intended to receive
an additional shade, is covered with wax, and a similar process is repeated.

In order to render the dye fixed and permanent for the scarlet or blood-
red colour, the cloth is previously steeped in oil, and after five days washed
m hot water, and prepared in the usual way for the batik. In the ordinary
course, the process of the batik occupies about ten. days for common
patterns, and from fifteen to seventeen for the finer aM more variegated.

A very coarse kind of cloth, which serves for curtains or hangings,\' is
variously clouded, and covered sometimes with rude figures, by the art of
colouring the yarn, so as to produce this effect when woven. For this
purpose, the strands of the yarn being distributed in lengths equal to the
intended size of the cloth, are folded into a bundle, attd the parts intended
to remain white are so tightly twisted round and round, that the dye cannot
penetrate or affect them. From this party-coloured yarn the designed
pattern appears on weaving. The cloths so dyed are called geher.

The sashes of silk, called cMndi, are dyed in this manner, as well as an
imitation of them in cotton, called jong\'grong.

Of the several kinds of coloured cottons and silks there is a very great
diversity of patterns, particularly of the batik, of which not less than

* These vessels for large patterns are sometimes made of the cocoa-nut ishell, and then hold
a proportionally larger quantity,
t See Plate.

an hundred are distinguished by their appropriate names. Among these are
the patterns exclusively worn by the sovereign, termed batik parang rusa,
and batik sawat, and others which designate the wearer, and are more or
less esteemed, as well on this account as their comparative beauty of design
and execution.

Dyes,nbsp;With the exception of blue and scarlet or blood-red, all the dyes of the

inhabitants are liable to fade, and the processes offer nothing worthy of
investigation or remark.

Black is obtained from an exotic bark called ting\'i, and the rind of the
mangustin fruit. In making the inferior infusion for this and for various
other dyes, the chaff of rice, called mamp;râng, is employed.

In dying green, a light blue is first induced, which is afterwards con-
verted into the requisite hue, by infusion in a decoction of tegrâng (an
exotic wood), to which blue vitriol is added.

Tegrâng alone affords a yellow colour, and generally is qualified by
receiving the addition of some bark of the nângka and pkm-dodol.

A beautiful and lasting scarlet and blood-red is obtained from the roots
of the wong-kudu. The yarn or cloth is first boiled in the oil of wijen or
kamiri : being washed in a decoction of merdng or burnt pari chaff, it is
dried, and subsequently immersed in an infusion of the roots of laong-kudu,
the strength of which is increased by the addition of the bark jirak, a
variety of the fruit kepundung. In the preparation of this dye, the roots
of the wong\'kudu are bruised and well mixed with water, which is then
boiled until it is reduced to one third, when it is fit for use. No hght
red or rose colour of durability is produced by the Javans : they employ for
this purpose the kasomba Ming.

In several of the maritime districts, the Malâyus impart a beautiful crim-
son colour to silk, by means of the gûmïak tembalu ox embâlu, but with this

The kâpas jâwa, or Java cotton, in its raw and uncleaned state costs
from about three halfpence to three pence the kdti, according to its quality,
and the kdpas mûri from six to eight pence. The price of each advances
sometimes fifty per cent, beyond this, when the production is scarce or out
of season.

A kâti of uncleaned Java cotton is calculated to produce two and a half
tukal or hanks of coarse, and three and a half hanks of fine yarn ; and a
kâti of kapas mûri, five hanks of the latter. The value of the former is
from three to four pence, and of the latter from seven to ten.

Three hanks and a half of coarse yarn, and from five to nine of fine,
make one sarong, or three head handkerchiefs, the price of which, undyed,
is from half a rupee to four Spanish dollars ; if dyed, the ging\'ams bring
from one rupee to four Spanish dollars, and the batik from a rupee and
a half to six Spanish dollars for the same quantity.

Another kind of coloured cottons, in imitation of the Indian chintz, is
also prepared ; but it is not held in much estimation, on account of the
superiority of the foreign chintzes imported, and the uncertainty of the
colours, which the natives allege will not stand in the same manner as those
which have undergone the process of the batik, frequently fading in the
second washing. In these cloths, the patterns being carved on small
wooden blocks are stamped as in India. They serve as coverlids, and are
employed as a substitute for the Indian palempore, when the latter is not
procurable. The price is about four rupees.

The natives of Java, like those of every other country, must have been. Tanning,
from the earliest times, in the habit of manufacturing various articles of
leather ; but the art of rendering it more compact, more tough, and more
durable, by the application of the tanning principle, has been acquired
only by their connexion with Europeans. They now practice it with con-
siderable success, and prepare tolerable leather in several districts. There
are two trees of which the bark is particularly preferred for tanning j one in
the maritime districts, the other in the interior. These, with some others
which are occasionally added, contain very large quantities of the tanning
principle, which makes excellent leather in a short space of time. Of this
native article, boots, shoes, saddles, harness, amp;c. are made in several parts
of the island ; but in the greatest perfection at Eura-kerta, where the prices
are moderate, and the manufacture extensive and improving. Neither the
leather nor the workmanship of these articles is considered much inferior
to what is procured at Madras and Bengal. The prices are moderate : for
a pair of shoes half a crown, for boots ten shillings, for a saddle from
thirty to forty shillings, and for a set of harness for four horses from ten to
twelve pounds.

Thread, ropes. Neither flax nor hemp is cultivated for the purposes of manufacture*
The latter is sometimes found in the gardens of the natives of continental
India, particularly at Batavia, who employ it only to excite intoxication ;
but the island affords various productions, the fibrous bark of which is made
into thread, ropes, and other similar articles. These are, with one or two
exceptions, never cultivated, and when required for use, may be collected
in . sufficient quantity on spots where they are of spontaneous growth. A
particular account of these has already been given in the first chapter, when
describing the vegetable productions of the island.

To enable rope or cord which is often exposed to water or moisture, as
fishing-nets, cables, and the like, to resist its influence, the sap exuding
from various trees is employed.

Metallurgy. Nq manufaOturcs are calculated to show more clearly the extent to which
the arts of life are carried in a country, than those in which the metals are
nsed. Without the knowledge of iron, our dominion over nature would be
very limited ; as may be seen in the case of the Americans at the discovery
of the western hemisphere. The manufacture and use of iron and steel
has been known over the Eastern Islands, as well as in the western
world, from time immemorial. The various iron implements of husbandry,
the common implements and tools, the instruments and military weapons
now in use among the natives of these regions, are fabricated by them-
selves. The importance and difficulty of the art may be gathered from
the distinction which the knowledge and practice of it conferred.

The profession of a smith is still considered honorable among the Javans,
and in the early parts of their history, such artisans held a high rank,
and . were largely endowed with lands. The first mention made of them
is during the reign of the chiefs of Pqjc^dran, in the eleventh century.
On the decline of that empire they went over, to the number of eight
hundred families, to Mqjapdhit, where they were kindly received, and a
record is preserved of the names of the head master-smiths. On the
destruction of that empire in the fifteenth century, they were dispersed,
and settled in different districts of the island, where their descendants are
still discoverable. They are distinguished by the term Pdndi.

Iron is cast in small quantities of a few ounces, and used occasionally for
the point of the ploughshare. The metal is rendered fluid in about half
an hour: charcoal is invariably used, and the operation is termed sing\'i or
chitak.

The bellows,* which is peculiar, and believed to have been in use at the
time of Pqjqjaran and Mqjapahit, and of which a representation sculptured
in stone was found in the recently discovered ruins at Suku (which bear date
in the fourteenth century of the Javan asra), appears to be the same as
that described by Dampier,t in his account of Majindânao and the neigh-
bouring islands. « Their bellows,quot; says this faithful and intelligent
traveller, quot; are much different from ours. They are made of a wooden
quot; cylinder, the trunk of a tree, about three feet long, bored hollow like
quot; a pump and set upright on the ground, on which the fire itself is made.
quot; Near the lower end there is a small hole in the side of the trunk next
quot; the fire, made to receive a pipe, through which the wind is driven by a
quot; great bunch of fine feathers fastened to one end of the stick, which closing
quot; up the inside of the cylinder, drives the air out of the cylinder through
quot; the pipe. Two of these trunks or cylinders are placed so nigh together»
quot; that a man standing between them may work them both at once, alter-
quot; nately, one with each hand.quot; This account so exactly corresponds with
the Javan bellows, that no further description is necessary. The Chinese
bellows are partially used. The wages of a man skilled in iron-work are
sometimes as high as a rupee a day.

Cutlery of every description is made by the smith. The most important
manufacture of this kind is the Jcris, or dagger, of the peculiar form well
known to be worn by all the more civilized inhabitants of the Eastern
Islands.

The price of a kris blade, newly manufactured, varies from half a rupee
to fifty dollars ; but the same Jcris, if it is of good character, and if its
descent can be traced for three or four generations, is frequently prized at
ten times that sum. A pandi employed to manufacture a good kris blade,
if the materials are furnished, is paid three dollars for the job.

The manufacture of sheaths or scabbards (sâTong) for the kris constitute
an exclusive profession j and the manufacturers are called tûkang merdng\'gi,
ot mergbngso. These men attend at the pubhc market, where they occupy
a particular quarter, in which may be seen people employed in the finishing
or repair of every part of the mounting necessary for this instrument ; some
upon the handle, others upon the sheath j some in applying the paint and
lacquer, others attending with a preparation of acids and arsenic for clean-
ing the blade, and bringing out the appearance of the pdmur, a white metal

obtained from Biliton and Celebes, which is worked up with the iron, in
order to produce the damasked appearance of the blade.

Copper is manufactured into the kettles and pots employed by the natives
for cooking j most of the other domestic vessels are of brass, which is ma-
nufactured into various other articles, from the smallest, such as buttons,
ear-studs, and other ornaments, in imitation of the gold patterns, to brass
guns of considerable calibre, employed for the defence of small vessels. A
very extensive foundery of this kind is established at Grésik. From the
specimen of the casts in brass, copper, amp;c., which are occasionally dug
up near many of the ruinous temples sacred to the ancient worship of the
country, we may assert, that great proficiency was once attained in this art :
like that, however, of stone-cutting, it has very much declined.

Gold and silver, as is well known, are wrought by the natives of the
Eastern Islands into exquisite ornaments ; and the Javans are by no means
behind their neighbours, the Sumatrans, in the knowledge of this manu-
facture. They do not, however, usually work the gold into those beautiful
filigree patterns described as common among the Malayus on Sumatra, nor

Diamond-cutters, and persons skilled in the knowledge of cutting precious
stones, are also to be found in the principal capitals.

Carving in wood is followed as a particular profession, and the Javans may
be considered as expert in all kinds of carpenter\'s work, but more particu-
larly in cabinet-work. They imitate any pattern, and the furniture used
by the Europeans in the eastern part of the island is almost exclusively
of their workmanship. The annexed plate exhibits the various tools em-
ployed by them.¹ Carriages and other vehicles are also manufactured by
the natives after the European fashion.

Boat and ship-building is an art in which the Javans are tolerably well
versed, particularly the former. The latter is confined principally to those
districts in which the Europeans have built ships, for the Javans have
seldom attempted the construction of square-rigged vessels on their own
account. The best carpenters for ship-building are found in the districts of
Remhâng and Grésik, but small native vessels and boats are continually
constructed by the natives in almost every district along the north coast.

When the quantity of teak timber, and the advantages of Java in respect
of ports and harbours, are considered, the most flattering prospects are held

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out, that this island may, in time, be able to supply shipping to an increasing
commerce of its own, and perhaps aid the dockyards of other states.

Among the articles, the making of which may be interesting to Eurcn Paper,
peans, from the difference of the materials used or the process employed, is
that of paper. The paper in common use with the Jayans is prepared from
the gliiga (morus papyrifera) which is cultivated for this purpose, and gene-
rally called the deluwang, or paper tree. Having arrived at the age of two
or three years, the young trees are cut while the bark easily peels off, and the
fragments are portioned about twelve or eighteen inches in length, according
to the intended size of the paper. These fragments are first immersed in
water about twenty-four houi\'s, in order that the epidermes may be separated ;
this being effected, the fibrous tissue of the inner bark is rendered soft and
tractable by soaking in water, and by long and repeated beating with a piece
of wood. During the intervals of this process, the fragments of the bark
are piled in heaps in wooden troughs, and the affusion of fresh water is
repeated till all impurities are carried off. The separate portions, which are
about two or three inches broad, are then attached to each other on a plane
surface, generally formed by the trunk of a plantain tree, and the union of
the fibres is finally effected by continued beating. The quality of the paper
depends upon the care employed in the preparation, and on the frequent
affusion of fresh water. By applying successive layers to the spots which are
bare from the defect of the fibres, and beating them till they unite, an uniform
thickness is attained The paper which is intended for writing is mo^nen-
tarily immersed in a decoction of rice, and rendered smooth and equal,
by being rubbed to a pohsh on a plane surface. Such paper as is intended
for common domestic purposes, for packing goods, amp;c. does not require
this operation : in this the fibrous cantexture of the bark is quite obvious j
it much resembles a species of paper brought from Japan, andmanufac- .
tured from the same tree, and was formerly employed instead pf cloth
by the poorer inhabitants. The process of manufacturing it is stnkmgly
that in use among the inhabitants of the South Sea islands for the prepara-
tion of their cloth. The culture of this plant, as well as the manufacture ^gt;f
paper, is chiefly confined to particular districts, where,it forms Uie principal
occupation of the priests, who gain a livelihood by it. ^

Large quantities of a coarse and homely sugar, distinguished by the name Javan Sugar,
of Javan sugar, are prepared from the cocoa-nut, dren, and other palms.
The average quantity of liquor extracted from one of these trees during a

day and night, is about two quarts, and this is estimated to give from three
to four ounces of sugar. The trees begin to yield it at about six or seven
years of age, and continue to do so for ten or twelve years. The process of
preparing the sugar is extremely simple: it consists merely in boiling the
liquor in an earthen pot for a few hours, and afterwards pouring it into small
cases made of leaves and prepared for the purpose, in which, when cool, it
attains a due consistence.

Sugar from the Sugar from the cane is manufactured by the Chinese alone j the process
followed resembles that of the West Indies. The juice is expressed between
two rollers, sometimes turned by a water-wheel, but in all cases the machi-
nery is rude and imperfect. The quality of the sugar made on Java is con-
sidered to be equal to that of Manilla and the West Indies : it contains as
much of the saccharine principle as the latter, and is brought to a drier
state. It differs from the sugar of Bengal, as much in its quality as in the
mode of preparing it, but can be brought to market at about the same
price. Considerable quantities are sent to the Malabar coast, but the prin-
cipal exportation is to Japan and Europe.

Arrack,nbsp;The manufactory of Batavian arrack, the superior quality of which is

well known, is also conducted by the Chinese: the process is as follows.
About seventy pounds of Mtan (glutinous rice) is heaped up in a small vat;
round this heap or pile one hundred cans of water are poured, and on the
top twenty cans of molasses. After remaining two days in this vat, the
ingredients are shifted to a larger vat adjoining, when they receive the
addition of four hundred cans of water and one hundred cans of molasses.

Thus far the process is carried on in the open air. In a separate vat
within doors, forty cans of palm wine or toddy from the cocoa-nut tree,
are immediately mixed with nine hundred cans of water and one hundred
and fifty cans of molasses. Both preparations being allowed to remain in
this state for two days, the former of these preparations is carried to a still
larger vat within doors, and the latter being in a vat placed above, is
poured upon it, through a hole bored for the purpose near the bottom. In
this state the preparation is allowed to ferment for two days, when it is
poured into small earthern jars, containing about twenty cans each, in which
it remains for the further period of two days: it is then distilled.

The liquor drops into a tin vessel under ground, from whence it is ladled
into receiving vessels. This is the third or common sort of arrack, which
by a second distillation in a smaller still, with the addition of a small quan-
tity

tity of water, becomes the second sort, and by a third distillation, what is
called the first sort. The third or common sort is called by the Chinese
skhew, the second tawpo, and the first Iciji, the two latter being distinguish-
ed as arrack âpi. When cooled, it is poured into large vats in the store-
houses, where it remains till it is convenient to put it into casks.

The whole process, therefore, to the completion of the first sort, does
not require more than ten days, six hours being sufficient for the original
préparation to pass through the first still. The receivers of the stills are of
copper, and the worm consists of about nine turns of Banka tin.

The proof of sufficient fermentation is obtained by placing a lighted
taper about six inches above the surface of the liquor in the fermenting
vat ; if the process is sufficiently advanced, the fixed air rises and extin-
guishes the light.

To ascertain the strength of the spirit, a small quantity of it is burnt in
a saucer, and the residuum measured. The difference between the original
quantity and the residuum gives the measure of the alcahol lost.

Among the most important manufactures of Java, both viewed in its
relation to the comforts of the inhabitants and the interests of the revenue,
is that of salt. In almost every country it is an indispensible commodity,
but particularly where the people subsist on a vegetable diet, as in India and
the Eastern Islands ; and wherever government has seen its necessary, it
has been converted into a source of taxation.

Nearly the whole of the north-east coast of Java and Madûra abounds with
places well calculated for its manufacture, and unfit for any other useful
purpose. The quantity already manufactured has for many years exceeded
the demand, both for home consumption and exportation, and might be
increased almost ad libitum.

On Java the principal salt-pans are situated at PdJcis, in the vicinity of
Batavia; at Bantam, Chéribon, Tégal% at Wédong and Brdhang, in the Se~
mârang districts ; at Paradési, inRembdng ; at Seddyu, GrésiJc, and Simdmt ^
on Madura, at Sdmpang, Pamdhasan, and Sumenap. Salt is also manufac-
tured at several places along the south-coast, but of inferior quality, and by
a different process. About two hundred tons are annually procured in the
interior, from the Blédegs, as already described. The principal supply,
however, is from the north coast, where the quality of the salt, and the
facility with which it can be manufactured, give it a decided advantage in
(demand and cheapness.

The process of manufacturing the salt on the north coast is very simple,
and depending on evaporation by the heat of the sun alone, may be favour-
ably contrasted with the comparatively expensive process adopted in the
Bengal provinces. Reservoirs are filled from the sea at high tide, and in them
the water is allowed to remain for several days ; this being found necessary
to prevent the salt from being bitter. It is then conveyed by means of canals
and sluices to the pans, which are distributed in compartments and banked
in, so as to contain the sea water, much in the same manner as the rice fields.
If the weather be dry and the sun clear, five days are found sufficient for
the process of evaporation in the pans ; after which the salt is collected
together in heaps, where it usually remains five days longer before it is
brought into store.

Under the Dutch government, the manufacture of salt was farmed out
to Chinese as an exclusive privilege ; and to these farms, under the plea of
enabling the farmer to command a sufficient number of hands for conducting
his undertaking, and enabling him to make his advances to government,
extensive tracts of rice land were attached, over the population of which
the farmer was allowed unlimited authority. By a continued extension of
these tracts, a population far more numerous than the work at the salt-pans
required was wrested from the administration of the regents and transferred
to the Chinese : as they found their advantage in renting out the rice fields,
and employing the people in the transport of goods and other laborious
offices of the country, the farms of course sold for more money. Under
this system, it is difficult to say what was the actual cost of the salt to the
farmer : the manufacturers were partly remunerated in land and partly in
money, and the mode varied in every district ; but this remuneration seldom
amounted to more than a bare subsistence.

It was the practice of these farmers-general to underlet to other Chinese
the privilege of selling salt, supplying them with the article at a certain
rate, and these under-farmers sold the salt again to the petty retailers in the
public markets, at an advanced price. The price of the salt, after passing
through the hands of the farmers, varied not only according to the distance
from the place of manufacture, but according to the capital and speculation
of the under-farmer : if he adopted the liberal system of obtaining small
profits upon a large sale, the market was abundantly supplied at a low rate ;
but if, on the contrary, he traded on a small capital, and enhanced the
price by insufficiently answering the demand, the price became propor-
tionally

tionally exorbitant. In some places, as at Salatiga and Xing\'arang, throngn
which the salt was transported by inland carriage to the populous districts
of the interior, the price was sometimes as high as one hundred and twenty,
and even one hundred and forty Spanish dollars per kbyan, while along the
coast, as at Chérihon and Surabaya, it was as low as thirty, and at Grésik
twenty-five. The average in the year 1813, when the farming system was
abolished, may be taken, one district with another, at about fifty-seven
Spanish dollars the kbyan, or rather less than thirty dollars per ton.

The quantity usually calculated for the annual consumption of Java and
Madura, including about one thousand koyans estimated to be manufactured
in the native provinces, is sixteen thousand kbyans, or thirty-two thousand
tons. Under the arrangements now adopted for the manufacture and sale
of this article, the average rate at which the manufacturers are paid is about
six rupees the kbyan, including the charges of transport to the depots, and
the sale price varies from twenty-five to thirty-five Spanish dollars, according
to the distance from the principal depots ; an adequate supply by means of
smaller depots is insured in every part of the country.

The salt of Java exported to the other islands of the Archipelago, com-
petes with that of Siam and the Coromandel coast, and generally supercedes
it, both on account of its quality and cheapness. The exportation is free
to all places except Bengal, where, on account of its interference with the
monopoly there established, it has, since the conquest of Java, been found
necessary to prohibit its importation under penalty of confiscation.

The salt of the south coast being manufactured by a process which is much
more expensive than that employed on the north, and at the same time being
inferior in quality, it is only consumed in places which the latter is prevented
from reaching by the difficulty of conveyance or inland tolls and prohi-
bitions ; and it has consequently been calculated, that the north coast salt,
if allowed to pass toll free through the country, would in a short time
supersede that from the south coast altogether. The inferior quality of the
latter is caused by the quantity of the sulphate of magnesia it contains,
which renders it by its bitterness unpleasant for cuhnary purposes.

Of late years, the value of the manufacturing industry of the country Manufacturing
may be in some degree appreciated, from the assistance it has afforded to
the European government, when, in consequence of the war, the impor-
tation of European articles had become insufiicient for the public service.
Broad-cloth not being procurable for the army, a kind of coarse cotton

cloth was manufactured by the Javans, with which the whole army was
clothed. At Semârang were established five of these manufactories, having
seventy or eighty looms each. One or two of them made cotton lace, and
supplied the army agents with epaulets, shoulder-knots, tassels, amp;c. There
were likewise manufactures of cotton stockings, tape, fringes, cartridge-
boxes, sword-belts, saddles, bridles, amp;c. and in short every thing that
could be required for the dress and accoutrements of both cavalry and
infantry.

Under European superintendants were established saltpetre works, pow-
der-mills, founderies for shells, shot,, anvils, amp;c. and manufactories of
swords and small arms ; and when it is added, that the French government
found means, within the resources of Java alone, to equip an army of not
less than fifteen thousand effective men, besides a numerous militia in
every district, and that, with the exception of a few European superinten-
dants in the more scientific works, all the articles were manufactured and
supplied by the natives, it is not necessary to adduce any further proof of
the manufacturing ability of the country.

Saltpetre. Saltpetre is obtained in many parts of the island, and gunpowder has
long been manufactured by the native inhabitants. A saltpetre manufac-
tory was established near Grésik, under the superintendance of European
officers, which it was calculated would furnish annually two thousand pikuh
of that article to government, at the rate of eight rix-dollars per pikul, of one
hundred and thirty-three pounds English. The importance of this establish-
ment is manifest in the following observations of Colonel Mackenzie.

quot; I considered that one day would be usefully employed in viewing the
quot; saltpetre works, which a very few years back had been estabhshed here,
quot; at the risk, and by the zeal and ingenuity of private individuals,
quot; with the view of supplying this colony with that necessary ingredient for
quot; gunpowder. The best sulphur is supplied from a mountain near the straits
quot; of Bali. For further details of these mines ; of the manner in which the
« nitre is obtained, by an ingenious application of the latest European im^
«« provements in chemistry ; of the sulphureous crater of the mountain,
whence the sulphur, in its utmost purity, is suppHed î of the reports of
« the French engineers, last year, on the improvement of the gunpowder
« of Java Î of the wood selected for the best charcoal, and of the present
quot; state of the manufactory and powder-mills at Semârang, I ^^^^ ^efer, at
quot; present, to several papers collected by me on this subject, which may be

usefully applicable to our manufactures of gunpowder in India. Passing
quot; over these and other considerations, I shall only observe, that of these
quot; mines, one of them is cut in caverns into the soft white calcareous rockj
quot; and another, more regularly designed, supported by pillars or masses of
« the native rock, covers regularly formed beds of the native earth, which
being impregnated wdth the native nitre, saturated with the evacuation of
quot; the numerous bats that haunt these caverns, and mixed with a compound
quot; of wood ashes, supplies the liquid that is boiled in large kettles, and
quot; afterwards left to cool and chrystallize. The whole process is carried on,
quot; in a regular manner, under European overseers, and under the direction of
quot; the first executor of this really grand work, who now resides at Surabayaquot;*

The labour of felling the teak trees and transporting the timber from the Labours in the
forests, gives employment to a very considerable population, who are dis-
tinguished from those employed in other avocations, by the term of bldndong
people, or foresters. The teak timber was formerly delivered to the govern-
ment as a contingent, by the Regents of those districts in which the princi-
pal forests were situated, the quantity being regulated according to the
supposed extent of the different forests, and the means of cutting and trans-
porting the wood. Previously to the year 1808, the amount of this annual
contingent was eight thousand eight hundred beams of different sizes,
according to the wants of the public service, of which more than three
thousand were delivered from the central forests of Rembang.

The cutting and dragging of the timber delivered in contingent was per-
formed by the inhabitants of the villages adjacent to the forests, and the
buffaloes required were left to be provided by the Regents. Tor this service,
in the Rembang districts, four hundred cutters and labourers, and four
hundred and twelve pair of buffaloes, were appropriated for the supply of
three thousand one hundred beams annually, a proportion which varied in the
other districts, only according to the distance of the forest from the timber yard
on the coast, where payment was made for the timber on delivery, at the
rate of sixteen pence for cutting and conveying a beam of from eighteen to
twenty feet long and from nine to ten inches broad, forty-eight stivers for a
beam of from thirty-one to thirty-six feet long and from thirteen to fifteen
inches broad, and for others in proportion. This was the regular and only
payment made for the contingent timber j but when the demands of govern-
ment exceeded the fixed contingent, which was generally the case, the

excess was paid for at an advance of fifty per cent on these prices. Crooked
and other timber for ship-building was paid for at about the same rate, but
calculated according to a fixed table by the weight.

Under this system, the Regents rented out many of the villages adjoining
the forests to individuals, and sold, on their own account, such timber as was
not of proper quality to be delivered to government. As the demands of
government increased, as well as those of the European residents, who
were many of them concerned in ship-building and in the sale of timber,
the forests near the coast were soon exhausted of their best timber, and as
it became necessary for the cutters to go further into the interior, the labour
and expense increased, but without any corresponding recompense to them,
for the government never raised the price. Individuals, however, did so;
and the consequence was, that government finding no regulations they could
make for the internal management of the forests sufficient to ensure them an
adequate supply, were contented to believe that a greater quantity than was
actually furnished could not be cut without injury to the forests ; although,
at that very time, the deliveries to individuals in the eastern districts were
estimated at not less than fifty or sixty thousand beams per annum, the
coast was lined with Java-built trading vessels of every description, and
these, as well as the rough timber, were frequently sent for sale to a distant
market.

In the year 1808, however, in common with all the other departments
on the island, this important one was newly organized by Marshal Daendals,
who placing the highest value on the forests, and iletermining to prevent
the abuses which had previously existed, removed all the population which
had formerly been engaged in the forests in the different parts of the island
from the controul of the native Regent, as well as the local European
authority, and placed them, with the villages and lands to which they were
attached, under a separate board or administration for the forest depart-
ment. This change effectually secured government in the monopoly, and
succeeded in the prevention of the abuses which had formeriy existed : but
in the degree that it had this effect, it also operated to the serious injury
of general commerce and the domestic comfort of the inhabitants j for
every one was now obliged to buy the timber from government, at a high
monopoly rate fixed by general regulation, and the timber could only be
obtained in comparatively small quantities, seldom of the dimensions
required, and only at the fixed staples. Ship-building, and even boat-build-

ing, wliich had before been carried to the greatest extent along the whole
coast, was discontinued, and the cottage of the native, which had formerly
cost a few rupees, now cost ten times the amount if built of desirable
materials.

Under the administration of the Board of Forest, whose residence was
fixed at Semarang, and who w^ere altogether independent of the local
authorities, was now placed a population of nearly one hundred thousand
souls, exclusively devoted to the labours of the forests ; and as no revenue
had been given up by the arrangement, and a small annual delivery of
iron, salt, and gunpowder, to the foresters, was the only payment made,
considerable profit was expected to result from it to the government. It
was found, however, after the estabhshment of the British government,
that the timber which had been cut, and of which there was an immense
quantity on hand, was not of a description required for the building of
coasting vessels, and could not compete in Bengal with that of Pegu,
without such a reduction in the monopoly price, as added to the loss
occasioned by so large a proportion of the population, as that set
apart for this duty who contributed nothing else to the revenue, the
extent of the establishment necessary to enable the government to be the
sole timber merchant, and the abuses connected with it, would amount to
more than all the profits that had been calculated on. The coasting trade was
perishing for want of vessels, and the forest department was a losing con-
cern. Under these circumstances, it was judged expedient to include the
population of the Blandongs in the general arrangements for the release of
the peasantry from feudal bondage, and the establishment of a fixed rent
from the land, in heu of all services and payment formerly rendered.

The people who lived near the forests, and had long been in the habit of
cutting and dragging the timber, still however continued in this employ,
ment, an annual contract being made with them for their services in the
forests, in remuneration for which a remission of rent was granted. The
largest and most valuable forests are, under this systém, reserved for the
exclusive use of government j others of less value, and the hmits of which
can be easily defined, have, in consideration of a recognition of ten
per cent, (^d valorem on the timber when worked up, been thrown
open to individuals engaged in ship-building, who generally contract
with the people of the adjoining villages, to cut and deliver the timber
at fixed prices: a mode which has also been occasionally resorted to

by government, especially for the inferior and small kinds of timbers,
shingles, pipe staves, amp;c. which are allowed to be cut in particular forests.

The industry which has been excited by opening these facilities in pro-
curing timber, and the impetus which it has afforded to trade, may be esti-
mated by this fact, that within the last few years have been launched no
less than ten to twelve square-rigged vessels, of from one hundred and fifty
to four hundred tons, and that many more of larger dimensions were about
to be built, when the restoration of the colony was announced.

It need hardly be observed, that due precautions have been taken for the
preservation and renovation of the valuable forests, which so far from being
exhausted, are capable of supplying besides crooked and compass timber for
ship-building, forty or fifty thousand beams in the year without injury.
European overseers are appointed, and one general superintendent is placed
over the whole.*

As illustrative of the importance attached to these forests by the Dutch,
and of the capabilities of the island for ship-building, it may not be unin-
teresting to annex an extract from Mr. Hogendorp\'s appeal to the autho-
rities in Holland on this subject.!

* For the situation and extent of the forests, see plate of the Mineralogical Sketch of the Island,
f quot; Batavians! be amazed ! hear with wonder what I have to communicate. Our fleets are
destroyed, our trade langillshes, our navigation is going to ruin—we purchase with immense
quot; treasures, timber and other materials for ship-building from the northern powers, and on Java
we leave warlike and mercantile squadrons standing with their roots in the ground. Yes, the
quot; forests of Java have timber enough to build a respectable navy in a short time, besides as many
quot; merchant ships as we require. Hemp would grow as well as in Bengal, and as labour is as cheap
« in Java, we may consequently presume that it would require little trouble to establish manufac-
tures uf canvas and cordage there in a short time. But, at any rate, Java already produces at
lt;4 avery low price cayar and gumuti cordage, which answers very well for cables, hawsers, and
quot; rigging. To build ships at Java for the mother country, it is only necessary to send out skilful
quot; and complete master-builders with a few ship carpenters ; for common workmen are to be had
lt;lt; on Java in numbers, and at a very low rate, as a good Java carpenter may be hired at five
stivers a day. The principal objection that could be made is, that the shores of Java being
quot; very flat and level, are not well adapted for building, and still less for launching ships of
quot; heavy burthens, but this difficulty may be easily overcome: on the islands before Batavia,
quot; and particularly Brunt and Cooke\'s Island, wharfs, or even docks, may be constructed at
quot; little expence. The same may be observed of one of the islands off Japara and at Gresik,
quot; besides many other places in the eastern division, in the harbour which is formed by the
island of Madura, and which is sheltered from every wind.

quot; The Resident of Rembdng, and sometimes of Jawana, are almost the only Europeans who
build ships, for it is too difficult and dangerous for others to undertake it, under the arbi-

The Blandong people or foresters are generally employed in cutting or in
dragging timber during eight months out of the twelve, but they are
obliged to watch the forests the whole year through : they are regularly
relieved, and half the working men are at all times left disposeable for
the rice fields. The Blandong people have always been accustomed to
the work, and generally have their villages near the principal forests. It is
one of the advantages of the system of contracting with the people for land
payments, that in emergencies they are willing to lend their own buffaloes
to assist those of government in dragging heavy timber, which could
not be removed otherwise without great expence, while their children
at other times watch and attend the cattle belonging to government. In
short, the resources of the village are at the disposal of government, for a
land payment considerably less than one-third of the expence of hired
labourers, whom it would be difficult to procure, and still more difficult,
from the character of the people, to retain in constant and unremitting
employment.

Under the system of granting remissions of rent, it has been calculated
that in the districts of Semdrang, where the assessment is comparatively
high, on account of the vicinity to a large capital, a remission of eight
rupees and a half, or about twenty shillings, being the average amount paid
annually by each cultivator, government obtains a man\'s hard labour for six
months of the year. But as the inhabitants of the same village are gene-
rally accustomed to labour in the fields alternately, and thus to assist each
other, it has been found advisable to make the remissions of rent for the
Blandongs to the village as a community, in order to avoid the delay and
endless vexation which would ensue, in adjusting the petty claims of each
individuaL

« trary government at present existing in Java, under which nothing can flourish or succeed.

But the Chinese, who are favoured in every thing, are well aware how to turn this also to
« their own advantage, and to build a great number of vessels all along the coast, from fifteen
« to two hundred lasts burthen, for which they get the timber almost for nothing, by means of
quot; renting the forest villages. It is easy to imagine, how these avaricious bloodsuckers use the
quot; forests, and manage to get all they can out of them. In spite of all this, however, the
quot; forests\'of Java grow as fast as they are cut, and would be inexhaustible under good care

quot; At Bombay, Surat, and Demaun, and other places along the coast of Malabar, at Ben-
quot; gal, and at Pegu, the English build many large and fine ships, which last a length of time,
quot; especially those of Bombay and Malabar build, although I believe the wood produced there,

Fisheries. Ill; the maritime districts on the north-east side of the island, a very
large propartiop of the population is employed in the fisheries, and so
moderate are the seasons, that except perhaps for a few days at the change
of the monsoon, they are seldom interrupted by the weather.

The sea fish is taken either by the net, in stakes {widi), or with the hook
and lijje: the most considerable quantity is of course procured by means
of the two former, generally distinguished by the term mdyang, whence
prdhu mdyang, fishing-boat. The whole apparatus of the hook and line is
called pdnchingy the usual term for angling among the Maldyus. The
fishing-boats quit the shore at about three or four o\'clock in the morning,
and are driven out by the land breeze beyond sight before daylight. At
about noon they are seen returning with the sea breeze, and generally reach
the shore by two in the afternoon. The stakes along the whole of the
northern coast, wherever the banks and projecting land admit, are very
extensive: they are often fixed in several fathom water, and constitute a
very important property. They are usually closed in the night.

Nets are principally made of rdmi, though sometimes of gaddng\'an, and
even of cotton. They are steeped in an infusion, which not only darkens
their colour, but is considered essentially to contribute to their strength.
Fish tJiat is not eaten or disposed of while fresh, is salted and dried in the
sun, or smoke-dried at a short distance from a fire, and in that state forms
an extensive article of internal commerce. Besides the abundance of fish
thus obtained from the sea, extensive tracts of country, salt marshes, and
inlets of the sea, have in several parts of the island been converted into
fish-ponds {tdmba). These ponds are to be found in most of the low mari-
time districts : those at Gresik, which are the most extensive, appear to
have been first established during the visit of one of the early Mahometan
princes of the island in the fifteenth century. The bdndeng is generally
considered as the richest and highest-flavoured fish known in these seas :
the young fry are taken in the sea, and transferred to these ponds, where
they grow and fatten for seven months, when they are fit for the table.
An annual supply of young fish from the sea is found necessary to keep
up the stock in the tanks ; and, whether from a desire to raise the value of
the fish so obtained in them, or otherwise, the natives generally affirm,
that the fish rarely attains its full size in the sea. The extent and value of
these nurseries for the fish may be estimated from the rent paid for those at
QresiJc, which are the property of government.

The river fish are taken by a variety of methods: one is to throw a
number of branches of trees into a deep part of the river j here the fish
collect: they are then surrounded by stakes, or the branches are taken
out, and the fish easily caught; this method is termed rümpon. Bambu
fences are sometimes thrown across the rivers at night, and so constructed
that the fish are easily entrapped as they pass down the stream : this method
is called pdsang wddong. The rivers and ponds are frequently dragged by
nets of different sizes. The coculus indicus, and other intoxicating drugs,
are sometimes thrown into the river, after which the fish are found floating
on the surface and easily taken; this method, termed tuba, is prohibited on
large rivers: when the fish are afterwards driven down the river by a
number of men into a snare laid below, the usual term is jdmprong. In the
western districts, a fishing party of this description affords a very favourite
amusement on great occasions. A time is selected when the river is mode-
rately low; temporary stands made of the trunks of small trees or stout
bdmbus are then thrown across, each consisting of three piles, fastened
together at the top and expanding below, the bottoms being pointed so as
to fix in the ground. On a small stage on each, just above the surface of
the water, are piled a few stones, by which they are steadied while the
current is allowed a free course below. The piers or stages thus\' formed,
answer well for the construction of a temporary bridge over the rocky or
stony bed of the most irregular river. A coarse matting, made of bambu or
some other material, is then carried from one to the other, so as to shut the
current in within a narrow space, across which a temporary platform and
shed is thrown, with a sloping floor rising above the surface of the water,
to where the party is assembled. The drug having been thrown into the
river, a considerable distance higher up several hundred people now enter
the river, and driving the half-intoxicated fish before them, they come
floundering one after the other on the bdmbu stage, to the no small amuse-
ment of the party collected, fish of a considerable size hterally jumping
into their laps. On these occasions, when the entertainment is given to
Europeans, a great concourse of people attend, a feast is prepared, and
the wild and antic music and dance of the mountaineers, performing on
the dnUang and rude drum, give great pecuHarity and zest to the amuse-
ment. \' Fish are sometimes struck at night by torch light, both at sea and in
the rivers; but this method is not very general.

Pearis are obtained in the vicinity of Banyuwangi where the privilege
of fishing for them is farmed out by the year, as well in the vicinity of Nuscc
Jcambdng\'an, on the south side of the island ; but they are generally of the
description called seed pearls, and of little value.

Commerce..-.Advantageous Situation of Jam for Commercial Intercourse.^
Importance of Batavia in particular.^Native Trade.—Roads andlnland

the Eastern Islands.-^Admntages which they possess.—Causes of the Depress
sion of the Nations and Tribes which inhabit them.—Japan Trade.

From the importance which the Dutch, in the days of their greatness, vai„eofti

the meatis they had of carrying it into effect, give us the highest ideas of
the independent spirit inspired by their free government, and of their
commercial prosperity, derived, in a great degree, from their eastern
establishments and connexions.

The same advantages which the Europeans derived from the navigation
of the Mediterranean, the inhabitants of theMalayan Archipelago enjoyed
in a higher degree j and it cannot be doubted, that among islands lying
in smooth and unruffled seas, inviting the sail or oar of the most timid and
inexperienced mariner, an intercourse subsisted at a very early period. To
this intercourse, and to the fertility of the soil of Java, which soon ren-
dered it an agricultural country, must be attributed the high degree of civi-
lization and of advancement in the arts, which, from the monuments of
its progress which still exist, there is every reason to believe it once at-
tained. In short, to adopt the expressions of Dr. Adam Smith, when speak-
ing of a very different country,¹ Java, « on account of the natural fertility
« of its soil, of the great extent of its sea-coast in proportion to the whole
« of the country, and of the number of its navigable rivers, affording ttie con-
« i^eniency of water carriage to some of its most inland parts, is conveniently
« \'fitted by nature to be the seat of foreign commerce, of manufactures for
« sale to the neighbouring countries, and of all the improvements which

But though there can be little doubt that Java very early emerged from
barbarism, and rose to great commercial prosperity, to determine the precise
time at which these events took place is perhaps impossible; and to ap-
proach the solution of the question would involve an inquiry that will be
better reserved till we come to treat of its languages, institutions, and
antiquities. If, in the consideration of these topics, it should be made to
appear, that, in very remote ages, these regions were civilized from Western
India *and that an extensive Hindu empire once existed on Java, it will be
reasonable to infer a commercial intercourse still earlier than the commu-
nication of laws and improvement.

and the same desire to obtain them, which prompted European nations
successively to make themselves masters of these islands, must in all proba-
bility have operated, in a very remote period, on the merchants of Hindus-
tan, and even of countries lying farther to the westward, who had already
found their way into the gold regions ; and if the hypothesis, which places
Mount Ophir on Sumatra or the peninsula of Malacca, cannot be maintained,
it will at any rate be admitted, that previously to the discovery of America,
no country was known more rich in gold than the Malayan Islands, and
that, on that account, they were peculiarly attractive to foreigners, who
could not be supplied from any other quarter.

The Arabs, it is known, had in the ninth century, if not long previously,
made themselves acquainted with these countries j and the Chinese, if we
may trust the Javan annals, had visited Java at the same period. Accord-
ing to Kempfer, the Maldyus in former times had by far the greatest trade
in the Indies, and frequented with their vessels, not only all the coasts of
Asia, but even ventured to the shores of Africa, and particularly to the
great island of Madagascar ; quot; for,quot; adds this author, quot; John de Barros
quot; in his Decades, and Flaccourt in his History of Madagascar, assures us,
quot; that the language spoken by the inhabitants of that large African island
quot; is full of Javan and Malayan words : subsisting proofs of the commerce

most powerful of Asia, had carried on with Madagascar, where they had
quot; settled in great numbers.quot;

Whatever credit we may attach to these statements and inferences, its commercial
respecting the commerce of these islands before they were visited by Euro- SatlSy\'^¹
peans in the fifteenth century, it is certain that, at this period, an extensive
trade was established at Malacca, Acheen, and Bantam, then the great
emporiums of the Eastern Archipelago. Hither the rich produce of Sumatra,
Borneo, and the Moluccas, was conveyed in the small trading craft of the
country, and exchanged for the produce of India and China. These ports
were then filled with vessels from every maritime state of Asia, from the
Red Sea to Japan. The Portuguese, who preceded the Dutch in India,
and who had fixed upon Goa, on the coast of Malabar, as the capital of
their eastern settlements, selected Malacca as the most convenient station
for conducting and protecting their trade with the islands, and erected it
into a secondary capital. The Dutch finding this desirable station pre-
occupied, and being foiled in their attempts to dislodge their rivals, first

tons, and in the same year the native craft amounted to 455 vessels, or 7»472
tons, or together 55,76â tons. The quantity cleared out during the same
year was 44,613 tons of shipping, and 7,762 of native craft, making toge-
ther 52,375.

In the year 1813, the number of square-rigged vessels was 288, and the
tonnage 51,092, the native craft amounting to 796 vessels, or 13,214 tons,
or together 64,306 tons.

In 1814, 321 ships, or 63,564 tons, cleared out with 568 native vessels,
or 9,154 tons, shewing the total tonnage of Batavia during this year to have
amounted to 72,718 tons.

The returns for the following year have not been received, but they are
estimated to exceed either of the two former years, and not to have fallen
much short of one hundred thousand tons ; and it may be noticed, that
during one year after the first accounts were received of the successes of
the allied armies against France, no less than thirty-two ships, measuring
fifteen thousand tons, cleared out, and carried cargoes, the produce of Java,
to the London market.

The average annual tonnage which cleared out from the port of Surabaya,
for the three last years, amounted to about thirty thousand tons, and the
native tonnage trading to the neighbouring port of Grésik is estimated to
have even exceeded that quantity.

At the small port of Sumenap, situated at the east end of Madura, which
is a principal resort for the native trade, the tonnage which cleared out was
\' ■nbsp;Small prahus and vessels.nbsp;Tonnage.

The trade from the other minor ports was inconsiderable, the effect of
tht regulations passed in 1813 being yet hardly felt. From PahaUngan
the tonnage which cleared was for 1812, 5,962 tons, and for 1813, 4,679
tons, the imports being about 150,000 rupees, and the exports 300,000
rupees in each year ; from Tégal for 1812, 2,445 tons, and for 1813, 1,926

tons, the imports being about 50,000, and the exports about 60,000 rupees
in each year.

The amount of tonnage which touched at Anyer, on the way through
the Straits of Sunda, to and from Europe, Africa, and America, was
In 1812---------73 ships_____29,450

By an official return made in March 1816, it appears that the total quantity
of tonnage in vessels boarded on their passage through the Straits of Sunda
amounted in 1812 to 45,000 tons, in 1813 to 56,000 tons, in 1814 to
64,000 tons, and in 1815 to 130,000 tons, to which adding a third for
vessels which passed without being boarded, the whole amount of tonnage
for these four years would be 390,000, the quantity in the fourth of these
years being nearly triple that of the first.

The commerce of Java may be considered under the two general divisions
of the native and the European, the former including the internal and
coasting trade, with that of the Malayan Archipelago in general; the latter
comprehending that carried on by Europeans and Americans with India,
China and Japan, Africa, America, and Europe.

Java has already been described as a great agricultural country. It Native trade
has long been considered as the granary of the Eastern Islands.

The southern coast is for the most part inaccessible, and seldom visited by
traders ; but along the north coast there are no less than thirteen principal

ports, besides numerous other intermediate and less considerable ones, fre-
quented by native vessels at all seasons of the year. Many of these are
sheltered, and form safe harbours in all weather, as Bantam, Batavia,
Rembâng, Grésik, and Surahâya, Even where the vessels lie in an open
roadstead, the wind is seldom sufficiently strong to render the anchorage
unsafe. Several of the rivers are navigable for many miles into the interior,
and most of them are capable of receiving native vessels into the heart of
the town, through which they generally run; but the rivers of Java, as
well as those of the eastern coast of Sumatra and the v/estern coast of
Borneo, are for the most part obstructed at their entrance by extensive
bars, which preclude the admission of vessels of any very considerable bur-
then. Piers have been run out in many places, to remedy this inconve-
nience J but in consequence of the quantity of soil annually carried down,
the bars or banks are continually increasing, and in some places, as at
Tégal, have nearly blocked up the communication between the rivers and

The produce and manufactures of the country are conveyed from one
district to another and to these maritime capitals, either by water or land
carriage. The principal navigable rivers to the westward, are those which
disembogue themselves below Tâng\'ran, Krâwang, and Indramâyu, and
the produce brought down by them is usually conveyed to Batavia. To
the eastward, the great Solo river, which is navigable from Sûra-kérta,
affords, with the Kediri, the principal and only outlets from the native
provinces by water towards the northern coast. Down the former, which
empties itself by several mouths, near Grésik, into the great harbour of
Suvabaya, during the rains, large quantities of the produce of the richest
provinces of the interior are conveyed. The boats employed, which are of
considerable burthen, return with cargoes of salt. This river runs through
many valuable teak forests, and consequently affi^rds the means of easy
transport for the timber; an advantage which is also derived from several
smaller rivers on the northern coast, particularly in the neighbourhood of
the principal building yards. Facihties of the same kind are also found at
most of the sea ports, which are generally seated on rivers passing through
forests in the interior, down which timber required for house-buildmg and
the construction of small craft is floated with ease. An inland navigation
carried on to a considerable extent, by means of small canals, in Demdk

and some of the neighbouring districts, where it is common, even during
the harvest, at the driest season of the year, to observe innumerable boats
with their light sails crossing an extensive flat and highly cultivated country,
and traversing the corn fields in various directions. In the rich and fertile
delta of Surabaya, the whole produce of the adjacent country is conveyed
by water carriage, generally on light rafts constructed of a féw stems of the
plantain tree.

Goods not conveyed by water carriage, are usually carried on the backs of
oxen or horses, or on the shoulders of men and women, carts not being
generally used, except in the western districts, where the population is thin,
or in some of the more eastern districts, particularly those recently under
Chinese direction. The cart of the western districts, termed peddti* is of
clumsy construction, running on two large solid wheels, from five to six feet
in diameter and from one to two inches broad, on a revolving axle, and drawn
by two buffaloes. It is the ordinary conveyance of goods to the capital,
within a range of about sixty miles trom Batavia.

Few countries can boast of roads, either of a better description, or of a
greater extent, than some of those in Java. A high post road, passable for
carriages at all seasons of the year, runs from Anyer, on the western side
of Bantam, to within twenty miles of Banyuwangi, the eastern extremity
of the island, being a distance of not less than eight hundred English miles.
Along this road, at intervals of less than five miles, are regular post stations
and relays of carriage horses. A portion of it towards the west, which
proceeded into the interior and passed over some high and mountainous
tracts, was found to occasion great delay and inconvenience to passengers,
and to impose an oppressive duty upon those inhabitants, who, residing in
the neighbourhood were obliged to lend the use of their cattle, or the assis-
tance of their personal labour, to aid carriages in ascending the steeps;
this part of the line has therefore been abandoned, and a new road has
recently been constructed along the low lands, from Batavia to Chéribon^
by which not only the former inequalities are avoided, but a distance of
fifty miles is saved. This route is now so level, that a canal might easily
be cut along its side, and carried on nearly through all the maritime dis-
tricts of the eastward, by which the convenience of inland navigation
might be afforded them, for conveying the commodities continually required

for the consumption and exportation of the capital. Besides this main road
from one extreme to the other, there is also a high military road, equally
well constructed, which crosses the island from north to south, leading to
the two native capitals of Siira-herta and Yug\'ya-Mrta, and consequently to
within a few miles of the South Sea. Cross roads have also been formed
wherever the convenience or advantage of Europeans required them, and
there is no part of the island to which the access is left difficult. But it is
not to be concluded, that these communications contribute that assistance
to agriculture or trade on Java, which such roads would afford in Europe :
their construction has, on the contrary, in many instances, been destructive
to whole districts, and when completed by his own labour, or the sacrifice
of the lives of his neighbours, the peasant was debarred from their use,
and not permitted to drive his cattle along them, while he saw the advan-
tages they -were capable of yielding reserved for his European masters, that
they might be enabled to hold a more secure possession of his country.
They were principally formed during the blockade of the island, and were
intended to facilitate the conveyance of stores, or the passage of troops
necessary for its military defence. The inhabitants, however, felt the exclu-
sion the less, as good inferior roads were often made by the side of these
military roads, and bye-roads branched off through all parts of the country,
so that the internal commerce met with no impediment for the want of
direct or convenient lines of communication.

Nor is it discouraged by the want of understood or estabhshed places of
exchange. Bazars or public markets (here called pehaii) are established in
every part of the country, and usually held twice a week, if not oftener.
The market days are in general regulated by what are called pcisar days,
being a week of five days, similar to that by which the markets in South
America appear to be regulated. At these markets are assembled fre-
quently some thousands of people, chiefly women, on whom the duty
devolves of carrying the various productions of the country to these places
of traffic. In some districts, extensive sheds are erected for the accommo-
dation of the people; but, in general, a temporary covering of thatch, to
shelter them from the rays of the sun, is made for the occasion, and thought
sufficient. Where the market is not held within a town of considerable
size, the assemblage usually takes place under a large tree, in a spot occu-
pied from immemorial usage for that purpose. In these markets there are
regular quarters appropriated for the grain merchant, the cloth merchant,

venders of iron, brass, and copper-ware, and dealers in the various small
manufactures of the country, as well as those of India, China, and Europe.
Prepared eatables of every kind, as well as all the fruits and vegetables in
request, occupy a considerable space in the fair, and find a rapid sale. In
the more extensive bazars, as at Solo, the ^m handle makers have their
particular quarter, and in an adjoining square, horses and oxen are exposed
for sale.

Small duties are generally levied in these bazars, the collection of which
was formerly farmed out to Chinese; but it being found that they exacted
more than the settled or authorized rate, and that they contrived, by means
of the influence which their ofiice conferred, to create a monopoly in their
own favour, not only of the articles of trade but of many of the necessaries
of life, that system has latterly been relinquished wherever practicable, and
pvernment has taken the management of that portion of the public revenue *
into its own hands. In the bazars, accordingly, regulated under the imme-
diate superintendence of its officers, extensive sheds are built, and a small
compensation only is required for the use of them by those who there intend
to expose their goods for sale. This duty is collected at the entrance into
the market-place, and is taken in lieu of all other taxes or customs what-
ever, formerly levied on the transit or sale of native commodities. It is to
be regretted, that this improvement had not been extended to the native
F-ovinces, where every article of produce and manufacture is still impeded
m Its progress through the country to the pi ace of consumption or export,
by toll duties and other impolitic exactions, and charged on its arrival there
with heavy bazar duties, to the discouragement of industry and enterprize
and the depression of agriculture and trade, in a degree not compensated
by a proportionate benefit to the revenue.*

Almost all the inland commerce, beyond what is thus carried on through influence of the
the medium of bazars, is under the direction of the Chinese, who possessing
considerable capital, and frequently speculating on a very extensive scale,
engross the greater part of the wholesale trade, buy up the principal articles

* quot; The bazars,quot; observes Mr. Hogendorp, quot; now produce a large, and even an incredible
quot; amount, which however is melted away in the hands of the native regents and also some
quot; European authorities; but the Chinese, to whom they are mostly farmed out, derive
quot; the greatest profits from them, both by the money which they extort from the Javans, and
quot; by the monopolies in all kinds of produce, and particularly of rice, which by these means
they are enabled to secure to themselves. The abuses on this point are horrible, and almost
quot; induce me to recommend that the markets should be made free and open.quot;

of export from the native grower, convey them to the maritime capitals,
and in return supply the interior with salt, and with the principal articles
imported from the neighbouring islands, or from foreign countries. The
industry of the Javans being directed almost exclusively to the cultivation
of the soil, they are satisfied if they can find an immediate market for their
^ surplus produce ; and the Chinese, from their superior wealth and enter-
prize, offering them this advantage without interfering with their habits,
have obtained almost a monopoly of their produce, and an uncontrolled
command of their market for foreign commodities.

The trade carried on by native vessels along the coast, with the neigh-
bouring islands, and with the peninsula of Malacca, has been even more
shackled than that placed under the impolitic restraints of interior regula-
tion ; and if it exists now to any considerable extent, it is owing only to
the great natural advantages that attend it. Independently of the dangers to
which the peaceable unprotected trader has so long been exposed, from the
numerous pirates who infest the Eastern Seas, and who for m4any years have
been in the habit of annually sweeping the coast of Java, the various re-
strictions, penalties, and prohibitions established by the Dutch government,
in order to insure their own monopoly, closed all the minor ports against
him.

Among these restrictions, none operated more forcibly to prejudice the
native trade than the rigid and enforced monopoly of the teak timber; an
article of produce with which Java abounds, and of which the shipping of
the Archipelago had, from time immemorial, been principally constructed.
The facilities for building and repairing vessels along the coast, while the
sale of this timber was unrestricted, not only allowed a more abundant
supply of shipping at a cheap rate for the convenience of the native trader,
but attracted the beneficial visits and the intercourse of foreigners, and
encouraged a species of trade, which under the recent system has been lost.
The Biigis and Arabs of the different eastern ports, navigating in large
vessels, were induced to give them an annual repair on Java; and rather
than depart in ballast, frequently carried out cargoes, the profits of which
alone, independently of their refit, would not have been sufficient to tempt
them to the speculation. These adventurers not only imported considerable
quantities of gold-dust, to defray the expence of their repairs, but many
other articles, the produce of the Malayan islands ; for which they, in re-
turn, exported large quantities of salt, and other bulky commodities, which

duties which were exacted at CUrihon, prior to the introduction of the land
revenue settlement.¹

These, with still heavier and more vexatious duties and exactions, were \'
levied on trade in other districts of the island. Constant requisitions were
made by the Dutch government for the services of native vessels, at rates
far below a just compensation to the owner, and the native traders were
forbidden to traffic m any of the articles of Dutch monopoly j considera-
tions which mchne us rather to express our surprize, that there should

have been any native trade at all, than that there should be so little as now
exists.

The coasting trade is carried on in vessels belonging chiefly to Chinese, How and by

Arabs, ^nd Bugis (natives of Celebes), and in smaller • Malayan pmW I\'quot;quot;quot;

le crews ot all coasting vessels belonging to Chinese, Arabs, or
Europeans, and xt .s of them almost exclusively that the class of common sailori knowl in
the east under the general denomination of Malays is composed. Here it may not be
improper to notice the manner in which European vessels have hitherto been supplied with
such crews, and to point out the probable causes of that atrocious conduct with which the

Malayan sailor iamp; so generally reproached.
A reference lo the maritime customs of the Mamp;layus shew the manner in which the

andnbsp;the concern, and among themselves the maritime population is distinguished

for good faith and attachment. In the vessels either commanded or owned by Chinese or
Arabs, the same prmciple is attended to ; and although the common sailors in these generally
receive wages, the petty officers, who are also generally Javans, ^ave some trifling interest in
the cargo, the common men are protected by them, and the policy of the commanders induces
every possible attention to the usages, prejudices, and comforts of the crews. They are able
to assimilate more nearly with them, and to enter more immediately into their feelings and
their wants, than it is possible for Europeans to do, and as they do not possess the authority

1nbsp; See a paper on the Maritime Institutions of the Malayan Nation, in the t^vclftll volume of the A
Uesearcjies.nbsp;quot;nbsp;Aamp;iauc

The enterprize of the Arabs, Chinese, and Biigis is very conspicuous.
They are in general fair traders; and Europeans acquainted with their
several characters can rely on their engagements, and command their con-
fidence.

to obtain crews by force, it is only by a character for good treatment that they can ensure an.
adequate supply of hands. These vessels navigate throughout the whole extent of the Archi-
pelago, to Malacca and Acheen on one side, and to the Moluccas and New Guinea on the
other. They are manned exclusively by Javans, usually called Malays, and no instances
occur of the crews rising either upon the Arab or Chinese commander: they are, on the con-
trary, found to be faithful, hardworking, and extremely docile. How is it when Malays are em-
ployed in vessels belonging to Europeans ? The Javans are originally not a seafaring people;
they have an aversion for distant voyages, and require the strongest inducements to quit the
land, even for a coasting expedition in the smooth seas of their own Archipelago, beyond
•which, if they ever engage themselves on board a colonial vessel, they make an express agree-
ment, not to be carried: European vessels in want of hands for more distant voyages to Europe,
India, and China, have been compelled therefore to resort to force or fraud, as the means of
obtaining crews. The Dutch government were in the habit of employing people, known
among the Javans by the term selong, as kidnappers, who prowled about at night, pounced
upon the unwary peasant who might be passing alone, and hurried him on ship-board. When
the direct influence of government was not used, the native regents or chiefs were employed
to obtain people for the crews of vessels: this they did sometimes in the same manner, though
more frequently condemning to sea as many as were required, by an indiscriminate draft on
the neighbouring population. The native chiefs were perhaps paid a certain head-money, on
what may have been considered by the European commanders as nothing more than crimpage.
The people who w«re seized were seldom of a seafaring class, but almost entirely landsmen, in
many instances perhaps opium smokers, or persons obtained from the lowest and most worth-
less part of the community. Onoe embarked, their fate was sealed for ever, and due care was
taken that they never landed again on Java, as long as their services as sailors were required.

In this manner are obtained that extensive class of sailors, denominated Malays, who are
found on board almost every country ship in India, and inhabit the sea-ports in considerable
numbers, particularly Calcutta, where they have a distinct quarter allotted them. They are
taken from their home against their will, and in violence of all their views and habits. In
general, neither their language or customs are in the least understood by their new master,
for though most of the commanders in the eastern trade may speak the Malayan language,
and be accustomed to the Malayan character, they know nothmg of the Javan language,
and but little of the manners, habits, and prejudices of the Javan people.

That numerous instances have occurred, in which they have appeared the foremost in mutiny
and in the massacre of their officers, will not be denied; but it is well known, that many in-
stances of ships being cut off by the Malay crews, have been occasioned by the tyrannical and
inhuman character of the commanders; and however dreadful the massacre, some excuse may
be made on the score of provocation, for a people low in the scale of moral restraint and intel-
lectual improvement. In some cases, they have been made the instruments and dupes of the
villany of others, and have merely followed in the track of cruelty. In general, so little care
seems to be devoted to the comforts of these people, and so much violence offered to their

fidence. Many of them, particularly the Bugis, are possessed of very large
capital.

By means of the coasting trade, the produce of the maritime and inland
districts is conveyed to Batavia, Semarang, and Surabaya, the principal
ports of consumption and exportation ; and in return those districts receive
iron, steel, and other articles of foreign produce and manufacture from
abroad. The western districts being but thinly inhabited, do not yield
a sufficient supply for the consumption of Batavia; and on this account,
as well as its being the principal mart of foreign commerce, the trade of
the eastern districts is attracted to it, in a higher degree than to any of the
other great towns in their own immediate neighbourhood: but owing to
the unhealthiness of the climate, the loss occasioned by the paper money
which the native traders of other islands could never understand, and the
various vexations and impositions to which they were subjected, these latter
mvanaWy prefer the more eastern ports of Semdrang and Surabaya, or
x^th^x Gresik, in the immediate vicinity of the latter, which has always been
the principal establishment and residence of the Arabs.

The Bugis import into Java from the other islands, Malayan camphor, i« what it
tortoiseshell, edible birds\'-nests, bees\'-wax, cloths called sarongs, of L
very strong texture, their own manufacture, and gold-dust, which they lay
out in the purchase of opium, iron, steel, Europe chintzes and broad-
doth and Indian piece-goods, besides tobacco, rice, salt, and other pro-
ductions and manufactures of Java, with which they return eastward, during
the lavorable monsoon.nbsp;.

The Arabs navigate square-rigged vessels, from fifty to five hundred
tons burthen. The Chinese also have many brigs, besides their peculiar
description of vessels called junks, as well as native-built prdhus. They
extend their voyages to Sumatra, the Straits of Malacca, and eastward as
far as the Moluccas and Timor, collecting birds\'-nests, camphor, bick
de mar, and other articles, making Java a grand depot for the produce of
all the countries to which they resort. Throughout the whole of Java,
trade is usually conducted by the Chinese : many of them are very rich,
and their means are increased by their knowledge of business, their spirit
of enterprize, and their mutual confidence.

habits, that a person accustomed to observe the course of human action, and to calculate the

force of excited passions, is almost surprized to find the instances of mutiny and retaliation are

If a cargo arrives too extensive for the finances of one individual, several
Chinese club together, and purchase the goods, each dividing according to
his capital. In this manner a ready market is always open at Java, without
the assistance of European merchants, and strangers are enabled to transact
their business with little trouble or risk.

The objections which have been made to the political infiuence of the
Chinese and Arabs in the Eastern Islands, do not equally apply to them
as traders. In this last capacity, and subject to regulations which prevent
them from uniting the power of a chief with the temper of a merchant,
and despotism with avarice, their value cannot be too highly rated. The
persevering industry and speculative turn of the Chinese is too well known
to need description ; and the Arab traders are here, what they are all over
the world, keen, intelligent, and adventurous. Thenbsp;have long been

distinguished among the Eastern Islands for the extent of their speculations
and the fairness of their dealing.

Java exports, for the consumption and use of the other islands of the
Archipelago, including the Malayan ports on the peninsula, rice, a variety
of vetches, salt, oil, tobacco, timber, Java cloths, brass ware, and a variety
of minor articles, the produce of her agriculture and manufactures, be-
sides occasionally, as the market admits, a considerable quantity of Eu-
ropean, Indian, and Chinese goods. Almost the only article for which
Java is at present dependant on its neighbours are gambir, imported from
Lingen (Lin^ga) and Rhio,. where it is produced to the annual amount
of from twenty to thirty thousand pikuls,—and pdmur, the metal used for
damasking the Javan Jcris, of which a small quantity is imported from
Biliton and Celebes, where alone it is found. The following articles, the
exclusive produce of the Eastern Islands, are collected at its principal
ports, for re-exportation to India, China, and Europe : tin, from Banka /
gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benjamin and other drugs, edible birds*-
nests, hich de mar, rattans, bees\'-wax, tortoiseshell, and dyeing woods,
from Borneo and Sumatra; sandal and other fine woods, nutmegs, cloves
and mace, coarse, wild and damaged spices, kdyu-puti and other pungent
oils, from the Moluccas ; horses and sapan wood, from Sumbawa ; Bugis
cloths, and many collections for the Chinese market, from Célebes. Cloths
are also sometimes imported from Bali, and pepper is collected at Banjer-
on Borneo, and from several of the Malayan states.

The tin brought to Java is almost exclusively from the mines of Bdnka.
This metal is also exported from several of the other islands, and from the
peninsula of Malacca, whence these countries have been considered the
Temala of Ptolemy, Umah being the Malayan word for tin; but the quantity
obtained from all other sources falls far short of what is procured on
Bdnka, which exports to the annual amount of thirty thousand pikuis, or
nearly forty thousand cwt. of this metal. The mines on Bdnka are worked
by Chinese, who deliver the metal into the government stores in slabs, at
the rate of about eight Spanish dollars the pikul, of one hundred and thirty-
three pounds and a quarter.*

A very extensive branch of trade is carried on by a direct communica-
tion between Java and China, entirely upon Chinese capital, in a descrip-
tion of vessels called junks. From eight to ten of these vessels arrive
annually from Canton and Amoi, with cargoes of teas, raw silk, silk piece-
goods, varnished umbrellas, iron pots, coarse china-ware, sweetmeats,
nankeen, paper, and innumerable minor articles, particularly calculated for
the Chinese settlers. They are from three to eight hundred tons burthen,
and sail at stated periods, generally reaching Batavia with the north-east
monsoon, about the month of January. Of all the imports from China,
that which produces the most extensive effects on the commercial and po-
litical interests of the country is the native himself: besides their cargoes,
these junks bring a valuable import of from two to five hundred industrious
natives in each vessel. These emigrants are usually employed as coolies
or labourers on their first arrival j but, by frugal habits and persevering
industry, they soon become possessed of a little property, which they em-
ploy in trade, and increase by their prudence and enterprize. Many of
them, in course of time, attain sufficient wealth to render themselves inde-
pendent, and to enable them to remit considerable accumulations yearly
to their relations in China. As these remittances are generally made in the
valuable articles, such as birds\'-nests, Malayan camphor, hick de mar,
tin, opium, pepper, timber, leather hides, indigo, gold and silver, the
return cargoes of these vessels amount to an almost incredible value.

The quantity of edible birds\'-nests alone, annually exported from Java
to China on vessels of this description, is estimated at not less than two

* An interesting account of the natural productions of Banka, and of the tin in particular
with the method of working the mines and preparing the metal, has been drawn up bv Dr\'
Horsfield, and will shortly be published.nbsp;^

hundred pikuls, of which by far the largest proportion is the produce of the
Javan rocks and hills. It is well known, that these are the nests of a spe-
cies of swallow (hirundo esculenta) common in the Malayan islands, and
in great demand for the China table. Their value as a luxury, in that
empire, has been estimated on importation to be weight for weight equal
with silver. The price which these nests of the best quality have of late
years brought in the Canton and Amoi market, has been forty Spanish
dollars per kdti, of rather more than a pound and a quarter English. They
are usually classed into first, second, and third sorts, differing in price?
from forty to fifteen Spanish dollars, and even to ten and less for the most
ordinary.quot; The price in the Batavian market rises as the period for the
departure of the junks approaches; but as the principal produce of Java
is still a monopoly in the hands of government, it is difficult to fix the price
at which they might be sold under other circumstances. Generally speak-
ing, however, they sell throughout the Eastern Islands considerably lower
than they are calculated to do in China, which may be accounted for by
the perishable nature of the commodity, and the great care necessary to
preserve them from the damp, as well as from breakage. On this account,
they are seldom bought by European traders. Birds\'-nests consigned by
the Javan government to the Canton factory in 1813, sold to the amount
of about fifty pikuls, at an average rate of about twenty dollars per kati: but
this was at a period when the China markets were unusually low.

The quantity of bird\'s nests obtained from the xock^ caHed Kdrang
bblang, on the southern coast of Java, and within the provinces of the
native princes, is estimated, one year with another, at a hundred pikuls,
and is calculated to afford an annual revenue to the government of two
hundred thousand Spanish dollars. \'The quantity gathered besides by
individuals, on rocks and hills belonging to them, either in private property
or held by farm from the government, in other parts of the island, may
amount to Uiy pikuls y making the extent of this export not less than
one hundred and fifty pikuls, besides the amount of the collections from
the other islands of the Archipelago.

In the Malayan islands in general, but little care is taken of the rocks
and caverns which produce this dainty, and the nests procured are neither
so numerous nor so good as they otherwise would be. On Java, where
perhaps the birds are fewer, and the nests in general less fine than those to
be met with in some of the more Eastern Islands, both the quantity

and quality have been considerably improved by European management.
To effect this improvement, the caverns which the birds are found to
frequent are cleansed by smoking and the burning of sulphur, and the
destruction of all the old nests. The cavern is then carefully secured from
the approach of man, the birds are left undisturbed to form their nests,
and the gathering takes place as soon as it is calculated that the young are
fledged. If they are allowed to remain until eggs are again laid in them,
they lose their pure colour and transparency, and are no longer of what are
termed the first sort. They are sometimes collected so recently after their
formation, that time has not been given for the birds to lay or hatch her
eggs in them, and these nests are considered as the most superior; but as
the practice, if carried to any extent, would prevent the number of the
birds from increasing, it is seldom resorted to, where the caverns are in the
possession of those who have a permanent interest in their produce. Much
of their excellence and peculiar properties, however, depend on the situa-
tion of the place in which they are formed. It has often been ascertained,
for instance, that the same bird forms a nest of somewhat different qua-
lity, according as it constructs it in the deep recesses of an unventilated
and damp cavern, or attaches it to a place where the atmosphere is dry and
the air circulates freely. The nature of the different substances also to
which they are fixed, seems to have some influence on their properties.
The best are procured in the deepest caverns (the favourite retreat of the
birds), where a nitrous dampness continually prevails, and where being
formed against the sides of the cavern, they imbibe a nitrous taste, without
which they are little esteemed by the Chinese. The principal object of the
proprietor of a birds\'-nest rock is to preserve sufficient numbers of the
swallows, by not gathering the nests too often, or abstracting those of
the finer kinds in too great numbers, lest the birds should quit their habita-
tions and emigrate to a more secure and inaccessible retreat. It is not
miusual for a European, when he takes a rock under his superintendence,
after ridding it of the old nests and fumigating the caverns, to allow the
birds to remain undisturbed, two, three, or even more years, in order that
they may multiply for his future advantage. When a birds\'-nest rock is
once brought into proper order, it will bear two gatherings in the year :
this is the case with the rocks under the care of the officers of government
Kdrang hblang.

In the vicinity of the rocks are usually found a few persons accustomed
from their infancy to descend into these caverns, in order to gather the
nests ; an office of the greatest risk and danger, the best nests being some-
times many hundred feet within the damp and slippery opening of the rock.
The gatherers are sometimes obliged to lower themselves by ropes (as at
Kârang-hàlang) over immense chasms, in which the surf of a turbulent sea
dashes with the greatest violence, threatening instant destruction in the
event of a false step or an insecure hold. The people employed by govern-
ment for this purpose were formerly slaves, in the domestic service of the
•minister or resident at the native court. To them the distribution of a few
dollars, and the preparation of a buffalo feast after each gathering, was
thought sufficient pay, and the sum thus expended constituted all the
disbursements attending the gathering and packing, which is conducted by
the same persons. This last opei-ation is however carefully superintended
by the resident, as the slightest neglect would essentially deteriorate the
value of the commodity.*
camiihor. , Although the Malayan camphor, which is the exclusive produce of
Sumatra and Borneo, is much stronger than the camphor from China, it has
not yet been considered an article of extensive export for the European
market. It is always, however, in the greatest demand in China, where it
is either consumed, or as has been supposed by some, it undergoes a
certain process, previous to its re-exportation under a different appearance.
It is not known in what manner the China camphor for the European
market is prepared ; and unless the Malayan camphor is used in the com-
position, it seems difficult to account for the constant demand for it in
China, whence it is never re-exported in its original state. Whatever value
may be set on the Chinese camphor, that exported from Japan is of a still
superior quality, and more in demand for the European market.
Bichdemar.nbsp;mar is Well known to be a dried sea slug, used in the dishes of

the Chinese : it is known among the Malayan Islands by the name of
tripang, and collected on the shores of nearly all the islands of the Archi-
pelago. It usually sells in China at from ten to fifty dollars per pihul,
according to its quahty, but being an article still more perishable than the

* From a course of experiments recently undertaken, and a careful examination of the bird,
by Sir Everard Home, Bart., there is every reason to believe that the nature of the substance
of which the edible birds\'-nests are composed will be satisfactorily explained.

birds\'-nests, and very bulky and offensive, it seldom composes the cargoes
of European vessels. It would be very difficult to ascertain the average
price, as it varies according to the difficulties experienced in collecting it,
and the immediate demand in the market, for its perishable nature will
not admit of the excess of one season being laid by to meet the deficiency of
another. It requires constant care on the voyage, and a leaky vessel fre-
quently loses a whole cargo.

Stic-lac, used in dying, is procured in many parts of Java, and can
easily be obtained in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand. The
iiKect which yields it abounds in the Bantam districts, and the lac prepared
is considered of good quality} but it is not an article which appears to have
attracted much attention.

The trade between Java and China in vessels belonging to Europeans, at
present consists principally in carrying out tin, pepper, spices, rattans, and
beetle-nut, for the China market, and receiving in return a few articles of
China produce in demand for the European market, a balance of cash, and a
supply of manufactures required annually at Batavia; but it is calculated
that cotton, rice, and timber, which may be considered as the staple pro-
duce of Java, might be exported to China with advantage.

A small quantity of Javan cotton lately sent to China, was sold at a higher
rate than the ordinary prices of the cotton from Western India.* Cotton-

mr, Wogendorp makes the following observations on the cotton of Java. quot; This article
« of produce, which now, in order to provide the Company with a few hundred fikuls of
« cotton-yarn at a low rate, is only productive of vexation and oppression to the poor natives
quot; might be made of the greatest value, both to Java itself and to the mother country. The
quot; plant grows in abundance and of good quality, especially if the best kinds of seeds are
quot; procured from the Coromandel Coast and the Isle of France. The cultivation of cotton is
quot; not at all injurious to any other branch, for after the rice harvest is the best season fpr
lt;lt; planting the cotton, and before the rains, when the fields are again ploughed for rice, the
cotton is ripe and gathered.

Little of it is comparatively planted at present; indeed only the necessary quantity, after
« providing the natives with coarse cloths, for the government contingent. In rough cotton
quot; there is no trade at all: but, in fact, what trade is there on Java, except the monopoly
quot; trade of the Chinese.

quot; Let us but suppose the cultivator to have a property in the soil, and that he, as well as the
quot; trader, were at liberty to buy and sell, how soon should we see the Javan planting cotton
quot; directly after his rice was reaped. After being cleaned by machinery and screwed into
quot; bales, it might be exported to China and Europe.

yarn is an article st)metimes exported to China, but in the existing state
of society on Java, the exportation of the raw material is likely to be attended
with the greatest advantages. Some writers have estimated the capal)ility
of Java to export raw cotton almost incredibly high, but it must be admitted,
that although the soil is not universally favourable, yet few countries afford
greater general advantages for the cotton cultivation, it being practicable to
raise it to a great extent, without interfering with the general grain produce
of the country. It could be grown as a second crop on the rice fields, being
planted shortly after the harvest, and attaining maturity before the season
again comes round for irrigating the lands. Nothing can convey a higher
idea of the richness of the soil of Java, and of the advantages of its climate,
than the fact, that during one half of the year the lands yield a rich and
abundant crop of grain, more than sufficient for the ordinary food of the
population, and during the other half a valuable staple, which affords the
material for clothing them, and opens in its manufacture a source of wealth
and of continual domestic industry through the year.
Fur trade with Enterprising individuals, merchants of Batavia, have not been wanting
to engage in the valuable fur trade, hitherto carried on principally by the
Americans, between Kamtchatka and China. Mr. Timmerman Thyssen,
an enlightened Dutch gentleman, whose name for honourable dealing and
extensive business has always stood high among the merchants of Batavia,
has entered into more than one speculation of this kind. Vessels fitted out
from Batavia took in furs at Kamtchatka, which were intended to be
exchanged in China for dollars; but the dangers of the passage in one
instance, and the informality of the papers in another, rendered this bold
and promising enterprize productive of but little pecuniary advantage.
Nothing, however, has occurred, to prove that the adventure would not
have fully answered its intention in time of peace, the principal difiiculties
which attended and frustrated it ceasing with the war.
Trade with Since the conquest a very extensive trade has been carried on by the
English country ships importing from Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, all
kinds of piece goods, opium, and other articles, the returns for which havé

quot; There is ao doubt that the Javan cotton would be as good at least, if no*^ better, than
quot; the cotton of the English, whether from Bombay, Madras, and Benga\'» and it might
quot; certainly be produced cheaper; but even suppose that, when cleaned and picked, it cost
quot; ten rix-dollars a pikul, the Javans would still be well paid.^\'

been usually made by bills, gold-dust, bees-wax, tin, Japan camphor, sago,
and teak timber.

The piece goods of Western India have always formed an extensive article
of import into Java, and the annual value of those latterly imported cannot
well be estimated at less than a million of dollars. Those generally meet a
ready sale, at an advance of from thirty to forty per cent, upon the prime
cost in India, and much more when the supply is scanty.

In consequence of these heavy and valuable importations, the returns to
Bengal were till lately made principally by bills, obtainable either from
government, or individuals desirous of purchasing colonial produce for the
European market by means of funds in Western India. But there are also
several articles, which experience has proved well calculated for making
their returns direct to Bengal, particularly Japan copper and teak timber.
Java is known to abound with valuable teak forests, and the quality of the
wood has been considered as superior to that of Pegu or the Malabar coast.
The restrictions under which this export was formerly placed as a govern-
ment monopoly, prevented its finding its way beyond the immediate Dutch
dependencies j but the extent to which it was even then sent to the Moluc-
cas, to Malacca, and to the Cape ofXjood Hope, where all the public
buildings are constructed of Javan teak, sufficiently attests the value and
extent of the forests, as well as the good quality and durability of the wood.
This valuable, but bulky article of export, is always in demand for ship-
building in Bengal, and has afforded to the merchant a very liberal profit
on exportation, after paying the present government prices, which are
calculated at something above ten per cent upon the actual expence of
cutting and dragging the timber from the forests to the port of exportation.
During the last two years, large ships have taken cargoes to Bengal, and
afforded very handsome profits. From the neigbourhood of Remhâng,
where permission has been given to individuals to cut the timber, on paying
a duty often per cent, on the estimated value when worked up, it has not
only been exported at a cheap rate to Bengal, but several ships have
been contructed of it, while along the whole line of coast, from Semarang
to Grésik, small vessels and country craft are launched every month.

But although the direct trade with Bengal has thus been always against
Java, the demand for sugar in the Bombay market always afibrds the means
of a circuitous return of capital. Large quantities of Javan sugar have

been exported to Bombay during the last four years, principally on the
returning ships in ballast touching at Batavia on their way from China,
and these cargoes have afforded considerable profit. A lucrative trade in
this article is also sometimes carried on by the Arabs to the Bed Sea, and
particularly to Mocha; but Arab traders, of sufficient capital for these
extensive speculations, have, by the effects of the former monopoly on Java,
long been driven out of the market, and sufficient time has not been given
for them to return.

TradewithEu- The extensivc produce of this fine island in sugar and coffee of superior
quality, and the pepper and various other articles, either yielded by it
or collected from the neighbouring countries, such as sago, tin, Japan
copper, spices, elephants\' teeth, sticlac, long pepper, cubibs, tortoiseshell,
gold, diamonds, Japan wood, ebony, rattans, indigo, amp;c. present fine
subjects for commercial speculation to all parts of Europe and America,
the Cape of Good Hope, and the Mauritius ; and the more so, as from the
extensive native and European population, a very considerable and constant
demand exists for the produce and manufactures of Europe, not only for the
consumption and use of the island itself, but to supply the neighbouring
Malayan states by way of barter.

-inSugar. The quantity of sugar seems to depend almost entirely upon the demand,
and is likely at all times to equal it, few countries affording equal advantages
for its manufacture. Owing to the want of a demand for this kind of
produce, for several years antecedent to the conquest, many of the manu-
factories were discontinued ; but since the trade has been opened and
the demand renewed, many of them have again commenced working,
and the quantity produced in the year 1815 was not less than twenty thou-
sand jyikuls.

The manufacturers being no longer compelled to deliver their produce to
government, can afford to sell the sugar at Batavia at from four to six
Spanish dollars (or from twenty to thirty shillings) per pikul, the quahty
being distinguished into first, second, and third sorts, of which the first
may be bought in the market for exportation at six Spanish dollars per
pilcul, or about twenty.five shillings the hundred-weight. The quality of
this sugar is altogether different from the sugar in Bengal, and is said to be
equal to that of Jamaica, being manufactured in a great measure according
to the same process. While the European market is open for coffee and

other light articles, the sugar of Java is always in demand for dead weight, and
large quantities have recently been sold in the London market as high as
ninety and one hundred shillings per hundred-weight.*

The quantity of coffee delivered to government in the year 1815, ex- -in Coffee,
ceeded seventy thousandnbsp;about thirty thousand ^/Iz^/s more may have

* By an official statement of the quantity of sugar manufactured at Batavia and the various
residencies of the island of Jaya, from the year 1779 to the year 1808, it appears that

that during the first fourteen of these years, the quantity made and delivered over to the
Company for export to Holland, Persia, amp;c..amounted to 642,234 fihuh, or to an average of
47,874 annually, two of these years being almost entirely unproductive, on account of the non-
payment to the manufacturers of money, to enable them to carry on their business. During
the latter half of the period, or from 1794 to 1808, the quantity manufactured and delivered
over to the Company amounted to 917,598 pikuls, averaging 65,542 annually. All the sugar
for export, during this period, as stated in the text, was delivered over at fixed rates to the
government, and was placed under laws of, the strictest monopoly. T o shew the great practi-
cability of an increase to almost any extent, we may adduce the sudden start in the supply occa-
sioned by the American demand in 1800. In no preceding year had this article of produce
been delivered over to the Company to a greater amount than 61,55^ pikuls, and in that year the
quantity sold at Batavia, to Americans alone, amounted to 91,554, and for the subsequent
years averaged 100,000 p^^mZs, and sold for 900,000 Java rupees, or £110,000 sterling. The
principal part of this was manufactured at Batavia, the quantity supplied by Jawana, Japara,
Chéribon, Surabaya, and Semârang, being but proportionally small till 1803, when Japara
contributed to the exports of the island in this article 12,219. In 1804, the same province
supplied 21,175 pikuls. The disadvantage under which the manufacturer laboured, by forced
deliveries at inadequate rates, need not be here insisted on, though it must be taken into the
account in any estimate of the attainable increase of the manufacture.

-f- Mr. Hogendorp makes the following observations on the coffee and pepper of Java:—quot; In
quot; comparing the produce of the West-Indian islands, according to their proportionate extent,
quot; population, and expences of cultivation, I have frequently left off in the middle of my calcu-
quot; lations ; but I am sure that Java, on a very moderate calculation, can without difficulty
yield fifty millions of pounds of coffee annually.

quot; For a long period, the planting of coffee was confined to the Batavian high and Priangen
quot; lands, and to Chéribon, on the principles of that short-sighted and self-destroying policy
quot; and spirit of monopoly, by which the company and the government of Batavia have ever been
quot; characterized. It is only of late years that it has been permitted to extend and revive the
\'\' cultivation in the eastern districts. But the commissioners, in May 1796, ordered that the
cultivation should be abolished ; and in the month of September in the same year, this order

The Batavian arrack is well known in the European market, and was at
one time imported in considerable quantities into the continent of Europe.

quot; was countermanded, and the planting of coffee ordered to be promoted in the most rigorous
quot; manner possible. But what is to be expected from a country, where the natives are so
quot; treated, so oppressed? To-day the Javan is ordered to plant his garden with coffee trees:
quot; he does so, and although well aware how little he will get for the fruit, he sees them grow
quot; up with pleasure, considering their produce as a tribute which he must pay to his master for
quot; enjoyment of protection; but now, when they are about to bear fruit, he is ordered to root
quot; them out: he does so, and four months afterwards he is again ordered to plant others! Can
quot; a more infamous tyranny be imagined ? Can it be credited, that any government should act
quot; so madly, so inconsistently ? And yet this is the plain and real truth. But how can stupid
quot; ignorance, which by the vilest means, by base meanness, mercenary marriages, and every
quot; kind of low trick, rises into power and importance, and then becomes by wealth luxurious,
quot; and by flattery intoxicated, act otherwise ? And will you, Batavians, continue to trust in
quot; such hands as these your valuable possessions and interests in India?

quot; Pepper grows but slowly on any soil, and is so nice with regard to it, that in some places,
quot; where to all appearance there would be an abundant produce of the plant, it will not grow
quot; at all. The vine requires four or five years to produce fruit. The improvident Javan, who
quot; under the present despotic administration can and will scarcely provide for his daily subsis-
quot; tence, finds this too long a delay between his labour and its reward: having, therefore, no
quot; sufficient motive to pursue the cultivation cheerfully or actively, he can only be driven to it
quot; by force ; but let him once experience the advantage of property in land ; let him see the
quot; trader ready with plenty of money to purchase the fruits of his labour; let him, if he should
quot; still be idle, observe his more industrious neighbour acquire wealth, by the sale of those
quot; articles which he slothfully declines to cultivate, and with it procure the necessaries or con-
quot; veniencies of life, and he will soon be induced, by emulation and the desire of ameliorating
quot; his condition, to plough and plant his ground. The island of Java will then produce a con-
quot; siderable quantity of pepper, for which, if the cultivator obtains twelve rix-dollars ^er piJcul,
quot; he will be amply paid.

quot; Although every thing goes on with difficulty at first, and it cannot be denied that it will
quot; require time and trouble to stimulate the Javans, who are now confounded, as it were, with
quot; tyranny and oppression, to industry and emulation, it is notwithstanding equally certain,
quot; that an improved system of administration, founded on property of the soil, freedom of
quot; person and trade, would by degrees, though perhaps much quicker than may be imagined,
quot; bring about such a change, and that Java might and would produce as much pepper for
« exportation annually as coffee, or about two hundred thousand pikuls, which will bring
« three thousand six hundred rix-dollars into the country.quot;

In the year 1801, it was estimated by one of the first commercial houses in Europe,
that the following quantities of pepper might be obtained from different ports of the Archipe-
lago.

« At Bencoolen, belonging to the English, may be had about twelve hundred tons of
quot; pepper per annum.

It is distilled in a great measure from molasses, in which respect, as well as
in the process employed, it differs so materially from the arrack of conti-
nental India, that it cannot with propriety be considered as the same spirit:
it is in fact vastly superior to it, and capable of competing in the European
market with the rum of the West Indies. Its price at Batavia, where any
quantity can at all times be procured, is for the first sort about sixty Spanish
dollars, for the second sort fifty, and for the third thirty Spanish dollars the
leaguer; the first sort, which is above proof, thus selling by the leaguer of
one hundred and sixty gallons, at the rate of about twenty pence the gallon.
In consequence of the prohibitory duties against the importation of this
article into Great Britain or British India, this branch of commerce has
latteriy declined, and many of the distilleries have been discontinued.

T^he Dutch possessions of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, and the OfRke.
Moluccas, dependent on the government of Batavia, always received their
principal supplies of rice from Java, and considerable quantities have of late
been occasionally exported to those places, as well as the Coromandel coast,
with great advantage. During a scarcity of grain in England, the Java
rice has also found its way to that market.*

quot; At Prince of Wales Island, belonging to the Enghsh, may be had at- present only one
quot; hundred tons per annum: in a few years it will be five hundred tons.

^^ « At Susu, on the west coast of Sumatra, belonging to the King of Acheen, may be had
quot; one thousand tons per annum.

At Tringdno and Kdanton, belonging to a Malayan prince, may be had about two
quot; thousand tons per annum : the Europe Portuguese ships often call at these ports on their wav
quot; to China.nbsp;^

At Palembang: the Dutch have a small fort here, and oblige the king to send all his
quot; pepper to Batavia; it may be about seven hundred tons per annum.

quot; At Lampung, on the south point of Sumatra: the Dutch have a small fort here, and they
quot; send all their pepper to Batavia; it may be about five hundred tons.
« At Bantam may be had five hundred tons : this belongs to the Dutch.

sends all his pepper to Batavia; it may be about twelve to fifteen hundred tons per annum

At Chintahun, near Siam, belonging to the King of Siam, may be had one thousand ton^
quot; per annum: this goes to China in the king\'s junks.quot;
* quot; Ceylon, it may be observed, will consume two thousand koyans annually (four thousand
tons). There is also a ready market at the Cape of Good Hope, for one thousand k6yans
quot; a year. A scarcity of this grain frequently happens on the coast of Coromandel, when thi
quot; import of it froiu Java will yield great profit, if the traders are permitted to export it. Tlie

From Europe tlie most important imports, and those in constant demand
for the native population, are iron, steel, copper, printed cottons of a
peculiar pattern, and woollens. Of iron not less than from one thousand
to fifteen hundred tons are annually imported, which is worked up into the
implements of husbandry, and into the various instruments, engines, and
utensils, required in the towns and agricultural districts. The price has
varied, during the last four years, from six to twelve Spanish dollars: the
average has been about eight dollars per hundred-weight for the English, and
about nine per hundred-weight for the Swedish iron. The small bar iron
is always in demand in the market, in consequence of its convenience for
working up into the different implements required. Steel is also in demand,
to the extent of two or three hundred tons annually.

English printed cottons, of peculiar patterns adapted to the taste of the
natives and Chinese, and white cotton sheeting cloth, always meet a ready
and extensive sale j but the great objection to the former is the want of
permanency in the colours, a disadvantage which all the English printed
cottons labour under. A very extensive and valuable assortment of these
cottons, imitated after the Javan and Malayan patterns, was recently im-
ported into Java by the East-India Company, and on the first sale produced
very good prices ; but before a second trial could be made, the natives had
discovered that the colours would not stand, and the remainder were no

« general freedom of commerce and navigation, and the encouragement such freedom hoUs
quot; out to the merchant, will establish and extend a ready communication and friendly relation
quot; between Batavia and the trading places of India. In the article of rice, Java possesses advan-
« tages superior to Bengal; for although this grain is generally very cheap there, yet the na-
quot; Vigation from and to Bengal is always more difficult than that from and to Java, from whence,
at all seasons of the year, the passage may be made to most parts of India : and in Bengal
it often happens, that the rice is very scarce and dear, and even that a famme rages there.
On the island of Java, on the contrary, although the crops may sometimes partially fail
« in a few places, a general and total failure never happens : at least there is no instance of it
« on record It may also be considered, whether the exportation of rice from Java to Europe
quot; might not become an object of speculation. The cargo of a ship of five hundred lasts, or
quot; kdyans, would only cost fifteen thousand rix-dollars, which cannot be reckoned at more than
quot; thirty thousand guilders; and the k6yan being calculated at three thousand five hundred
pounds, the only question would be, what would be the value of one million seven hun rea
quot; and fifty thousand pounds of rice in Europe, and if the undertaking would afford a
« able gain? Even China is sometimes much in want of rice, and the export of it o at

quot; country would often, if not always, turn out very advantageous.quot;—HogenflJorp.

Rice was exported both to England and China, during the provisional admimstration ot the
British government on Java.

longer in any demand. Would it not tend greatly to the improvement of
the British manufacture, and consequently greatly extend the export, if
the enquiries of scientific men in India were directed, in a particular man-
ner, to an observation of the different dye stuffs used in Asia, and to the
manner followed by the natives in different parts, for fixing the colours and
rendering them permanent ?

Broad cloths, velvets, glass-ware, wines, and in short all articles of con- Broad-
sumption and use among Europeans, may on Java be considered also, in a
great measure, in demand by the native population, who free from those
prejudices which preclude an expectation of the introduction of European
manufacture into Western India, generally indulge in them according to
their means. The climate of many parts of the island renders the broad
cloth, particularly at some seasons of the year, an article of great comfort,
and among the higher orders it is usually, as with Europeans, worn as a
jacket: sometimes this is of velvet. A constant demand, limited only
by the means of the purchaser, is also daily increasing for gold lace
and the other European manufactures used in dress, furniture, sadlery,
amp;c.; it may therefore be easily conceived, to what an extent the demand
for these articles is likely to be carried, among a native population of more
than four millions and a half of souls, advancing in wealth and intelligence.

It is unnecessary to notice the extent of the articles required from
Europe by the European population, as they are the same in all parts of
India. The demand is, of course, partially affected by the extent of the
military force, and by the wants of the officers ; but where there is a per-
manent resident European population, of not less than a thousand souls,
generally in good circumstances, it may be inferred that the demand is
always great.

A continual traffic is carried on between Batavia, the Isle of France Trade with the
and the Cape of Good Hope, by which the latter in particular is supphed a\'ld tL c^quot;.\'^^
with timber, rice, oil, and a variety of articles of consumption, the voyage
being frequently effected in five weeks. While the Bourbon coffee bore a
higher price in the European market, considerable quantities of coffee were
sent from Java to that island, and from thence re-exported as Bourbon coffee.

The American trade was carried to the greatest extent during the exis- with Ame-
tence of the anti-commercial system of the late French ruler, when Ame-
rican traders purchased the Java coffee at the rate of eighteen Spanish
dollars the pikul at Batavia, and by a circuitous^ route imported it into

France, at an advance of one hundred per cent. During this period, the
purchases of the Americans in the market of Batavia, amounted in some
years to nearly a million sterling, for which they obtained principally sugar,
coftee, and spices.

DutchTieguia- Haviug thus given some account of the internal and external trade of
Java as it at present exists, of the advantages for an extensive commerce
which it enjoys, of the articles which it can supply for the consumption of
other countries, and those which it receives in return for its own con-
sumption, and of the places with which its dealings are or might be most
projfitably conducted on both sides, I might now be expected to enter into
the history of that trade since the subjection of the island to the Dutch,
the regulations enacted and enforced by them, for restraining or directing
it, and the fluctuations it has undergone during two centuries of a rigid
monopoly j but this inquiry would lead me to swell this part of the work to
a disproportionate size. I shall now merely present my readers with a few
extracts from the orders made in 1767gt; and strictly enforced throughout
the Archipelago, for regulating the trade and navigation of the dominions
subject, to Batavia, and with a brief abstract of the amount of exports and
imports during some of the subsequent years.

« All persons whatever,quot; says the first article of those orders, quot; are
quot; prohibited, under ^am of death, from trading in the four fine kinds of
quot; spices, unless such spices shall be first bought of the Company.quot; Opium
was placed under the same restrictions, and enforced by the same penalty.
The exportation of pepper, tin, and Japan copper was prohibited, unless
bought from the Company; and the importation of them not permitted,
except for sale to the Company, under the penalty of confiscation, and a
fine of four times the value of the article. The import and export of Surat
silks and of India cloths were strictly prohibited under the same penalty.
White cotton-yarn and all other sorts of it, Semarang arrack, and unstamped
gold, were prohibited from being exported under the penalty of confis-
cation. No port was open to any vessel coming from the northward or
from the Moluccas, except Batavia. No prdhu or vessel was to carry any
greater quantity of gunpowder and shot, than might be permitted, and
regularly entered in the pass given to the party, under penalty of confisca-
tion of the vessel, and the infliction of a corporal punishment similar to that
inflicted for tJieJt. All persons belonging to the coast of Java were strictly
prohibited from saiHng from any part of the coast where there was not a

Company^s Resident. No navigation was allowed to be carried on by the
vessels of Bânka and BUiton, except to BaUmbang. All navigation from
Celebes and Sumbâwa was prohibited, under pain of confiscation of the
vessel and cargo. No vessel from the latter place could pass Malacca, and
the Company\'s pass to proceed to Siak was given only once in a year to
three vessels from Batavia, two from the coast of Java, and one from
Chéribon. The China junks were only permitted to trade at Batavia and
Banjer-mdsin. No trade or navigation whatever was permitted beyond the
west point of Bantam without a pass from Batavia. Such are the most
important of thirty-one articles of restriction, serving to shackle every
movement of commerce, and to extinguish every spirit of enterprise, for
the narrow selfish purposes of what may be called the fanaticism of gain.
After perusing them, the reader will rather be inclined to think the follow-
ing amount of the trade too highly stated, than be surprised that it is so low.

The precious metals have always been a great article of import into Java, Amount of ex-
as well as into the other regions of the East. In 1770 there was imported
into Java from Holland, cash and bullion to the amount of 2,862,176 Java
rupees,* and the sums imported from other quarters in the same year,
and raised by bills of exchange on Holland, amounted to 1,419,565 rupees,
making in all 4,281,742, or more than half a million sterling. The amount
imported in that year was almost as great as that in any subsequent year
till 1803, when the importation of precious metals was estimated at
7,617,122 rupees, or nearly a million sterhng. This period corresponds
with that of the greatest exportation of sugar by the Americans, who, no
doubt, imported the precious metals in exchange for their cargoes, as the
quantity brought from Holland in the same year amounted only to 448,370
rupees. In the following year (1804) the quantity imported was 6,499,001
rupees, of which none at all came from the mother country. In forty
years, from 1770 to 1810, the total of the imported precious metals
amounted to 118,607,472 Java rupees, or nearly three millions annually
upon an average. A great portion of this was re-exported to India, China,
and the Dutch possessions in the Archipelago, to pay for the articles
brought to Batavia for the supply of the European demand. The quantity
of goods imported from all quarters of the globe, exclusive of cash and
bullion, amounted in the year I77O to the value in Spanish dollars of
2,350,316, and the exports to 3,318,161, leaving a balance in favour of

the exports of 867,845 Spanish dollars. A great part of the exports was
destined for Holland, and a great part of the imports came from Holland.
The imports from Holland were again re-exported to China, Japan, the
Spice ^Islands, amp;c. from which, and from Bengal, Ceylon, the coasts of
Coromandel and of Malabar, and the Cape of Good Hope and other
eastern countries, the other shipments came, and to which the other
exports proceeded. The profits on the sale of that portion of the imports
of 1770, disposed of in the market of Batavia for the consumption of
Java, are stated at 7,895 Spanish dollars, so that, so far as the import
\' trade was concerned, Batavia only became the entrepot between the mother
country and her other possessions or stations of commercial resort in the
Indian seas. The exports of Java almost every year exceeded the imports,
as will appear from official returns which follow.

Spanish Dollars.

5,8^3
738,630
404,043
S43,630

391,353

1,013,842

1,133,117

663,368

874,500
139,441
15,781

127,782
682,356
116,113

67^,414

There was, of course, a lamentable falling off in the foreign trade of Java
after the commencement of the war of the French revolution: some of
the best markets were almost entirely closed to it, and the intercourse with
the mother country was nearly destroyed. The total of exports to Holland
and her eastern possessions, from the year 1796 till 1806, amounted in value
to only 7»097,963 Spanish dollars; the imports to 3,073,894^ Spanish dol-
lars ; leaving a surplus of exports of 4,024,069 Spanish dollars. The
Americans began to frequent the market of Batavia in 1798, and through
them principally was the trade carried on till the conquest of the island by
the British, except during the short interval of the peace of Amiens. No
specie (with which Holland chiefly paid for her eastei\'n commodities) was
imported from the mother country from 1795 downwards, except during
1802-3 and 1803-4, during which there was only the very inconsiderable
sum of about half a million of rupees imported.

It is impossible to convey a just idea of the native or foreign trade of state of the
Java, without adverting to the commercial and political state of the other
islands of the Archipelago. Of these it may be stated generally, that the
interior is possessed by the natives, collected under leaders who have taken
advantage of the great extent of the country, in proportion to its popula-
tion, to render themselves independent of the lawful sovereign 5 that the
coast is occupied, in many places, either by pirates, by some of the ruder
tribes whom it is dangerous to invade, or by adventurous traders, chief!}\'
Maldyus andnbsp;These traders arrive in well-armed vessels, which

some of them remain to protect j others travel up the country, not unfre-
quently to the distance of a hundred miles, and at the change of the mon-
soon return to their companions, charged either with plunder, or with the
fruits of a commerce carried on with the natives at an exorbitant profit.
The pirates, as they drive the peaceable and honest trader from the coast,
recruit their numbers from among the seafaring men to whom he used to
give employment. The decay of commerce is accelerated j and the natives
retreat into the interior, where, for want of a market, they cease to collect
the rich productions of their country, and rapidly sink into poverty and
barbarism. The sea and the coast remain a scene of violence, rapine, and
cruelty. The mouths of the rivers are held by lawless banditti, who inter-
rupt the trade of those who inhabit their banks, and capture the vessels
destined for the inland towns: the bays and harbours are entirely within
their power; and in these smooth seas they are never driven a moment from

their stations, or diverted by danger from their predatory vigilance. The
sovereigns of the country nave too little authority over their nominal sub-
jects ; and their resources are too confined for them to oppose any effectual
resistance to these outrages. All restraints are withdrawn by the divisions
and weakness of the native governments 5 and men, rendered desperate by
the experience of lawless violence, are induced to join in the system of
plunder against which they can find no protection.

This extensive, rich, and beautiful clustre of islands is thus deprived of
all the advantages which it might derive from the sea with which it is
surrounded j its harbours become the retreats of marauders, instead of the
resort of peaceful commerce ; its seafaring people are reduced to a state of
nature. Where force decides right, no sovereign is possessed of paramount
authority to sweep this pest from his shores j no vessel is safe, no flag is
respected. The trade is thus confined to desperate adventurers only, to
whom the existence of piracy is more advantageous than the unmolested
security of navigation, as the danger which it creates drives away all com-
petitors of a less daring character, and gives them a monopoly of these
ports. It is too true, also, that European traders have materially contri-
buted to quot;the strength of the pirates, by the supply of arms and ammunition.
At the port of Sambas, European vessels had not dared to touch openly for
twenty years; but such means of resistance as the pirates were found to
possess in two recent attacks upon it, could never have been collected
without large supplies from British traders.

The small colonial craft, so necessary for the prosperity of these regions,
cannot without great risk venture beyond the coast j while armed Malayan
and Bugisnbsp;and a few European speculators, engross most of the

The above observations apply more particularly to the coasts of Borneo
and the adjacent islands; but they are, in a great measure, applicable to
many parts of Sumatra. The unfortunate king of Acheen, who has
long been intimately connected with the British establishments, is a young
man of estimable quahties, with a title ancient and undisputed, though
perhaps a weak prince. All his chiefs acknowledge his authority, though
none submit to his control. Native traders from the coast of Coromandel,
and Europeans from Pinang, frequent every river; and the profit derived
from their deahngs furnishes the inhabitants with inducements and means
to throw off* their allegiance. The king, too feeble to reduce the revolters,

is only able to keep up a state of continual alarm and warfare, to which the
mutual jealousies among the petty usurpers themselves maiJly contribute^
The trade of his dominions is in a great measure carried on like smug lin
by armed boats running out at a favourable moment, hiding themselves^from
danger, or fighting their way through opposition, as occasion may require
and laying their account with making up for frequent losses by exorbitant
profits. In some places, these almost independent bands are commanded
by Malabarnbsp;and, in most instances, the petty chiefs whom they

elevate to authority are foreign vagrants. Those places which, from their
vicinity to the residence of the king, are least able to resist his power, are
supported in their opposition by the interests of the English traders and
it is not to be forgotten, that when he made a partial attempt to rec^ain his
authority over all the neighbouring country, they petitioned the European
authority to prevent, by its interference, his levying a duty upon his own
subjects. The petition was attended to; and the king was comnelled by
the command of strangers, to forego the only means by which\'he could
have preserved his dominions from anarchy and confusion. At the period
therefore, when the resources of his kingdom would have been unfolding
themselves, by the improving industry of a well-regulated population, it is
falhng into decay, through the personal imbecillity and political weakness
of the monarch ; and, breaking into detached fragments, is about to form
as n.any separate principalities, as formerly there were independent govern-
ments throughout all the Archipelago*nbsp;^

shores of the Archipelago is highly probable, and that there mie-ht h^ .ov.\' . whSelast-
1 „ 1, J rpi ,nbsp;,quot;e cannot eni Islands

abound, such as spices, camphor, gold and diamonds, and the facilities
which they enjoy for navigation, offer means and inducements of the highest
natuij. The general character of the people, also, as far as it can be ascer-
tained, appears equally favourable to commercial \'intercour se. They are
represented as mild, inofiensive, not indisposed to industry, free from any

* If current report is to be credited, the fate of this unfortunate prince has been at last seal
ed; and the undisputed successor of quot; that great and puissant king,quot; to whom Queen Eli h^^T^
gave an assurance, quot;that far from ever having cause to repent an intercourse with th^E ^^
quot; lish, he should have a most real and just cause to rejoice at itand to whom if
of the English nation, she gave a pledge, quot; that her pi^omises were faithful, because h^
quot; duct of her subjects muld be prudent and sincerequot;—hsis been obliged to Lhdir /I- ^
in favour of the son of a Pinang merchant!nbsp;\' quot;quot;»cate his throne

obstinate prejudices of superstition, and altogether of a different temper from
that of the few who remain in a constant state of warfare on the coast.

Another favourable circumstance is the existence of sovereigns, whose
rights, however infringed, are in principle acknowledged, and who have
never been known to favour, what must be considered the chief misfortune
of these countries and the source of almost all the rest, the horrible system
of piracy. The evil is manifest, and the remedy is not of difficult discovery.
Were legitimate and acknowledged sovereigns assisted in resuming their
due authority, piracy and rebellion might be destroyed, these shores would
be peopled with their native inhabitants, whose industry, awakened and
invited by the opening of a safe navigation to the capitals, would in fleets
of small vessels, so essential to the prosperity of the Eastern settlements,,
bring the produce of the interior down the innumerable rivers, and commu-
nicate to countries beyond the reach of foreign adventurers the comforts of
civilised life.

I A few years of repose to these islands, and of safe uninterrupted commerce
with its attendant blessings, wou Idrepay with gain incalculable, what they
now claim from the benevolence and philanthropy, if not from the justice of
Europeans, who have so essentially contributed to their degradation. If left
neglected, without capital, without a safe navigation, almost without laws,
the government disunited, the people groaning under vassalage and slavery,
these races must descend still further in the scale of degradation, until
scarcely a vestige will remain to vindicate the records of their history ; and
their political existence will only be testified by acts of piracy perpetrated on
defenceless vessels, which from accident or ignorance may visit their inhos-
pitable shores.

In all their eastern settlements, the favourite policy of the Dutch seems
to have been to depress the native inhabitants, and give ever encouragement
to the Chinese, who, generally speaking, are only itinerants and not chil-
dren of the soil, and who follow the almost universal practice of remitting
the fruits of their industry to China, instead of spending them where they
were acquired. The Chinese, in all ages equally supple, venal, and crafty,
failed not, at a very early period, to recommend themselves to the spéculât-
ing Hollanders. They have, almost from the first, been their agents j and m
the island of Java, in particular, they acquired from them the entire monopoly
of the revenue farms and government contracts. Many of the most respect-
able Dutch famihes were intimately connected with the Chinese m their

contracts and speculations, and whole provinces had been sold in perpetuity
to some of them, the extensive population of which were thus assigned over
to their unfeeling oppression, for the purpose of raising temporary supplies
of money.

On Java, the Chinese have been generally left to their own laws and the
regulations of their own chiefs j and being, for the most part, merely tem-
porary residents in the country, they devote themselves to the accumulation
of wealth, without being very scrupulous about the means of obtaining it:
when, therefore, they acquire grants of land, they generally contrive to
reduce the peasants speedily to the condition of slaves. The improvement
of the people, which was never much attended to by the Dutch, was still
less so by the Chinese, and the oppression which they exercised in the
vicinity of Batavia had opened the eyes of the Dutch themselves. A report
of the council of Batavia, a short time prior to the landing of the English,
accordingly states, that quot;although the Chinese, as being the most indus-
quot; trious settlers, should be the most useful, they on the contrary have
quot; become a very dangerous people, and are to be considered as a pest to the
quot; country; for which evil,quot; they add, quot;there appears to be no radical cure but
quot; their expulsion from the interior.quot; Wherever the Chinese formed exten-
sive settlements in Java, the native inhabitants had no alternative but that of
abandoning the district or becoming slaves of the soil. The monopolising
spirit of the Chinese was often very pernicious to the produce of the soil, as
may be seen even at this day in the immediate vicinity of Batavia, where
all the public markets are farmed by them, and the degeneracy and poverty
of the lower orders are proverbial.

The Chinese of Batavia are a very numerous body, and possess considerable
wealth. They are active and industrious, enterprizing and speculative in
the highest degree in the smallest or most extensive concerns, and equally
well adapted for trade or agriculture; but, at the same time, they are
cunning, deceitful, covetous, and restless, and exceedingly unwarlike in
their habits and dispositions. This is the character given of them by Mr.
Hogendorp, who, in considering the injurious consequences of their exten-
sive influence on Java, has drawn a very just and able representation of it.¹

1nbsp; quot; We, the Batavians,quot; says Mr. Hogendorp, quot; or rather our good and heroic ancestors
quot; conquered these countries by force of arms. The Javans, who are immediately under our
jurisdiction, acknowledge the Batavian nation or the East-India Company as their lord or

In all the Malayan states, the Chinese have made the greatest efforts to
get into their hands the farming of the port duties, and this has generally

quot; sovereign; but by so doing, although they resigned their political rights, they still retained
quot; their civil and personal liberty, at least their right thereto. But what relation do the
quot; Chinese bear to us, and what are the rights they can require from us? As foreigners and
quot; itinerant traders, this may be easily defined, but as inhabitants and settlers a further inquiry
quot; becomes necessary. To political rights, or to a share in the government and revenues of the
country, they have not the slightest claim, and as inhabitants, they cannot even claim the
quot; enjoyment of the same civil or personal privileges as the Javans : in the first place, because
quot; they are not natives of the country; secondly, because they take no interest in the welfare
quot; or preservation of the country; thirdly, because they only endeavour to derive their gain at
quot; the expence of the Europeans as well as the Javans, in order to return to China with the
quot; profits they make, or at least to send as much of it as possible to their families there ; fourthly^
f because they have no regard whatever to the welfare of our country, and would be quite
quot; mdififerent to the English, or any other nation, driving us from Java. For these reasons, I
quot; conceive that the Chinese have not the same right as the Javans to the freedom or privilege
quot; of citizens. The basis of all civil communities is incontrovertibly the sacrifice of a part of
quot; the liberty, rights, and even property of each individual, for the enjoyment and security of
quot; the remainder; and this remainder, when fixed, forms the civil freedom and privileges of
quot; such a community. Not only are the Chinese quite exempt from this sacrifice, but they are
quot; also, by the corruption of the Batavian government, much less burthened than all the other
quot; inhabitants, even the Europeans, and are besides favoured with considerable privileges and
quot; exclusive means of gaining wealth. These are facts, which no one who is acquainted with
quot; Batavia can or will contradict.

quot; Were impartial justice to be adhered to, the Chinese would be looked upon and
quot; treated only as foreigners, who are suffered and admitted, as long as it is not injurious to our
quot; interest and safety to settle in our country and under our protection, seeking in trade or
quot; agriculture their means of subsistence and emolument, and to whom, on account of their
numbers, it is allowed by our indulgence, as long as they conduct themselves well and
quot; peaceably, to preserve and practice their own manners and customs, and even in particular
places, to dwell together under their own chiefs.

quot; All the Chinese who come to Java every year in such vast numbers, in the junks from
quot; China or in other vessels from neighbouring places, are the refuse of their nation, and prin-
quot; cipally from a province, the natives of which are considered by their own countrymen the
quot; worst of the whole empire. These people come half naked and poor in the extreme: they
« add, therefore, so many more to the population, which must be supported by the country,
quot; to which however they contribute nothing. It must be acknowledged, they are, particularly
at first, very active, industrious, inventive, and frugal. At Batavia they exercise almost
quot; every useful art, trade, and handicraft, they cultivate and produce the best vegetables, they
quot; work the sugar-mills, and appear therefore to be uncommonly useful and perhaps indispen-
quot; sable.

The trade in the interior, wholesale and retail; the trade to sea, to the opposite shores,
quot; and elsewhere in the Straits, is entirely in their hands, and is almost wholly carried on by

, proved the ruin of the trade. In addition to these circumstances it should
be recollected, that the Chinese, from their peculiar language and manners
form a kind of separate society in every place where they settle, which
gives them a great advantage over every competitor in arranging mo-

them. In all considerable places on the coast, as well as in the interior of Java, they have
« distmct towns, called kampongs, where they live under their own chiefs, and follow their
own customs and manners. Finally, they have exclusively all the farms of the government
^^ taxes and revenues, both in the Company\'s districts and in the dominions of the native
^^ prmces: by which means they are complete masters of all trade, internal and foreign ; and
quot; are enabled to make monopolies in every thing, which they do accordingly in the most
quot; extensive manner. The burthens they have to bear are, on the contrauy, very trifling; in
quot; fact, almost nothing: especially because they are exempt from all feudal and personal ser-
vices, which are so oppressive to the Javans,

. quot; ^^ ^^^ this impropriety and injustice be ascribed but to the government of Batavia ?
quot; / tnbsp;obtained all these favours and privileges by making considerable presents,

quot; and thus sacrificing the interests of the Company and the nation to their selfishness and
« avarice. These arbitrary governors of the East Indies have made the Chinese possessors of
Java ; for I undertake to prove, that the wealth of the Chinese on that island amounts to ten
quot; times as much as the property of all the Europeans added together, and that their profits
quot; every year bear the same proportion.

quot; With reference to their numbers and character, I am of opinion that the following resolu-
« tions regarding them might be adopted: That the Chinese on Java should be allowed to
« remain, and even that further arrivals of them should be permitted; care being taken, how-

61 er y force or fraud : that they be not more favoured than others : that they should con-
tribute a proportionate and equitable share towards the revenues of the state for their enjoy-
quot; ment of the rights of citizenship, in the same manner as other inhabitants, which can best
«« be effected by means of a capitation tax. Uncultivated and uninhabited lands might then be
granted or sold to the Chinese, as well as to the natives, to establish sugar-mills or planta-
tions. ^ By these means, every practicable use and advantage would be derived from them,
« as an industrious and active people, without doing any injury to the other inhabitants, and
especially the Javans as natives of the country : and because they have no interest in our
national welfare, they should be made, as an equitable compensation, to pay a higher rate
to the state. In other respects, they may be completely subjected to our laws, and may
quot; be treated with kindness as well as justice.

quot; The number of Chinese on Java is much greater than is generally imagined, and annually
more of tbem arrive by thousands. By connexions with the native women, their families
quot; increase in inconceivable numbers. These half-Chinese retain the language, religion, man-
quot; ners, customs, and even the dress of their fathers ; and are generally called pernakans
although that name is also frequently applied exclusively to those Chinese who embrace the
quot; Mahometan religion; and these, as a separate class of people, have their own chiefs or
quot; sometimes confound themselves with the Javans, and can only be distinguished by their
quot; %hter complexion.quot;

nopolies of trade. The ascendancy of the Chinese requires to be cau-
tiously guarded against and restrained ; and this, perhaps, cannot be better
done, than by bringing forward the native population, and encouraging
them in useful and industrious habits.

Some of these observations regarding the Chinese are, in a high degree,
applicable to the Arabs who frequent the Malayan countries, and under the
specious mask of religion prey on the simple unsuspicious natives. The
Chinese must, at all events, be admitted to be industrious j but by far the
greater part of the Arabs are mere useless drones, and idle consumers of
the produce of the ground : affecting to be descended from the Prophet
and the most eminent of his followers, when in reality they are commonly
nothing better than manumitted slaves, they worm themselves into the
favour of the Malayan chiefs, and often procure the highest offices under
them. They hold like robbers the offices which they have obtained as syco-
phants, and cover all with the sanctimonious veil of religious hypocrisy.

Under the pretext of instructing the Malayus in the principles of the
Mahometan religion, they inculcate the most intolerant bigotry, and render
them incapable of receiving any species of useful knowledge. It is seldom
that the east is visited by Arabian merchants of large capital, but there are
numerous adventurers who carry on a coasting trade from port to port, and
by asserting the religious claims of Sheikh, generally obtain an exemption
from all port duties in the Malayan States. They are also not unfrequently
concerned in piracies, and are the principal promoters of the slave trade.

This may serve, in some degree, to illustrate the necessity of establishing
an equal and uniform system of port regulations thoughout the whole of the
Malayan countries ; for if the Chinese, on the one hand, are permitted to
farm import and export duties in different ports, they have every facility
allowed them to form combinations, in order to secure a monopoly to
Chinese traders ; and on the other hand, if the Arabs, under religious
pretexts are entirely exempted from duties, they may baffle all competition,
Ind engross the trade of the Malayan countries to the exclusion of Euro-
pean traders altogether.

regulated ; and above all, let them not be left in the enjoyment of immu-
nities

aities and advantages, which are neither possessed by Europeans nor the
indigenous inhabitants of the country. Since the reduction of the Dutch
influence in the east, several of the ports formerly dependent on them have
almost become Arab colonies. The evil is obviously increasing every day,
and can only be checked by encouraging the native population, and regu-
lating on equal terms the duties of the Malayan and other eastern ports.

In many other respects besides those which we have stated, the commer-
cial policy adopted by the Dutch, with regard to the Eastern Islands and the
Malayan states in general, was contrary to all principles of natural justice,
and unworthy of any enlightened and civilized nation.*

* Among the exports from Java for the Europe market, no particular notice has been taken
in the text of the extent of the spice trade, the produce of the Moluccas having, during the
provisional administration of the British government, been conveyed direct from Amboina to the
port of London, without being landed and re-assorted at Batavia, as was formerly the case
under the Dutch government.

The sovereign Prince of the Netherlands has, by a solemn act, abandoned his right to the
feudal services of his native subjects in the Eastern Archipelago, but has at the same time
reserved to the state the exclusive monopoly of the spices. It may perhaps have been deemed
expedient, in aid of the finances of Great Britain, that this odious monopoly should have been
permitted to remain for upwards of five years under her uncontrolled dominion; and that,
while the cloves on Amboina were raised by forced services, the nutmeg gardens on Banda
should have been cultivated by slaves. There may have been reasons also which induced her to
continue the system of extirpation in the neighbouring islands, and to act up to those sti-
pulations for depressing these unhappy countries, for which the Dutch have in all ages been so
justly reprobated. But now that the sovereign, to whom they are again ceded, has recom-
menced the Dutch administration in the Eastern Seas, with an appearance of something more
like justice, humanity, and sound policy, than we have been in the habit of witnessing for the
last two centuries, it is to be hoped that the profits of two annual cargoes of spices, whatever
they may amount to, will never be considered of sufficient importance to tempt a great and
magnanimous nation longer to trample on the hallowed rights of humanity, and to persevere
in a system, which, while it may have aflForded a temporary profit, has tended to degrade,
depopulate, and destroy the fairest countries in creation. If the nutmeg and clove-trees
were allowed to grow where Providence would seem to have ordained that in their natural
course they should, and this trade were opened to a free commerce, nutmegs might perhaps
be procured as cheap as betel-nut, and cloves as cheap as pepper.

quot; In the Spice Islands,quot; observes Adam Smith, quot; the Dutch are said to burn all the spice-
quot; ries which a fertile season produces beyond what they expect to dispose of in Europe, with
quot; such a profit as they think sufficient. In the islands where they have no settlements they
quot; give a premium to those who collect the blossoms and green leaves of the clove and nutmeg
quot; trees which naturally grow there, but which this savage policy has now, it is said, cora-
quot; pietely exterminated. Even in the islands where they have settlements, they have very much
reduced, it is said, the number of those trees. If the produce even of their own islands was

From authentic accounts it appears, that they attempted to destroy and
eradicate from a vast range of countries the most advantageous produce of
the land, in order to favour their own petty traffic, and burnt a large pro-
portion of the residue, in order to keep up their monopoly price in Europe
on a small proportion of this produce. Against errors of this kind, it is to
be hoped the more enlightened policy of the present era will be an effectual
preventative ; but there are others, so interwoven with the interests of these
islands, and so local in their nature, that they may not so easily attract the
attention of the governing power.

One feature of the Dutch policy in the Eastern Isles seems to have been
the exclusion of all foreign trade, whether European or native ; excepting
at certain specified ports under their own immediate controul. This policy
was as much connected with the general government of the country, as
with the commercial profits of the company ; for in an Archipelago of such
unparalleled extent, inhabited by tribes of such various characters, formi-
dable in a high degree from their very want of civilization, it was necessary
to bring forward some of the most powerful and most favourably situated of
these numerous states, and to hold them answerable for the proceedings of
the several districts under their influence. Such views gave rise to the esta-
blishment of certain regular and determined trading ports, and led to the
vigilant suppression of all attempts at competition and independence on the
part of the inferior states.

Had this measure been combined with a liberal encouragement of the
home trade as it may be denominated, between these privileged ports esta-
blished by the Dutch and the various countries under their influence, little
doubt can be entertained, that it would have tended materially to promote
the civilization and general improvement of all the neighbouring nations.

much greater than what suited their market, the natives, they suspect, might find means to
quot; convey some part of it to, other nations ; and the best way, they imagine, to secure their own
quot; monopoly, is to take care that no more shall grow than what they themselves carry to
quot; market. By different acts of oppression, they have reduced the population of the Moluccas,
quot; nearly to the number which is sufficient to supply with fresh provisions and other necessaries
» of life, their own insignificant garrisons, and such of their ships as occasionally come there
quot; for a cargo of spices. Under the government of the Portuguese, however, these islands are
quot; said to have been tolerably well peopled,quot;

Had Dr. Smith written at the present day, he might have heightened the picture by observing,
that so far from even being able to supply the garrisons, these islands have long been considered
incapable of raising sufficient supplies for their own subsistence ; they have for many years de-
pended almost entirely on Java for rice and the common necessaries of life, and latterly supplies
have been sent to them from Bengal.

Very different, however, was the object of tlie Dutch agreements with the
different rajas of the Eastern Archipelago. In some cases it was to secure a
monopoly of all the tin, pepper, camphor, and other saleable articles pro-
duced in their dominions ; in others, it was to bind the chiefs themselves to
destroy the only saleable articles that their country could furnish, lest the
monopoly price of the Dutch should be injured by a greater quantity of such
produce being brought to market. The Dutch genius, though exclusively
devoted to commerce, has never yet been able to discover the truth of the
maxim, that in the long run it may be as gainful quot; to make small profits
quot; on large sales, as large profits on smaller salestheir policy, on the
contrary, has not been inaptly compared to a man putting out one of his eyes
to strengthen the sight of the other.

It must be admitted, that the line of conduct pursued by the English
towards the Malayan nations, had by no means been of a conciliatory or
prepossessing character. Our intercourse with them had been carried on
almost exclusively through the medium of adventurers, little acquainted
with either the country or people, who have been frequently more remark-
able for boldness than principle.* Indeed, the want of any settled basis of
traffic, and the long indifference of the British government to the com-
plaints of either party, had produced so many impositions, reprisals, pira-
cies, and murders, that any eastern trader must have felt himself very much
m the situation of a dealer in spirits, tobacco, and blankets, among the
Indians of North America. It was the remark of Mr. Farquhar, than
whom no man is more extensively acquainted with the interests and re-
sources of East insular India, that the indifference of the British government
must have originated .solely in the want of information or incorrectness of
knowledge; since it is not improbable, that the riches of Sumatra and
Borneo are equal to those either of Brazil or New Spain ; and it is only
from the disadvantages under which we had hitherto entered into the com-
petition, that these great sources of wealth had so long been engrossed
by other nations.!

* This general remark is not intended to apply to the traders of Pinang (Prince of Wale$\'s
Island), who are in general well-informed and most honourable in their dealings, possessing
great experience in the trade, and acquaintance with the habits and character of the natives:
but this establishment is comparatively of recent date, and the very general view here taken
has reference to the intercourse which has subsisted during the last century.

t See an able report on the Eastern Islands, by R. T. Farquhai\', Esq. late Lieutenant-Go-
vernor of Prince of Wales\'s Island.

The doctrine, that a colony should always be considered a distant pro-
vince of the mother country, has been foreign to the poHtical creed of the
Dutch; and at any rate the radical want of strength in the government of
Batavia may have prevented them from venturing to act upon it. Of course,
they must always have contemplated the prosperity of the eastern tribes with
the invidious regret of a rival shopkeeper, and regarded their progress in civi-
lization with the jealousy of a timid despot. The fact sufficiently establishes
the truth of this remark.

Independently of the effects of the European influence just described,
the causes which have tended most to the depression of the Malayan tribes,
and the deterioration of their character, are the civil commotions to which
every state is liable, from the radical want of strength in the sovereign ;
the constant wars between petty chieftains and heads of villages ; the ill-
defined succession to the throne, from the doctrine of primogeniture being
imperfectly recognized ; the prevalence of piracy in all the Eastern Seas ;
the system of domestic slavery, and all its concomitant evils, as wars for
the purpose of procuring slaves, and the want of confidence between family
and family, man and man ; the want of a generally-established and recog-
nized system of laws, civil and criminal ; the want of a similar system of
commercial regulations respecting port duties, anchorage, and other charges,
to prevent arbitrary exactions and impositions in the various Malayan ports ;
and, finally, the monopoly of the trade assumed by the Malayan rajas. Had
Java remained permanently annexed to the British crown, the redress of
these evils would have been, in a great measure, in the power of the English
nation: the undertaking would have been worthy of their general cha-
racter, and there was no other nation that could have possessed the means
in an equal degree, even if it had indeed possessed the inchnation.

The prevalence of piracy on the Malayan coasts, and the light in which
it was viewed as an honourable occupation, w^orthy of being followed by
young princes and nobles, is an evil of ancient date, and intimately con-
nected with the Malayan habits. The old Malayan romances, and the
fragments of their traditional history, constantly refer with pride to piratical
cruizes.

In addition to other causes, which I shall not stop to specify, the state
of the eastern population and the intolerant spirit of the religion of Islam
have eminently tended to increase the practice. The Arab Sheikhs and
Sayeds, whatever doctrines they failed to inculcate, never neglected to

Eastern Isles which have not embraced the religion of Islam to thi^s d ^
and consequently are reckoned infidels : cruizes against such were aid
are, c^onstantly certain of receiving the approbation of all the Arab teachers
settled in the Malayan countries. The practice of piracy is now an evil so
extensive and formidable, that it can be put down by the strong hand
alone ; though precautions against its recurrence might be taken, by render-
ing, under the system of acknowledged ports, every chieftain answerable for
his own territory.

keeping down these regions quot; in a state of bondage, ignorance, and blood.»
In the beginning of the year 1805, the Marquis Wellesley abolished
slavery throughout India; and, on the 4th of June, 1811, the Earl of
Minto, by an order to emancipate all the government slaves at Malacca
and to direct that hereafter no slaves should be purchased or received on quot;
account of government, gave to the Malayan nations an earnest of his sen
t|^«ients on the subject. It is certainly to the credit of our countrymen in
the east, that they have ever opposed all attempts to introduce the abomi-
nable slave traffic into our settlements there. It was prohibited at Madras
by an act of the Governor and Council, of so early a date as 1682.

The sources of slavery in the Malayan countries are chiefly piracy at
sea, captivity in war, man-stealing along the coast, and the penalties
enacted in the Malayan law respecting debts and sundry misdemeanours.
The surviving crews of vessels which fall into the hands of the pirates are
generally disposed of by sale at the first market. The captives taken in the
constant wars which the Malayan chieftains carry on against each other, are
generally employed in domestic occupations, tending cattle, and cultivating
the ground, where there is no opportunity of bringing them to market.
This, however, is seldom the case, since such numbers are constantly
required by the Arabs and Chinese traders, and heretofore by the Dutch
Many of the Arab trading vessels are almost exclusively navigated by the
slaves of the owner ; and in their progress from island to island, they find
little difficulty in recruiting their crew, by receiving presents of slaves or

if that should fail, by kidnapping the unfortunate natives. This forms a
strong argument against admitting the unrestricted range of the islands to
either Chinese or Arab traders, for while this is permitted, the abolition of
the system of kidnapping would be absolutely impossible. The pagan
tribes in the vicinity of the Mahometans, such as those on Bah and some
of the tribes of Celebes, the Harafuras, the black Papûas or oriental negroes,
the original inhabitants of Halamahira, Goram, and other easterly nations,
are in a great measure the victims of the kidnapping system, and being

infidels are considered as fair booty,
want Of Port Nothing has tended mo^e decidedly to the deterioration of the Malayan
Regulation.nbsp;^^^^^ ^he waut of a well defined and generally acknowledged

system of law and commercial regulation. The Malayan nations had, m
general, made considerable progress in civilization, before the introduction
of the Mahometan religion among them: they, had, accordingly, regular
institutions of their own, some of which were probably of considerable
antiquity, derived from the continent of India, and consequently radically

the general tenor of the Mahometan law, and many anomalous ones appear
accordingly to have sprung up in different states. These occur m every
part of jurisprudence, whether commercial, civil, or criminal, and are
recited in the Undangundang and Adat Maldyu, which are the systems ot
national law among the Maldyus. They vary considerably from each other
in different states, and still more from the generally acknowledged princi-
ples of Mahometan law as received by the Arabs. Hence there is, m
almost every state, a constant struggle between the adherents of the old
Malayan usages and the Hdjis, together with other religious persons, who
are desirous of introducing the laws of the Arabs, in order to increase

Among the numerous and important evils which result from this complex
and ill defined system, may be reckoned its affording an opening for the
caprice and tyranny of the rulers, and producing a general insecurity both

the old Mahometan states, such as Persia, Turkey, or Arabia- ^ many
of the Eastern Islands paganism still remains: in some districts tiere are
many Christians, and the Chinese swarm in every Malayan country and

live intermingled with the Mahometans. This mixture of religion and
tribes has tended, in some degree, to soften the intolerance of the Maho-
metan system among the Malayan nations, and neither the positive autho-
rity of Islam, nor the persuasions of their Arab teachers, have hitherto been
able to induce them to abandon entirely their own peculiar usages and
customs. With some of these usages, especially those which relate to
wrecks on the Malayan shores and the commercial regulations of the different
ports, it becomes incumbent on the supreme European authority to inter-
fere. In revising these, the opportunity might perhaps be taken to procure
the abandonment of some of those maxims and usages, which have the
strongest tendency to prevent their improvement and counteract the habits
of civilized life.

A circumstance highly injurious to the commerce of the Malayan
nations is the trading monopoly, which in most of the Malayan ports is
actually assumed by the chiefs. Of this monopoly there is no trace in the
Undang {indang of the Maldyus, or in the fragments of their history
which have yet come to light, and it is a question whether this pernicious
practice has not been copied from the monopoly regulations of the Dutch.
Where this system has been fully carried into effect, it has generally
succeeded effectually in repressing industry and commercial enterprize ;
and where it has been for some time established, its evils have been felt so
deeply, that it may be presumed the Malayan chiefs might be induced to
relinquish it in favour of a regulated commerce, whenever they might
regain the power of collecting regular duties in lieu of it. The Malayan
laws and customs are fortunately of a very different kind from those adopted
among the great nations of the continent in their vicinity. These nations,
especially the Siamese and Cochin Chinese, have long been accustomed to
look up to the Chinese, with whom they coincide in religion and manners,
and from whom they have adopted their exclusive maxims of foreign inter-
course. The Maldyus, on the other hand, though accustomed to look up
to the Arabs as their religious instructors, seldom hesitate to admit the
superiority of both the Europeans and Chinese, both to themselves and to
the Arabs, in the arts of life and general science j and it is certainly our
interest to encourage them in this mode of thinking, and to prevent the
increase of the Arab influence among them.

The Dutch nation appears to have pursued, as a principle of policy, the .
propagation of Christianity among the Eastern Islands. The same object

had been previously followed by the Portuguese with great success, and
there are now several small islands in the Malayan Archipelago, inhabited
almost exclusively by Christians of the Catholic persuasion. In many other
islands the Protestant persuasion has made considerable progress, and
teachers, in the flourishing times of the Batavian Regency, were dispersed
over all the low chain of islands which extend from BdU and Lumbok
{SdsaliT) to the great island Timor. The islands in which the Christian faith
has been most extensively diffused are the great island Ende ox Meng\'ardh
the great island of Timor and the several small islands in the vicinity, and
Amboina. In many of these islands the natives having no written character
of their own, have been instructed in the Roman character, and taught to
read Malayan and other dialects in it. There have also been various formu-
laries printed for their use, and translations have been executed for them in
some of their languages, which have little or no affinity to the Malayan.
The propagation of Christianity among these islands is obviously liable to
none of those objections which have been urged against its missionaries on
continental possessions. A great proportion of the natives are still pagans,
under the influence of a wild and almost unintelligible superstition, the
principles of which are not recorded in books, but are handed down, like
stories of ghosts, fairies, and witches, with all the uncertainty of tradition.
In most instances, the people, though they stand in great awe of the priests
or enchanters, or dealers with invisible spirits, are very little attached to
the superstition in which they are educated. Many of them are said to be
very desirous of procuring instruction, and in some places they look up
with a degree of veneration to the Mahometans, as a people who have
received something which they still want.nbsp;:

These observations on the Malayan Islands in general, apply to no part
of the Archipelago more than to the important and great island of Borneo.

Borneo. BoRNEO is not only one of the most fertile countries in the world, but
one of the most productive in gold and diamonds.* Its camphor is the

* Gold.—From a calculation recently made, it appears that the number of Chinese employed
in the gold mines at Mentrada and other places on the western side of Borneo, amounts to not
less than thirty-two thousand working men. When a mine affords no more than four bengkak
(weighing about two dollars each, or something less than a tahil) per man in the year, it is
reckoned a losing concern and abandoned accordingly. Valuing the beng^al at eighteen
Spanish dollars, which is a low rate of estimation, and supposing only four bengkals produced
in the year by the labour of each man, the total produce is 128,000 bengkals, worth 2,224,000

finest known, and it is thought capable of producing every kind of spice.
Its eastern coasts, which abound in sago, also furnish a greater quantity of

Spanish dollars, equal to £556,000, at the rate of five shillings the dollar. But it is asserted
that upon the general run of the mines, seldom less than six èeug^a/s per head has been obtain-
ed, and m very ramy seasons seven. Taking the medium at six and a half 3engJ^a/s the 32 000

3,744,000 Spanish dollars, equal to £936,000. Such is the result of a very moderate calcula-
tion of the produce of these mines. According to an estimate made in the year 1812, the
annual produce of the mines on the west coast of Borneo was estimated at 4,744,000 Spanish
dollars, being an excess of a milhon sterling. The quantity of gold procured on Sumatra the
supposed golden Chersonesus of the ancients, is according to Mr. Marsden about 30 800
ounces, which at £4gt; sterling the ounce is worth £123,200, equal to 492,800 Spanish dollai.

With respect to the disposal of the gold from the mines of Borneo, it may be observed
that every native Chinese, whether employed in the mines, in agriculture, as merchant or arti^
ficer, manages every year to remit at least the value of one taMl, more or less, of gold to his
relations m China. These remittances are generally made by the junks in gold, as it savesquot;
fre^ht IS more easily smuggled on shore without the notice of the rapacious Mandarin, and
remitted over-land to the residence of their families. Taking the Chinese male population who
can thus remit at double the number employed in the mines, and supposing one half to be
born in the country, most of whom may not remit to China, this remittance would amount to
34,000 èengkals or taMs, which at eighteen Spanish dollars is 612,000 dollars, of £153,000

It is calculated that, one year with another, at least five hundred Chinese return in the
junks to their native country with a competency. Several have been known to take awav
^e thousand èengkak of gold, many from three to five hundred, but very few return before
tney have cleared a competency of two thousand dollars, or from one hundred to one
hundred^ and twenty of gold. This goes partly in gold ; though they prefer investing a
part of It m tin from Banka, opium, and other articles. Say, however, that they remit one
ha f m gold, five hundred men, at one thousand dollars each, will give five hundred thousand
do ars, which added to the small family remittances, accounts for an amount exceeding one
milhon of dollars, or £250,000. This calculation, however, seems to be far within the Lrk,
and gives less by one-half than what is usually stated to be remitted to China from the Bornean
mines, which has been estimated at a loose guess at two millions, of dollars, or £300 000

A further amount of not less than the value of a million of dollars (^250,000) is supposed to
find Its way annually to Western India, and principally to Bengal, ..-.^Batavia, Malacca
and Pinang, for the purchase of opium and piece goods. The surplus enriches Java and some
of the other islands, m exchange for salt, tobacco, coarse cloths, amp;c.

As the mmes are worked with so httle expence of machinery, the funds necessary for
commencing an undertaking of the kind are small; and as the property of the soil belongs to
the first occupant, almost every Chinese would become a proprietor, but from the mode by
which their services are, in the first instance, secured by the council of proprietors or kongsii
A parcel of half starved Chinese, enchanted with the prospect of wealth on the golden shores
of Borneo, readily find a passage in the annual junks that sail from the mother countr ^
Borneo at ten dollars a head. On their arrival being unable to pay the passage moL^^

birds\'-nests, sea-slag, and other commodities in great demand in the
Chinese market, than the other islands of the east; but the interior has

and the tax of a dollar per head, established by the native authority, while their immediate
wants of food, clothing, and habitation, are urgent and imperious, the proprietors of the
mines find it easy to engage their services for three or four years. In some other cases, agents
are employed to obtain men from China, on stipulated agreements, to work for a number of
years ; the usual rate of payment to the miners so engaged is not considered to average
less than five Spanish dollars a month. No sooner, however, are these engagements concluded
with their masters, than a number of them club together with the funds they have been able
to save, and commence anew mine upon their joint account, in a few years acquiring a compe-
tency to return to their native country.

Diamonds.—There appears to be no just foundation for the idea, that the diamonds of Bor-
neo are inferior to those of Golconda. Many of an inferior quality have no doubt found their
way into the market, because there was perhaps less skill and judgment in the selection; but
the value of diamonds here, as well as every where else, depends upon their shape, size, and
water, and in this respect the diamonds of Borneo will bear a comparison with those of any
country yet known. Indeed, as far as we may judge from the present state of our information,
the Landak mines alone are as productive, and its diamonds as precious, as any other in the
world.

The principal mines where diamonds are regularly dug for on Borneo, and found in any con-
siderable quantities, are those of Landak, Sangau on the great river Lawi, and the districts of
Banjer-masin. Diamonds have been occasionally found within the limits of Borneo Proper, at
M^tan and Sukadamp;a. The mines of Landak are as ancient as the Malayan dominion on the
islands, those of Sangau are of more recent date, and those of Banjer-masin are said to have
been first discovered in the reign of Sultan Sepoh, from whom the present sultan is the fourth
in descent.

Diamonds are not only found in the bottom of rivers when dry, but at the foot of craggy
hills and mountains. The parits, or mines, are dug to the depth of from one to five fathoms
only; but experience has invariably proved, that the deeper they are dug, not only are the
diamonds more abundant, but superior in- size, shape and water. The soil which produces
diamonds is known from a species of earth called by the natives labor or labor-gig gi. This is
sometimes black, sometimes white, red, orange, and green: it is a species of earth which stains
the clothes of the labourer, and is distinguished by many names.

At Landak there are ten farHs worked by Chinese, and in each from twenty to thirty
labourers employed. As a general average, eight Chinese are supposed to find about eight
lengkals of diamonds in a year. From two to three hundred of the smallest sort are supposed
to go to a bengkal, valued at from twenty to twenty-four rupees. This is independent of the
larger ones, which are casual. So far back as the year 1738, the Dutch annually exported from
the produce of these mines, diamonds to the value of from two to three hundred thousand
dollars.

Few courts of Europe could perhaps boast of a more brilliant display of diamonds than,
in the prosperous times of the Dutch, was exhibited by the ladies of Batavia, the principal and
only mart yet opened for the Bornean diamond mines, and whence those known in the Eu.

never been explored by Europeans. It may be conjectured, that the igno-
rance of the state of the country, is one of the principal causes that no
European settlement on it has hitherto proved advantageous, but has gene-
rally been abandoned after a short trial. The only exception to this obser-
vation is the Dutch settlement of Bdnjer-mdsin, which continued from 1747
to 1810, when it was formally abandoned by Marshal Daendals to the Sul-
tan, by agreement, for the sum of fifty thousand Spanish dollars. The
Sultan soon after sent an embassy, inviting the English to settle; and pre-
vious to the conquest of Java, the Earl of Minto received the ambassadors
at Malacca and accepted their invitation.

The only territory to which the Dutch had any claim on the island of
Borneo, was the coast from Sukaddna to Mempdwa ; this territory they
acquired by virtue of a cession from the Sultan of Bantam in I778. They
destroyed Sukaddna, and established factories at Pontidna and Mempdwa,

which however they abandoned as unproductive after a period of four-
teen years.

ropean world have been procured. With the decline of the Dutch government, however, the
demand has decreased, and the mines are now almost neglected, the numerous diamond-cut-
ters not being able to obtain a livelihood. Formerly, when more Chinese were employed in
the mines of Landak, diamonds from ten to thirteen carats were common in the public markets.
The Pangeran of Landak now wears one of eighteen, and another of fourteen carats and a half.
Since Java has been in the possession of the English, rough diamonds from Borneo have been
sent to England, and, even in a very unfavourable state of the market, turned out an advan-
tageous remittance.

Among the larger diamonds which these mines have produced, it may not be uninteresting
to naention, that the great diamond now in the possession of the Sultan of Matan, which has
been seen and examined by Europeans, weighs three hundred and sixty-seven carats: it is
of the shape of an egg, indented on one side. It is, however, uncut; and, on this account,
it may be difficult to say, whether it will become the largest cut diamond ever known; for
the famous diamond of Aurung Zebe, called the Mogul, in its rough state weighed seven hun-
dred and ninety-five carats, and was then valued at £600,000, but when cut was reduced to
two hundred and seventy-nine carats. This celebrated diamond, known bj the name of the
Matan diamond, was discovered by a dayak, and claimed as a droit of royalty by the Sultan
of the country, Guru-Laya; but was handed over to the Pangeran of Landak, whose brother
having got possession of it, gave it as a bribe to the Sultan of Sukadina, in order that he might
be placed on the throne of Landak: the lawful prince, however, having fled to Bantam, by
the aid of the prince of that country and the Dutch, succeeded in regaining possession of
his district, and nearly destroyed Sukadana. It has remained as an heir loom in the family
of these princes for four descents, and is almost the only appendage of royalty now re-
maining.

In no other part of the island of Borneo has there been any European
settlement. The English, in I772, intended to have established a factory
at Pasir, hut they abandoned the design on some commotions taking place
in that state. Its object was to make Pasir a depot for opium and India
piece goods, and for the contraband trade in spices. In 1774, a short time
after the first settling of Balambângan, Mr. Jesse was deputed as resident to
Borneo proper, and concluded a treaty with that state, by which he acquired
for the settlement of Balambangan the exclusive trade in pepper, stipulat-
ing in return to protect Borneo from the piratical incursions of the Sûlu and
Mendanawi men. Neither of the parties, however, fulfilled its agreement,
though the Residency at Borneo was continued for some years after the first
breaking up of the settlement of Balambdngan in 1775.

On the north-east of Borneo proper lies a very considerable territory, the
sovereignty of which has been long claimed by the Sulu government ; a
very considerable part of this, together with the islands off the coast
have been for upwards of forty years regularly ceded to the English by the
Sulus, and has also at different periods been assumed by them, without
any objection on the part of the government of Borneo proper. This
ceded district, extending from the river Ki-manis on the north-west, which
forms the boundary of Borneo proper, to the great bay on the north-east,
is undoubtedly a rich and fertile country, though in a rude and uncultivated
state, and it is admirably situated for commerce, notwithstanding the diffe-
rent failures of Balambdngan may seem to indicate the contrary. Balam-
bdngan is one of the small islands off the northern extremity of the island
of Borneo, and included in the Sulu grant to the English. It would be
foreign to the present object to enter into any details concerning the history
of the settlement of Balambdngan, but it may be proper to mention, that
all the gentlemen who were engaged in the last attempt were convinced,
that the bottom of the great Maludu Bay would have been infinitely prefer-
able as a settlement on every account. Balambdngan is exactly analogous,
in every respect, to Pinang ; it does not admit of territorial extension, and
must exist, if at all, by commerce solely. Maludu, on the other hand, is
a dependency on the island of Borneo, which admits of any degree of ter-
ritorial extension, may always subsist any number of inhabitants by its own
produce, and is said to communicate, by a land carriage of little more than
forty miles, with the central lakes in the vicinity of the gold countries.

From every inquiry, however, and the result of some experience and
much reflection, it may be stated, that no settlement which is founded on
a commercial, instead of a territorial basis, is likely to succeed in that
quarter. We have already acquired territorial rights, and therefore the
only question seems to be, whether these cannot be turned to ailvantage, as
well by cultivation as by commerce. The Bdyaks, or original inhabitants of
Borneo, are said to be not only industrious, but particularly disposed to
agriculture, and so manageable, that a handful of Maldyus have, in numer-
ous places, reduced many thousands of them to the condition of peaceful
cultivators of the ground. Indeed, nothing seems wanting but a govern-
ment strong enough to afford efficient protection to person and property.
In the case of the Ddyaks, it must be considered as an advantage, that they
have not hitherto adopted the religion of Islam, and would consequently be
more ready from the first to regard us as their friends. It ought to be cal-
culated among the inducements to form a settlement on Borneo, that in that
quarter our territorial arrangement would interfere with the claims or the
rights of no European nation. To recommend, however, the immediate
establishment of a settlement at this particular spot, and on a basis so new,
would obviously be premature, as, notwithstanding the length of time we
occupied Balambdngan, not only the interior of Borneo was almost unknown,
but until lately, even a great part pf its coasts. This supineness in the
government of Balamhdngan is perhaps not unexampled. The want of local
information has, indeed, often proved fatal to the infant settlements of the
English. quot; Colonies and settlements of every kind,quot; says the author of the
Letter on the Nagrais Expedition, quot; must at first be attended with many diffi-
quot; culties, which however a judicious perseverance will surmount, if there
quot; be not some original fault in the establishment. It must be obvious to
quot; every one, that the English never made a settlement, in which they were
quot; not impeded by some unforeseen difiiculties, so as at least frequently to
« make abandoning the infant establishment appear the most prudent step,
« without even hoping any return for the prodigious expense which may
quot; have been incurred by the undertaking.quot;...quot; Various reasons,quot; adds
that author, quot; may be ascribed for this event 5 but incapacity in the person
quot; entrusted with the management, and the want of previous examination of
quot; the place, seem to me the most common and the most considerable.quot;
Without stopping to inquire how far the want of success in our several

attempts to settle Balambdngan may have been fairly attributable to either
of these causes, it may be confidently asserted, that the last establishment
failed chiefly from its being solely of a military nature, without either pro^
fessional merchants or mercantile adventurers being attached to it.

These observations respecting Balambdngan apply to it chiefly as a terri-
torial establishment; but there is no doubt that it would speedily attain
commercial importance. Many of the commercial advantages which recom-
mended its selection still exist, to an equal or greater extent; especially
those which related to Cochin China, Champa, and Cambodia. But this
digression has already exceeded its reasonable limits, and it is necessary to
revert to the more immediate point under consideration, the commerce of
Java. Any account of this commerce would be imperfect, which after
stating the extent to which it is carried, and the mode in which it is con-
ducted with the adjacent islands in the same Archipelago, should omit to
mention the advantages of an intercourse with Japan and some notices on
the Japan trade.

Japan trade. The history of the Dutch connexion with that country is well known, and
can never be forgotten. Perhaps there is not such an instance in the annals
of commerce, of the disgraceful arts to which mercantile cupidity will resort,
and the degradation to which it will submit for the attainment of its
object, as in the Dutch proceedings at Japan ; nor is there, perhaps, a more
remarkable example of the triumphant success, and complete disappoint-
ment of commercial enterprize. As it may be interesting to many readers
to see an authentic history of the origin, fluctuations, and decline of the
Dutch Japan trade, and as even a very succinct statement of it would swell
this chapter to a disproportioned size, I have placed a short history of it in
the Appendix to this work, to which I beg leave to refer those who have
any curiosity for such details.* From the year I6II, when the Dutch esta-
blished commercial relations with Japan, till I67 I (a period of sixty years),
their speculations.were unrestricted and their profits were enormous. This
was the golden age of their trade : they opened a mine of wealth, and they
fondly thought it inexhaustible, as well as rich and easily wrought. In 1640,
the Company obtained a return in gold, that yielded a profit of upwards of
a million of guilders. They had been accustomed to procure, for some time
previous to 1663, a return of silver, to the extent of two hundred chests of
one hundred pounds each, and it was suggested that it would be desirable

for as many chests of gold, of the same weight, to be sent in future. The
golden and silver ages of Japan commerce being past, the latter half of
the seventeenth century began with what the Dutch called its brazen age,
that is its export of copper, which has ever since continued the staple of the
Japan market. The trade was on the decline during the whole of the last
century, and had become of so little importance about 1740, that the Com-
pany deliberated upon the expediency of its total abandonment. From
employing, as at one time, eight or nine ships and exporting copper alone
to the amount of more than thirty thousand pihuls, of one hundred and
twenty-five pounds each, it diminished to the use of two vessels, and the
purchase of cargoes of five or six thousand pikuls. The Appendix contains
an account of the nature of the trade, and the result of the Dutch adven-
tures of 1804-5 and 1806, and of our own in 1813.

Character of the Inhabitants of Jam.—Difference between the Sundas and the
Jamns.—The Lower Orders,—The Chiefs.—Nature of the Native Govern-
ment.—Different Officers of the State.—Judicial Establishments and Institu-
tions.—haws, and how administered.—Police Institutions and Regulations.
—Military Establishments.—Revenue.

Having, in the foregoing pages, attempted to introduce the inhabitants
of Java to the reader, by an account of their person, their manners, and
employment in the principal departments of agriculture, manufactures,
and commerce, I shall now endeavour to make him, in some degree,
acquainted with their intellectual and moral character, their institutions,
government, and such other particulars as may contribute to enable him to
form some estimate of their relative rank in the scale of civilized society.

Intellectual From what has been stated of their progress in the manufacturing and
agricultural arts, their general advancement in knowledge may be easily
estimated. There are no establishments for teaching the sciences, and there
is little spirit of scientific research among them./ The common people have
little leisure or inclination for improving their minds or acquiring informa-
tion, but they are far from being deficient in natural sagacity or docility.
Their organs are acute and delicate, their observation is ready, and their
judgment of character is generally correct. Like most eastern nations, they
are enthusiastic admirers of poetry, and possess a delicate ear for music.
Though deficient in energy, and excited to action with difficulty, the effect
probably of an enervating climate and a still more enervating government,
they are capable of great occasional exertion, and sometimes display a
remarkable perseverance in surmounting obstacles or enduring labours.
Though ignorant and unimproved, they are far from wanting intelligence in
the general objects of their pursuit, and frequently astonish Europeans by
the ingenuity of their expedients, and the facility with which they accom-
plish difficult operations by apparently inadequate means.

People in a rude state of society are not always prepared to admit their
inferiority, or inclined to adopt manifest improvements: ^hat is much
beyond their skill or their power, may excite their wonder, but does not
always tempt their imitation. This is more peculiarly the case, where
national pride or religious prejudice stand in the way ; and the contempt of
unbelievers, with which the Mahometan system inspires its votaries, leads
them usually to undervalue the acts in which others excel, or the instruc-
tion which they communicate. The Javans, though far from deficient in
national pride, and though Mahometans, are free from this senseless and
pernicious prejudice, and are ready to acknowledge the superiority of the
Europeans, as well as disposed to imitate their arts and to obey their direc-
tion. No people can be more tractable j and although their external
appearance indicates listlessness and sometimes stupidity, none possess a
quicker apprehension of what is clearly stated, or attain a more rapid pro-
ficiency in what they have a desire to learn. The restraints under which
conversation labours by the necessity of using different dialects in addres-
sing different orders of society, as well as the respect paid to superiority of
rank, prevents them from such a frequent intercourse of thought and
opinion as might otherwise be expected, and often renders them, to
appearance, reserved and taciturn, although in fact they are social, cheerful,
and good humoured.

An uninstructed people are often credulous, and the .Tavans are remark- Credulity,
able for their unsuspecting- and almost infantine credulity. Susceptible of
every impression that artifice may attempt to make upon them, and liable
to every delusion propagated by the prejudiced or the designing, they not
inaptly compare themselves to a piece of pure white clothj on which any
dye or shade of colour may be laid. They lend an easy credence to omens,
to prognostics, to prophets, and to quacks. They easily become the dupes
of any religious fanatic, and credit, without scruple or examination, his
claim to supernatural powers. Their profession of Mahometanism has not
reheved them from the superstitious prejudices and observances of an
anterior worship : they are thus open to the accumulated delusion of two
religious systems.

They are great observers of lucky or unlucky days, or natural phenomena
and undertake no journey or enterprize without attending to them. It is
unlucky to\'go any where on the day that you hear of the death of a friend :
the sight of two crows fighting in the air is unlucky: two small birds

(called prenjak) fighting near a house, afford a prognostic of the arrival of
a friend from a distance. Explosions or noises heard from the moun-
tains not only excite terror for their immediate consequences, but are
thought to forebode some great calamity, unconnected with the convul-
sions of nature, of which they are the symptoms, such as a sanguinary war,
a general famine, or an epidemic sickness. The eclipses of the sun and
moon powerfully excite this superstitious spirit, and induce many absurd
notions and observations. Earthquakes furnish certain prognostics, accord-
ing to the day of the month on which they happen. In none of their
superstitions, however, is there any thing of that gloomy, dark, or malig-
nant cast, which distinguishes those of less favoured climates or of more
savage tribes.

Although, on many occasions, listless and unenterprising, their religious
enthusiasm is no sooner excited, than they become at once adventurous
and persevering, esteeming no labour arduous, no result impossible, and
no privation painful. We witnessed an instance, both of their simpHcity
and of their energy, connected with this part of their character, which
excited our astonishment. The population of some of the districts of
Bânyumàs contributed their voluntary labour, in 1814, to the construction
of a broad high road, from the base to the summit of one of the loftiest
mountains on the island (the mountain SumUng), and this extraordinary
public work was almost completed, before intelligence of its commence-
ment reached the government. It was in consequence examined, and found
to be a work of immense labour and care, but without the least appearance
of object or utility. Upon enquiring into the motive of such a singular
undertaking, it was learnt that a general belief prevailed, that there was a
very holy man at the top of the mountain, who would not come down till
there should be a good road made for him. The Madurese are said to be-
lieve, that the spirits of the dead revisit the earth ; but this does not appear

Their prejudices are neither very numerous nor unyielding, and seem
generally to have originated in some laudable feeling or amiable weakness.
Their nationality, which is very strong, although it delights in the tradition-
ary narratives of ancient Javan exploits, and supports a hope of future
independence, which they are not backward to express, does not lead them
to despise the character, or to undervalue the acts of strangers. They have
a contempt for trade, and those of higher rank esteem it disgraceful to

be engaged in it j but the common people are ever rea% to engage in the
labours of agriculture, and the chiefs to honour and encourage agricultural
industry. Those of the highest rank and greatest authority, generally
attend at the opening of new sdwah fields, performing part of the vpork with
their own hands, and leading their inferiors or dependents, as they express
it, to pay respect to the earth, in whose honour they also observe annually
the sedeka humi, or feast to the earth- It is in the same spirit that the
buffalo, as the chief assistant of the husbandman, is viewed with such
pecuhar regard, that in some of the interior districts, new-born infants are
sometimes carried to be breathed upon by them, fi\'om a superstitious belief
that such a ceremony will render them fortunate.

Notwithstanding the despotic nature of their government, and the feudal Patriarchal
principles on which it rests, the Javan must be considered as a patriarchal
people, still retaining many of the virtues, and all the simplicity, which
distinguish that state of society. Their village settlements constitute
detached societies, under their local chief and priest, and the same internal
concord prevails in these little associations which characterises patriarchal
tribes. Vicinity and daily intercourse afford opportunities of conferring
real assistance and acts of kindness : injustice and even violence may some-
times be committed against the inhabitants of other villages but very
seldom by the inhabitants of the same village against each other. The
patriarchal spirit of the Javans may be further traced, in the veneration
which they pay to age, the respect and acquiescence with which they
receive the maxims or the counsels of experience, the ready contented sub-
mission which they shew to the commands o-f their immediate superiors, the
warmth of their domestic attachments, and the affectionate reverence with
which they regard and protect the tombs and the ashes of their fathers. To
the same description of feelings may be referred that consideration for
ancestry, that attention to the line of descent, and that regard to the
history and merits of distant kindred, which in the meanest people appears
often to assume the character of family pride.

These observations apply principally to the inhabitants of villages, at some
distance from the seats of the princes or regents, and the contagion of the
larger capitals, and more particularly to the people of the Sunda districts.
Those of higher rank, those employed about court or in administering to
the pleasures or luxuries of the great, those collected into the capitals or
engaged in the public service, are frequently profligate and corrupt, exhibit-
ing

ing many of the vices of civilisation without its refinement, and the ignorance
and deficiencies of a rude state without its simplicity. The people in the
neighbourhood of Batavia are the worst in the island, and the long inter-
course with strangers has been almost equally fatal to the morals of the
lower part of Bantam. The population collected at the native capitals is
naturally influenced, to a certain extent, by the vices of the court, but the
further they are removed from European influence and foreign intercourse,
the better are their morals and the happier are the people.

In attempting to exhibit some of the more striking features of the Javan
character, it becomes necessary to distinguish between the privileged classes
of society and the mass of the people. Long continued oppression may
have injured the character of the latter, and obliterated some of its brighter
traits; but to the former, the constant exercise of absolute dominion has
done a more serious injury, by removing every salutary restraint on the
passions, and encouraging the growth of rank and odious vices. In the
peasantry we observe all that is simple, natural, and ingenuous: in the
hio-her orders we sometimes discover violence, deceit, and gross sensuality.

Where not corrupted by indulgence on the one hand, or stupified by
oppression on the other, the Javans appear to be a generous and warm-
hearted people. In their domestic relations they are kind, affectionate,
crentle, and contented ; in their public, they are obedient, honest, and
faithful. In their intercourse with society they display, in a high degree,
thJ virtues of honesty, plain dealing, and candour. Their ingenuousness is
such that as the first Dutch authorities have acknowledged, prisoners
brought to the bar on criminal charges, if really guilty, nine times out of
ten confess, without disguise or equivocation, the full extent and exact
circumstances of their offences, and communicate, when required, more
information on the matter at issue than all the rest of the evidence. Al-
though this may, in some degree, be the result of the former use of torture,

they are in general liberal and expensive, according to their means, seldom
hoarding their wealth or betraying a penurious disposition. Eond of shew
and pomp, they lay out all their money, as soon as it is acquired, ^ tne
purchase of articles of dress, horses, splendid trappings, amp;c.; ^ur rney
possess a quality which is not always joined with a love of splendour, either

in nations or individuals: they are cleanly in their persons, and pay the
greatest attention to neatness, as well as to glare and finery.

Hospitality is universal among them; it is enjoined by their most an-
cient institutions, and practised with readiness and zeal. The Javans are
exceedingly sensible to praise or shame,* and ambitious of power and dis-
tmction j but their national oppressions or agricultural habits have rendered
them somewhat indifferent to military glory, and deprived them of a great
portion of their ancient warlike energy. They are more remarkable for
passive fortitude than active courage, and endure privations with patience
rather than make exertions with spirit and enterprize.

Though living under a government where justice was seldom adminis-
tered with purity or impartiality, and where, of course, we might expect
to see the hand of private violence stretched out to punish private wrong,
or a general spirit of retaliation and insidious cruelty prevailing, the Javans

« The inhabitants of these islands are strikingly alive to a sense of shame; a feeling
which is heightened by the influence of a tradition among the MaMyus, that, on the first
estabhshment of the Malayan nation, the islanders stipulated, that neither they nor their
descendants should ever be put to shame. The tradition runs as follows:

quot; Then Ampu and Maling made obeisance to SangsapurBa (a prince who had arrived in Su-
«« matra from Western India, and who is supposed to have founded the Malayan empire) and
represented to him that Demang LeLar Daon (chieftain broad leaf of Palembang), had a
daughter. Sangsapurha accordingly sent to ask her in marriage ; but he excused himself,
^^ allegmg that she would probably be struck with sickness, and that he would only resign
«« her to him as a wife on certain conditions. These conditions were, that, on Sangsapurha
quot; marrying his daughter, all the family of Zfemang Lebar Daon should submit themselves to
quot; him; but that Sangsapurha should engage, both for himself and his posterity, that they
« should receive a liberal treatment; and in particular, that, when they committed a fault, they
quot; should never be exposed to shame nor opprobrious language, but, if their fault was great,
« that they should be put to death according to the law. Sangsapurba agreed to these con-
« ditions; but he requested, in his turn, that the descendants of Damang Lebar Daon should
never move any treasonable practices against his descendants, even though they should
quot; become tyrannical. \' Very well,\' said Demang Lebar Daon ; \' but if your descendants
« \' break your agreements, probably mine will do the same.\' These conditions were mutually
« agreed to, and the parties swore to perform them, imprecating the divine vengeance to turn
quot; their authority upside down who should infringe these agreements. From this condition it
is, that none of the Malayan rajas ever expose their Malayan subjects to disgrace or shame:

quot; they never bind them, nor hang them, nor give them opprobrious language; and whenever a
quot; raja exposes his subjects to disgrace, it is the certain token of the destruction of his coun-
quot; try. Hence also it is, that none of the Malayan race ever engage in rebellion, or turn their
quot; faces from their own rajas, even though their conduct be bad, and their proceedings tvran-^
quot; nical.»__M«%a« Annals,

are, in a great degree, strangers to unrelentling hatred and blood-thirsty
revenge. Almost the only passion that can urge them to deeds of ven-
geance or assassination is jealousy. The wound given to a husband\'s
honour by seducing his wife is seldom healed, the crime seldom forgiven ;
and what is remarkable, the very people who break the marriage tie on the
slightest caprice,tor the most vague pretence, are yet uncommonly watch-
ful over it while it remains entire. They are little liable to those fits and
starts of anger, or those sudden explosions of fury, which appear among
northern nations. To this remark have been brought forward as excep-
tions, those acts of vengeance, proceeding from an irresistible phrenzy,
called mucks, where the unhappy sufferer aims at indiscriminate destruction,
till he himself is killed like a wild beast, whom it is impossible to take
ahve. It is a mistake, however, to attribute these acts of desperation to
the Javans.

That such have occurred on Java, even during the British administration,
is true, but not among the Javans : they have happened exclusively in the
large towns of Batavia, Semârang, and Surabaya, and have been confined
almost entirely to the class of slaves. This phrenzy, as a crime against
society, seems, if not to have originated under the Dutch, certainly at least
to have been increased during their administration by the great severity of
their punishments. Tor the slightest fault, a slave was punished with a
severity which he dreaded as much as death ; and with torture in all its
horrid forms before his eyes, he often preferred to rush on death and
vengeance.

Atrocious crimes are extremely rare, and have been principally owing
to misgovernment when they have occurred. In answer to what has been
asserted concerning robberies, assassinations, and thefts, it may be stated,
that during the residence of the English, an entire confidence was reposed
in the people, and that confidence was never found misplaced. The
English never used bars or bolts to their houses, never travelled with arms,
and no instance occurred of their being ill used. The Dutch, on tbe
contrary, placed no confidence : all their windows were barred, and all
their doors locked, to keep out the treacherous natives (as they called
them), and they never moved five miles abroad without pistols and swords.
What could be expected by a government that derived a principal part of
its revenue from the encouragement of .vice, by the farms of gaming,
cock-fighting, and opium shops ? After the two former were abolished by

the English, and the local government had done all in its power to discou-
rage the latter, a visible amelioration took place in the morals of the
lower ranks.

Hordes of banditti, formidable for their numbers and audacity, formerly
infested some parts of the country, particularly the provinces of Bantam
and Chéribon j but since they have been dispersed by the strong hand of
government, the roads of Java may be travelled in as much security as those
of England.

Much has been said of the indolence of the Javans, by those who
deprived them of all motives for industry. I shall not again repeat what
I have formerly on several occasions stated on this subject, but shall only
enter a broad denial of the charge. They are as industrious and laborious
as any people could be expected to be, in their circumstances of insecurity
and oppression, or as any people would be required to be, with their
advantages of soil and climate. If they do not labour during the whole
day, it is because such persevering toil is unnecessary, or would bring them
no additional enjoyments. The best refutation of the charge of indolence
is to be found in the extent of their cultivation, the vpell dressed appearance
of their rice fields, and the abundant supplies of their harvests. They
generally rise by daylight: at half past six they go out to the rice fields,
where they employ their buffaloes till ten, when they return home, bathe,
and refresh themselves with a meal. During the violent heat of the noon
they remain under the shade of their houses or village trees, making
baskets, mending their implements of husbandry, or engaged in other
necessary avocations, and at about four return to the sdwahs to labour them,
without buffaloes or other cattle. At six they return to their homes, sup,
and spend the remainder of their time till the hour of rest (which is gene-
rally between eight and nine) in little parties for amusement or conver-
sation, when the whole village becomes a scene of quiet content and
pleasure. The same round of toil and relaxation is observed during the
season for garden culture, dry field labour, or other employments.

Under this system, the villagers seem to enjoy a greater degree of happi-
ness than they could derive from those increased means that would result
from increased exertion. I can bear testimony to their general cheerfulness,
contentedness, and good humour, for having visited their villages at all
seasons, and often when least expected or entirely unknown, I have always
found them either pleased and satisfied with their lot when engaged at their

work, 01\' social and festive in their hours of pleasure. One observation
generally made and admitted, would seem to militate against this part of the
Javan character j they are remarked to be envious and jealous of one
another\'s success : but if this trait of character be with difficulty reconciled
to their general reputation for contentedness and benevolence, it is surely
still more inconsistent with that indolent apathy with which they are often
charged.

It will appear throughout their history, that when strongly excited by the
animosities of the constant wars in which they were engaged, they were fre-
quently guilty of acts of great barbarity: such as decapitating a vanquished
enemy, and kicking his head about like a football. In war and politics,
much is not to be said in their favour, stratagem and intrigue being relied
upon in preference to discipline, courage, or good faith: even the Chinese,
during what is called the Chinese war on Java (A.D. 1750), would appear
to deserve a higher character for bravery and good faith than the Javans.
But it is reasonable to attribute this, in some measure, to the degrading
influence of European despotism. A great disregard for ihe little people is
shewn tliroughout their pohtical history, as is particularly exemplified in the
instance of a mock battle that was fought between the Chinese and Javans,
near Semdrang, in order to impose upon the Dutch. The Chinese wished
to know how they should act upon the occasion. quot; Attack the whole army

of the Javans by surprize,quot; said the Javan negociators, quot; but be careful
quot; not to kill any of the chiefs or great people and it will be a sham fight.quot;

Of their nationality it may be observed,^that ever since the first arrival
of Europeans, they have neglected no opportunity of attempting to
regain their independence. A reference to the chapters on history will
be sufficient to illustrate this, as well as to shew the national feeling on the
encroachments and assumptions of their European rulers. In the great
cause of national independence all would unite, but they seem hardly to be
sufficiently advanced in civilization to effect such an object, without the risk
of relapsing into many barbarities, from the practice of which they have
been weaned, by a long continuance of established government and general
tranquillity. Quiet and peaceable as the Javans now are, were they once
roused to insurrection, their blood would rapidly boil, and they would no
doubt be guilty of many excesses.

I might illustrate the Javan character still further by a comparison of it
with the Malayan, by shewing, from the remains of those customs that are

to be referred to an anterior and milder system, how much it has been
altered by the introduction of Mahometanism, and by giving an estimate of
the effects produced upon it by the government of the Dutch ; but this
would anticipate some observations which will be more appropriate in other
parts of this work.

Of the causes which have tended to lower the character of the Asiatics in
coinparison with Europeans, none has had a more decided influence than
polypmy. To all those noble and generous feelings, all that delicacy of
sentiment, that romantic and poetical spirit, which virtuous love inspires in
the breast of an European, the Javan is a stranger, and in the communica-
tion between the sexes he seeks only convenience, and little more than the
gratification of an appetite. But the evil does not stop here: education is neg-
lected and family attachments are weakened. Among the privileged orders,
the first wife is generally selected by the friends of the party, from motives
of interest and to strenghten family alliances, and the second is rather to be
considered as the object of the husband\'s choice. But if his circumstances
admit of it, he has no scruple to entertain other women as concubines, who
hold an honourable rank in his household. The progeny from these
connections is often immense. It has already been stated, that a Javan
chief has been known to have upwards of sixty acknowledged children •
and it too often happens, that in such cases sons having been neglected
in their infancy, become dissipated, idle and worthless, and spring up
like rank grass and overrun the country, or serve but to fill up along
and useless retinue. Fortunately for the peasantry, who are the mass of
the population, they have escaped this deteriorating institution - and
perhaps much of the comparative superiority of the character of the
peasantry over that of the higher orders is to be attributed to this ad van-
tage. The higher orders have also been more exposed to the influence
of Mahometanism and European innovation ; and if the former has
removed from their usages some traits of barbarism, and tended to the
development of their intellectual qualities, it has introduced Mahometan
vices; and the European power having gradually obtained its supremacy
over the island, rather by stratagem and intrigue than by open conquest, it
is probable that the necessity under which the natives found themselves to
resist its encroachments by similar means, has powerfully contributed t(gt;
corrupt their natural ingenuousness. It is not at the court of the sovereign
penned up as he now is and kept like a bird in a cage by the intrigues and

power of the European authority, that we are to look for the genuine cha^
raeter of the people ; neither is it among those numerous chiefs and petty
chiefs attendant on the European authorities, who by continual association
have, in a great degree, assimilated with them. What we have said of the
Javans must therefore be considered, as more particularly appHcable to the
peasantry or cultivators, who compose three»fourths of the whole popula-
tion, and is to be received with some reserve in its application to the higher
classes.

Thus far I have given a faithful representation of the people as they
appeared to me; but it may be amusing to the reader to read the Javan
character, as transcribed from the impressions of the Dutch. The follow-
ing is an official account* of this people given by a subject of that nation,
which has contributed so much to depress and degrade them.

quot; If the Javan is a person of rank, or in affluent circumstances, he will
quot; be found superstitious, proud, jealous, vindictive, mean, and slavish
« towards his superiors, haughty and despotic towards his inferiors and
quot; those unfortunate beings that are subject to his orders, lazy and slothful.

« The lower class is indolent and insensible beyond conception, and
quot; although certain persons, who presume to be perfectly acquainted with

the character of the Javan, maintain the contrary, still I am convinced
quot; by daily experience, that the Javan in general is most shockingly lazy,
quot; and that nothing but fear of his superior, and apprehension of being
quot; punished, or momentary distress or want, can compel him to labour. If
quot; left to himself, he will do no more than what is absolutely requisite to
quot; furnish the necessaries of life, and as he needs but little, his labour is
quot; proportionate: yet as soon as he has a sufficiency for four days, or for
quot; the next day only, nothing will put him in motion again but force or
quot; fear.

« Cowardly, vindictive, treacherous, inclined to rob and to murder
quot; rather than work, cunning in evil practices, and unaccountably stupid
quot; (supposed intentionally), if any good is required of him. These are the
quot; principal traits of the Javan character.

quot; The Maldyuy speaking of him as an inhabitant of this island, because
quot; I am unacquainted with the character of those living at a distance, is
quot; possessed of a little more courage and activity, fond of small trade and
quot; travelling, and but seldom a robber like the Javan, whom in other

* See Report on the Pistricts of Japara, ^y the Resident Dornick, in the year 1812.

« respects he very much resembles. A Maldyu, who is a little cunning,
« will, as soon as an opportunity offers, commit a fraud, especially when
« he has had some loss which he wishes to retrieve!quot;

Others of the colonists, and some particularly who are likely to have
greater influence with the restored government, entertained more correct,
because more favourable opinions of the Javans, coinciding nearly with
those which I have stated as my own.

The following extracts are intended to convey some notion of Javan
ethics. The first is from a popular work, called Raja Kapa-Jcapa.*

quot; It is incumbent upon every man of condition to be well versed in the
« history of former times, and to have read all the chirita (written com-
« positions) of the country: first, the different Rdma, the B\'rata yudha,
« Arjuna wijdya, Bima sucM; secondly, the different accounts of Panji;
« thirdly, the Jugul muda, Praldmbang, and Jdya langlcdra ; also to know
« their different tunes, as well as the mode of striking the gdmelcm; he must
« know how to count the years, months, and days, and comprehend the
quot; Sangkdla, understand the Kdwi language, and also must be clever in all

quot; Anydra-wedi retna

quot; Anyddur-rasa

t iiVJll Ui

And he must also be skilled in horsemanship, and in the management of
quot; an elephant, and have courage to destroy all bad men, and drive away
« all women of loose character.quot;

The \'Niti sdstra is a work of the greatest celebrity on Java: the origi-
nal is in the Kdwi language, but there are many versions. The following
is translated from a modern version in the present language of Java. \'

quot; Praise

* See a further account of this work under the head Literature.nbsp;\'

« Praise be to Batdra Giiru, who is all powerful! to Batdra Vishnu (wisnu),
quot; who purifieth the minds of men i and to Batdra Suria, who enlight\'
quot; eneth the world I May they render their divine assistance to the
quot; author who composeth this work, Niti Sdstra, which contains an
quot; account of the truths to be found in the sacred writings, and which
quot; are highly necessary to be known by all public officers.

« A man who cannot regulate his conduct according to circumstances, and
« to the situation in which he may be placed, is like unto a man who
quot; has lost the senses of taste, and enjoyeth not the advantage of siri,
quot; for such a man doth not shine in the world, however fair may be his
quot; appearance.

quot; A man who is ignorant of the sacred writings, is as one who has lost his
quot; speech j for when these become the conversation of other men, he will
quot; be under the necessity of remaining silent.

quot; It is an abomination to the Divinity to worship him in an unclean place ;
quot; and the man who does so may be compared to one who eats another
man\'s bread without his consent. The food is unwholesome to him,
quot; even as if he ate of his own bread with aversion, in which case he
« resembles the poor man who overeats himself and afterwards suffers
quot; from hunger.

A woman who takes not a husband until her hair becomes grey and her
quot; teeth fall out, is despicable in her own eyes, because men will no longer
quot; feel any inclination to her.

quot; A man, to be accounted able, must know how to adapt his words to his
quot; actions and his actions to his words, so that he may give offence to no
one, but render himself agreeable to his companions : he must also
quot; know how to command in war and to inspire his followers with
courage.

« In order to obtain this distinction, a man must conduct himself towards his
quot; equals even as a lover conducts himself towards his mistress • for as
quot; the lover cannot obtain his object without flattery and indulgence, so
quot; must we strive to obtain the good will of mankind by flattering them
quot; occasionally, and by indulging them in those things to which they are
quot; most inclined, and which consists, if we are in company with religious
quot; men, in treating of religious matters, and if in company with war-
quot; riors, in treating about war. This will not only make them hke us the
quot; better, but at the same time, excite them to excel in their profession.

The subtle nature of the snake and the venom of its poison, as well as
the ferocious disposition of the tiger, may be removed by sympathetic
« remedies j the wild elephant may also be tamed by means of the well-
quot; known small iron hook: but the fierceness of the warrior, when once
« in close engagement, is not to be tamed, unless his enemy surrender j
« and even then not entirely, for although the vanquished surrender, it
« is to be inferred that he still harbours resentment for the loss of his
quot; freedom, and the conqueror must keep a lively watch over the van-
quot; quished, lest he still oppose him.

It is well known, that waters, however deep, may be fathomed j but
quot; the thoughts of men cannot be sounded. In order to know the
quot; nature of another, we must attentively observe his appearance, his
quot; manner of speaking, and his judgment; and if a man gives hiiLelf
« out as a holy man, it must be proved by his observance of the service
quot; of the Deity and his Knowledge of the sacred writings.
Such a man is distinguished, who is able to expound all abstract expres-
quot; sions.

A rich man, who maketh not use of his riches in procuring for himself
quot; good food and clothing, is an abomination, and ought not to be admitted
quot; into the society of the learned or men of rank ; neither ought a man,
quot; who has learnt a profession or studied religion, but who still continues
quot; attached to his idle and vicious propensities.

The man who advances in years, and he who is too lazy to labour, and
quot; does nothing but eat and sleep, is hke a sheep, which is useless except
« on account of its flesh.

It is said, that neither the ravens nor the gaddrlo birds, are o-ood for
quot; man ; but much less are such men who having once embraced a holy
quot; life, return to worldly pursuits, or such as can find it in their hearts to
quot; seduce the wives and daughters of their friends to commit adultery.
The water in a vessel which is only partly full will by the least agitation
quot; splash on the sides: experience also proves, that the cow which has the
« loudest voice gives the least milk. So is it with men : those who have
quot; least understanding or wealth make the greatest noise and shovv ; but
« in reahty they are inferior, and all they say and do vanisheth like smoke.
Friends must be faithful and forbearing towards each other, otherwise the
quot; consequences will be fatal to both. Of this we have an example in the
quot; fable of the tiger and the forest.

quot; The forest and the tiger lived together in close friendship, so that no one
quot; could approach the forest, for the tiger was always in the way; nor the
quot; tiger, for the forest always afforded him shelter. Thus they remained
quot; both undisturbed, on account of the mutual security they afforded\' to
quot; each other; but when the tiger abandoned the forest and roamed
« abroad, the people seeing that the tiger had quitted it, immediately cut
« down the forest and converted it into plantations: the tiger, in the
meantime, taking shelter in a village was seen by the people, who soon
« found means to kill him. In this manner, both parties, by abandoning

quot; A child ought, in every respect, to follow in the footsteps of its father;
quot; but this is seldom the case, either among men or animals in general.
quot; Among the latter, however, there are three sorts which follow their
** parents in every respect: all kinds of fish, frogs, and tortoises. The
first and second spawn in water, which is carried away until the
«« young are produced, when they again join their parents: the last
quot; lay their eggs in holes, and as soon as the young are hatched they
quot; follow the old ones into the water.

quot; Man, although he is borne in his mother\'s womb a long tune, and after
his birth is taken care of and nourished, still seldom follows in the foot-
steps of his parents. If his father is a holy man, he ought to follow the
same profession j but instead of this children do not generally attend to
quot; the advice of their parents, nor to the lessons of the sacred writings, or
those given by holy and good men.

quot; That men of rank should do every thing in their power to attach the
quot; lower class of people to them, is not only proper but necessary, in
quot; order to keep them faithfully to their duty. To this end, therefore,
« men of rank ought to be indulgent and liberal towards their inferiors,
quot; like a woman who implores the assistance of man to bring forth chil-
quot; dren and support her j but not like a tigress that brings forth its cubs,.
« nor the snake which brings forth so many young, that sometimes having
quot; no food for them or for herself, she devours them.

« Man is pleased with the dbdot cloth (apparel), and women are proud of
« their bosom ; but a good man prefers the sacred writings, which may
quot; lead him to the life to come.

quot; Property obtained by man\'s own labour is valuable, but more valuable is
«« that which is obtained by a man\'s blood in time of war: of less value

« is prorperty inherited from a man^s parents. Of Httle value is the pro-
« perty taken from a man\'s parents or his wife, but stiU less valuable is
« that which comes to a man from his children. !
« It is the duty of the chief of the nation to inquire into every thing
quot; which can alfect his subjects ; to know whether they are prosperous or
« not, if every one attends to his duty, if they are skilful in the exe-
cution of it or not, and in all cases to take measures accordingly,
« never losing sight of justice. He must, as far as possible, be lenient
quot; in the punishment of the guilty, and liberal in the reward of the
quot; deserving ; particularly in the field of battle, when in sight of the
« enemy, when presents ought then to be distributed to the soldiers
« (prajurit), in order to animate them ; for if ever so justly treated,
« they will not, except they have been obliged by their commander,

quot; either be so faithful, or risk so much in an attack against the
quot; enemy.

Highly prejudicial is it for the chiefs to discover fear before their ene-
mies, for in that case the men will also be afraid ; but when the chiefs
quot; conduct themselves in such a manner as to shew they do not fear the
quot; enemy, then the men are animated by their example.
A chief should keep his plan of attack as secret as possible, because the
« knowledge of it may enable the enemy to be on his guard, and turn
quot; the measures taken to his own advantage. He ought not to challenge
« his enemy to give battle, as in that case the enemy will have an op-
« portunity of preparing himself for the same : but he should attempt to
« surprize him, and rush upon him like a fire, that quickly and without

much noise consumeth all with which it comes in contact.
The most formidable enemy of a man is his own conscience, which
quot; always brings his crimes before his eyes, without leaving him the
« means of avoiding it.

persons of the same rank.
The severest misfortune which a man can suffer, is to be deprived by
quot; force, of the land upon which he lives and which he has cultivated,
« or to have his wife and children taken from him by force.
Man loveth nothing more than his own children, and he always esteems
quot; his own feelings in preference to those of others.

« Of all birds the chiong (miner) is the most highly prized, because it has
** a beautiful appearance and can imitate the speech of man.

quot; A woman who hgt;ves her husband so tenderly, that at his death she
wishes to die with him, or surviving never marries again, but lives as
if she were dead to the world, is valued above all others of her sex.

quot; The lessons of our parents are like the lessons of the ten wise masters.
« No master can be called wise, unless he attends to what is written,
quot;as well on sacred as on worldly subjects. Such a master may be
quot; justly called a superior mortal j for it is a difficult task to learn and
quot; to attend to the same, even as difficult as to catch and tame a wild
quot; elephant on the edge of a precipice without injury.

« Melancholy is it to see a young man of condition unacquainted with the
quot; sacred writings ; for, be he ev^er so gracefully formed or elegant in his
quot; manners, he remains defective; like the Wuranodri flowei\', which,
** notwithstanding its fine appearance and bright red colour, emits no
quot; fragrance whatever.

quot; No man can be called good or bad, until his actions prove him so. Thus
quot; if a man declares that he has never taken any but delicious food, it
will be shewn in his appearance. If he is stout and well looking, then
may he be credited j but ifj on the contrary, he is poor and lean, then
quot; it is impossible that he should have lived on good food.
In like manner, when a man pretends to be the friend of mankind, it
must be proved by his behaviour when he receives the visits of others.
quot; If he receives his guests with kindness and hospitality, then is he the
quot; friend of mankind, otherwise he is not so. And further, if a man
^^ pretends to have fasted and prayed, and to have become a holy man,
quot; it will be known whether he is really so, by the success which attends
the prayers which he puts up for another; if the Deity hears them
quot; not, then is he a deceiver.

quot; A caterpillar has its poison in its head, a scorpion in its tail, and a snake
quot; in its teeth, but it is unknown in what.part of the body the poison of
quot; man is concealed : a bad man is therefore considered poisonous in his
quot; whole frame.

A child which is indulged by its parents in every thing, is like a young
quot; fish in a clear and pure stream, in which it grows and sports, uncon-
scious whither it may lead.

^^ As the strength of a bird is in its wings, so does the power of a prince
quot; consist in his subjects ; but then only through the means of persons
properly informed on the following points. First, how a country
ought to be properly administered ; secondly, how to please a prince ;
quot; thirdly, how to prepare all delicacies for him ; and fourthly, how to
preserve discipline and direct the conduct of an army.

«« The dread of the subject should be such, that the orders of the prince
quot; should be to him like a clap of thunder, that may be heard far and
quot; wide.

quot; A man who does evil to his companions acts against the sacred writings
^^ and the lessons of his instructor : he can never enjoy prosperity, but
quot; vi/ill meet with misfortunes in all his proceedings. Such a man is like
« a piece of porcelain, which when it falls to the ground breaks into
quot; many pieces and can never be rendered perfect.

quot; A field without pasture is not frequented by cattle, neither does a river
without water contain fish. An instructor who knoweth not how to
quot; perform the duties of his situation can have but few disciples, and a
quot; prince who pays little regard to his country and subjects, will in time
quot; not only lose his fame and glory, but his authority also.

quot; It is well known, that a man cannot take the goods of this world with
him to tlie grave, and that man after this life is punished with heaven
quot; or hell, according to the merits of his actions in this life: a man\'s duty,
quot; therefore, requires of him to remember that he must die ; and if he
quot; has been merciful and liberal in this life to the poor, he will be reward-
ed hereafter. Happy is the man who divides his property equally
between himself and the indigent, who feeds the poor and clothes the
quot; naked, and reUeves all who are in distress j he has hereafter to expect
quot; nothing but good.

The following animals, as being injurious to the health of man, are not
proper to be used by him as food : rats, dogs, frogs, snakes, worms,
«f monkeys, lizards, and the like.

« A handsome man is an ornament for the community, and one that has
« good manners besides, is an ornament to his prince ; but he who
quot; understands the sacred writings is the pride of the community and a
lt;c delight to his prince.

« their manners, actions, and corn-age; and as gold is known by the
touchstone, or broken into pieces in order to ascertain its intrinsic
quot; value, so ought a prince to try his subjects, before he intrusts them
quot; with the charge of his women or treasure, and make himself acquainted
with their valour and knowledge : for a person who does not possess
quot; the quahfications required for this purpose, is unworthy to associate
« with people of condition, and much less to be the servant of a prince.

« If a man violates the law, he may for the first ofience be punished by a
quot; pecuniary fine, for the second by punishment affecting his person, but
quot; for the third offence he may be punished with death.

quot; A joy generally followed by sorrow is that which we feel in borrowing
quot; money. We feel happy in having obtained what we wished, but as
soon as our creditors come for their money our joy is converted into
grief i and that i«? the greatest when the money is spent, and we have
« not wherewith to satisfy our creditors : then arise quarrels and ill will,
« and yet no sooner are these settled than we again have recourse to the
old habit of lending and borrowing.

« Laughing and joking at our companions is also a bad custom, for it
« generally begets quarrels, and is thus the cause of grief.

quot; Should medicine be mixed with poison, we would naturally separate the
poisonous parts before we swallowed it, and we would also clean rusty
« metal in time before it becomes rusty and corroded. In the same
quot; manner we should distinguish between the good and bad actions of
« man, rewarding knowledge and opposing evil: and be it recollected,
quot; that a woman, however low her birth, if her manners are amiable and

Riches only tend to torment the mind of man, and sometimes even to
« death; they are therefore, with justice, disregarded and despised by
quot; the wise. They are collected with pain and trouble, and our pain and
trouble doubles in afterwards administering them ; for if we neglect to
quot; watch them properly, thieves will come and steal them, and the loss
occasions as much grief as the point of death.

quot; Therefore is it adviseable to give part of our property to the poor and
quot; indigent, who will thence naturally become under obligations to us, and
quot; not only assist in guarding our property against all accidents, but pray

quot; that our property may increase, being themselves interested in our
success, and our names will be blessed by our children and grand-
« children.

quot; As dykes cannot long resist the force of water, unless the water is allow-
quot; ed a free current and a place to pass through, so riches cannot long be
quot; enjoyed, unless employed for charitable purposes ; but, on the contrary,
they will turn to the injury of the possessor, both here and hereafter,
quot; who will be exposed to the wrath of all the nine deities.

« Batdra guru is cool, still cooler is the moon ; but the coolness of neither
^^ is to be compared to that which is instilled by the voice of a holy man.
Fire is hot, still hotter is the sun; but neither is to be compared to
the heat of a man\'s heart.

« Like those flies and birds, which fly in the air to procure food, and still
« continue to feed on filth and dirt, is the man of bad character; for
« although he may have the means of procuring an honest subsistence,
still will he continue to take what he should not, by unlawful means,
quot; to the prejudice of others. But a good man wishes the success of

another, and is happy when his brother prospers.
As the moon and stars enlighten the night, and the sun enlighteneth the
quot; day, so do the holy scriptures enlighten the hearts of men j and a son
quot; who is superior in knowledge to his father, is a light to his family.

\'\' A child accustomed to nothing but amusement, neglects the lessons of
quot; Its parents. The child on this account, often abandoned to its fate,
« becomes a dangerous subject ; it is therefore essential that a child
« should be kept under subjection while it is yet time to prevent its com^
« mitting any bad acts. For this purpose, these rules should be attended
« to:

quot; A child under five years of age may be indulged in many things j but
« afterwards it must be kept under strict subjection, and instructed in
the knowledge of the holy writings until its tenth year, when a com-
mencement may be made to instil that sort of knowledge which will
« form the intellects for the benefit of society. After the sixteenth year
« further instruction must be given in the higher and more important
branches of knowledge.

quot; Man should always be on his guard against the commission of wicked
quot; acts J for the end of them is always pain and misery.

« A man must, on no account, listen to the advice of a woman, be she
« ever so good ; for the end of it will be death and shame : but he must
quot; always consult his own mind in what he has to do or not to do, nevernbsp;j

quot; losing sight of the lessons of his instructors. Thus not only will he
quot; obtain knowledge, but his actions will be good.nbsp;i

quot; Riches, beauty, knowledge, youth, and greatness, often lead a man
quot; into error; he, therefore, who is blessed with any of them ought to
quot; be, at the same time, humble and generous, for then he will excel;
« otherwise, his virtues will be hidden.
quot; As the man who advances by fair means from poverty to riches, or from
quot; insignificance to greatness, is rewarded in this world; so will he who is
quot; generous and kind-hearted be rewarded hereafter in heaven. So will
« the warrior killed in battle, who is like a conqueror, enjoy all the
quot; delights imaginable ; while a deserter is despised by all men, andnbsp;i

quot; covered with shame and disgrace, because he deserted his comrades in
quot; the moment of danger.nbsp;|j.

quot; No man ought to be termed a hero, but he who has already conquered
quot; a hundred heroes ; nor should any man be termed a holy man, until
quot; he can boast of surpassing in virtue a hundred holy men : for as long
quot; as a hero has not conquered a hundred heroes, or a holy man has not
quot; surpassed ahundred other holy men in virtue, he can neither be con-
quot; sidered as a real hero or holy man,
quot; The signs of the approaching end of this world will be all kinds of de-nbsp;|

quot; holy men will become worldly, children will abandon their parents,
« princes will lose their empires, the little will become great and com-
quot; mit depredations ; in short, every thing will be in confusion, and an
quot; entire revolution take place.
quot; In the beginning, every thing was at rest and quiet. During the first
quot; thousand years, princes began to start up, and wars arose about a
quot; woman named Dewi Daruki : at this period writing was first
« introduced. One thousand five hundred years after this, another war
» began about a woman named Diwi Sinta. Two thousand years after
quot; this, a third war broke oat about a woman named Dewi Drupddi: and
« two thousand five hundred years afterwards, another war took place
about the daughter of a holy man not named in history.

quot; Every man can thus see what has been the first cause of war. Even as
« the roots of trees and the course of rivers cannot run straight, but
quot; wind here and there ; so cannot a woman be upright: for the saying
quot; is, that a raven can sooner turn white, and the tanjung-^lsint water
lily) grow from a rock, than a woman can be upright.
\' A perfect man should be, in firmness and ability, equal to eight women j
« and to satisfy a woman, a man must be able to please her in nine
quot; different manners.
\' A bad man is like a fire, which inflames every thing which approaches
quot; it J we, therefore, ought never to go near it with an intention to ex-
«« tinguish it, A good^ man, on the contrary, is like a sweet-scented
quot; tree, which continues to produce flowers and fruit, pleasant to the
taste and smell of every one, and the fragrance of which remains in
quot; the wood even after the tree is cut down and rooted out.
\' When a harlot begins to feel shame, then is her improvement approach-
ing ; but when a holy man begins to meddle with woridly affairs, then
quot; is he about to become a worldly man himself.
= When a prince allows encroachments to be made on his territories, it
It is a sign that the loss of both his court and lands is nigh at hand.
A man may receive instruction from his guru (instructor) until his twen-
« tieth year : after which he should apply himself to study until his
« thirtieth year; at which time he ought to know every thing necessary,
« as well for this world as for that to come.

The art of elocution may properly be reckoned superior to all others,
« because happiness and misery, fortune or misfortune, very often depend
quot; upon it: it is, therefore, necessary to use prudence in speech.
A man who does not eat siri (betel) does not shine.

Married people who have no children ought to lead a retired life, and
« people without fortune should not attempt to make a shining appear-
« ance: they should look pale and melancholy, like unto the dulness
« and quiet of a country without a prince.

These are the qualities necessary to constitute a good housewife:-—
«« She must be well-made and well-mannered, gentle, industrious, rich,
quot; liberal, charming, of good birth, upright, and humble. A stingy,
quot; curious, dirty, foul-mouthed, vulgar, false, intriguing, lazy, or stupid
quot; woman, is not only entirely unfit for a housewife, but will never be
quot; beloved by a husband.quot;

Intimately connected with the character, moral and intellectual, of a
people, are its civil and political-institutions. In a country Hke Java,
the frame of society is so simple, the hand of power is so universally felt or
seen; rank, wealth, and authority are so identified, and the different
classes of the community are so referable to each other, by contrast or
reciprocal influence, that it was impossible to give any account of the state
of the peasantry, or of the tenure and distribution of the land, without in-
troducing some notices concerning government and revenue. As there is
little division of labour among a rude people, so there is no division of
power in a despotism : the despot is proprietor, all the rest is property.

The island of Java appears at different times to have been divided into
states of greater or smaller extent. History informs us, that it was at one
period under the sway of one principal chief, and at others subject to two
or more. In the former case, the provinces into which it was divided were
administered, as they are still, by subordinate and delegated governors ; and
in the latter, many of them composed independent sovereignties. In all
these cases, the form of government and the privileges of the people
were the same; the only difference between a state co-extensive with the
island, and one limited to a few districts, consisting in the different extent
of territory or number of subjects at command. In looking at the map,
the divisions of the island now under European dominion, and those under
the native princes, can easily be traced.. Bantam (the sultan of which surren-
dered his rights to the British government for a pension of a few thousand
dollars), and Chéribon, an extensive province to the eastward of Batavia,
enjoyed till lately a nominal independence; but the only great native power
on Java, till the establishment of Yûg\'ya-hérta about sixty years ago, was
that of the Susuhunan, or as he is termed the Emperor of Java ; and a
slight sketch of his government, of the maxims by which it is regulated,
and the ofiicers it employs, will be sufiicient for my present purpose.

The sovereign\'is termed either Susuhunan or Sultan, both denominations
adopted since the establishment of Mahometanism : the titles previously
employed were Kiai Gedé, Prâhu, Bmrnjaya, amp;c. as will be perceived on
reference to the list of Hindu princes in the historical details. The line of
succession to the throne is from father to son, but the rights of primoge-
niture are not always allowed or observed. If there is no direct descent,
the claims of collateral branches of the reigning dynasty are settled by no
law or uniform custom. Females have sometimes held offices of power,

but have never occupied the throne since the estabhshment of Mahomet-
anism. The chiefs of districts and the heads of villages are sometimes
women; in that case, widows continued in the office of their deceased
husbands.

The government is in principle a pure unmixed despotism j but there Mature of the
are customs of the country of which the people are very tenacious, and
which the sovereign seldom invades. His subjects have no rights of liberty
of person or property: his breath can raise the humblest individual from
the dust to the highest distinction, or wither the honours of the most
exalted. There is no hereditary rank, nothing to oppose his will. Not
only honours, posts, and distinctions, depend upon his pleasure, but all
the landed property of his dominions remains at his disposal, and may,
together with its cultivators, be parcelled out by his order among the
officers of his household, the members of his family, the ministers of his
pleasures, or the useful servants of the state. Every officer is paid by
grants of land, or by a power to receive from the peasantry a certain
proportion of the produce of certain villages or districts.

a sovereign enjoys unlimited power, he generally in eastern conn- Miuigters.
tries surrenders it for ease and pleasure, and his servant, under the name
of Vizier or some other title, becomes the despot. The highest executive
officer or prime minister in the Javan government is called Rdden Adipdti:
he usuaUy rules the country while his master is satisfied with flattery, with
pomp, and the seraglio. He is intrusted with power so great, as even, in
particular cases, to extend to the royal family. All communications to and
from the sovereign are made through him : he receives all reports from
different parts of the country and issues all orders. The power and
importance of this office has, however, naturally lessened of late years,
since the European government has assumed the right of nominating the
person who shall fill it: the sovereign naturally reposes less confidence in
a prime minister so nominated than in one of his own choice, and if
he does not take an active part himself in the politics of his court, he is
generally under the influence of an ambitious member of his own family,
by which means the Rdden Adipdti, or prime minister, though left to
conduct the details of government, is often ignorant of many of the
intrigues carried on in the palace.

After the royal family, which includes the prince or sovereign, called
Susuhûnan or Sultan, and the sons and daughters of the sovereign, called
Pangérans, the heir apparent being called Pangéran Adipâti, come the
nobility, and at their head the Rdden Adipdti.

The nobility or privileged orders may be classed under the two general
divisions of Bopdtis, and their immediate assistants or Pdtehs, and Mdntris or
public officers. Bopdti is the general term given to the governors of provinces,
being the plural of Adipdti. This, however, is rather a title of office than
of mere rank, as these governors are sometimes Tumung\'gungs, An\'gehdis,
and of still inferior rank. Adipdti appears to be the highest title below
royalty. The dignity of this title, as well as that of others, is again raised,
by prefixing the epithet Kiai (venerable) or Mas (golden), as Kiai-adipdti,
Kiai-tumung\'gung, Mas-adipdti, Mas-tumung\'gung, Rdden-tumung^gung is
also occasionally used, to express a rank above an ordinary Tumûng\'gung,
in the same manner as Rdden Adipdti.

These officers, when appointed to the administration of provinces, are
called Regents by the Dutch. Since the innovations of Europeans, the
distinctions above referred to have been a good deal confounded. In the
Sunda districts, where the absolute sway of the native sovereign has long
ceased to be felt, and in the eastern provinces, which are subject to Euro-
peans, the Regent assumes the state of\'a petty sovereign, and is the foun-
tain of honour. The power and rank attached to particular titles, especially
\' those of inferior importance, diflfers in some degree almost in every pro-
vince.

The sons of the Regents, or of those who may be properly termed the
nobles of the country, are usually called Rddens, and in the Sunda districts
invariably so j but there is properly no hereditary nobihty, no hereditary
titles, although few people have a greater respect for family descent than
the Javans ; custom and consideration, in this as in other cases, generally
supplying the place of law.

Government of Nearly the same form of government is followed in the administration of

each particular province as is observed m the general administration of the
country, every Adipdti, or governor of a province, having a Pdteh, or assis-
tant, who acts as his minister. In general there is a Pdteh-hiar, and a
Pdteh-dalani ; one for conducting affairs abroad or public business, the other
for the superintendence of the household.

The same union of the judicial, revenual, and executive authority, which
exists in the sovereign, descends to the governor of a province ; and if there
are subdivisions of the province, it descends to each head of the subdivision.
This is also the case with each village ; the consequence of which is, that
every chief, of whatever rank, has an almost absolute power over those
below him. The only exception to this, and the only part of the Javan
constitution which wears the appearance of liberty, is the mode of appoint-
ing the heads of villages ; these are elected by the people, as will be here-
after more particularly described.

In every considerable province or district there are several subdivisions,
over which an inferior chief presides : the district of Semârang, for instance,
has several. Although this absolute authority is vested in the different
chiefs, according to their ranks, it is dangerous for a public functionary,
whatever be his rank, and even for he Susuhunan himself, to violate what
is called the custom of the country ; and the ancient Hindu institutions
are revered and generally followed by all classes. The priests also exer-
cise a considerable influence ; and although the power of the Jâîcsa, or law
officer, is essentially reduced since the establishment of Mahometanism,
and a great part of his authority transferred to the Panghulu or Maho-
metan priest, he is still efficient, as far as concerns the police and minor
transactions. The observations which follow on the administration of
justice and the judicial instructions established by the British government,
will explain the present nature of his duties.

In the suite of every governor of a province, of his Pâteh, or assistant, and
of every public functionary of importance, are numerous petty chiefs, gene-
rally classed as Mantris, but having various titles, as Demangs, Luras,
Kliwons, amp;c. varying in authority and relative rank in different districts.

Three-fourths of the island having been long subjected to the European
authority, and the provinces which still remain under native administration
having been divided under two distinct authorities, and their original consti-
tution otherwise departed from, it would be impossible to lay down a scale
of rank for the different titles of honour, which should be applicable to
every part of the island, but the subject will be resumed in a future chapter.

The following observations of Mr. Hogendorp, who resided on Java not
many years before the arrival of the English, and was employed in a com-
mission of inquiry into the state of the island, are extracted from a report
or memoir which he drew up for the use of the Dutch government, recom-

mending a policy similar to that which we subsequently pursued. They
contain a just account of the principles of the Javan government, and of the
statejof the regents under the Dutch Company. After remarking, in per-
haps too broad and unqualified terms, that the structure of the government
is feudal, he proceeds to state :
Mp, Hogen- « The first principles of the feudal system, which form the basis of the
S^Javan\'^o^ « whole edifice, are : that the land is the property of the sovereign j that
stitution. ^^ ^^^ inhabitants are his slaves, and can therefore possess no property, all
« that they have and all that they can obtain belonging to the sovereign,
« who allows them to keep it no longer than he chooses; and that the will
quot; of the prince is the supreme law.

« These are the real fundamental principles of the feudal system : for
quot; though the English and French kings could not always maintain their
quot; despotic sway, but were sometimes opposed, hostilely attacked, and even
quot; forced by arms to treat for terms with their subjects, this was only the
« natural consequence of the acknowledged rule, that tyranny destroys itself;
quot; and it is only necessary to revert to what James and Charles of England,
« in so late a period, thought their divine rights of royalty, to ascertain what
« were the rudiments of the feudal form of government: and even now,
quot; notwithstanding the numerous changes and revolutions which have hap-
«« pened in England, the most surprizing traces of that system are to be
quot; found, since in that country, so free, no individual soever possesses a
« foot of land in absolute property (allodium), but merely from the king
quot; (feodum), to whom only belongs the dominium absolutum et directum,
« although subsequent laws and regulations have rendered this title more
quot; imaginary than real.

« The same system of government has been continued in the Company\'s
« districts, under the pretext of allowing the natives to retam their own
quot; laws and customs, but in reality from ignorance and self-interest.
** Although they were too ignorant to effect any improvement, they knew
« perfectly well that this plan was the best adapted to promote their own

« The princes of Java, as well as those of Europe in former times, and
« as a natural effect of the same cause, were also almost continually at war
«« with their chief vassals, until the Dutch power and influence re-esta-
« blished and maintained the general tranquillity. This, however, has never
quot; had any effect on the system of government itself, and the subject who

dethroned his sovereign and then succeeded him, thought that he had
thereby obtained the same divine right of property in the lands and per-
sons of his subjects, as his predecessor had possessed.
quot; The princes allotted the lauds to their chiefs and immediate depen-
dents, as rewards for military and other services. These chiefs (termed
by the Dutch, regents) again subdivided the lands among others of
inferior rank, on the same conditions, and so on, down to the poor
labourer who cultivated the land, but to whom a very small proportion of
the fruits of his labour was left for his own support.

quot; The exclusive administration of the country was conferred on the
regents, an appellation given to the native chiefs, who had acquired
their lands from the Dutch, by contract or agreement, binding them
annually to deliver, partly for payment and partly not, a quantity, in some
cases fixed, in others uncertain, of the produce of such lands, obliging them
also to the performance of feudal services, both of a military and other
nature.

quot; The titles of these regents are either \' Adipdti, Tumung\'gungy or
Ang\'ehdi. The Prince of Madura, styled Panambdhan, and the Prince
of Sumenap, who is called Pangeran, are however only regents as well
as the rest. The Prince of Madura enjoys that title as being of the
imperial family, and the Prince of Sumenap purchased his by a large
payment to a Govenor-General.

quot; These regents are only officers of government, and possess not the
smallest right to hereditary possession or succession. Yet when one
of them dies, he is in general replaced by one of his sons, con-
sidered most fit for the office, provided he can afford to pay the
customary present to the governor of the north-east coast of Java j for if
he is unable to do this, or if any other person offers a more considerable
sum, a pretence is easily found to exclude the children in favour of the
more liberal purchaser.

quot; These presents form a principal part of the emoluments of the governor
of the north-east coast, and consequently all new appointments of regents
are for his advantage. The present chief regent of Samdrang paid
50,000 dollars for his promotion, and all the children of his predecessor
were superseded. The others pay in proportion to the value of their
regencies j and as this is arbitrary and uncertain, it is easily to be

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quot; conceived, that they find means to recover the amount of their place-
quot; money.*

quot; These Regents, although very proud, are, with very few exceptions,
quot; ignorant and idle persons, who give themselves little concern about
quot; their lands and their people j of whom, indeed, they frequently know
quot; nothing, but only endeavour to squeeze and extort from them as much
quot; as possible, both for their own subsistence and pleasure, and to satisfy
quot; the cupidity of government and of their immediate superiors. They
« leave the administration of affairs entirely to their Pdtehs, who are also
quot; appointed by the Dutch, and are held accountable for every thing.t

* This payment Is regularly termed by the Dutch, ampt-geld, or place-money, being money

paid for the purchase of an office. By the Javans it is termed soroJc, which, in its more ge-
neral acceptation, means a bribe.

t With whatever fidelity this character of the Javan regents may have been drawn by Mr.
Hogendorp, in, the yG3,r 1800^ it most ccrtEiinly did. not s^pply to tliGm in tlie yccir 1811
the subsequent years of the British government on Java ; for, however negligent and corrupt
many of them may have been rendered, by the system of government which prevailed under
the Dutch East India Company, the changes effected during the administration of Marshal
Daendals soon induced a character for energy and activity. His government was military
and despotic in the extreme, and the regents were considered to hold a military rank, and
required to exert themselves in proportion to its.importance. They did so, and works of the
greatest magnitude were constructed by their exertions. The chiefs were found active and
intelligent, the common people willing and obedient. With regard to their character under
tlie British government, it would be an act of injustice, if not ingratitude, were I to neglect
this opportunity of stating, that, as public officers, the Regents of Java were almost universally
distinguished by an anxiety to act in conformity with the wishes of the government, by honesty,
correctness, and good faith ; and as noblemen, by gentlemanly manners, good breeding, cheer-
fulness, and hospitality. In -the observations made upon the Javan character in the text, I
have spoken of the Javans as a nation generally ; but I might select instances where the cha-
racter of the individual would rise very far above the general standard which I have assumed.
I might, for instance, notice the intellectual endowments and moral character of the present
Panambamp;han of Sumenap, Ndta Kasuma. This chief is well read, not only in the ancient
history of his own country, but has a general knowledge of Arabic literature, is conversant
with tlie Arabic treatises on astronomy, and is well acquainted witli geography. He is curious
in mechanics, attentive to the powers of mechanism, and possesses a fund of knowleds^e which
has surprised and delighted all who have had an opportunity of conversing with him and of ap-
preciating his talents. Of his moral characterl have given an instance, in the manner in which
he liberated his slaves. He is revered, not only for his superior qualifications and talents, but
also for the consideration and attention he pays to the happiness and comfort of the people
committed to his charge.

« To their brothers, wives, children, and other near relations, they assign
quot; villages or désûs, sufficient for their maintenance, for all these consider
quot; themselves born not to work, and look upon the peasantry as only made
quot; for the purpose of providing for their support.

« In order to collect the rice and other kinds of produce, which they
« are by contract obliged to deliver to the Company as contingents, they
« compel the inhabitants of the district to furnish as much of it as is at all
« possible, without any fixed ratio or calculation, and without any kind of
quot; payment, leaving them scarcely what is absolutely necessary for their
own support and that of their families, and even sometimes not nearly
quot; so much, especially in the event of failure in the crops ; on which
quot; occasions, the miserable inhabitants desert by hundreds to other districts
« where, at least in the first instance, they may expect a less rigorous
« treatment. Several regents also, when distressed for money, are com-
« pelled by want, to let out many of their best desas to the Chinese : these
quot; blood-suckers then extort from such villages as much as they can pos-
quot; sibly contrive, while the inhabitants of the other désas are alone obliged

Of the capacity of the Javans to improve, of their anxiety to advance in civilization, and of
the rapidity with which they receive knowledge and instruction, an instance might be given
in the case of the two sons of the Regent of Semârang, Kiâi Adipâti Sura Aàimangâla. This
Regent, who, next to the Panamhâhan of Sûmenap, is the first in rank as well as character,
shortly after the establishment of the British government on Java, sent his sons to Bengal,
m order that they might there receive an education superior to what they could have at
home. They remained there for about two years, under the immediate protection and
patronage of the late Earl of Minto, and on their return not only conversed and wrote in
the English language with facility and correctness, but evinced considerable proficiency in
every branch of knowledge to which their attention had been directed. The eldest, in par-
ticular, had made such progress in mathematics before he quitted Calcutta, as to obtain a
prize at a public examination, and had acquired a general knowledge of the ancient and
modern history of Europe, particularly in that of Greece and Rome. He is remarked for
his graceful and polite manners, for the propriety of his conduct, and for the quickness
and correctness of his observation and judgment. As this is the first instance that has been
afforded of the capacity of the Javan charaeter to improve under an European education, it
may enable the reader to form some estimate of what that character was formerly in more
propitious times, and of what it may attain to hereafter under a more beneficent government.
Among all the English on Java, who have had an opportunity of conversing with this young
nobleman, there has not been one who has hesitated to admit, that his mind, his qualifications
and conduct, would be conspicuous among their own countrymen at the same age and
that, as an accomplished gentleman, he was fitted for the fir^t societies of Europe. This \'
man, Râden Sâleh, is now about sixteen years of age, and when the British left Java waTan
assistant to his father as Regent of Semârang.

« to deliver the contingent required from the whole aggregate. It may
- easily be conceived, how oppressively this demand must fall upon those
« unhappy individuals; and how greatly these and other acts of mjustice,
« which are the natural consequences of the present faulty admmistration,
« must tend to the ruin of the country, it would be superfluous reasonmg

custom of the country, and the regard which he has for his character among
his subjects. To shew what that character ought to be, what is expected of
a good prince, and what are the reciprocal duties of a prince, prime mmister,
ami people, I may here quote a few sentences out of the Niti Frdja, a work
in very high esteem and constantly referred to by the Javans.

quot; A good prince must protect his subjects against all unjust persecutions
« and oppressions, and should be the light of his subjects, even as the sun
« is the light of the world. His goodness must flow clear and full, like the
« mountain stream, which in its course towards the sea enriches and ferti-
« lizes the land as it descends. He must consider, that as the withered
quot; foliage of the trees awaiteth the coming of rain to flourish anew, so are
« his subjects waiting for his benevolence, to be provided with food, with
« raiment, and with beautiful women. If, on the contrary, a prmce neg-
« lects to extend his benevolence and protection towards his subjects, he
« exposes himself to be abandoned by them, or at any rate to lose their
« confidence ; for it is an undeniable truth, that no one will be faithful or
« attached to a man upon whom no dependence can be placed.

« When a prince gives audience to the public, his conduct must be dig-
nified. He must sit upright and not in a bending posture, and say little,
« neither looking on one side or the other, because, in this case, the people
« would not have a proper sight of him. He must assume a pleasing
,, appearance, which will enable him to observe his subjects who surround
him and then inquire if any one has any thing to say to him ; and if

\'\' going on in his country and among his subjects, and d possiDie to turn
o onbsp;quot; every

every thing to a good end: if he passes over unnoticed the least crime,
he may create numerous enemies. It is further the duty of a prince,
besides knowing the merits of his subjects and the state of his country,
to explain all abstract and difficult expressions, particularly such as occur
in writings.

« It is a disgrace to a prime minister, for any hostile attack to be made on Ministers,
the country intrusted to his charge without his knowledge, or that he
should be careless or inattentive to the same, rather thinking how to
obtain the favour of his prince than to secure the safety of the country.
So it is when he does not understand how to administer the country pro-
perly, or fails to invent what is useful j when he makes many promises,
but fulfils few; when he is careless with regard to pubhc affairs, and talks
much about what is of no consequence, seeking to be admired by the
people, and putting on fair appearances when his intentions do not corres-
pond J when he cares nothing about the misfortunes of his inferiors, pro-
vided he gets money himself j when, finally, he is not faithful but deceit-
ful. Such a prime minister is like the hawk, which soars high in the air,
but descends low on the earth to seize and steals its food.
quot; But a good prime minister is he who is upright in his heart, moderate
in his fear of the prince, faithfully obedient to all his orders, kind-
hearted, not oppressive to the people, and always exerting himself to the
utmost for the happiness of the people and the welfare of the country.
quot; And a prime minister is good beyond measure, who can always please
his prince in every thing that is good; who knows every thing that is
going on in the country, and takes proper measures accordingly j who
always exerts himself to avert whatever is likely to be injurious; who
considers nothing too trifling to merit his attention; who accumulates
not wealth, but offers to his prince whatever comes in his way that is
curious; who heeds not his own hfe in effecting what is right; who con-
siders neither friends, family, nor enemies, but does justice alike to all;
who cares not when he is praised or reviled, but trusts to the dispensa-
tions of Providence; who possesses much experience 5 who can bear
poverty, and cares not for the enjoyment of pleasures; who is polite to
every one ; who with good will gives alms to the poor and helpless; who
consults much with his brother officers, with whom he ought always to
advise on affairs of business. Against such a prime minister it is impossi-
ble for any one to speak, for he will be feared at the same that the people

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will become attached to him: the people will then live quiet and happy,
perform their labours with cheerfulness, and wish that his administration
may be lasting.

quot; A prime minister ought nevertheless not to be too confident in this,
but always remain on his guard against the designs of bad men.
quot; There are many examples of such prime ministers: among which is
Raja Jdjahan, prime minister of Mesir Egypt), to whom all the people
of the country, great and small, were much attached.
quot; Whenever his brother officers intended to visit the prince for the pur-
pose of paying their respects, they always assembled at the prime minis-
ter\'s house where they generally partook of a meal: after this they pro-
ceeded to the court, followed by the prime minister on foot, dressed in
white, with only three attendants, carrying a spear and other articles of
state before him. By this conduct he supposed that he was screened from
reproach and that he was freed from enemies; but at the very time there
were enemies conspiring against his life, as was afterwards discovered :
therefore ought a prime minister not only to be virtuous, but cautious
also, and always armed against his enemies, in the same manner as a
sportsman arms himself against wild beasts.

quot; A subject going into the presence of his prince must be clean and
well-dressed, wearing proper cheldna (pantaloons). He must have a good
girdle and a sharp kris, and be anointed with aromatic oils. He must
range himself with his equals, and convince them of his abilities and
good breeding; because from this it is that he has to expect favour or
disgrace, grief or joy, hal)piness or misery j for a prince can either
exalt or humble him.

A prince is like a ddlang {mdyang player), his subjects like way dugs,
and the law is as the wick of the lamp used in these entertainments: for
a prince can do with his subjects what he pleases, in the same manner
as the ddlang-with his wdyangs according to his own fancy; the
prince having the law, and the ddlang the lamp, to prevent them from
going out of the right way.

quot; In like manner, as it is incumbent on the ddlang to make magnanimity
and justice the principal subjects of his representation, in order that the
spectators may be instructed and animated thereby, so should a prince,
a prime minister, and chief officers of the court, direct the admmistration
of the country with such propriety, that the people may attach themselves

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«« to them ; they must see that the guilty are punished, that the innocent
quot; be not persecuted, and that all persons falsely accused be immediately
« released, and remunerated for the sufferings they may have endured.quot;

The judicial and executive powers are generally exercised by the same Administration
individual. The written law of the island, according to which justice is
administered and the courts are regulated, is that of the Koran, as modified
by custom and usage. The Javans have now been converted to the Maho-
metan religion about three centuries and a half, dating from the destruc-
tion of the Hindu kingdom of Majapdhit, in the year 1400 of the Javan
aera. Of all the nations who have adopted that creed, they are among the
most recent converts; and it may be safely added, that few others are so
little acquainted with its doctrines, and partake so little of its zeal and
intolerance. The consequence is, that although the Mahometan law be in
some instances followed, and it be considered a point of honour to profess
an adherence to it, it has not entirely superseded the ancient superstitions
and local customs of the country.

The courts of justice are of two descriptions : those of the Panghulu Court and law
or high priest, and those of the Jdksa. In the former the Mahometan
law is more strictly followed ; in the latter it is blended with the customs
and usages of the country. The former take cognisance of capital offences, T^eir jurisdic-
of suits of divorce, of contracts and inheritance j they are also, in some
respects, courts of appeal from the authority of the Jdksa. The latter take
cognisance of thefts, robberies, and all inferior offences j its officers are
employed in taking down depositions, examining evidence, inspecting the
general police of the country, and in some measure acting as public prose-
cutors : these last functions are implied in the title of the office itself,
jdksa meaning to guard ©r watch.*

* The following description of the office of a JMsa, and of the qualifications requisite
for fulfilling his important duties, is taken from the Niti Praja, a work already referred to.

quot; A Jaksa must, in all cases, be impartial, to enable him to weigh all causes which come
quot; before him with the same exactness as merchandize is weighed in a scale, and nicely ba-
quot; lance the equilibrium, nothing adding or taking from either side.

quot; He must be above all bribery, either by words or money, and never allow himself to be
quot; induced to commit an act of injustice ; for were a Jaksa to commit an act of this kind, the
quot; consequences could not but be highly injurious to the country.

quot; He must not accept presents of any kind from the parties whose cause comes before him
quot; not only because he cannot expect to derive advantage therefrom, but also because the
public will hold discourse concerning him highly injurious to his reputation.

At the seat of government are supreme courts of the Panghûîu and
Jalcsa: to these there is an appeal from similar but inferior tribunals,
established within each province. Petty tribunals, under like names, are
even established under the jurisdiction of a Demang, or chief of a sub-
division, and sometimes of a Bakal, or head of a village ; but in these the
authority of the Panghulu and Jaksa extend no further than to take down
evidence to be transmitted to some higher authority, to settle petty disputes,
and perform the ordinary ceremonies of religion, inseparable among the
Javans, as well as all other Mahometans, from the administration of justice.

Such however is the nature of the native government, that these officers
are considered rather as the law assessors or council of the immediate
superior officer of the executive government, than as independent ministers
of justice. In such cases as come before them, they examine the evidence,
and point out the law and custom to the executive officer, who is himself
generally too ignorant and indolent to undertake it. When the evidence is
gone through and the point of law ascertained, the whole is brought before
him, at whose discretion it rests to pass judgment. It is however admitted,
that in matters of little moment, where his passions and interests are not
concerned, the division is frequently left to the law officers ; but in all
matters of importance he will not fail to exercise his privileges of inter-
ference.

All causes in dispute must be decided upon by him with the least possible delay, accord-
quot; ing to law, and not kept long in suspense, to the injury of the parties concerned, lest he be
quot; considered like a holy man, who, for the sake of money, sacrifices his good name.

quot; A Jalcsa must inquire into every circumstance relating to the causes brought before him,
quot; and duly investigate the evidence ; after which he must take the cause into consideration.
quot; He must not, in the least, listen to what is false, and on all occasions must decide accord-
\'\' ing to truth.

A Jaha who attends to all these points is of high repute. Of less repute is zJâksa who,
quot; in the decision of causes which come before him, listens to the advice of others: such a
« one is like that kind of bird, which in order to procure for itself the necessary food,
quot; dives under water, without thinking of the danger to which it is exposed of losing its life
« from the want of air. But entirely unfit for employment is a Jdha who is haughty in his
demeanour, and at the same time low enough to take advantage of persons who come before
« him: such a one is like a bat, that in the dark steals the fruit from the trees; or Hke a sports-
quot; man, who though destined to chase what is useful only, indiscriminately destroys whatever
quot; comes in his way, whether useful or not. In the same manner is it with a priest who every
quot; day attends at the temple, for no other purpose but to make profit by it;nbsp;a writer,

quot; who knows not how to make any thing but by the prostitution of his writings ; or with the
quot; head man of a village, who imposes upon the villagers; or a devotee, who gains his
quot; livelihood by necromancy.quot;

The court of justice in which the PmighMu or high priest presides, is where the
always held in the serdmU, or portico of the mosque ; a practice which, as
it inspires the people with a considerable share of awe, appears judicious.
It is also convenient for the administration of oaths, which among the Javans
are always administered within the mosque, and usually with much solem-
nity. The forms of the court are regular, orderly, and tedious; all
evidence is taken down in writing, and apparently with much accuracy.

The court, at least at the seat of government, consists of the Panghulu, Mode of pro-
the officiating priest of the mosque, and four individuals, also of the religious
order, called Pdteh nagdri, meaning literally the pillars or supports of the
country, to whom, after the examination of evidence in capital offences,
the point of law and decision is referred. At the seat of government the
sovereign or his minister passes judgment.

The court of the Jdksa at the seat of government consists of the head Jdksa,
who may be styled the law officer of the prime minister, and the Jdksas of
his Klmons or assistants, for they too have their law councils. The func-
tions of this court being of less importance, of a more mixed nature, and less
solemn because less connected with religion, are still more subject than that
of the Panghulu to the rude interference of the executive authority.*

The Javan code of law is divided into two departments, that of the Lcws.
Mahomedan law and that of custom and tradition. The former is distin-
guished by the appellation of hukum dltah, the commands of God, from the
Arabic ; the latter by the Javan words yMha nagdra, meaning considera-
tion for the country, or in other words, allowance for the state of society.

The decisions in Mahometan law afe chiefly guided by several works
in the Arabic language. In all the courts of Java these works are said to
be consulted in the Arabic language, but reference is more frequently made

* The following was the usual course of proceeding in Janata, and generally in the provinces
subjected to European authority, previous to the interference of the British government. The
plaintiff went to the Jaksa and made his complaint. If the case was important, the Jahsa took
down the deposition in writing in the presence of witnesses, summoned the accused, and com-
municated the deposition to him. The latter then either acknowledged or denied the Tacts,
witnesses were examined, and the proceedings of the suit laid before the Regent, who after
perusal transmitted the same to the Panglixdu for his advice, with which the latter complied,
referring at the same time for a sentence to some of the collections on Mahometan law. The
Regent having compared the sentence with the law and with equity, and finding the same
correspondent with both, judgment was pronounced by the Jaksa.

to a collection of opinions extracted from them, and translated into the
language of the country.

The law of custom is chiefly handed down by oral tradition, but has in
part been committed to writing in the following performances.

The earliest work relating to jurisprudence which is now referred to, is
that of Jugul Muda Pdteh, or minister of Sri Ma Pung\'gung (of Mendang
Kamulan), now Wirosdri: it is computed to be about six hundred years
old. The second bears the name of Rdja Kdpa, said to have been the son
of Mgul Muda, and like him minister of his sovereign Kandidwan, also
prince of Mendang Kamulan.

By the authority of the Sultan of Demdh, the first Mahometan prince, a
compilation of the Javan laws was made, in which they were in some
measure blended with the Mahometan jurisprudence. Probably this was
intended to pave the way to an entire introduction of Mahometan law.
The body of regulations, amp;c. compressed in these codes is curious, from
the laborious refinement of their distinctions, from the mixture of moral
maxims and illustrations with positive law, from the most incongruous
combinations^ and from their casuistical spirit. In the Appendix will be
found the translation of a modern version of the Suria Alem, a work of this
description in high repute, as well as an abstract of the laws and regulations
said to have been in force in the earliest periods to which Javan tradition
refers.*

- The proclamations {hidang-undang), and the laws and regulations {anger
dngerari) of the sovereign, form another source of deviation from the
Mahometan law. Collections of these have been committed to writing.

The prince, by himself or his officers, is always supposed vested with a
discretionary power of adapting the Mahometan law to the circumstances
of society, a prerogative liberally exercised. This power, which sanctions
every deviation from the letter of Musselman law, the Javans, also, express
by the term of yudha nagdra. The krising of criminals instead of
beheading them, the combat of criminals with tigers, the severe penalties
for infractions of the sumptuary laws of the Javans, the constant commu-
tation of corporeal punishment for a pecuniary fine, and in the case of
persons of rank found guilty of murder the commutation of the strict law
of retaliation for a fine, without regard to the wishes of the relations of the

deceased, if the latter be of no consideration, were among the deviations
from the Mahometan law sanctioned by the Yudha nagdra.

Such was the composition of the courts, and the code of laws that ex-
isted on Java before the arrival of the Dutch, and remained unchanged at
the conquest of the island by tbe British. The Dutch legislated for the
colonists, but took little interest in the system by which the judicial pro-
ceedings of their native subjects were guided, excepting in so far as their
own advantage or security was concerned in them. The following state-
ment contains the changes introduced by the Dutch.

Besides the colonial laws and regulations, enacted from time to time by Coloniaiiaws.
the Governors in Council at Batavia 5 besides some standing orders of the
Court of Directors, and some rules and provisions contained in the succes-
sive charters of the Company, and in what was called the article brief-, the
Dutch law, which was always considered as the foundation of the colonial
law, was of authority, as far as it remained unaffected by these institutions.

A collection of the colonial statutes and regulations, called the Placart
Book of Batavia, and an abstract of them, entitled the Statutes of Batavia,
were made under the authority of the colonial government 5 but as the latter
never underwent a regular promulgation, the rules contained in it were
not considered as possessing the force of law, except in so far as they might
be found to be conformable to the orders, proclamations, and regulations of
the Indian government, or of the Directors of the East-India Company.

The power of the Directors and of the Council of Batavia to enact local
laws and regulations, seems not to have been very circumspectly defined in
the first charters of the Company, those charters conferring on them, in
general terms only, authority to provide for the administration of justice
and establishment of police.

But from the nature of the occasion it seems evident, that this power of
making colonial laws, as far at least as related to the Council of Batavia,
could only have been a limited one, to be exercised with considerable discre-
tion, and only upon points requiring an immediate provision, subject always to
the approbation of the authorities at home; and even the Directors could
hardly be considered to have possessed a greater extent of legislative power,
than was necessary for the security of their new territories, and of their
rights and privileges, or to have been authorised to deviate wantonly from
the established law of the country, or neglect the dictates of justice and
equity.

In the great variety of matter comprehended in the colonial statutes, no
subject seems to have occupied more attention than the laws respecting
slavery. These, as already observed, appear to have been formed in general
upon principles of humanity and consideration for the condition of the
unfortunate beings to whom they related.

In consequence of a resolution of the year I76O, the Council of India
ordered that the customs of the Mahometans, in matters of inheritance and
successions ab intestat. See. should be sanctioned and published.

In civil matters, natives and Chinese in the districts of Batavia seem to
have been governed by the same laws as the European inhabitants.

Crimes committed by natives or Chinese in the city of Batavia and its
environs, had, from the first settlement of the Dutch on the island, always
been tried by European judges, and according to European law.

In Bantam the criminal jurisdiction over the natives was left to the
Sultan, and that over the Chinese resident there, was exercised as at Batavia
according to the European law.

The Jakatra and Priâng\'en Regencies seem formerly to have enjoyed a
peculiar and fortunate state of tranquillity. Almost entirely removed from
every communication and intercourse with Europeans, Chinese, and other
foreign settlers found in the neighbourhood of Batavia, engaged in
agriculture, and ruled by their own native chiefs, these districts seem to
have been in a high degree free from crime ; but whenever enormities did
happen, the offenders were sent down to Batavia, and tried according to
European law. It is to be observed, however, that on the first submission
of those districts to the Company, their chiefs or regents reserved to them-
selves the jurisdiction over the inhabitants of their respective districts; but
this stipulation appears to have been disregarded in the latter times of the
Dutch Company, and under the late administration of Marshal Daendals,
a court was established for these districts, the rule of which was European
law.

From Chéribon the Chinese were amenable, as from Bantam and
Batavia ; but the natives were subject to a landraad (or local court), of
which the Resident was president, and the Sultans members ; and this court
was, partly at least, directed by a papdkam, or native code, compiled under
the sanction of the government.

In the Eastern Districts of the island, the Javans seem always, in crimi-
nal matters, to have enjoyed their own laws, founded on ancient custom

and the precepts of the Koran. Of these laws the Council of Batavia
caused abstracts to be printed, for the guidance of the great landraad
or high court, at Semarang, to which all the Javans in the European pro-
vinces, from Losdri to Banywwdngi were amenable.

Under the native government, the prime minister (Rdden Adipdti) is the Police,
head of the police, as well as of every other department of authority. The
higher class of functionaries is most frequently to be found in those parts of
the country most remote from the seat of government, where, as governors
of provinces, they possess some extension of powers. The great and fer-
tile provinces near the capital, on the other hand, are divided into small
appropriations, of from two hundred to one thousand cJidcJias, or families,
placed under the administration of division ofScers, whose authority is
limited to the duties of pohce.

Each village is possessed of a distinct organization within itself, has
its chief, its Kahdyan or assistant, and if of any considerable size, its priest,
whose advice is frequently had recourse to, and who generally decides
petty disputes, especially respecting divorces arid matters of inheritance.
The chief of the village is not without his share of judicial authority, and
often takes upon himself to punish by fine and imprisonment. In each
village the inhabitants keep regular nightly watches and patroles.

The manner in which these little societies have been recently formed in
the districts to the east of Surabaya, where the European authority had
not interfered, and where the influence of the Mahometan government
was scarcely felt, will tend to illustrate their nature and constitution.

The frequent wars, in which the people had been engaged with the
inhabitants of Bdli and Madura, as well as with the Dutch, had reduced
those provinces to a state of wilderness towards the middle of the last
century. The encouragement held out to the people of the neighbouring
island of Madura brought over several adventurers, who were allowedto
occupy the land they cleared j first rent-free, and afterwards at a fixed as-
sessment. If several persons came together, their leader was invested
with the authority of Peting\'gi over the new village which they formed.
When individuals associated to construct a village, the chief was elected
by themselves, subject to the approval of the landlord ; and they possessed
the privilege, common in all the districts east of Surabdya, of annually
electing their chief, or Feting\'gi.

The nature of the duties rendered by this person was so essential to the
well-being of a village, that this privilege was most intimately connected
with its existence. Whenever a new assessment was imposed on the lands,
it was the business of the Petmg\'gi, if the amount was too high, to repre-
sent the matter to the superior, and to state the inability of the people to
make good the demand: the consequence was, either a reduction of assess-
ment on the part of the principal, or desertion on that of the people.
But when the amount of the assessment was considered reasonable (and
any amount less than three-fifths seems to have been so considered), the
Feting\'gi had to assemble all the people, and to distribute to each, in the
common presence of all, his individual proportion of land, with a statement
of the produce to be paid. He had to keep a roster of all duties required
of the people, and to see that every man took his proper turn. When the
harvest ripened, he had to watch the collectors, that they exacted no more
from each man than his proportion and the cultivator, that he did not
embezzle any part of the due of government. In large villages he had an
assistant, called a Kabdyan, who represented him during his absence, and
with the Kamituah and Mudin (priest), formed a court for settling petty
village disputes j subject, however, to a reference, if the parties should be
dissatisfied.

It was customary for the people of the village to cultivate the lands of
their Petmg\'gi without payment. This and the honour of chiefship render-
ed the office an object of village ambition ; while an annual election, and
the fear, if turned out, of being called upon to justify his conduct, ren-
dered this officer generally a steady and careful representative of his con-
stituents.

All strangers passing through the country were expected to apply to the
Feting\'gi- for the assistance they required ; and if payment was tendered, all
procurable necessaries were furnished. The Peting\'gi also took charge of
the strangers* property, examined the same in the presence of the other
head-man, and was bound to return the whole undiminished the next morn-
ing, or to pay the value. If, however, the stranger preferred keeping his
property under his own charge, and rested himself for the night under
some of the public sheds, the loss he might sustain fell on himself alone,
and all he could procure from the village was assistance to trace the offen-
ders.

It was customary, as well to deter beasts of prey as thieves, for a part of
the men of each village to keep a night watch round it, and to perform this
duty in successive rotation.

Such appears to have been the internal regulation of these villages ; and
it seems to have been framed according to the ancient usage of the island,
the similarity of which to that of Western India has been adduced as a
strong instance of one common origin.*

* With the exception, perhaps, of the right of election, which I have not seen noticed in.
any account of Continental India, the constitution of the Javan village has a striking resem-
blance to that of the Hindus, according to the following statement in the Fifth Report of the
House of Commons on Indian Affairs. quot; A village, geographically considered, is a tract of
quot; country comprizing some hundreds or thousands of acres of arable and waste lands ; politi-
quot; cally viewed, it resembles a corporation or township. Its proper establishment of officers
and servants consists of the following descriptions : the Pofail or head inhabitant, who has
generally the superintendence of the affairs,of the village, settles the disputes of the inhabi-
quot; tants, attends to the police, and performs the duty of collecting the revenues within his village,
quot; a duty which his personal influence and minute acquaintance with the situation and concerns
quot; of the people render him the best qualified to discharge. The Kurnum, who keeps the accounts
quot; of cultivation and registers every tiding connected with it. The Tallier and Totie,, the duty of
quot; the former appearing to consist in a wider and more enlarged sphere of action, in gaining in-
quot; formation of crimes and offences, and in escorting and protecting persons travelling from one
quot; village to another; the province of the latter appearing to be more immediately confined to
quot; the village, consisting among other duties in guarding the crops and assisting in measuring
quot; them. The boundary man, who preserves the limits of the village, or gives evidence respect-
quot; ing them in cases of dispute. The superintendent of tanks and watercourses, distributes
quot; the water therefrom for the purposes of agriculture. The Bramin, who performs the village
quot; worship. The schoolmaster, who is seen teaching the children in a village to read and write
quot; in the sand. The calendar Bramin or astrologer, amp;c.

quot; These officers and servants generally constitute the establishment of a village; but in some
quot; parts of the country it is of less extent, some of the duties and functions above described
quot; being united, in the same person: in others it exceeds the number of individuals which have
quot; been described,

quot; Under this simple form of municipal government, the inhabitants of the country have
quot; lived from time immemorial. The boundaries of the villages have been but seldom altered ^
quot; and though the villages themselves have been sometimes injured, and even desolated by
quot; war, famine, and disease, the same name, the same limits, tile same interests, and evep the
quot; same families, have continued for ages. The inhabitants give themselves no trouble about
quot; the breaking up and division of kingdoms; while the village remains entire, they care not
\'\' to what power it is transferred or to what sovereign it devolves; its internal economy
quot; remains unchanged. The Potail is still the head inhabitant, and still acts as the petty
quot; judge and magistrate, and collector or renter of the village.quot;

It follows from the above, that each village has in itself the materials of
a good pohce, and that a right of choosing their chiefs gives to the people a
considerable share of real liberty.* This right of election in the inhabitants
of the village, as before observed, would appear at one time to have been
general throughout the island. It is still respected in the districts of Surahâya,
where the office of Feting\'gi was always elective, for although the same
person might hold it for many years, a ballot for the situation was regularly
held at specified periods, varying from one to three years.t

The right of election is also clearly acknowledged in the districts of
Japara and Jawâna. quot; That the Feting\'gi is elected by the inhabitants of
quot; a village,quot; observes the officer who introduced the settlement into those
districts,:]: quot; there cannot be a doubt; and if even the raght of election is
quot; foregone by the people, though I have not met with a single instance of
quot; the kind, it may be taken for granted, that it is so only, in consequence
** of the influence of the Regent, to serve some particular purpose. While
« the Feting\'gi continues in office, he is looked up to and obeyed by the
quot; people of the village to which he belongs as the immediate chief. He
quot; generally occupies the paséban usually to be found in villages of conse-
quot; quence, and has two or more men, inhabitants of the village, appointed
quot; to attend him wherever he goes. A Feting\'gi was usually elected for one
year, during which time he could not, according to the ancient usage, be
quot; removed, except in consequence of some gross misconduct, but if his
quot; conduct was such as to give satisfaction to the inhabitants, they continued
quot; him for several years. As far as I could learn,quot; continues the same
officer, quot; the Regent, or other superior native authority, seldom interfered
quot; in the election of a Feting\'gi ; but it was generally understood, that
quot; although he could not force a Feting\'gi upon them who was disliked by
quot; the people, his confirmation was required before the person elected could
quot; act with effect-.quot;

In examining the interior of a village on Java, we find that, in common with the Hindu
usage, it possesses a constitution within itself, independent of the supreme governing power.
Here, as in Western India, it will be found that each village possesses its Feting\'gi or chief; its
Kahayan, who is the deputy or assistant to the head of the village ; its Kamituah or elders,
generally men who have formerly been chiefs of the village ; its Mudin or priest ; its JJlu-ulu
or Kapala Bandang an, or superintendent of watercourses ; its Jeru\'tulis or writer, amp;c.

In the Sûnda districts of Chérihon and Tegal, the appointment to this
office is invariably made, if not by the election of the villagers, generally
from among themselves, and always with their concurrence. It is a com-
mon practice for the people of a village, even where the right of election
is not in use, to represent in a body the conduct of their chief if incorrect j
and it has always been necessary for the chief native authority to remove
him, if the complaints were justly founded.

A reference to the judicial regulations in the Appendixquot;* will show how
desirous the British government on the island has been to protect the privi-
leges of these societies, and in particular the right of electing their chief.

When the British authority was established on the island, it was imme-
diately seen that something must be done to supply the deficiencies and to
correct the imperfections of the native code. All the other changes in
contemplation for the encouragement of industry and for the abolition of
oppressive and impolitic exactions, would have been nugatory, without
such an improvement in the judicial and police regulations, as would secure,
by a full and impartial administration of justice, the rights and privileges
about to be conferred. It would have been in vain to define the limits of
power, to issue directions for guiding the conduct of public servants in
their transactions with the people, or to have abrogated the oppressive
privileges of the chiefs, and to have assured the people of the intention of
government to protect them against all invasion of their rights, either by
open violence, by the exaction of services, or by oppressive contributions,
without establishing effective means of obtaining redress when aggrieved.
The system acted upon was at once barbarous and revolting. Prsfctices pre-
vailed under the sanction of native law, which were abhorrent to the crimi-
nal jurisdiction of any enlightened nation, without being at all necessary
to the due administration of justice.! I allude particularly to torture and

f Among many others, the following enactments, which were in force m some of the
Eastern districts when the English arrived, will serve to shew the barbarities of the law then
existing, in its operation on the people, and its leniency towards the great.

Any person murdering his superior shall be beheaded, his body quartered and given to the
« vnld beasts, and his head stuck upon a bambu.

quot; Any person disobeying his superior and attempting to murder him, may be killed by the
quot; superior, without, giving any intimation thereof to the chief town.

quot; Any person daring to destroy any public advertisement promulgated by government shall
quot; forfeit his right hand.

mutilation. These the Eaii of Minto immediately abolished, by his procla-
mation of the llth September 1811, in which, besides this beneficial and
humane enactment, he laid down clearly and distinctly the liberal and en-
lightened principles which should guide the local government in the subse-
quent revision of the civil and criminal code of the colony. The result
was the enactment of the code of judicial and police regulations which will
be found in the Appendix to this work.* The outlines of these regulations,
and the principles which dictated them, are contained in a Minute which I
recorded on the llth February 1814, when they were completed and pro-
mulgated ; and the following quotations from that document may be suffi-
cient to put the reader in possession of the change which was effected.

quot; It was essential, in conducting the revenue arrangements, that the
quot; measures taken for the establishment of a good and efficient police, and
quot; the full and impartial administration of justice throughout the island,
quot; should preserve an equal pace.

« Rights were not to be bestowed and defined, without a suitable pro-
quot; vision for their being effectually guarded against any invasion; and it
quot; became an object of the first moment, to form such an adequate and
quot; consistent code of regulations, as should serve, in every instance, to guide
quot; the executive officers of government in the performance of their duty,
quot; and to make known, and secure to the people, the means of obtaining
quot; redress, whenever they felt themselves in any way aggrieved.

quot; The system found existing on our first arrival was at once complicated
quot; and confused. In the principal towns there were established courts, but
quot; these were constituted in all the troublesome formalities of the Roman

« A Demang, or other chief of a tZ^sa, being acquainted with any conspiracy tending to the
« injury of the state, and not giving intimation thereof, shall be punished by losing one ear,
quot; his head shall be shaved, and he shall be banished.

quot; Any person daring to ofier violence to a priest in the mosque or among the tombs shall

quot; If a person puts out the eyes of another he shall be fined 500 reals batu ; if one eye only,
quot; so reals.quot;

There were also difFerent fines for maiming different parts of the body. For cutting out the
tongue, 500 reals; for knocking out the teeth, 25 ; for breaking the thumb, 500; for break-
ing the finger, 100 ; and die like.

law; and in the different residencies were provincial courts, styled
landraads, where the native form and law was left to take its course, with
all its barbarities and tortures.

quot; The Dutch government, proceeding entirely on the system of commer-
cial monopoly, paid very inferior attention to their internal administra-
tion. They had little other connexion with their best subjects, the
cultivators of the soil, than in calHng on them, from time to time, for ar-
bitrary and oppressive contributions and services ; and for the rest, gave
them up to be vassals to the various intermediate authorities, the Regents,
Demdngs, and other native officers. These either at first purchased their
situations, or stipulated for a certain tribute, in service or money, in
consideration of which all the inferior classes of inhabitants were made
over, to be dealt with by them as most pleasing to themselves. Policy,
and the common attention to their own good, suggested to these a cerl
tarn equity of procedure, and it was generally the custom to leave each
village to its own management with respect to police and settling the
petty quarrels that occurred within its limits; but for the continuance
of what was good in such a system, there was no security whatsoever,
and oppression and injustice must have constantly occurred. Where
the will of the lord was the paramount law, his vassals could only
have depended on his natural goodness of disposition for being
equitably treated. No remedy was afforded where the reverse was
the case, and they possessed, in short, no security, no freedom what-
soever.

quot; On the propriety of the measures to be adopted by us to remedy such
evils, no doubt could exist.

quot; The first proclamation of the enhghtened founder of the present go-
vernment adverted immediately to this subject. As a step thatcould
not, consistently with British ideas, admit of a moment\'s delay, it
instantly ordained, that torture and mutilation should no longer make
part of any sentence to be pronounced against criminals; and it then
proceeded to define clearly the relative situation of the English and
Dutch inhabitants, laying down rules for the future guidance of govern-
ment concerning them. This proclamation, dated 11th September, 1811,
has long been before the world, and it would be superfluous, in this
place, to dwell on that love of justice and benevolence of disposition

quot; which is to be traced through every part of it. It forms the basis of the
quot; present respective European rights in this colony.*

quot; As a continuation of the measures so ably sketched out by my prede-
quot; cessor, I issued the proclamation, dated the 2ist January 1812.

quot; In this I attempted to simplify the clumsy and unwieldy structure of
quot; the former courts, by abolishing some, lessening the number of the
quot; judges in the remaining ones, and by defining, as accurately as I could,

« It was found that, formerly, there were separate courts for investigating
quot; the conduct of the immediate European servants of the Dutch Company,
« and of Europeans not included in that service. This distinction, as
quot; Lord Minto observed, never could have been grounded on any sound
quot; principle ; and it being resolved, that justice, under the British go-
quot; vernment, should bs administered equal and alike to all classes and
quot; denominations, the judicial power of the College of Schepenen was abo-
quot; lished, and transferred to the jurisdiction of the courts of justice.

quot; The great number of judges who, under the Dutch administration,
quot; formed a court, was reduced in each to a president and three mem-
quot; bers.

quot; One court was established in each of the three principal towns, Ba-
quot; tavia, Semarang, and Surabaya, the jurisdiction of which extended over
quot; its European inhabitants J proceeding, in civil cases, in the mode before
quot; established, but in criminal ones, so as to conform as much as possible to
quot; that established in Great Britain j in all cases confronting the prisoner with
quot; the evidence, and a jury being called to judge of the fact on the evi-
quot; dence so adduced.

quot; To relieve these courts from numerous inconsiderable causes, courts,
quot; of the nature of Courts of Requests, were also established in these three
quot; towns, for the recovery of small debts.

quot; Eor matters of police within the towns, magistrates were ap-
quot; pointed; but they were ordered to confine themselves entirely to , this
quot; branch.

quot; An abuse which had been discovered to be usual, the compounding
quot; crimes and offences in consideration of a sum of money paid to the
quot; Fiscal or other officer, had also met with Lord Minto\'s most severe repre-

liension, as being one of an abominable nature, and to be suppressed
without delay. The practice was accordingly strictly prohibited, and
consonantly with British ideas was termed scandalous.
quot; Thus much had been done with regard to Europeans, and it has been
found fully sufficient.

« But with respect to the native inhabitants of the island, it was to
be expected that much greater changes would be necessary.
quot; In the first instance, it was ordered that courts should be established
in the different districts, in which the chief civil authorities should pre-
side, aided by the Regents and other native officers, for the purpose of
hearing and trying all causes in which natives only were concerned ; the
amount of their civil decisions, when exceeding fifty dollars, being sub-
mitted for confirmation to the courts of justice; and all criminal cases,
of a capital nature, being made over by them to judges of circuit, who
were ordered to be sent on this duty twice a year, from among the mem-
bers of the superior courts.

quot; Thus much was known not to militate either against the principles of
universal and natural justice, or against the particular laws and usages
of the country j and thus much was only, at first, done, because it
was resolved to obtain the fullest knowledge of the subject, with regard
to the manners, habits, and institutions of our native subjects, before
we established one general code of regulations for the internal administra-
tion of the country.

quot; In effecting this grand object, it was rather my wish to have it
maturely and well done, than by accelerating it too much, to run the risk
of taking up a crude system, which would require to be afterwards
reconsidered, and perhaps entirely new modelled.

quot; On the principle, however, which would eventually guide me, there
was no doubt, nor is it necessary for me to dilate on the impolicy, the
inconvenience, or the injustice, of subjecting the natives of Java to
any other laws, than those of their ancient government and established
faith.

« The tranquillity of the country and the duties of police have been
provided for, by preserving the original constitution of the villages,
and continuing the superintendence and responsibility in the hands of
those, whose rank enables them to exert a due influence, and to command
respect. For the administration of justice, the duties of the Resident

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as judge and magistrate, have been considerably extended. In civil
cases, the mode of proceeding, and the establishment of petty courts,
are founded on the practice of the country ; in criminal, the jurisdiction
and authority of the Resident has been considerably extended. Hither-
to, his duties had been strictly confined to police; but considerable
delay and injury to the parties accused, as well as to the witnesses,
had been occasioned by allowing all causes of a higher nature to lie over
for the Court of Circuit: and as the separation of the collection of the
revenue would afford more time to the Resident, it was resolved to
extend the criminal jurisdiction of the Provincial Courts to all cases,
in which the punishment for the crime alleged does not amount to
death. In these courts, which instead of being termed Landraad, as
heretofore, are now styled the Resident\'s Courts, the PangMlu, or chief
priest, and the superior Jdhsa, or native fiscal, attend to expound the
law. The Bopdtis, or Regents, with their Pdtehs, are present, to aid
and assist the Resident with their opinion in the course of the investi-
gation, but they have no vote in the decision. If the opinion of the
law officers appears to the Resident to be according to substantial justice,
and is in accordance with his own opinion, the sentence is immediately
carried into effect, provided the punishment does not extend to transpor-
tation or imprisonment for life.

nature, the prisoner is committed to jail, to take his trial before the
Circuit Judge.

« On the first establishment of the Courts of Circuit, it was directed
that the President, and one other member of the Courts of Justice,
should proceed once in six months, or as much oftener as circumstances
might require, to the different Residencies in their several jurisdictions,
for the trial of offenders. Much inconvenience, however, was found to
arise from the absence of those members of the courts from the towns
in which they were established, as it necessarily followed, that all civil
business was at a stand while they were away. On the other hand, to
prevent delay on the trial of criminals, it was necessary that they should
visit the Residencies more frequently than once in six months.

quot; To remedy this in future, and to provide for the prompt and due
administration of justice among the native inhabitants, in a manner that
« is not repugnant to their notions of right and wrong, one member of
each of the courts of justice has been appointed a Judge of Circuit,
quot; who will be present in each of the Residencies at least once in every
quot; three months, and as much oftener as necessary. In the mode of
lt;« proceeding, they are to avoid the formalities of the Roman law. A
« native jury, consisting of an intelligent foreman and four others,*
quot; decide upon the fact: the law is then taken down, as expounded by the
quot; native law officers, and the sentence, with the opinion of the Judge of
quot; Circuit, and on the appHcation of the Dutch and Colonial law on the
« cases, is forwarded for the modification or confirmation of the Lieutenant
quot; Governor.

» Hitherto the jury required by the Court of Circuit did not exceed
« five in number, and these, as justly observed, \' were chosen from a
« «class of men (Europeans) who had no common feehngs, no common
quot; * rights ; who were, in no shape or consideration, the equals of the
quot; * person tried. The law was the law of Europe. The jury, under their
quot; \' best prejudices, were influenced by that law ; and its meanings and
« \' penalties were applied to people who reason in a different manner, and
quot; ^ who often never knew any thing of the laws of Europe, before they
quot; * found themselves its convicted victims.\'

« The general jurisdiction of the Courts of Justice at Batavia, Semârang,
and Surabaya, is now confined to Europeans and foreigners and to the
quot; inhabitants of those towns and their suburbs ; and a line has been
quot; drawn, which distinctly separates the police of the country from that of
quot; the towns.

quot; Collections of the different law-books and institutions of the country
quot; are now making, and a native establishment has been formed at Buiten-
quot; zorg, under my immediate superintendence, for examining and revising
« the judicial proceedings, and for affording to the native inhabitants that
quot; facihty of appeal, which the remoteness of the Government, and the
rules of Dutch administration, did not formerly admit of, but which is

* The number required to compose the jury was fixed in conformity with the anc\'
«sages of the country, in which five persons are considered necessary to assist in th.e delib
tation npon any matter of importance,.nbsp;......^^

« SO consonant to the principles on which the new system of internal
quot; economy has been established.quot;

Under the native government, the whole of the male population capable
of bearing arms was liable to military service ; but the number of people
required to cultivate the land, and to perform other public services, did
not admit of more than one-third being spared for military purposes,
except in cases of extraordinary emergency. The extent of the force per-
manently kept up by the sovereign in time of peace varied, of course, with
the probability of approaching hostiHties: when this was smallest, the
number seldom exceeded what was required for the state and pomp of the
court, and might have amounted to four or five thousand men. Until
within the last sixty years, when the Dutch first obtained a supremacy over
the whole island, the provinces under the native administration had for
several centuries been in a continual state of warfare ; but since that period
the military spirit has been gradually subsiding, and, by the existing trea-
ties with the native princes, they are restricted in the number of troops which
they may maintain. Those of the Susuhunan are limited to a body guard
of one thousand men : such further number as may be required for the
tranquillity of the country, the European government undertakes to
furnish.

Before the native sovereign was under this restriction, he used to raise
the requisite force by a demand upon the governor of each province for a
specified number, to be furnished at a certain time, varying according to
circumstances. The governor or chief of the province apportioned this
demand among the subdivisions, and the village chiefs selected from among
the villagers as many as were required of them j and thus, in a country
where every man wears a kris or dagger, and the spear or pike is the prin-
cipal military weapon, an army, or rather a numerous armed mob, was easily
collected in a few days. The men furnished from the villages, and of
whom the mass of every large army necessarily consisted, were distin-
guished from the soldiers by profession (praj^irit), by the term drahan, or
prajunt drahan. During their absence from home, they were provisioned
by the sovereign, and their wives and families were maintained by the
head of the village, who required of the remaining cultivators to assist in
working their fields or gardens.

The sovereign, as the head of the military and the fountain of military
honour, assumes among his titles that qf Senapdti, or lord of war. When

an army is to be raised, he appoints a certain number of his chiefs to be
widdnas, or commanders of corps of three hundred and twenty men. Under
each mddna are four lurahs or tindihs, who command companies of eighty
men, and have each two subaltern officers, called babdkals or sesdbats, each
having the command of forty men. The widdnas were remunerated for
their services by grants of land, to the amount of a thousand chdchas,
from which they had again to make assignments for the maintenance of the
raferior officers, who were always nominated by them.

When troops march through the country, or supplies are required, a
demand is made upon the neighbouring districts, which are obliged to con-
tribute according to their means, without payment. When in an enemy\'s
country, the troops, of course, subsist by plunder, the disbursement of
money for provisions or supplies being unknown.

The native armies of Java consisted chiefly of infantry, but the officers
were invariably mounted, and when cavalry was required, each province
furnished its quota: the troops, whether on foot or mounted, joined the
army properly equipped for action. It was thus unnecessary for the sove-
reign to keep up a store of arms. Each village has its provision of spears,
and sometimes of fire-arms j the officer of subdivision keeps a further re-
serve for contingencies ; and as the chief of the province is responsible for
the proper equipment of the men, he generally has also a further store to
supply any deficiency.

The annexed plates will exhibit the different weapons used in Java. Of Weapons,
these, the most important and the most peculiar to the Eastern Islands is
the hris, which is now worn by all classes, and as an article of dress has
already been noticed.

The Javan hris differs from the Malayan, in being much more plain, as
well in the blade as in the handle and sheath : it differs also in the handle
and sheath from the hris of Madura and Bali, as may be seen in the plate.
The varieties of the blade are said to exceed an hundred; and as a know-
ledge of the kris is considered highly important by the Javans, I have, in
a separate plate, offered specimens of the most common.

In the plates are also exhibited the different kinds of spears, darts, and
other weapons, either said to have been in use formerly, or actually used at
the present day. These are the bow and arrow {gendewa, pana) which are
seldom used in modern days, except on state occasions. The arrows, termed
chdkra, paspdti, trisiila, wardyangj diwdl, rbda deddli, and others of a

similar form, as well as the clubs called inddn, gdda, and denda, are repre-
sented as the weapons used by the gods, demigods, and heroes of antiquity,
and are constantly referred to in the mythological and historical romances of
the Javans, and exhibited in their scenic and dramatic entertainments.
The tulup and pdser represent the tube and the small arrows which are
rendered poisonous by the dpas: these have not been used on Java for
centuries, hut they are common in the less civiHzed islands of the Archi-
pelago, and particularly on Borneo. The gdnjing is an iron bar, formerly
used by the Javans. The handring, or sling, is still used with considerable
effect, and was employed in resisting the British troops in 1812. The
peddng, handbl, badik, golok, mentbk, Idmang or klewdng, and chundrik,
are varieties of the sword. The kudi-trdnchang is a weapon which was
formerly general on Java, but not now much used. The wedung is a pecu-
liar weapon, in the shape of a chopper, worn on occasions of state by all
chiefs when in presence of the sovereign. Of spears and darts, there are
several varieties distinguished by different names. Small round shields are
still in use ; the long shield is not. The matchlock exhibited in the plate
is a representation of a piece manufactured on Bdlu

Besides these instruments of war, the Javans have long been acquainted
with the use of cannon, muskets, and pistols. Previous to the reduction of
Yugya-kerta, in 1812, by the British forces, the sultan cast brass guns of
considerable caHbre, and at Gresik they are still manufactured for expor-
tation. Round the krdton of Sura-kerta are mounted several very large
pieces of artillery, and great veneration is paid to some of them supposed to
have been the first introduced on the island : two, in particular, are con-
sidered to be part of the regalia. For muskets and pistols they are princi-
pally indebted to Europeans. Gunpowder they manufacture, but to no
considerable extent, and the quality is not esteemed.

From an army raised only on emergency, and composed of people who do
not make the military life a profession, much discipline cannot be expected.
The veneration, however, which the common people pay to their chiefs,
the well defined gradations of rank, and the devotion with which all classes
are willing to sacrifice themselves in support of their ancient institutions
and independence, seem to render the Javan troops, while acting under
their own chiefs, orderly and tractable. In their tactics and conduct they
endeavour to emulate the examples given in their ancient romances; and
in the plans for their pitched battles, the march of their armies, and the

_/./- i^ra/urrt or Jj\'oep^-.\' if //lo or/h^/\'o/i,
7.5nbsp;or in/iV\'iù o/\'t//cnbsp;w ^i-Zfir^/^\'parr/a.

mdividual heroism of their chiefs, they strive to imitate the romantic
exhibitions contained in the poems of antiquity. In the great Matdrem
war, for instance, the result of which was the establishment of the present
family on the throne, the disposition of the army is said to have been in the
form of a shrimp or prawn, as represented in the annexed plate. This form
is termed mangltdra hbyewd, or the shrimp which hides its soul, alluding to
the sovereign who is in the centre and not to be approached. The plan of
tliis order of battle is said to have been taken from the poem of the
Brdta Yudha, and was adopted by Bimdnyu, the son of Arjuna. The
dirdda mdta is another form, said to have been used by the army of Astma,
and has likewise been adopted by the modern Javans.*

Of the bravery and heroism required of a soldier, some notion has been
given in the account of the Javan ethics; and a reference to their history,
for the last three centuries, will abundantly prove, that although unac-
quainted with those evolutions and tactics which contribute so largely to the
power of an European army, the Javans, as soldiers, have not been de-
ficient, either in personal courage, or in such military principles as might be
expected from the general state of society among them, and as are well
suited to the nature of the country and the weapons they are accustomed to
catry.t

It is the national boast, that it was not so much by force of arms as by
intrigue and stratagem, that the Dutch obtained the superiority in the
country. The history of the Dutch administration on Java will abundantly
testify this, and at the same time prove, that among Asiatics there are few
nations who have fought more obstinately in support of their independence
than the Javans. It was by corrupting and bribing the chiefs, and sewing
disunion among them, that the Dutch succeeded in dismembering an empire,
already shaken, at the period of their arrival, by the constant wars which
attended the estabhshment of Mahometanism. The comparison which has

* In joining the hattle it is usual for the warriors to shout, and for the trumpets (sarenenj,
gongs, and drums used in the martial music of the country to be sounded.

■f The following verse from the Niti Sasira Kdwi may be adduced, in further illustration of
the notions entertained by the Javans regarding the bravery of a soldier.
quot; The brave man who has been successful in war obtains his heart\'s desire.
quot; The brave man who dies in war is received into heaven and cherished by the Widadaris
quot; If a man is cowardly in war and dies, the keepers of hell seize upon him in a rage:
quot; Should he not die, he is reprobated and despised by all good men, even to his face.quot;

been drawn by the Javans themselves of their own character, in contrast
with that of the Dutch, may serve to illustrate the nature of the military
feeling still existing in the country. quot;The Dutch,quot; say they, « are superior
quot; to the Javans, inasmuch as they have good heads ; they can calculate and
« they understand policy better, but then they have cold hearts : the Javans
quot; are poor simple beings, but they love their country and will never quit it ;
quot; their heart glows and often burns.quot;

The phrenzy generally known by the term much or cmok, is only another
form of that fit of desperation which bears the same name among the mili-
tary, and under the influence of which they rush upon the enemy, or attack
a battery, in the manner of a forlorn hope. The accounts of the wars of
the Javans, as well as of the Malâyus, abound with instances of warriors
running amok ; of combatants, giving up all idea of preserving their own
lives, rushing on the enemy, committing indiscriminate slaughter, and never
surrendering themselves alive.* Even at present, there are to be found
among the Javans men who profess to be and are considered invulnerable j
and there are some who, by a dextrous manner of receiving the spear, and
other such artifices, completely impose upon the too credulous people.
Nothing is so easy as for an artful man to persuade the common Javans
that he possesses supernatural power. At the present day this pretension,
and the artifices by which it is supported, are more generally of a religious
nature, but during the wars, every fortunate chief was considered as par-
tially vested with it.

The general term for a soldier is prajûrit : the guards of the sovereign are
distinguished by the term tantômo. Sara g\'ni h i\\\\e name given to those
who carry fire-arms. Gandeh are the couriers or messengers who convey
the orders of the commanders. In every army there is a certain number
called jâga héla, whose duty it is to prevent the body of the troops from
deserting, and to see that every man does his duty. Pdna kcùncan is the
term by which the youths who accompany their fathers and relations to
battle are distinguished. Semut gdtat is the general term for attendants,
retainers, and followers of an army. But besides distinctions of ofiice,
there are others purely of merit and honour: those are called niutra, who
are selected as superior to their comrades in person and strength: the

^ * It is on these occasions that the parties frequently increase their desperation by the use
of opium.

prmireng are those who have once distinguished themselves in battle :
magâtsîh, those who sacrifice all other prospects in life in order to pursue the
love of arms : trâna-layang, gallant youths : jâga sura, those whose courage
is undisputed and who keep a good look out : judi pdti, those who hazard
their lives in battle, as they would hazard a die in any common game of
chance ; literally, who play with death : nirhdya, those who are above a
sense of pain or ïe2ix:jdyeng sekdr, flowers of victory.* This latter term was
chosen by Marshal Daendels for the native militia raised for the service of
the Dutch government during his administration.

In the Dutch armies, the Javans were considered as inferior to the other
islanders as soldiers, and from the facilities offered for desertion while
serving on Java, it was with great diflSculty that they could be disciplined.
The men were invariably raised by conscription, and instances have occur-
red of their deserting by companies. Under the British, a corps of about
twelve hundred men was raised, with little prospect of advantage for the
first two years ; but by the perseverance and abihty of the officer who
commanded them, they afterwards became a well disciplined corps, and on
all occasions behaved themselves with fidelity and courage when called into
action. As individuals, they are, for the most part, physically weaker than the
Maldyus and other islanders ; and as a nation, their agricultural habits have
considerably obliterated the military character which they once possessed.
Their country however, particularly in the interior, is naturally very strong,
full of ravines and fastnesses, and their mode of warfare is perhaps the best
adapted for its defence. Were the whole energies of the nation united
under one chief, with the experience which they now have of European
tactics, it may be assumed, that they would render it impregnable to any
open attack, either of a European or an Asiatic force ; but, unfortunately
for their independence, it has been their lot, as their history will shew, to
be continually disunited, either by religious or political feuds. Their
greatest resistance appears to have been made against European influence.
They maintain with pride, that although virtually conquered, they still, as a
nation and as individuals, pertinaciously adhere to their ancient institutions, -

* quot; As to their military character, it is certain,quot; says Plutarch, they were able com-
quot; manders, both by sea and land. But as the champions, who in one day gain the garland,
quot; not only in wrestling but in the pancration, are not simply called victors, but by the custom
quot; of the games, Ûxe jlowers of victory ; so Cymon, having crowned Greece with two vie-
quot; tones gained in one day, the one at land, the other at sea, desei-ves some preference in the
quot; list of gQïietSihquot;^Langhorne s Plutarch : Cinion and Lucullus compared.

and have a national feeling, very different from that which is usually to be
found among a conquered people.

The subject of revenue, for the support of the various establishments
under the native government, has been so repeatedly touched upon, and
came so much into view in the account given of Javan agriculture, that
many further details here would appear tedious and unnecessary. All
public officers, it has been often observed, from the highest chief to the
lowest menial, are remunerated by grants of land revokable at pleasure,
and all expences of the courts of justice, all police and miHtary services,
defrayed out of the same fund. There is no public treasury. When public
works are to be executed or supplies are to be furnished, each village is
called upon to furnish its quota of men, of provisions, amp;c. ; and on the
equitable regulation of these services and contributions, depends the repu-
tation of the native chief. The land constitutes the only treasury of the
prince, and this is valuable according to its fertility, and the extent and
number of its cultivators. There are, to be sure, certain general taxes
and imposts levied throughout the country ; but these appear to have been
of comparatively modern introduction, and unconnected with the genuine
principles of the Javan government. The nature of several of these im-
posts and taxes has been explained, in treating of the landed tenure and
the condition of the peasantry. The following statement, extracted from
the Report of a Dutch Commissioner,* appointed to inquire into the subject
of taxation in the year 1812, though it refers to the particular province of
Surabaya, may be considered as applicable to the greater part of the island;
and I here produce it, in preference to any more general or more concise
account of my own, because it will shew that the opinions I have so often
expressed, concerning the oppressions of the Dutch authorities, the patient
submission, the industry, and other good qualities of the lower classes of
Java, are not peculiar to the Enghsh, but entertained by some of the sub-
jects of a government, which profited by the abuses complained of, and
must have been anxious to conceal their enormity.

quot; The ordinary taxes annually levied in the district of Surabaya are as
quot;follow.

quot; 1. The grabdg or peték, or as it is sometimes called, the chdcha or capi-
quot; tation tax, is generally levied at the rate of four rupees for each chdcha
quot; a year; that is to say, for such a quantity of profitable land as may be
cultivated by oge family.nbsp;quot; % The

quot; S. The contingent or contribution of rice to government, being from
quot; fifteen to nineteen p/kuls of clean rice from each Jung, accordino- to its
quot; situation and fertihty.nbsp;°

quot; 3. Fan pdnajung (from which, however, are excused the distant
districts), consisting generally of three dmats of pari, equal to from eight
quot; to ten Mti of rice, from eaohjung. This is destined for the maintenance
quot; of those Mdntris and chiefs who were not at all or insufficiently provided
quot; with rice fields of their own.

quot; 4. Fdri pagondiMn, levied only in the districts near the capital, con-
quot; sisting generally of two gedings or double heaps of pari. This was des-
quot; tined for the extraordinary expences of the districts j as the maintenance
« of the government, state prisoners, native ambassadors from the opposite
quot; coast, and the hke.

for the maintenance of those whu superintend the direction of the water-
quot; courses, amp;c.

quot; 6. Fdri zdlrnt, consisted of one dmat of pdri from each jung, and was
quot; destined for the maintenance of the church and chief priests.

quot; 7. Pitrah, consisted in the payment of twenty Mti of rice from each
quot; jung, also destined for the maintenance of the priests.

quot; 8. Mdlamdn. This consisted of a payment made to the Regent or
« chiefs of the districts, at each of the three festivals of Mulut, Puasa,
quot; and Besdr, of ten Mti of rice and three and a quarter stivers in money
quot; from each jung, one large fowl, five eggs, four cocoa-nuts, one bunch of
quot; plantains; and from those who held three or four jungs, was further
quot; required a bottle of oil, to add to the solemnity of the ceremony, to
quot; which persons of this condition were universally invited.

quot; It is easy to conceive, that the common Javan was not able to make Oppressimiess
« any money after paying these taxes and contributions, at least not so
quot; much as he wanted for himself and family j particulariy if we take into
quot; consideration, that it is very seldom one man is the sole proprietor of a
« jung alone, but that it is often divided between three and four persons,
quot; and that, with the most successful harvest, such a jung does not produce
quot; more than thirty to thirty-five dmats of pdri. With all this, however,
quot; the common Javan would feel himself satisfied, if he had no other taxes
quot; to pay, having generally a good many fruit trees, and a little cottage

quot; farm, in which he cultivates s/r/, amp;c. and sometimes a small fish-pond in
f the vicinity of his dwelling, which is usually free of tax. But this is not
quot; the case; he must submit to other oppressions, which not being regu-
quot; lated, are for that reason the heavier, because they are called for in an
arbitrary way, and because self-interest does not fail to seize every
« possible opportunity of extortion.

quot; When a chief has occasion to travel, when a marriage, birth, circum-
quot; cision, recovery from illness, or any such subject of festivity, occurs in
« his family, it is advertized immediately to the subordinate towns and
quot; villages, the inhabitants of which feel themselves obliged, each in pro-
« portion to his means, to carry him fruits, rice, fowls, and even buffaloes
« and money. These are called free presents, but in fact, are as much an
quot; obligatory contribution as any of the others; to say nothing of the many
and exactions. quot; demands for fowls, eggs, ducks, fruits. See. for which payment is made,
quot; but always at a rate, far below tlieir value j or of the numerous fines
quot; which are continually exacted from the people, in compensation, or as
quot; hush money for disputes and offences of every description ; the taking
quot; away of hdmhus, and sometimes of fruit trees, when wood is required,
« either for government or the chief j to which must yet be added, that for
« the execution of the duties of government, and on the conveyance of
orders, Mdntris, and other subordinate chiefs, were continually, in the
neighbourhood of the villages, just like so many voracious birds, who
« think themselves entitled not only to take something for their trouble,
but to be provided during their stay with every thing gratis, even opium
«« if they require it. This custom, adopted on Java, extends to every
** other chief, although not in employment, and even to the Regents, their
« relations, amp;c. None of these persons will pass through a town or village,
«\' without demanding what he wants for his maintenance or journey ; and
« very often he asks what he does not want, to the great oppression of the
quot; common Javan. Much is wasted by this practice, and no particular ad-
« vantage appears to result from it.

quot; We must, indeed, be astonished to see all the oppressions, he. to
quot; which the common Javan must submit. It is usually said, indeed, that
quot; the Javan is not accustomed to an easy life, and ought not to have more
« than barely enough to keep him alive, with many more such expressions ;
« but this is not the manner of reasoning of any well-thinking man, who,
quot; though he sees very well the imperfections and weak nature of the Javan,

quot; yet bears in mind that he is a man like himself; who, although he has
quot; been conquered, it is true, by the greater valour and knowledge of the
« European, has still an equal right to be treated like a man.

quot; But, alas! these are not all the vexations and oppressions which fall Feudal services.
quot; to the lot of the common people, who bear ail without murmuring. The
quot; feudal service was as grievous as almost all the other charges united.
quot; The origin of those services must be sought for in the feudal system of
« the native government, long ago adopted throughout Java. It was con-
sidered that all the land was the property of the prince, who only made
provisional assignments thereof to his subjects, in remuneration for
quot; military and other services rendered. This was the cause of all the lands
quot; being divided into as many allotments as could be cultivated, called
quot; chachas, each of a size to be cultivated by one man. A certain number
quot; of these was assigned to the different chiefs, according to his rank ; the
quot; custom of the country fixing not only the amount of contributions to be
quot; paid from the produce, but the number of men to be constantly kept in
quot; attendance upon him. The lands thus assigned to chiefs were exempt
quot; from service to them, and the inhabitants were only expected to watch
** the villages, to make and repair the roads, and to perform other general
quot; services of the state. This was the situation of the people with regard
to service, when the coast districts were first ceded to the European,
government. The system of trade and fixed contributions did not admit;
quot; of any change, and the services were at that time of very little conse-.

quence, and such as could be performed without oppression to the inha-.
quot; bitants ; but the case is now quite different. Successively and particu-
« larly of late years, much heavier services have been demanded than were
quot; ever before known, and it naturally follows, that the Javan must be kept
« more at work than before. Besides, it is not possible to apportion those
«« services equally, on account of the situation of the places where the ser- .
« vices are required, and because the chiefs, who have the direction of the
works, from indifference and laziness, generally make a requisition on
« the nearest village ; and it not unfrequently happens, that many people
quot; are thus taken for the public service, who have no lands whatever allotted;
to them.

quot; Were the requisitions made for the public service alone, it would still
quot; be comparatively nothing, it being admitted, that the state has a right to
the labour of its subjects j but the Regents, their relations,, their Pafefe,

quot; and the subordinate chiefs of every description, assume the right of dis-
quot; posing of the services of the common people as they think proper, and
quot; themselves employ many of them in menial labour of all descriptions,*
quot; from which it arises, that the number of people employed away from their
quot; homes, on what is called public services, is almost incredible.

quot; It is therefore more than time and highly necessary, that an end be put
« to this monstrous system of government. Humanity looks forward with
« pleasure to this step. Government, who are essentially interested, have

the most perfect right to take it; but the change must be entire and
« radical. Where the machine is entirely bad, it would be vain to attempt
« the repair of a few of the parts of which it is composed : the whole would
« still remain worthless, and it would only result that the main defects being
quot; hidden by a specious covering, the whole labour would be worse than
quot; thrown away.quot;

The British government did accordingly alter the whole system of reve-
nue. The subject was forced upon its attention, not only by the desire
which every humane and liberal administration must feel, to promote the
happiness of its subjects, but by considerations of a prudential nature. The
resources of the country had sunk under a capricious and tyrannical system
of exaction ; industry was paralyzed, and confidence was destroyed. Thte
opportunity for effecting a reformation was favourable, our means ampl^
and we had nothing to dread from the opposition of those interested in
supporting abuses: it was, therefore, resolved to abolish all oppressive
taxes, and to come immediately upon the soil for the support of our esta-
bhshments, by appropriating a fixed portion of its produce, leaving the
full enjoyment of the remainder to the cultivator, with every facility
for turning his industry to account. What was done in consequence, by
the land revenue arrangements, has been seen in the account given of

The subjects of the colony were freed from the sway of their chiefs, who
were no longer permitted to demand at pleasure their services or their pro-
perty. These chiefs were compensated for the loss of their former influence
by salaries in money or allotments of land, which they either held on con-
dition of performing the poHce duties, or collecting the revenue. When
paid by the rent of land, they were permitted to exact no more than
the assessment settled by government. No arbitrary power was allowed

them to disturb the peasant in the enjoyment of the remainder, or to drag
him from his home and his duties to his family, for the purpose of swelling
their idle pomp, or performing services about their person or household.
The Chinese farmers of the revenue in Chéribon and other districts, having
oppressed the people by every rapacious and tyrannical expedient, were,
by the discontinuance of the farms, deprived of the power they had exer-
cised over the persons and property of the natives. Forced services and all
deliveries of produce at inadequate rates on government account were
abolished ; and for whatever colonial produce or supplies might be required
for the public service, the fair market price was ordered to be paid. Duties on
the transport of goods from one part of the country to another, and on the sale
of commodities at markets or bazars, were, for the most part, abolished, as
injurious to trade and discouraging to agricultural industry. The system of
farming the import and export duties, which existed under the Dutch, was
likewise annulled, and collectors were appointed to receive the duties imme-
diately for government. Internal duties, of the nature of tolls and market dues,
had been universally, though secretly, levied by the Chinese, in Chéribon
and other places, in direct opposition to the orders of government and the
terms of their engagement. This abuse, engrafted on the farming system,
incalculably aggravated its evils and called loudly for redress. The farmer
thrust his rapacious hand into every place where there was the least prospect
of gain, and limited his demand only by the capacity of the merchant to
satisfy it, or by an ill-defined custom, which might be perverted almost at
pleasure, so as to accommodate itself to any exaction. The evils resulting
from this mode of raising a revenue may easily be calculated, when it is
stated, that, for a very trifling contribution to government by the farmer,
duties were levied upon internal transport amounting to nearly fifty per cent,
on the value of the commodities transported. Rice, on its ■ transport from
one part of the island to another, had been liable to duties of about forty-
six per cent. Regulations were made for fixing the amount of import du.,
ties, and equalizing them over the island.

The restoration of the Dutch Indian empire to the sovereign of the
Netherlands, at a period when these important changes were only in progress,
may have perhaps prevented the full accomplishment by the English of fhè
details in some districts, but the principles of the new system were not
only introduced and thoroughly understood in all the more populous districts

under the European government, but an experience of three years fully
demonstrated the advantages resulting from it to the public revenue.- It
would have been attended with great immediate loss, without any corres-
ponding future gain, to have abolished at once all the former sources of
revenue; but the thorough change of system was declared, and the prin-
ciples of it were acted upon, as far as was consistent with the security of
public tranquillity and the reahzation of the current resources of the country ;
and the results of these arrangements, as far as they went, proved that
a land rent might, even with the existing taxes in the capitals, amp;c. be
realized at the rate of at least six rupees annually from each cultivator, or
after, the abolition of the taxes bearing on agriculture, at the average rate of
four Spanish dollars from each cultivator, giving in the one case a rental
for the whole island of about six millions of rupees, and in the other of
four millions of Spanish dollars, of at five shillings the dollar, a million
sterling. Of this one-fourth would accrue to the native princes, and the
remainder to the European government. The particulars of the land
revenue settlement effected in each district, and the detailed resources of
the different parts of the island, will be particulariy noticed in the statistical
accounts which will appear in a subsequent part of this volume, when the
subject of revenue will be again adverted to ; and, in the mean time, it
may be sufficient, for the purpose of shewing the general resources, to
refer to the annexed table, exhibiting the revenues and expenses of the
Javan government for a period of three favourable years under the old
Dutch Company, for three years under the administration of Marshal
Daendels, when its real resources were first called forth and the revenue
was higher than before known, and for the first three years under the
British government, of which alone, the accounts are yet closed. The
dependencies included in this table do not include the Moluccas or Spice
Islands, the administration of which under the British government was kept
distinct from that of Java.

By this statement it will appear, that the revenues actually realized in
cash, on Java, in the year 1814-15, and before the land revenue arrange-
ments had become fully effectual, amounted to upwards of six millions and
a half of rupees : to this may be added one-third more for the revenue of
the native provinces, making a total revenue of the island exceeding eight
millions and a half of rupees, or above a million sterling.

ABSTRACT STATEMENT of the actual REVENUES and EXPENCES of the EUROPEAN GOVERNMENT of JAVA and its

Tax on civil Employés of one-fifth of their Income
Miscellaneous................................

745,556	68
169,851	49
119,465	88
55,098	93
588,863	78
2,025,731	50
104,983	69
6,172	81
3,815,724	76

From a colony which was able to furnish at such a moment so extensive
a revenue from its own internal resources, after the drains, checks, and
restrictions to which it had been subjected during the last two centuries,
what might not have been expected, had confidence been once established
in the permanency of the government, and the tide of British capital been
once fairly turned into it ?

Ceremonies of the Court.—.Deference paid to superior Rank.—Regalia.—Pro-
cessions.—Pomp.—Rank and Titles.—Amhassadors.—Ceremonies attending
Births, Marriages, and Funerals.—Account of the People called Kdlang,
and of the Inhabitants of the Téng\'ger Mountains.—The Bedui.—Festivals.

—The Chase.—Tiger Fights.—Combat of Criminals quot;with Tigers.—Bull
Fights, ^-c.~Games of Skill and Chance.—Other Customs and Usages.

Having, in the preceding Chapter, endeavoured to pourtray the
natural and moral character of the people of Java, and to convey to the
reader a general idea of the nature and principles of the government to
which they have been subjected, i shall now proceed to detail some of the
usages and customs which prevail among them.

Ceremonies of Of these the ceremonies of the court are the most obvious, and a stranger

Deference paid superiors, by which the Javans are characterized. Respect for rank, for

Rank.nbsp;experience, for parents and old age, have been already noticed among the

features of their character j but the excess to which deference to rank is
carried by the political institutions of the country, deserves more particular
remark, whether we consider it as illustrative of the nature of the govern-
ment and the quiet and orderly disposition of the people, or endeavour to
trace in the early periods of their history, the causes which may have con-
tributed to the existing constitution of society among them.

The respect shewn to superior rank on Java is such, that no individual,
whatever his condition, can stand in the presence of a superior j neither
can he address him in the same language in which he is spoken to. Not
even the heir apparent, or the members of the royal family, can stand in
the presence of the sovereign ; and the same restriction applies to the
family of each subordinate chief. Were this mark of respect confined to
the royal family alone, it might perhaps find a parallel in other eastern

countries, where it is usual for the subject to prostrate himself before the
sovereign, but in Java the nature of the government is such, that each
delegated authority exacts the same marks of obeisance ; so that, from the
common labourer upward, no one dares to stand in the presence of a supe-
rior. Thus when a native chief moves abroad, it is usual for all the peoplequot;
of inferior rank among whom he passes, to lower their bodies to the ground
till they actually sit on their heels, and to remain in this posture until he is
gone by. The same rule is observed within doors; and instead of an assembly
rising on the entrance of a great man, as in Europe, it sinks to the-ground,
and remains so during his presence.nbsp;*

This humiliating posture is called dódok, and may be rendered into
English by the term sguatting. The practice is submitted to with the utmost
cheerfulness by the people: it is considered an ancient custom and res-
pected accordingly. It was, however, in a great measure discontinued in
the European provmces during the administration of thé British «-overn
ment, who endeavoured to raise the lower orders, as much as was prudent,
from the state of degradation to which their chiefs, aided by the Dutch
authority, had subjected them ; but it continued in force in the native pro-
vinces, in Madura, and to a certain extent in most of the districts at a
distance from the seats of European government.

In travelling myself through some of the native provinces, and parti-
cularly in Maddra, where the forms of the native government are particu-
larly observed, I have often seen some hundreds drop on my approach, the
cultivator quitting his plough, and the porter his load, on. the sight of the
Tuan besdr\'s carriage. At the court of Süra-kérta, I recollect that once
when holding a private conference with the Susunan at the residency,\'
it became necessary for the Rdden adipdti to be dispatched to the palace for
the royal seal: the poor old man was as usual squatting, and as the Susdnan
happened to be seated with his face towards the door, it was full ten minutes
before his minister, after repeated ineffectual attempts, could obtain an
opportunity of rising sufficiently to reach the latch without being seen by
his royal master. The mission on which he was dispatched was urgent,
and the Susunan himself inconvenienced by the delay j but these inconve-
niences were insignificant, compared with tlie indecorum of being seen out
of the dbdok posture. When it is necessary for an inferior to move, he
must still retain that position, and walk witli his hams upon his heels until
he is out of his superior\'s sight.

Besides this deference in the posture of the body, a deference, equally
striking and still more defined, is shewn in the language used to a superior.
The vernacular language of the country is never allowed to be used on such
occasions, but only an arbitrary language, distinguished by the term hdsa,
the language, or hdsa krdma, the polite language, or language of honour.
The common people are thus not permitted to use the same language as the
great, or in other words, are by the political institutions of the country, in
a great degree, deprived of the use of their mother tongue. This subject
will however be more particularly treated of in another chapter. That a
set of people who have received some mental culture will necessarily disco-
ver it in their language, and that a line of distinction will be thus drawn
between the well informed and the ignorant, is natural; and of the employ-
ment of a different number of persons in the verbs and pronouns, according
as supremacy, respect, or familiarity is to be expressed, the modern Euro-
pean languages afford abundant example : but that one class of words
should be exacted from the lower orders as a homage to the powerful, and
another class given in exchange, serving to remind them of their inferiority,
is a refinement in arbitrary power, which it would be difficult to parallel.

Having thus seen the nature and extent of the general deference paid to
a superior on Java, the reader will be prepared, in some degree, for the
still further humiliations which are expected from a subject on public occa-
sions. No one approaches his sovereign or immediate chief, no child
approaches his father, without {sumhah, that is obeisance) closing his hands
and raising them to his forehead, in token of respect. On public or festival
days, it is usual for the inferior chiefs, not as in Europe, to kiss the hand,
but to kiss the knee, the instep, or the sole of the foot, according to the
relative distance of rank between the parties.

Regalia.nbsp;The royal seat is a large stool or bench of gold or silver with a velvet

Among the regalia (upachdra), which are always carried in procession
when the sovereign moves abroad, and are arranged behind him while
seated on the ddmpar, are the following golden figures:—the hdsti or g^a,
that of an elephant; the hdrda walika or nandgan, that of a serpent; thenbsp;11

sdwung gdling, that of a cock fowl; each of a size to be borne in the
hand. These, with the Mtuk and chapuri for tobacco and siri, the paka-
chohdn or golden spitting-pot, and a variety of golden salvers, bowls, amp;c.

distinguished by their respective names applicable to their diffkent purposes,
have descended as pusdkas, or heir-looms, in the royal family, and are es-
teemed Vi\'ith the highest degree of veneration.

When the sovereign moves abroad, he is attended by numerous spear-men Processions.
{wdhos), the duty of eight of whom is to attend the figures of the sacred
elephant and bull, near which are also led four horses richly caparisoned.
The royal pdyung, or state umbrella, is carried in front of the procession
on these occasions, in which are also invariably carried four trunks or boxes
{brokoh), each borne by two men, and containing the clothes of the sove-
reign, caparison for his horses, his personal arms, implements, provisions,
and in short every thing required for an establishment: this rule is ob-
served whenever the sovereign moves out of the palace. His mat (Idnte) is
likewise borne in procession, together with two saddle horses for his use
when necessary.

The ceremonies and state of the native courts have lost much of their Pomp,
genuine character, from the admission of European customs, introduced by
the Dutch after the last Javan war. Salutes are regulated after the Euro-
pean order, and the Javans have availed themselves of many of the customs
of Europeans, to render the ceremonies of state more striking. Thus both
the Susunan and Sultan are furnished with large gilt carriages, after the
fashion of those used by the Lord Mayor of London. When the former drinks
wine with the governor, the rest of the company are offered white wine,
while they alone drink red, and a flourish of trumpets sounds as the glass
approaches their lips.

It may be observed, that few people are more attached to state and
show than the Javans ; that, in general, the decorations employed and
the forms observed are chaste, and at the same time imposing, calculated
to impress a stranger with a high idea of their taste, their correctness and
yet love of splendour. The ornaments of stato, or regalia, are well wrought in
gold; the royal shield is richly inlaid with precious stones, and the royal
kris is hung in a belt, which, with its sheath, is one blaze of diamonds.
In processions, when the European authority is to be received, each side
of the road, for miles, is fined with spear-men in different dresses, and
standing in various warlike attitudes ; streamers flying, and the music of the
gdmeldn striking up on every side. Pdyungs, or umbrellas of three tiers
of silk richly fringed and ornamented with gold, are placed at intervals*
and nothing is omitted which can add to the appearance of state and pomp\'

Among the ensigns displayed on these occasions are the Monkey ^ag oi
Arjuna, and a variety of other devices taken from the poems of antiquity, as
well as the double-bladed sword, and a variety of inscriptions from the Arabs.

The chiefs of provinces, and the petty chiefs in their gradation below
them, keep up as much of the form and ceremony of the chief court as is con-
sistent with their relative rank and means ; and, in their turn, exact from their
vassals the same degree of respect which the sovereign exacts from them.

On occasions when the Regents are anxious to shew particular respect to
Europeans,- as on the entrance of the Governor, or other high officer travel-
ling, it is the custom, particularly in the Sunda districts, to erect triumphal
arches of bcirnhu at the entrance of the principal villages ; and the taste and
variety displayed on these occasions have been often noticed, as evincing a
refinement beyond what the general results of their present state of civihza-
tion might justify.

In a former place I noticed, that the gradations of rank among the Javans
were, in some instances, marked by the dress they wore, and by the manner of
putting on the kris ; but a more defined line is drawn by the pdyung, or um-
brella, which is subject to the following regulation from immemorial custom :

Q. The Edtu, or Queen, and the members of the royal family, to the
yellow, pdyung.

3.nbsp;The family of the Rdtu, and the family of the Sovereign by his con-
cubines, to the white pdyung.

4.nbsp;The Bopdtis and Tumiing\'gungs to the green pdyung, edged and moun-
ted with gold.

rank among the Javans, it becomes necessary, in consequence of the con-
fusion which has arisen among them of late years, to revert to what they
were supposed to be in the days of Mdjapdhit and previously, when the
Hindu faith and institutions exclusively prevailed.

The usual term for the sovereign was then Rdtu, and in the literary com-
positions which have descended to us, he was either distinguished by such
epithets as Ndra-ndta, Ndra-dipa, Ndra-pdti, Narindra, Nardria, Aji,
Frdbu, Kdtong, Ajung, or Mdhardja. The queen was called Pramts^^dri.

The children of the sovereign were called, the princes Rdden, and the prin-
cesses Déwi, which titles were hereditary in their families. The brothers of
the sovereign had the title of Rdden aria.

When a sovereign was advanced in age, and quitted his government to
become a devotee, he was called Begdman.

The minister who administered the country in the name of the sovereign,
and issued his orders to the governors of provinces, amp;c. was always termed
Pdteh ; and the chiefs employed in administering the government of the
provinces, or otherwise in the government of the country, were entitled
either Pratiiwa, Pung\'gdwa, NidJca, or Bopdti. The chiefs below these,-
and subject to their orders, such as JRdng\'ga, Angë\'bdi, JDemdng, Praméa,
Ménak, Kliwon, and others were included in the class of Mantris.

The heads of villages were called either TJmhul, Rating\'gi, Babdkal, Ba-
bdhu, Lura, or Kuwu.

The commanders-in-chief in war had the title of Senapdti, The general
term for soldiers - wasnbsp;and those employed in guarding the country

from the approach of an enemy were caWeA either Pechdt tdnda, Tdmping,
or Ulubdlang.

In judicial affairs the JaAr^ü! was the chief. His assistant or deputy was
Paliwdra, and the officers of his court Kérta.

Waddna gédong was the title given to the officer entrusted with the
charge of the sovereign\'s purse and personal property, and with the collec-
tion of his revenues: the secretary or writer was called Chdrik. Tdnda and
Sabandar was the title of the officers who collected the duties in the markets
and along the high roads.

When it was necessary for the sovereign to move from one part of the
country to another, there was always a class of Mdntris in attendance, to
whom the title of Pang\'alasan ot Kajineman was given.

On the estabhshment of the Mahometan religion, in the Javan year
1400, a new gradation of rank and order of titles was introduced by the
sultan of Demdk, as follows.

The sovereign, instead of being called Rdtu, took the name of Susuhu^
nan,* or Sultan, and the queen was called Rdtu. The title of Pandmhahdn
Was conferred as the highest in rank next to the sovereign, and above the
princes of the blood, who were now termed Pang\'éran or Pang\'éran aria •

* The titles at present assumed by the Smman are Susuhunan Pciku Buana Sena-pati hens:
Alaga Abdul Rdhmen Sayedin Pdnaiagdma,

the princesses born of the queen were termed Rdtu, and the daughters
by concubines Rdden dyu. The sons of the princes were called Rdden mas,
until they were married, when they were termed Rdden only: their
daughters before marriage were called Rdden ajeng, and after marriage
Rdden ayu. The Susuhunan s great grandchildren by his wife were allowed
to assume the title of Rdden, and those by his concubines bore the title of
Mas, the latter title continuing to descend in the family to the offspring by
a wife, those by a concubine taking the title of Bdgus, which is considered
as the lowest title appertaining to royalty. It would be tedious, in this
place, to detail the minor titles common in the Sunda districts, they wiil be
more particularly noticed in the statistical accounts of those districts.

When a Bopdti, or governor of a province, is appointed, he is furnished
with a pidgam or nawdla, or letter patent, fixing his rank, and the extent of
assignment of lands conferred upon him ; * also with a hd*wat, or stick,
similar to that of the pdyung, or umbrella, measuring about eight feet longj
with which it is his duty to measure the sdwah or rice fields.

Let it be observed, this is the writing of me, the Sultan, amp;c. amp;c. amp;c»

Be it known to the Nayaka (high officers of the palace), Bopdtis (the class of Tumung*-.
gungs or Regents), and Mantris (the petty noblesse) of Yilgya-Urta and Mamp;nckanagamp;ra,

that I have invested................with this letter, to raise him from the earth, and

permit him to bear the title of................. and wear the dress appointed for the

................. bestowing upon him for his subsistence lands to the amount of eleven

Let all persons observe this, the royal letter of us, the exalted Sultan, amp;c., which we give
in charge to................

Be it known to you, our servants, chiefs of Yugya-kerta Adimngrat, whether Bopdtis or
Mdntris, and to you our Bopdtis and Mantris, chiefs of Manchanagdra, that our royal letter

is given in charge to ................... . ^ in order to exalt him. Moreover we prefer our

servant to the -rank of a Bopdti, to be chief of the Bopdtis of Manchanagdra, bearing as

heretofore the name of........................... We also entitle him to wear such dress

as is appointed for the Widdna of Manchanagdra, and we give for his estate (seat), our
own royal lands ......, amounting to two thousand chachas : ...... thousand produc-
tive (living), of which last ...... thousand are assigned for a maintenance and ......

thousand are charged with rents, to the amount of......dollars annually, payable twice a

year, viz. at the festival Mulud....... and at the festival of Puasa....... each dollar to

consist of thirty tvangs, and the whole to be subject to an office fee of one wang in each dollar.
Moreover we direct, that each year an account be rendered to us of the increase or decrease of
the sdwah (rice lands). The date of giving the royal order is the ................

When a chief of the rank of Mântri is appointed, he is furnished with a
kris handle and with a mat, which is carried behind him when he moves
about, as well for use as to shew his rank.

The Javans include in the general term of Pridyi all persons above the
rank of common people, a term which in its general application on Java is
not very unlike that of gentlemen, or latterly of esquires, in England.

Among the forms of an eastern court, few are more particularly observed Ambassadors,
than those relating to ambassadors. The Javans have long ceased to send or
receive ambassadors, but the following extracts from the Niii Prâja, will
shew what they conceive ought to be the quahfications and conduct of such
an officer.

quot; A person entrusted with a message from his prince, must never abuse
« the trust placed in him, but always keep in sight that on such occasions
« he is the representative of the prince. And chiefly, if he is sent with a
«« letter from the prince to a foreign country, in this case he must be less
submissive than before his own prince. According to circumstances, he
quot; must conduct himself with dissimulation, and before he enters any foreign
country, by some secret means or other, occasion his own name, and that
** of the prince his master, to be spread over the country, at the same time
«« that he obtains every possible information regarding the state of the
quot; country and people. On entering the country, he must assume a digni-
quot; fled appearance, and not speak or look about him more than is necessary.
quot; Such conduct will inspire the people with respect for him.

quot; The letter must be carried on the shoulder, and in his gait and speech
he must conduct himself with propriety. In delivering the letter he
quot; must present himself with dignity, approach first, and then retire from
quot; the person to whom the letter is directed, speak with him at a distance,
quot; and not too familiarly.

quot; In all cases he must be careful not to go beyond his orders. His
quot; deportment must be unassuming yet digniBed ; and having received an
^ answer for his prince, it is his duty to depart immediately, and to proceed
quot; with it direct to the prince, without even going to his own house first.
quot; If the letter is from some person lower in rank than his master, he must
quot; not immediately shew it, but conceal it for a time ; but if it is from a
quot; prince of equal rank, then must he carry the letter before him. When
quot; a letter is from a prince to one of his subjects, it must be carried high.
quot; Coming in the presence of his prince, he must carefully watch his eye,

quot; that he may deliver the letter on the first intimation given by the prince
quot; that he is ready to receive it,

quot; Whoever dictates a letter must be careful that a letter to a superior is
quot; not couched in the same terms as a letter to an inferior.quot;

The three most remarkable events in the history of the individual are
his birth, his marriage, and his death ; to these accordingly have the.
greatest number of forms and ceremonies been attached.

As soon as it is observed that a Javan woman is in the third month
of pregnancy, the event is communicated to all the nearest relations, to
whom, at the same time, presents are made, consisting of yellow rice, sweet-
scented oils, and wax candles. People of condition add some cloths,
gold, silver, or brass cups, as also needles, either of those metals or of
iron.

After seven months\' pregnancy, a festival is given to the relations and
friends, at which yellow rice forms invariably a part of the entertainment.

The pregnant woman must afterwards wash her body with the milk of
a green cocoa-nut, on the shell of which has been previously carved two
handsome figures, one of each sex, by which the parents intend to represent
a standard of beauty for their expected offspring, and to engrave on the
imagination of the mother, impressions which may extend to the lineaments
of her infant. The nut must be opened by the husband. She is next
to bathe in water, into which many sweet-scented flowers have been thrown,
and to dress herself with a new cloth, making a present of the old one,
together with money, raw rice, siri, and cocoa-nuts, to the midwife, who
assists in her lustrations. On the night of these ceremonies there must be
a wayang or scenic shadow performed, the object of which is to represent the
life and adventures of a certain prince in the line of Dézva Batâra Brama.

If the woman is delivered of a son, the after-birth is immediately cut oflquot;
with a very sharp knife of bamhu, wrapped in a piece of paper on which is
written the Javan alphabet,, then laid in a new pot, and buried in the
ground, at which place a lamp, covered with a basket of bâmbu, and
adorned with leaves of the pandânrî, is put, and kept burning till the
umbihcal cord of the child falls off. When this takes place, the child is
watched the whole night, by persons who read the history of the Déwas, or
of famous princes, or amuse themselves with a

As soon as the child is nine months old, the parents entertain their rela-
tives and friends with a wayang and festival.

Marriages are invariably contracted, not by the parties themselves, but Marriages,
by their parents or relations on their behalf. Such interference (which was
common among the Greeks, without the same apology) is rendered neces-
sary by the early age at which the matrimonial union is formed, and the
incompetence of either of the intended couple to form a discreet and
prudent choice. During the period that intervenes between the application
of the friends of the boy to the parents or guardians of the girl for their
concurrence in the match, and the obtainment of it, her condition is distin-
guished by the term tétâkon (enquired for): when the consent of her
parents is obtained, it is termed lamar (solicited). According to ancient
custom, after matters proceeded thus far, a present of different valuables,
termed parting^sat is sent by the intended bridegroom to the bride, and
her acceptance of it, implying that she concurs in the previous steps taken
towards her settlement, renders the contract binding. The general preva-
lence of similar customs cannot fail to strike those who are acquainted with
the nature of the sponsalia dona of the Romans, and the marriage cere-
monies detailed in various passages of Scripture (Genesis, ch. xv. gj
xxiv. 5, he.) A present of this kind is described as being sent by Panji
Kérta Pdti to the Princess Chandra Kirdna of Dahd* and we are told
that it thence became a custom among the Javans.

By any reluctance to complete his engagement, the bridegroom forfeits
to his betrothed these earnest gifts (as they may be called) ; while, on the
other hand, if the obstacles to the completion of the marriage originate
with her, she is bound to return them. This present is also called
patiba sdmpir.

This custom, however, is now not so common as formerly : it is in a
great measure discontinued or confounded with the next ceremony, termed
sdrahan (delivered up). This consists in making various presents to the
bride a short time before the day fixed for the marriage, after the delivery

* « Thereupon KlânaJâyang Sâri (another name for Pânji Kérta Pâti,) called his sister, and
« the Princesses of Bâli and Balem-bâng\'an, and directed them to proceed to the Prince of
quot; Doha, and to present to him a handsome present, composed of the most beautiful and rich
\'\' ornaments and articles of dress for adorning a princess, placing the same in a Icendâga
quot; (or box), in order that if the prince was pleased to allow it to be delivered to his
quot; daughter Détici Chandra Kirâna, it might be a proof that he confirmed the contract with
quot; KlânaJâyang Sari, and that his daughter, Dew Chandra Kirdna, would be accepted by

quot; Kldna Jâyang Sari, in which case he was ready to attack the enemies of the prince.quot;_

of which, the bride and bridegroom are confined to the house, until the
ceremony takes place. The period varies ; but with people of distinction
there generally elapses an interval of forty days between the sârahan and
the marriage.

On the day of the marriage (for which one that is considered fortunate*
is previously selected) the father of the bride proceeds to the mosque,
accompanied by the bridegroom, and informing the PangJmlu that the lad
whom he presents has agreed to give the sri kawin (generally about
two dollars), requests him to marry him to his daughter : on which the
Panghulu inquires of the bridegroom, whether he has paid the amount,
or is willing to do so ? and upon the affirmative being declared, he sanc-
tifies the marriage by words to the following effect :

quot; I join you, râden mas (bridegroom), in wedlock with satia (the bride),
quot; with a pledge of two reals weight in gold or silver.-f- You take (sâtid)
quot; to be your wdfe for this world. You are obliged to pay the pledge of
quot; your marriage {sri kâwiri), or to remain debtor for the same. You are
quot; responsible for your wife in all and every thing. If you should happen
quot; to be absent from her for the space of seven months on shore, or one
quot; year at sea, without giving her any subsistence, and are remiss in the
« performance of the duties which you owe to your sovereign, your mar-
quot; riage shall be dissolved, if your wife requires it, without any further
quot; form or process ; and you will be, besides, subject to the punishment
quot; which the Mahometan law dictates.quot;

Should any circumstance occur to prevent the bridegroom from attend-
ing at the mosque on the day selected for the marriage, he follows the
singular custom of sending his krisX to the ceremony, which is deemed
sufficient by the Panghulu ; and afterwards he may appoint a proxy, to
represent him in the processions which follow. But this is seldom done
when a man marries for the first time.

* Fortune was so much considered in the making of these matches among the Romans,
that the augurs were always called along with the witnesses to a marriage contract, to pro-
nonnce upon the happy results of the settlement M^hich the latter attested :

f The Jews marry in nearly the same way, the husband delivering a sum of money as a
pledge. The Greeks were in the habit of presenting gifts on similar occasions.

t A description of this instrument, on account of the importance attached to it among the
Javans, the constancy with which it is worn, and the care with which it is preserved through
different generations, vnll be found in another place, lt;

After the ceremony, the bridegroom pays the priest the marriage fees
{saldwaf), which ought, according to strict Mahometans, not to exceed
fifteen stivers. In most instances, the fees are raised to five times that
sum in money, besides in many places a fowl, a hank of cotton-yarn, four
kdtis of nee, two cocoa-nuts, siri, and fruit.

On the wedding day, or sometimes the day following, the bridegroom,
dressed in his best clothes, mounted on horseback, accompanied by all his
friends, and attended with music in the front and rear, proceeds at noon to
the dwelling of the bride, who, on his approach, comes out to meet him at
the door. In some districts, before their nearer approach, the bride and
bridegroom throw simidtaneously a bundle of siri at each other with con-
siderable force, with the intention, it. is said, of learning, from the dexte-
rity with which the parties respectively perform this singular feat, and the
success that attends it, which of them will be able best to maintain their
privileges, or gain an ascendancy during the continuance of their union.
They prognosticate that, if the bundle of the bridegroom touch the head of
the bride, it is an infallible sign that he must rule ; otherwise, the reverse.

The bride, after this, receives the bridegroom with a low obeisance, in
testimony of her regard for him, extending similar marks of respect to his
parents, who attend him. The married couple are then placed in a situa-
tion elevated above the rest of the company; and in token of their after-
wards living together, and sharing the same sustenance, commence eating
siri from the same siri-hox.

In some districts, after leaving the mosque, the bridegroom and his father
proceed to the house of the bride\'s parents, where they obtain her company
in a procession through the village or town. On these occasions, the bride
is carried on a litter, which is generally fashioned in the form of a garuda,
and the bridegroom is mounted on horseback. All the relations and friends
of the parties attend, carrying flowers and refreshments, together with the
presents made to the bridegroom on his marriage. The procession moves
on to the sound of the national music, and the occasional firing of cannon.
A feast is given in the evening at the house of the bride\'s parents, at
which the new married couple remain for the night. The term given to the
bride and bridegroom is peng\'dnten, and the marriage ceremony is called
Idki rdbi.

On the next day in some districts, and on the fifth in others, the bride^
groom (or peng\'dnten Idnang), and bride {peng\'dnten \'wddon), together with

the whole train of relations and friends, visit in like manner the house of
the bridegroom\'s father. This ceremony is called unduh mdntu (accepting
the daughter-in-law). There they both again sit down to eat siri in some
place of distinction; similar entertainments are repeated, and on the follow-
ing day they return with the same pomp and form to the bride\'s dwelling,
the ceremony being now completed.

With the exception of the delivery of the sri Hmn, and the procession
to the mosque, there is very little in these ceremonies conformable to the
Mahometan precepts.

Marriages are frequently contracted between children, and then
termed gdntung kdwin (hanging-on marriages) ; but in this case the parties
are kept separate, and the principal ceremonies are reserved till they attain
the age of puberty. Such contracts proceed from a laudable solicitude, on
the part of parents, to provide a suitable and advantageous match for their
children as early as possible j and to the same cause, as much, perhaps,
as from the influence of climate and intemperance of manners, may be
attributed the early age, at which matrimonial engagements are sometimes
consummated.\'

Whatever may be the reasons for such early marriages, one of the most
serious consequences is the facihty with which they are dissolved. The
multiplication of divorces is mentioned by the poets, the moralists, and the
historians of the Roman empire, as one of the greatest causes and symp-
toms of the corruption and degeneracy of the period in which they lived j
and certainly it had proceeded to great lengths, when Seneca could say
that a woman computed her age, not by the annual succession of consuls
but of husbands.* The Javans, though a simple people, are in this respect
too like the profligate and dissolute Romans.

In no part of the world are divorces more frequent than on Java j for
besides the facilities afforded by the Mahometan ordinances, a woman may
at any time, when dissatisfied with her husband, demand a dissolution of
the marriage contract, by paying him a sum established by custom, accord-
ing to the rank of the parties: about twenty dollars for a person of the
lower orders, and fifty dollars for those of the degree of Demdng or Mdu\'
tri. The husband is not bound to accept it; but he is generally induced
to do so, from a consideration, that the opinions and custom of the country

quot; Non consulum sed maritorum nuraero annos suos computant.quot; Seneca, de Benef.—
But this is short of Juvenal\'s account: quot; Fiunt octo mariti, quinque per autumnos.quot;

require it ; tliat liis domestic happiness would he sacrificed in a contest with
his reluctant companion ; and that, by continuing his attachment, he would
incur the shame of supporting one who treated him with aversion or con-
tempt. This kind of divorce is termed mdnchal. The husband may at any
time divorce his wife, on making a settlement upon her sufiicient to support
her according to her condition in life.

A widow may marry again at the expiration of three months and ten days
after her husband\'s death.

When a person of rank or property dies, all his relations, male and interment,
female, meet at the house of the deceased, to testify their grief at the
death and their respect for the memory of the departed. On that occasion,
what is termed seldmat money is distributed auiong all according to circum-
stances. The priests, who are to perform the service at the place of inter-
ment, receive a Spanish dollar, a piece of cloth, and a small mat each.

When the corpse is washed * and wrapped in a white cloth, it is carried
out of the house on a bier covered with coloured chintz, on which garlands
of flowers are hung as drapery. On this occasion, no means of costly
pomp or impressive solemnity are neglected in the use of umbrellas {pd-
yung\\ pikes, and other insignia of honour. All the relations and friends
accompany the corpse to the grave, where the priest addresses a prayer to
heaven and delivers an exhortation to the soul of the deceased; of which
the substance commonly is, « that it should be conscious of being the work
« of the Creator of the universe, and after leaving its earthly dwelling
« should speed its way to the source whence it issued.quot; After this cere-
mony the corpse is interred, and the other priests continue their prayers
and benedictions.

For seven successive nights, the same priests meet and pray at the house
of the deceased, in the presence of his relations.

On the third, seventh, fourteenth, hundredth, and thousandth day or
night after the death of a person, are observed particular festivals or solemn

* The Romans likewise were in the habit of washing the dead body several times before
interment with water, which in their case was warm.

quot; Pars calidos latices et ahena undantia flammis
quot; Expédiant : corpusque lavant frigentis et ungunt.quot;

Virgil: Mneidos, lib.Vi. Un.
By referring to the Old and New Testament, the same practice will be found to have prevailed
among the Jews : indeed, it seems to have been very general.

feasts in his commemoration, on which occasions prayers are offered up for
the happiness of his soul.

The body is interred after the usual manner of the Mahometans, and a
samboja tree is usually planted by its side. It is the universal practice of
the relatives of the deceased to strew the graves several times in the year
with the sweet-scented flowers of the suldsi (the tulsi of Bengal), which are
raised exclusively for this purpose. The burial-grounds are, in general,
well chosen. In Kedu, where the most beautiful eminences have been
selected for this purpose, and where the samhoja tree grows with the great-
est luxuriance, they form very interesting objects in the landscape. The
burial-places of the royal family and of the nobles of the country are usually
called astdna; they are surrounded by one or more high walls, and in general
by stately \'waring\'en trees. The tombs are sometimes ornamented with
sculptural devices and well-executed inscriptions, either in the Javan or
Arabic character. They are kept clean and repaired by contributions from
all parts of the country, under the superintendence of priests appointed to
that particular duty, and are respected and guarded with religious venera-
tion and zeal. The burial place of the family now on the throne is at Me-
giri, in the province of Matdrem, A few miles distant from the modern
capital of Yugya-kerta.
Ancient cus- As the Javans are still devotedly attached to their ancient customs and
to births, ceremonies (few of which they have sacrificed to their new faith), I shall,
Shsf in order to give a better idea of those still observed on the most remarkable
occasions, present a short account of their state anterior to the introduction
of Mahometardsm, as far as it can be ascertained. Though, as Mahometans,
they are averse to an open avowal of Pagan practices, they still preserve
them more or less, according as the parties happen to be less or more under
the influence of Arab priests,
Biiti!.nbsp;When a woman was pregnant with her first child, at the expiration of

four months a feast was given, at which yellow rice was served up. This
entertainment was insignificant compared with that which was observed at
the expiration of seven months, when the guests were presented with cloth,
gold, silver, and steel, according to the means of the parties, a piece of
steel never failing to be one of the gifts, though it did not exceed the
size of a needle. On this occasion a new bath was prepared in the evening,
and watched during the night by the light of a lamp. At the side of the
bath were laid two stalks of the dark coloured sugar cane, as an offering to

Batdra Kdla, a painted cloth of the pattern timuh wdtu, and a young cocoa-
nut (chengkir gdding), on which was engraved the resemblance of Fdnji
Kerta Pdti and his wife Chandra Kirdna of Bdha. In the morning the
wife, after putting on the cloth, entered the bath, when the water from the
young cocoa-nut was poured over her: during the day it was also incum-
bent on her to change her dress seven times. At the feast given on this
occasion, fish, flesh, and fowl were invariably served up, and performances
of the wdyang were exhibited.

Immediately on the birth of the child it was placed in a kind of basket
made of hdmhu (in form similar to the sieve or farming basket used for
separating the chaff from the rice), the relations were assembled, and the
remains of the umbilical cord were carefully cut off by means of a piece of
sharpened bdmhu. The part abstracted by this operation was deposited in
the interior of a cocoa-nut, with a lump of turmerick placed under it.
This cocoa-nut was ornamented on the outside with the twenty letters of
the Javan alphabet. It was afterwards put into an earthen pot, and either
buried under ground or thrown into the sea. A^stone rolling-pin, dressed
up like a baby, was placed in the basket in its stead. The female relations
relieved each other through the day and night, in constantly supporting
the child in their arms, till the navel was healed; the male relations all the
while reading and reciting the history of Rama, and other mythological
and historical romances. As soon as the child was recovered, a grand feast
was observed, with performances of the \'wdyang. Near the Ddlang (direc-
tor of the wdyang\') was placed a bowl of pure watei-, into which fresh and
sweet-scented flowers were cast, two black sugar-canes, a cloth of the
tuwuh wdtu pattern, and a piece of white cloth, together with a bundle of
pari and different kinds of eatables. On this occasion was exhibited the
drama of Batdra Durga and Sang YangJdgat Ndta (one of the designations
of Guru), at that passage where, during the first two quarters of the moon,
the former appeared in her amiable character of Uma,* and where, in the
city of Kuru Setra Gdndamdyu, she is delivered of a son, Batdra Kdla,
having the form of a Rasdksa, quot; greedy to destroy and devour mankind.quot;
At that part of the performance when Sang YangJdgat Ndta takes the child
on his lap, the Ddlang did the same with the infant, repeating the invoca-
tion, \'\'\'■hong I ila-hengT several times, and afterwards returning it into

* During the two latter quarters of the moon she is considered as appearing in the form of
a Rasaha, and is then more properly called Durga,

the hands of the father. On this occasion the wdyang was performed from
seven o\'clock in the evening till eight o\'clock in the morning.

When the child was forty days old, its head was shaved, as directed by
the parent, and the ceremony took place of giving it whatever name should
be determined on by the father and the elders.

The Dukun (midwife) who attended at the delivery, was entitled to receive
for her trouble fourteen quot;wang (about a rupee) if it was an ordinary birth,
but in difficult cases her allowance was proportionately increased. Her
attendance continued for the mornings and evenings of forty days, at the
expiration of which she was further entitled to receive a present of two
pieces of cloth, one small and one large, four kdtis of rice, two cocoa-nuts^
and some siri. If required to attend beyond that period, she was paid
accordingly. A Dukun once employed, could not be exchanged on any
account during the forty days. Women invariably acted as midwives j in
other cases the medical art was practiced exclusively by the men.

On the child\'s attaining its seventh month, a feast was given, when it
was for the first time placed with its feet on the ground. At this entertain-
ment rice cakes and sweetmeats of different colours and kinds were served
up; and if it happened that the child had come into the world either as
the sun was just rising or setting, a bundle of grass or rubbish was thrown
into the basket, upon the top of which it was placed for a few minutes;
after which one of the elders taking the child into his arms repeated the
following words : quot; Hong ! \'amilam mastxma masidam ! suming^gdha yewang
quot; Kala\'ing w\'ru qjal amiila-nira ana-nira, Sang-yang Sdba Ian Batdri Durga
which after an invocation to the Deity would express, quot; Begone, oh God
quot; Kdla, for I am not ignorant of thy nature, nor of thy being descended
from Sang Yang Sdba {Guru) and Batdra Durga

* A custom somewhat similar to this is said to be practiced in South America.
quot; They lighted a great number of torches, and the midwife taking up the child carried it
through the yard of the house, and placed it upon a heap of leaves of sword-grass, close
quot; by a basin of water, which was prepared in the middle of the yard, and then undressing it
said, \' my child! the gods Ometeuctti and Omicihautt, Lords of Heaven, have sent thee to
«this dismal and calamitous world: receive this water, which is to give thee life:\' and
after wetting its mouth, head, and breast, with forms similar to the first bathing, she bathed
quot; its whole body, and rubbing every one of its limbs said, \' where art thou, ill fortune? in
quot; * what limb art thou hid ? go far from this child I\'quot;

of people ; those who possessed the means kept the anniversary of their
birthday until their death.

Marriages were invariably contracted by the relations of the parties, by Marriage,
the paternal grandfather or grandmother if living, if not by the parents
and m case of their demise, by the natural guardian. Thus the brother, on
the death of his parents, was permitted to dispose of the hand of his sister •
and a deviation from this course was deprecated, as laying a foundation for
quarrels and dissentions.nbsp;......

The consent of the relations being obtained, the bridegroom was bound
to serve the parents of the bride for a year.*

For forty days previous to the celebration of the marriage, the parties
were not allowed to go to a distance from their homes, or to be employed
in any severe labour.

happiness as lasting as that enjoyed by the god Kdmajdya with his consort
Kdmardti.

\' Hong! Gdngga-trigdng^ga? pindyung hana kala chdkra kindsih hdna
quot; pra-dewdta Updta\'ing sapudenda tiddsa amdndan waring\'en.quot; « Hail f
« holy water, thrice holy water ! be.it as a covering to shield you from harm-
« may the gods be merciful unto you: henceforth be flourishing as the

they consisted in the representation of a white elephant, a white tiger, or
the like.

Five days after the consecration of the marriage, the parents of the
bride, with whom she staid for that period, prepared a feast, at which was

* It is curious to observe how exactly this corresponds with the patriarchal history of S •
ture, and the early accounts of the manners of ancient nations. The daughter w
considered the property of the parent, the wife as the purchase of the hLhan
marriage contract as the deed of transfer.nbsp;\'

invariably serv^ed up among other things yellow rice. This entertainment
was given to mark the period of the consummation: and after celebrating
such an event, it was thought proper that the bride should be on a visit to
the parents of her husband, remain under their roof, share their protection,
and subsist at their expense for forty days without going abroad, at the
expiration of which the new married couple were at liberty to go to their
own house and pursue their own plans of life, becoming liable to contribute
their share to the revenues and demands of the state.

quot; It being arranged that at the same time when Jlddin Fdnji was to
quot; receive the princess Dém Chandra Kirdna in marriage, Rétna JïnbÜ, his
quot; sister, should also be married to Gunung Sari, son of the Prince of DdJia,
quot; the Prince of Ddha departed with a joyful heart, and gave the necessary
quot; directions to prepare the clothing and ornaments necessary for the two
quot; brides.

quot; Kldna Jdyang Sari,* accompanied by his sister, Rétna Jinóli, and his
quot; numerous followers, then entered the ddlam of the prince. Kldna
quot; Jdyang Sari wore on the occasion a dbdot of silk stamped with flowers of
quot; gold ; his cheldna were of the green chindi ornamented with golden lace
« round the bottom, and studded with künang-kénang (golden ornaments
quot; made to represent the fire-fly) ; his sumping (ornaments at the back of the
quot; ear) were of golden flowers studded with diamonds. On the third
quot; finger of each hand he wore two diamond rings. His waistband or
« belt was a painted cloth, of the pattern gringsing sang\'u-pdti; his kris
quot; of the kaprdbon ; his jdmang, or head ornament, of gold set with dia-
quot; monds, and scented with all kinds of sweet-scented oils. He appeared
quot; more beautiful than a deity descended from heaven, all looking upon him
quot; with delight-and astonishment.

quot; His sister, Rétna Jinbli, was dressed nearly after the same fashion as
quot; the Princess Ang^réni.

quot; The dress of Démi Ang\'réni, when married, was as follows : her dbdot
quot; was of a pink colour stamped with golden flowers ; her kéndit (zone, of
quot; which the ends hang in front) was manddla giri (yellow with red at each
quot; end) J her jdmang of golden flowers ; her golden earrings of the bdpang
quot; fashion, with a diamond in the centre; her hair according to the glung

mdlang (a particular kind of knot), in which were placed beautiful and
sweet-scented flowers j the fine hair round her forehead fashioned into
quot; small curls, with a sprinkling of powder ; her eyebrows shaped like the
«« imha leaf She wore golden armlets of the Jcdlung pattern, ornamented with
quot; drops. Her Mlung, or necklace, was of the meng\'gah fashion. She
quot; wore two rings on the little and third finger of each hand, like unto a
quot; mdaddri.quot;

There were three modes of disposing of the body of a deceased person: Funerals,
by fire, termed obong; by water, termed Idrung; or by exposing it upright
against a tree in a forest, where it was left to decay, termed setra. When
the body of a chief or person of consequence was burnt, it was usual to
preserve the ashes, and to deposit them in a chdndi or tomb.

It was the custom with all classes of people on Java to give an entertain-
ment or feast on the decease of their friends and relations.* The first feast
was given on the day of the death, a second on the third day after, a third
on the seventh day, a fourth on the fortieth day, a fifth on the hundredth
day, and a sixth on the thousandth day after the decease of the party ; after
which an annual feastwas observed, with more or less pomp, according to
the respect in which the deceased was held, or the circumstances of the
friends and relatives who celebrated his memory.

Besides these regular feasts and ceremonies, others prescribed by the
\'wukui were religiously observed. When the day ang\'gdra fell on the pdncha
MiWOiiy it was considered a propitious time for preferring petitions to the gods.
On the seventh day of the \'wuku galingdn, sacred to Batdra Kdmc0dya, they
relaxed from all wordly pursuits, and ofiered praises and prayers to the gods
collectively, it being supposed that they were assembled on that day. On the
wuku gumreg, sacred to Batdra Sdkra, every villager joined in a feast
sacred to the earth {puja burnt); and this wuku was particularly observed
by the people termed Kdlang, who during the seven days performed no
work, but employed themselves in visiting the tombs of their deceased
friends and relations, or in feasting with their living relatives. During the
whole of that period they kept in their houses a lighted lamp, which they
carefully preserved from extinction.

It may not be inappropriate to introduce in this place a short digression. People called
containing an account of some of the customs peculiar to the people termed

Kdlang, and to the inhabitants of the Teng\'ger mountains. The former are
said to have been at one time numerous in various parts of Java, leading a
wandering life, practising religious rites different from those of the great
body of the people, and avoiding intercourse with them ; but most of them
are now reduced to subjection, are become stationary in their residence,
and have embraced the Mahometan faith. A few villages in which their
particular customs are still preserved, occur in the provinces of Kenddl,
Kdliwung\'u, and DSmak, and although the tradition of the country regard-
ing their descent from an unnatural connection between a princess of Men-
dang KamiUan and a chief who had been transformed into a dog, would
mark them out as a strange race, they have claims to be considered as the
actual descendants of the aborigines of the island.* They are represented
as having a high veneration for a red dog, one of which is generally kept by
each family, and which they will, on no account, allow to be struck or ill
used by any one. When a young man asks a girl in marriage he must prove
his descent from their peculiar stock. A present of rice and cotton-yarn
among other articles, must be offered by him, and carried to the intended
bride, by an elderly man or woman of his own race, which offering must,
in like manner, be received by an elderly relation of the girl: from this
moment until the marriage is duly solemnized, nothing whatever is allowed
to be taken out of either hut. On the marriage day, a buffalo\'s head,
covered with white, red, or black rice-powder, is placed on the ground
near the place intended for the bride to sleep upon, and the elderly people
and relations being assembled, they dance by pairs, at the end of each dance
presenting the bride to the bridegroom, and making such offerings as they
think proper. The bridegroom is, on this occasion, accompanied to the house
of the bride\'s father by as many friends as he can procure, and is bound to
bring with him not less than a pair of buffaloes, a plough, harrow, hoe i^pdchiT)
and whip, with a bundle of pdri. Those who are in good circumstances are
further bound to add a cart {peddti) to the above-mentioned stock. Prior
to the equipment of the bride and bridegroom for the entertainment, it is
essential that their bodies be rubbed over with the ashes of a red dog\'s bones.
At sunset they both eat rice together off the same leaf. On the following
night they jointly partake of the buffalo\'s head, wliich is previously laid by
the side of the place where they sleep. On the third day they proceed to
tiie house of the bridegroom\'s father, making as much show as possible, and

go round the extent of the village confines, preceded by people carrying a
bed, cooking utensils, a spinning-wheel and loom. On the death of a Kdlang
the body is carried in procession to the dwellings of the relations, who join
in the ceremony and proceed with it to the place of interment: they then
pass round the corpse three times before it is lowered into the grave, the
women crying aloud. A young cocoa-nut is then split in two, and the
water from it poured into the grave, one half of the shell being placed at
the head, the other at the feet of the deceased. On their return home,
the feasts and ceremonies are the same as those noticed in the practice of
the other inhabitants of Java. Whenever the Kdlangs move from one
place to another, they are conveyed in carts, having two solid wheels
with a revolving axle, and drawn by two or more pairs of buffaloes,
according to the circumstances of the party. In these they place the
materials of which their huts are constructed, their implements of hus-
bandry, and other articles of necessity or value. In this manner, until of
late years, since they have been subjected to the regulations of the Javan
chiefs, they were continually moving from one part of the island to another.
They have still their separate chiefs and preserve many of their peculiar
customs. Those who are Mahometans employ in their religious functions
priests who differ from others in being less scrupulous. They have always
been treated with so much contempt by the Javans, that Kdlang is an
epithet of reproach and disgrace.

To the eastward of Surabaya, and on the range of hills connected with inhabitants of
Gunung Ddsar, and lying partly in the district of Pasuruan and partly in mounTaSquot;\'
that of ProboUngo, known by the name of the Teng\'ger mountains, we
find the remnant of a people still following the Hindu worship, who merit
attention, not only on account of their being, (if we except the Bedui of
Bantam, who will be hereafter noticed) the sole depositaries of the rites and
doctrines of that religion existing at this day on Java, but as exhibiting an
interesting singularity and simplicity of character.

These people occupy about forty villages, scattered along this range of
hills in the neighbourhood of what is termed the sandy sea. The site of their
villages, as well as the construction of their houses, are peculiar, and differ
entirely from what is elsewhere observed on Java. They are not shaded by
trees but built on spacious open terraces, rising one above the other, each
house occupying a terrace, and being in length from thirty to seventy, and
even eighty feet. The door is invariably in one corner, at the end of the

building, opposite to that in which the fire-place is built. The building
appears to be constructed with the ordinary roof, having along the front an
enclosed veranda or gallery, about eight feet broad. The fire-place is built
of brick, and is so highly venerated, that it is considered a sacrilege for any
stranger to touch it. Across the upper part of the building rafters are run,
so as to form a kind of attic story, in which are deposited the most valuable
property and implements of husbandry.

The head of the village takes the title of Peting\'gi, as in the low-lands,
and is generally assisted by a Kahdyan, both elected by the people from
their own village. There are four priests, who are here termed Dukuns (a
term elsewhere only applied to doctors and mid wives), having charge of the
state records and the sacred books.

These Dukuns, who are in general intelligent men, can give no account
of the era when they were first established on these hills ; they can produce no
traditional history of their origin, whence they came, or who entrusted
them with the sacred books, to the faith contained in which they still ad-
here. These, they concur in stating, were handed down to them by their
fathers, to whose hereditary office of preserving t\' m they have succeeded.
The sole duty required of them is again to hand them,down in safety to
their children, and to perform the puja (praisegiving) according to the
directions they contain. These records consist of three compositions,
written on the /6?ifezr-leaf, detailing the origin of the world, disclosing the
attributes of the deity, and prescribing the forms of worship to be observed
on different occasions.

When a woman is delivered of her first child, the Dukun takes a leaf of
the dlang dlang grass, and scraping the skin of the hands of the mother and
her infant, as well as the ground, pronounces a short benediction.

When a marriage is agreed upon, the bride and bridegroom being brought
before the Dkkun within the house, in the first place bow with respect
towards the south, then to the fire-place, then to the earth, and lastly on
looking up to the upper story of the house, where the implements of hus-
bandry are placed. The parties then submissively bowing to the Dukun,
he repeats a prayer, commencing with the words, quot; Hong ! Kenddga Brdma
« ang\'-gas siwang\'ga dna ma simaha mngyang g\'ni sira kang,quot;* amp;c. ; while

* These prayers will be found at length in the Transactions of the Batavian Society, vol. ix.
The word hong! used by the Javans at the commencement of their invocations to the deity,
is doubtless the mystical om! of the Hindus.

the bride washes the feet of the bridegroom. At the conclusion of this
ceremony, the friends and family of the parties make presents to each of
hrises, buffaloes, implements of husbandry, amp;c. ; in return for which the
bride and bridegroom respectfully present them with betel-leaf.

At the marriage feast wquot;hich ensues, the Diihun repeats two puja. The
marriage is not, however, consummated till the fifth day after the above
ceremony. This interval between the solemnities and the consummation of
marriage is termed by them undang mdntu, and is in some cases still ob-
served by the Javans in other parts of the island, under the name unduh
mdntu.

At the interment of an inhabitant of Teng\'ger, the corpse is lowered interments,
into the grave with the head placed towards the south (contrary to the
direction observed by the Mahometans), and is guarded from the imme-
diate contact of the earth by a covering of bdmbus and planks. When the
grave is closed, two posts are planted over the body j one erected perpen-
dicularly on the breast, the other on the lower part of the belly j and
between them is placed a hollowed hdmbu in an inverted position, into
which, during seven successive days, they daily pour a vessel of pure
water, laying beside the bdmbu two dishes, also daily replenished with eat-
ables. At the expiration of the seventh day, the feast of the dead is an-
nounced, and the relations and friends of the deceased assemble to be
present at the ceremony, and to partake of entertainments conducted in
the following manner.

A figure of about half a cubit high, representing the human form, made
of leaves and ornamented with variegated flowers, is prepared and placed
in a conspicuous situation, supported round the body by the clóthes of
the deceased. The Dûkuîi then places in front of the garland an incense-
pot with burning ashes, together with a vessel containing water, and repeats
the two pûja to fire and water ; the former commencing with quot; Hong !
quot; Kenddga Brdma gangsi *wang*ga y a nama siwdha\'* amp;c. ; the latter with
quot; Hong ! hong gang\'ga mdha tirta rata mejil sdJcing hdtiquot; amp;c. ; burning
dupa or incense at stated periods during the former, and occasionally
sprinkling the water over the feast during the repetition of the latter.

The clothes of the deceased are then divided among the relatives and
friends; the garland is burned; another pw/a, commencing with quot;Hong/
quot; dwlgna mastuna ma sidam, hong! ardning,quot; amp;c. is repeated, while the
remains of the sacred water are sprinkled over the feast. The parties now

sit clown to the enjoyment of it, invoking a blessing from the Almighty on
themselves, their houses, and their lands. No more solemnities are ob-
served till the expiration of a thousand days, when, if the memory of
the deceased is beloved and cherished, the ceremony and feast are re-
peated ; if otherwise, no further notice is taken of him : and having thus
obtained what the Romans would call his justa, he is allowed to be for-
gotten.

Being questioned regarding the tenets of their religion, they replied that
they believed in a dewa, who was all-powerful; that the name by which the
diwa was designated was Bdmi Trdka Sdng\'ydng Dewdta Bdtur, and that
the particulars of their worship were contained in a book called Pdiigldwu,

On being questioned regarding the ddat against adultery, theft, and other
crimes, their reply was unanimous and ready, that crimes of this kind were
unknown to them, and that consequently no punishment was fixed, either
by law or custom ; that if a man did wrong, the head of the village chid
him for it, the reproach of which was always sufiicient punishment for a man
of Teng\'ger. This account of their moral character is fully confirmed by
the Regents of the districts under whose authority they are placed, and also
by the Residents. They, in fact, seem to be almost without crime, and
are universally peaceable, orderly, honest, industrious, and happy. They
are unacquainted with the vice of gambling and the use of opium.

The aggregate population is about twelve hundred souls ; and they oc-
cupy, without exception, the most beautifully rich and romantic spots on
Java; a region, in which the thermometer is frequently as low as forty-two.
The summits and slopes of the hills are covered with Alpine firs, and plants
common to an European climate flourish in luxuriance.

Their language does not differ much from the Javan of the present day,
though more gutturally pronounced. Upon a comparison of about a hun-
dred words with the vernacular Javan, two only were found to differ.
They do not marry or intermix with the people of the lowdands, priding
themselves on their independence and purity in this respect.¹

1nbsp; The following are the only traditions respecting these people which are current in the eas-
tern provinces. quot; The people of the Teng\'ger mountains say that they received that name irom

a person from Matamp;ram, of an inquisitive and travelling turn {^ong maldna), who Imvmg
« ascended the highest of them, and being struck with astonishment at the view all around,
quot; gave them the above mentioned name of TSng\'ger, from the Javan ward anjengger, which
quot; signifies wonder or astonishment.

The Bedui are in numbers inconsiderable, and found in the interior of Bedui.
Bantam : they are the descendants of those who escaped into the woods
after the fall of the western capital of Fajajdran* in the fifteenth century,
and would not change their religion, remaining firmly attached to that of
Frdbu Seda. There is a tomb of one of them which they hold sacred, and
will not allow any one but themselves to approach even to this day. When
the Bedui subsequently submitted to the Sultan of Bantam, and shewed no

quot; Before Gunung Brdma had received that name, or had become a volcano, there lived a
man, called Kiai Gede Dddap Putih, who had no children. He petitioned of his deity to
quot; grant that he might have children, to the number of twenty-five, promising, in that event,
quot; that he would cast away one of them into the sea. In the course of a short time children
began to be born unto him. As soon as he had the number he had prayed for the people
quot; of Teng\'ger were inflicted with a pestilence, so dreadful in its effects, that those who were
attacked by it in the morning never failed to die before the evening. Dddap Putih was so
quot; distressed and afflicted at the lamentable situation of the Teng\'ger people, that he loathed his
quot; food and neglected his rest, till it was communicated to him in a vision, that the pestilence
quot; had been sent in consequence of his having omitted to perform his vow, of casting into the
quot; sea one of the twenty-five children whom tbe deity had granted him. Dddap Putih then
quot; assembled all his children, and inquired which of them was willing to be sacrificed, in order
quot; to appease the angry deity. All of them signified their unwillingness to become the victim
quot; except the youngest child, who voluntarily came forward and agreed to suffer, in which ever
\'\' way its father thought proper. Dddap Putih, however, reflecting that the sea was at a
very great distance, carried this child only to that extensive sandy plain at the foot of
quot; Gunung Brama, which bears the name of Sagdra lt;wedi or Laut Pasir, and there abandoned
quot; it. No sooner had he done so, than Gunung Brdma began to send forth hollow sounds, and
quot; immediately after burst forth into a volcano. Sagdra txedi is so called from the resemblance
quot; of its sandy surface to a sea when surveyed from Brdma\'s heights: its original name is
quot; Dassar.

quot; Bima being asked by Kresna if he was able, in the course of one night, to make an
inland sea below the Teng\'ger mountains, and having answered in the affirmative, Kresna
quot; challenged him to do it, telling him at the same time, that it must be done before the cocks
« were heard to crow, or the people of the villages began to weave or beat out rice. By three
quot; o\'clock in the morning his work was so far advanced, as to convince Kresna that it would
« be completed in the prescribed time. To prevent this, therefore, Kresna immediately went,
quot; and rousing all the cocks and people of the villages, caused the former to crow and the latter
quot; to begin to weave and beat out rice. By this maneuvre, Bima was obliged to leave off the
work, which otherwise would have been completed within the fixed time ; and so incensed
quot; was he against the people, who had so untimely begun to weave and beat out their rice
quot; (whereby he failed to perform the task which was given to him to prove his power) that he
cursed them, and sware that they should never again perform either the one act or the
quot; other, and to this day tbe Teng\'ger people neither weave cotton nor beat out rice,quot;
* See History,

disposition to oppose the Mahometans, they were not compelled to become
converts; but it was agreed, at the time they submitted, that the number
of the Rawd-ian (the name given to their little societies) should be limited
to three or four.

The BMui attend to all orders they receive through the medium of the
village chief. They subsist by cultivating rice : all they raise beyond what
is required for their own consumption they sell to the hill people, who are in
the habit of going to them for it once a year, on account of the superior
quality of the rice, or rather superior estimation in which it is held. It is
an established rule among them to allot but one day for each of the different
successive operations of husbandry: one day for cutting down the trees and
underwood, one day for clearing what has been so cut down, one day for
sowing the grain, one for weeding the field and one for reaping, one for
binding up the grain and one for carrying it home. If any part of what
has been reaped cannot be carried home in one day, it is left and neglected.
The Girang pohon (which is the title of the chief) is the first who com-
mences the work of the field, and many of the hill people follow him*in
regard to the period for sowing their pdri.

Their dress consists of white and black cloths. They wear rings and
silver scabbards to their Jcrises, but gold and swasa they dislike. Spanish
dollars are the only coin they prize.

The festivals or feasts of the Javans are of three kinds : the grebeg, or
religious festivals ; the hanchdki or nealamdti, so called from the Arabic
saldmat (a blessing), held on the celebration of marriages, births, and cir-
cumcision ; and the sedekah, appointed in honour of the dead, and for the
celebration of their memory.

The principal and most important of these are the national entertainments
corresponding with the Mahometan festivals of mulut, pdsa, and besar;
the two first answering to the half-yearly festivals of the Arabs of mohdrem
and ramdzan, and the latter with that of kh^i, in the month of dulkhya.
On these occasions the sovereign appears in public, and the dhm dlun is
crowded with an assemblage of people from all quarters, every one being
dressed in his most splendid attire, and accompanied by all his armed fol-
lowers. The same is observed in the more distant provinces of the country,
where the petty chiefs, in like manner, assemble in the dlun dlun of the
Regent. Presents of fruit, poultry, and other kinds of provisions, are

brought from every part of the country : offerings are made by the chiefs to
the mosques, and a public festival is given by the chief authorities. The
men only partake of these public feasts; but the female part of the family
of the chiefs assemble together, and enjoy corresponding entertainments
within their chambers. The festival seldom lasts above one day.

Of the banchdlii and nealamdti it may be only necessary to observe, that
those given during the ceremonies consequent upon the birth of the first
child are most important.

The sedékah are solemnities observed on the occasion of the funeral, or in
honour of the memory of a departed relative, on the seventh, fortieth, one
hundredth, or thousandth day after his decease : they are distinguished from
the feasts of grébeg and nealamdti by the absence of music. Those who
intend to observe them, assemble on the preceding evening in order to read
some portion of the Koran, Before the guests partake of the meal, the
principal person present generally addresses the Almighty in a prayer,
which alludes to the occasion, and expresses gratitude for the repast which
his\' bounty has provided. Thankfulness to the earthly donor of the enter-
tainment often mingles itself with gratitude to heaven, and the praises of
both are celebrated at the same time. This grace before meals is called
dung\'a.

Reserving for a subsequent chapter a sketch of the music and poetry of Amusements,
the Javans, I shall in this place endeavour to give some account of their
national drama and dances, as constituting, next to music and poetry, the
most conspicuous and refined of their amusements.

The dramatic entertainments are of two kinds; the topeng, wherein the The Drama,
characters are represented by men, who except when performing before
the Sovereign wear masks j* and the wdyang, in which they are represented
by shadows.

The subject of the tbpeng is invariably taken from the adventures of
Fdnji, the favourite hero of Javan story. In the performances before the
Sovereign, where masks are not used, the several characters themselves
rehearse their parts ; but, in general, the Ddlang, or manager of the enter-
tainment, recites the speeches, while the performers have only to « suit the
quot; action to the word.quot; The music of the gdmelan accompanies the piece,
and varies in expression, according to the nature of the action or the kind
of emotion to be excited. The actors are splendidly dressed after the

ancient costume, and perform their parts with grace, elegance, and pre-
cision ; but the whole performance has more the character of a ballet than
that of a regular dramatic exhibition, either of the tragic or comic kind, in
which human passions, human folhes or sufferings, are represented in such
appropriate language and just action, as to seem only a reflection of nature.
Love and war are the constant themes, and the combats of contending
chiefs generally close the scene. Those who perform before the sovereign
and repeat their parts, previously study their characters from written com-
positions expressly prepared for the purpose j but in other cases, the
Ddlang, well versed in the principal incidents, descriptions, and speeches of
the history, furnishes the dialogue between the actors extempore. A party
of tdpeng generally consists of ten persons, besides the Ddlang, of whom
four play the gdmelan and six perform the characters. They are engaged
to play by the night, for about ten rupees (twenty-five shilhngs) and a
supper.

Buffoonery is sometimes introduced, to increase the zest of these enter-
tainments with the multitude, but it does not interfere with the regular
course of the performance, the actors being only disturbed occasionally by
the actions of an extraneous character, who whether representing a dog, a
monkey, or an idiot, seldom fails to excite considerable mirth, and not
unfrequently in the most interesting part of the performance.

There is also a kind of pantomine, or rather an assemblage of wild beasts
called Barung*an ; in this entertainmenment men dressed up to represent
various animals are made to appear in procession and combats. This is
generally performed for the amusement of children, and is only accompanied
by the beat of the gong and drum.

In the wdyangs, or scenic shadows, the subject of the performances is
taken from the earliest period of history and fable, down to the destruction
of the Hindu empire of Majapdhit. These are distinguished according to
the periods of the history which they represent, by the tQvm^ quot;wayang purwa,
wdyang gedog, and wd^ang Mitik.

The different characters in the history are in these wdyangs represented
by figures, about eighteen inches or two feet high, stamped or cut out of
pieces of thick leather, generally of buffalo\'s hide, which are painted and
gilt with great care and at considerable expense, so as to form some sup-
posed resemblance of the character to the individual intended to be per-
sonified. The whole figure is, however, strangely distorted and grotesque,

the nose in particular being unnaturally prominent.* There is a tradition
that the figures were first so distorted by the Susman Moria, one of the
early Mahometan teachers, in order to render the preservation of the ancient
amusements of the country compatible with a due obedience to the Maho-
metan precept, which forbids any exhibition or dramatic representation of the
human form. « By these means,quot; said the Susunan with much ingenuity,
quot; while the world in general will not imagine the figures to be human, the
quot; Javans, from recollecting their history, will yet be able to comprehend
quot; the characters they are intended to represent, and enjoy in secret their
« national amusements. Or if, in time, they should forget the originals,
quot; and confound them with the distorted resemblance, they will be impressed
quot; with the idea, that it was only after conversion to the faith of the Prophet
quot; that their ancestors assumed the present shape of man.quot; But the com-
paratively recent alteration in the figures is rendered doubtful from the
circumstance of similar figures being found on many of the more ancient
coins, thus afifording ground for an opinion, that they existed nearly in their
present form before the introduction of Mahometanism. Their antiquity
is further confirmed, by the existence of similar figures in the Hindu island
of BdM, where, though not so much distorted, they are still far from natu-
ral. These figures are fastened upon a horn spike, and have a piece of thin
horn hanging from each hand, by means of which the arms, which are
jointed at the elbow and shoulder, can be moved at the discretion of the
manager. A white cloth or curtain is then drawn tight over an oblong
frame of ten or twelve feet long and five feet high, and being placed in front
of the spectators, is rendered transparent by means of a hanging lamp behind
it. The several figures are made in turn to appear and act their parts.
Previous to the commencement of this performance, the Ddlang, who is
seated behind the curtain, arranges the different characters on each side of
the curtain, by sticking them into a long plantain stem which is laid along
the bottom. The gdmelan then commences, and as the sev^eral characters
present themselves, extracts of the history are repeated, and the dialogue is
carried on, generally at the discretion and by the invention of the Ddlang.
Without this personage nothing can be donej for he not only puts the
puppets in motion, but repeats their parts, interspersing them with detached
verses from the romance illustrative of the story, and descriptive of the
qualities of the different heroes. He is the soul which directs and animates

the whole order and machinery of the piece, regulating the time of the music
with a small hammer which he holds in his hand, while he recites the
speeches suited to the occasion.

In the wdyang purwa, or mdyang of the most ancient times, the subject
is taken from the earliest periods of fabulous history, down to the reign of
of Farikesit inclusive. This is the age of interesting story and marvellous
fiction, the reign of the gods, demigods, and heroes of the Hindu and Javan
mythology, who in these representations are exhibited with the attributes,
and in the situations with which their names are connected in the most
popular poems and romances. The fables thus turned to account, are gene-
rally taken from the poem of Rdma, the poem of Mintardga containing the
penance of Arjwia on the mountain Indra, and the celebrated epic of the
Brdta Yudha, or the war of the Fanddwa, These poems are all written in
what are termed the high measures, and are accompanied in their recital by
the gdmelan salendro. In the performance of this tadyang, the Ddlang first
recites a few verses in the Kdwi language, chaunting afterwards an interpre-
tation of the passage in Javan, for the use of the unlearned. As the several
characters are brought forward, he himself supplies the minor dialogue
between the dramatis personae, keeping in general close to the original
story, when there is any person present who could detect his deviations : if
he is performing before the ignorant, however, he frequently digresses from
the main story, in any way which he thinks may most readily amuse his
audience ; and on this account, the practice of rendering the Kdwi into
Javan, which furnishes an opportunity for such deviations, is termed cha-
rdngan, literally a branch from a tree. In the course of the entertainment,
all the varieties of ancient weapons named in these poems are represented
behind the transparent curtain. The interest excited by such spectacles,
connected with national recollections, is almost inconceivable. The eager
multitude will sit listening with rapturous delight and profound attention
for whole nights to these rude dramas. By means of them, the lower class
have an opportunity of picking up a few Kdwi terms, and of becoming
acquainted with the ancient legends of the country,
wiyang gMog. The subject of the wdyang gedog is taken from the period of history
subsequent to Farikesit, commencing with the reign of Gandra-ydna and
* including the adventures and reign of the celebrated Fdiyi, and that of his
successor halean, until he established himself at Pqjqjdran. These poems

being composed in a different measure, the gdmelan pélog is employed as
the accompaniment ; and although the histoiy of the early part of this
period is written in the Kdwi, the Ddlang always employs the Javan trans-
lation. The adventures of Pdnji compose the most popular portion of it.
The characters are numerous, and the figures in general more highly
coloured and better finished than those of the wdyang pûrwa. In bringing
any hero on the stage, the Ddlang recites those verses of the history which
relate to him, and introduces such dialogue as may give a dramatic effect to
the exhibition, together with such explanations as may make it intelligible to
common capacities.

In the wdyang hlitih the figures exhibited are more properly puppets than Wâyang klitik.
shadows : they are of wood, about ten inches high, and made to perform
their parts without the intervention of a curtain. In these are represented
that portion of the history commencing with the establishment of the \'
western empire of Pajajdran and ending with the destruction of the eastern
empire of Majapdhit. Of this, by far the most favourite scenes are found
m the popular story of the adventures between the Ménah Jing\'ga, a chief
of Balambdngan^ and Ddmar Wûlan (the light of the moon), on account
of the Princess of MajapdhiU

The compositions which thus serve as the basis of these popular and
interesting t^Miert^inni^i.ts, 1-oiiipxlse the legends from which the account
of the earlier periods of .Javan story, detailed in another part of this work,
is principally derived. The most popular and interesting events and
adventures are preserved and related in various compositions, whilst more
recent actions and events, which possessed less interest, have fallen into
oblivion. The constant exhibition of these plays in every part of the
country, but more particularly in the eastern districts, has served to keep
alive the recollections of quot; days long since gone by,quot; and to disseminate a
general knowledge of native legendary history among many, with whom,
from the ignorance of letters, the stories might otherwise have been
irretrievably lost or more grossly distorted.

The Ddlangs, who manage and conduct these amusements, are treated nâiangs.
w4th considerable respect. In many points, their ofiice strongly resembles
that of the ancient bards. The ceremony of giving his blessing to the first
born infant, in the repetition of some particular passages of the ancient
legends, gives this part of his ofiice a very peculiar interest. The usual

payment to the DMang who owns a set of wdyangs, and brings his own
gdmelan players, is from two to three dollars for the night; but the nobles
and chiefs generally have several sets of wdyangs of their own, and keep a
Ddlang in their service.

Another representation of this nature is that of the adventures of Menak
Jing\'ga and Ddmar Wulan, which are exhibited, but not very commonly,
by means of drawings on folded leaves of strong paper, while the Ddlatig
repeats the story and furnishes dialogue to the characters. This is termed
wdyang beber. An entertainment of a similar description, though not
accompanied by the exhibition of figures, is termed trebang : it was invented
in the time of the kingdom of Demak. The story is taken from the Arabic
account of Beginda Ambia, which being rendered into Javan, is repeated
by the Ddlang, who with a small drum before him, and accompanied by
the music of the gdmelan, gives spirit to the different parts, by beating time
with his hand, and varying the strength of the sound or quickness of time
according to the subject. These two latter are of comparatively modem
invention, and not much esteemed.

The dance with the Javans, as with Asiatics in general, consists iri
graceful attitudes of the body, and in the slow movement of the arms and
legs, particularly of the former, even to the distinct motion of the hand
and fingers.

Of the dancing girls who exhibit at public entertainments, the first in
rank and the most skilful in their profession are the concubines of the
sovereign and of the hereditary prince. They alone are allowed to perform
the s\'rimpi, a figure dance by four persons, distinguished by an unusual
degree of grace and decorum.

The dancers are decorated according to the ancient costume of the coun-
try, and nearly in the same manner as a modern bride. The tdpih, or pet-
ticoat, is of silk of different colours, often green stamped with golden
flowers, and hanging in the most graceful manner, a part of it falling
between the feet and serving as a short train, which in the course of the
dance is frequently thrown aside by a quicker motion of the foot than ordi-
nary. The udat, or waistband, is of the chindi pattern ; and on these
occasions is worn the mer, or cestus, composed of plates of gold highly
ornamented with diamonds at the clasp in front. The body is enclosed m
a kind of corset (^erndkak) passing above the bosom and under the arms, and

hong, or sash, fall gracefully on each side on the back of the hip and reach
the ground. Sometimes, indeed, this graceful appendage to the dress is
brought from the back to a point between the breasts, whence being fas-
tened in a rosette, the ends flow towards the ground in front of the person
the usual bending attitude during the dance causing them to hang distinct
from the rest of the apparel. The triple necklace, richly chased armlets,
bracelets, and tiara, are of gold studded with precious stones j and the
hair is gracefully ornamented with buds of white and sweet-scented flowers.
On their fingers they generally display brilliant rings, and the face, neck,
shoulders, and arms, which remain uncovered, are tinged by a deHcate
shade of yellow powder. The music is slow and solemn, and the perform-
ance is on the gdmelan saléndro j verses from the romances of Pdnji, des-
criptive of the attire and beauty of the wives and concubines of that hero,
being chaunted as a prelude to the entertainment and during its conti-
nuance. On occasions when the s\'nmpi are exhibited before Europeans at
the Residency house, they are brought with great care, and under a guard,
from the krdton, in a large enclosed palanquin, or rather box, borne on
men\'s shoulders. When they reach the door of the residency, they glide
behind the prince into the chamber appropriated for his accommodation,
and when they come forth for the dance, seat themselves on the
ground in front of him. On his intiuiatmg that they should commence,
they slowly, and to the sound of music, close their hands, and raising
them to the forehead, bend in reverential awe, and gradually extending
their arms and swaying in unison with each other from side to side, assume
an erect posture. The dancers seldom exceed the age of fourteen or fifteen
The birth of a child generally puts an end to their performances, and
removes them from the profession. They are the choicest beauties of the
country, selected for the royal bed. Throughout the whole performance
their eyes are directed modestly to the ground, and their body and limbs
are by slow movements thrown into every graceful attitude that the most
flexible form is capable of exhibiting. In the figure of the dance they
occasionally approach and recede from each other, and sometimes cross to
the opposite side. It frequently happens, that the delicate corset by falling
too low, exposes more of the body than is considered correct. On such
occasions, one of the trusty matrons always in attendance raises it again,
without interrupting the dance or embarrassing the movements of the
dancer. At the conclusion of the dance they gradually place themselves

jnbsp;closing their hands, and raising them to the forehead in token of respect,

signal is given to the matrons to relieve them by others, when they again
Inbsp;glide into the same apartment.

Inbsp;TheBedaya. The bedd^a, who perform a figure dance of eight persons, are in some

respect to the nobles what the s\'rimpi are to the sovereign : but, at present,
few of the nobles can afford to maintain a sufficient number of youthful con-
cubines to compose this dance ; it is frequently therefore performed by boys
trained for the purpose. They are dressed nearly in the same manner as
Inbsp;the s\'rimpi, though not so expensively. The action moves to the same

The Rang\'geng. But the commou dancing girls of the country, who appear to approach
more nearly to the usual dancing girls of Western India, are called rong^geng,
and are generally of easy virtue. They make a profession of their art,
and hire themselves to perform on particular occasions, for the amusement
of the chiefs and of the public. Though to be found in every principal
town, their performance is most highly esteemed in the western, and parti-
cularly among the rude mountaineers of the Sunda districts, where the
superior graces of the heddya are unknown. Here they are constantly
engaged on every occasion of festivity, an«! tho regents frequently keep the
most accomplished in their service for years. Their conduct is generally so
incorrect, as to render the title of rcmg\'geng and prostitute synonimous;
but it not unfrequently happens, that after amassing considerable wealth
in the professsion, they obtain, on account of their fortune, the hand
of some petty chief. In this case, they generally, after a few years
retirement and domestic quiet, avail themselves of the facility of a divorce,
and repudiating their husbands, return to their former habits. The
rung\'gengs accompany the dance v?ith singing, the words being generally
extempore to the music of the gdmelan salendro and pelog. Their dress is
coarse, but in other respects resembles that of the more select dancers.
They do not, however, wear any tiara on the head nor armlets ; bracelets
are only worn occasionally. Their hair is dressed after a peculiar fashion,
abundantly oiled, and ornamented with flowers of various kinds- They
sometimes exhibit singly and sometimes in groupes, following and ap-
proaching each other, or receding at pleasure. They perform at any time
of the day, but chiefly in the evening, and endeavour to exhibit their best

attitudes round a lamp which hangs suspended. Generally speaking, both
their action and their song are rude and awkward, and on that account
often disgusting to Europeans, although there are some among them whose
performance does not deserve to be so considered. Their action is usually
distorted, their greatest excellence seeming to consist in bending the arms
and hands back in an unnatural manner, and giving one or two of the
fingers a tremulous motion. The voice, though sometimes harmonious, is
often loud, dissonant, and harsh to a European ear. They generally have
a handkerchief thrown over the shoulder, and usually a fan in their hand,
which occasionally serves to conceal one half of the face, not so much out
of any affectation of bashfulness, as, in the manner of a huntsman, to assist
the louder tones of the voice. At other times it is employed to strike
against the back of the arm, so as to give a greater effect to different parts
of the action and music. Generally speaking, the rong^gengs do not
descend to the performance of those disgusting and disgraceful postures
and motions, which are stated to be frequent on the continent of India,
but they are not free from the charge of impropriety in. this I\'espect.
Their song, though little esteemed and less understood by Europeans,
sometimes possesses much humour and drollery j and in adapting their
motions to the language, they frequently excite loud bursts of laughter,
and obtain great applause from the native audience.

The nobles of the highest rank are accustomed, on particular occasions
of festivity, to join in the dance yvi\\h a, rong^geng. To dance gracefully,
is an accomplishment expected in every Javan of rank ; and in the western
districts, particularly, all the chiefs are, on days of festivity, accustomed to
join in the exercise, one after the other, commencing with the youngest.
On these occasions, the nobles of the highest class vie with each other in
pointing the toe with grace, in exhibiting elegance of movement, in dis-
playing adroitness by intricate evolutions, or beauty of person by an
ingenious management of attitude. So devoted are they to this exercise,
that although their wives and daughters never dance, the happiness of a
festive occasion is considered incomplete, where an opportunity is not
afforded to the chiefs themselves of introducing their favourite amusement.
In the Sûnda districts there are some individuals distinguished as regular
posture or dancing-masters.

It is not unusual for the performances of the rbng\'gengs to be varied by the
action of a fool or buffoon. Mimicry is a favourite amusement, and beside

imitating, in a ludicrous manner, the actions of the rong\'gengs, there are not
wanting performers of this description, who occasionally direct their wit
against all classes of society, and evince a considerable degree of low humour.

These are the only public exhibitions of the female sex ; but the posture
dances by the men are numerous, and contribute to the state of the sove-
reign and chiefs. Among these, the Gdmhuhy with a shisld on one arm,
gracefully raises the dodot (or petticoat) with the other hand j the Niutra,
having a bow and arrow in the hand, goes through the motion of its exer-
cise, stringing und unstringing it to the sound of the gdmelan. Both throw
their limbs and body into the most graceful postures, as they slowly move
in procession before the chiefs, or are arranged on the side of the passage
through which he is to pass. Both the Gdmhuh and Niutra are naked from
the waist upwards, while the dodot hangs to the ground on one side in the
manner of full dress, shewing the knee on the other. Their bodies are
generally covered with yellow powder, and from round their ears hang sus-
pended in front, strings of the young meldti flowers.

The Gdmhuh are occasionally employed to exhibit before the prince, when
with a kris in their right hand and a shield on their left arm, they go through
all their evolutions to the sound of music.

But the chief description of male performers are the Beksa kemhang or
Beksa rbng\'geng, who have flowers, shields, or serpents in their hands, and
in dancing seem to resemble the South Sea Islanders, though more elegant
in their attire, and perhaps more graceful in their motions. Neither have
any covering above the waist; but the yellow, and sometimes green powder
which is upon the body, gives it an appearance very like dress. The term
Beksa Idwung is applied to the petty chiefs, who on public days dismount
from their horses and go through the exercise of the spear for the amusement
of the prince. Another description of performers are termed XJnchelang;
their art consists in throwing the spear into the air, and catching it again as
it falls with great dexterity. Similar exhibitions of these persons combating
with sticks, called ujung, were formerly common.

In the domestic circle, the w^omen and elderly people are partial to a
peculiar amusement termed sintren, which paints very forcibly the notions
they possess of the power of music. A boy or girl, properly attired and
skilled in the dance, is placed under a reversed basket which is carefully
covered with cloth. Round it music and song are struck up by all present,
those who do not play on any instrument, or who do not sing, joining in

beating time by clapping their hands. When the excitement has continued
sufficiently long to be supposed to have effected the charm, the basket is
seen to move, and the boy or girl rising from under it, apparently unconsci-
ous of what is doing, moves and dances gracefully but wildly, in unison with
the music. At length tired out, the dancer falls and seems to sink into
sleep, and when awakened pretends not to recollect any thing that has
passed. The perfection of this amusement consists in the performer\'s giving
himself up so completely to the power of music as to be charmed by it, and
perfectly unconscious of every other sense.

For the amusement, principally however of children, a cocoa-nut shell is
carved with the features of a man, and affixed to the top of a reversed
basket, covered with cloth. This basket, after being for some time exposed
by the side of a river or under a large tree, in order, as is supposed, that
some supernatural spirit may enter into it, is brought again into the
house, and rocked according to the swaying motion of the Javan dance by two
children, to the music of the gdmelan. An amusement of this kind is termed
hrmdung.

Tilts and tournaments Qwdtang) form a favourite and constant diversion Tournaments,
with the Javans : they are exhibited principally in the dlun dlun, or great
square in front of the hrdton or palace, and compose an essential part of
the ceremony o£ ihe pdsar senen, on the day in which the sovereign and
regents appear in public. This, with the sovereign, is Saturday j with the
chiefs, Monday. On the afternoon of this day, all the princes, nobles, and
public officers, assemble, and arranging themselves in the places assigned to
their respective ranks, await the coming out of the sovereign, who as soon
as he descends from the setingel mounts ahorse richly caparisoned, and rides
round the waringen trees, the several chiefs joining in his suite as he passes
the circle. Several of the chiefs, and particularly their sons and youthful
relations, then join in pairs, tilting and striking their long and blunted spears
as they pass the sovereign. The same thing is observed on the afternoon of
every Monday, at the capitals of the different provinces throughout the
island, where the native government and institutions are at all preserved.
The assemblage of people on these occasions is frequently very great. The
trappings and housings of the horses are extremely rich, and the riders
perform their feats with some dexterity, being seldom unhorsed.* At the

* It has already been noticed, that the island is plentifully supplied with a fine breed of
small horses. Almost every petty chief and public officer is mounted, and those who possess

conclusion of the exhibition on horseback, it is not unusual for the youths
and petty chiefs who have contended in the saddle, to dismount and practice
the attack and defence of the spear on foot: they are then termed
Uwimg. Tilts are likewise exhibited in the dlun-dlun, on the days of pubhc

The Javans have long advanced beyond that state, in which the chace
was considered as connected with their subsistence.

The stag is hunted chiefly in the eastern and western extremities of
the island, by the descendants of the Bdli and Sunda races: the Javans
inhabiting the central districts are not practised in the diversion nor much
acquainted with it. They uniformly pursue the animal on horseback. In the
eastern districts he is killed with a spear: in the western he is cut down with
a Uewang or cutlass j here the chace is conducted with more regularity and
method, and many of the inhabitants, particularly the chiefs, are passion-
ately addicted to it, employing the best and swiftest horses and dogS they

A favourite and national spectacle is the combat between the buffalo and
the tiger. A large cage of hdmhu or wood is erected, the ends of which are
fixed ?nto the ground, in which the buffalo is first, and the tiger afterwards
admitted, through openings reserved for the purpose. It seldom fails that
the buffalo is triumphant, and one buffalo has been known to destroy several
full grown tigers, in succession. In these combats the buffalo is stimulated
by the constant application of boiling water, which is poured over him from
tiie upper part of the cage, and of nettles, which are fastened to the end of a
stick and applied by persons seated in the same quarter. The tiger some-
times springs upon the buffalo at once : he very generally, however, avoids

the means pride themselves upon a respectable establishment. They have an aversion to
some colour\'s, and there are particular marks, the possession of which renders a horse valuable
to the natives; if a few hairs on the neck curl, or have the appearance of a star, the horse is
highly prized. Previously to the cession of Kedu to the European government in 1812, the
native princes maintained a very respectable stud in that province. Horses are never shod on
Java, nor are they secured in the stable, as is usual in Europe and Western India. A
separate enclosure is appropriated for each horse, within which the animal is allowed to move
and turn at pleasure, being otherwise unconfined. These enclosures are erected at a short
distance from each other, and with separate roofs. They are generally raised above the

The Javans use an extremely severe bit, and in consequence have the horse always under
command. The saddle, bridle, amp;c. are extremely heavy, and disproportioned to the size ot
the animal.

the combat, until goaded by sticks and roused by the application of burning
straw, when he moves round the cage, and being gored by the buffalo,-
seizes him by the neck, head, or leg. The buffalo is often dreadfully tora,
and seldom survives the combat many days. In these entertainments, the
Javans are accustomed to compare the buffalo to the Javan and the tiger to
the European, and it may be readily imagined, with what eagerness they
look to the success of the former. The combat generally lasts from twenty
minutes to half an hour, when if neither of them is destroyed, the ani-
mals are changed, and the tiger, if he survives, is removed to be destroyed
in the manner called rdmpog, which is as follows.

On receiving information of the retreat of a tiger, the male inhabitants Mmpog, or
are sometimes called out in a body, by the order of a chief, each man being
obliged to be provided with a spear, the common weapon of the country.
The place where the animal is concealed is surrounded j a double or triple
range being formed according to the number of hunters, and he is roused
by shouts, by the beating of gongs, or by fire. The place where he is
expected to attempt his escape is carefully guarded, and he is generally

of a single tiger rouses the neighbourhood, and he is infallibly destroyed by
the method described.*

When the rdmpog is resorted to by way of amusement at the capital of the
sovereign, a hollow square of spearmen, four deep, is formed on the dlun
dlun, in the center of which are placed the tigers in small separate cages,
or rather traps, with a sHding door, in the manner of a rat trap. Two or
three men, accustomed to the practice, at the command of the sovereign,
proceed into the center of the square, and placing plaited leaves in front of
the cage, to supply the place of the wooden door, set it on fire, and drawing
the wooden door up, throw it on one side, themselves retreating from the
spot at a slow pace to the sound of music. As soon as the tiger feels the
fire, he starts, and in endeavouring to make his way through the spearmen
is generally received upon their weapons. Instances however have occurred,
in which the animal has made good his retreat, but he was soon afterwards

* quot; The fruit of a species oicontorta, called Mlah hdmhing, has a deadly effect on tigers. It
is prepared by the admixture of other vegetables, and exposed on a piece of rag at the
places frequented by them. In some districts their number has been sensibly diminished by
this poison.quot;—\'Honjidd.

killed J sometimes the tiger, particularly if he has been opposed to the buf-
falo, will not move from the center of the square j in which case the sovereign
generally directs six or eight of his choice men {gândelc) to advance towards
him with spears. This they do with surprizing coolness and intrepidity,
never faihng to pierce the animal, by fixing their spears into him at once.
The smaller species of the tiger is generally selected for this amusement.

The exposure of criminals in combat with tigers was formerly practised,
and is said to have been common onthe first establishment of the Matdrem
empire ; but of late years, such a method of deriving amusement from the
infliction of judicial punishment had almost become obsolete, and is now,
as well as mutilation and torture, altogether abolished by treaty. Several
instances are said to have occurred during the reign of the sultan of Yugya-
hérta who was deposed by the British Government in 1812. In an exhibi-
tion of this kind, which took place about ten years ago, two criminals were
exposed for having set fire to a dwelling. They were provided each with a
Jcris, which was long, but broken off or blunted at the point, and the tiger,
was let in upon them separately in a large cage constructed for the purpose.
The first was soon destroyed, but the second, after a combat of nearly two
hours, succeeded in killing the tiger, by repeated cuts about the head and
imder the ears and eyes. On this a smaller tiger, or rather leopard, was let
in upon him, and the criminal being equally successful in this combat was
released. His success, as in the judicial ordeals of the dark ages, was taken
for a manifestation by heaven of his innocence, and not only secured his
pardon, but procured for him the rank of a Mdniri, as a recompense for the
danger to which he was exposed in its vindication. Although this barbarous
practice appears so recently to have been resorted to, it is not to be inferred
that, as a spectacle, it is held in any estimation by the Javans in general.
It seems to have been of comparatively late introduction, and adopted only
in the policy of a known and avowed tyrant. The concourse of spectators
to witness the combat can no more stamp the general character of the peo-
ple with barbarity, than the crowds which are always present at public exe-
cutions in Europe. The bare relation of the fact excites feelings of horror
in the mind of the ordinary chief.

Bull-fighting is common on Madura and in the eastern parts of the island |
but it is perfectly different from any species of sport derived from the courage
or ferocity of that animal in Europe. Here neither dogs are employed as in
England, nor men and horses as in Spain, but the bulls themselves are direc-
ted

ted against each other. The population form an extensive ring round the
dlun dlun, within which the animals are first led up to a cow, until they are
sufficiently excited, when the cow being withdrawn they are set at liberty
and contend with each other, until one of them gives way, and is driven
from within the ring by the victor. The small well formed bulls of Sumendp
afford considerable amusement in this way, while considerable bets are laid
on the result of the combat.

The combat between the ram and wild hog, which generally terminates fig™^quot;\'^^®®
by several dogs being let in to complete the destruction of the latter, is an
exhibition which furnishes frequent amusement j a small stand is raised
for the ram, to which he can retreat when in danger, and from whence he
can take advantage of a favourable moment of attack upon his antagonist.

Quail-fighting {aduJi gemdr) and cock-fighting (ddulijdgu) were formerly Quaii-figiiting.
very prevalent, the latter particularly, among the common people, but by no
means to the same extent as practised in the other islands of the Archipelago,
in many parts of which, particularly among the Maldyus, it forms almost the
whole source of diversion and interest. On the estabhshment of the British
power, cock-fighting and gaming, which had formerly proved a productive
source of revenue to the European government, were prohibited, and are
now in consequence rarely resorted to. The Javans were not in the habit of
fixing spurs to their cocks : this practice, they say, belongs to the Maldyus.^
The common people still amuse themselves with betting upon the issue of a
fight between two crickets {dduhjangkrik), v^hich ave daily exposed in the
markets for that purpose. The little animals being confined in small hdmbu^s
partially opened, are said to aflord an amusement of considerable interest.

Among the games of skill may be reckoned those of chess, drafts, and
several minor games played with pieces or balls, on boards of a somewhat
similar construction.

In chess (chdtur) the pieces are named, the rdiu, or king 5 the pateJi, or Chess,
minister, corresponding with the queen ; two prdhu, or- vessels, corre-
sponding with castles; two mantri, corresponding with bishops; two
jdran, or horses, corresponding with knights ; the I)idak, or pawns; and
are arranged as in the English game, except that the kings are placed on the
left hand of the queens, and opposite to the adversary\'s queen. The moves

* The cocks reared for this purpose are of the large game breed. The cock which we
improperly call the Bantam, is not found on Java, except as a curiosity: it comes from
Japan.

are also the same ; except that the king, if he has not been checked, may
move two squares the first time, either as a knight or otherwise j and that
the pawn may move two squares the first move, even though it should pass
the check of an adversary\'s pawn. When a pawn reaches the adversary\'s
first line, it must retrograde three moves diagonally before it can become a
queen, except it has reached the castle\'s square, in which case it is a queen
at once. There may be any number of queens on the board at once.

The king cannot castle after having been checked. Castling is performed
by two moves ; the castle must first be brought up to the king, after which
the king may pass over the castle at any future move, provided he shall
not have been checked, or that no piece has occupied the square he would
move into. A piece or pawn must remain on the board till the last; if the
king is left alone it is considered as stale mate, and he wins.

next to it in estimation may be considered the games of chuU and ddkon.
in ckkht, the board has one hundred and twenty angular points, formed by
cross lines on a checkered board, and the same is played with sixty white
and sixty black pieces. The object here is to clear the board of the
adversary\'s pieces, and the victor is he who does so first. The parties toss up
who shall take off the first piece or break the board. The moves are in all
directions, and the person who commences goes on as long as he can take one,
three, or five of his adversary\'s pieces. When he cannot do either, he stops,
and the other goes on in the same way. Ddkon is played with fourteen or
eighteen balls on an oblong board with holes, and is much practised by women.

Machdnan is a game in which two chief pieces represent tigers, one con-
ducted by each party, and twenty-three pieces representing cows : the tiger
who destroys the most wins the game. Mdling\'an is played on squares with
eighteen pieces, and the object is to surround your adversary\'s pieces.

fall to the share of the person who holds the beans. If the number in his
hand exceeds four, every four beans are thrown aside, and the residue,
until they are reduced to that number or below it, only counted.

Dadu, or dice, as well as cards, are borrowed from the Chinese, and not,
included among the national games. The most common species of gaming,
and that which is practised by the numerous and dissolute class of hdturs,
or porters, in the central districts, is a kind of pitch and toss, denominated
hepkJc, Four farthings, whitened or marked on one side, are tossed mto
the air ; if the whole or three of them fall on the side that is marked, or on
the reverse, the party who tossed them wins ; if only two, he loses the stake.

Bets are frequently laid on the hardness or otherwise of a particular nut,
known among the Maldyus by the term hikfkras, and called dduh gemiri.
Bets also frequently depend on the flying of kites (laydng\'anj,

I shall conclude this chapter by referring to some peculiarities, which, ®
although partially explained elsewhere, and falling perhaps more correctly
under other heads, may not be improperly noticed in an account of the
national usages and customs.

The practice of filing and dying the teeth black, and that of lengthening
the lobe of the ear to an enormous size, both of which have been already
noticed, appear to have extended over the whole of the eastern peninsula of
India, as far as China, and throughout the islands of the Archipelago, as
far at least as Papua or New Guinea.

The practice of covering the face, body, and limbs with yellow powder
on state occasions, and the use of yellow silk or satin for the envelope of
letters between princes, evinces the same esteem for this colour which
prevails in the other islands, as well as in Ava, Siam, and China.

The krises worn by the Javans are only varieties of that which is found
in the islands, and on what is termed the Malayan peninsula. The Javans
have a tradition that it was first introduced by one of their early Hindu
sovereigns, Sakutram (others call him Sa Putram), who is said to have
come into the world with the kris by his side. This kris is supposed to have
heen of the kind called pasopdti, which is consequently considered as the
most honourable at the present day. In the chapter on History will be
found an account of the kris deposited in the tomb of the Susunan Giri,
and of the virtues attributed to it by the superstitions of the country.
There is a tradition, that the inhabitants of all those countries in which
the kris is now worn, once acknowledged the authority of the Javans, and
derived that custom from them. Another tradition attributes the intro-

duction of this weapon among the islanders to the celebrated Pdnjî.—
The practice of poisoning the blade of the hris seems to have been
attributed to the Javans and their neighbours without any foundation. In
order to bring out the damasking, it is usual to immerse the blade in lime
juice and a solution of arsenic, w^hich, by eating away and corroding the
iron, may probably render the wound more angry and inflamed, and
consequently more difficult to cure, but it has never been considered that
death is the consequence. After this application of the acid and arsenic,
the blade is carefully smeared with some fragrant oil, to prevent it from
rusting, and this is all that is ever done to it.

It has been usual to condemn these people as blood-thirsty, prone to
immediate revenge, because they invariably use the deadly Icris ; but how-
ever frequent the appeals to this weapon may be in some of the more wild
and uncivilized of the Malayan states, experience has proved to us, that
on Java it may be universaUy worn without danger. I have elsewhere
remarked, that the custom of wearing the Icris among these islanders has,
in its effects upon the manners of the people, proved in many respects an
effectual substitute for duelling among Europeans. In these countries,
where there is very little justice to be obtained from regularly established
courts, and where an individual considers himself justified in taking the law
into his own hands accordingly, the Maldyu is always prepared to avenge
with his kris the slightest insult on the spot ; but the knowledge that such
an immediate appeal is always at hand, prevents the necessity of its often
being resorted to, an habitual pohteness ensues, and it has often been said,
that if the Maldyus are savages, they are by far the most polite savages
that we know of. If this effect is produced on the wilder and less civi-
lized Maldyu, and has equal force with the more adventurous and warm-
hearted Bugis, it may be easily conceived the Javans have not escaped it.
The kris, among them, has for a long period been more exclusively a per-
sonal ornament, than a rapier was in Europe fifty years ago, being among
the higher classes even seldomer resorted to, as a weapon of defence or
offence, than the latter.

The condition of absolute slavery, as understood by Europeans, seems
to have been unknown to the ancient constitution of society in these islands,
and throughout all the fragments of their history, of their laws, usages, and
customs, no trace is to be found of its ever having existed among the Javans.*

* A peculiar feature in the state of society in the Eastern Islands is the law between debtor
and creditor. Throughout the Archipelago, where the European government^has not inter-

Throughout the more ancient laws and institutions of the country, a
property of the subject in the land is clearly recognized, and it is probable
that it continued to subsist till the subversion of the Hindu government.
From various definitions and enactments respecting property, some of
which may be seen in the Suria Alem,* it is obvious, that money transac-
tions took place formerly, to a greater extent than they do at present. The
change is probably attributable to the European policy of the last two cen-
turies. Four per cent, per month when a valuable pledge is deposited, and
double that amount otherwise, is the common rate of interest in small
transactions between the natives and Chinese of the present day.

In the ti\'ansaction of money concerns, the women are universally consi-
dered stiperior to the men, and from the common labourer to the chief of a
province, it is usual for the husband to entrust his pecuniary affairs entirely
to his wife. The women alone attend the markets, and conduct all thé
business of buying and selling. It is proverbial to say the Javan men are
fools in money concerns.

When speaking of their fondness for show and state, I noticed that the
Javans were at the same time distinguished by neatness and cleanliness,
qualities not often combined with the former. That they are in most re-,
spects remarkable for their neatness cannot be denied: to their personal
cleanliness there are exceptions. This is however chiefly true of the higher
classes, and especially those who mix with Europeans ; but the common
Javan, though more cleanly than the Chinese and even the European, would
suffer by a comparison in that particular with the natives of Western India.

The common people generally bathe once a day, others once only in two
or three days. None of any rank anoint the body with grease, as is the case
with the natives of Western India; but they abundantly oil their hair, which

fered, confinement for debt is unknown. The creditor universally has a right to the effects of
the debtor, to the amount of the debt, on proving it before the proper authority, and if the
effects are not sufficient to satisfy the demand, he has a right to the personal services of his
debtor, and of his debtor\'s wife and children if necessary. Hence arises that extensive class
of people commonly called slave debtors, or more correctly bondsmen. In Java they are
termed bédol. In the provinces of Java subject to the European authority, this practice has
for some time been checked; and during the administration of Marshal Daendels, in 1810,
when it was usual for the common Javans to lend themselves in pawn for a certain sum of
money, it was declared illegal. As an ancient institution of the country, it will perhaps be
better explained hereafter, in detailing the existing practice on Bali, which maybe considered
to assimilate, in a great measure, with what the practice once was on Java.

among the common people, on account of its length, is too often filthy in
the extreme. They are accustomed to arrange the hair with a coarse comb,
buttheuse of the small-toothed comb is unknown, itsofiice being invariably
performed by the hands of women. Near Batavia, and some of the low
capitals of the coast, it is not unusual to see on the road side women thus
employed for the benefit of passengers, at a certain rate per head, who
submit to it as naturally as an English labourer goes into a barber\'s shop to
be shaved for a penny. The Malayus accuse the Javans of eating what they
find on these occasions ; quot; itu amp;rang Jdwaquot; say they, quot; mdkan kutuf-
This, however, appears to be a calumny : the Javans confess to biting but
deny the swallowing. The practice of the women cleaning the men\'s hair is
referred to by the Javans as of very ancient date. It was from this practice
that the mother of Wdtu Gûnung, in the very earliest period of Javan tra-
ditionary story, discovered her lost son.*

details of the native history for the leading features of the political cha-
racter of the Javan, and to the other divisions of this work, which may
afibrd him information how to estimate their former and present state of
civilization, I cannot but regret, that I am compelled to reserve, until a
future occasion, a more detailed account of the constitution, usages, and
customs of the village societies. It is by these that the private virtues and
vices of the people are perhaps best illustrated, and an account of the
municipal regulations by which the httle property and happiness of each
individual is protected, of the internal precautions of police, and of the
mode of adjusting disputes, could not fail to be interesting, on account of
their simplicity, their equity, and efiicacy. Independently of the degree
of rational independence and importance which the existence of these
societies insures to the common people, and of the protection which, under
all circumstances of greater political revolutions, they have afforded to them,
it is hoped that their influence in maintaining the police and tranquillity of
the country, will ever prevent the European authority from interfering in
their constitution or internal arrangements.

It has long been the opinion of the Dutch authorities, that a system of
European police, and the employment of European officers of police are
necessary j but under the British government the contrary has been satis-
factorily proved. Let the higher departments of justice be scrupulously

superintended and watched by Europeans of character ; let the administra-
tion of justice be pure, prompt, and steady ; let what is bad in the native
practice of pohce be gradually removed, but let the system, in its appli-
cation to the common people, be supported. It is one which has grown
with them, one which they are accustomed to and understand. Under the
native system, the rice block of the village is used as the alarm ; and
according to the manner in which \'it is beaten, the inhabitants know
whether it is to announce a single thief or a banditti, a tiger or a fire, and
arm themselves suitably. As it is usual -for a thief to have but little
covering on his body, and to oil himself all over, that he may slip from
the hands of any one who may seize him, the Javans make use of a long
wooden pole, with branches of brambles inverted within a fork at the
end, and by means of this simple contrivance they avoid the risk of being
wounded, and effectually secure the offender, who cannot escape without
tearing his skin. These, and other simple expedients, adopted from im-
memorial custom and according to the circumstances of the country, are
certainly preferable to the watchmen\'s rattles and constables\' staves, which
Europeans would wish to introduce.

Brdta Yii^ha, a Poem.—Music.—Painting.—Sculpture.—Architecture.-^
Arithmetic. \'—Astronomy.

TH F extensive prevalence of the Javan language, and its connexion with
the languages of continental India, were not overlooked by those intelligent
Europeans who visited these islands at an early period; for we find Valentyn*
quoting the authority of Flaccourt, who published in 1661, and of the Por-
tuguese Jan de Barros, for conclusions with regard to the extent of Javan
commerce in remote ages, drawn from the resemblance then traced between
the languages of Java and those of Madagascar and Ambon (Amboina).
« The Javans,quot; observes this author, quot; must doubtless have visited Coro-
« mandel and Malabar, for the high or court language is, in three parts out
« of four, derived from the Sanscrit or Brahminical language. Many Malabar
« words also enter into the composition, and it is besides composed in a
« great measure from the Dekan, which is the ancient language of India
quot; in the same manner as the Sanscrit is the sacred language.quot;

The alphabet has been exhibited, though imperfectly, by Valentyn, Le
Brun, and Reland, and an Alphabetum Bantemense is said to have been
found amongst the posthumous papers of the learned Hyde; but the Ian-
guage does not appear to have been regularly cultivated by Europeans
until within the last very few years. Some of the outlines of the Javan
mythological stories had previously appeared in a Dutch dress, in the
Transactions of the Batavian Society ; and these, with the translation of the

Lord\'s Prayer into the high and low languages, published by Valentyn, some
short vocabularies, and a short compamp;ative view of the Javan and Malayan
languages, which appeared in a Dutch work entitled quot; Begin en mrtgang
quot; den Oost Ind Compen\'\' or the Kise and Progress of the East-India Comi.
pany, are the only contributions to our knowledge of Javan Hterature with
which I am acquainted.

The native population of Java, Madéra, and Bali, islands most intimately Different lan-
connected with each other in every respect, use exactly the same written
character, and it appears that one generic language prevails throughout
these islands. Of this generic language, however, there are four dialects,
differing so materially from each other as to be generally considered sepa-
rate languages. It is, however, rather by admixture of other languages
than by mere difference of dialect that they are distinguished. These
dialects or languages are the Sunda, spoken by the inhabitants of the moun-
tainous districts of Java west of Tégal; the Jdwa or Javan, which is the
general language of Java east of Chéribon, and throughout the districts
lying on the northern coast of the island; the Madura and the Bali, being
the dialects or languages belonging to those islands respectively.

How far these dialects or languages radically assimilate with each other. Vocabularies,
and justify the opinion that one generic language prevails throughout, may
be determined by an inspection of the annexed vocabulary.* The Lampung
is added, on account of the vicinity of that part of Sumatra to Java, and
the intimate political connection which at all times subsisted between the
people; and in order to enable the reader to compare them all with the pre-
vailing language of the Archipelago, the Maldyu is prefixed. Under the
Javan is included the Bdsa hr ama, oijpolite language, which will be more
particularly noticed hereafter.

In this vocabulary, such words only have been introduced as are used
in conversation, and in ordinary epistolary composition j but the inhabitants
of these islands possess further a classic language, altogether distinct from the
ordinary languages of the country, and which is to them what the Sanscrit is
to the Pracrii language of Hindustan, and what the Pali is to the Birman
and Siamese, This language is termed Kdwi.i The annexed vocabulary.

* See comparative vocabulary of the Malayu, Javan, Madurese, Bdli, and Lampung lan-
guages. Appendix E.

t The term Kam seems to have been borrowed from the Sanscrit Kamp;wi, meaning, in that
language, poetry or poetical.

No. â,¹ which affords a comparison between the Sanscrit, the Pali, and the
Kàwt, will shew how nearly these languages are allied.

These two vocabularies may serve to convey a notion of the extent,
peculiarities, and antiquity of the Javan language, which will be found as
intimately connected with the Maldyu, or general language of the Archi-
pelago, on the one hand, as it is with the Sanscrit and Pali on the other,
suuda.nbsp;The aSww«/« language, though now confined to the mountainous districts,

seems to have been formerly, and probably down to the period immediately
preceding the revolution occasioned by the Mahometan conversion, the
general language of the western districts, and is perhaps the most ancient
vernacular language of the country. It is a simple uncultivated dialect,
adapted however to all the purposes of the simple and uneducated moun-
taineers who now speak it, and has perhaps escaped the influence of foreign
innovation, from the peculiar nature of the country and the independent
character of that race. It possesses a considerable portion of Maldyu WOrds,

and some of Sanscrit origin : the latter being, generally speaking, proper
names or terms of art and science or pohty, have probably been borrowed from
the eastern or proper Javans, in common with whom the Sunda people have
adopted a B\'hasa ddlam, or Bdsa krdma, which however is by no means
extensive. The Sûnda, with reference to the Javan, may be viewed in much
the same light as the Welch is to the English. The proportion of the people
who now speak it does not exceed one-tenth of the population of the whole
island ; the remaining nine-tenths speak Javan.

Madûra.nbsp;The language of Madura, which is again divided into the dialects of

Madéra proper and Sumendp, will be found to contain many words in
common with that of Sunda, but a much more extensive portion of
Maldyu, varied in the termination by a peculiarity of dialect.

and savage stock, still it is chiefly to Bdli that we must look for illustrations

by which these islands have been convulsed at different periods of their
history, will, in a great measure, account for the distinctions of language
which at present exist j while, at the same time, these distinctions and
peculiarities must serve to confirm many of the facts, for which we should
otherwise have only the authority of tradition to rely.
. At Bantam the language is much mixed with Malâyu and Sûnda. The Provincial pecu-
language in ordinary use at Batavia audits immediate vicinity is a jargon
of Dutch, Portuguese, Chinese, Javan, and Maldyu, the latter forming
the principal component. In Bogor and Chai-dnjur, the Sunda is pro-
nounced in a more drawling manner than in Chérihon, where it is probably
most correctly spoken, as in the word ndh, what? which at Chéribon is
pronounced short and sharp, nail. At Tégal the Javan words are in hke
manner lengthened in pronunciation, while at Semdrang they are spoken
short and full At the courts of Sura-kérta and Yugya-kérta, the words are
pronounced short, strong, and full. In the provinces east of Surabdya,
the language partakes much of the Madurese, and in the extreme district of
Banywwdngi the Bdli is discernable.

The alphabet of Java is peculiar : it consists of twenty consonants (y Alphabet,
and w are of the number), termed aksdra or letters. In common with
all other characters properiy Indian, these letters may be considered as syl-
lables, composed of a consonant and an inherent vowel sound, which is
invariably expressed, unless contradicted by a particular sign.

Besides the ahsdra, there are twenty auxiliary characters, termed
pasdng\'an, which in this application means corresponding or similar. They
have the same power as the aksdra against which they stand, except that
they are only used in connexion with and immediately after the aksdra
for the purpose of suppressing their inherent vowel sound. Three of them\'
are always placed after the aksdra, the others below them.

When the inherent vowel sound in the aksdra is not contradicted, the
aksdra is termed lagdna. The vowel sound in this case is that of a in
quot; water,quot; or of o in « homo j quot; the o being at present invariably used at
the native courts and their vicinity for the inherent vowel of the consonant,
instead of a. The latter, however, is still preserved on Madura, Bdli, and
in the districts of Java west of Tégal, and was doubtless the original inherent
vowel. The consonant sounds correspond with the sounds usually attributed
to the English consonants, with the exception of a second d and t, which
correspond with similar sounds in the Demndgari alphabet j ck which, is

used as ch in « church ; quot; nia, and ng\\ which latter is frequently used as an
initial letter.

Besides these there are five vowel signs, which supplant the inherent
vowel. These signs are termed sanddng\'an, the clothing or dress. The
répa consist of certain contractions of consonants and other signs used in
composition. These, with a pdngkun, or sign of elision, corresponding
with the hdris mdti of the Malayu, which has no sound of its own, but
being placed at the end of a word or sentence denotes its termination in a
pure consonant, and some few other marks corresponding with the
Devandgari, complete the orthographical arrangement, which though com-
plex and intricate, is remarkable for its precision.

Some of the letters occasionally occur under a capital, or rather peculiar
form, for they are of the same size ; but these are seldom used, and when
they are, it is not as capitals are employed in European languages. They
are principally found in proper names, and titles of office, and are placed

The annexed table is intended to exhibit the powers and application of
the different letters and orthographical signs. No. 1 exhibits the characters
now in general use. No. 2 contains the square characters in which the
Kdwi is usually written, and in which the different inscriptions in that lan-
guage, cut in stone and copper, are found. No. 3 contains specimens of
fhe varieties which the alphabetical characters have at different times
assumed, arranged, according to the judgment of the native writers, in th@
order of their relative antiquity.

(Or Contractions of certain Consonants used in composition mth other Consonants).

is placed after the letter, and is used to supply the place of the letter h, when not followed
by a vowel sound.

is placed round two letters, and introduces r between the consonant and its inherent vowel,

is placed above the letter, and is used to supply the place of the letter r when not followed
by a vowel sound.

is placed partly below the letter and partly after, to introduce a medial y in the same man-
ner as chakra introduces r.

is placed above the letter, and is used to supply the place of the letter ngquot;, when not fol-
lowed by a vowel sound.

is placed after a letter, and serves as a mark of elision, destroying the final vowel sound.

SingU or unconnected Vowels. Sanddng\'an, or Corresponding Medial and Final Vowels.

e ^^^nbsp;pdpet ^ is placed above the letter, and is pronounced as in le French.

ng\'a Idlet ^^ gives the sound of le, and pacherak gives the sound of re, as in Sanscrit.

(Being peculiar forms under which some of the Letters occasionally occur.)
NTS S Pnbsp;Nia G B

The adjectives are indecHnable, and generally follow the noun ; and
these are sometimes formed from nouns by prefixing a particle. The com-
parative degree is sometimes formed by prefixing a wor dmeaning higher or
larger, but more frequently by placing adverbs, significant of with,quot;
before that with which the comparison is made, as if we should say quot; by
quot; the side of.quot; The superlative degree is formed by annexing adverbs sig-
nifying quot; very, exceedingly, entirely, alone.quot;

The pronouns of the first and second person are always significant, and
vary with the relative rank of the parties. There is no proper pronoun of
the third person, but a word signifying alone, selfiquot; with the addition
of the possessive particle, is used as a personal pronoun of the third person.
The personal pronouns may all be used as possessive pronouns, by being
placed as such after the noun to which they belong. The relative and
demonstrative pronouns correspond very nearly with those of the Maldyu.

With regard to the verb, it may be noticed that many of the observations
in Mr. Marsden\' s grammar, on the nature and formation of the difïerent
parts of the Maldyu verb, are applicable to the Javan. It belongs rather
to the detail of the grammar to point out these j but it may be remarked,
that the use of these inflexions in the Javan appears to be so varied and
undefined, that it is impossible, without a much more extensive knowledge
of\' the language than Europeans at present possess, to make out a perfect
conjugation, or to lay down any fixed rules for them. All that could per-
haps be done, in the present state of the language and of our knowledge of
it, would be to give a number and variety of correct idiomatical expressions
in the Javan, by which their nature and irregularity may be shewn j and our
present limits do not admit of this.

The Javan language has never been reduced within the grammatical rules
adopted by Europeans, nor have the Javans themselves any notion of

grammar. The construction is generally simple and regular; but owing to
prosodial refinements (every writing of importance being written in verse),
syllables and words necessary to express a perfect sense are often omitted ;
at other times, unnecessary syllables or words are added, and letters at the
beo-inning, middle, and end of a word are transposed. Hence, and also
from the usual ellipsis of the verb transitive and personal pronouns, the
meaning of many passages appears obscure.

The language is remarkable for the profusion of words which it contains,
for the minute distinctions and shades of meaning, and the consequent extent
of synonimes, and for difference of dialect.

Of the profusion of words it may be observed, that the Javan, in this
respect, may be put in competition with many of the more cultivated
languages of Europe and Asia, and that a dictionary would perhaps be far
from complete, if it comprehended less than twenty thousand.

Of the extent of synonimes and the minute shades of distinction which
are found in this language, some notion may be formed from the extracts
from the Ddsa Ndma which are annexed.* In order to facilitate the acquire-
ment of the language, it is usual to collect all the words in the different
dialects with their synonimes, and to connect them together by stringing
them in classes following each other according to the natural chain of our
ideas. Thus after commencing with the word matiy and giving an explana-
tion of every word in the vernacular, polite and Kdwi languages, applicable
from his birth to his death, as infant, hoy, youth, and the like, it proceeds to
woman, child; from thence to the deities, afterwards to the various avoca-
tions of mankind, amp;c. This collection of synonimes is called Ddsa Ndma
literally the quot; ten namesquot; a term probably given to it on account of few im-
portant words in the language having less than ten synonimes. Children are
no sooner taught to know the letters of the alphabet (which they first describe
on the sand) and to connect them in syllables and words, than they are in-
structed in the Ddsa Ndma, without a partial knowledge of which, no youth
is considered competent to enter upon any public office or can advance to a
knowledge of the written compositions of the country. These collections
are varied in their contents and order of arrangement, according to the
acquirements and notions of the compiler. As books of reference they
may be considered to supply the place of dictionaries, and if less conve-
nient for this purpose than works alphabetically arranged, they have cer-
tainly

tainly an advantage over them, in the comparative facility with which their
contents are impressed on the memory.

Polite language. But there is no feature in the language more deserving of notice, than
the difference of dialect, or the distinction between the common language
and what may be termed the polite language or language of honour. The latter
contains many words of Sanscrit origin, and a portion of Maldyu; and in those
instances in which it appears to have been borrowed from the vernacular
language, which may perhaps be loosely estimated at a fourth of the whole,
a slight alteration is commonly made in the orthography and pronunciation,
to mark the distinction. To render this distinction intelligible to those
who are not locally informed, it may be necessary to explain, that from
whatever cause the distinction may have originated, so clearly is the line
drawn on Java, between the higher and the lower classes of society, that
on no account is any one, of whatever rank, allowed to address his superior
in the common or vernacular language of the country. This language is
exclusively applied when addressing an inferior, or among the lower orders
or uneducated, where distinction of rank may not be acknowledged.
Persons of high and equal rank, when discoursing among themselves, some-
times use the polite language, hue in general they adopt a medium, by
introducing words belonging to both branches of the language ; and this
is generally adopted by them in epistolary correspondence.

It is probable, that in the earlier stages of society, the terms of respect
used towards a superior were comparatively few ; that this second dialect,
which now forms so extensive a branch of the general language, has been
gradually formed with the growth of arbitrary power ; and that, at one
period, the extent of these terms did not exceed what is to be at this day
found in the less cultivated dialects, and among the more independent races
0Î Madura and Sûnda. Such, however, is their present extent in the
Javan, that nearly one half of the words in the vernacular language have
their corresponding term in the Bdsa Krdma or polite language, without a
knowledge of which no one dare address a superior ; and although the general
construction of the language, and its grammatical principles are not altered,
so effectually is the language of inferiority contrasted with that of superiority,
that it is possible to suppose a case in which a person might be well acquainted
with one dialect, without being able to understand one sentence of the other.

It is not however to be inferred that the one is studied and attained
exclusively of the other, for while the one is the language of address, the

other must be that of reply, and the knowledge of both is indispensible to
those who have to communicate with persons of a different rank with them-
selves. Children are accustomed from their infancy to employ the polite
language in addressing their parents and relations, and this added to the
mode of instruction by the Ddsa Ndma above described, early impresses
upon their memory the corresponding terms to be used according to the
occasion. The Bdsa Krdma, as has been before noticed, consists of a more
extensive class of foreign words, and where different words from the common
language have not been introduced, a variation in the orthography and termi-
nation is adopted ; and the more effectually to render it distinct, not only are
the affirmatives and negatives, as well as the pronouns and prepositions
varied, but the auxiliary verbs and particles are different.

I have already mentioned, that besides the ordinary and the polite Ian-
guages of the country, the inhabitants of these islands possess a poetic or
classic language, called Kdwi. In this are written all the historical and
poetical compositions of note, as well as most of the ancient inscriptions on
stone and copper, which are found in different parts of the island. In a
short vocabulary already referred to,* the relation of the Kdwi to the
Sanscrit and Bdli is shewn; and in order to enable the Sanscrit scholar to
extend the comparison, I have annexed a further vocabulary of Kdwi words,
with the meaning which the Javans at present attach to them.t

At what period this language was introduced into Java, whence it came,
and whether it was ever the sacred or vernacular language of any
foreign people, remains to be decided. Of the words of which it is com-
posed, as far as we may judge from the annexed vocabulary, and the com-
positions which have come down to us, nine out of ten are of Sanscrit
origin, and less corrupted than the present Pali of Siam and ylva appears
to be : if, therefore, it was ever the same language with the Pdli, it must
have been before the Pdli was corrupted, and therefore probably at a very
remote period.

In Bdli the Kdwi is still the language of religion and law 5 in Java it is
only that of poetry and ancient fable. In the former, the knowledge of it
is almost exclusively confined to the Bramdna (Brammsj ; m the latter, a
slight knowledge of it is deemed essential for every man of condition. In
Bdli the ancient mythological and historical poems are however preserved

in more correct Kdwi than on Java j and it is to the copies obtained from
thence, that reference will be principally made in the observations which
follow on Javan literature.

In noticing quot; the accessary tongues from whence the Malayan acquired
quot; such a degree of improvement, as removed it from the general level of
quot; the other cognate dialects, and gave it a decided predominance in that
quot; part of the east,quot; Mr. Marsden observes, quot; that the earliest, as well as
most important of these, appears to have been, either directly or me-
quot; diately, that great parent of Indian languages, the Sanscrit, whose
quot; influence is found to have pervaded the whole of the eastern (and
quot; perhaps also of the western) world, modifying and regenerating even
quot; where it did not create. That the intercourse, whatever its circum-
quot; stances may have been, which produced this advantageous effect, must
quot; have taken place at an early period, is to be inferred, not only from the
quot; deep obscurity in which it is involved, but also from the nature of the
quot; terms borrowed, being such as the progress of civilization must soon have
quot; rendered necessary, expressing the feelings of the mind, the most obvious
quot; moral ideas, the simplest objects of the understanding, and those ordi-
quot; nary modes of thought which result from the social habits of mankind;
quot; whilst, at the same time, it is not to be understood, as some have pre-
quot; sumed to be the case, that the affinity between these languages is radical,
quot; or that the latter is indebted to any Hindu dialect for its names for the
quot; common objects of sense.quot;*

The same observations apply still more extensively to the Javan ; and in
the Kdwi or classic language, we may presume to have discovered the chan-
nel by which the Javan received its principal store of Sanscrit words, for it
is the practice, even at present, among the better educated of the Javans,
for the party to display his reading, by the introduction, particularly into
epistolary correspondence and literary compositions, of Kdwi words, by
which means the colloquial, but more particularly the written language of
the country, is daily receiving fresh accessions of Sanscrit terms. From the
vocabularies now presented to the public, and the account which will be
given of their literary compositions, it will appear, that few languages, even
on the continent of India, have been more indebted to the Sanscrit than
the Javan. One original language seems, in a^very remote period, to have
pervaded the whole Archipelago, and to have spread (perhaps with the

population) towards Madagascar on one side, and to the islands in the
South Sea on the other; but in the proportion that we find any of these
tribes more highly advanced in the arts of civiUzed life than others, in
nearly the same proportion do we find the language enriched by a corre-
sponding accession of Sanscrit terms, directing us, at once, to the source
whence civilization flowed towards these regions. At what period, how-
ever, the light first broke in upon them, or at what period the intercourse
first took place between the enlightened inhabitants of Western Asia and the
islanders of this extensive Archipelago, is a question which, perhaps, may
be more properly discussed, when treating of the antiquities and history of
the country, and at best is involved in so much obscurity and fable, that
much must be left to conjecture.

The letters of the Javan alphabet, as well as the orthographical signs, are
decidedly on the principle of the Devanagari; but it is remarkable, that
the letters of the alphabet do not follow the same order, notwithstanding that
order is preserved in all the alphabets of Sumatra as well as in that of Celebes.
This deviation has been considered presumptive of the alphabet having been
introduced into the island anterior to the period when this order might have
been established for the Devanagari itself, or before the refinement sup-
posed to have been effected in that alphabet by the Bramins; but the devia-
tion may, perhaps, be sufficiently accounted for, by the circumstance of a
meaning being attached to the words formed by the order of the Javan
alphabet as the letters are at present arranged, thus: hdna chardka ddta
sawdla pddajaydnia mdga batdng\'a ; means, quot; there were two messengers

disputing with each other, equally courageous, till they both died.quot;*
That this is not accidental may be inferred, not only from the common
laws of chance, but from the probability of such an arrangement being pre-
ferred, both on account of its convenience, and in conformity with the
spirit which in the Chdndra Sangkdla seeks to select such expressions for the
particular numerals that are required, as may make a sentence.

Near the ruins of Brambdnan and Singa-sdri, are still found inscriptions Sanscrit,
in the pure Devandgari character of a very ancient form. A specimen of
these, together with one of the square Kdm, is exhibited in the accompany-
ing plato. corresponding in size with the original. Annexed to each letter
in the DevanQ,gari character found on Java, is the modern character, and
in the same manner the modern Javan letters are placed under the Kdxvi;

* See Historical Chapter, for an account of the introduction of the alphabet by Aji Saka.

and, in order to enable tbe reader to compare the forms of the consonants
used in the alphabets of Ava, Siam, and Java, with the Devandgafh they
have been placed against each other in another plate. It will be seen, that
many of the letters of the Kàwt correspond so exactly with the square Pa/?
of the Birmans, as to leave no doubt of their having originally been the
same. It is probable, also, that were our acquaintance with the Pet/? more
extensive, a similar coincidence would be found between the languages.

Upon the overthrow of the Hindu empire on Java, the natives may be
considered to have lost most of their knowledge of the Kdwi language ; for
although numerous compositions in it are still to be found among them, and
these compositions are recited in their national entertainments, they would
not be generally understood, but for the versions which have long since
been rendered of them into the modern Javan. The Panamhahdn of
Sumenap is perhaps, at present, alone entitled to be considered as a Kdwi
scholar, and he knows so little of the language as to acknowledge, while
assisting in translating from it, that he was often under the necessity of
guessing at the meaning.

The knowledge of the ancient characters seems, on Java, to have been
for many years almost exclusively confined to the family of this chief, and it
is stated, that they owe their knowledge of it, and of the Kdwi language
itself, to the circumstance of one of them having visited Bdli, to which
island it is that we must now look as the chief depositary of what remains
of the literature and science which once existed on Java.
Mystical Ian- It is not unuSual for the Javans, in carrying on any secret or political
correspondence, to adopt a mystical language, known only to the parties
themselves j and on occasions where attempts have been made to stir up the
common people to commotion, scrolls have been distributed in various unin-
telhgible characters, which, for the most part, appear to have had no other
object but to impose on the credulity of those who were too willing to believe
them sacred and mysterious. Were the characters intelligible, the mystery
would cease and the charm be \'dispelled. Of the manner in which the
letters of the alphabet are applied in formings this mystical language, an in-
stance is given at the conclusion of the vocabulary of Kdwi words.*

Unlike the Malayan, the Javan language owes little or noth^Jg to the
Arabic, except a few terms connected with government^ religion, and
science, which have béen admitted with the religion and laws of Mahomet.

-.y^-yaA/e (rj^ //i f Cf\'ff //Kt^eff/ ^f/f.jt\'/ift /i ù, f/i rpz/i\'/ttf tf.j^c/i. ^

The language, as well as the ancient institutions of the country, have been
but little affected by the conversion. The Javan language was abundantly
copious before the introduction of Arabic literature, and had few or no
deficiencies to be supplied.

The general character of the language is strongly indicative of a former
advanced state of civilization, and illustrates, in some degree, the present
character of the people. It is rich and refined; it abounds in synonimes
and nice distinctions ; it is mixed and easily made to bend, and suit itself
to every occasion j it is, in a high degree, expressive of power and servility.

As the languages of the whole Archipelago are so intimately connected
with each other, and that of Celebes in particular is so little known, I have
subjoined in an Appendix some further comparative vocabularies of the
languages east of Java, with some observations on the Bugis and Mangkdsar
nations.t

For ordinary purposes, the Javans, as already described, use a modifica-Numeral.^
tion of some of the letters of their alphabet as numerals, and a representa-
tion of these numerals has been given in the table of the Javan alphabet,
page 36l ; but on occasions of importance, it is usual to employ certain
signs or symbols in lieu of these ordinary numerals, and this practice appears
be of great antiquity among them. These symbols are termed chdndra
sangMky quot; reflections of royal times,quot; or quot; the light of royal dates,quot; and
consist in a certain number of objects, amp;c. either represented in design
or named, each of which is significant of one of the ten numerals. Of the
former class are said to be those found in most of the ancient buildings and
coins, which in that case usually bear no inscription. The latter is found
in most of the ancient inscriptions, and in such of the written compositions
as possess any date at all, and is adopted in all proclamations and public
writings by the sovereign of the present day.

The Appendix G. contains an account of these peculiar numerals, as far
as they are at present understood by the Javans. In the use of them, they
endeavour to select such objects from the list, as when read in succession.

* quot; The style of the address in Mexican is varied according to the rank of the persons with
quot; whom, or about whom, conversation is held, by adding to the nouns, verbs, prepositions,
«« and adverbs, certain particles expressive of respect. This variety, which gives so much
quot; refinement to the language, does not however make it difficult to be spoken, because it ig
quot; subjected to rules, which are fixed and easy; nor do we know any language th^t is more
quot; regular and methodical.quot;—History of Mexico, ly Claugero, vol. L

may afford some meaning illustrative of the fact the date of which is
recorded ; but this is not always attended to, or at least is not always to be
traced. The date of the destruction of Majapâhit (1400), the most im-
portant in the history of Java, is stated as follows, the numbers being
always reversed.

In like manner, the date of the long graves at Grésik, near the tomb of
the Princess of Chermai (1313), is thus stated :

Other examples will be given, in detailing some of the principal events
of Javan history.

Java may be, it will have served to convey to the reader some notion of the
extent to which it has been indebted to a foreign source for its copiousness
and refinement, and to prepare him for that extensive influence of Hindu
literature, which is still to be found in the compositions of the country.
Of these the most important, and indeed all that have any claim to literary
distinction, are found either in the Kdwiov in Javan versions from that classic
language. On Java the establishment of a Mahometan government for nearly
four centuries, has tended in a great measure to obliterate that general know-
ledge among the better educated, which, there is reason to believe, once
existed ; but in Bdli the Hindu faith, however blended with the local
customs of the island, and however perverted and distorted in its applica-
tion by a semi-barbarous people, is still the established religion of the
country. Mahometanism has gained but little ground there, and no part
of the island has yet submitted to European authority. It was in this con-
veniently situated island that the adherents to that faith took refuge, when
the sword of Mahomet prevailed on Java, carrying with them such rem-
nants of the sciences and literature as they were able to rescue from the
general wreck.nbsp;\'

An account of the present state of the island of Bdli, of the religious
and political institutions, and of some of the peculiar customs and usages
which subsist there, is essential to the illustration of Javan history ; and

although the limits of the present volume will not admit of our enlarging
so much on this interesting subject as we could wish, it is hoped that a
general notion may be formed, from the particulars which will be inserted
in the chapter on the religion and antiquities of Java. In the following
account of the literary compositions of Java, I shall avail myself of the
more correct copies, which I was fortunate enough to obtain from Bdlit
confining myself in the explanation of them to the existing notions of the
best informed of the Javans, it being the present state of their literature,
rather than that of Ball, that I am now to describe.

The literature of Java may be considered under the general heads of
ancient and modern, the former and more important division consisting of
compositions in the Kdwi language, which appear connected with the
mythology and fabulous history of continental India.

It is to be regretted, that the work which treats most extensively of the
ancient mythology of the country, and of the earhest periods of fabulous
history to which the Javans of the present day refer, is not to be found in
the Kdwi. The Javan work, termed Kdnda, is probably a translation from
the Kdwi, and, in the absence of the original, claims our first attention.
It is to this work, and the Mdnek Moyo, of which an abstract will be given
in the chapter on religion, that the modern Javans constantly refer for
an explanation of their ancient mythology.

This composition is frequently called Pepdkam. It contains the notions TheKanda.
of mythology which appear to have been general throughout the Eastern
Islands, with imperfect portions of their astronomical divisions, and of
ancient history. It is to be regretted, however, that the Javan copy from
which the following account is taken, though otherwise written in a very
correct style, abounds in passages, unfit for a chaste ear, and that it has
been almost impossible entirely to purify it.

It opens with an account, first of Sang ydng Wenang (the most power-
ful), who was sixth in descent from Piirwdning Jan (the first of men, or
Adam), and who had a son named Sdng ydng Timg^gal (the great and only
one), the first, who (as is inferred from the meaning of his name) conceived
that he was above all, and who setting aside the ways of his father, esta-
blished the heavens, with all that they contain, under the name of Surendra
Budna, or Suraldya.

4, Sang yàng Pàng*at. When these children attained maturity, Pûgu quar^
relied with Fung\'gung, on account of the splendour and riches of the dwel-
ling of Sdng ydng Tung\'gat, which each of them desired topossess. Sang
ydng Tung\'gal became enraged at this : not being able to reconcile
them, the heavens became disturbed j he, in consequence, seized hold of
both of them ,Pugu by the right and Pung\'gung by the left hand, and cast
them aside. To the former, who fell on Sdhrang (the opposite coast), he
gave the name of Sécha Tung\'gara ; to the latter, who fell on Java, he
gave that of Ndyan-tdlm (the same with Sémar, the attendant on Arjûna).
He converted them into monstrous figures, ridiculous in appearance and
speech, exciting laughter by their actions, and with an inclination to follow

Sdng ydng Tung\'gal, who is said to have been invisible, and who in the
Wdyangs of the present day is designated by a sun or glory of light, trans-
ferred the government of heaven to his son, Sdng ydng Samba, directing
him not to separate from his remaining brother, whose assistance he would
require, and conferring upon him the title of Nila Kdnta (blue necked), on
account of his being of bright appearance, but having a tinge of blue on
the front of his throat. To Pdng\'at, his brother, he gave the name of
Kanika putra.

Sri Nila Kdnta subsequently assumed various names and titles ; the most
pre-eminent of which was Pramésti Guru, by which name and title he is
acknowledged as supreme throughout the Eastern Islands. This title was
first conferred upon him when the deities in Saraldya were numerous, and
when all looked up to him as an instructor or Guru. Kanika Putra took the
name of Rési Nardda.

The thoughts of Sdng ydng Guru turning one day upon women, he took
a leaf of the kastuba tï^e, and paying adoration to it, it was immediately
converted into a most beautiful female, who took the name of Uma.
While she was young he looked upon her as a daughter, but when she arrived
at maturity he felt a stronger passion. Uma disliking this fled, and Sdng ydng
Guru being unable to catch her, it occurred to him that he might be more
successful if he employed four hands and arms ; whereupon, at his desire,
two additional arms sprang from his shoulders, and TJma was immediately
within his embrace. But she still resisted his desires, and during the
struggle Kdma Sdla and Mdha Praldya, both Rasdksas, but the latter
in the form of a man, were produced, by an event similar to that which

gave birth to some of the children of Jupiter.* Sang yang Guru still observ-
ing the repulsive conduct of TJma, said to her, quot; your appearance is like

that of a RasdJcsa,quot; whereupon she immediately assumed the form of one j
and grieving sorely at this transformation, beseeched that she might again
become what she had been, but Sang ydng Guru was deaf to her entreaties,
and he conferred upon her the name of Kali Durga.

Kdma Sdla and Mdha Praldya, when they arrived at maturity, mutually
sought from each other to discover their descent, but not succeeding, they
agreed to proceed in company to Suraldya, to demand information from
Sdng yang Guru, resolving that, if they were not satisfied with his reply,
they would make war against him. Arrived at Suraldya, they overcome
the opposition of Rest Nardda, and reach the presence of Sdng ydng Gdru,
who informs them that they are not his children, though they sprang from
his body, and that it was the fault of the woman only that they had their
present form. He tells them that he cannot allow them to remain in
Suraldya, but will provide for them a place in which with their mother
they may reside. He then appoints the mother to be sovereign of Nardka
{Tamhrdka muka)^ under the title of Ydma DipdtL To Kdma Sdla he
gives the title of Batdra Kdla; the other retained the name of Mdha
Praldya. To Kdla he assigns the charge of the bridge between earth and
heaven, called Wot dgal dgil (the tremulous or swinging bridge, over which
a good man may pass in safety, but from which, on account of its being
shaken by his sins, a bad man falls into the gulph below), and to Mdha
Praldya that of the souls of men when they die, in order that he may
direct to the bridge such as, from good conduct on earth, have a chance
of passing it, and cast the others into Nardka, to his mother Ydma Dipdti.

Sdng ydng Guru was again incHned to take another leaf of the
kastuha tree, but apprehending that it might turn out as before, he
restrained his inclination. Then purifying himself, there appeared
before him, at his desire, a beautiful boy, to whom he gave the name
of Sdmhu, and after five more purifications, there successively appeared,
secondly, a boy of a high colour, beautiful and veiy powerful, to whom
he gave the name of Brdma; thirdly, a boy, appearing extremely
powerful and enraged, to whom he gave the name of Mdha dewa ; fourthly,
a boy beautifully white, bright, and fierce looking, and having sharp and
sparkling eyesj to whom he gave the name of Basuhi; fifthly, a boy of a

Wdtu Gunung. quot; If the gods are so nearly destroyed by those who are
quot; subordinate to me, what must they not suffer when I go myself? for I
« shall not then have occasion to use force. I need only say a few words,
quot; and if they don\'t understand the meaning of them, they will forthwith
quot; be destroyed, and I shall myself become sovereign of Suraldya. Should
quot; they, however, comprehend the meaning of what I say, then I shall
quot; know that my power is gone j but still there will be trouble in putting
quot; me to death.quot;

Sinta. quot; Tell me what are the words you mean to use, and why they
quot; have not the power to put you to death ?quot;

Wdtu Gunung. quot; I shall enclose in my hand the Sdstra or description of
quot; my country, and holding it out, demand of them to tell me what it is.
quot; Then I shall repeat these words : ddha woi diki, and also diU woi ddha.
quot; The meaning of these words is easy enough, but the gods don\'t under-
quot; stand it : a great tree has small fruit; great fruit has a small tree. The
quot; great tree with small fruit means the xearingin tree j the great fruit and
quot; small tree means the gourd. I am invulnerable by all weapons, but if
« they pull my two arms asunder, then will they find it easy to put me to
quot; death; but this the gods know not.quot;

With this intelligence the spy immediately hastened to TVisnu, who
arrived at Suraldya when the gods were nearly beaten by the twenty-seven
sons of Wdtu Gunung. After this success, Wdtu Gunung approaching
Sdng ydng Guru, put the intended questions to him. The latter referring
to Wlsnu, they were immediately recognized by him, on which Wdtu Gu-
nung attempted to escape, but was soon overtaken by Wisnu, who laying
hold of one of his arms, while his son, Sri Gdti, held the other, they soon
succeeded in putting him to death. As he expired a voice was heard by
Wisnu, saying, quot; think not that it will end here: hereafter trouble will
« again arise in Suraldya, in the time of Rdja Sumdli, of the country of
quot; Sela gring^ging, who will have a brother named Mang\'lid\'wan. Forget it
« not.quot;

When the twenty-seven sons of Wdtu Gunung heard of their father\'s fate,
they wished to sacrifice themselves ; but Wisnu disposed of them as follows,
saying, quot; let there be a sign to the world of this victory. I will once in
quot; seven days put to death one of these twenty-seven, so that they may be
quot; killed in rotation.quot; The grief of Sinta being excessive, she wept for

seven days, and afterwards was received into Suvdlâyciy and Jl^isnu added
her name, as well as those of her sister and Watu Gûnung, to the twenty-
seven, and established the thirty tsûûku, as everlasting signs, in commemora-
tion of this victory. From the grief of Sinta for seven days, it is said that
rain always falls during the wiilu which bears her name.*

Then seizing the Fepâteh and three assistants, who with Wdtu Gunung had
constituted the council of five, he declared that they should serve to com-
memorate the four great revolutions or Ndga (serpents) : Ndga Bûmi (of the
earth), Ndga Bina (of the day), Ndga Wulan (of the moon), Ndga Tdhm
(of the year). He struck out both the eyes of Ndga Bumi, that the earth
might never again see to attack the heavens, and afterwards the left eye
of Ndga Dina and the right eye of Ndga Wûlan.

[^Here that part of the relation which has an astronomical reference
breaks ofF.3

Brdma then following the example of Nardda, purifies himself, and at his
desire, first there appears before him a boy of strong make, on whom he
confers the name of Brdma Tama ; secondly a boy, also of strong make,
whom he names Brdma Suddrga ; and thirdly a beautiful girl, on whom he
confers the name of Bramdni Wdti.

The two boys, when they attained maturity, descended from Suraldya.
Brdma Suddrga united in marriage with a female of the earth : from them,
in the third degree, were descended Raya Sumdli and Manglidwan. In the
reign of the latter of these a destructive war is stated to have taken place.
MangUdwanïdilà. waste Surdlaya and slew SriGdti, but afterwards, when he
shewed a desire to possess Sri, Wisnu exerted all his strength and put him
to death. As Manglidwan expired, Wisnu heard a voice saying unto him,
quot; The work is not yet complete ; hereafter, when there shall be on earth a
quot; man named Rahwdna, who will be descended from Brdma Tama, beware
quot; of him : in his time the peace of heaven will be again disturbed, and he will
quot; lay it waste.quot; Brdma Tama espoused a princess of Chdmpa, named SWdti
Déwi, by whom he had a son, named Brdma Raja, who became Rc^a of
Jndrapuri, and had a son named Chitra Bahdr or Angsdrwa, to whom, when
he became advanced in age, he delivered over charge of the country, pro-
ceeding himself into the forests as a devotee, and assuming the name of Rést
Tdma.

Sumdli had a daughter, named Suhesi Dewi. This prince, alarmed at
the accounts of Manlidwan\'s death, fled with her to Chitra Bahdr and
requested him to protect her as a maiden, giving him authority to sanction
her marriage on any proper occasion which might offer. He himself fearing
the vengeance of Sang yang Guru, fled further into the woods for conceal-
ment, but died on the way. Chitra Bahdr, forgetting the nature of his
charge, became enamoured of the girl. This happened when he was perform-
ing a penance; for he had two sons, named Misra Wdrna and Bisa Wdrna,
to the former of whom he had intrusted the charge of his government. The
girl resisted on account of his age, but he at last succeeded. During the
first amour he received from her nine strokes on the head with a stone. In
due time she became pregnant and was delivered of a boy, having nine
marks or excrescences on his head, which added to his natural face, making
as it were ten fronts to his head: he was thence called Ddsa mtiha (ten-
faced). In the second attempt she pulled the lobes of both his ears with
great strength, and when delivered she produced a child in the form of a
JRasdksa, and having immense lobes to the ears : this child was named Amba
Mrna, or long-eared. In the third she scratched him all over, and the fruit
of it was a girl, born with long nails and claws at the end of each finger :
she was named Sdrpa handlta, or serpent-nailed; the wounds inflicted
by these nails are said to have been mortal. But the fourth being unre-
sisted, she was delivered of a most beautiful boy, who having a countenance
and mouth beautiful like those of a girl, was named Bibisdna.

When these children were grown up, Chitra Bdhar carried them to Misra
Wdrna, saying, quot; these are your brothers and sister, assist them, and they
quot; will be of use to you in your government.quot; Misra Wdrna had a great
dread of thunder. He possessed a weapon called limpung, which descended
to him from Brdma Rdja, and Ddsa Muka desirous of possessing it, ingra-
tiated himself into his favour, but no sooner obtained possession of it than
he formed a design against his brother\'s life, in the hope of succeeding him.
He accordingly performed a penance and prayed for thunder, and as soon
as it was heard, he slew his brother, and gave out that he disappeared
during the thunder. At the moment, however, that he struck Misra
Wdrna with the weapon it vanished ; still he became Raja.

In the meantime Bisa Wdrna became beloved by the gods, and they pre-
sented to him a car, named Jaladdra, in which he could be conveyed

through the clouds. quot;When Ddsa Milica heard of this he became enraged,
and demanded the carriage for himself; but he had no sooner made the
request, than he perceived his lost weapon descend upon the lap of Bisa
Wdrna. Still more enraged at this, the altercation did not cease, until
Bisa Wdrna with one blow laid him senselsss on the ground; at which
moment the father, Chitra Bahdr, coming up, he succeeded in reconciling
them, and with impressing upon Bdsa Muka the futility of his attempts
against his brother. Chitra Bahdr on this occasion repeated several invoca-
tions to the deity, which were treasured up in the recollection of after ages :
such as Hong! Awigna ; Hong I Widadd)tia ; Hong ! Widaddni, amp;c.

The father, however, had no sooner withdrawn, than Ddsa Muka again
took courage, and another combat ensued, which ended in his being a
second time struck senseless oa the ground, blood issuing from his mouth.
Bisa Wdrna then laying hold of his body was about to cut his throat with
the limpung, when Resi Nardda appeared and arrested his hand, saying,
quot; forbear, Sdng ydng Giiru does not permit that you slay your brother.
quot; By attending to this advice you will hereafter become a deity in heaven.
quot; Give your weapon to your brother, who is Raja of Indrapuri.quot; Bisa
Wdrna assenting, Rha Nardda then brought Ddsa Miika to his senses, and
delivering over to him the weapon and car, conferred upon him the name of
Rah-wdna* from his blood having flowed in such quantity as to reach the
adjoining forest.

j^In some copies of this work it is said that JDdsa Muka was called
Rahwdna, because in his youth he delighted in the destruction of children
and to spill their blood. There is also some variation in this part of the
story, and Chitra Bahdr is termed Chdtor Biya (four-shouldered), on
account of the great strength he exhibited in the war with Nili Kewdcha\\.

Resi Nardda then presented Ralvwdna to Sdng ydng Guru, who taking
a liking to him adopted him as his son, giving him a salendangi as a
mark of his affection. Rahwdna, however, was soon dazzled by the appear-
ance of a bright flame, when forgetting the attachment of Sdng ydng Guru,
he pursued it, until he came into the presence of Sri, from whose beauty
it proceeded. She, however, ran to her husband Wisnu for succour, and
a severe combat ensued, during which the heavens were disturbed, and

f A narrow white cloth, usually thrown over the shoulder, still worn by the Bramanas of
Bdli, and called sampa dlang dlang.

many of its most valuable contents were destroyed by Rahwdna, Rési
Nardda at length approaching, separated the combatants, saying, quot; this is
quot; not the proper place for your contention j better had you descend to the
quot; earth. As for you, Wimu, as you are a god, and may be ashamed to
quot; shew yourself as such on earth, it is the will of Sdng ydng Guru that
quot; you be permitted to appear there in the form of a man, and to do
** there as you like.quot; On which Rahwdna was cast out of Suraldya, and
Wisnu, with his consort Sri, disappeared, without any one knowing
whither they went.

Bisa Wdrna was then, in fulfilment of the promise given by Nardda,
called up to heaven, to supply the place among the Déwas vacated by
Wisnu, and approaching the presence of Sdng ydng Giiru received from
him the name of Batdra Asmdra, or Kamajdya (the god of love), and pre-
sented him with a consort, named Kdma Rdti or Batdri Rdii.

£Here ends the Kérta Yoga, or first age of the world, and the Tréta
Yoga, or second age, commences. J

Wisnu, after his descent upon the earth, first became incarnate in the
person of an illustrious sovereign, named Arjüna Wijdya, of the country
of Mauspdti, and reigned for a period of seventeen years, during which he
was successful in two wars. One, in which the Rdja of Tdnjung-pura,
having a beautiful daughter, named CMtra Wdti, in whom Sri had become
incarnate, offered her in marriage to the prince who should overcome in
wrestling all the others assembled : Ayjéna Wijdya, however, carried her
off from the place in which she was secreted (Gedóng Brahdld) which pro-
duced a war, wherein he was victorious. The other war was with Rahwdna,
who attacked him at Mauspdti: in this Rahwdna was taken prisoner and
confined in a cage; but on the solicitations of his father, CMtra Bahdr, he
was forgiven, and allowed to return to his country, on condition that
neither he nor his descendants would ever again make war on Arjuna
Wydya.

Wisnu afterwards quitting the body of Arjüna Wydya became incarnate
in the person of Rdma, son of Ddsa Rdta (who when young was called
Murddhd), entering the body of his mother during conception, and coming
into the world with the child. About the same time Batdra BasdU, who
had a son named Baswdrat, united to Bramdni Wdti, becoming sorrowful,
quitted Suraldya, ^ith a determination to follow the fortunes of Wisnu,
who after quitting the body of Arjüna Wijdya roamed for some time round

the skirts of the earth until he fell in with Basiiki. Wisnu then said to
him, quot; there is a Rcya of Mdndra-pura, named Ddsa Rata, who has two
« wives, named Dewi Rdgu and Mdnwa-ddri. I am younger than you,
quot; but on earth I must be older. I will enter the body of Rdgu, and
quot; become incarnate in the child she will bring forth ; do you the same
quot; with the other.quot; Mdnwa-ddri was delivered of a child named Laksa-
mdna, in which Basuki accordingly became incarnate.

[This portion of the work, which also includes a relation of the feats of
BdU, son of Gotdma, the founder of Astina, brings the story down to the
period of the poem of Rdma. The history is then carried on to the period
of the Penddwa Lima or Brdta Yudha, and may be concisely stated as
follows

Baswdrat, son of Basuki, had by Bramdni Wdti two sons, Mdnu-Mandra
and Mdnu-Madewa. The daughter of Mdnu-Madewa, named Strati, was
married to Bramdna Rdja, and from this marriage proceeded Rdhwdna.
The Penddwa Lima were tenth in descent from Mdnu-Mandra, as in the
following pedigree.

The Treta Yoga or second age, is supposed to have ended and the
Duapdra Yoga, or third age, to have commenced on the death of Rdma,
which happened about the time of Sdkri=

The Wiwdha kdwi is a regular poem, and contains three hundred and TheWiwaha.
fifty-five pdda, or metrical stanzas. The subject is as follows.

Brang Bdya had a son, whose form was that of a Rasdksa, and who
became sovereign of the country of Ima-imantdka, under the name of
Detia Kewdcha. The father, desirous of getting rid of him, urged him to
go to Surendra Budna, in search of a flower, called Turdng\'ga jdti, which
was worn by all the Widaddris. The Rasdksa accordingly goes in search of
it, and no sooner comes into the presence of Batdra Guru, than a Widaddri

sitting by his side, named Su Prdba, the daughter of Batdra Sdmha, pre-
sents one of these flowers to him, with which he returns to his father, who
alarmed at his success,, immediately dehvers over to him the government of
his country.

After Détia Kewdcha had thus become sovereign, he desired to be united
in marriage with the Widaddri yiho had given him the flower, and dis-
patches a Rasdksa, named Koldngkia, with a letter, addressed to Batdra
Gûru, soliciting Su Frdha in marriage, and threatening to destroy the
heavens in case of refusal. When the messenger reached Suréndra Budna
he presented the letter to Batdra Sdkra, who knowing its contents without
reading it, immediately replied in a rage, quot; then let your sovereign carry
quot; his threat into execution, for Bitdra Guru will never consent that a
quot; Widaddri be married to a Rasdksa.^\'

When the messenger had disappeared, Batdra Sdkra communicated to the
gods the state of afïairs, on which Batdra Guru became enraged. As he
curbed his passion, Nardka becomes disturbed ; smoke issued from its
deepest recesses and the heavens rocked to and fro. Rést Nardda then
apprised Batdra Guru that there was a man on the earth, named Bagdwan
Wardiningsih, or Mintardga, who had long performed his devotions on the
mountain Indra-kila, and suggested that it might be better to employ him
against Detia Kewdcha than for the gods, who were ignorant of the art of
war, to await in heaven the coming of the Rasdksa. Batdra Guru approves
of the suggestion, and Rési Nardda descends, accordingly to Indra-kila,
accompanied by seven Widaddris, in the hope that by the influence of their
charms, he might succeed in abstracting Wardiningsih from the severe penance
which he was performing. The names of the Widaddris who accompanied
him were Su Prdba, Wilotdma, Leng leng-Mandana, Sumartdka, Ang\'impuni,
•Su Prdba-sini, and Dérsa-ndla. In their train followed a thousand of the
young and beautiful maids of heaven.

Wardiningsih was performing a long and rigid penance, for the purpose
of recovering the kingdom of Astina ; and when Nardda arrived at Indra-
kila, the sun had cHmbed half way up the heavens. The Widaddris
immediately displayed their charms, and employed every artifice to attract
his attention, but they could not succeed. One of them, who resembled
his wife, even threw off her upper garments, and exposing her bosom
embraced him with transport j but it did not avail.

Batdra SdJcra then descended to Indra-Ula, in the disguise of a Dervise,
assuming the name of Panjmgrum, and approaching Wardinûigsih, as if in
grief, threw off his disguise, and resuming the god, addressed Wardiningsih
as follows. « My visit to you is on three accounts; first, I request your
quot; assistance in this war ; secondly, I wish to apprise you, that Batdra Gûru
« will in a short time appear to you ; thirdly, to advise you, that when you see
^^ Batdra Gûru, and he asks you whether you have courage to engage in the
quot; war or not, you answer that you have ; requesting however, in return, that
quot; when the Brdta Yûdha takes place, the Panddwa may be successful.
quot; You may then request two arrows, called pasopdti and trisûla, and the
quot; crown chdping basundnda, the vest dnta Jcasûma, the slippers mdrdu
« kachdrma : these slippers, when you wear them, will enable you to fly,
quot; and to enter heaven in person. Request, moreover, the chariot mdnih
quot; which is drawn by elephants and horses of the heavenly race {sambrdni),
quot; and called cMpta mldha, and that if you are successful in the war with
quot; £gt;étia Kexvdcha, Batdra Guru, as well as the other gods, may each present
« you with a Widaddrir Batdra Sdkra having made an impression on the
mind of Wardiningsih returned to heaven.

In the mean time Mang-mdng Mûrka, the Peptdeh of Défia Kewdcha, who
had a face like a hog, received orders to lay waste the mountain of Indrihila.
He no sooner arrived there, and began to destroy the cultivation, than
Sémar gave information of it to Wardiningsih, who coming forth with his
bow and arrow immediately struck the Masdksa-, upon which Batdra Gûru
appeared in the form, of a forester, holding in his hand a bow without an
arrow. Then struggling with Wardiningsih to withdraw the arrow with which
the Pasdksa had been struck, each pulled at it ineffectually until a quarrel
ensued, in ^hich Batdra Guru accused Wardiningsih of having a bad heart,
and of following the dictates of his Gûru Dûrna, who was at Astma, and
who had a crooked nose and mouth. Wardiningsih being enraged at this,
a severe combat ensued, when Batdra Guru having laid hold of his adversary\'s
hair, theother attempted to retahate, on which Batdra Gûru vanished. A
fragrant odour immediately arose, and Wardiningsih reflected upon what
Sdkra had told him, and instantly perceived a bright arch, like the rainbow,
with Batdra Gûru appearing within it, attended by Rési Nardda and a suite
of Widaddris : bowing profoundly to the ground, he felt himself permitted
to approach the deity and kiss his feet; Batdra Gûru then informed him
of his object in coming to Indra-kUa, and requested that he would make war

upon Betia Kewdchay who was the enemy of the gods; to which War-
dinvngsih consented, making the requests which had been suggested by Batdra
Sdkra. To these jBfl^am G^irw assented, adding, «f if you have success in
quot; this war, I will appoint you sovereign of the heavens for one year. You

shall have power over all the gods, and the Widaddris shall be your atten-
quot; dants J and as long as you live you shall have power to visit Suraldya at
quot; your pleasure.quot; This said, Batdra Guru disappeared.

On the next day Wardiningsih prepared for his journey to Ima imantdJca, the
country of Delia Kewd^ha, and on his way thither fell in with the Widaddris,
Su Prdba and Wila Tdma, who had been sent by Bdtdra Sdkra. Wardiningsih,
on his arrival at the Rasdksd\'s capital, commissioned these Widaddris to
enter the palace and feign an attachment for Detia Kewdcha. Detia Kewdcha
no sooner beheld them, than being thrown off his guard, he declared, that
the object of the war being thus attained without trouble, he would enjoy
himself at his ease. Then dressing himself in his princely robes, and per^
fuming himself as a bridegroom, he approached Su Prdba, and taking her
on his knee chaunted a song, which so delighted her that she fell asleep.
Wardiningsih on this entered into her ear-stud and awoke her. Detia Kewdcha
then urged her to gratify his passion, but she refused, and required, as a
mark of confidence, that he would trust her with the secret of his power.
This he refused, until she was about to stab herself, when he whispered in
her ear that he was invulnerable except within his throat, if any one
injured that part in the least he must instantly die. Wardiningsih thus
ascertaining his vulnerable point, escaped with the Widaddris and ascended
to Batdra Sdkra in Suraldya.

Detia Kewdcha then collecting his forces proceeded to the war with a count-
less host, laying waste the country until he arrived near Tdnda Wdru, where
he halted to make preparations for the attack. The heavens now shook,
and Nardka emitted smoke. The gods trembled with fear, and the wind,
charged with the gross stench of the Rasdksa, almost overpowered them.

Wardiningsih having arrived at the abode of Sdkra, the great bell (^gatita\')
was struck, when the gods immediately assembled. The forces of Suraldya
then moved on, Wardiningsih following in a splendid chariot. Having thrown
off the Pandita^s garment, he now appeared richly clothed in the character
of Arjuna, adorned with gold and costly gems. The chariot had formerly
belonged to Rdma, and had been preserved by Batdra Guru, when Rdma
committed himself to the flames.

The battle commenced, and the forces of the Rasdksa being most nume-
rous and powerful, were about to carry all before them, when Gdtot Kdcha
arrived, and taking part with Wardiningsih, turned the tide of the battle in
favour of the gods, plucking up the mountains by the roots and casting them
upon the RasdJcsas. Détia Keœdcha escaping the general overthrow, and at-
tended by Sécha Tung\'gara, shot an arrow at Wardiningsih, which the latter
caught under his arm, and feigning death fell to the ground. Great was the
grief of ^mflîr and of all his other attendants ; but Détia Kewdcha approaching
burst out into a loud lough, when Wardiningsih, who had watched his oppor-
tunity, observing the Rasdksa*s mouth open, instantly rose, and struck the
arrow into it and so killed him.

Gdtot Kdcha, who in consequence of the absence of Arjuna on a penance
for three years, had been sent to recall him, and who had discovered him
by the appearance of his attendant Sémar, now approached Wardiningsih^
and kissing his feet, informed him of the sorrow of Séna and Dérma
Wdngsa at his absence, on which Wardiningsih desired him to return and
report what he had seen.

He then proceeded, attended by the victorious host, to the dweUing of
Batdra Güru, called Papdriwdrna ; on which Batdra Gûru assembling the
gods, and permitting Wardiningsih to approach and kiss his feet, declares to
him that he was not forgetful of his promise, and would forthwith fulfil it.
He then declared him sovereign of Suraldya, under the title of Prdhu Anili
Kiti, and gave him free access to every part of the heavens. Arjuna then
visited the seven quarters of Suraldya, in which was the abode of the
Widaddris, and assumed the sovereignty accordingly ; while Gatot Kdcha^
proceeding to Amérta, informed Séna and Dérma Wdngsa of what had
passed. There were also present at his relation Nakóla Sa déwa, Batdra
Krésna, Sdmbu, and Panchaxmla, all equally anxious to know the fate of
Arjuna. Déwi Kûnti, the mother of Panddwa, having calculated on the
death of Arjuna, and made preparation for burning herself in consequence,
was overjoyed at this unexpected good news j and Dérma Wdngsa, the
sovereign of Amérta, gave a grand entertainment, in which the Beddya»
danced to the sound of the music, while Gdtot Kdcha related the feats of
Arjûna.

The Rdma Kdwi is usually divided into four parts. The first, called Rdma Râma.
Gdn-drung, contains the history of Rdma, from his infancy until his mar-
riage J the second, Rdma Bddra, from his marriage until his consort, Siti

Déwî, is carried off by Rahwdna j the third, Rdma Tdli, from the first
employment of Hdnuman as a duta or messenger, until he builds the bridge
from the continent to the hUnà AngUdngJca-di pûra ; and the fourth, called
Ramaydna (by which is understood Rdma when arrived at his full power),
from the beginning of the war of Ddna Ldga on Lanka till the end of it,
when Rdma regains his consort Siti Déwi, and returns to Nayudia, leaving
Rahwdna\'s brother, Bibisdna, sovereign of Ldngka. Of these the Rdma-
ydna is the most common on Java. The Rdma Tdli has been recently
obtained from Bali. This composition, as one poem, is by far the most
extensive of any which the Javans possess.

The mythology contained in the Rdma differs, in some measure, from
that of the Kdnda. Rdma is here made to relate to Bibisdna, in Artdti
measure but Kdwi language, that Brdma, in the first instance, sprang from
Wisnu ; that in the beginning of the world, Wisnu existed in that part of
the heavens named AntabSga, the place of serpents ; that Srama first com-
municated the knowledge of the Sdstra. Nine incarnations of Wisnu are
then detailed : the first, when he appeared as Iwak Mokur-mo (the tor-
toise) ; the second, as Sing\'ha (the lion), when he was called Baruna ; the
third, as Arjuna Wijdya ; the fourth in Windkitdya or Rdma. In the fifth
he was to appear as Krésna ; and after the sixth, seventh, and eighth,
in the ninth when he would become incarnate in the person of a great
sovereign, named FrdhuPurûsa.

Anrdka Sura (the courageous child of the sun) is written in Kdwi, but
translated into Javan, under the name .of Buma Kalantdka, or Emba tali.
The period to which it refers is that occupied posterior to that of the
Wiwdha, and prior to that of the Brdta Yudha. It relates almost exclu-
sively to the exploits of Buma, who was the son of Déwi Pratiwi, of the
race of Widaddris.

Déwi Pratiwi being enamoured of Wisnu, her thoughts were continually
turned towards him, notwithstanding he had been cast out of Suraldya.
One night having dreamt that her p,assion for him was gratified, she con-
ceived a child. She afterwards heard in her sleep a voice saying to her,
quot; Descend to the earth in search of Krésna, for Wisnu is become incarnate
quot; in his person : his colour is deep black.quot; She descended accordingly ;
and established herself at Prajutéksna, where she was delivered of a son,
whom she named Buma Kalantdka. When he arrived at maturity, she
informed him who was his father, and when he discovered him he was

received and acknowledged by him. Kresna had afterwards another son,
nsmeA Samba, who having insulted the wife of Buma a quarrel arose between
the two brothers, in which Buma put Samba to death in a most discraceful
manner, mangling and exposing his body. Kresna, enraged at this, threw
his Chcihra at Biima, desiring Gdtot Kdcha to raise him from the earth the
moment he is struck, lest the power of his mother should restore him.
Gatot Kdcha obeys his orders and Buma is destroyed. Sena, one of the sons
of Fdndu, is one of the personages of this poem.

The history of the succeeding period is contained in the Brdta Yudha, or Biata Yudha;
holy war, the most popular and esteemed work in the language. This poem
is identified in its subject with the Mahabdrat of continental India, in the
same manner as that of Rdma is with the Ramdyan. An analysis of this
poem will be given under the head poetry.

Next, in point of time, to this story, follows that of the poem called ParaWsit.
ParaUsit, which abounds with the praises of that prince who was the son
of Bimdnyu and grandson of Arjuna, and is descriptive of the tranquillity
and happiness which universally prevailed during his reign. It also con-
tains an historical relation of the sovereigns who succeeded him, and brings
down the line of princes from Parikisit through ten descents to Aji Jdya
Bdya, as follows.

It was during the reign of the last of these princes that the first inter-
course with Western India is supposed to have taken place ; an account of
the historical composition rdating to a subsequent period is therefore reserved
for the chapters on History.

The Suria Kétu (or lofty sun) contains in a few stanzas the history of
a prince, the fifth in descent from the Kurdwa, who by dint of prayer to the
gods obtained a son named Kérta Suma.

1.
s.

10.

and twenty-three stanzas, each of which contains a moral lesson t it is con-
sidered coeval with, if not more ancient than the Brdta Yudha, and the
Kdwi is considered the most pure extant. The modern version of this
work has already been referred to, and translations of some of the stanzas
have been introduced. The following are taken indiscriminately, and
translated immediately from the Kdwi.

A man who is moderate and cool in his desires will do good to a country.
A woman is like unto Déwi Manuhdra when her desires are moderate,
and men cannot look upon her without delight. A Pandita must act
up to his doctrines j although it may be in war and difficulty, still he
must act up to what he professes.

This must be the conduct of the Pandita. If attacked by a serpent, he
must not be moved by it, nor even by a lion : still the same, he must
be firm and unmoved, and neither the serpent nor the lion will have

As the surâja flower floats in the water, so does the heart exist in a
pure body ; but let it not be forgotten, that the root of the flower
holds to the ground, and that the heart of man depends upon his
conduct in life. The conduct of a Pandita must be distinguished by
mercy, charity, firmness, and prudence. His speech should be soft
and gentle, and in accordance with and like unto written instruction,
so as to moderate and calm the mind and desires of mankind.

It is mean and low for a rich man not to dress well : - it is still more
mean and low for a man of understanding to mix with bad company.
So is it when a man attains a high age and knows not the Sdstra ;
but when a man, through the whole course of his life, does not
reflect upon his conduct, such a man is of no use in the world
whatever.

A man should wear that sort of apparel which in the general opinion is
considered proper, and should also eat that kind of food which is
generally approved of. If he does this, he will appear like unto a
virgin, who has just attained maturity. Let him not follow imphcitly
the advice and instruction he may receive, but let him weigh them,
and select what is good by his own understanding.

In war, let there be no fear on any account, but let the whole thoughts
be directed to the main object of urging the warriors to the attack of

the foe. Moreover, let the thoughts be directed to what may be the
enemy\'s plans : this done, let the heart feel fire.

When a man engages another in his service, there are four points on
which he should satisfy himself respecting him. First, his appearance;
secondly, his conduc,t\' j thirdly, his intelligence j and fourthly, his
honesty.

The most valuable property is gold ; and whoever has much of it, if he
does not assist t|aose who are poor and in want, is like unto a house
without a fence, and he will soon be deprived of the property which
he possesses.

As the moon and the stars shed their hght by night, and the sun giveth
light by day, so should the sayings of a wise man enlighten all around
him.

Follow not the seeming wisdom of a woman\'s discourse j for as a man is
more powerful and better informed than a woman, it is fitter that he
should stand on his own ground.

A man who knows not the customs of the country {yudya Nagdra), is
like a man who would bind an elephant with cords made from the tdn-
jung flower. It is not necessary for the elephant to be enraged : with
the least motion he breaks the cords asunder.

Deprive not another of the credit which is due to him, nor lower him ih
the opinion of the world ; for the sun, when he approaches near to the
moon, in depriving her of her light adds nothing to his own lustre.

There is nothing better in the world than a man who keeps his word j and
there is nothing worse than a man who swerves from his word, for he
is a liar. There are five witnesses which may be seen by every one :
Yang-andla or Brdma (fire), Suria (the sun), Chandra (the moon), Kdla
(time,) Bdyu (life). And they are the great witnesses, always present
throughout the three worlds ; therefore let men recollect never to lie.

There are three things which destroy a man\'s character, and they are as
three poisons: the first, to disgrace his family or lower himself j the
second, to take delight in bringing misfortunes and unhappiness upon
others J the third, to be a hypocrite, and assume the character of a
Pandita.

Several works have been recently discovered in Bdli, called Agdma, Adi~
gdma, Purwa Digdma, Surcha, Muschdyagdma, Kantdra or Sd^stra Mendwa,
Dewagdma, Maiswdri, Tatwa, Wiya Wasdha, Ddsta Kalahdya, Sldkan

Taragdma, Satmagdma, Gamiga Gamdna. Of many of these copies have
been pi-ocured, and the Sdstra Mendwa, or institutions of Me7iu, have been
partially translated into English. This is a book of law comprised in about
one hundred and sixty sections, evidently written on the spot, and with
reference to the peculiar habits and dispositions of the people for whom
it was framed. As a code of civil law, it is remarkable for the proof it af-
fords of the existence of actual property in the land j and as a criminal
code, for the frequency of capital punishment, and the almost total absence
of all degrading or minor corporeal punishment.

Of the more modern compositions, and which may be considered as more
strictly Javan, the following are the principal.

Angrene is an historical work, which commences with the reign of Sri
Jdya Langhdra, sovereign of Medang Kamulan, the grandfather of the
celebrated Tdnji, and concludes with the death of Fdnji. This is the
longest work to be found in the modern literature of Java, and contains the
most interesting and important part of Javan history immediately antecedent
to the establishment of Mahometanism. It is composed in several measures
of the Sehar Gdngsal, and is usually divided into several smaller works, to
each of which the name of Pdnji is prefixed, as:

Pdriji Mordaningkung. The history of that part of Pdnji\'s life, when
his consort, Sekar-tdji, is carried off by a deity. This is replete with rela-
tions of his adventures in war, and partly written in the Sekar Sepoh and
partly in the Sekar Gdngsal.

Pdnji Magdt-kung relates to that period when the object of Pdnji\'s love
was not yet attained.

Pdnji-dng\'ron dkung, containing the particulars of the marriage ceremonies
observed by Pdriji.

Pdnji priamhdda, containing an account of the success and completion of
Pdnji\'s love, and ending with his marriage.

Pdryi Jdya Kasuma. This is one of the names assumed by Pdnji after the
loss of his consort, Sekar-tdji, and contains an account of his expedition to
Bdli, where he regained her.

Pdnji Chekel Waning Pdti (when young brave even to death) contains the
juvenile exploits of this hero.

Pdnji Nororvangsa includes the period of his hfe, when the Princess of
Dahd transforms herself into a man.

Neither the date of the principal work from which these minor com-
positions are taken, nor the name of the author is known ; but it is supposed
to have been written subsequently to the time of Majapdhit, the language
being modern Javan.

Literary compositions of the higher cast are generally classed by the
Javans under the head of PepdJcam or Bdbat, the latter of which includes
all historical works and chronicles »f modern date,

Sruti is a work which contains regulations for the conduct and behaviour
of an inferior to a superior. It is written in the Kdtvi language, but Artdti
measure, and has not yet been translated into Javan. It is of the same
length as the Niti Sdstra Kdwi.

Niti Prdja is composed in the same measure as the Sruti, and contains
regulations for the conduct of sovereigns and chiefs, partly in the Kdwi and
partly in the Javan.

Siwdha contains regulations for behaviour when in the presence of a supe-
rior, in the Javan language and Artdti measure.

Nagdra Krdma, regulations for the good administration of the country,
in the same language and measure.

Yudha Nagdra, the customs of the country, containing rules for the
behaviour of persons of different ranks, in Javan and in the Artdti and
Pamyil measures.

Kamanddka contains instructions for inspiring respect and fear in the
exercise of authority, partly Kdwi, partly Javan, and in Artdti measure.

The seven last-mentioned works are supposed to have been written about
the same period. The Chdndra Sangkdla of the Sruti is 134jO of the Javan
era. From the allusion to Islam customs which they contain it is concluded
that they were all composed on the decline of Mcjapdhit, at a period when
the influence of that religion was rapidly gaining ground. These works are
in pretty general circulation, and form the basis of the institutions and
regulations of the country. The translation already given of a modern
version of the Niti Prdja will serve to shew their nature and tendency.

Jdya Langkdra is a work supposed to have been written by a chief of that
name, when sovereign of Médang Kamûlan, and which contains regula-
tions for the highest judicial proceedings.

or minister of Kandidwan, chief of Medang Kamdlan, containing roles for
the guidance of Pdtehs in the judicial department of their office.

Gdja Muda, a similar work, supposed to have been writtn by M\'dda,
the Pdteh of the great Browijdya of MajapdJiit.

Kdpa Kdpa, regulations for the guidance of the sovereign in the adminis-
tration of justice.

Siiria Alem, a similar work for the guidance of all persons entrusted with
authority, supposed to have been composed by Aji Jimbon, the first
Mahometan sovereign of Java.

None of the above works are written in verse. They form the basis of
what may be called the common law of the country. The translation of the
modern version of the last of these, contained in the Appendix, will serve
to convey some idea of the nature and spirit of this class of compositions.

Besides the above may be noticed another work called Jdya LangMra, a
romance, supposed to have been written in the time of Susunan Ampel, in
the Javan language and modern measures. This is a moral work of consider-
able length, written in allegory, and pointing out the duties of all classes.

The Jowar Manikam is of a more recent date, and a general favourite :
it may convey some notion of the modern romances of the Javans.

There was a woman who shone Hke a gem in the world, for she was dis-
tinguished by her conduct, and her name was Jbnsoar Manikam.

Perfect was her form, and she was descended from a devotee, from whom
she derived her purity and the rules of her conduct.

Her beauty was like that of the children of heaven (widaddris), and men
saw more to admire in her, than was to be found on the plains, on the
mountains, or in the seas.

Pure was her conduct, like that of a saint, and she never forgot her
devotions to the deity : all evil desires were strangers to her heart.

She rose superior above the multitude from following the dictates of
religion, and in no one instance was her heart disturbed by a bad
thought or desire, so that her life was without reproach.

What pity it is she hath not a lover, for when a young and handsome
woman obtains a husband of high character and qualifications, it is as
milk mixed with sugar ?

When her virtue vpas assailed by the Panghulu, she was astonished and
exclaimed, quot; why dost thou thus take the course of a thief? why dost
quot; thou act in this manner?

quot; Art thou not prohibited from doing thus ? forgettest t^ow thy Jtdja,
« and fearest thou not thy God ?

quot; And thinkest thou not either of thyself? Greatly dost thou astonish
quot; me ! Is not thy conduct bad even before the world ? but being
quot; forbidden by the Almighty, art thou not afraid of his anger?quot;

quot; If such be thy desire, I can never consent to its indulgence, for I fear
quot; my God, and for all such deeds the punishment from heaven is great.

quot; Rather let me follow the course pointed out by the prophet: let me
quot; imitate the conduct of his child Fatima.

quot; How comes it, that thy inclination is so evil towards me ? Verily,
quot; if my father knew of this proceeding, wouldst thou not justly
quot; receive severe punishment ?quot;

The Panghulu thus frustrated in his design, writes in revenge to her
father, and informs him that his daughter has made a fruitless endeavour to
seduce him : upon hearing which the deceived parent orders her to be put
to death. Her brother is about to put this order in execution, when placing
his hand before his eyes while he inflicts the blow, he stabs a small deer in
lieu of his sister, who escapes into the woods.

With rapidity she fled to the woods, and then taking shelter under a wide
spreading waring en tree, the still unripe fruits of the forest attained
maturity, and seemed to offer themselves as a relief to her.

All the flowers, though the season for opening their petals was not arrived,
now expanded, and shedding their fragrance, it was borne by a gentle
zephyr towards her, while the hramdra, attracted by the odour,
swarmed around, and the fragrance of each flower seemed to vie with
the other in reaching her pi-esence.

The wild animals of the forest, the tiger, the wild ox, the rhinoceros,
came towards the princess, as if to watch and guard her, crouching
around her, but occasioning not the least alarm.

Being in want of water, the princess put up a prayer to heaven, when
close by her feet a spring of pure water issued.

On which the sarya flower soon appeared, opening its petals, and ofler-
ing the shade of z.\'pdyung to the smaller water-plants floating beneath.

Her heart now became easy ; and delighted at what she beheld, she pro-
ceeded to bathe and perform her devotions.

The father, on his return, learns the treachery of the Panghulu, and
having recovered his daughter, she is subsequently married to a neighbour-
ing prince, by whom she has three children. Her trials, however, are not
yet at an end, for being on a journey to visit her father, accompanied by
the Pepdteh of her husband, who is appointed to guard her on the way, the
Pepdteh forms a design upon her virtue. He is represented as saying :—

quot; If you, oh princess, submit not to my desires, it is my determination
quot; to put your eldest child to death.quot;

She replied, quot; what would you have me say ? Whatever may be the
« will of God I must submit. If my child is to die, how can I prevent
«« it?

The Pepdtehy on hearing this, forthwith drew his sword, and slew the
child, again demanding of the princess whether she would submit to
his desires ? To which she answered, quot;No!quot;

He again urged her; but the princess hanging down her head was silent,
and in the hope that God would give her resolution, her mind became
more easy.

The Pepdteh then shaking his sword before the princess, again urged her
to submit, threatening that if she refused he would slay her second
child.

But the princess could only reply, quot; you must act as you say, if it is the
« will of God that you should do so.quot;

He then slew the second child, and again urging her to submit, threat-
ened, in case of refusal, that he would slay the third child, then at her
breast.

the blood flew on the mother\'s face, on which she swooned and fell to
the ground.

The Pepâteh having succeeded in recovering her, again attempted to
effect his purpose, threatening that if she still refused he would slay
her : to this the princess at first made no reply.

But placing her sole reliance on the Almighty, a thought at last struck her,
and she said :

quot; Do as you will with me j but seeing that I am disfigured with blood,
quot; allow me first to bathe in an adjacent stream.quot;

The Pepâteh assenting to this, she went away and effected her escape into
the woods. There she remained in safety, until discovered by her hus-
band, who in revenge put the three children of the Pepâteh to death.

It has already been shewn, that notwithstanding the intercourse which ^traduction of
has now subsisted for upwards of four centuries, and the full establishment ture.
of the Mahometan as the national religion of the country for upwards of
three centuries, the Arabic has made but little or no inroad into the
language ; and it may be added, that the Arabic compositions now among
them are almost exclusively confined to matters of religion. Books in the
Javan language are occasionally written in the Arabic character, and then
termed Pegu, but this practice is by no means general. The Koran was
first translated, or rather paraphrased, about a century ago, and rendered
into Javan verse by a learned man of Pranardga, to whom the title of
Kiai Pranardga was in consequence given.

Arabic books, however, are daily increasing in number. The principal
works in this language, with which the Javans are at present acquainted,
are the Umul brahin, by Sheik Usuf Sanusi ; Mohdrrar, by Iman Abu
B-anifa ; Uanlo Taleb, by Sheik Islam Zachariah ; and Insan Kamil, by
Sheik Abdul Karim Jili. The doctrines of Sheik Mulana Ishak, the father
of Susûnan Giri and one of the earliest missionaries, were those of Abu
Hanifa, which are the same as the Persians are said to profess ; but these
doctrines have, subsequent to the time of Susûnan Gïri, been changed for
those of Shqfihi. There are, however, some who still adhere to the
doctrines of Hdnifa ; but their numbers are few, and the chiefs are all
followers of Shqfihi. The number of Arabic tracts circulating on Java has
been estimated at about two hundred.

Several institutions have been established in different parts of the island,
for the instruction of youth in the Arabic language and literature. At one
of these, in the district of Pranardga, there was at one time, (about seventy
years ago, in the time of Palm Nagdra,) not less than fifteen hundred
scholars. This institution has since fallen into decay, and the number at
present does not exceed three or four hundred. Similar institutions are
established at Meldng\'i, near Matdrem, and at Stdamdrmar, near Surabdya ;
and at Bdntam, about eighty years ago, there existed an institution, of nearly
equal extent with that of Pranardga.

Literary compositions are almost invariably written in verse. The mea-
sures employed are of three classes. First, the sekdr* ham, or measures
in which the kdwi compositions are generally written ; secondly, the sehdr
sepoh, high or ancient measures ; thirdly, the sekdr gdngsal, or five modern
measures.

A complete stanza is termed apada (literally a foot) ; a line is termed ukdra ;
the long syllables are termed gurit, the short Idku; and although rhyme is not
used, the several measures of the sekdr sepoh and gdngsal are regulated by the
terminating vowels of each line, which are fixed and determined, for each
particular kind of verse,t by the number of syllables in each line, the
disposition of the long syllables, and the number of lines in each stanza or
pdda.

Of the sekdr kdwi there are twelve radical stanzas, most of which occur in
the Niti Sdstra and other principal Kdwi compositions. They are named :

* Sehdr literally means flowers, and is the usual term for poetry, flowers (of the language).

t quot; The tegald verse is only regulated by the rhyth m of the syllables, and the similarity
quot; of the vowels in the close. This similarity of the terminating vowels does not amount to
quot; regular rhyme, for the consonants may be totally dilferent though the vowels are similar,
quot; as in the Spanish rhymes termed Asonantes. Thus laglag and taltal, sut and cahug, silip and
quot; buhUr, however imperfect as rhymes, are all that is required in the termination of the tegala
quot; VQXS,Q:\'--Leyden on the Indo-Chinese. Asiatic Researches.

quot; Reng janma di kami ta chita reséping sarwa praja ng\'enaka
quot; Ring s\'tri matdia manuara pria wawus andé mana kung Inlut
quot; Yen ring Madiani kang pinandita mochap tetoah pa désa prien
quot; Yen ring matdia nikang mosa mochap-akan wakchura sing\'a k\'roti

A man who is moderate and cool in his desires will do good to a country.
A woman is like unto Déwi Manuhdra when her desires are moderate, and

men cannot look upon her without admiration.
A Pandita must at all times and on all occasions act up to his doctrines :
Whether it be in war or in difficulty, still he must act up to what he says.

Examples of several other measures of the seMr Mwi and of the metre
will be given hereafter in the analysis of the Brdta Yudha.

Of the sekdh sepoh there are great varieties, several of which are exhi- Sekdr Sepoh.
bited in the following examples.

{Consisting of jive unequal lines, terminating with the wzael sounds u, e, u,
Wong ahurïp | aywa ta | ang\'gung J katungkül n
Tng kawibawan j kamuktën Jj
\'Aywa ta I ang\'gung gumung\'güng !|
Manawa j dinadung eblïs ]]
Kajarah j temah wurung wöng [j

{Consisting of four unequal lines, terminating with tJiccomel sounds, u, a, ij and 2k.)
quot; Den prayitna { wong agung j aja pitamhuh ||
quot; Barang | rahing praja ||
quot; Kawruhana j den atiti ||
quot; Supayani } \'ing tindak aywalng\'alentar j|

Watch well, ye great, and be not unmindful
Of what takes place in the country ;
But observe it narrowly.
That the administration of it may
Not be neglected.

quot; Wong ahurip | aja anggung mang\'an minum J jarene ||
« Ananungkiil | ing dria kang tan sayogya | gawene 1|
quot; Lamun ora j ing nalika mangsa Kala | Kalane ||

eating and drinking j
For it is a passion of which the indulgence is vicious.
Except on grand and particular occasions.

When from the exposed calf of her leg
A flash like lightning darted,
Which illumined the Hall of Audience.

{Consisting of jive lines, ending in the vowel sounds i, a, a, i and e).
quot; Gugunung\'an | lor-wetan tuhu \'angrawTt
quot; Pinarigi ing sela kakarang\'an ||
quot; Pandan-janma } jinemb|ang\'an |j
quot; Sri jata winujil j wujil j|
quot; Pisang tatar j lir tunjung { Sikari j

(Consisting of eight lines, terminating with the vowel sounds a, u, o, u, o, a, u, and o).

Yen tan hana j adedangkan ||
quot; Punggawa satrya agung j
quot; Miang mantri | rempeg agolong
quot; Obah osik | ing prajeku
quot; Iku arja | praja katong \\\\
quot; Lawan pang\'wa|saning nata jj
quot; Tan hana { panasten kalbu j|
quot; Nora cheng\'Il | datan leniok ||

{Consisting of six lines^ terminating in the mwel sounds a, e, e, a, a, and i).
quot; Pada salamet sadaya |j
quot; Sapung gawa | mantri Ian satriyane |

quot; Yata Raja | adil mali
quot; Eh ajunan pirang prakara
quot; Kabechikan ] m\'ring kawula |1
quot; Pateh yunan j awöt-sarï [

The chiefs of provinces, the nobles, and the petty chiefs.
On which Raja Adil (the just king) thus spoke again :
quot; Oh Yitnan, how many rules are there
quot; For the prosperity of the subject ?quot;
To which Pdteh Yunan returned for answer.

{Consisting of seven lines, terminating in the vowel sounds u, a, u, a, i, a, anëey

The descendants of honourable famihes ;
To the descendants even of low families
Also shew kind treatment j

mahisa lang\'it (the buffalo of the sky),
(Consisting of Jive lines, terminating in the vowel sounds e, u, i, u, and o.)
quot; Yen sampun 1 wonten kagunane |j
quot; Miang kraprawiranipiin [
« Punjuling 1 sasami sami I!
«« Pantes jenunjung j kang lungguh II
quot; Nora hngsem j ing piyangkoh (I

(Consisting of nine lines, terminating in the mwel sonnds, u, i, u, u, u, a, e, u andi.)
quot; Inggih lamun | dereng wontan labetipun I!
quot; Guna KaprawiranekT i|
quot; Upama yen jinunjung\'a j lungguhipun j|
Sayektl j kochaping jagat [ datan arus 11
quot; Makan darah j yen dereng yog\'ya jinunjung II
quot; Lan sampun [ \'akarya j lurah ||
quot; quot;Wong dmjana | dursilekl H
quot; Lan sampun atantun 1!
quot; M\'ring pung\'gawa \\ mantri jahil H

j\'drudemung, luntang, gdmbuh, kuldnte, Idmhang, Msgt;wa rdga, rdngsang,
pamur\'dntang, ontang- anting, \'mas-kumdmhang, tdruh-aghig, pa-m^H
sHang\'it or kindnti, irun-irm lung-gadung, Idra-katrisna.

The sekdr gangsal, or five modern measures, are those in which the Sekdr gangsai.
ordinary compositions of the present day are written. Of these there are
again several varieties in difierent districts, as follow :—

which according to the manner in which it is chaunted is called salblog
jdkalola, sttrup-sasi-bawardga, sendon-praddpa, paldran,nbsp;\'

(Consisting of seven lines terminating in the vowel sounds i, a, o e, a, a, u and a.)
quot; Sun \'amurwa ( lang\'it inggll ||
quot; Dadalan iku f pan dawa 1|
« Chok jurang\'a | pasti ledok li
quot; Lumrahi g\'ni apanas\'li
quot; Sanady\'an lawe j petak ||
quot; Yen winedel j dadi wulung I!
Yen mahidu j ayonana |i

which according as it is chaunted, is called renchasih, majdsih, lindur
ddlang-harahinan, hdrang miring, gula kentar, or paldran.

{Consisting of ten unequal lines, terminating in the vowel sounds, i, a, e or o, u, i, a, u,

quot; Benjang ingsiin | mari brangta kingkin ||
Yen mamala | malaning kanang rat 1|

Durjana dusta linyoke ll
quot; Chela I cholong chalimud II
quot; Wong amblgal j ng\'etal katahil
« Kichu kampak kariimpak
« Babotoh I kabutuh II

Baba-ngsat ( puda malesat (
quot; Baya kono | mari analian | wiyadi ||
quot; Dadining susi | laija ||

When robbers and plunderers are all destroyed.
And cock-fighters are in despair;
When gamblers are cast out.

Then, perhaps, the sadness of my heart may cease ;
Then may I be restored to peace and happiness.

which according to the chaunt employed is called Ungak, garundel,
gadung-malati, jdyeng-asmdra, baharldyar, merdk nguwuh kagbk-surabdya
and paldran.

{Consisting of nine lines, terminating in the vowel sounds, a, i, a, i, i, u? a, iand^.)

quot; Wusnia ) ing\'amban saksana il
\'\' Layone | dewi angreni j|
quot; Binakta { minggah keng palwa [
quot; Indrajala | dan titihi |j
quot; Dening Rahaden Panji H

Having taken in his arms
The body of the departed
Princess Ang\'reni,
It was borne

The princess Oreng^an was not left behind,
But accompanied her elder brother.
With many companions and female attendants.
The whole treasures being carried along with them.

which, according as it may be chauuted, is termed paldran^n^kaddton.
{Consisting of seven tines, terminating in the vowel sounds, ^, i, u, a, u, a, andi.)

Nihan kramaning \\ tumitah |i
« Dan tatila j tumulad \'ing reh titi jj
« Wechana | den pinda | piinggiing II

quot; Dan amëm j nayéng gita
quot; Pagutëna | yen wus samekta eng wüwüs
quot; Den panggah | ay\'wa miyagah
« Pilih ta I kawadéng wadï 1!

which, according as it is chaunted, is called serdng, rdngsang, heddya,
madéra, and JPaldran.

{Consisting of sewn lines, terminating in the vowel sounds, a, i, a, a, i, ?Landi.)
quot; Masjidéka | kabatulahika prayöga
quot; Payü j tinirü sami j|
quot; Gawi kabatülah |j
quot; Sigra mantuk prasamia |1
quot; Wöng Abesah j sireng prapti [j
quot; Ing nagarania |
quot; Anulia j yasa sami

The temple of Kahatulah is most excellent.
Come, let us all imitate it.
And build another Kahatulah.
They then returned to their home,
And when the people of Ahesah arrived
At their country.

The seMrs hindnti and ?wy7/are sometimes classed under the common or
modern measures. The following are examples of those measures.

{Consisting of six lines, terminating in the vowel sound, u, i, a, i, dL ondi.)
quot; Ake wong | sanak saduliir |

« Tan kadia | Sugriwa bali
« Sapolah j tingkania pada
quot; Moang suara j rupa anung\'gil
« Kadia n\'gilu } lan wayang\'ga 1|
quot; Kewran sang | raiiia eng ati

Most people have brothers and relatives,
But not such as Sugriwa and Bdli.
Their actious and conduct were both alike.
And their voice and form was one and the same.
They were hke each other even as a substance and its shadow,
And the mind of Rdma himself was confused in distinguishing
between them.

{Consisting of six lines, terminating in the vowel sounds, i, o, e, i, i, andn.)

quot; Rima panjang | memak tur awllis 11
quot; Urab urab awor 1|
quot; Lir manj\'angan j katarwan solahe ||
« Brang\'os lemet | yayah lir minangsi ]|
quot; Dia wirun tinulis

The following are examples of some of the measures adopted by the
inhabitants of Bdli. The three first are in the language of the country
people; the others are extracted from one of their modern compositions.

quot; Kadi jaran
quot; Pang\'aruh duag mapola
« Pang\'ang\'gong niane lueh
« Mapelag-pelagan
quot; Mandadi

Like unto a horse
Graceful in action.
Richly caparisoned
With various ornaments
Becoming

quot; Bajang bajang gobah m\'lah
quot; Dapati raanu huking
quot; Deman hatini memadat
quot; Chahi
quot; Bajang taruna
quot; Nu liyu
quot; Demanin chahi
quot; Ing\'atan awah
quot; Bikase dali santri

Young man ! you are a santri,¹
Young and handsome:
Curb your inclinations
And don\'t smoke opium.
Young man!

chechang kriman.
(Sung hy a Mother to her Child on her Arm.)
«« Niahi ayu kapakan raaniankil wakul
« Kalang mabalanjar lakune manole-nole
« Sada gisu

My handsome girl! in bringing a purchase from the market,
When you have paid the price, cast not your eyes behind,
But move quickly,
Lest men may seize upon you.

The following are examples from the written compositions of Ball
quot; Sang\'nata ika wus mati
quot; Penadang deneng joarsa
quot; Yata nuha kesa rnangko
« Medal saking pupungkuran
quot; Prapta

* This and the following stanza are from the poem of Joarsa, being the history of two
brothers of the country of Sahalsa,

quot; Sumung kaking ukir halon
quot; Tumaruning lebah lebah
quot; Mantuk
quot; Maring Nagara
quot; Heng Sahalsa
quot; Sina dia

When he had passed the road
He ascended the mountains,
And moved on slowly.
Ascending and descending.
Proceeding

In order the better to illustrate the poetry and literature of Java, and to
exhibit the nature and spirit of the compositions in the Kdwi, I request to
present the reader with an analysis of the Brdta Yudha, the most popular and
celebrated poem in the language. Versions of this poem in the modern
Javan are common throughout the island, and the subject is the theme of
the most popular and interesting amusements of the country.

The Brdta Yudha Kdwi, of which the following is the anal/sis, and from
which the illustrations which are interspersed are taken, contains seven
hundred and nineteen pdda or metrical stanzas, of four long lines each, the
measures varying with the subject, so that most of the twelve Kdwi measures
are to be found in it. Considering how little was known on Java of the
Kdxvi language, and hovp likely that little was to be lost for ever, I felt a
strong interest in analysing and translating, as far as practicable, one of the
principal compositions in that language j and availing myself of the literary
acquirements of the PanamhaJian of Sumendp, to whom I have already
adverted, and of the assistance of a gentleman of my family, and Bdden
Saleh, the son of the regent of Semdrang, I have it now in ray power to lay
the. foliowij^g analyses of th^s ancient poem before the public. It is far from
being as complete, or correct, as I could have wished, yet imperfect as it is,

it may serve to convey some idea of the original. I have endeavoured to keep
as close to the original as possible, and have, in every instance, given the in-
terpretation of the Kdwi, as far as it was understood by the Panamhahan, The
Sanscrit scholar will probably find imperfections, and possibly might be able
to render a better translation j but it is the Xrf^xjnanguage, as it is understood
by the Javans of the present day, that I am anxious to illustrate. The ori-
ginal stanzas are given in the Kdwi, and I only regret that the limited know-
ledge of the language possessed by the Fanambahan himself, and my own
want of time to study and trace the grammatical construction of it, have not
admitted of my doing more justice to the original. T can safely affirm, that,
independent of the interest which the subject loses by translation into a
foreign language, the illustrations now given afford but a very imperfect
specimen of the beauty, sublimity, and real poetry of the original.

This celebrated work would appear from the Chandra Sangkdla included
in one of the verses, to have been composed by one Puséda, a learned.
Pandita, in the year 1079. Some copies, however, admit of a different inter-
pretation regarding the date, and the general opinion is, that it was composed
in 706 of the Javan era, during the reign of a prince on whom was con-
ferred the title of Jdya Bdya, Whether the poem was actually writ-
ten on Java, or brought by the early colonists, may be questionable j but
the Javans of the present day firmly believe, not only that the poem was
written on Java, but that the scene of the exploits which it records was also
laid on Java and Madûra. The annexed sketch, with the subjoined note,
will explain the situation of the different countries, according to this

* Under this impression, the city of Astina {Hastina pum) is believed to have been situated
near the modern Pakalongan -, Gendara Désa, the country of SangJeoni, near Wiradesa ;
Amerta, the country of Derma Wangsa and the Pandatna, near Japara ; TalJeanda, the
country oï Bisma, and Banjar jung ut, the country of Bursa Sdna, in Lurung Teng\'U s
Awangga, either near Kendal, or the modern Yugya-herta ; Pring\'gadani, the country of
Bima, near Pamâlang; Purabâyd, the country of Gatot Kacha, near Surabdya-, Mandura, the
country of Bâla de^a, or Kdkrà Sdnd, the western provinces of the island Madura, and
Mandarâka, the country of Salia, the eastern provinces of that island, towards Sumenap ;
mra Wati, or Indoro Wati, Krisna\'s country, the modern Paii. In the same spirit, the
modern capital of the sultan of Matarem, called by the Dutch Djocjo caHa, but more cor-
rectly Ayogya Kerta, was so named by its founder, about sixty years ago, after Jyudya
the celebrated capital of Rama.

Kla, the mountam on whxchnbsp;performed tapa, one on the mountain Arjuna, near W

At the foot ofnbsp;the name of one of the highest mountains on the eastern p.rt of

czty. lh. .s supposed to have been the burying-place of the ancestors of the Pandd^.a as
well as ofnbsp;The .te of the temples was formerly called .a.., the pT^e X\'nc

died, on which the Dêwa came and received the infant on its coming into the world

In the performance of the Jâyang, in which the heroes of these historical romances are
exhibited the common people ofnbsp;„ever exhibit that part of the history which relates to

the juvenile days ofnbsp;from a superstitious apprehension, that the alligators wouW n

such event, overrun the country, these animals being supposed to be the transW dquot;^

The country of Parahsrt, after the Brata Yudha, is supposed to have been near
and on that account the Bdlang will not perform that part of the history which relates r^f
reign, although it forms a very principal portion in the performances elsewhere.
To these superstitions maybe added, that although with these local exceptions the mV«..

may represent any portion of the Brâta Yudha, or of the preceding or subsequent historil of

was no sooner completed, than his country was laid waste and destroyed : and also tharpquot;

whole of the YUha to be performed at once ; the consequence of iich waîthel adful
war which ensued, and the dismemberment of the empire.

_ Thescene oftheiZakaj,«., on the contrary, is not believed to have been on .Java• butthere
IS an impression, that after the death ofnbsp;Hannmar. fled to .Tava, and took refuge ^Z

to distinguish this spotatthe summit of the hill ; and such is the superstition of the neTghTou\'r^
hood, that they never perform thenbsp;representing any part of the history of R,L lest

Nakula . ..
.Sedéwa . ..
Nardda...
Kdnwa.. ..
Jendka . ..
Pardsu . ..
Pancha Kumara

An incarnate deity, who is fa-
vourable to the Panddwa, the
particular friend and guardian
of Arjuna. His father was

The son of Abidsa, husband of i
Dévn Kunti and Déwi Madrim, ^
and father of the Pandawa.. J
Daughter of Basuketé, King of

Madura, and wife of Pandu.
Daughter of Chandra JVati,^
King of Mandarâka, and wife gt;
of Pandu...............)

King of Madura, and eldest bro-
ther of Krésna.
Sister of Krésna, wife of Arjüna,

and mother of Abimdnyu.
Son of Drupada.
Daughter of do. and wife of Dér-
ma- JVangsa.

Abimdnyu.\'
Do.. .. of Mdngsa Pdteh or Wi-
rata, and wife of Abimdnyu.
Son of.... do;

f Derma Kasuma.
J Chantdka für a.
\\ Gunan tali krdma.
\\ Yudistira.
( tFalkudara.

jJudipdti (death seeking).
\\Bayu-putra (son of strength).
l^Séna (chief in tvar).
•\'Palguna (of powerful thumb).
Jdya Ningrat (victor of the world).
Wintardja.

The regal titles of Aria, Nardria, Narandta, Narindra, amp;c. are occasionally applied to the different chiefs on both

Eldest brother of Pdndu and)
father of the Kurdwa, born gt;
blind...................)

Son of Batdra Suria (the Sun) \'
by Déwi Kûnti when a virgin.
King of Awdng^ga ........

King of Mandarâka, and uncle \'î
to the sons of the Fanddwa, gt;
Nakûla and Sedéwa......J

An aged Pandita, revered by alH
parties, son of a former king V
of Astina................\\

Dresterdta,

Suyudana,

Dususana .
Kérna ..,

Jâya-drdta
Sâlia......

Dang yang drünu

Asiuatâma.
Krépa .,,

Bisma

Sakùni ...
Begedénta.

Satia-wâti

Banuwdti

Dresteraja.
Dreteraja,
G ender ea.
Kurupati.
Kurunata.
Durya dana.
Kurawendra.
■ Korawe Swara,

The wife of Santdnu, king of Astina, dying on giving birth to Dem
Brdta (Btsma), Santdnu asked Puldsara, the Prdbu-Anom (or younger
prince), of Wirdta, and brother-in-law of Mdngsah Pdti, prince of that
country, to allow his wife Ambarsdri, who at that time had a child (Abidsa)
at the breast, to suckle and so save the hfe of his infant boy D^wa Brdta.

Pulasdra, offended at the proposal, went to war with Santdnu, but was
afterwards persuaded by the Ddwa Sang yang Nardda to comply, on condition
of Santanu resigning hm kingdom to him ; to wKi.h Santdnu agreed. Pula-
sdra, when his son Ahdsa was grown up, gave him the kingdom of Astina
and turning hermit went and passed the rest of his days on the mountains

By his wife Ambalika (the old maiden daughter of Balietma, a hermit\'of
Gunung Chdmaragdndi, whom he was forced to marry against his inclination)
had three sons, viz.nbsp;quot;f

Pdndu, the least exceptionable of the three sons, being raised to the
throne, Abidsa turned hermit, and went and passed the remainder of his
days among the mountains.

On the death of Pandu, Drestardta persuaded his father AUdsa to allow
him to rule the country during the xninority of the l^anddwa (or five chil-

dren of Pdndu). These were Dérma Wdngsa, Bima, and Arjma, born of
his wife Dém Kunti, and Nakula and Sedéwa, born of his wife Déwi
Madrim.

Drestardta however afterwards persuaded them to go to a wild uncultiva-
ted place called Amérta, and establish a kingdom there, furnishing them,
for that purpose, with the requisite implements, and a thousand men to ena-
ble them to clear away and cultivate the country.

Through the assistance of Mangsdh Pati, the king of Wirdta (uncle to
Abidsa], the country of Amérta was completed ; but not until the thousand
men had all been devoured by demons, of whom Pdrta was the chief.

Drestardta retained possession of Astina, and afterwards resigned it to his
sons, the Kurdwa, in number ninety-seven.

The hundred was completed by the addition of Kérna, the son of Déwï
Kûnti before marriage by Batdra Suria, and of Jaya-drdia and Aswatdma.

The incarnate Déwa, Krésna, having been deputed by the Panddwa,
whose part he takes, to propose to the king of Kurâ-wa an equal division
of the kingdom of Asfina between the Kurdwa and Panddwa, and his propo-
sal being rejected, the Pandawa go to war for the kingdom which was left them
by their father, and which in justice they ought to have had. The Kurdwa
are ultimately beaten, and the kingdom of Astina lecoYereà by the Panddwa.

The scene of the poem lies chiefly in the hostile plains of Kuruksétra,
close to Astina, whither it sometimes shifts. The time of it is about a,
month, the same being the fifth of the year,

(Measure Jagadita.)
In war \'tis the prayer of the brave to annihilate the foe.
To see the braids of fallen chiefs scattered like flowers before the wind.
To rend their garments, and burn alike their altars and their palaces»
Boldly to strike off their heads while seated in their chariots, and thus
to obtain renown.

1. Sang sürä m\'rî ayäiniä rïng sämärä mâlyoanï ilang\'ani käng | pärängmükäfj
Lilâ këmbang ng\'örä [ sckâr tajïnï kësâinïng\'âri pëjah hing | ränäng\'gänä||
Urnä ning rätu mälti wijä nirä künjdäni nägäräning | mösü gesäng|[
Sâbïtiâ üti tênidâsï rïpü käpäkjka nirätä süjrä säsrämeng lägä||

Such was the prayer (of Jaya Bâyd) offer\'d to the three worlds for
success in battle j

Such was the resolve of Batdra Ndta¹ against those whom he knew
to be his enemies.

famous throughout the world.
Confirmed and approved by all good men and by the four classes of

The lord of the mountains descended with all his Pandita,
And the prince approached him with respect and a pure heart.
The deity was pleased, and said, quot; Aji Jdya Bdya,quot; be not afraid :
I come to thee not in anger, but according to thy desire, to endow
thee with the power of conquest.
4. Receive from me a blessing, oh my son Jdya Bdya /—Hear me I
In thy country

war victorious over the enemy.
Be firm and fear not, for thou shalt become as a Batdra.
This declaration pronounced with solemnity, was treasured in the
memory of all the holy Pandita of heaven.

g Da samangkana kastawa nira tekeng tri Biiana winuwus jaying rana
Kapia sabda Batara Nata sa inosu nira tekapi huwusnia kagraha
Ng\'ka lumra ti tohor ta Paduka Batara Jaya Baya panangga hing sarat
Man-\'go sampun ninastoakan sujana len duijawara Resi Siwa Sugata
S Ng\'ka ragrian tumurun Batara Giri Nata lawana sira sang\'gia len resi
Yetna s\'rfparaasa raamursita mang\'argia ri sira sang\'a chintia nir mala
Yekan tusta mana Batara sa wuwus Aji Jaya Baya ayua sang saja
Ta tan kroda tekangku yen sira saka sung\'a wara karananan ka dik Jaya
4. Tang\'gap tosna nograha ku ri wukang ku Jaya Baya rang\'e nikang Praja
quot; Satiitu prabu chakra wartia kita ring sabuana Jaya satru ring raosu
Tekuan lang\'geng\'a satraaka na ku lawan kita tulusa Batara ring Jagat
Yekan sabda nira tro telasi nastoakan nira resi sang\'gia ring lang\'it

* One of the titles of Jaya Baya.
f Duijawara, Pandita of society or village priests.
Bed, Pandita who do penance in the woods,
Sewa, Pandita who fast and constantly watch,
Sugata, Pandita who communicate advice and give instruction,

Tranquil and happy was every country. The thief stood aloof during
the reign of this prince.

And the lover alone stole his pleasure,nbsp;seeking his object by the light
of the moon.

6.nbsp;It was at this time Pusédaquot;^ renderednbsp;memorable the date, risang\'a

the brightness of the sun at the third season.
And the mercy which was shewn to them was like the moon at the full.
For in war he looked upon the enemy, as the lord of the wild beasts
would eye his prey.

and the princes of Kór a,
A relation which is not intended for the regulation of the country or

the conduct of men, but is like siri with burnt lime.
Which affects not the teeth, but gives inward satisfaction and de-
light.

5.nbsp;Sampun mangkana suksma reh nira Batara telasi ratnawé ka nogralia
Tanduan nut samusu nareswara pada pranata teka rihing- mabupati
\'Enak tand\'li reng sarat maling awah layata wadi risakti sang Prabu
Hangheng tan udi sapsabé wang ng\'atajeng teka sumilip pipajang\'ing wulan

6.nbsp;Nowan don Puseda makirtia sasakala risang\'a kuda sud\'da Chandrama
Sang saksat ari morti yen Katiga nitia maka palaga saktining musu
Sang lir lek prati pada sukla pinalaku nahurip pawijil nireng ripu

7.nbsp;Biakta chamana pada Pangkaja Batara seiva mara ng\'omastawa sira
Yogya mang\'galaning mikat prangira Pandawa ma^a laga Korawé s\'wara
Dan Duran kawasa alip kadi s\'ru pama hugi mahapu susu gesang
Mang\'go tan sedap panya ring waja tuhon pamurna raang\'on resêpi ng\'ati

« Nothing less than a division of the country of the Kuru:
« If he accede, it is well; if not, a great war shall be raised.quot;

the air as if with wings.
And soon discerned the city of Gajahtiya,* breaking through the

Looked her waringen tree,f like unto a sorrowful wife separated from
her husband.

10.nbsp;The corners of the gateways seemed to bow as he advanced,
And their turrets to beckon to Janarddni to hasten on.

And all the beauty of the city of the Kurus appeared to enquire
whether he were followed by the Pandd\'wa.

8 Ng\'ani KalaNarario Krisna pinaka seraya nira Naranata pandawa
Sinoé Kara Kinon luniakqua dateng\'ing kurupati mang\'aran Suriodana
Tan lean don nanira malaku rika paliani pura Nararia Kurawa
Yakpuan pasra atut ta ratqtia yedi tan pasung\'a karana ning prang\'at Buta.

9.nbsp;Dan mangka sira sigra Sakari Wirata dinolur ri ng\'anama Satiaki
Heng\'gal prapta tekap nisacti ni turang\'ga Nirata nira pinda hanglayang
Kong\'ang desa nikang Gajahuya pura awu Kinemol laneng udan riwut
Uruk warnani wandirania kadi soka makemoli paning\'gal hng pria.

10.nbsp;Punchak punchaki gopuran\'ia aturang ng\'adang\'a ri sira mong\'gu ri ng\'nu
Kadio gir ri tekar Janardana panambahi pataka nekang nawe Katon
Warna nambahi pang nikang bujaga puspa magiu anu miraba kang\'-inau
Saksat laxmini kang pari kuru inatakoana ri milu Nararia Pandawa

the sound of the bird chuchur.
And the jring plant was drooping and fallen, bearing down with it

to the ground the pdndan flower j
Mournful was the moaning of the bird quot;walikitdddhasi crying on the
branch of a tree.

that the Fanddwa did not follow.
The champdka flower was full blown and ready to fall 5
The faded flowers of the tanjung were caught in the spider\'s web.
And the dark beetle,* almost lifeless, in sadness sought the flowers
of Angsdna, which floated on the waters.

And the dead shells were left on the banks by the retiring waters.
Unlike this was the appearance of the rdwas^X which resembled an

assemblage at the pasehan.%
On their banks grew the flower rajdsa,\\ entwined by the suwdrna,%
as a golden ornament worn by men.

Yéka soka lang\'an ikang awana kunda manang\'isa sekal chuchur neka
Mangka j\'ring malumi dawu pudaki Pandani ka makilusu aning Watu
Hing hing sabdani kang Waliktadahasi pada manang\'isi pang nikang talian

12.nbsp;Kapua sa leng\'ang\'ing Gajahuya ri tan padulur rira Nararia Pandavva
Hunia cbampaka malugas Kusunia paksa Malabua jurang nikang parung
Lampus tanjung ng\'ika ng\'anas lajati gantung\'i panawang ng\'aning jaring jaring\'
Tan patma ßramara kusa nang\'isi lajnani ng\'asana nianot jiriakingbanyu

13.nbsp;Mangkania sani pancbnrania pada soka ri taya nira sang danang jaya
Unia lek magegeng molat kapenatan rika patini lumot nikang watu
Sangsara Karachakechap mulati pandaga nika ri pipinya tan padon
Ka res res ni susunya inati manolat tiba tiwati inukar juning sela

14.nbsp;Tan mangka kalang\'ang nikang rawarawen Maseinu lumiating wang hing saba
Tirania nadar Rajasa kayu suwarna Mamolacti atur gelang kuning

$ Paseban, assemblage of chiefs in front of the palace,
i! The same with the tefl«^\'a.nbsp;«r THp sai

15.nbsp;And as he came close to the city, the approach was cleared ;
The wtmg\'or flowers hung in abundance like reclining pillows.
The tanjung flower was open, like an expanded paydng.

And the petung\\ was surpassed by the beauty of the gddingt
sprouts, which shewed like the gdding flower.

or bad in them, and the rocks were as if deaf and dumb.
The beetle buzzed at a distance from the flowers of the dddap and the

siri, for it knew not the taste of them ;
TThe bird chat-da^\\2i.yQdi like unto the bird kiong,% when in its glory in
the woods;

17.nbsp;Delightful and pleasant were the roads of Astina.nbsp;^
And soon on the plains || Ktcru did the good Kresna avriYe z

Mang\'ka tunjung\'i kang sekar wali ping\'ol ping\'olani ka pada payung ping\'ol
Sarwecha pachuring suhunbras ika yan pabanyubanyu mang\'anti ring renek

15.nbsp;Sing\'gi yan maparek puraraja mabalep alep anolulii ri nika ng\'enu
Banonia Suraga tulis makalasa bari tuwuni nika sinang rateng
Manquot;ka tinkahi patmaraga nika sayana sekara pajeng pajeng dadu
Tan pasri tekapi petung gading bung\'nia pada tumota pawahan gading

Monya Kumbang\'i kumbang\'i rang\'en ado weruha rechap\' ika puspa ning seda
Chang\'gang chang\'ga raanuknia chutda nachading kiong atuwa Kalang\'aning
wukir

17.nbsp;Leng\'êng gatine king ] awan sabasaba | niking astina |j
Samantara tekëng { tegal kuru narl^rya krasnSn laku ||

There was he joined by the heroes Karma, Janâka, and Nardda,
Who were found by him on the plain and who entered his service.

18.nbsp;Immediately the excellent Krésna took the charioteer\'s seat,
Giving up his own in the chariot to the three Pdndita, and making

obeisance to them.
They returning the salute.
Inwardly prayed for the welfare of Krésna.

King of Astina,
And also discussed many weighty matters.
While mildly flowed their words like a gentle stream.
When the worthy Krésna was yet on the plain of Kuru,
Drôtaràja soon heard of his coming.
And gave orders to clean and dust the palace -,

Directing, at the same time, the finest cloths to be spread on the
ground from the royal seat, outside, as far as the great square.
21. It was at the same time required of all to shew respect.
Such were the orders of Aria Bisma and Dratardstra.

SirSng para siira makäjno\'a janakä | dulür närada |j
Kapâng\'gë irikäng [ tegäl railu rikärlya säng büpati j|
Wawang sira nararya kresna numaring gwaning sarate
Sirang parama sapta pandita guraanti mung\'gweng rata
Turawin sira telas winorsita malas mawe nastute
Monagya keni ayu\'a sang prabu y an non nera ng\'astawa
Lengeng alapira daran pinaka sarati yang resi
Tohor muchapi doniran lari mareng narape Astina
Datan\'nia juga rakwa gostinéra sarwa tat\'wa dika
Lumot wijili sabda sang resi kabe mawerna merta
Sedeng anari kang tegal kuru nararya kresnan laku
ßika ta drotaraja sigra rumeng\'o dateng sang prabu
Niniitani lebu nekang pura kinon naken busanan
Pada natara wastra mnlia tekaring wang\'ontur batuk
Tuwen pada ginositan sira kabe kinon sambraraa
Tekap nira sangarya bisraa dratarasta motus tinut

and shewing their backs.
This they did, perceiving intuitively that the great among men was

acting in concert with the Pandd\'wa.
The various viands in the interior of the palace being prepared and
laid out,

When grateful sounds struck up from various musical instruments,
As slowly advanced his chariot to the hall of audience.

Hurried in crowds to where they might have a view of him.
Adjusting their dress and tying up their hair as they ran along j
And some, who had left the operation unfinished, came with their
teeth partly black and partly white.

As if they were going to present them to the exalted among men.-f-
Children, too, bore along in their arms their ivory dolls.
And caused them, when they came to the looking place, to acknow-
ledge and bow to him, whom they pointed out as their royal father.

Kunang sira vvi\'ang ming\'esakune karna duryodana
Apan warui niana janardana sapaksa ring; pandawa

22.nbsp;Sedeng masaji boga sadrasa samong\'gu ring jero puri
Samantara dateng ta kesawa anengarepning kuta
Lengeng tekapikang garangtung ngamapak umong gurnita
Tuwen rata nera rere lakunekan dateng ring saba

23.nbsp;Ikang wang aharap tumingala risang naréndran dateng
Pada garawalan raaring pangu\'ngangan wedi kantuna
Ana mahayu kesa ta pana gelang rusak ringenu
Dudu tanga sisik atur inaliwa katen tan tulus

Ya pwan sunga keneng janardana aturnya nang\'giwakna
Ana nakanakan gadeng makilayu mamhban leng\'en
Tekeng pangu ngangan kinon ika raangakua rama aji

There were also seen among the throng, those who, leaving off the
duties of the toilet, and taking with them their looking-glass and
paint-brusli,

Appeared as if they were hastening to officiate for the prince.
Others there were, whose hands contained unfinished garlands of

flowers, which they had been making, and
Which they seemed to be running to give to his highness.

26.nbsp;Others ran so fast, that they drop, and lost their garments by the way;
Such was their fear of being too late to see the prince go by.

And the extended mouths of those who fell prostrate, gave them the
appearance of persons under the influence of liquor.
(Measure Basdnta tildka\').

28.nbsp;There he found assembled Druna, Bisma, Krépa, and Sdlia ;
As also Aria Widura, Dratardja, and Kérna,

25.nbsp;Wane tanga payas wa\'u saha sipatnia mung\'geng sadak
Yaya ngotusa mahiasan ni patane naréndra dateng
Mewah tanga ngiket sekar ana ri asta tapwan tulus
Sawang kapalajeng makana kusurnan paninjo aji

26.nbsp;Nian tang hamregen umirakani kenya sak ringenu
Rires nika kasépa yan lumiyati \'ahntang aji
Kuneng pwari saraknya ninng\'ga hirikang
Saganya tikel

Datan dua kawedar nekang kadi tutuknya ngato\'a bo\'ajeng
{Tembang Basantatilatca).

28.nbsp;Ka drona bisma krepa salya kapanggi arpat
Lawan sang arya widura drata-i\'aj\'ya karna

Viands, served up in dishes of gold set with precious stones, befitting
the dignity of a prince.

Aria and by Bisma.
Then came the King of Astina to present him with dainties ;
But his coming was fruitless, for Krésna would have none of them,
spurning the offer.

men¹ in an angry tone, thus spoke :
quot; O ! thou pure among men, who lovest to overrate thyself^
« Disdaining to receive the profiered food which I prepared for thee,
quot; It is not fit that thou shouldst be numbered among the good and
quot; worthy of the earth.quot;

31.nbsp;Such were the words of the King of the Kurdwa addressed to Krésna.
To whom, in reply, the latter said : quot; Being deputed by others,

quot; if I were to take poison,
« Not having yet finished the work I am come about.\'\'

Sig\'ran sumung\'akni kang pasaji nararya
Bogo paboga saba mas mani raj\'ja yog\'ya
29. At\'yanta tustané raanah naranata Krésna
Yanton segeh nira pararya makadi bisma
Yekan dateng prabu ri astina sopa boga
Datan tinanggapira Kresna aturnia nir don
SO. Yekan panant\'wa kurunata risang narind\'ra
He sang janardana liadejuga denta mambik
Tan tangganaé pasaji nistura tan pananggap
Tan yukti totenira sang tubu sadu ring rat

31.nbsp;Nahng nirang kurupatin pang\'ucbap ring Kresna
Mojar janardana t\'ber puri ing kinongkon

Tan sambramé pang\'upakara ritap\'waning don
Apan marankti wisa rak\'wana sida karya

And on reaching his residence he immediately kissed the feet of the
wifet of Pdndu,

Her mind suddenly expanded, like an opening flower, but immediately
after became oppressed with grief.

Then addressing the royal youth, she said, his coming to her was as
welcome as that of the Panddwas.

3é. And immediately told him of all the sad grief and consequent shame
which filled her mind.

« O ! my friend and protector,quot; said she, « thou bringest consolation
quot; and comfort to my breaking heart,

quot; Making me feel as happy as if I were at this moment in the delight-
quot; ful company of all the sons of Pdnduquot;

Sang Kresna mantuki niring nira sang sumantri
Prapténg g\'reha ngusapi jeng nira pandu-patni
Somia b\'wata t\'wang\'i t\'las nira jan panembah

33.nbsp;Saliyati ra Batâjri Künti Krés[na wahu datëng [j
Kadi sinekari käng j t\'jäs mâhârjsa puwarä sekel |]
Atutu rl j n\'repa sünu IwTr sing | pandawa datêng\'a jj
Karana nirâ [ tekä n\'göl teng [ gêk säng teka rnarärem

34.nbsp;T\'hèr awarahi geng ning duka ngande hirisira
Saha wuwus ira mas\'ret déning luh lagi pinegeng i
Kita tiki bapa tambang kun niariyang regepa lara
Sawulata saguyu m\'wang sang pandut\'niaja saweka

To whom the latter, in reply, thus spake: quot; Grieve not, oh princess.
What is, has been ordained by the Almighty, whose humble in-
strument I am.quot;

36. Leaving Kresna to the hospitable entertainment of Widura, who
administered to all his wants.
Let us proceed to speak of the King of the Kurdwa,
Whose gifts had been disdainfully rejected.
And who thereby was sorely vexed.

He consulted with Dusasdna and Sahuni upon the subject.
But the first on the list of advisers were Krepa and Kerna. They

wishing to kindle the ire of the king of Kurdwa,
Asked, quot; Why should you be afraid to refuse giving up half of the
country,

quot; On account of Kresna*s being the friend and ally of the Panddwa ;
quot; Therefore it is that the offered food was so much slighted.
« If not accepted of (by Kresna^ care not, but give it away else-
where.

Sang inujaran irojar tan soba n\'repa mahisi
Sakarepa Batara raanggeh ng\'wang w\'kasanika
Ling\'ira t\'her umantuk ring g\'wan sang warawidura

36.nbsp;H\'neng\'akena kamant\'yan sang kresnan s\'deng\'iniweh
T\'kapira widura pan ramia tut samanahira

Da tuchapa kurunata karya sa sinala hasa
Sapasaji nira eman dé sang kresna tana arep

37.nbsp;Karana nira na hemhem m\'wang dusasana sakuni
Maka muka k\'repa karna t\'yan téng dusta mangapui
Ling\'ira mapa tahé t\'wan ta wéha pura sateng\'ah
Apan iki n\'repa k\'resna b\'yekta pandawa sasisih

38.nbsp;Niha niki teka panian sampa é-ke pasaji aji
Tarimanen niki ay \'wang kewéra métukaraken
Sapa karika musuh sang nata was gati rasika
Ling ira t\'her umantuk m\'wang dusasana sakuni

of heaven, and containing more sweetness than a sea of honey.
When he reached the place where his wife was, he spoke not, but

continued silent.
Oppress\'d with grief, and lost to every thing;
In this mood he remained, till the coolness of evening came, and
The sun shone bright in the west.

And cast a beautiful and pleasing appearance on the palace ;
But it assumed all at once a pale and sombre aspect,
While the women within were happy and joyful.
42—46. (^Description of the loves of both sexes, and the graces and

47—50. [Moonlight scene described, with the sports and blandish-
ments of the maids of the palace.3

51—53. [The maids of Astina continue to talk and amuse themselves
by the light of the moon.]

54. [Midnight follows, when all are at rest, and a solemn stillness pre-
vails, disturbed only by the Bramins proclaiming the midnight hour.]
55—63. [Description of morning. Sun rise, amp;c.]
64—66. \\_Suyuddna, King of Kurdwa, comes forth in state into the

39.nbsp;Da\'i moli ira kap\'wa ngungsir wesnaa nira uwus
Kurupati kari sokang kaneng gHvan warama \'isi
Tuchapan niki sawang sang déwi ngant\'jani ngabajeng
Ratihajapana wung\'wa m\'wang yang ningjeladi inadu

40.nbsp;Sadateng ira ri déwi tan warnan aneng\'akena
Lawani wing\'iti chita sri dur\'yudana na sumeng
Lain déwasa kalunglia tistis ng\'vvé kirana matis
Ririsa duliira ngen mar mam\'wat ganda ningasana

Dana s\'rao karna tresnan ton rumneng pura ridalcm
Karana nerana nolih moruk pinda kamadelen
\'Lala lumiating s\'tri ring jero mahawuhawii

iiallof audience to meet Krésna, who has been waiting for him there, along
with many princes and chiefs of the place.]

Qy—73. ^Krésna announces to Suyuddna the object of his mission, viz.
to ask for half the kingdom of Astina for the Panddwa, amp;c. The father
and mother of Suyuddna and all the old and grave Panditas recommend
compliance with the proposal of the Panddwa, in order that there may be
an amicable adjustment of affairs. Kérna, Dusasdna, Saküni, and Krépa,
shake their heads, in token of their disapprobation of the measure, and
evince their readiness to attack and kill Krésna on the spot.]

74.nbsp;Then the servant Satidki related to Krésna from his own knowledge.
That at that time the plan of Durioddna was to take away his life.
For he bad collected together and assembled his people in arms j
Whereupon Krésna issued orders for his forces to be in like manner

His speech no longer soft, was harsh and loud, and he represented
the all-powerful Wisnu,*
. His appearance uniting the force of the three powers and of the three
worlds.

From his shoulders were seen to extend four arms, and above them
were three heads and three eyes.t

74.nbsp;Samangka yoda sajtiaki majari sang [ Krësna saduga ||
Ri tingka sang Duriojdana arap panijatia nari sira ||
Tuwin sampün naidang [ yadü bala kabë | sastrani sita 1|
Umi ratnia s\'ri Krêsjna karana nikin | tan warang\'en H

75.nbsp;Angka kroda Kresna mang\'adak sakaring- pahman
Mong\'ging natar sira wibuli Kadi Kala merchu
Mintonakan krania niran tuhu Wisnu raurti

With the power of all the people and chiefs of the immaterial world,
and of all that possessed power.

The waves of the sea rising hke mountains, forming whirlpools and
casting the deep-sea fish on the adjacent shore.

Silent and speechless they stood, and with a pale and wan look, which
extended to the prince Kerna himself.

Offered prayers and praise, and sprinkling a shower of sweet-scented
flowers before him.

Thus entreated: quot; Are you not, in truth, the God of Day, why
quot; become greater ?nbsp;\'

Sakoé Batara pinaka wakira samoa
Brahma r\'si dewa gana rasaksa yaksa sura
Moang- detia denawa pisacha rnanusia sakti

77.nbsp;Yekan himangka asigap kraka singha nada
Lindu tikang siti pado lawa ng\'ambek Kambek
Yang parwoto gra gumiwaiig manawang ginanjuh
Korabak wayi tasi kanyakra panyunya kabeang

78.nbsp;Tanduan kawus gatini kang sata Kurawa ras
Diem tan pasahda mawenes Narepa Karna Nata
Mangkang Suryodana Yuyutsu Wikarna raorcha
Biak tan geseng tekap irang arepi ilangnia

79.nbsp;Ng\'ka Druna Bisma ng\'uniwé resi Narada di
Asrang mang\'astuti umong saha puspa warsa
Mojar Batara hari ayowa magung weyung ta
SVasta nikang Buana kasihi tulihenta

quot; But think once more of the agreement of NaJidria Bima,
quot; And of the pledge of Drupddi, who has vowed not to bind her hair
« Until she shall have bathed in the blood of the hundred Kurdwa,quot;

81.nbsp;At this the god relented, and his heart became softened
When he listened to the words of the holy Bisma ;
For the wisdom of Kresna was pleased with the praise.
And in an instant he resumed the form of Nahdria Kresna,

And Kresna proceeded to the dwelling of the widow of Pdndu.
No sooner was he arrived than he said: quot; I offered my advice to the

quot; Pdndu, of this :
quot; And since they must fight, let them select warriors who will cling

80.nbsp;Yedian kita raejahani kurunata nang\'ga
Bahna pratitnia gati sang Prawaria Bima
Moang Dropadi basa matan pagTung gatinia
Yen tan pakadiusa rirah sata kuraweng prang

81.nbsp;Da kantananya lesnnen poa geleng Batara
Ling sang vvatak resi lawan paramarsi Bisma
Karunya budi nira Kresna renan pinuja
Rap saksana noluya rupa Nararia Kresna

82.nbsp;\'Ngka tant tinut nira muli resi sangga suksma
Sang Kresna mantuk kumari sira Pandu Patni
Sigran teka jari wiang nira Kura wendra ]
Kewalia mayun nirikang rana matia ring prang

83.nbsp;Yekan pasabda Karuna Naranati dewi
Bota siasi wara-akan ta ripandu Putra
Heng sura derma ngosirangnia matohajiwa
SVarga ngola pej ahimatdia nikang ranang\'ga

Who closing his hands in respect,requested to withdraw.
Then quickly mounting his resplendent chariot.
He was followed by Widûra, Sanjdya, and Yuyutsu.

85.nbsp;Kérna alone was seated in the chariot by the side of Krésna,
And him he advised to follow the cause of Pdndu.

But the Prince of TVdng\'ga replied : quot; I hold to my resolve,
« And long to try my strength in battle against Kiriti:\'.

quot; To the battle will I go, for I pant for war, and instant war.
quot; In the fifth season, and on the first day of the moon, shall the

quot; war commence,
quot; And e\'er the tenth night of Krésna shall it be terminated.quot;

87.nbsp;Rawisuta having thus declared himself in speech bold and fierce.
Requested to depart in company with Widûra, Sanjdya, and Yuyutsu,
And said not a word until he reach\'d his home.

88.nbsp;Narapdti Krésna spoke not a word as he proceeded j
But Sri Kûnti, when she heard the intelhgence,
Became sad at heart that her children should go to war,

Yekan tinut nira napatgata semba amit
Sigran inijil sira tohor mahawan rata bra
Sering lawan Widura Sanjaya len Yuyutsu
Sang Karna rovvang nira Kresna aning rata krem
Sinoé kinoni tumota ri Pandu Putra
Dan sang- Nararia Riawang\'ga kedah sudira
Mayen makola guna sakti lawan kiriti
Nahan wuwus Narapati Karnu wiyang tanamoas
Metoeng ranang gana juga heng ujar neragia
Mamni taneng kaliraa tué sedang tumanggal
Rapuan Masampnna nipanclm dasinia Kresna
Nahan wuwus Rawisuta piakakas rasania
Maraoet lawan Widura Sanjoya len Yuyutsu
Tan warnanan Sira wuwus tekaring swa wisma
Lampa Janardana raakin kalepas kemantian.
Da titanen narapati Krésna sedang lumarapa
Sri Kunti boja tana yeki reng\'an kamantian
Sokan rasi wekan niran mijiling\' ranang\'ga

To them Krésna related, that the people of Astina rejected his advice.
And were resolved upon trying their prowess in war.
Transfix\'d with rage, the sons of the Pdndu,

Ngu\'nin datang nerepati Kresna matakon ningdé.
Na doniran parari Sang Naranata Karna
Motns kurnona Kurunata tanagrah heng prang
Kunti yaling nira mowa risang Arka putra
Biak tan nanak nira ri kalaniran sukanya.
Dan Kerna langana saha dara lot manamba
Mang yang ritan wurunga ning mijiHng ranang\'ga
Kak satrian juga palaiyuana ling ning raswi
Apan kafindi anisih nira kora wendra.
Na étu Pandu dayeta nurauii sasoka
Tan warnanan sira taking graha sang Sumantri
Lampa Jenardana mowa wuwusen Avisata
Siring lawan prawara Satiaki weresni wira
Heng\'gal wawang tanuchapan takap ping rata dras
Prapteng Wirata katamo nerepa Pandawa hém
Ng\'ka kesawa jri wihang nira Astinindra
Mayuan mang\'ongsira yasa takran prabawa
93. Yekan padang getam masabda sapandu putra

Bima, Arjuna, YenaTcula, spoke with fierceness and defiance,
When they heard the words of Fandu Fdtni
That they should try their power and skill in war.

94.nbsp;It was then that all the assembled princes
Consulted and declared for war.

And Drupdda said to his son, the prince of Wirdta,
quot; Give orders and make ready the warlike implements, collect the
quot; chiefs and warriors.quot;

capital of Wirdta,
Resplendent as the morning sun, when rising above the mountains, he
\' first sheds his rays over the earth ;
In numbers great, compact, and like an overwhelming sea. And a

sound, like distant thunder in the hills.
Was the sign, that the elephants, horses, and chariots, with the rich
and splendid trappings of gold, were in motion.

triumph to the sons of Pdndu.
And when the flowers ceased to fall, there arose a strong wind, as if
propitious to their march ;

Bimar, Jonar, Yenakula s\'ru lawau sang\'anten
Tekuwan deng\'ar ripa wakas naira Pandu patni
Motus mang\'on sira yasi teng\'a hing ranang\'ga

94.nbsp;Mangka watak ratu sapaksa risang narindra
Kapua sarak wuwusiran niijiling ranang\'ga
Ayuhe nuchap Drupada sunu Wirata putra
Sabda noraangkata ri kalanikang pranata

95.nbsp;Yiri ängkät säng Pandawengj\'jeng Sakari Kuta nikäng 1 Räjia däni Wirstall
Tän pendä Süria sängjke ngudaya giri niijil \\ mäyuwan näng dipa ningrat||
Lürara wuräsäkpenü ITr [ jalanidi mang\'alihjmuang \'ngukir güntür ägrah|l
Chinäniä n\'wch tekäp ning | gaja turängga rata j reng\'ga rata pradlptajl

96.nbsp;Ny\'kan lumrang puspa warseng gana Sina Wurakan Sang watak sit dia sing ga
Lawan ungkara mantri jaya jaya rijaya Sri Maha Pandu Putra

Wild with impatience for battle, and heedless of opposition.
He remained on foot, tossing his gdda into the air for amusement;
Tor he was accustomed to conquer, as well on the sea as on the

mountains, and elephants and lions became his spoil.
In his rage he was all-powerful as the elephant of the forest:
And now that he was in motion, he panted for the hostile chief, and

gave the challenge aloud :
His voice being like the roar of the lion was heard by all.
The sound thereof resounding throughout the three worlds.
Behind him followed Arjuna, seated in a splendid chariot of varie-
gated gold, and shaded by a golden pdyung,
Flaming like a burning mountain and threatening destruction on

Astma and its princes.
His banner, the monkey, floated high in the air, flapping the clouds
in its course}

thunder-clap in presage of victory.
Next to Palguna came Aria NaJMa, with Sedewa, mounted in a
chariot of green of exquisite workmanship.

97.nbsp;Pang\'anjur ning lu mampa sang ngino chapa ngaran Bima surang\'ga Kara
Wang niomoring Sarira wang\'i molimola mok tan idap sakti ning len
Takwan tan Sang\'grahing Wahana lumaku juga moang gada gang inunda
Apan derpa tawan sagara giri gehana pet gaja singha berwang

98.nbsp;Towen Kroda lawas mataka di gaja alas geng galatan panampar
Munin roahtwun luma kiwo prihawaka mapagiring ritang\'guh Narindra
Mangken totus lumumpat Kawigara Nang\'uhuh wi brama Singananda
Lunpat ring burbua s\'waranira ibkan sekanangka tri loka

99.nbsp;\'Ngka ni wuntat Nararia Rijuna Marata manik Sarwa warna pajeng mas
Montap lir parwata pui lari gumaseng \'ani Astina moang ratunia
Kumlap tung gulnira Wanara mang\'ada dulur sabdani megha makrak
Lumrah ring dikwidik mang kilata wetu gelap hiakta mang dé jayeng prang

attack on the youths of Asthia,
They shone resplendent. Their banner floating in the air hke a dark
cloud threatening rain, and scattering the petals of sweet-scented
flowers.

Ready for the combat, as thunder before the lightning flash ; and as
they moved, the sound resembled the humming of bees in search
of food.

And next Drdsta-driumna and Drupddi, with Silcdndi by her side ;
With countless chariots, elephants, and horses bringing up the caval-
cade and filling up all space :

with di.pdyung of peacocks\' plumes:
She was like a deity when represented by a golden image j her long

hair hanging loose and floating in the wind.
She had not bound it: but while it hung like a low\'ring cloud, she

awaited the coming of the rain of blood ;
For she held to her vow, that until she bathed in the blood of the
enemy, she would not collect her hair or tie the knot.

Endah lir Kamab Kambar lumaku ruraabasas^tri puri Astinendra
Leng-leng tung\'gul nira pinda jelada mawudan sarining kitaka mrik
Wagiut pata gelap tan prakata kadi ketar ning prang\'ing sat padawu

101.nbsp;Len Len sangke sirar Yotara masiring\'a ring Soita mong\'ging rata brah
Moang Drasta-driiimna lawan Drnpada pada tumot niwang Sikandi tanimba
Pasrang ning siandana moang gaja kuda maduluritig awan Siu penu sek
Ler mining lot manung sung Jawu ahulapula sang huwus drada ring prang

102.nbsp;Da ngka sang dropadi lampa ararasa awan dampa ima pajang merak
Lir dewi jang jang ing réka kanaka raang\'ori rima antan katampuan
Mawian kesa nawang-meg\'ha mang\'ajara keni landung \'ania n\'godan rah
Biaktan rah ning musu rakua karamasa niran mimponing kang glung sak

was not his equal in power or courage.
Next Krésna advanced, in his golden chariot and shaded by a white
pdyung ;

For it was his pleasure to bring up the rear, with the elder princes and
the royal host.

were borne on white elephants ;
The cry of the elephants rose loud and high, uniting with the
mingled sounds which issued from all quarters.

precious stones and playing with his chdkra.
With him was Satidki, seated on an elephant and accompanied by

numerous followers.
Richly adorned with golden vests, the surprize and admiration of all

Sarwecha jong kuning pustaka winawa nira nane ratna pradipta
Sing\'gi yan Barma Morlia arapi rapoaning Salia Duriodaning a prang
Yapoan tan pindovvang Gang galaki rika ikang pustakang dadia bajra.

104.nbsp;Sarapun raangka turaot krisna saha rata suwarna pajang- soweta warna
Lila ning kari lampa pararatu pinati sang watak partiva keh
Chakra moang sangka tan sa uiareki sira pada bra matangran kagendra
Yekang nerek gurniteng ngambara siniring\'a ning jera nmg unmg mer-

105.nbsp;Wuntat Sang Kresna partatraaja sira mang\'iring- sang raanama Bimanyu
Sangkap ring sanjata marga rata mani maya n\'gonda chakra pradipta
Lawan Sang Satiaki raoang yedu bala raahawan mata matang\'ga makeh
Sampurnang busana bra maka wacha kanakan de ulap ning tuming\'al.

Complete in their habiliments and mounted in a war chariot orna-
mented with gems and flowers of gold :
Their dress of linen and of sillf, A delightful fragrance surrounded
them.

Beautiful was their pdyung, for it was of the wings of the mardukdra,
and dazzled the eye like the glare of the sun.

warriors hastening to their work, were they all to be described.
Arrived at Kuruksétra, they soon raise a fort of very great strength j
And the palace built therein being finished, they invite the wife of
Pdndu,

to retreat to the hills j
The more she poured out her grief, the greater was the joy that
____ followed, even to shedding tears.

109.nbsp;Long would it take to relate all the pleasure felt by the wife oî Pdndu

while in the interior of the palace.
Then all the Pandàma, together with Krésna, the first and the might-
iest, with many other chiefs, debated

Kapoéka bro numung\'geng rata mapapati ang\'reng\'ga ratna rawis mas
Sangkap ring busana wastra chaweli linaka m\'lek penuh kasturi m\'rik
Sarvecha jong larneng madukara mahulap katrangan suria téja.

107.nbsp;Akoé ting\'ku watek wira janahchapakenang lampa agja tekéng don
Da ngka prapténg kuruksetra sira t\'lasi tingkah kuta tianténg durga
Sampurna m\'wang kadeto an rika ta sira maha pandu patni inundang
Sigra prapténg niring sang widura sira uwus raanjing ngingjero kadat\'o\'an.

108.nbsp;Sampun mangka. molih sang widura tanuchapen ramnya mong\'gwéng swawisma
Warnan Sang nata dewi pada saka mapupul mwang watek pandu putra
Kapwa hemhem sili pajari laranera tansa mangungsir wanadri

Mangken ramnya guwugja wetu suka dadi luh dunawas arsa étu
109. Tange yan warnanan tustane mana ira sang pandu patne aning jero

110.nbsp;Dermat-mdja, addressing Kresna and all the assembled chiefs, then said
« Seven only out of all the number appear to be fit to hold the

quot; chief command
lt;\' Of the army, which consists of seven hundred millions of fighting
quot; men.

quot; And first of these Soetan,^ skilled in the direction of soldiers.quot;
{Measure Suanddna).

111.nbsp;Whilst all the Pandd\'wa were appointing chiefs over the army,
Nardpati Kurd\'waX held a council of war.

For he had heard of the arrival of many enemies at Kuruk-setra,%
It was Aria Widura who gave him the intelligence.

All the Kurdwa, too, were in company, making a noise as they moved
along, like the roaring of the sea.

Rehning sena dipa ring samara ya gijionem sang \'wru\'ing byu\'a durga
Tan manman pandengen sakti nera saha bala yogja tangwana ring-prang
Ling sang dermat maja jar inagingan nera sang Krésna len partiwa koeh
Sapte ko\'e sang ginantang wunang\'a rika wawa sang watek wira wira ring prang
Rapwan mang\'gah subada bala gana pitungak so ini kwenya sakti
\'Ngka sang so\'etan pinuja wuruha ri gelara-ning sura joding ranang\'ga

(Tembang Suandana).
Sedeng mang\'abiseka | bratya pati sang | watak Pandawa 0
Ula nerepati kolraws swara na hëm | pirêng ng\'wa kena |j
T\'las wuruhe datengjne satru nera ring [ kuruk sctra sek li
Tekapni pawara | sang Aria widuran | dateng manglawat ||
Rika prabu gajahwayan laku lowan watek partiwa
Sakorawa marempaka tri gumuruh bangun sagara

j| Or Elephant Carcase, another name for Astina The Javan tradition is, that an elephant
made the country, in order to obtain Ratnddi, who, thinking it impracticable, had imposed
that task on him, as a condition of her favour. When it was effected, she got Gatdma to kill
him, and then married him. It was called Astina from Asti, which also signifies an
elephant.

Soon was the work completed, for the Narapdti\'s authority extended
over all the princes around.

113.nbsp;Then was Aria Bisma first made a leader in battle.
Raised above all others, he is seen crowned with tlowers.

From all quarters the crowded and restless multitude send forth shouts
While the sound of gongs and conchs rend the skies.

While the warriors, animated by the sound, testify by their actions
and gestures their impatience to engage in the fight.

Akarya kuta durga meh tegalika pradéseng kuru
Wawang \'uwusa pan sirang nerepati chakra warting sarat
Samang kana sang arya Bisma pinaka gra sénapati
Katone nabiséka sampuna sekar sira busana
Penuh pas\'hiring prawira raasurak raasang\'garuhan
Lawan Pada ibera sangka tinolup umong ring langit
Tn\'e pwa niniwe watek ratu kabé pinujakrama
Tekéng bala samoa yoda pada purna ring wahana
Pinanding ngatarung wilenya sawelas gananya yuta
Ya karanane kin penuh tekaring kawukir rawang wana
Samang kana pareng mijil sakari kang tegai paprangan
Mangula\'ana ngawuriakan kuta watek naropé Astina
Tekéng pag\'laran pada s\'ranga nulup sungo jerah pareng
Ya étuni girang nikang bala kabè pada ge\'a pranga
Tu\'en pada t\'las makarya bisnwéng tegal paprangan

That of king of the K\'dru was according to the wish of the Bramdna,
Who with all their relations swore they would conquer or die in the
battle.

They advance eastward, towards the formed bodies of the Kurdwa :
Both sides shout and brandish their weapons in front of each other.

118.nbsp;Loud and confused were the mingled sounds of the armies.
The stoutest and bravest seemed to have been placed in front:

and standard-bearers.
Those in front were seen prancing and nimbly moving about with their
brandished weapons.

drums, and the shouts of the troops,
Till the whole air and sky is filled with the jarring sounds.
And the earth is shaken with the tumultuous din of war.

Rawan ngarane kang tawur nereparti Pandawa morwane
Kunang tawuri sang nerepéng Kuru jakari lut Brahmana
Rikan sira sinapa sang du\'ija sagotra mati\'a laga

117.nbsp;Ri mangkana nikanda tochapa tasang watek Pandawa
T\'las metu sakeng dalam kuta samipaneng panchaka
Lumampa angawétan angarepaken g\'lar korawa

118.nbsp;Rikan pada garaosanane sawateknia sawang parang
Sinangwo\'a sinilan risan mokane sang prawireng rana
Ritan anane ngapranga raawa meredang\'ga tung\'gul kunang
Lawan gatine kang katon mawusana regep sanjata

119.nbsp;Risampunera mangkanan dana pareng mase sehasa
Umong swarane kang gaja kuda lawan gaber mwang surak
Samantara ngati gurniteng langita monto\'ane dikvidik
Guraetere lema nikang rana saba ketugnia selur

sea and mountains :
While the princes and chiefs of Astina seemed like towering and im-
moveable rocks J

121.nbsp;Prawdra,* Panddwa, formed the order of hajdra tiksna lungit.f
Danaiydya Î and Werkoddra § were there with Sikdndi II in front ;
Wirdta\'s ^ son, Satidki, and the son ** of Drupada, were in the rear,
Yudestira with all the princes being in the centre.

and elder brother of his father were also there ;
As also the Gurus,if Krepa, Sdlea, Bisma, and Duyéng\'ga.
Therefore quickly addressing Nardria Krésna,

He intreated that the battle might not take place, being afflicted at the
sight of the Kurdwa.

Watek ratu arieng gaja-svva karangenya durga ruhur
Pama gunong nganeng balarauka ngalun tuaimt musuh
Ya bano\'ani kagunturang gulunganeng sela marwata
Kuneng Prawara Pandawa g\'lari bajara tiksna lungit
Dananjaya lawan Werakodara tumot S\'ikandi arep
Wirata suta Satiaki Drupada sunu waktré wuri
Yudistira lawan watek ratu kabé manganténg tenga
Mulat mara sang Arjuna s\'mu kamanusan kas\'repan
Ri tingka\'i mosu neran pada kadang taya wang waneh
\'Ana wang anakeng yaja mwang ibu 1\'en uwa go paman
Makadi Krepa Salea Bisma sera sang Duijeng\'ga Guru
123. Ya karananeran pasahda ri nararya Kresna teher
Aminta wurunga laga pana welas tumon Kurawa

But Janardana compelled him to command that the fight should begin.
It being dishonourable for men to hold back at the hour of battle.

124.nbsp;Then was seen Dérma-pütra stealing away
Towards Aria, Bisma, Krépa, Sdka, and Düya.
With ardour he kissed and clung to their feet;

« deprived us of life.
quot; Child of ourselves, may you be successful in battle and soon obtain

quot; possession of the country.
quot; And may Narapdti Krésna witness the truth of our words.quot;

Quickly ascending his chariot and laying hold of his weapons.
While each sounded his conch

ther in long, obstinate, and close fight.
Ten elephants to a chariot, and ten horses to an elephant:

Kuaeng sira Janardana sekang\'a kon sarosa pranga
\'Apan ilailang kasinatria surutyaning paprangan
124;. Katon pwa sira Derma-putra mangenes rika tan tumut
Mare sira sang Arja Bisma Kropa Saléa len sang Duija
Masocha ri sukunera nenabiwada dé sang prabu
\'Apan purihi nganglawan Guru mapur\'wa pnjan arep
Kunang sa\'uri sang kinarya pinaka gra chudamane
Bapangku laki ayo\'a sang saya uripku ta lap huwus
Kita naku jayéngranang\'gana teller madre wi\'a pura
Sirang Nerepati Kresna saksi\'a yadi\'an merosa ringwuwus
Ri sampunera raangkana dan nomalia niaréng paprangan
Kasana krama numung\'ga ing rata pada regep sanjata
Sahasa manulup risangkanera so\'angan nya \'umung
Pareng mo\'ang ngonening gubar saragi koté kotia nguwnh
127. Wawang pamuki kang bala s\'ranga selur mawenta jemur
Ratéka sapulu gajanya gaja tung\'gul aswa dasa

These ten horses being mounted by such as fear not to die in battle,
And their duty being to watch when they can cut up and exterminate
the enemy.

The number of the chiefs who were mounted on elephants
Were a thousand millions: those that accompanied them were ten and
one thousand billions.

Those on horseback amounted to one billion, while they that followed
were ten bilhons.

carried death to many of the brave j
Sdlea himself and his charioteer narrowly escaping with their lives.
The whole army of the Kordwa hastened to his support.
Amongst them were seen Bima, Drma, Wérahat-bdla, and Jdya Séna,
armed with their clubs ;

Kudéka sapulu pada tinika sura raanténg laga
Kenohnya \'ana pada raksaka yadin wisirnan winuk
Aneka tekaping wibaga yan sangséna dulur
\'Anun saka sapanti len sapretana sagulmé naseh
Dudung merang ngaturang\'ga ara sachamo rawang ngakso-eni
Ya karanane kang prangat buta niagenturan sek pejah
Pirang dina knneng lawas kurukula lawan pandawa
Datando\'a ana sura mati uka sang wirates swara
Prakasa wara sangka namanera mati de sang Duija
Dea utara paraptra de nerepati salea sureng rana
\'Ngka sweta nuinasa masungeti pejaneng sura kali pisan
Sigran tandang \'amagunung saha bala \'ngamba teka eksoeni
Yekan s\'yu rata nata salea pinana rawang wira yodan pejah
Tambis méh sira raatia karwa kerta warma pan makarwan rata
\'Ngkan pinrih tinnlung tekap nera watek yoda aning korawa
Bisma drona lawan werahat bala jïiyat sena dulur ma gada

Rukmardta, too, the son of Narapdti-Sdka, supporting his father.
Soon did Ari SoSta, powerful as a lion, make them feel his superiority.

132.nbsp;Dimng Rukmardta fell and lay prostrate on the seat of his carriage.
Soeta fought furiously and killed many of the Kurdwa :

Aiming at Soeta he unceasingly shot the best of his sharp arrows ;
But Soeta, the commander in battle, unhurt, grew more and more cou-
rageous, and shot his arrows in turn.
Bima and Dananjdya came to his aid: their arrows poured Hke a
shower of rain from the heavens.

in the middle of the field of battle.
Than he suddenly stopped and started backwards, making a precipi-
tate retreat, running and falling, and stopping not till he had got to
a great distance.

which Bisma, standing up in his carriage, watched and repelled.
While Bisma was greatly exasperated against Wirdta-tindya, for his
attempt to exterminate the Kurdwa.

Mwang sang rukniaratat maja nerepati salea nirabangi sang yaya
Datando\'an kawenang tekap nera sang arya so\'éta singot \'tama

132.nbsp;Dinangrukmaratan peja magulingan \'ngkane salening rata
Sang so\'étan lurugen paraok nira mating yoda aneng korawa
Mangkin sirna luyuk datan ana mulat kapwa kukud ataknt
Tekwan wira gatot kacha drupada putra mwang kiriteat-maja

133.nbsp;Yekang so resi bisma sigra mapuhh rack-wok watik pandawa
Sang so\'étan dinunong neran pamana\'in diwi\'estra teksna susun
Datan pami\'ati mangki nujuala pana sang so\'éta sénapati

Lut sang bima dananjaja nolunge ringh\'ru lir udan ring langit
13i. \'Ngkan mangsa kurunata sigra pinapag dé bima ring Sayaka

Kang\'gek mundura ngong\'gutung\'guta layu mung\'gwéng kado\'an kawes
Ang\'ing bisma lineksa pinri inerup stira ngadeg ring rata
Déra kroda risang wirata tanaya ndé sirnaning korawa

135.nbsp;Then, alarmed, Wirdta-sdia, the leader of the Pandawa,
Shot one of his best arrows at him, the tiger of the Kurdwa,
The flight of the arrow resembled that of the hird garuda ; quot;
And striking the shoulder of Dewa-hrdta broke it into seven pieces.

but he leaping from his chariot avoided the blow.
Destroyed, however, was his carriage, and slain were the horses and
charioteer j

Grieved and distressed were the Panddwa thus to see Soeta killed on
the field of battle.

135.nbsp;Mangkén garjita sang wirata suta sena nata ring pandawa
Mandug ring wara tomaré sanga ngaran santana wagréng kuru
\'Ngkan pinri pinana sedeng niki numur hr naja rotang layang
Datandua papitu danéka tumiba njiuh haw dewa-brata

136.nbsp;Da yekaii tumedun wirata tanaya nambut gada bisana
Paksa raalo\'a wahang sura brata rikan lumpat maharsi leinali
S\'ya tékang rata kélu sarati nika lawan kudanya repa

137.nbsp;Képwan sang warabisma paksa muruda res ton wiratatmaja
Ngka sabdenglangita jare tekane patya so\'eta de sang resi
Nahan étunira ebang-ebang nambut sing rata mwang panah
Prana so\'eta tikang rainusti nera ring b\'hramastra tiksna lungit

While Sang Dusdsdna danced fantastically, delighted with the sight
of the fallen Wirdtamdja.

Béda mwang- sata kurawa surakawur arse peja ning mosii
Sang dusasana tusta mata mangegel yan ton wiratat maja

139. [Vexed and enraged at the death of his son, Mdngsah Pdti makes
a furious and desperate attack upon the enemy. The Panddwa, too, heed-
less of their lives join and support him.]

140—144. [The followers of Bisma are routed and pursued with great
slaughter. Night comes on, hostilities cease, and the contending armies
respectively withdraw. Mangsdh Pdti and his wife weep over the dead
bodies of their three sons slain in battle, and lament their misfortune in
losing them :—they shake them and endeavour to call them to life.quot;

take the lead in battle. Drestadriümna is appointed. Morning arrived,
the army of the Panddwa is formed into the terror-inspiring order of
Mgeng\'pdteh, or that of the royal vulture. Situations of the different
princes and chiefs detailed.]

a similar order. The battle rages. The different chiefs, on either side,
who engage each other.]

clearing away, the field of battle appears like a sea of blood, in which the
carcases of elephants, horses, and men, with the fragments of chariots,
weapons, amp;c. resemble so many rocks and stones.]

154_156. ]^Bisma beheld with delight and admiration by all the chiefs
and people of Kurdwa, distinguishes himself by his prowess. He engages
Arjuna, and shoots ten arrows for every one discharged by him.

157. {Rdwan, the son oi Arjuna, is killed by the Rasdksa Séreng\'gi.^
158—159. [Krésna, enraged at Bisma, descends from his chariot and is
going to shoot at him, when Bisma evinces his ready willingness to be killed
by Krésna\'s chdkra, and so gain admittance to his heaven.]

160.nbsp;{Aijûm then descends from the chariot, and dissuades Krésna from
kiUing Bisma:

161.nbsp;{Krésna and Arjuna both reascend the chariot, while Bisma re-
mains deprived of all his strength, in consequence of the fright he had
undergone.]

1-62—164. {Bisma makes a sign to Dérma-Wângsa, who recollecting
that the former had made a surrender of his life to Arjûna and S\'ri-Mndi,
goes to them and tells them not to be afraid, but to shoot at Bisma ; where-
upon Sri-Mndi discharging an arrow, hits him in the breast. The arrow
not having penetrated far, Arjûna shoots, and drives it home with another
arrow. Bisma falls down in the chariot but is not killed. His blood ascend-
ing to the regions above, is converted into flowers, and in that form returns
to the earth.quot;

[The Kurdwa fly and are pursued by the Fanddwa.\']
•167. [nérma-Wdngsa, Arjûna, Nakûla, and Sedéwa, all go and
kiss the feet of the respected Bisma 5 but the haughty and unbending Bima

remaining in an angry posture, makes no obeisance to the wounded Guru.
The Kurdwa chiefs, with Suyuddna at their head, wish to come up and bow
respectfully before Bisma ; but seeing the stern Bima they are afraid to
approach.]

168.nbsp;[A truce takes place between the hostile chiefs, when all shew their
respect for Bisma. The Kurdwa wish to place him upon a mat, but the
Fanddwa insist upon his litter consisting of arrows joined together.]

169.nbsp;[Thenbsp;withdraw, and the iTwra\'wöf alone are left in charge
of Bisma. Bisma refuses to take the water offered him in a vessel by Suyu\'
ddna, and calls to Arjuna, who presents him with some in a quiver.]

170—171. \\_Bisma defers dying till the period of the sun\'s greatest decli-
nation, which he reckons to be about seven months offlquot;

172.nbsp;[Suyuddna appoints Dangyang Drûna commander-in-chief, where-
upon it rains blood.]

formed into the order of battle called gdja, or the elephant. A furious
engagement ensues, in which many are slain on either side. Arjûna destroys
the order of the Kurdwa army, is shot by Bagadéta, and afterwards brought
to life again by medicines administered by Krésna, when he returns to the

attack, and kills Bdgadéta and the elephant he is on. Many of the Kurdwa
are killed by Bima and Arjuna^

178. [Night coining on the battle ceases. It was at the eighth pdnglon^
(or about the twenty-fourth) of the moon. The Fanddwa regale themselves
while the Kurdwa lament the death of Bdgadéta.\']nbsp;\'

179_181. [Bangyang Druna undertakes to kill Dérma Wdngsa, pro.
vided Arjüna and Bima are out of the way. Ten Kurdwa chiefs, with
Trigérta at their head, draw away Arjuna to fight against them to the south
of the hills: ten more, under Drdta Püra, draw off Bima, in a similar
manner, to the north of the hills. Krésna, as usual, accompanies and
watches over the safety of Aijuna.\']

182—185. [Dangyang Drüna forms hij men into the order chdhra-huhia
(or that of the circle with a well-defended entrance). Dérma Wdngsa, in
his perplexity what to do, calls upon Bimdnyu, the son oï Arjuna, to attack
and break the order of the enemy. Bimdnyu, decoyed by Suyuddna,
pursues him into the ring purposely formed by the enemy, when it closes,
and he is cut off from all assistance and support from the Panddwa.\']

186—194. {^Bimdnyu kills Leksdna-lmmdra, the son of Suyuddna, but is
overpowered by the number of the enemy. His situation is described by
many similes. He is slain.]

197—199- [The effect which the death of Abimdnyu produces on his
wife Déwi Sunddri. She adorns and prepares to burn herself with the
corpse of her husband.]

200. [His other wife, Utdri, being eight months gone with child, is
deprived of this honour.]

201—205. [_Bima and Arjuna return victorious from their respective
engagements. The latter is angry with Dérma Wdngsa, for having caused
the death of his son, but is appeased by Krésna, and induced to treat
the old man with quot;respect. Dérma Wdngsa explains how Abimdnyu^s
death was occasioned by Jdya Drdta\'s preventing the Panddwa from
entering the ring of the enemy, and from his defending it so well. Arjuna
vows vengeance against Jdya Drdta, and hopes that he himself may be
killed and burned, if he does not on the following day send him to the
other world.]

206 and 207. \\Jdya Drdta advised of Arjuna\'s intentions, begs of
Suyuddna to be allowed to withdraw from the field of battle. Dam^yang

Drûna, upon this, upbraids him, and persuades him to remain and try hia
hand against Arjuna, promising to support him.]

SOS—^ 11. [^Arjuna and Krésna consult together how Jay a Brdta may be
killed and Krésna himself escape.]

212—213. [For this purpose, Krésna makes Arjuna purify himself and
offer up prayers to the Batdra. Batdra Sdkra descends, and informs
Arjuna that he will succeed in killing Jdya Brdta, if he only makes use of
the arrow called pasopdii, and then vanishes.]

214—228. [The two wives of Ahimdnyu talk much together of the
death of their husband. Their different situations and feelings. Their
separation and meeting again under various forms, See. ; after which Sunddri
burns herself with the body of Abimdnyu.\']

229—231. [With the rising sun, the Panddwa chiefs, amp;c. repair to the
field of battle, where they find the Kurdwa forces drawn up in the order
chdkra hâhui, with Jdya Brata, for safety\'s sake, in the centre.]

232. [The diameter of the circle formed hy the enemy round Jdya
Brdta is ten times the distance at which men can be distinguished by the
eye.quot;

233—235. [The PanddWa observe the same order of battle and attack
the Kurdwa. Both armies mingle in close and obstinate fight.]

236 and IS7. [The Panddwa being oppressed with thirst, Avjuna strikes
an arrow into the earth ; whereupon water springing forth, men and beasts
drink and are refreshed.quot;

238—240. iKrésna makes Arjûna shoot at Suyuddna, whose chariot is
thereby broken to pieces, and his charioteer and horses killed, himself
narrowly escaping with his hfe. Arjuna and his men fight furiously, and kill
many of the enemy.]

241—244. [Satiaki kills Tuyasdda, Kambujdna, and Sang AmUsdki.\'] gt;
245—252. iBima kills Chitra Yuda, Jdya Suséna, ChdrucMtra, Burjdya,
Jdya Chitra Séna, Chitraka, Sangupu Chitra Berma, and nine more chiefs.]
253—257. [Burisrdwa opposes Satidki. They fight, and after their
weapons are broken they close and wrestle. Satidki is on the point of being
killed, when Arjuna, at the urgent request of Krésna, discharges an arrow
at Burisrdwa, which breaking his arm causes him to drop the weapon with
which he was going to kill Satidka. While Burisrdwa and Arjûna are
expostulating with each other on their respective conduct, Satidki seizes the
opportunity to dispatch the former. Bima and Arjuna slay thousands of

the enemy, and endeavour to get at Jdj/a Drdta, but are prevètfted by the
numbers of the Kurdwa who rush in between and try to save him.]

258—259. [Seeing Bima and Arjuna tired and neaily exhausted,
without the latter\'s being likely to effect the death of Jdya Brdta within
the promised time, Krésna has recourse to an artifice. He discharges his
chdkra at the declining sun, whereupon the clouds following the course of
the weapon, collect round and obscure the luminary, making it appear like
night. ThQ Kurdwa thinking the fatal day past on which ^si^™ was to
kill Jdya Jgt;rdta, triumphantly and insultingly call out to Arjhm to fulfil
his promise of meeting death and being burned.]

260—262. [Taking advantage of the darkness and of the Kurdwa being
off their guard, Krésna, accompanied by Arjéna, wheels his chariot past the
Kurdwa, till he reaches the spot where Jdya Brdta is. Arjuna then shoots
at Jdya Drdta and kills him. Jdya Drdta\'s head being struck off by the
arrow, Krésna causes a wind to rise and carry it to Jdya Drdta\'s father,\' who
was doing penance in the mountains, in order to obtain of the gods, that
if his son was killed in the battle, he might live again. In his surprise at
beholding the head, he inadvertently exclaimed that his son was dead, which
sealed his doom. Krésna then recalled his chdkra, whereupon the sun again
shone forth before it went down. Thus the vow at Arjuna was fulfilled.]

263—^64. \\Suyuddna accuses Dangyang Dréna of being the cause of
Jdya Drdta\'s death, in not suffering him to retire from the field of battle
when he wished to do so. Dangyang Druna defends his conduct and uses
high.^oxAamp;toSuyuddm.\']

265—266. [Suyuddna invites Kérna to go and attack Arjum, Kêrna
goes, and Suyuddna with his men follow.]

267—271. [The sun sets and the battle continues. Enemies and friends
are with difficulty distinguished in the dark, and many of the latter are
killed by mistake.]

gyg—275. \\Sang Dwajdya-rdta, the adopted brother of Kérna, is
killed by Bima. Pratipéya is on the point of killing Sangd sdng\'a, the son
of Satidki, but is prevented from doing so by Btma, by whom he himself is
slain, after having wounded Bimar^

276.nbsp;[The sons of the Kurdwa chiefs, exasperated at the death of
Fratipéya, all fall xx^on Bima, but are every one of them killed by that
potent hero.]

281—284. {Kérna attacks the Pandawa army and causes great havoc.
A consultation is held among the Panddwa respecting the fittest person to
oppose Kérna. Kréma objects to Arjuna\'s doing so, as being unskilled in
fighting by night. Gatot Kdcha, the son of Bima, is then selected to fight
!nbsp;against Kérna.\']

285.nbsp;Wherefore Sang Gatot kdcha was directed to seek the child of the
i: sun

And said, « Happy am I and fortunate, thus to be distinguished by
his highness.

286.nbsp;« And so that I continue to serve the king according to my duty,
« Let my body be severed to pieces, and death itself ensue.
« However arduous the service required, I will nevertheless perform

287.nbsp;Thus spake Sang Gatot Kdcha. The heart of Kesdwa failed.
So well did he know how to awaken tender feelings :

{Temhang Basanta lila.)
S|nbsp;285. Irika ta sang f gatot kacha kinon f niapag arka suta jj

Teka pira kresna parta maneher j rauji sakti nera [J
Sang ngenojaran | wawang masemo garjita arsa niarek jj
Mawachana bege\'a yan ana pakon repatik nerepati j|
286. Pakena neki lana inarki jeng aji yugya neka
Dadaha rikalaning baya aturnya matoa pati
Kunenga paniwoa rahatane gate karya temea
Sitntua tan paneng\'ha mené sigegen sakarang
S87. Na wuwusi sang gatot Kacha lumad ati Kesawa mar
Tckapira yan weruh ujara ngalap nmniking redaya

in terror.
Then all his potent arrows
Issuing from his hands and from his mouth.

With celerity flew to the child of the sun, who overpowered in battle.
Gave way to the left, while the numerous torches of the Panddwa
army shed their glare around.

Nguni-nguni nalaning to\'a sira sang paraan arda tenyu
Molati rare neran lumawane sang awang\'ga pati

288.nbsp;Ya Karana Kresna parta mamuwus damené sakareng\'
Asemo Kamanosan Kaluputan tekaping raangutus
Kuneng- iki sang gatot Kacha wawang sira sigra mase
Mapagi paraok sang arka suta lando\'a noraandek ares

Mijili tangan dudung mijili chang Kema nuta ngohuh
Yata rumujak sang Arka suta Kévverana pinda jemor
Muruda kiu mowa metu su!u bala pandawa bap

Giz/of XifcAa, by whom he is slain; whereupon his band of blind Rasdksas
take to flight. Three other bhnd Rasdksa chiefs, with separate bodies of
blind Rasdksas, successively oppose Gatot Kacha, and share the same fate as
the first.]

300—308. [Gatot-Kacha fights with Kérna, flies, and is ultimately killed
by him.]

. 309—314. IThe Penddwa, enraged af the death of Gdtot-Kdcha, all
fight with desperate fury. Arjuna alone is restrained and withheld by
Krésna.]

315—321. [Dowi Arimbi, the mother of Gdtot-Kdcha, burns herself on
the funeral pile of her son.]

333—334. [The following morning Dangyang Dréna, a Pandita on the
side of the Kurdwa, causes great havoc among the Panddwa ; to save whom
from the destruction which threatened them, Krésna spreads a false report
of Aswatdma\'s death, and makes all the Panddwa proclaim it. Dangyang
Drûna hears and believes the rumour of his son\'s death, and faint sa way j
upon which Drestadriumna approaches him and cuts his throat.1

335—343. [Aswatdma hearing that his father is killed, makes a furious
attack upon the enemy, but perceiving Bima is afraid and retires.]
344. [The sun is about to set and hostilities cease.]
345—349. [Description of the field of battle after the fight.
350—351. [The King of the Kurdwa asks Kérna to engage Arjuna.
Kéma agrees, but requests to have some one to attend and support him in
battle. Sdlia is selected and appointed for the purpose.]

352—356. [Kérna and Sdlia, before they go to fight, go home to take
leave of the families, amp;c. What passes on the occasion.]

357—365. [Kérna\'s wife relates to her husband a dream she had. The
particulars of the conversation which takes place between them.]

366—393. [Dérma Wdngsa, Krésna, and Arjûna, set out in the night,
for the purpose of finding and putting together the head and body of their
respected Guru, Dangyang Druna, and in order to pay due respect and
homage to his remains, and to entreat forgiveness on account of what had
I happened to him. Description of all they see and meet by the way.]
394—407. [Morning. The Panddwa prepare for battle.]
408—413. [The Kurdwa army is formed into the position hdhui-mahdra,^
or that of the prawn. Kérna in the mouth, Drumuka in the right fore claw,
Sakuni in the left, Suyudana in the head, all the princes and chiefs in the body.]
414—415. [The Panddwa army is put into the order called wûlan-tumdng-
gal, or that of the new moon. Ayj^na forms the right horn of the crescent,
Bima the Mt, Dérma-Wdngsa and all the princes and chiefs compose the
centre.]

416—426. [^Kérna and Sdlia, mounted in one carriage, proceed to the
field of battle. The two contending armies engage. Their various success
described.]

427—440. [Bima attacks, upbraids, and pursues Suyuddna, To save
the latter, Dusasdna fires an arrow at Bima and hits him. Bima turns about,

and finding it was Dusasdna that shot him, he seizes him by the hair, and
having called out to all the princes and chiefs to bear witness to the fulfil-
ment of his promise, he tears him in pieces and drinks his blood.]

4,41_4,49, [The battle continues to be fought with various success, some-
times one army giving way and sometimes the other.]

450—467. \\_Arjuna and Kérna fight against each other. The arrows
shot by each at the other are immediately converted into various elements
or destructive animals. Kérna shoots rain; Arjiina shoots and dispels
it. Kérna shoots fire j Arjuna shoots rain and quenches it. Kérna shoots
dragons; Arjéna shoots griffins which destroy them.]

468—469. \\Kérna aims an arrow at the throat of Arjuna, whom Sdlia
beckons to incline his head. Ardamlika, a Rasdksa, in the form of a
dragon, is killed by Arjuna, while in the act of shooting at him.]

470—476. {Kérna twice shoots at Arjuna, but his arrow only strikes
and loosens his top-knot of hair.]

477—479. {^Arjiina, invited and challenged by Kérna to shoot at him,
in his turn tells him, if he wishes to save his life to surrender and pay
obeisance. Kérna refusing to do this is shot in the throat by Arjuna : his
head falls back into the chariot. On the death of Kérna, the child of the
sun, that bright luminary grows dim with grief, and expresses his deep
sorrow by groans of thunder and showers of tears, while his twinkling eyes
emit incessant flashes of lightning.]

from the clouds, washes the blood-stained corpse.
The evil-portending cloud is seen, and the grumbling noise of thunder
is heard.

Tinut ginreg mukséng wana Kateduning lo\'ah juranga res
Pareng mwang lindu mega sumara riris rah sumarasah
Kawanda Hrning téja patra keter wana tangisa
4S0. Nian lir sang mating rana pada elang mwang manesira

Shining were his poHshed teeth, and uphfted and still the black of
his fixed eye !

becoming was his severe wound.
Such is thé appearance of the brave who die in battle.

Waja nerang seidenta sepi irengi Kang nitra lumayep
Alandung sang sri tang muka lalu Kuchein syn brana luwes
Datanlen sang waneng baya mapalupu\'i ring rana saba

481—483. [The Kurdwa having taken to flight are pursued by the
Panddwa into Astina.]

485—489. {Suyuddna comments on the misfortune of the Kurdwa in
losing Kérna, and consults about the fittest person to succeed that hero.]

490 497. [Advised by SaJc^ni, Sz^^ytiddna asks Sdlia to aSSUme the
chief command.]

498—500. {Sdlia endeavours to excuse himself j whereupon Aswatdma
comes forward, and accuses him of being friendly to the Panddwa, and on
that account unwilhng to become the leader of the Kurdwa.\'

501—50%. {Aswatdma and Sdlia quarrel and are going to fight, when
Suyuddna interferes and draws Sdlia away, exhorting him to take the com-
mand.]

512—516. [Nakûla is sent by Krésna to Sdlia to dissuade him from
fighting. Description of Sdlia\'s palace.;

517—524. [At sight of his nephew Nakûla, Sdlia\'s resolution fails him,
and he promises not to fight against the Panddwa. He declares he will
readily and willingly surrender his life to Dérma Wdngsa, but to no one
else, and that that worthy person has only to make use of the arrow called
pustaka akalima asdda.]

525—527. [Nakûla returns and informs Krésna and Dérma Wangsa of
the success of his mission to Sdlia, and of all that passed on the occasion.]

528—-553. [Sdlia relates to his wife, Sdlia Wdti, the result of his inter-
view with Nakûla, and of his intention to sacrifice himself, whereupon she
is grieved and sheds tears. Then follows a long and detailed description of
Sdtia Wdti, her person, manners, disposition, amp;c., and the particulars of a

conversation which takes place between her and her husband, wherein they
display great affection for each other j after which they yield to the power
of love, and then fatigued with amorous dalHance, sink into each other\'s
arms and fall asleep.]

554—556. [In consequence of Sdtia Wdti\'s declared-determination to
accompany him, Sdlia steals from her when she is asleep ; and having got
fairly away from her, he dresses himself without, and is honoured by the
Pandita, who cast flowers upon him.]

562—,564. {Bima comes to their support and routs the enemy with great
slaughter.]

565—567. [SdlM deserted by his army remains alone, and as he dis-
charges his arrows they change into thousands of Rasdksas, dragons, and
evil spirits, which lighting among the enemy occasion great consternation ;
whereupon Krésna ordering all the people to throw down their weapons and
fold their arms, the whole of the demons disappear without doing any harm.]
568—581. [The good and quiet Dérma Wdngsah reluctantly persuaded
by Krésna to save the Panddwa by killing Sdlia.\']

58*2—583. {_Dérma Wdngsa discharges the arrow pustdka kalima asdda ;
it penetrates and sticks in the breast of Sdlia, who immediately dies.]

pursued in all directions by the Panddwa, with great slaughter.]
587. Suyuddna was on the point of being taken, but he bravely resisted j

And weeping implored mercy, exclaiming, quot; this is the reward of my
quot; kindness and hospitality.quot;

Suyudana sireki meh kawananga takis lagawa
Lumorapala layu luput lepasa met urip katresan
Tuwen sakuni sang sedeng ngkakatran kakesa graha
Asarabata nangis dine kwenargan buja sestawa

quot; With what restless labour hast thou sought to vex and offend me j
quot; But now will I fail not to take my revenge ;
quot; Death shall seize thee, and great shall be thy torture.quot;

He thereby and with his gdda reduced to atoms the body of SaMne,
The story goes, that he tore it in pieces, and sucking the blood.
Scattered them among the villages of: the north and of the south.

with mountains of the slain.
While downward, in its deep bed, a sea of blood rolled with noisy rush.
Suyuddna having escaped, there yet remained to seize him.
He is pursued, and sought for, but cannot be found, having plunged
in the water.

Dewi Sdtia Wdti is then informed that Sdlia had fallen in battle.
Aged and creditable persons, bowing respectfully, communicate to
her the dire news :

Concealed amid the heaps of slain lay her lord, they alone escaped to
tell the tale.

588.nbsp;Ada nara \'neng tako ngasu kanistane chadama
Ddtan werga wehdaram beka rigupaya ri hanchana
Kunang nea tana lepate ki pamales kuh duke riko
Ikang yama ngala pwapang idapana pwageng ning lara

589.nbsp;Nahan wachajia biraasena tebera dedel sahasa
Renyo sawanira sang arya Sakuni linut ring gada
Biatita sinesep sesep nera senempal uwus
Dinuka kena mancha desa mapado aning lor kidul

590.nbsp;Uwus para-wasang musu penu ikang sawa marwata
Iline rudiranja gurnita mangarnawa lo\'a dalam
Kunang pwa riluput Suyodana dume turung ning\'gawe
Tinot mara pinet datan katemo ya ine ar mowa

591.nbsp;Da rarean mara pancha pandawa murutsaha ba la ri luput Suyodana
Dewi Satia-wati sireki charitan winara ipati salea ring rana
Wanten bretya kaparchaya tuba yata jari sira teka namya torasih

Trembling and distressed, Dewi Sdlia Wati no longer retains the
power of speech.

Lost and insensible to all around, she seemed as if Hfe itself had for-
saken her.

rises and adjusts her disordered dress :
Then loosening and combing her hair, she is bent on reparing to
the field of battle.

she reaches the place where the joy of her heart is lain,
She forthwith ascends her chariot, and sets out, favoured by a grate-
ful breeze.

595—602. [Accompanied by Sagandika, she wanders over the field of
battle by night in quest of his corpse, looking for it among the num-
ber of prostrate slain. Appearance of the different dead bodies and
carcasses of horses, elephants. See. described. She often thinks that she
has found it: her repeated mistakes and disappointments.]
603. Wearied with fruitless search, and despairing of finding him to whom
she would make her obeisance, the princess
Unsheathed her dagger, resolved to stab herself, her heart being

wholly devoted to her husband.
But the Almighty, in pity, sent lightning to guide her to the spot

where he whom she had long sought for lay.
And inspired her with strength and desire to renew the search.

Dewi Satia Wati kitan wenanga sabda kumetere pangunchanglDg lara
Leng leng tan anara teka ton tekapiran kapeting-ane anekne kang ati
Tan patma kalinger datanuru\'i pasambang ng\'ya saha pakraking sakit
.594. Antukning nianuhing nimitanera nang libra mahayu lungsuring tapih
Roma werata ninombara nera naminta tumotura mareng rana
Patrem nitea minusti pangelanga jiwa na pupuJa mene lawan sineng
Ngkan mangkat mahawan rata nela sama dresan kani sarantaning manah
QQ$. Meh tan diria mahas narendra ma\'isi ri taiyani sang enesti sembahan
Paksa patreraa sampunang lugasi kang ati sumaivaka nama sang pria
Sih ningyang ukasan manambaya tuduh ri kaha-nanera sang pinet nira
Nahan etuniian panging kina ng\'ebang abanga maka sama ngosir kilat

showered down upon it.
As if the growling thunder wept, tears fell in small rain, in grief for

the death of the prince.t
Such was the mark the princess followed till she came to and perceived

the body of Sdlia,
Who seemed as if looking at her with a side glance as he lay with
grinning teeth.

Not knowing what she did, she patted, pressed, and kissed the body.
His lips she rubbed and stained red ;t supporting his head with her
encircling arm, and wiping his face with the end of one of her
garments : but long were his eyes without twinkling.
To cure his wounds she constantly applied her chewed siri

quot; last found, why dost thou remain silent ?
quot; Wilt thou not speak to her who has thus sought thee out ?—Who

quot; else is there to be kind to me, unfortunate ?
quot; Tired and worn out am I with searching for thee, and now with
quot; averted glance thou refusest to look at me.

604.nbsp;Oniang warsa sekar sumarsa akuwung ktiwunga menoi ring\'ganing rata,
Genter lu\'era nangis malu\'a rarah\'ing-rereba lara riUna sang prabu
Na tang chihna tinut nareswara wadu teka luini-ati getra sang kakung
Kadia nung sung\'a reh nikang niata atur luniiringa reja kesisan waja

605.nbsp;Yekan pakrakir a mekul sukune sang peja aneliba ting\'galing tilam
Tanwreng da tinepak tepak nera hanan kinisapu kinsuan sinukeman
Lambe lot linuga tekeng magala ginusa pira ura lama tan kedap
Lawan tang kanining kapwa warasa deningsepa ira lana jinampeaken.

606.nbsp;Ah ! ah ! mah prabu sungsungen maneniahta tuhana pani raita ning heneng
Tan pangling ringana seraya siapa tika sia raowa gatingku kasian

quot; Sky lowered, and muttering thunder, some sad drops
quot; Wept at completion of the mortal sin.quot;
And a modern poet selected the passage as an example of the exercise of a truly poetical

« Shall I weep, or what is it thou woulst have me do ?—Speak and
quot; tell me, instead of preserving this unmeaning smile.

speak comfort to me and make my heart glad.quot;
With words sweeter than honey and nicely selected, did she thus hold

converse with the dead; but it was all in vain.
quot; Was it thus to meet death,quot; said she, « that thou didst steal from
quot; me when I was asleep,

quot; And depart alone, without my knowledge, to the regions above ?
quot; but I will follow thee.

608.nbsp;quot; It is my request that thou wilt meet and. carry me across the ugdl-

quot; still reserve a place for me before them all,
quot; What must not be thy regard for her, who has thus wandered about
quot; after thee, and who is now going to die for thee ?quot;
(Measure Basdnta tildka.\')

609.nbsp;Tedious would be the relation of all that Satia Wdti said.
Oppressed v/ith a load of grief, great as a mountain.
When she beheld her lord

607.nbsp;Nanten weruh ngo\'angi tan sianti bapa meng\'gepa \'ngamera raras priambada
S\'ojar tan pasirat sirat niadu tuhun ane saji saji tan tekengati
Pangling\'gan rilalis ta \'ngone nalis layata nilibi pamreraeng ulun

Tistisnya \'ngoang ngikana tan wani luniampaha gigu ri tayenta raksaka
Yadiastun jeneka \'ngaraer surawadu kita sumalanga ajo\'a nestura
Pali tapwa welasat ring- wang angomeng pati lumaku lana morang morang.
(Temhang Basanta tilaka).

609.nbsp;Tangi ujar satia watin pasambat
Ikang lara marwata mangke nabuat
Tuen katon tahananing iner er
Matang nera dan pejahangkasangkas

She drew it from its sheath, glancing as it came out.
Then boldly buried it in her breast.

611.nbsp;Not dying instantly, with expiring voice
SugandtJca she called and thus addressed :

quot; My old and faithful friend and attendant, return thou to Man-
quot; dardka,

quot; That they will commemorate the history of my sufferings,
quot; In order that my story may be heard and known ;
quot; When the gentle heart will perhaps be moved with love and pity,
quot; and tears will flow at the sad tale.quot;
614. quot; Oh ! my mistress, when was the time that I ever quitted thee ?

quot; And who will wash my noble mistress\' feet if I am not with her ?quot;
617. Thus weeping, the female attendant, affected with grief.
The buried dagger drew (from the body of her mistress),

610.nbsp;Muiges niarang kedga lana minusti
Uwus kasaring sarungan pradipta
Inan-deman denira tan anangres
Hi nikang rah kadi datu misnchar

611.nbsp;Datan wawang mati mangentak entak
Sugandika lot tinawe sinabdan
Kakangku mantuk ta ri mandraraka
Wara tikang wang ri ukasku mangke.

612.nbsp;Pamiiita kasi tari sang kawendra
Larang-ku dadiakena gita basa
Rengine ngogang idepe gating kii
Malar ngeresi twasnea mamang wa waspa

614. Aduh Tuan ring kapana, saha ngoang
Tumuta men jenma nejenma rakrian
Siap\'eka konen ta mangengswa socha
Ya tan ngwenga damo\'a rijeng ta raasku
617. Nahan tangis ning pari charaka n\'gres
Tanemne kang katga ya tenunusnea

Was delighted with the abundance of food which was there.
Great being the bounty of the Almighty to mankind.
And there was no difference susceptible in the ages of those that
were there.*

Tatandua ngetma madulur wijata
Naréswaratma nera gerjitang ling
Alal mangauting jalada mangnn res
Sahap sari tnwang resi déwa Sang\'ga
Telas pinangkwa Kenerang Sudéwi
Molih sera marga wimana ramya
Dateng rikang swarga layep alepnya
Graha sinang baswara sarwa ratna.
Mengen mengen téki naréndra patm
Mangu Kawahan suka sek bmokti
Wiwal neran manusa janma nguni
Apan tanantuk tumulu\'i dugan nwang

* Having since my return to England put these illustrations of t^xe Breda Yudha\'m the
hands of a relative (the Rev. Thomas Raffles, of Liverpool), he has been kind enough to give
the translation a poetical dress, and I regret that the limits ƒ the present volume do not
admit of their insertion in this form, in justice to the poetry of Java and the talent which he
has displayed. The following example of the last stanzas may serve as a specimen of the

603. Wearied with fruitless search, and in despair
To find the object of her pious care,
Her murder\'d lord, who on the battle plain
Lay all neglected mid thé thousands slaiïi,

621-^624. [The Panddwa hear that Suyuddna is in the middle of the
river: delighted, they repair to the spot. Bima calls him a dastardly coward

She drew the dagger from its sheath of rest.
Intent to plunge it in her heaving breast.
Just then, as if in pity to her grief,
Flash\'d the red light ning to the maid\'s relief,
And shew\'d with horrid glare the bloody way
To where her husband\'s mangled body lay.

604.nbsp;Another flash, indulgent from the skies,
Points to the spot where Sdlia\'s carriage lies.
And Sdlia\'s self, whom living she adored,
The bleeding body of her murder\'d lord.

The richest flowers by heavenly influence shed
Their sweetest odours o\'er his honoured head.
The muttering thunder mourned his early tomb,
And heaven in showers bewailed the hero\'s doom

605.nbsp;With eager grasp the livid corpse she press\'d
In frantic wildness to her throbbing breast;
Tried every art of love that might beguile
Its sullen features to one cheerful smile ;
Kiss\'d those dear lips so late of coral red,
As if unconscious that the soul had fled;
Then in her folded arms his head she rais\'d.
And long on those beloved features gazed.
With szW-juice his pallid lips she died,
And to his wounds its healing balm applied;
While with the skirt of her embroidered vest,

606.nbsp;quot; Ah! then, my princely lord, whom I have found
quot; Bleeding and mangled on this cursed ground!

quot; Why are thy lips in sullen silence sealed
quot; To her who sought thee on this battle field ?
quot; Wilt thou not speak—my love, my lord, myall,
quot; Or still in vain must Satia Wati call!

Say, shall my copious tears in torrents flow
quot; And thus express my agony and woe ?
quot; How shall I move thee, by what art beguile
quot; The ghastly air of that unmeaning smile ?quot;

607.nbsp;Thus soft and tender were the words she poured,
To move the pity of her murder\'d lord;

But ah! no sound the unconscious dead return\'d.
No fire of love within his bosom burn\'d;

afraid to die, and assures him that his arm will reach him, wliithersoever
he may betake himself, to the lowest depth of the earth or the highest
region of heaven.Jnbsp;^

While at each pause a death-like stillness stole
O\'er the deep anguish of the mourner\'s soul.
\'\' And was it thus to bow thy honour\'d head
quot; Amid the thousands of the mingled dead,
\'\' That on that fatal morning thou didst glide
- With gentle footsteps from thy consorts side ?
quot; And thus to reach the glorious realms above
quot; Without the faithful partner of thy love ?
quot; But earth has lost its fleeting charms for me,
quot; And, happy spirit, I will follow thee !

quot; Nor let me pass it, trembling and alone.
quot; Though Widaddris shall obey thy call,
quot; Yet keep for me a place above them all.
quot; To whom but me does that first place belong,
quot; Who sought and found thee mid this ghastly throng;
quot; And who, unable to survive thy doom,
quot; Thus sheds her blood and shares thy honour\'d tomb?\'^

Drew from its peaceful sheath the gleaming blade;
From her fair bosom tore th\' embroidered vest,
And plunged it deep within her heaving breast.
Rich was the blood that issued from the wound
And streamed like liquid gold upon the ground.

611.nbsp;And while the ebbing tide of life remained,
And thought and reason were a while sustained.
She called her maiden with her feeble breath.
And thus address\'d her from the arms of death.

Take this my last request to those I love :
quot; Tell them to think of Satia Wati^s fate,

quot; And oft the story of her love relate;
quot; Then o\'er her woes the tender heart shall sigh,
quot; And the big tear-drop roll from pity\'s eye.quot;

614. quot; Ah my lov\'d mistress,quot; cried the faithful maid,
quot; In every scene by thee I gladly staid.
quot; What e\'er the state of being thou must know,
quot; Thy faithful maiden will partake it too.

betook himself to the river, not out of fear, but for the purpose of making
adoration to the gods, challenging Bima, or any other of the Fanddwa, to
combat. Krésna represents that Dérma-Wdngsa is too peaceable and
benevolent to fight against Suyuddna ; that Arjéna\'s forte consists in using
the bow mounted in a chariot; that Nalcula and Sedéwa are too young and
inexperienced, and that Bima is therefore the fittest of all the Panddwa

629—631. {Kahrasdna is informed by Nardda of the Panddwa and
Kurdwa forces being engaged, and withdraws to see the issue of the
contest. Bima and Suyuddna go and make their respects to him, and each

632—639. IBima and Suyuddna fight. Missing each other, they strike
and cut the earth, trees, and every thing about them, without being able

617.nbsp;Strong in despair, and starting from the ground,
She drew the dagger from her mistress\' wound,
With deadly aim she plunged it in her breast,
And with her mistress sunk to endless rest.

618.nbsp;Then did their happy spirits wing their way
To the fair regions of eternal day.

The astonish\'d shade of Salia lingefd there,
Borne on the pinions of the ambient air,
To bid the object of his earthly love
An eager welcome to the realms above.

619.nbsp;Then in his arms his lovely bride he bore
Up that resplendent path he trod before,
Till earth and time had vanished all away
Amid the splendours of eternal day:

Where fields of light and silken mansions stand.
The glorious work of a celestial hand.

620.nbsp;Th\' enraptured princess, dazzled with the sight,
Gazed o\'er the boundless realms of living Ught.
With heavenly fruit the eternal groves were crowned,
And joy and rich profusion smiled around.

All bore the bloom of an immortal youth,
All breathed alike the air of love and truth ;
And all adoring one eternal mind,—
The Almighty, rich in bounty to mankind.

to hurt each other. They then throw away their weapons, and closing,
wrestle. So closely are they united, that they seem to be one person and to
have one voice.]

640—656. lAîjuna repeatedly striking his hand on his left thigh,
reminds Bima of Suyuddna\'s being vulnerable in that particular place only.
Bima recollecting the circumstance, seizes his club and strikes Suyuddna
with it in his vulnerable part. Suyuddna falls, and expiring under the blow
is trampled upon by Bima, who continues to insult and triumph over him,
till out of all patience with his relentless and ungenerous conduct, Kakra^
sdna seizes his spear and is going to slay Bima, but is withheld by Krésna,
who says that Bma is not to be blamed for such just retaliation.]

(Here end the Javan copies of this work ; the following abstract is from
a copy of the Brdta Yudha Kdwi presented to me by the Rdja of BdU Bali-
ling in Bdli.)

657—667. [Suyuddna dead and night coming on, the Fanddwa retire
from the scene of battle to the city of Astina, and there feast and rejoice,
on account of their victory. Satiated and fatigued with their reveUing, all
except Krésna go to sleep. He alone remains awake, pitying in his own
mind the fate of Suyuddna, and recollecting with feelings of regret the
indignant and unkind manner in which he was treated by Bima. With-
drawing by stealth, he goes to the mountains, and wanders about oppres-
sed with grief and much agitated.] ^

668.nbsp;[Next morning the Panddwa missing Krésna, go in search of him
and find him among the images on the hills. Portentous signs take place.
A raven croaks till blood issues from its beak, it rains blood, and all the
wild animals fight with each other.]

city by night, and assassinated Drésta-driumna, Sérikândi, and Pdnchaku-
mdra, and of all the mdntris having fled for fear. Half are inclined to give
credit to the report, and half beheve that it must have been the spirit of
Salia. The Panddwa return to Astina, and find the women there all in
tears and bewailing the loss of those who had been murdered during the
nitrht. Krésna consoles them and reconciles them to what has happened.]

697—699. \\_Bima is going to strike Aswatdma, when the latter discharges
an arrow at Bima, and at the same time tells him he is not a fit opponent,
inviting Arjuna to contend with him. Arjuna and Aswatdma fight, causing
the earth and mountains to shake, amp;c.]

700—705. [^Sdng ydng Nardda descends from above, and tells Arjüna
that they will cause the destruction of the world if they continue the dread-
ful conflict. Sdng ydng Nardda at the same time goes up to Aswatdma,
and advises him to desist from opposing the Panddwa, as he will certainly be
beaten, and recommends his surrender and resignation to the Panddwa of
his pusdha of Chüda-manih, also called CJiupu-mdnih Estigéna, a charm
which gives its possessor the power of getting eight different things.]

706—707, [Aswatdma refuses to give it to the Panddwa, but is willing
to part with it to the unborn grandson of Arjuna, of whom Utdri was then
pregnant, and whom he directed should be called Parihisit.\'\\

7O8—709. Krésna offers to bear witness to the promise; after which
Aswatdma gives the pusdha to Bima, to deUver to the grandson of Arjüna.\'}
710—714. [Krésna and the Panddwa again return to Astina, and inform
Arjüna\'s wife of what has happened, Aswatdma remains aloof from the
Panddwa, wandering about in the woods and among the mountains*
Yuyutsuh, the only surviving Kurdwa chief, joins and lives with the Pan-
ddwa. All the sons of the Panddwa having been killed in the battle, with-
out a single descendant being left to be mad\'ë ^ king oï Astina, excepting
the yet unborn son of Abimdnyu, whom Utdri was about to bring forth,
Dérma TVangsa, the eldest of the Panddwa (although all oï them had
arrived at an age when they should withdraw from the world) is appointed
sovereign, untd such time as he can be relieved and succeeded by the yet
unborn Parihisit. Description of Dérma Wdngsa; the beauty of his
person; his many good qualities and accomplishments, for which and for
his character for justice, wisdom, prudence, amp;c. he is universally beloved
and his praises celebrated in song.]

715—719. [Dérma Wdngsa receives the name and title of Batdra Jdya
Bdya. Under his wise and excellent administration the kingdom of Astina
flourishes, crimes are unknown, and the inhabitants are happy. The neigh-
bouring princes of Java, who had survived the war, all acknowledge the
authority of the king of Astina and pay homage to him.]

The musical instruments of the Javans are peculiar. Several of them are Music,
necessary to compose a gdmelan, set, or band : of these there are several
varieties. The gdmelan salindro, which is the most perfect, consists of the
several instruments represented in the annexed plate. In the gdmelan pélos,
the instruments are much larger and louder ; the hbnang or krbmo, has
sometimes only ten, and sometimes as many as fourteen notes. Both of
these gdmelans are employed as accompaniments to the wdyangs. The gâ.
melan miring partakes of the two former, and is employed to accompany the
xvdyang kUtik. In the gdmelan mung\'gang, called also kôdok ng\'ôrek, from
its resembhng the croaking of frogs, the bonang has fifteen notes, and the
kécher resembles the triangle : neither the génder, saléntam, sarôn, nor
chalémpung, are included in this set ; this gdmelan is considered the most
ancient, and is played at tournaments, in processions, amp;c. In the chdra
bdli, or chdra wdngsul, the rebdb, or viol, is not used : in other respects the
mstruments are the same as in the salindro, except that they are as large as
in the pélog. The gdmelan sekdten, which resembles the pélog, except that
the instruments are still larger and louder, is restricted to the use of the
sovereign, and seldom, played, except on great occasions, as during eight
days of the festival of Mulut. The gdmelan srunen is used in processions of
state and in war, being properly the martial music of the country, in which,
besides the ordinary instruments, a particular gong and trumpets are intro-
duced.

The annexed plate will afford a better idea of the form of these instru-
ments than any verbal description. Most of them resemble the staccdto or
harmonica, and the sound is produced by the stroke of a hammer. The
gdmhang kdyu has wooden plates, sixteen or seventeen in number : the
gdmbang gdngsa, of which there are several in each band, has metal plates.

In the génder the metal plates are thin, of a different form, and suspended
by strings. The gong, represented (No. 9) in the annexed plate, is usually
three feet in diameter. The bonang, kénong, and ketok, are of metal, and
are suspended by tightened cords to favour the vibration. The kécher, shewn
in the plate, corresponds with the cymbal. The hammers with which the
larger instruments are struck are either wound round at the end with cloth
or the elastic gum, in order to soften the sound. The drum is struck with
the open hand and fingers only. The chalémpung is a stringed instrument
with from ten to fifteen wires, which are sounded with the finger, after the
manner of the harp.

The person who leads the band performs upon the rebdb (No. 1?)» an
instrument which, having a neck, and two strings pitched by pegs, is capa-
ble of producing perfect intonation and a variety of sounds, by shortening
the strings with the pressure of the finger.

The gdmbang kdyu (No. 2) is a kind of staccdto, consisting of wooden
bars of graduated lengths, placed across a kind of boat, which when skil-
fully struck with a sort of mallet, produce pleasing tones, either grave or
acute. The lowest and highest sounds of the instrument differ from each
other by the interval of three octaves and a major third : the intermediate
sounds of each octave from the lowest note are a second, third, fifth, and
sixth. This instrument is general throughout the Archipelago, and is fre-
quently played alone, or accompanied only by the drum and a small gong.
Rdden Rana Dipura, a native of Java, who accompanied me to England,
played on this instrument several of his national melodies before an eminent
composer, all of which were found to bear a strong resemblance to the
oldest music of Scotland, the distinctive character of both, as well as of
Indian music in general, being determined by the want of the fourth and
seventh of the key and of all the semitones.* By reiteration several of the
sounds are artfully prolonged much beyond their noted length, which pro-
duces an irregularity of measure that might both perplex and offend the
educated ear of an accompanying timeist. The rhythm of the sections
(from extension and contraction) appears very imperfect.

The hmang or krtmo (No. 3), the sdron (No. 5), the demong (No. 6),
and seldntam (No. 7), are staccdtos of metallic bars, and a sort of bells
placed on a frame. They contain a regular diatonic scale, and nearly two
octaves. These, however, are never played singly, but harmonize with the
instrument on which the air is played.

The gongs (No. 9) are perhaps the noblest instruments of the kind that
have been brought to Europe: I am assured that they are very superior to
that which was admitted in the terrific scenes of the serious ballet repre-
senting the death of Captain Cooke. Suspended in frames, and struck by
a mallet covered with cloth or elastic gum, they sustain the harmonious
triad in a very perfect manner, and are probably the most powerful and
musical of all monotonous instruments. They might be introduced with
advantage in lieu of large drums. They have the advantage of being meli-

* The same observation has, I believe, been made on the character of tbe Grecian music.

fluous, and capable of accompanying pathetic strains. The twomms differ
from each other by one note.

The above observations apply particularly to the gdmelan pélog, which
usually accompanies the recitation of the popular poems of the country. The
gdmhang kdyu of the salindru, appears only to differ in being in another
key, which is considered better suited to the occasions in which that kind of

The airs which are exhibited in the annexed plate are selected from
several written down by a gentleman at Semdrang, as they were played on
the rebdb of the gdmelan pélog, and may afford a further illustration of
the nature of their music.

But it is the harmony and pleasing sound of all the instruments united
which gives the music of Java its peculiar character among Asiatics\'
The sounds produced on several of the instruments are pecuharly rich\'
and when heard at a distance have been frequently compared to those
produced on the harmonic glasses. The airs, however simple and mono-
tonous they may appear of themselves, when played on the gdmbang kdyu
or accompanied by the other instruments, never tire on the ear and it is
not unusual for the gdmelan to play for many days and nights in succession

quot; frisking,quot; is played, and a variety of others of the same nature which

A complete set of the gdmelan pélog costs from a thousand to sixteen
hundred dollarsnbsp;to ^400), but second-hand sets are frequently dis

cular furnish a valuable article of export. Every native chief in authoritv
has one or more gdmelans, and there are more or less perfect sets in all th
populous towns of the eastern provinces.nbsp;^

In some of the interior, and in particular in the Sunda districts, the inha-
bitants still perform on a rude instrument of hdmhu, called the dngldung,
of which a representation is given in one of the plates. This instrument is
formed of five or more tubes of bdmbu, cut at the end after the manner of
the barrels of an organ. These, which are of graduated lengths, from about
twenty to eight inches, are placed in a frame, in such a manner as to move to
a certain extent from their position and to vibrate on the frame being shaken.
A troop of from ten to fifty mountaineers, each with an dngUung, and
accompanied by one or two others with a small drum played with the open
hand, always perform upon this instrument on occasions of festivity in the
Sunda districts. Ihe upper part of the instrument, and the parties them-
selves, are generally decorated with common feathers, and the performers,
in their appearance and action, are frequently as grotesque and wild as can
be imagined. There is something, however, so extremely simple, and at the
same time gay, in the sound produced by the rattling of these bdmbu tubes,
that I confess I have never heard the dngklung without pleasure. The
Javans say the first music of which they have an idea was produced by the
accidental admission of the air into a bdmbu tube, which was left hanging
on a tree, and that the dnghlung was the first improvement upon this Eolian
music. With regard to the music of the gdmelan, quot; that,quot; say they, quot; was
procured from heaven, and we have a long story about it.quot;
A wind instrument, of the nature of a flute, but in length some feet,
with a proportionate diameter, is sometimes introduced in the gdmelans ;
but this is not usual in Java, though in Bdli it is general.

The trawdngsa is a stringed instrument, not very unlike a guitar (see
plate), which is occasionally found in the Sunda districts : it is by no means
general. I recollect to have once heard an old blind bard at Chidnjur play
upon this instrument, reciting at the same time traditions respecting
Bcgqjdran, and the ancient history of the country, which had probably never
been committed to writing.

The Javans have made no progress in drawing or painting ; nor are there
any traces to be found of their having, at any former period of their history,
attained any proficiency in this art. They are not, however, ignorant of
proportions or perspective, nor are they insensible to the beauty and effect
of the productions of other nations.* Their eye is correct and their hand

* We can hardly suppose them to have been as ignorant of the art of design as their neigh-
bours on Borneo, at the period of their being first visited by Europeans. The following story

Steady, and if required to sketch any particular object, they produce a very
fair resemblance of the original. They are imitative, and though genius in
this art may not have yet appeared among them, there is reason to believe
that, with due encouragement, they would not be found less ingenious than
other nations in a similar stage of civilization. They have a tradition, that
the art of painting was once successfully cultivated among them, and a
period is even assigned to the loss of it; but the tradition does not seem
entitled to much credit.

The Javans do not appear to possess any peculiar method or system in Arithmetic,
their arithmetical calculations. They generally compute without putting
down the figures in writing. In this process they are slow, but generally
correct. The common people, from an entire ignorance of arithmetic
or to assist their memory, sometimes use grains of pdri or small stones on
these occasions.

The many vast and magnificent remains of edifices found at this day in Sculpture and

different parts of Java, bear witness to the high degree of perfection in
which architecture and sculpture were at one period practised in that island.
But whether the natives themselves designed these edifices and their orna-
ments, or only worked under the direction of ingenious artists from other
countries, is a question connected with their history, which we shall at
present forbear to inquire into.

The art of sculpture is entirely lost to the natives. The only modern
buildings they possess, of any architectural importance, are the krdtons, or
palaces of the chiefs, which have already been described.

The Javans of the present day have no pretensions to astronomy as a Astronomy,
science. The seasons are determined by reference to a system no longer
perfectly understood, either in its principle or application j but from the
Hindu terms still in use for the days of the week, amp;c. and from the similarity

is translated from a note in Joao de Barros, 4 Decade, Book I., Chap. 17. quot; Vasco Lorenco-
quot; Drejo Cam and Gonzala Veltoza, were sent to the King of Borneo on a treaty of
quot; commerce. Among their presents was a piece of tapestry, representing the marriage of
quot; Henry VIII of England and Catherine, Princess of Arragon. The King received them well»
quot; but on delivering the presents, the piece of tapestry was displayed, with the figures as large
quot; as life. This to the King was matter of alarm and suspicion, for he imagined that the
quot; figures must be enchanted, and that the Portuguese wished to introduce them under his
quot; roof to deprive him of his kingdom and his life. He ordered the tapestry to be immediately
quot; removed, and that the Portuguese should immediately depart, as he did not chuse to have
quot; any more kings beside himself in the country ; and all attempts to pacify him were fruit-
quot; less.quot;—Vol. 4. part I, p. i07.

of many of their superstitions to those of continental India, it seems pro-
bable that if they ever possessed an astronomical system, it was derived
from that quarter. Thus when an echpse takes place, the people shout
and make all the noise they can, to prevent the sun or moon from being
devoured by the great ndga or dragon, which they suppose to be invading
it. Some of the better informed have derived a few notions of astronomy
from the Arabs ; but their knowledge^ in this respect, is at best extremely
imperfect, and it is rather to the traces, which are to be found in the
ancient manuscripts, and to the remains of what they knew in former days,
that it is interesting to refer.

The Javans, in common with other Mahometans, have for upwards of
two centuries, if not for a longer period, adopted the lunar year of the
Arabs 5 but they still retain their own era, and seldom adopt that of the
Hejira, The Javan era is called that of 47? Sdka, on whose arrival in
Java it is supposed to have commenced j but as saka is a Sanscrit term, va-
riously applied, as connected with the establishment of an era, it was
probably adopted by the Javans at the period of the introduction of the era
itself,¹ which corresponds almost exactly with the Hindu era of Salava-
harna, being seventy-four years short of the christian era. The present is
accordingly the year 1714 of the Javan era, or era of j^i Saka. On Bdli,
where the same era is likewise adopted, there is a difference of about seven
years, the Bdli year beingnbsp;This difïerence is supposed to have

arisen from the people of Bdli, who are still unconverted to the Mahome-
tan faith, continuing to use the solar year.

The Javans usually divide the day and night each into five portions, as
follow :

That from eight till noon,.
That from noon till one o\'clock.
That from one till three.
That from three till six,

Dimsion of the Night.
The period from six o\'clock in the evening till eight is called sore ;

The twenty-four hours of the day and night are also occasionally divided
into what is called the Uma wdlctu, or five periods of time, namely : from
sunset until eight o\'clock in the morning; from that hour till twelve ; from
twelve till three ; from three till four j fi-om four till sunset.

Each of these divisions is considered sacred to one of the five deities, Sri,
Kdla, Wisnu, Maheswdra, and Brdma, supposed to preside over these divi-
sions of the day and night in rotation, the order being changed every day,
until at the commencement of every fifth day and night it returns to the same
ao-ain. The division which thus becomes sacred to Sri is considered fortu-
nate ; that to Kdla unfortunate ; that to Wisnu neither good nor bad ;
that to MaJieswdra as still more fortunate than that to Sri ; that to Brdma as
peculiarly unfortunate.

The termsnbsp;pon, wdgi, kaliimn -, and mdnis or Ugi, are applied to the week of five

ddij^ o? the panchawdra, or week of five days, which is common through-
out the country, and by which the markets are universally regulated.*

Besides this week of five days, which seems to be by far the most ancient Week of m-cu
as well as the most generally adopted among tbem, the Javans have a week
of seven days as follows.

Biti, Sunday, which corresponds with the Hindu Rom,
Soma, Monday.
Ang\'gdra, Tuesday
Budha, Wednesday
Raspdti, Thursday
Siikra, Friday

Sanischdra or Tumpali, Saturday
The Arabic terms are usually employed to express the months.
The weeks of seven days, considered with reference

to the seasons, are Wuk«.
termed xmiku. Thirty of these are said to have been established in com-
memoration of the victory obtained over Wdtu Gunung\'A These thirty

quot; Each Mexican month of twenty days was subdivided into four small periods of five
quot; days. At the beginning of these periods every commune kept its fair, tianqui^itliquot;-—Hurti\'
holt\'s Researches, Translation, vol i, page 283.

quot; In respect to civil government, they divided the month into four periods of five days, and
quot; on a certain fixed day of each period their fair, or great market day, was held,quot;—Clavigero,
Translation, vol. i, page 293.

have again six principal divisions, each consisting of thirty-five days, and
commencing on the day when diti and pdJung fall together.

Each wdku is dedicated to its particular deity, and has its appropriate
emblems in the Javan system of judicial astrology. The names of the
\'W\'dku and of the deities to which each is considered sacred are as follow:

wuku.

1.nbsp;Sinta ^
Ldndap

3.nbsp;Wukir^.

4.nbsp;Kurdntih

5.nbsp;Tdlu

6.nbsp;Gémhreg

7.nbsp;Wariga

8.nbsp;Warigdjan gt;

9.nbsp;Julung Wdng*L

10.nbsp;Smg Sang.

11.nbsp;Galung\'an

12.nbsp;Kunmg*an

13.nbsp;LdngJcir.

14.nbsp;Manddsia

15.nbsp;Julung-pvjud^.

16.nbsp;Pahang

17.nbsp;Kuru Welut

18.nbsp;Maraké

19.nbsp;TdmUr

20.nbsp;Mdnda kung\'an

21.nbsp;Maktal

22.nbsp;Woyé

23.nbsp;Mandhil

24.nbsp;Prang\'bdkat

26.nbsp;Wuku

The twelve seasons, Mdngsa, of which an account has been given, when
treating of the agriculture of the Javans, are said to be determined by
reference to the sun\'s course at the commencement of each of these
divisions.

When a want of rain is experienced, it is a custom for the people of the
village or town to assemble, and for a wdyang to be performed upon the
story of Wdtu Gunung and Déwi Sinta. On these occasions two sticks of
the dark coloured sugar-cane, two young and two old cocoa-nuts, two
bundles of different coloured pdri, two bundles of the flowers of the
areca-\\mt, a piece of white cloth, sweet scented oils, two fowls and two
ducks, are placed by the side of the ddlang during the performance, and are
afterwards considered his property.

The term windu is used to express a revolution or cycle of years. The winduorCycie.
Javans refer to windu of eight years, a windu of twelve years, a windu of
twenty years, and a windu of thirty-two years. The windu of eight years,
now in use, seems to have been borrowed from the Arabs; but this is more
frequently considered of seven years, each year taking its name from one
of the following animals, according to the day of the week on which it
begins.

The names given to the year comprised in the wLndu of twelve years
appear to be the same with the signs of the zodiac, which according to the
manuscript discovered at Chéribon are as follow :—

The Javans, though they occasionally apply the signs of the zodiac to the
twelve years of the cycle, have at present no knowledge of these signs as
connected with the sun\'s course. In the Chéribon manuscript, which con-
tains an explanation of each sign, they seem to have been considered only
as giving names to particular years. Thus in the explanations of the first
sign it is stated :

quot; This year, the year of Mesa-arsi, there is a mark in the horn of the ram ;
quot; the deity who presides is Batdra Wisnu ; the rain is for five months ; it
quot; is profitable to plant gdgas, but birds destroy great quantities ; this may
« be prevented by acimiui5te™g oz.^./ (medicine) composed of the oil of the
quot; kdwang, with the flowers of the cotton plant and those of the kasumha :
quot; rats also do great mischief in the sdwahs, which may be prevented by
quot; administering the hud of siri on a lucky day, named ang\'gara, and diti on
quot; the panchawdra Mdnis ; when administering it the following words should
quot;be repeated 5 \' Hong! Kiro-Wisnu-Sowa ! tung\'gal sih ning Budna!
« lt; Hail Wisnu ! who art beheld clearly to be the only one in the world !\' quot;

In the same manuscript, which appears to be entirely of an astronomical
or astrological nature, the year appears to be divided into four portions,
each distinguished by the peculiar position of a ndga, or serpent.

The first to the three divisions includes Jista, Sdda, Kdsar ; the form and
shape of the great wa^a in these seasons is first stated, and represented by a
drawing, the head being during these months towards the east and tail to
the west. \'\' In these months, if any one wishes to plant rice, it must be
quot; white and yellow pdri ; and at this time alms must be given, consisting of
quot; white rice ornamented with the flow^ers called wdri, and in the name of or
quot; in honour of Béwa Ydnia, and on the seventh day. It will not be pro-
quot; fitable to go to war in these months.

* Each of the years represented in the Cheribon manuscript, and distinguished by the signs
oi the Zodiac, is considered sacred to one of the following Deities : Wisnu, Sdmbo, Indra,
Suna, Mistri, Baruna, Sang Mistri, Wandra Kurisia, Furusiah, Tabada, Aria, or Gdna.

If a child is born in these months he will be liable to seven sicknesses
through life. Great care and caution must be taken in these months
against sickness.quot;
The second is as follows :

quot; In the seasons of Kdru, Kaüga, and Kaphat, the head of the ndga is
to the north and tail to the west. These times are neither good or bad 5
it is proper to plant yellow pdri; alms should be given of bubur dbang,
red rice and water, he. in honor or in the name of Déwa Sarasdti. Success
will attend wars undertaken in these months.

quot; If a child is born in the month it will be unfortunate, and great care
and caution must be taken regarding it; and if the child attains an ad-
vanced age, unhappiness will befal the parent.

quot; In the third ndga, which includes the fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons,
the head of the ndga,\'\' it says, quot; is to the west, his tail to the east, his
belly to the north. The offering then to be made is yellow rice, and
a small ivory handled knife ornamented with gold. The deity of these
months is Batdra Sarasdti. In going to war in these seasons, be careful
not to face the head of the ndga.quot; *





il

From	To	To	To	To	To
1613	1653.	1663.	1673.	1683.	1693.
The total profits were. .	Guilders.	Guilders.	Guilders.	Guilders.	Guilders.
101,704,417	142,663,776	906,072,335	259,250,969	322,735,812
	76,177,755	117.616,961	161,271,745	212,282,020	274,416,306
Nett Profits....	25,526,662	25,046,815	44,798,587	46,968,949	48,319,506

m.	Tûkang pândom, or	gi\'^i ---- Tailor.
	—- sûlara.^^^.	Embroiderer.
	--	Semstress.
28.	sung\'ging^...	Draftsman.
29.	--— chat	Painter
30.	---— pasah	-------Tooth filer.

YEARS.	EXPORTS.	IMPORTS.
	Spanish Dollars.	Spanish Dollars.
1771	3,122,197	3,116,374
177lt;2	2,909,371	2,170,741
1773	3,193,912	2,789,869
1774	3,184,641	2,941,011
1775	3,083,773	2,692,420
1776	3,319,070	2,305,228
1777.	3,139,678	2,006,561
1778	2,440,042	1,776,674
1779	2,274,308	2,075,022
1783	2,788,702	1,914,202
1784	2,921,274	2,781,833
1785	2,670,468	2,654,687
1786	2,495,038	2,639,663
1787	2,634,049	2,506,267
1788	3,700,209	3,017,853
1789	2,956,240	2,840,127
1790	3,011,040	3,073,801
1791	3,771,263	3,098,849
1792	1,172,670	1,295,959

In the Year	1810.
Java Rupees.	Cts.
23,839	12
224,603	23
354,332	0
558,200	15
549,005	15
515,666	15
86,961	15
1,573	0
33,910	0
20,661	15
74,597	0
18,974	15
12,300	0
15,090	0
60,300	0
30,150	0

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^ cs M -s; pii gt;1 t; O	ARABS and MOORS.
—	_
177	___
i 7,518	23
12,173	403
23	-
22	_
9	___
—	19
•—	—
251	_
—	--
—-	168
192	—\' ,
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12	___
246	-
177	8
1,042	—
253	—
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1,134	—,
672	—
128	—.
89	—
61	quot;—
242	—
143	___
350	—
112	_
405	—
247	.—
3,998	1

51	571,356	7
70	105,677	43
72	17,018	23
71	56,504	47
28	225,388	3
63	1,096,067	30
41	65,950	64
0	117,157	14

6.	Srdgddra.
7.	Sekarini.
8.	Suwanddna.
9.	Chamjpdka mdliar.
10.	Prdwira Icdita.
11.	Basdnta lila.
12.	Ddnda.

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