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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING
BY
G. FLEMING, F.E.G.S., M.A.I., Etc,
Member of Council of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons; Veterinary Surgeon,
Royal Engineers ; Author of " Tra-wis on Horseback in Mantchu
Tartary," " Horse-Shoes and Horse-Shoeing,"
"Animal Plagues," "Rabiesand
Hydrophobia," &c.
WITH THIRTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS.
SSktjj ëVxtïan:
EEVISED AND ENLARGED.
Bibliotheek det
fcjiwniversiteït & UtiecJw
LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL,
Limited.
1888.
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Ricnard Clay & Sons, Limited,
LONDON & liUNOAY.
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PBEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
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It must be a source of satisfaction to those who are
interested in the welfare and efficiency of the Horse, to
find that at, last there is some prospect of a common-
sense and humane method of shoeing being introduced,
and that a large amount of interest is manifested in the
subject,
This is evidenced by the fact, that an edition of fifteen
hundred copies of " Practical Horse-shoeing" was
disposed of in a few months after its publication; and
that its re-publication in the United States (unauthorised
though it was) by Appleton & Co., of New York, im-
mediately subsequent to its issue here, is as likely to be
attended with even greater success, the Massachusetts
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals having
alone taken a thousand copies for distribution among the
farriers of that State.
This large circulation must doubtless prove eminently
gratifying to the Scottish Society for the Peevention
of Cruelty to Animals, and still more so to the worthy
lady by whom the prizes for essays on Horse-shoeing
given by that Society were so liberally provided.
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PKEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
VI
For myself, I rejoice to think that the principles which
should guide us in the management of the Horse's foot,
and for whose introduction I and others have contended
for many years, are at length being adopted.
In the present edition, a few additions and trifling cor-
rections have been made, and the number of illustrations
has been increased. No attempt has been made to alter
the plan of the essay, which was chiefly designed for
farriers, or those who, beyond my own profesison, took
an interest in the matter.
The subject of pathological farriery is too large and
complicated to be introduced, and, in fact, it did not come
within the terms or scope of the essay, the main object of
which was to indicate to what an extent disease might
be prevented and utility increased. Pathological shoeing
belongs more to the veterinary sui'geon's than to the
farrier's domain, but it has not been overlooked by me ;
and in due course a work on this very important section
of veterinary science will be oifered for acceptance.
GEORGE FLEMING.
Brohfton Barbackb,
Chatham, Februari/, 1873.
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FEEFATOBY NOTE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.
It is a painful reflection that the advance of civiliza-
tion seems ever to be accompanied by an aggravation of
certain evils,—and in no instance is this more marked
than in the terrible amount of suffering unnecessarily
endured by the Horse.
This animal, pre-eminently the most useful to man,
is the one upon which is inflicted, either wantonly, or
through sheer ignorance, or thoughtlessness, the greatest
amount of cruelty. The records of all humane societies
show that, of prosecutions for cruelty to animals, an
overwhelming majority refer to the Horse; and of these,
a large proportion are for working horses while suffering
from lameness, in one form or other. So frequent are
such cases, that observers have concluded that its pre-
valence must result from some specific cause, and, not
unnaturally, attention has thus been directed to the
various modes of management practised in relation to the
horse's foot, to the manner of shoeing, and, in particular,
to the way in which the hoof is prepared for the shoe.
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Vlll               PREFATORY HOTS TO THE FIRST EDITION.
Convinced that very much suffering results from im-
perfect knowledge of the Anatomy of the Foot, and of
the true functions of its various parts, and from conse-
quent mal-practice in its treatment, especially in the
application of the shoe, the use of which is needed solely
to prevent the undue waste and wear caused by severe
labour over hard, rough, and unyielding roads, the Com-
mittee of the Scottish Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals ofFered, in July, 1869, a series of
prizes for " the best and most practical essays on Horse-
shoeing, in connection with the comfort and soundness
of the Horse." By August, 1870, upwards of forty
essays were sent in. These were submitted to Professor
Williams, Principal of the Edinburgh Veterinary Col-
lege, Mr. W. Robertson, M.R.C.V.S., Kelso, and Mr.
B. Cartledge, M.R.C.V.S., Sheffield, Examiners of the
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, and Mr. J. C.
Broad, M.R.C.V.S., London, by whom, after a very
patiënt and careful examination, the prizes were awarded,
—the first, to Mr. George Fleming, for the treatise now
in the hands of the reader; the second, to Mr. T. D.
Broad, M.R.C.V.S., Bath ; and the third, to Mr. George
Armatage, M.R.C.V.S., late Secretary of the Central
Veterinary Medical Society, London.
A large proportion of the essays exhibited much
thoughtful care in their preparation, combined at once
with scientific knowledge and practical acquaintance with
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PKEFATOKY NOTE TO THE FIRST EDITION.                   IX
the subject in hand; and it has been most gratifying to
find so general a concurrence among the writers in their
utter condemnation of the common, but unscientinc and
irrational, practice of paring away the sole and frog as- a
necessary preparation for shoeing. The unanimity ex-
hibited on this most important point sinks into compara-
tive insignificance all differences of opinion on minor
points. The Committee are thus able confidently to
recommend the following pages as a clear and able expo-
sition of the views, not only of the author of one of the
best and most exhaustive works on the subject, but also
of very many of the most enlightened veterinary surgeons
of the day.
H. S. A. L. HAY, V.P.,
Late Secretary Scot. Soa, P.C.A.
Edinburgh,
February, 1872.
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CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface to the^ Second Edition.........       v
Prefatory Note to the First Edition.......     vü
Importancë of the Art.........       1
Anatojiy of the Hokse's Foot.......       5
The Hoof..........           .12
The Wall...........      13
The Horny Sok..........     15
The Horny Frog.........      17
The Goronary Frog-Band or Periopie......      18
Geowth of the Hoof.........     26
Shoeing............     31
Preparing the Hoof .......              .34
Levelling the Wall .........     36
Shortening the Wall.........     37
Paring the Sole..........     44
Paring the Frog.....-.....     50
Opening-up the Heels.........     52
The Shoe...........     54
Weight............     56
Galkins...........     59
Size ..... ......     61
Objects to be Attained .........     63
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CONTENTS.
Xll
The Shoe—continued.
PAGE
Pattern of Shoe recomniended.......      65
Glips............      75
Varieties of Shoes . . ,......      75
Material......'.....      76
Naü-holes...........      77
Applying the Shoe..........      82
Hot and Gold Fitting..........      85
The Nails...........      89
Briving the Nails.........      89
Conclusion of the Operation........      90
ItASPING............      91
Laying down Clips..........      95
Vaeious othee Methods of Shoeing......      97
Preplastar Shoeing..........    100
Winter Shoeing..........    110
Shoeing of Defective Limbs . .'......    115
General Management of the Horse's Foot . . . .    118
Steeets and Roads..........    120
Instedction of Farriers........    123
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PEACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
IMPOETANCE OF THE ART.
It requires but little observation and reflection, one would
think, in order to arrive at the conclusion that the art of
" Horse-Shoeing" is not only an important one, so far as
civilization and the ordinary everyday business of life is con-
cerned; but that the successful utilization of the horse, together
with his welfare and comfort, in a great measure depend upon
the correctness of the principles on which its practice is based,
and the mode in which these principles are carried out by the
artizan.
For proof of this, we have but to glance at the immense
tramc in our great towns and cities, in which the horse figures
so prominently; at the same time remembering, that without a
defence to its hoofs, this invaluable animal would be almost—
if not quite—valueless, in consequence of the hardness of our
artificial roads, and the great efforts demanded from him; or,
studying the anatomy and functions of the limbs and feet, to
call to mind how these are wonderfully calculated to serve most
essential purposes in locomotion and weight-sustaining, and
B
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2                           PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
how necessary it is at the same time that their natural adapta-
bility be as little as possible thwarted or annulled by the inter-
ference of man, in his endeavour to protect or aid them.
From the earliest ages, the horse's foot and its envelope, the
hoof, have been looked upon by horsemen as the principal
region of the animal's body to which care and attention should
be directed-: as when these become injured or diseased—no
matter how perfect and sound the other parts may be—the
quadruped's services are diminished or altogether lost.
Consequently, the preservation of these in an efficiënt and
healthy state has ever been the aim of those who valued the
horse for the immense advantages his services were capable of
conferring on mankind ; and, in later years, those who have
been moved by the sacred impujse of humanity towards the
lower creatures, have not forgotten how much the noble animal
may suffer from unskilful management of his feet, through
the neglect or ignorance of those who have the special care of
these organs.
At a very early period in the domestication of the horse,
and particularly in Western regions, it must have been soon
discovered that at certain seasons, on particular soils, and
especially when called upon to pcrform any great amount of
travelling and load-carrying, the horn composing the hoof
underwent an amount of wear greater than Nature could com-
pensate for ; and that the living sensitive structures within,
becoming exposed and irritated by contact with the ground,
were injured, and gavejise to pain, lameness, and inability to
work.
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IMPORTATSTCE OF THE ART.                           3
To guard against this serious result, the ingenuity of man
must have been severely tested in devising a suitable and
durable protection for the ground surface of the hoof; and
among the many contrivances proposed, the most notable, and
by far the most valuable, has been the device of nailing a plate
of metal to the outer margin or watt of the hoof.
The antiquity of this invention is very great; and it is
probable that for many centuries the shoe was considered as
nothing more than a simple defender of the hoof from the
damagmg effects of wear, and occasionally as an aid in securing
the animal's foothold during progression on slippery ground.
As time advanced, however, and the services of the horse
became increased a hundredfold by the application of this
ingenious and simple expediënt, the sciences of anatomy and
physiology began to embrace the horse in their domain; and,
crude as they were at first, it is to be feared that when they
were extended to the investigation of the structure and func-
tions of the foot, the useful and comparatively harmless protec-
tion of early days was made subservient to the most varied and
fantastic theories. For it must be admitted that, in recent times,
horse-shoeing, so far from proving a boon to horse-owners and a
preserver of horses' feet, has been far from yielding the benefits
its scientifk and reasonable application should afford; indeed,
it would be no exaggeration to assert that the predominating
principles and practice of this art have been eminently de-
structive to horses, and a source of great loss to their proprietors.
These principles were founded on a misconception of the
functions of the foot, and of the part assumed by the hoof in
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOTCITSTG.
locomotion; and their speedy popularization was due to the
fact that they were congenial to the whims of fashion, and were
deemed essential to the improvement of nature: commending
themselves to tinreasoning and unreasonable minds, like the
fashions of cropping horses' and dogs' ears, cutting, nicking and
docking tails, and other cruel fancies of depraved tastes.
The amount of injury inflicted by an unscientiflc method of
shoeing may be very much greater than a cursory inquiry
would lead one to believe. To those experienced among horses,
and who have directed their attention closely to the subject,
the proportion of animals whose utility is directly or indirectly
impaired by improper treatment of their feet must appear
excessive, when compared with the other causes of inefficiency.
Indeed, maladies of the feet and limbs, due, more or less, to
faulty shoeing, form a very large percentage of the cases usually
met with in veterinary practica
An art, therefore, which has so much influence for good or
evil, so far as the usefulness and comfort of the horse are
concerned, surely deserves the serious study of all who are
interested in that animal. A good system, founded on the
teachings of anatomy and physiology, and perfected by daily
experience, must prove of immense benefit to horse and owner;
while a bad system, conducted in ignorance, carelessness, or
mistaken notions, cannot but bring about pain and speedy
uselessness to the animal, and loss and inconvenience to its
proprietor.
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ANATOMY OP THE HORSE'S FOOT.                    5
ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT.
One of the primary considerations for those who have the
shoeing and management of the horse's foot, should be the
acquisition of a knowledge of its structure and functions in
health: nofc a profound knowledge, certainly, such as the
scientific veterinarian requires, but sufficiënt to enable them to
understand the situation, relation, texture, and uses of the parts
of the organ with which they have more particularly to deal.
If the artizan does not possess this knowledge, is it possible
that he can practise his handicraft to advantage, or minister
effectually to the varied requirements of this organ ? It must
be admitted that he cannot do so; and it is from neglect of this
fundamental consideration that so much improper and vicious
shoeing prevails, and that so many horses are crippled and pre-
maturely worn out. By the majority of farriers the foot of the
horse is looked upon as little, if anything, more than an in-
sensible block of horn which they may carve and mutilate with
impunity, and as suits their fancy, and for which nothing more is
necessary than the attachment, by an unreasonable number of
nails, of a clumsy mass of iron that may not only be unsuitable
for its requirements, but positively injurious to it and the other
parts of the limb. The art of farriery in this country has
never received a scientific development, but has ever been
a mere affair of routine and tradition. Such should not be
the case ; and allusion is only made to this matter here in
order to urge most strenuously the necessity for farriers being
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6                              PKACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
properly instructed in the elements of their art, and made to
comprehend as much as may be required of the construction
and functions of the very important organ upon which they are
destined to exercise their skill.
The horse's foot may be said, for practical purposes, to be
intended not only as an organ of support and defence (or
offence), but also as that part of the limb in which the efforts
Kg. 1.
Seotion op the Horse's Foot.—aa, Skin of leg. Ihb, Extensor tendon
of foot; c, its insertion into the foot-bone. d d, Capsular ligament of
joints. d'd', Flexor tendon of foot inserted into sole of foot-bone (s). e e,
Flexor tendon of pastern inserted at ƒ into the small pastern bone, i. g, Shank
or large metacarpal bone. h, Large pastern bone. h, Navicular bone. I, Foot
or pedal bone. m, Ligaments of navicular bone connected with deep flexor
tendon. n, Sensitive lamina, dovetailing with horay laminse, »'. o, Plantar
cushion. p, Coronary cushion. q, Horny frog. r, Wall of hoof. *, Sensitive
membrane of frog and sole. u, The face of the navicular bone over which the
flexor tendon plays—the seat of navicular disease.
created elsewhere are concentrated, and as the instrument
through which propulsion and progression may be mainly
effected. It is also largely endowed, in a natural state, with
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ANATOMY OF THE HOESE'S FOOT.
7
the sense of touch, which enables the animal to travel with
safety and confidence on rough as well as even. and on soft as
well as hard ground.
When we come to examine it in a methodical and careful
manner, we find that it has for its basis the last three bones
of the limb—the small pastern (Fig. 1, i), navicular (k), and
coffin or pedal bone (l). The latter is more particularly the
foundation of the foot, and is the nucleus on which the hoof
is moulded, and which in shape it much resembles. Into its
highest point in front, the large extensor tendon of the foot is
inserted (c), and in the middle of its lovver face, or sole, is
implanted the powerful tendon which bends or flexes the foot
(cl', cl', s) ; these tendons are the chief agents in progression.
An elastic apparatus surrounds them and a portion of the
pedal bone, and the whole is enveloped by a membrane that
attaches the hoof in the closest possible manner to its outer
surface. Into each of the wings or sides of the bone (for it is
crescent-shaped, the horns extending backward on each side) is
fixed a large plate of cartilage that rises above the hoof, where
it may readily be feit; this plate has important relations with
its fellow on the opposite side, as well as with other elastic
bodies admirably disposed to sustain weight, prevent jar, and
ensure that lightness and springiness which form so striking
a feature in the horse's movements. The navicular bone is a
narrow piece, placed transversely between the wings of the
coffin bone behind, and is intended to throw the flexing tendon
further from the centre of motion, and thus increase its power;
the tendon plays over its posterior or lower face, and this
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
disposition, together with the relations established between it
and the pedal bone through their connecting ligaments, and ■
Fig. 2.
Hoese's Foot divestbd op its Hoop. —a a, Perioplic ring. b b, Perioplio or
coronary fissure. ccc, Coronary cushion covered with villi. d d, White
zone. fff, Vascular or sensitire laminas (or leaves) terminating in villi, g.
the bend the tendon makes in passing over it, cause this part
of the foot to be one particularly liable to disease, and one
especially deserving of attentive study.
The elastic apparatus of the foot consists of (1) the lateral
cartilages just mentioned; (2), a prominent ring or cornice
sui'rounding the upper border of the pedal bone usually known
as the " coronary-substance," but which might be more aptly
designated the " coronary cushion " (Figs. 1, p, 2, c); this fits
into a corresponding concavity in the inner and upper margin of
the wall of the hoof, and, besides acting as an elastic body or
cushion, performs the important function of secreting or forming
this wall or ernst of the horny envelope ; (3), a triangular
body—the plantar cushion (Figs. 1, o, 3, b, f), known to farriers
as the " fatty " or " sensitive frog" (to distinguish it from
the horny frog, which immediately covers it), admirably disposed
between the wings of the coffin bone, with a view to protect
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AJSATOMY OF THE HORSE's FOOT.                    9
and sustain the flexor tendon during its efforts, as well as to
diminish concussion by its own resiliency (or springiness), and by
the connection it has with the elastic cartilages. From its
position at the back of the foot, and the importance of the
parts it covers, this portion of the elastic apparatus derives much
interest, and must not be overlooked by the farrier.
Besides the elastic apparatus of the foot more immediately
in connection with the pedal and uavicular bones, we have the
wonderful arrangement of living membrane enveloping these
parts, and whose office appears to be the secretion and attach-
ment of the horny box we designate the " hoof." To it large
quantities of blood are conveyed by the ultimate ramifications
(or terminations) of the arteries proceeding to the foot, and that
fluid is carried from it by a complex distribution of veins arising
from these minute arterial divisions, to the great venous trunks
that pass up the limb. The terminal twigs of the nerves of
sensation of the foot are also freely and wisely distributed in its
substance, in the form of exceedingly fine filaments, which endow
the organ with a sufficiënt sense of touch to enable it to perform
its varied functions with safety and precision. A peculiar and
striking disposition or arrangement of this membrane can be
observed around the front and sides of the pedal bone, when
the hoof has been removed by steeping the foot for some time
in water. This disposition consists in the elevation of the
membrane into parallel vertical leaves, which extend from the
coronary cushion to the lower border of the bone, and to a
certain distance within its wings (Fig. 1, n, 2,/). These leaves,
which resemble in appearance those on the under side of a
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING-.
mushroom, are known as the "vascular" or "sensitive laminse,"
and number between 600 and 700 ; their chief use seems to be
to afford a wide and close attachment for the wall of the hoof,
within which, through their agency, the pedal bone is, as it were
suspended; so that the relations between bone and hoof are
not so rigid and unyielding as if they were directly united
to each other. These laminas are exceedingly vascular and
sensitive, and when they become inflamed through bad shoeing,
excessive travelling, or other causes, the horse suffers the most
excruciating pain, and in a large majority of cases the chronic
inflammation that remains produces serious alterations in the
Kg. 3.
Sessitive Sole of Horse's' Foot.—a, Cartilaginous bulbs of the heels, covered
by sensitive membrane. I, Inflexion of the coronary cushion. c, Middle cleft
or lacuna. dd, Plantar lammee, e, Limit between the coronary cushion
and plantar laminse. ƒƒ, Branches of the plantar cushion. yggg, Termination
of the lammffi in villi. k h, Sensitive membrane of sole covered with innumer-
able fine tufts or villi. i, Prolongation of the coronary cushion into the lateral
lacuna.
structure and formation of the hoof, leading to more or less
lameness, deformity, and diminished utility. The inflammation
and its results may even cause death in a short time.
Besides entering into the formation of these leaves, this
membrane covers the other parts of the foot within the hoof,
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ANATOMY OF THE HORSe's FOOT.                  11
as a sock does the human foot, and endows it with a high
degree of vitality and secretory power; it overspreads the
coronary and plantar cushions, as well as the sole of the pedal
bone, and its surface in these parts is thickly studded with
myriads of tufts or " villi," which give it the appearance of the
finest Genoa velvet (Fig. 3, g, h). These minute processes
vary in length from £ to more than J inch, and are best ob-
served when a foot, from which the hoof has just been removed
by steeping for a long time, is suspended in clear water. Ex-
amined with the microscope, they are found to be merely pro-
longations from the face of the membrane, each being composed
of one or two minute arteries, which branch off into an exceed-
ingly fine network, and end in hair-like veins; a nervous
filament has also been traced into the interior; so that these
tufts are not only vascular, but sensitive. They play an
essential part in the formation of the hoof, and their relations
to that covering must not be neglected by the farrier in his
treatment of it.
This is all that need be said at present with regard to the
anatomy of the living parts of the horse's foot; we have referred
to it merely to show that this organ is not a crude block of
insensitive matter, but a most wonderfully constructed apparatus,
possessed of qualities which are not to be found in any other
part of the body. In constructing the foot of this noble creature,
Nature sought to do more than merely protect the extremely
delicate and exquisitely sensitive structures contained within
the hoof from injurious contact with the ground. This re-
doubtable difficulty is comparatively insignificant, in compari-
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12                       WRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
son with the other portions of the task she set herself. It
was necessary that the lower extremity of the limb of such a
glorious creation as the horse, should be an organ endowed with
the acutest sense of touch for the instantaneous perception of
the consistence and inequalities of the ground over which it
moved; and while it possessed this quality in a high degree, it
was also indispensable that it should be gifted with the properties
of resistance, pliability, and lightness to the extent necessary for
the support and progression of the body; in addition to the
rigidity essential to impülsion, the elasticity and suppleness
needful to avert reactions or jar, and the durability and rapidity
of renovation demanded by incessant wear. Here we have a
combination of requirements whose simultaneous existence in
one organ might alraost be deemed incompatible, so opposite
do they appear: insensibility with a delicate sense of touch;
resistance with lightness; rigidity with elasticity; and supple-
ness with durability.
THE HOOF.
The " hoof " takes no small share in rendering the borse „Mch a
complete animal as he is ; and as this is the portion of the foot
which comes more immediately under the care and manipulative
skill of the farrier, its study should be a little more detailed
and minute, perhaps, than that of the internal structures. For
convenience and simplicity in description, it has been divided
into " wall" or " crust," " sole," " frog," and " coronary frog-band "
or " periople." It is most essential that the shoer should under-
stand the structure, nature, and uses of these parts.
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TiLE HOOF.                                              13
The Wall of the hoof (Fig. 4, b) is that oblique por-
tion which covers the front and sides of the foot, from the
coronet to the ground, and is suddenly inflected or bent
inwards at the heels, towards the middle of the sole to
form the "bars," which are merely prolongations of its ex-
tremities (Fig. 6, ff). It constitutes the circumference or
margin of the hoof; is the part of the horny box that is intended
more especially to come into contact with the ground, and is
that on which the iron defence, or shoe, rests, and through
which vhe farrier drives the nails that attach it. The inner
face of its upper edge is hollowed out into a somewhat wide
Fig. i.
Profïle of a Five-year-old Front Hoop that had never been Shod :
external F ace.—Angle of wall at toe 51°. o», Frog band or periople.
6, Wall. c, Toe, between which and d is the "outside" or "inside" toe or
"mammilla," and between e and ƒ the "outside"or " inside " heel.
concavity (Fig. 5, b), which receives, or rather in which rests,
the coronary cushion. This concavity is chiefly remarkable for
being pierced everywhere by countless minute openings—
looking as if made by the point of a very fine needie—which
penetrate the substance of the wall to some depth; each of these
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
14
perforations receives one of the "villi" or minute tufts of blood-
vessels already mentioned as prolonged from the face of the
membrane covering the interior of the foot. Below this
concavity, which receives a large share of the horse's weight,
the wall is of about equal thickness from top to bottom ; on the
whole of its inner surface are ranged thin, narrow, vertical horny
plates or leaves (Fig. 5, f), in number corresponding to the
sensitive laminse, between •which they are so intimately received
or dovetailed—a horny leaf between every two sensitive ones—
that in the living or fresh state it is almost impossible to
The Hoof, with one half the wall removed to show its interior.—
a a, Frogband. b, Cavity for the coronary cushion. c, Upper or inner
surface of the "bar." d, Vertical section of the wall in front, d', Ditto at
the heel. d", A homy leaf or lamina. e, Horizontal section of the wall at its
junction with the sole. ƒ, Laminse or leaves of the wall. ƒ', Ditto of the
"bars." g, Upper surface of the horny sole. h, Junction of the horny laminse
with the sole at the so-called "white line." i, Toe-stay at the middle of the
toe. h, Upper surface of the horny frog. I, Frog-stay. m, Cavity corre-
sponding to a branch of the frog. n, Ditto, corresponding to the body of the
frog.
disunite without tearing them. The inner face of the lower
margin is united in a solid manner to the horny sole, through
-ocr page 26-
15
THE HOOF.
the medium of a narrow band of soft, light-coloured hom,
situated between the two, and which we may call the " white
line " (Fig. 5, h).
The outer surface of the wall is generally smooth and shining,
in the natural healthy state.
The dimensions of the wall vary in different situations ; in
front it is deepest and thickest, but towards the quarters and
heels it diminishes in height and becomes thinner; at its angles
of inflection—the points of the heels—it is strong and thick.
lts structure is fibrous ; the fibres pass directly parallel to each
other, and generally in a straight direction, from the coronet to
the ground, each fibre being moulded on, as it is secreted by,
one of the minute tufts of blood-vessels lodged in the cavity
at the coronet. Microscopically, the wall is composed of minute
cells, closely compressed, and arranged vertically around each
fibre, and horizontally between the fibres. A point of much
practical interest is to be found in the fact, that the fibres on
the surface, or outside of the wall, are very dense, close, and
hard (Fig. 5, d) : so dense, indeed, that the wall of an un-
mutilated hoof looks like whalebone; but towards the inner
surface, they become softer, lighter-coloured, more spongy, and
easily cut (Fig. 5, k).
The Homy Sole (Fig. 6, k) is contained within the lower
margin of the wall, and is a concave plate covering the lower
face of the pedal bone. In structure it; is fibrous like the wall,
the fibres passing in the same direction; they are also formed in
the same manner, by the tufts of vessels projected from the
membrane which immediately covers the sole of the bone. These
-ocr page 27-
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
16
tufts penetrate the horn-fibres to some depth, and, as in the
wall, not only secrete them, but maintain them in a moist
supple condition, such as best fits them for their office.
The sole is thickest around its outer border, where it joins the
Fig. 6.
-d
•e
f
I
Plantar Surface op lefi Fore Hoof of a Fivb-tear-old Horse that
had never been Shod.—a a, Glomes or heels of the.frog. b, Median lacuna
or "cleft" of the f rog. cc, Branches of the f rog. dd, Heels, "angles of
inflexion," or " buttresses " of the wall of the hoof. e e, Lateral lacunss or spaces
between the f rog and bars. ff, Inflexions of the wall or '' bars." g, Body of
the frog. h, Outside quarter of the hoof. i, Inside quarter of the hoof.
/, Point of the f rog. Je, Sole. Il, Commissure, " white line," or line of junc-
tion between sole and wall. m n, Mammilla. o, Toe.
wall; thinnest in the centre, where it is most concave. A
notable peculiarity in this part of the hoof, and one which dis-
tinguishes it from the wall, is its tendency to break off in flakes
on the ground face when the fibres have attained a certain
length; the wall, on the contrary, continues to grow downwards
to an indefinite extent, and unless kept within reasonable
dimensions by continual wear or the instruments of the farrier,
would in time acquire an extraordinary length and distortion.
The horn of the sole, for this reason, is less dense and resisting
-ocr page 28-
17
THE HOOF.
than that of the wall, and is designed more to support weight
than to sustain wear.
The "Horny Frog" (Fig. 6, a,c,g,j) is an exact redupli-
cation of that within the hoof, which has been described as the
sensitive or fatty frog. It is triangular, or rather pyramidal
in shape, and is situated at the back part of the hoof, within the
bars ; with its point or apex (j) extending forward to the centre
of the sole, and its base or thickest portion filling up the wide
space left between the inflexions of the wall. In the middle
of the posterior part is a cleft, which, in the healthy state,
should not be deep, but rather shallow and sound on its
surface (6).
In structure, this body is also fibrous, the fibres passing in the
same direction as those of the other portions of the hoof; but
instead of being quite rectilinear like them, they are wavy or
flexuous in their course, and present some microscopical pecu-
liarities which, though interesting to the comparative anatomist,
need not be alluded to here. The fibres are finer than those of
the sole and wall, and are composed of cells arranged in the
same manner as elsewhere in the hoof; they are formed by the
villi which thickly stud the face of the membrane covering the
sensitive frog.
The substance of the horny frog is eminently elastic, and
corresponds in the closest manner to the dense, elastic, epi-
dermic pads on the soles of the feet of such animals as the
camel, elephant, lion, bear, dog, cat, etc, and which are evi-
dently designed for contact with the ground, the support and
protection of the tendons that flex the foot, to facilitate the
o
-ocr page 29-
18
PKACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
springy movements of these creatures, and for the prevention of
jar and injury to the limbs. When in constant contact with
the ground, it is very hard and resisting on its lower surface,
and as secure from injury from stones as any other part of the
lower face of the hoof.
In the horse's foot, the presence of this thick, compressible,
and supple mass of horn at the back of the hoof, its being in a
healthy unmutilated condition, and permitted to reach the
ground while the animal is standing or moving, are absolutely
essential to the well-being of that organ; and more especially
if speed, in addition to weight-carrying, be demanded from the
horse.
The frog, like the sole, exfoliates, or becomes reduced in
thickness at a certain stage of its growth ; the flakes are more
cohesive than those of the sole, and frequently we see a piece
corresponding to the whole surface of the organ becoming
detached.
It must be remarked, however, that this exfoliation of the sole
and frog only takes place when the more recently formed hom
beneath lias acquired sufficiënt hardness and density to sustain
contact with the ground, and to successfully bear exposure to
the effects of heat, dryness, and moisture.
The "Coronary Frog-Band" or "Periople" (Figs. 4, a, 5, a),
is a continuation of the more superficial layer of the skin around
the coronet and heels, in the form of a thin, light-coloured
band that descends to a variable depth on the outer surface of
the wall, and at the back part of the hoof becomes Consolidated
with the frog, with which it is identical in structure and tex-
...
-ocr page 30-
19
THE HOOP.
ture. It can be readily perceived in the foot that has not
been mutilated by the farrier's rasp, extending from the
coronet, where the hair ceases, to some distance down the
hoof; it is thickest at the commencement of the wall, and
gradually thins away into the finest imaginable film as it
approaches the lower circumference of this part. Towards the
heels it is broadest and thickest. When wet it swells and
softens, and on being dried shrinks—sometimes cracks—in its
more dependent parts, or becomes scaly.
The fibres composing it are very fine and wavy, as in the frog;
they likewise grow from the villi which project from the true
skin or membrane immediately above the " coronary cushion."
The use of this band would appear to be two-fold: it connects
the skin with the hoof, and thus makes the union of these two
dissimilar textures more complete, its intermediate degree of
density and its great elasticity admirably fitting it for this
office; and it acts as a covering or protection to the wall at its
upper part, where this is only in process of formation, and has
not sufficiënt resistance to withstand the effects of exposure to
the weather. The greatest thickness and firmness of the band
corresponds to the portion of the wall in which the villi or
vascular tufts are lodged, and here the hom is soft, delicate, and
readily acted upon in an injurious manner by external influences.
Thus far, then, we have rapidly glanced at the anatomy and
uses of the various parts entering into the composition of the
horse's foot, and its horny box or capsule—the hoof. It may be
necessary, before we pass to the consideration of the latter as a
whole, to allude to the structure and uses of that narrow strip
c 2
-ocr page 31-
20
PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOBING.
of horn, vvhose presence every farrier or veterinary surgeon is
cognizant of, but whose character and functions have been
strangely left out of consideration by all anatomists hitherto.
I refer to the " white line "—the slender intermediate band that
runs around the margin of the sole, and connects that plate of
horn so closely to the wall as to make their union particularly
solid and complete (Figs. 5, h, 6, l). When preparing the border
of the hoof for the reception of the shoe, this part is easily dis-
tinguished by its lighter colour (in a dark hoof), and by its
being softer and more elastic than either the sole or wall, be-
tween which it is situated. It would appear to be secreted by
the villi which terminate the lower end of the vascular lammee,
and the horny leaves of the wall are also received into its
substance—a circumstance that renders the junction of the two
more thorough and complete. I think there can be no doubt
that the principal use of this elastic rim of horn, placed in
such a situation, is to obviate the danger of fracture to which
the inferior part of the hoof—particularly the sole—would be
liable, if the junction between the hard and comparatively
inelastic sole and wall was directly effected without the mter-
position of such a body.
It may be noted, that it is through this soft border of horn
that gravel and foreign matters usually find their way to the
sensitive parts of the foot, and there excite such an amount of
irritation as to lead to the formation of matter, and cause much
pain and lameness; an accident which the older farriers termed
"gra velling."
In viewing the horse's hoof as a whole, and in the unshod
-ocr page 32-
ii
THE HOOF.
state, we find that it presents several salient characteristics,
the consideration of which ought to dominate or serve as a
guide in framing rules for the observance of farriers in the
practice of their art. The first of these is the direction in
which the wall grows when it is in a healthy condition.
Viewed as it stands on a level surface, the hoof may be said
to be somewhat conical in shape, its upper part being a little
less than its base; and although, geometrically, its shape may
be described as the frustrum of a cone, the base and summit of
which have been cut by two oblique planes—the inferior con-
verging abruptly behind towards the superior—yet the circum-
ference of the hoof does not offer that regularity which this
description might imply; on the contrary, in a well-formed
foot, we find that the outline of its inferior, or ground border,
is notably more salient on the outer than the inner side,
giving it that appearance which has been designated the
" spread."
A cone being intersected by two planes oblique to its axis,
and not parallel to each other, gives a good idea, nevertheless,
of the obliquity which forms so marked a feature in the hoof.
The degree of obliquity of the front part or "toe," and of the
upper surface, varies with the amount of growth; but where
this has been counterbalanced by a proper degree of wear, it
will be remarked that this obliquity corresponds to the inclina-
tion of the pastern bones immediately above the hoof, when the
horse is standing.
It will be obvious that this inclination also varies with the
breeding of the animal, and the conformation of the limbs;
-ocr page 33-
22
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
so that no definite degree can be assigned. But it must
be pointed out, that giving the angle of 45°, as is done in
almost every treatise on shoeing and the anatomy of the foot,
is a grave error. Looked at in profile, a hoof with this degree
of obliquity would at once be pronounced a deformity—the
slope is too great (fig. 7); and if the farrier were to attempt
to bring every foot he shod to this Standard, he would inflict
serious injury, not only on the foot itself, but also on the
back tendons and the joints of the limbs. Careful measurement
will prove that the obliquity of the front of the hoof is rarely,
if ever, in a well-shaped leg and foot, above 50°, and that it is,
in the great majority of cases, nearer 56°. The sides or
"quarters" of the wall are less inclined—though the outer
is generally more so than the inner; while the heels are
Fig. 7.
Side view of A Hoop whioh is too Obliqee.
still more vertical, and the inner may even incline slightly
inwards. Viewed in profile, the posterior face of the hoof will
be observed to have the same degree of slope as the front face.
In height, the heels are usually a little more than one-half that
of the toe; both heels are, or should be, equal in height.
These features, as will be seen hereafter, are of sufficiënt con-
-ocr page 34-
23
THE HOOF.
sequence to be constantly remembered. The other charac-
teristics are to be found on the lower or ground face of the hoof
—the most important, so far as the farrier's art is concerned.
In a natural condition, the whole, or nearly the whole of this
face comes into contact with the ground, each part participating
more or less in sustaining the weight thrown upon the limb.
On soft or uneven soil, the entire lower border of the wall, and
the sole bars, and frog, are subjected to contact; nature intended
them to meet the ground, and there to sustain the animal's
weight, as well as the force of his impelling power3. But on
hard or rocky land with a level surface, only the dense tough
crust and bars, the thick portion of the sole surrounded by
them, and the elastic retentive frog meet the force of the
weight and movement; and in both cases, not only with
impunity, but with advantage to the interior of the foot, as well
as the whole limb. The hom on this face is, as has been said,
dense, tough, and springy to a degree varying with the parts of
which it is composed ; while its fibres are not only admirably
disposed to support weight, secure a firm grasp of the ground,
and aid the movements of the limbs, but are also an excellent
medium for modifying concussion or jar to the sensitive and
vascular structure in their vicinity.
The whole circumference of the wall meets the ground, and
from the disposition of its fibres, the arrangement of the cells
which enter into their composition, and its rigidity, it is
admirably fitted to resist wear and sustain pressure. It
projects more or less beyond the level of the sole, and the
space measured beuveen the white zone within it, and its
-ocr page 35-
24
PRACTICAL HORS-E-SHOEING.
ou ter surface, gives its exact thickness. This is a faet not
without interest to the farrier in the operation of attaching the
shoe by nails, as these have to be driven only through this
dense horn—which in good hoofs cannot be said to much exceed
half-an-inch in thickness—and in proportion to its thinness is
the necessity for carefulness and address on his part, in order to
guard against wounding or bruising the sensitive textures.
The sole is more or less concave from its junction with the
wall; nevertheless, even on moderately firm ground, a portion
of its circumference—which is generally the thickness of the
wall—takes a share in relieving the latter of pressure. This is
also a fact to be borne in mind. In soft ground, the whole of
the lower surface of the sole is made to aid in sustaining the
weight, and to prevent the foot sinking. But it must be noted
that the pressure of the lower face of the pedal boue or hoof-
bone on the upper surface of the sole can never be very great,
else the sensitive membrane between them would be seriously
injured. This injury is prevented by the coronary and, to a
lesser extent, by the plantar cushion, which largely retard the
descent of the bone on the floor of the horny box.
The frog, on both hard and soft ground, is an essential portion
of the weight-beanng surface. In the unshod, healthy foot it
always projects above the level of the sole, and seldom below
that of the wall at the heels; indeed, it is found, in the
majority of hoofs, either on a level with the circumference of
this part, or standing above it, so that its contact with the ground
is assured. Hence its utility in obviating concussion, supporting
the tendons, and, on slippery ground, in preventing falls. In
-ocr page 36-
THE HOOF.                                        25
pulling up a horse sharply in the gallop, or in descending a
steep hill, the frog, together with the angular recess fomied
by the bar and wall at the heel ©f the hoof, are eminently
serviceable in checking the tendency to slip; the animal in-
stinctively and forcibly plants the posterior portions of the foot
exclusively on the ground.
Dark hoofs are generally the best; they owe their colour to
the presence of minute particles of black pigment, which con-
tains a notable proportion of iron, and are somewhat resisting
and indestructible.
A good hoof should have the wall unbroken, its outer face
smooth and even, and the angle at the front not less than 50°;
the lower or ground face of the front hoof should be nearly
circular in outline,—the sole slightly concave at the circum-
ference, deeper at the centre ; the border of the wall ought to
be thick at the toe, gradually thinning towards the heels, but
at the inflexion or commencement of the bar a strong mass of
horn should be found; the bars should be free from fracture,
and the frog moderately developed, firm and solid, the iniddle
lacuna or cleft being rather shallow than deep, and showing no
tracé of pulpiness or discharge.
The hind foot should possess the same soundness of horn,
though it differs from the fore hoof in being more oval in
outline from the toe to the heels; the sole is also more con-
cave, the frog smaller, and the heels not so high. The horn is
usually less hard and resisting—a circumstance perhaps due to
the hind feet being more frequently exposed to humidity in the
stable than the fore ones.
-ocr page 37-
u
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
GROWTH OF THE HOOF.
In auy treatise on shoeing, the growth of the hoof cannot be
left out of consideration; as on it the foot, in an unshod condition,
depends for an efficiënt protection, while without this process
the farrier's art would quicklybe of no avail.
Tn its unshod state, the hoof being exposed to continual
wear on its lower surface, from contact with the ground on
which the animal stands or moves, is unceasingly regenerated by
the living parts or tissues within. We have already referred to
the special apparatus which is more immediately concemed in this
work of regeneration, and pointed out that the wall, with the
laminas on its inner face,* is forrned from the coronary cushion
at the upper part of the foot; the sole from the living mem-
brane covering the lower face of the pedal bone ; and the frog
from the plantar cushion. It has been also mentioned that
this dead horny envelope, instead of being merely in juxta-
position or simple contact with this exquisitely sensitive
secretory membrane, is everywhere penetrated to a certain
depth on its inner face (with the exception of the portion
of the wall covered with the horny leaves) by multitudes of
minute processes named "villi," which are not only concerned
in the growth of the horn-fibres—acting as moulds for them,
* It is generally stated that the horny leaves are formed by the sensitive
ones, with whieh they are in such close union. That this is an error, the
microscope, physiology, and pathological experience abundantly testify.
-ocr page 38-
27
GROWTH OF THE HOOF.
and endowing the hoof with that degree of lightness, elas-
ticity, and toughness which are so necessary to its efficiency—
but also make this insensitive case a most useful organ of
touch.
The growth of the hom takes place by the deposition of new
material from the secreting surface ; this deposition is effected at
the commencement or root of the fibres, on the inner face of the
hoof; there the horn is yet soft, and its incessant reproduction
causes these fibres to be mechanically extended, or pushed
downwards towards the ground in a mass. Once formed, the
fibres are submitted to no other change than that of becoming
denser, harder, less elastic, and drier, as they recede farther
from the surface from which they originated.
So regular is this growth, generally, in every part of the hoof,
that it would appear that the secreting membrane is endowed
with an equal activity throughout.
But though this equality in the amount of horn secreted
over so wide a surface is an undoubted fact, yet it must not be
forgotten that, under the influence of certain conditions, the
growth or descent of the corneous material may be effected in
an irregular manner, either through a particular portion of the
secretory apparatus assuming a more energetic activity, or from
its being hindered more or less in its function.
For instance, the way in which the foot is placed on the
ground has a most marked influence, not only on the amount of
horn secreted, but also on that subjected to wear.
When the superincumbent weight of the body and limb
is equally distributed over the lower face of the hoof, the
-ocr page 39-
£8
PKACT1CAL HORSE-SHOEING.
foot rnay be said to be properly placed as a basis of support
to the whole. But when, through mismanagement or defective
form, this base is uneven—one side higher than the other, for
example—the weight must fall on the lowest part to a greater
degree than the highest; thus causing not only disturbance in
the direction of the limb and its movements, but considerably
modifying the growth of the hom. This growth is diminished
at the part subjected to most pressure—in all probability from
the smaller quantity of blood allowed to be circulated through
the secretory surface; while to the side which is subjected to
the least compression, the blood is abundantly supplied, and the
formation of hom is consequently augmented. This is a fact
of much importance and practical interest in farriery, as it de-
monstrates that any irregularity in the distribution of the
weight of the body on the foot has a prejudicial effect on the
secreting apparatus of the organ, and, as a result, on the form
of the hoof.
When the weight is evenly imposed on the foot, this appa-
ratus, being uniformly compressed throughout its extent,
receives everywhere an equal quantity of the horn-producing
material, by the regular flow of blood through it.
It is the same with the wear of the hoof. A jast disposition
of the weight is a necessary condition of the regularity of wear.
While the animal is standing on unshod hoofs, the wear of
hom is slight; it is in movement that it becomes increased, and
this increase is generally in proportion to the speed, the weight
carried, the nature of the ground, and whether its surface be wet
or dry. Each portion of the lower face of the hoof—wall, sole,
-ocr page 40-
29
GROWTH OP THE HOOF.
bars, and frog—should take its share of wear and strain ; but it
will be readily understood that this cannot be properly effected
if the weight is thrown more upon one side than the other ;
that part which receives the largest share will be subjected to
the greatest amount of loss from wear, and this, with the
diminished secretion of horn, will tend to distort foot and
limb still more.
In a well-formed leg and foot, the degrees of resistance of the
different parts of the hoof are so well apportioned to the
amount of wear to be sustained, that all are equally reduced
by contact with the ground, and the whole is maintained in a
perfect condition as regards growth and wear.
The amount of growth, even in a well-pi-oportioned hoof, varies
considerably in different animals, according to the activity pre-
vailing in, or the development of, the secreting apparatus ; and
in this respect the operations of the farrier, as we will notice
hereafter, are not without much influence.
It may be laid down as a rule, that the horn grows more
rapidly in warm dry climates, than in cold wet ones; in healthy
energetic animals, than in those which are soft and weakly;
during exercise, than in repose ; in young, than in old animals.
Food, labour, and shoeing also add their influence ; while the
seasons are to some extent concerned in the growth and shape
of the hoof. In winter it widens, becomes softer, and grows but
little ; in summer it is condensed, becomes more rigid, concave,
and resisting, is exposed to severer wear, and grows more
rapidly: this variation in quality being a provision of nature
to enable the hoof to adapt itself to the altered conditions it
-ocr page 41-
SO                         PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEING.
bas to meet—hard hom to hard ground, soft horn to soft
ground.
In this way we can account for the influence of locality upon
the shape of the foot. On hard dry ground, the hoof is dense,
tenacious, and somewhat small, with a concave sole, and a little,
but firm frog; while in marshy regions it is large and spread-
ing, the horn is soft and easily destroyed by wear, the sole is
thin and flat, and the frog is only an immense spongy mass which
is badly fitted to receive pressure from even slightly hardened
soil. In a dry climate, we have an animal small, compact,
wiry and vigorous, travelling on a surface which demands a
tenacious hoof, and not one adapted to prevent sinking; in
the marshy region we have a large, heavy, lymphatic creature,
one of whose primary requirements is a wide flat foot to
enable it to travel on a soft yielding surface. Change the re-
spective situations of these two horses, and nature imme-
diately begins to transform them and their feet. The light.
excitable, vigorous horse, with its small vertical hoofs and
concave soles—so admirably disposed to traverse rocky and
slippery surfaces—is physically incompetent to exist on low-lying
swamps; while the unwieldy animal, slow-paced and torpid, with
a foot perfectly adapted to such a region—its ground face being
so extensive and flat that it sinks but little, and the frog de-
veloped to such a degree as to resemble a ploughshare in form,
which gives it a grip of the soft slippery ground—is but in-
differently suited for travelling on a hard rugged surface. In
process of time, however, the small concave hoof expands and
flattens, and the large flat one gradually becomes concentrated,
-ocr page 42-
SI
SHOEING.
hardened, and hollow; these changes being designed to suit the
altered physical conditions in which the animals are placed.
The degree of health possessed by the horn-secreting
apparatus at any time has also much to do with its activity in
generating new material. When its blood-vessels become con-
gested or contracted from some cause or other, its function is in
a proportionate degree suspended, and the hoof grows in an
irregular manner, and may be altered in thickness, texture, and
quality.
In the ordinary conditions of town work and stable manage-
ment, I have observed that the wall of a healthy foot;—its chief
portion, so far as farriery is concerned—grows down from the
coronet at the rate of about one-fourth of an inch per month,
and that the entire wall of a medium-sized hoof is regenerated
in from nine to twelve months.
The process of growth can be greatly accelerated and exagger-
ated, by irritating the surface which throws out the horn material.
Thus a blister, hot iron, or any other irritant or stimulant applied
to this part, will induce not only a more rapid formation, but one
in which increased thickness is a marked feature.
SHOEING.
In the foregoing pages, we have considered the foot of the
horse, in a natural condition, as perfectly adapted for the per-
formance of most essential functions : as a basis of support while
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32
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEIXG.
the animal is standing, and, in addition, as a powerful propelling
instrument during progression.
We have also pointed out that the hoof which envelops it,
like a huge fmger-nail, is admirably constructed and endowed as
an aid and protection to this organ ; its utility mainly depending
on the texture and arrangement of the horny matter of which it
is composed, and the peculiar disposition of this in fibres of
variable density, size, and elasticity. .
But these qualities of the hoof, it was again remarked, are
intimately dependent upon the manner in which the horn-
secreting surface performs its office; as if this becomes dimi-
nished, weakened, or unable to supply sufficiënt material to
compensate for undue wear, the protecting case soon ceases to
guard the living tissues withïn from injury.
In the natural unshod state, when the equilibrium between
growth and wear is destroyed, and the latter takes place in a
rapid and unusual manner, the animal is compelled to rest
until the worn hoof has recovered its proper thickness; for
acute pain results when the living parts are exposed, or when
the wasted hom is insufficiënt to guard them against being
bruised by the ground.
In an artificial condition, when tho horse is employed on hard
roads, broken ground, and in a humid climate, to carry and draw
heavy loads at different degrees of velocity, and is forced to
stand on stony pavements during resting hours, his hoofs are
unable to meet the many severe demands imposed upon them.
The wear more than counterbalances the growth; and there-
forc it becomes an absolute necessity, if the animal is to be con-
-ocr page 44-
„                                        SHOEING.                                        83
tinuously and profitably utilised, that an artificial protection,
sufficiënt to meet the exigencies of the case, be employed.
The lower border of the wall is, as we have mentioned, the
part most deeply concerned in resisting wear and strain in the
unshod state, as on it the stress chiefiy falls ; it is, consequently,
the portion of the hoof that suffers most severely from undue
wear, and that which alone requires protection.
This fact must have been brought prominently before the
primitive shoers of horses thousands of years ago, as the earliest
specimens of shoes yet discovered are narrow, and in width do
not much exceed the thickness of the wall. To guarantee this
from wear was to increase the value of the horse a thousand-
fold, and the simply-wrought, narrow rim of iron, boldly and
securely attached to the hoof by a few rudely-shaped nails
was sufficiënt for the purpose.
But having fastened on this light metallic armature, and
allowed it to remain fixed to the hoof for a lengthened period, it
must soon have been discovered that the balance between growth
and wear was again disturbed, but this time in favour of growth;
for the wall being removed from contact with the ground, and
the rate of growth continuing as in the unshod state, the hoof, in-
stead of becoming diminished as before, now became abnormally
overgrown, and caused inconvenience. Then the shoe required
to be taken off, and the superfluous growth either removed
by instruments and the shoe replaced ; or the animal was made
to travel without the iron defence until it was again needed,
perchance when the hoof had become too much worn.
Such was horse-shoeing, in all probability, in early times,
D
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34                      PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
and such it is at the present day, where utility is not sacrificed
to stupid theories or foolish practices.
The evils attending the usual methods of shoeing are, as
has been said, very serious and glaring; and the chief of these
do not so much depend upon the faulty conformation of the
shoe—though this is, in the majority of cases, not to be ex-
empted from blame—as upon the treatment the hoof receives
before and after the application of that defence.
To illustrate these evils, and to show how unreasonable the
modern art of farriery is, as well as to indicate how it should be
practised, we will commence with the foot of the unshod colt,
and in the simplest words at our command, describe the ordinary
procedure in applying shoes to its hoofs for the first time;
pointing out, at each step in the process, what is wrong and
what is right, and giving reasons for the adoption of the prin-
ciples which, in our opinion, ought to guide the farrier in this
most important operation.
PREPARING THE HOOF.
We will premise that the young horse about to have its
hoofs armed for the first time is tolerably docile, and that its
tranquillity is not likely to be severely disturbed by the unusuai
sounds, and the strange manipulations to which its limbs are to
be subjected. For many months previously, its attendants
should have had this ordeal in view, and in handling it ought
......
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PEEPAEING THE HOOF.                             35
not to have forgotten to manipulate its legs and feet quietly
and gently, in something the same fashion that the farrier is
likely to do—even going so far in the lessou as to tap lightly
on its uplifted hoof, as if nailing on the shoe. The young
creature is generally intelligent enough soon to perceive that in
this no harm or punishment is intended, and in a short period
it becomes familiar with the practice.
The farrier who shoes a young horse for the first or second
time, should be a patiënt, good-tempered man, and an adept in
the management of horses and handling their lirnbs. If the
operation is to be performed in a forge, there should be as
little noise of hammers or glare of fires as possible—every-
thing ought to be conducted quietly, steadily, and with kmd-
ness. Harsh treatment, or unskilful handling, should be
severely reprehended, and all restraint or contention ought to
be dispensed with—at any rate until gentleness and patience
have been diligently employed and have failed. If accus-
tomed to companions, it ought to have one or two horses beside
it in the forge, and some one it knows, and in whom it has con-
fidence, should be present to assist in calming its fears and
reassuring it.
In describing the construction of the foot, we referred to the
shape of a well-formed hoof. We will presume the animal
before us—like nearly every unshod horse—has hoofs of this
description.
The first step, usually, in the preparation of this part for the
shoe, is to level and shorten the lower margin of the wall, pare
the sole and frog, and open up the heels. These details may
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
not be carried out so fully in the first shoeing as subsequently,
but we will note them as they are commonly practised during
the horse's lifetime.
Levdl'mg the Wall is an important operation, which but few
artizans rightly understand or care to do propeiiy. It has been
stated that unequal pressure on one side of the foot—one side
of the wall being lower than the other—is not only injurious
to the tv hole limb by the undue strain it imposes on the joints
and ligamonts. but that it tends to deform the hoof and modify
the growth of the hom.
It is, therefore, most essential that both sides of the hoof be
of equal depth, in addition to the whole lower margin of the
wall being level; and to make them so, the rasp should be
applied to this border in an oblique manner, across the ends of
its fibres, to bring them to the same length.
A good idea of the necessary reduction to be effected on
either side will be derived from an inspection of the limb from
the knee or hoek downwards, when the foot is placed firmly
and straight upon the ground. Any deviation of the hoof to
the inside or outside—most frequently it is the former—
can be readily detected by looking at the leg and hoof in
front.
The ground surface of the foot should be directly transverse
to the direction of' the pastern, and it is in maintaining or
restoring this relation that care and skill are required. If the
pastern is perpendicular to—that is, in a straight line with—
the shank-bone, and the two sides of the lower margin of the
foot are directly transverse to the line passing down from these,
'
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PREPARING THE HOOF.                                 87
then the wall has only to be lowered equally on both sides,
if it be too high.
It must be remembered, in levelling both sides of the lower
surface of the hoof, that the difference of a few fractions of an
inch between them will cause considerable, and perhaps very
hurtful, oscillations of the weight thrown on the limb, and espe-
cially at the fetlocks.
A properly instrncted farrier should be able, at a glance
across the upturned foot, to discover whether it is tolerably
level. In figure 8, I have shown wïiat is meant by a properly
Fig. 8.
(V                             h                       ____tt>
Plan of A Hoof to show how it should be levelled at each side, in order to preserve
the proper direction of the limb and foot.
levelled hoof, the dotted line a a, across the qnarters, being
directly transverse to the vertical line b, and the distance from
a to c of one side being equal to that from a to c of the other.
Shortening the Wall.—Reducing the wall to proper dimen-
sions is another important matter in connection with the pre-
paration of the foot for the shoe. We have seen that the
natural and moderate wear of the unshod hoof is compensated
for by the incessant downward growth of the horn, and that this
process of wear and regeneration maintains the natural dimen-
sions and just bearing of the foot. But on the application of
the shoe a barrier is at once opposed to the wear, while the
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38
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
growth is not interfered with; consequently, the hoof continiially
increases in length and obliquity—a change which causes
derangement in the disposition of the weight on the lower part
of the leg and foot, and other inconveniences.
In speaking of the growth of the horn, it was remarked that
in health this took place in a regular manner over the whole
surface. It seems rather contradictory, therefore, to assert that
the hoof increases in obliquity—appears.to grow faster at the
toe than the heels—when, if this statement is correct, their
increase in length should be always the same. In the unshod
hoof this lengthening of the toe is not observed; it only
occurs in one that has been shod, and is to be accounted for
by the fact that the shoe not being nailed back so far as the
heels, is, every time the foot falls on the ground, pressed
against the horn at these parts, and so great is this down-
ward friction or pressure, that, after a time, not only is the
hoof considerably worn, hut the face of the shoe is also deeply
channelled at corresponding points. Owing to the shoe being
firmly fixed around the toe, there is no play at this part, and
hence the apparent inequality in growth between the front and
back of the hoof: a circumstance more observable in the fore
than the hind foot, from the heels of the former being more
under the centre of gravity, and so having a greater weight to
sustain.
The pastern and foot form part of a lever that extends from
the fetlock to the ground, and supports the weight of the body
The strain comes perpendicularly from the shoulder to the
fetlock (fig. 9, a, c); hut from thence to the ground it passes
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39
PREPARING THE HOOP.
along the pastern and foot (c, d)—the extremity of the lever—
and these are inclined more or less obliquely forward ; hence the
charge imposed on the limb bas an incessant tendency to in-
crease this obliquity by bringing the fetlock nearer the ground
(b). To resist this tendency, however, we have the two flexor
tendons, and the powerful suspensory ligament at the back of
the limb, which support this joint and maintain its angle.
Fig. 9.
Diagram of a Hokse's Limb from below the knee, to show the direction in which
the weight falls upon it.
But it will be readily understood, that the longer and less
upright this lever is, the greater is the strain and fatïgue
thrown upon the tendons and ligament. Though an oblique
pastern may look graceful, and make the horse's step more
elastic and agreeable to the rider, yet when the degree of
obliquity exceeds that intended by nature, great risk is
incurred of injury to the supporting apparatus. Hence the
necessity for maintaining the hoof at its normal angle—a
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40                         PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
necessity, however, which can never be met, except at the
moment when the animal is newly shod; for no sooner is the
equilibrium restored between the front and back of the hoof,
and the shoe fastened on, than it begins to be disturbed again.
This inconvenience is inevitable, from the very nature of the
means we adopt to defend the foot from injury.
On the other hand, the suspensory apparatus is less severely
taxed, as the lever is short and vertical : or, in other words, as
the pastern and hoof are upright. But this, though relieving
Diagkam of the Hoof to exhibit its relative proportions in length and obliquity.
the tendons and ligament, throws the weight too directly on
the bones; consequently the jar to these and the whole limb is
great, and even dangerous ; while the back parts of the foot are
unduly strained to relieve them.
It must be, then, very evident, that levelling and bringing
the ground face of the hoof to the necessary length—equal on
both sides from toe to heel, and justly proportioned in depth at
toe and heel—is no trifling matter, as the soundness of the
limb and ease in progression are concerned in the operation.
Excessive length or obliquity of hoof strains back tendons and
ligament; a hoof long at the toe and low at the heels (fig. 10,
a,b), increases the obliquity; on the contrary, when the heels
.•:..
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41
PREPARING THE HOOF.
are high and the toe óf the hoof too short (fig. 10, c, cl), the
bones suffer, and the whole limb experiences more or less the
effects of concussion.
In both cases progression is fatiguing, imperfect, and hurtful
to an extent proportionate to the excess.
Another disadvantage in shoeing, arising from the tendency
of the hoof to increase in length at the toe, and also from its
form, is the change in the position of the shoe itself. The hoof
being more or less conical in shape, with its base opposed to the
ground, it follows that, as it increases in length, its lower cir-
cumference also widens in every direction; the result is that the
Fig. 11.
A Hoof too oblique reduced to its proper dimensions by the dotted line at a.
shoe, although at one time accurately fitting the hoof, gradually
becomes too narrow; at the same time the increase in length
at the toe carries the iron plate forward, away from the heels.
This is one more of the inevuable evils of shoeing:, but one
which, nevertheless, the skilful workman may greatly palliate.
The farrier equalises both s'des of the hoof by applying his rasp
in a sloping direction to the ground border or end of the wall;
he also brings it to its natural angle with the same instrument,
by removing the necessary amount of hom from the margin of
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43
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
the hoof at the toe or heels: by reducing the former without
interfering with the latter, the obliquity of the foot is diminished
as in figs, 10, c, d, 11, a; while rasping down the heels and
leaving the toe untouched increases it (fig. 10, a, b).
In the great majority of cases, the heels, for the reason stated,
require but little interference; the excess of growth is nearly
always at the toe, and thus no absolute rule can be laid down
as to the angle to which the hoof should be brought. The
practised eye can discern at once whether the angle is in
conformity with the natural bearing and direction of the limb,
and there will be no difficulty in adjnsting it, should it not be
so, provided there is sufficiënt horn to spare for this purpose.
We have previously shown that the inclination of the front
of the hoof varies from 50° to 60°, and probably the mean
between these two angles will be that usually observed. (Fig.
Fig. 12.
Ihstbument fob Measüeing the Degree of Obliquity of TaE Hoof.*
10, g, e, ƒ, is a hoof with about 52° of obliquity; g, a, b, 45° ;
g, c, d, more than 60°).
* The proportion between foot and instrument is not correct in this drawing. The
instrument does not stand higher than the coronet of a large-sized foot.
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PEEPAEING THE HOOF.                             43
On ordinary occasions, causing the horse to stand on a level
floor, and viewing the hoof in profile a few paces off, is sufficiënt
to inform one of the angle; hut to ensure attention to this matter
and prevent mistakes, I have contrived a little instrument for
my farriers, which at once shows them the degree of obliquity,
and gives them an indication as to the amount of horn to be
removed from the toe or heels.
This instrument being placed on the ground, the straight
border of the index plate is placed parallel with the face of the
wall, the obliquity of which is then indicated by the vertical
pointer on the upper or convex circumference of the plate, this
being marked off in degrees (from 90° to 0°). I have found
this instrument very useful in enabling me to give directions
to farriers as to the proper amount of horn to be removed from
the toe and heels at each shoeing. When it is once known
what the natural obliquity of the hoof is, the shoer can then
be told to preserve that degree at each shoeing, and the indi-
cator will ensure this being done with accuracy.
In the operation of levelling and shortening the hoof, is
included the general reduction of the wall.
Provided the hoof, before it comes into the hands of the
farrier, has the proper inclination and is equal on both sides of
its ground face, but is nevertheless overgrown, the artizan has
then only to remove the excess of growth, without disturbing the
relations between the several regions of the wall. Or should
the hoof be overgrown, too oblique, too upright, or unequal at
the sides, then in remedying the one defect he at the same
time remedies all. The amount of horn to be removed from the
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44
PKACTICAL HORSE-SHOEIKG.
margin of the hoof will depend upon circumstances. It may be
laid down as a rule, however, that there being but little horn to
remove at the heels, these should only be rasped sufficiently to
ensure the removal of all loose material incapable of supporting
the shoe; the quaiters or sides of the hoof may require a freer
applieation of the rasp, but as 'the toe is reached, a larger
quantity must be removed, as in fig. 13, a, b. The limit to this
Fig. 13.
Diagram OF the Hoksb's Foot, showing at the dotted line a b, the quantity of horn
usually required to be removed in the operation of shoeing.
removal at the front of the hoof will be when the wall is
almost, or quite, reduced to a level with the strong unpared sole.
It must ever be borne in mind that, if the wall does not stand
beyond the level of the sole, it does not require reducing.
When the circumference of the hoof has at length been
brought to a condition fit to receive the shoe, the rasp must
finish its task by removing the sharp edge, and rounding it so
as to leave a thick strong border not likely to chip. The unshod
hoof nearly always exhibits this provision against fracture of the
wall-fibres.
Paring the Sole.—After the necessary diminution and
correction of the obliquity of the hoof, and the preparation
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PREPARING THE HOOF.
of the bed for the shoe, the farrier usually proceeds to pare
the sole. Indeed, while the colt is still at large, and before
the time lias arrived when its hoofs are to be shod with iron,
the workman is frequently called in to trim the hoofs, and
paring the lower surfac^ is part of the operation.
This procedure is as barbarous as it is unreasonable, espe-
cially when carried to the extent that has been advised in
books on horse-shoeing: viz., to pare the sole until it springs
to the pressure of the thumb. In the great majority of forges
this most pernicious practice is carried out, either because the
owner of the horse thinks it necessary, the groom or coachman
that it makes the horse go better and the feet to look well, or
the farrier that it is more workmanlike—though if he is
pressed hard for any other reason he is unable to give one of
a satisfactory character.
Like so many practices relating to the management of the
horse, this paring of the sole is absurd in the extreme, and has
not the most trifling recommendation to support it. Unfortu-
nately for those who recommend, and also those who practise it,
its evil effects are not immediately apparent; a horse with his
soles denuded of their hom until the blood is oozing through
them, may not at the moment manifest any great sufferinw,
and may even go tolerably sound on a level pavement, thouo-h
if he chance to put his foot on uneven ground or a sharp
stone, his agony may be so acute as to cause him to fall.
The paring-knife is skilfully used to remove all the surface
horn down to that which has been most recently formed, or is
in process of forming. So anxious is the groom or farrier that
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46
PBACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEING.
this, to them, most important operation should be canïed out,
that the soles are filled with cow-dung, or some other filth, for
some time previously, in order that the hom may be softened
and rendered more amenable to mutilation. When this
" stopping " has not been carried out, and particularly in hot, dry
weather, the sol e is often so hard that it cannot be touched by
the knife, in whieh case a red-hot iron is applied to the surface
to soften the horn, or hot ashes are used. Then the bars and
sole are sliced away, until nothing is left but the thinnest
pellicle of the natural protection of the very sensitive parts
beneath, and not unfrequently the blood may be seen oozing
through in large globules. This is nothing else than down-
right cruelty, and should meet with the punishment it so well
deserves.
To remove the excessive growth of the wall is an absolute
necessity; but to denude the sole of its horn is wanton injury
to the foot and cruelty to the animal. This is easily accounted
for. The sole only increases its substance to a certain thickness
—never too much—and then the excess is thrown off in flakes
in a natural marmer. In this way the sensitive foot within is
amply protected ; the sole can sustain a share of the weight—
especially around its margin in front, where it is strongest—and
meet the ground, however rough and stony this may be, with
perfect impunity. This is its function.
It has been mentioned that the horn is secreted from the
living surface, and that myriads of beautiful vascular and
sensitive tufts, dependent from this surface, enter the horn-
fibres to a certain depth, and play an important part in the
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PREPARING THE HOOF.                            47
formation of the sole. The newly-formed horn is soft and
spongy, and incapable of resisting exposure to the air; but as
it is pushed further away from this surface by successive
deposits of fresh material, it becomes old horn, loses its
moisture, and in doing so acquires the hardness and rigidity
necessary to enable it to withstand external influences; then it
is subjected to wear, and if this be insufficiënt to reduce it suffi-
ciently, it falls off in scales. But the process of exfoliation is not
a rapid one; the flakes remain more or less firmly attached to the
solid horn beneath, until it in turn commences to loosen on the
surface and yield new flakes, when the old ones entirely sepa-
rate from it. This natural diminution in the excess of horn of
the sole is a most beneficial process for the hoof. Horn is a
slow conductor of heat and cold, and when thick, retains mois-
ture for a long period. These flakes, then, act as a natural
"stopping" to the hoof, by accumulating and retaining moisture
beneath; and this moisture not only keeps the foot cool as it
slowly evaporates, but ensures to the solid and growing horn its
toughness, elasticity, and proper development. In addition to this,
every flake acts more or less as a spring in warding off bruises or
other injuries to the sole ; and thus the floor of the horny box
is thoroughly protected from injury, externally and internally.
What occurs when the farrier, following out the routine of
his craft, or obeying the injunctions of those as ignorant as
himself, or so prejudiced as not to be able to reason, pares the
sole until it springs to the pressure of his thumb ? Why, the
lower surface of the foot—that which is destined to come into
contact with the ground, and to encounter its inequalities and
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
asperities, and whicli more than any other part requires to be effi-
ciently shielded—is at once ruthlessly denuded of its protection,
and exposed to the most serious injury. The immature horn,
suddenly robbed of its outer covering, immediately begins to
experience the evil effects of extemal influences; it loses its
moisture, dries, hardens, and shrivels up; it also occupies a
smaller space, and in doing so, the sole becomes more concave,
drawing after it the wall—for it must' be remembered that the
sole is a strong stay against contraction of the lower margin
of the hoof, and the consequence is, that the foot gradually
decreases in size, and the quarters and heels become narrow.
The animal goes " tender," even on smooth ground ; but if he
chance to put his mutilated sole on a stone, what pain must
he experience!
This tenderness on even ground or smoothly-paved roads,
arises from the fact, that not only is the ent ir e sensitive
surface compressed, irritated, or inflamed by the hard, contract-
ing envelope, and the unnatural exposure to sudden changes
of heat and cold; but that the little sensitive processes con-
tained at the upper end of each of the horn-fibres are pain-
fully crushed in their greatly diminished tubes, and instead of
being organs of secretion and the most delicate touch, they are
now scarcely more than instruments of torture to the unfortu-
nate animal. Not only is pain or uneasiness experienced
during progression, but even in the stable the horse whose
soles have been so barbarously treated, exhibits tenderness in
his feet by resting them alternately, and if they are feit a
great increase of temperature will be perceived.
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49
PREPARING THE HOOF.
Owing to the secreting apparatus of the sole being deranged
through this senseless paring, the formation of new horn takes
place slowly, and it is not untïi a certain quantity has been
provided to compensate in some degree for that removed, that
the horse begins to stand easier, and travel better. ricarcely,
however, has the restorative process advanced to this stage,
than it is time for him to be re-shod, when this part must
again submit to be robbed of its horn.
The sole having been pared too thin and made very concave,
leaves the circumference of the hoof standing much higher than
if the former had been left intact, and apparently too long ; so the
wall must be still more reduced. This is done; and we now
have the whole ground-face of the hoof sq wasted and mutilated,
that should the horse chance to lose a shoe soon after beingf
shod, the impoverished foot cannot bear the rude contact of the
ground for more than a few yards, and the poor creature is lame
and useless.
The tenderness and lameness arising from this maltreatment
are usually ascribed to everything but the right cause, and the
most popular is concussion. To avert this and protect the
defenceless sole, a most absurd shoe is required ; and, still more
absurd, the natural covering is attempted to be replaced by a
plate of leather, interposed between the ground and the sole,
and which is made to retain bundies of tow steeped in tar,
or some pernicious substance. It is scarcely necessary to say
that this artificial covering is but a poor substitute for that
which has been so foolislily, and with so much careful labour,
cut away; indeed, in several respects the leather sole, even
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PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
when onlv placed between the wall and shoe, and not over the
entire surface, is very objectionable.
Seeing, therefore, the natural provision existing in the sole of
the hoof for its diminution in thickness, -when necessary, and
knowing that the intact sole is the best safeguard against injury
and deterioration to this region, it must be laid down as a rule
in farriery,—and a rule from which there must be no departure
—that this part is not to be interfered with on any pretence, so
long as the foot is in health; not even the flakes are to be dis-
turbed.
By adhering to this rule, the horse can travel safely and with
ease in all weathers, and over any roads, immediately after
shoeing; the foot is maintained in a healthy condition; the
sole can sustain its share of the weight, and thus relieve
the wall of the hoof; and should a shoe happen to be lost,
the animal can journey a long distance with but little injury
to the organ.
Another of the many advantages derived from allowing the
sole to remain in its natural condition, is that on a soft surface
the hoof will not sink so deeply as one whose sole has been
hollowed out by the farrier; neither is it so difficult to with-
draw from heavy soiL
Paring the Frog.—This part of the hoof is that which, in the
opinion of the grooms and coachmen, and some others who
should know better, most requires cutting, " to prevent its
coming on the ground and laming the horse;" and this
reason, together with its softer texture, causes it to be made
the special sport of the farrier's relentless knife. It is artis-
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51
PREPARING THE HOOF.
tically and thoroughly trimmed, the fine elastic horn being
sliced away, sometimes even to the quick, and in its sadly
reduced form it undergoes the same changes as have been
observed in the pared sole. No wonder, then, that it cannot
bear touching the ground any more than the sole. Strip the
skin off the sole of a man's foot, and cause him to travel
over stony or pebbly roads ! Would he walk comfortably
and soundly ? How would the elephant, the camel, or even
the dog travel, if we pared away the pads on the bottom
of their feet ? Would we not be committing a very stupid—
nay, a very cruel act, by doing so. And yet the horse's frog
performs the same important function that the pad does on
their foot.
The artistically-shaped frog, so treated, soon wastes, becomes
diseased, and at length appears as a ragged, foul-smelling shred
of horn, almost imperceptible between the narrow deformed
heels of the pared foot.
The function of the frog in the animal economy is one of
great moment, and has already been indicated. It is eminently
adapted for contact with the ground, and in this resides its
most important office. To remove it from the ground and
deprive it of its horn, ■ is at once to destroy its utility and its
structure, and withdraw from the foot one of its most essential
components. The longer the frog is left untouched by the
knife, and allowed to meet the ground, the more developed it
becomes; its horn grows so dense and resisting, yet without
losing its special properties, that it braves the crushing of the
roughest roads without suffering in the slightest degree ; it
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52                        PEACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
ensures the hoof retaining its proper shape at the heels; is a
valuable supporter of the limb and foot while the animal is
standing or moving; and is an active agent, from its shape
and texture, in preventing slipping. Its reduction and removal
from the ground, I am perfectly convinced from long observa-
tion, have a tendency, directly or indirectly, to induce that
most painful, frequent, and incurable malady—navicular disease,
as well as other affections of this organ.
The farrier should, therefore, leave the frog also untouched,
unless there be flakes which are useless — though this is
extremely rare ; then these ought to be cut off. So particular
am I in this respect, however, and so well aware am I of the
morbid desire of the workman to cut into this part, that I never
allow any frogs to be interfered with unless I am present. If
any gravel has lodged beneath the flakes, at the side, or in the
cleft—which is most unfrequent—this is removed by some
blunt instrument.
To show the value of contact with the ground : when a horse
with a diseased frog is brought to me, I at once order the hoof
to be so prepared or shod that this part will immediately receive
direct pressure—in a brief space the disease disappears. Cases
of what grooms call "thrush," of many years' duration, and which
had defied all kinds of favourite dressings, have been cured, and
the rotten, wasted frogs have become sound and well developed
in a few months.
Opening-up the Heels.—Having done everything possible to
ruin the sole and the frog, the farrier proceeds to complete his
work by opening-up the heels. This operation is quite as ia-
....
-ocr page 64-
53
PEEPAEING THE HOOF.
jurious— if it is not more so — than mutilating the other
parts ; it consists in making a deep cut into the angle of the
wall at the heel, where it becomes bent inwards to form the
bar. In the unshod, natural state, or in the unmutilated foot,
this is a particulaiiy strong portion of the hoof, and serves a
very useful purpose, its utility being mainly owing to its
strength. From its preventing contraction of the heels, it has
been named the are bowtant or, " buttress " of the foot, by the
French hippotomists.
When it is hacked away by the farrier's knife, the wall of
the hoof is not only considerably weakened, but the hoof
gradually contracts towards the heels.
Horse-dealers and grooms are the chief patrons of " well-
opened" heels, as they give the foot a false appearance by
making it look wider in this region.
The fashion of paring the sole until it yields to the pressure
of the thumb has been perpetuated through the ignorance of
those who have had the management of horses, or the traditions
and routine of the artizans who more especially attend to
the requirements of the hoofs of these animals. But it must
be observed that this paring, slicing away the frog, and opening
up the heels, has been largely due, in later times, to' the false
notions propounded by some writers regarding the functions of
the horse's foot—such as the descent of the sole, the inability of
the frog to sustain contact with the ground, and the expansion
of the back parts of the hoof every time the weight was
imposed upon it. It is scarcely necessary here to say more,
than that these notions are at least extremely exaggerated, and
-ocr page 65-
54                        PRACTICAL HORSESHOEING.
that the practices which were maintained to facilitate these
supposed functions have been productive of an immense amount
of suffering and loss of animal life.
It should be ever most strenuously insisted upon, that the
whole lower face of the hoof, except the border of the wall,
must be left in a state of nature ; the horn of the sole, frog,
and bars, has an important duty to fulfil; it is the natural
protection to this part of the hoof, and no protection of iron,
leather, or other material, is half so efficacious ; in addition, it
is a capital agent in sustaining weight, and in keeping the
whole foot healthy and perfect in form.
THE SHOE.
The Ordinary Shoe.—The hoof having been prepared by the
farrier, according to his fancy, for the reception of the metal
plate which is to garnish it, here again we fmd that ignor-
ance prevails and is productive of inconvenience and injury.
" Improved principles " demand that a particular-shaped shoe
be applied : no matter whether the animal be for saddle,
harness, or draught purposes, it must have a shoe that rests
only on the margin of the hoof—on the wall. Therefore, except
a narrow border to correspond with this margin, the upper or
foot-face of the shoe is bevelled away, so as to leave a wide
space between it and the sole, and throw all the weight and
-ocr page 66-
THE SHOE.                                     55
strain on the outer parts of the foot (fig. 14), thus inducing a
tendency to deformity and impaired movement; in addition to
which disadvantage, this space is admirably contrived to lodge
stones, gravel, hardened mud, or snow, and in heavy ground it
Fig. 14.
L_____i
Seotion of the Front Part of the Horse's Foot and the ordinary shoe, to
show the disadvantage of resting the hoof only on the wall.
increases the suction immensely. But, as will be easily under-
stood from the manner in which the under-surface of the foot
has been treated, this bevelling is rendered an absolute necessity
if the horse is to be preserved from immediate lameness. The
sole has been pared so thin, that so far from its being able to
withstand a tolerably large amount of pressure around its
margin—particularly towai-ds the toe—it must be most care-
fully preserved not only from contact with the shoe, but also
from contact with the ground. This necessitates a wide surface
of metal, which increases the weight of the shoe, making it
clumsier to wear, and affording a large under or ground-surface
for slipping. And even with a shoe of such dimensions the
creature cannot travel at ease on stony roads; as the least
pressure of a pebble on the tender sole causes him to limp, and
-ocr page 67-
50
PRACTICAL HORSE- SHOEINO.
if the stone lodges in the space betveen shoe and sole serious
injury is likely to be inflicte.d.
Weight.—In addition to the bevelling and the width, the shoe
in ordinary use has several other glaring defects. One of these
is generally its excessive weight; it contains an amount of
iron far greater than is necessary to protect the hoof from the
effects of wear. One reason alleged for the employment of these
eumbrous masses of iron attached to the lower end of a horse's
limbs, is that they prevent concussion to the foot. This, any
reasonable person will at once perceive, is a manifest absurdity.
The hoof, by its lightness, its texture, and the wonderful arrange-
ment of its component parts, is well adapted to avert concussion ;
an inelastic heavy lump of iron firmly attached to it, and coming
into forcible collision with the ground at every step, must surely
be more likely to increase this concussion than diminish it.
There can be no difficulty, I imagine, in estimating the
injury inflicted by unnecessarily heavy shoes. Nature formed
the lower extremity of the limb with a view to lightness, no
less than to other important ends. The hoof-bone is quite
porous and open in texture, to diminish its ponderosity, with-
out detracting from its size or stability ; while the hoof itself
is, as we have just noticed, remarkable for the manner in which
its material is arranged with a special intention to confer light-
footedness upon the animal. The reason for this diminution in
weight, while it is coincident with increase in bulk, is to be
found in the fact that the muscles principally concerned in
moving the limb — swinging, straightening, and bending it
backwards and forwards—are all situated above the knee or
-ocr page 68-
THE SHOB.                                         57
hoek. The moving power is at one end of a comparatively long
lever with two arms, while the weight to be moved is at the other
extremity. The arm of the lever to which the power is applied
is very short; so that though rapidity is gained, more power is
lost. If we therefore consider the anatomy of the limb in a
mechanica! point of view, it will be obvious to any ordinary un-
derstanding that every additional ounce added to the foot must
be nearly, if not more than, equal to a pound at the shoulder.
In shoeing, this important consideration has been strangely
overlooked ; and yet we cannot forget that it must have a great
influence on the wear, not only of the shoe, but also of the
muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints, and even, indirectly, of
the entire animal. " If, at the termination of a day's work,"
says an eminent French veterinary professor, " we calculate the
weight represented by the mass of iron in the heavy shoes a
horse is condemned to carry at each step, we shall arrive at a
formidable array of figures, and in this way be able to estimate
the amount of force uselessly expended by the animal in raising
the shoes that overload his feet. The calculation I have made
possesses an eloquence that dispenses with very long commen-
taries. Suppose that the weight of a shoe is two pounds,
it is not going beyond moderation to admit that a horse
trots at the rate of one step every second, or sixty steps
a minute. In a minute, then, the limb of a horse whose
foot carries two pounds, makes efforts sufficiënt to raise
a weight of one hmidred and twenty pounds. For the
four limbs this weight in a minute is represented by
120 x 4 = 480 pounds; for the four feet during an hour the
-ocr page 69-
58                           PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
weight is 28,800 pounds; and for four hours, the mean
duration of a day's work in the French omnibuses, the total
amount of weight raised has reached the enormous figure
of 115,200 pounds. But the movement communicated to
these 115,200 pounds represents an expenditure of the power
employed by the motor without any useful result; and as the
motor is a living one, this expenditure of strength represents
an exhaustion, or, if you like it better, a degree of fatigue
proportioned to the effort necessary for its manifestation."
This question of weight is one of no small moment to the
well-being and utility of the horse, and therefore demands
particular attention. Nature, in constructing the animal
machine, and in enduing it with adequate power to sustain the
ordinary requirements of organization, and even to meet certain
extraordinary demands, could scarcely have been expected to
provide the large additional amount of energy necessary to swing
several ounces, or even pounds, attached to the lower extremity
of the limb. A horse shod with a two-pound shoe to each foot,
travelling at the rate of sixty steps in a minute for a period of
four hours, as has been stated above, carries nearly ftfty-two
tons; this weight too, as has been stated, is most disadvan-
tageously placed at the end of the long arm of the lever. It
must be remembered, also, that a two-pound shoe is a very
moderate affair when compared with many that are worn every
day in town and country, even by horses employed in fast work.*
* I have weighed some ordinary-sized, worn-out shoes from the feet of draught
horses, and found them to weigh from four to six pounds. What must they hare
weighed when new ? And what was the sum total of the muscular power required to
carry them for a month ? One thinks with dismay of the loss oceurring every day in
our large cities, through such an apparently trifling circumstance.
-ocr page 70-
THE SHOE.                                        59
Not only does an unnecessarily heavy shoe fatigue and wear
out the limbs sooner than a light one, but the lassitude it induces
causes it to be less durable, in proportion to the quantity of
iron it contains. This is accounted for by the manner in which
the wearied limbs drag their cumbrous load along the surface
of the ground. Heavy shoes also require more, and larger, nails
to attach them securely to the hoof, and this in itself is an evil
of no trifling magnitude, as we shall see presently.
The shoe, besides being heavy, may offer other serious
defects. It may be very uneven or very narrow on its upper
bearing surface — that on which the hoof rests; it may have
too many clips, and these not well formed or situated ; its
ground surface may be unequal; or the holes for the nails may
be badly placed, and improperly stamped.
An uneven or narrow upper surface is apt to produce lame-
ness, from the undue pressure it occasions on limited parts of
the hoof, and through these to the corresponding living textures;
or it may cause the wall of the hoof to split, etc.
Nails badly placed and improperly stamped are a prolific
source of injury to the foot, and the same may be said of mal-
formed or wrongly-situated clips; while much evil results from
the ground face of the shoe being higher at one part than
another. This inequality is, in nearly every case, due to the
presence of what are termed "calkins" at the extremities of the
branches of the shoe; or to one side of the plate being thicker
than the other.
Calkins.—Calkins are injurious to the limb in proportion to
their height. When smallest they are an evil, as they have a
-ocr page 71-
00
PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
tendency, in raising the back part of the foot high er than the
front, to alter the natural direction of the limb, and throw
undue strain on the fore part. Intended to prevent slipping,
their use in this respect is but temporary, unless they are made
high and thick : when their unfavoura,ble influence on the limb
and foot is increased. Added to this, from their throwing so
much of the weight and strain on the front of the foot, the
shoe is more rapidly worn away at' the toe ; so its thickness
there must be greater, and the shoe in consequence heavier, or
the animal will have to be more frequently shod. From their
only lasting for a limited period, the horse, at first inclined to
rely on them to preserve his footing on slippery roads, becomes
timid and unsafe when they are worn down to the stirface of
the shoe. By their form, and their projecting so much beyond
the level of the plate, they jar the limb ; exposé it to twistfl
and treads, sometimes of a grave character; induce shortening
of the flexor tendons ; and until they have been considerably
reduced, interfere with the animal's action. They are also
liable to cause the shoe to be torn off, by getting caught
between paving-stones ; while they produce severe lacerations,
should the horse wearing them happen to kick another animal.
This is more particularly observed among army horses which
have calkins on their bind shoes—and especially when in camp
or picketed. They also throw more strain upon the nails and
the hoof itself. Neither must it be forgotten that they remove
the frog from contact with the ground.
One side of the shoe being higher than the other produces
the same results as follow when the hoof is unequal in this
-ocr page 72-
01
THE SHOE.
respect. The bind limb is more exposed to this evil than the
fore one, from calkins being most frequently added to the hind
shoes, and from the fashion of ha ving the inner branch thickened,
but not sufficiënt to compensate for the height of the calkm on
the outer heel. This inequality is productive of injury to the
fetlock and hoek joint, and is doubtless not unfrequently the
cause of that formidable disease of the latter—" spavin."
But even if the farrier has reason to apply shoes, the ground
surface of wbich is not studded with calkins or any other kind of
"catch," he, in nearly every case of ordinary wear, puts on one
which has the whole of this surface perfectly plane, and not re-
lieved throughout its length or width by anything, except perhaps
the groove (or " fullering ") around its outer circumference, in
which the nail-holes are placed. This wide smooth surface is
evidently adapted to facilitate slipping on smooth pavements,
or even on grass or clay land. No better device, in fact, could
be proposed to promote insecurity of foot-hold than this plane,
wide-surfaced shoe, such as we so frequently see it in the streets
of London.
Size.—Besides constructing the shoe of a faulty shape, a very
common practice is to apply one smaller than the actual outline
of the ground surface of the hoof. This is a grave error, and in
all probability aiïses from the desire to make the horse's foot
look small and neat, and to produce fine work; just as the
maker of shoes for the human foot thinks it the perfection of
workmanship to squeeze it into the smallest possible, and most
unnatural looking, space. In the horse, however, small shoes are
more fruitful of lameness and chronic deformity than even Ine
t
>é:
-ocr page 73-
62                         PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEING.
worst-shaped cramped coverings can be for the human ex-
tremity ; as the horse is compelled to wear his tight plates day
and night, and must accomplish all kinds of severe labour in
them; while man can relieve himself of his torturing uncom-
fortable boots for at least some hours out of the twenty-four.
We shall allude to the evils of this stupid practice hereafter;
in the meantime, it may be sufficiënt to point out, that in
selecting and applying a shoe smaller than the circumference
of the hoof, we are depriving the foot and limb of a portion of
their stability and weight-bearing surface. The limb is, in
reality, a column of support for the body, and the hoof is the
base of this column. This base is very much wider than any
other portion, and only commences at the foot, which gradually
widens towards the ground, so as to make it still more expanded
and efficiënt. To diminish this base' is to fmstrate Nature's
mode of affording security and ease to the limb, and conse-
quently to do it harm and impair its stability.
The above are only some of the more prominent evils
attendant on the present metbod of constructing and shaping
the horse's shoe ; others, such as making it of bad material,
altogether unlike the outline of the hoof, etc, we will glance
at presently. We need not stop to consider what has been,
for very many years, the aim of those who, overlooking the real
injury done to the foot by the barbarous fashion of paring and
rasping, imagined the chief, if not the sole, cause of lameness
and inefficiency arose from the faulty character of the pro-
tection applied to it, and have sought to avert these by devising
various kinds of shoes, or other methods of arming the hoof.
-ocr page 74-
THE SHOE.                                        63
It is scarcely necessajy to say, that from their neglecting, or
being unconscious of the harm that rmdted from the mal-
practices already indicated, their so-called improvements have
been impotent for good, and have soon been consigned to forget-
fulness.
Objects to be Attained.—We have stated what we imagined
were the objects sought to be attained when shoeing was first
introduced. To prevent undue wear of the horn, and at the
same time to secure a good foothold for the horse, appear to
have been all that was considered essential in the infancy of the
art of farriery. And it must be conceded that, even now, these
are the primary advantages to be achieved in constructing a
horse-shoe, no matter what kind of task the horse that wears it
may be required to accomplish.
There can scarcely be a doubt that anything more simple and
efficiënt, and at the same time less expensive, than a well-
devised iron-shoe, cannot at present be produced; nor can the
comparatively safe and ready method of attaching it by nails be
superseded by any other means that we are acquainted with.
All tentatives in this direction have failed, either because of
their inefficiency or greater expense.
Simplicity, cheapness, durability, and perfect adaptability to
various requirements, are the essentials to be obtained in horse-
shoes ; and if one or more of these is absent in any particular
pattern, it can never be generally adopted, and is certain to
have but brief success.
The effects of applying an iron defence to the horse's foot
and securing it to the hoof by means of nails, are no doubt a
-ocr page 75-
01
PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
a-jurce of injurv to that organ, and even with every care a few
of these effects are unavoidable ; but tbey are increased in
somber and heigbtened in intensity when the shoe is badly
constructed and attached; whereas, by the exercise of a little
common sense and observation, those which are not to be
avoided may be greatly mitigated.
The foot, as has been observed, is a perfect organ, formed, in
harmony with the other parts of the limb, to meet every
requirement in hearing weight and aiding movement.
The hoof, as an integral portion of the foot, possesses these
qualities to a high degree, and, but for its inability to with-
stand incessant wear, would need no assistance from man,
except perhaps a little trimming when it became overgrown
or irregular. lts lower margin—hard, narrow, and projecting
slightly beyond the sole—is well adapted to support weight,
.withstand wear, and retain a hold of the ground; the concave
sole, in addition to its assisting the margin to support weight and
endure wear, also lends its aid in securing a foothold by its hollow
surface; while the angle of the wall at each heel—the "buttress"
—would appear to be specially designed to afford a most effec-
tive check to the sliding forward of the foot as the animal
suddenly pulls up when moving at a fast pace on level ground,
or attempts to stop or diminisb his descent on a slippery de-
clivity.
Those who study the functions of the animal body, and who
have to restore these when deranged, well know that in their
attempts to keep them in a normal condition, or to bring them
back to a healthy state, they must attend to the laws which
-ocr page 76-
65
THE SHOE.
govern these functions, and must follow the indications of Nature.
Therefore I have asked myself if it is possible to construct a
si toe whicli, while cheaply and easily manufactured by any
ordinary farrier, will answer the same ends as the lower surface
of the foot does in a natural state ; at the same time protecting
and supporting it, without interfering to any appreciable extent
with the healthy functions of the organ. We have seen that
the ordinary shoe is extremely imperfect, if it is not diametri-
cally opposite to what we should consider as calculated to
protect the foot, secure a good foothold, and interfere but little
with its functions. Instead of supporting the sole at its
strongest part, and thus relieving the wall from much of the
strain, it rests on the wall alone; this is contrary to natural
indications. The wide space between sole and shoe affords
lodgment to foreign bodies which, when the sole is artistically
mutilated, may do grievous harm, and it also increases suction in
soft ground ; the hoof shows nothing of this kind. Then, again,
the ground face of the shoe is a wide and smooth plane which,
instead of preventing slipping, cónduces to it; or thickened
portions project above this face, which disturb the balance and
injure the limb, while they are only of very temporary and
questionable service iu ensuring a firm footing.
In the unshod hoof we see nothing of this, and we are
brought to the conclusion, which daily experience amply con-
firms, that in addition to the ordinary management of the hoof
being utterly erroneous, the shoe usually applied to it is very
far from what it ought to be.
Pattern of £'hoe recommended.—If the sole of the hoof bas
-ocr page 77-
86
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
not been mutilated by the knife, it does not require to be
covered by the shoe, as Nature has furnished an infinitely
better protection. Wide-surfaced shoes can therefore be at
once dispensed with, and a narrow shoe, made of the very best
and toughest iron, adapted for travelling on slippery roads,
capable of aiding foot and limb, and sufficiënt to withstand wear
for four or five weeks, is all that is required. We will therefore
conclude that the upper or foot surface should be the whole
width of the shoe, and that it should be plane—not bevelled;
for we have seen that the sole was destined, particularly at its
junction with the wall in front, to sustain weight. We also
know that it is advantageous tothe whole foot and limb to allow
the sole as wide and general a bearing as possible ; so that one
part may relieve the other—the sole coming to the aid of the
wall, and the frog interposing to share the fatigue imposed
upon both, as well as to relieve the strain on the hinder parts
of the foot, flexor tendons and limb, and keep a firm grasp of
the ground by its elastic and adhesive properties.
The shoe applied to the foot, then, should have its hoof
surface flat, in order that it may sustain the wall and as much
of this strong portion of the sole as its width permits. This
is contrary to the usual practice, which only allows the wall to
rest on a narrow surface, and bevels off the remainder of the
shoe to prevent contact with the sole. Many years' experience
of this plane foot-surfaced shoe in various regions of the globe,
and on feet of every kind and quality, have proved the sound-
ness of this view. The foot is brought as near to a state of
nature when the greater part of its plantar surface supports
-ocr page 78-
67
THE SHOE.
the weight of the body, as man can hope to achieve while
submitting the horse to an artificial existence.
A light thin shoe is always preferable to a heavy thick
one; as the narrowness of the metal insures a good foothold
—in this respect imitating the wall ; while its thinness brings
the sole, frog, and bars in closer approximation to the
ground.
It is impossible to devise a shoe that will successfully meet
every requirement. The heavy draught horse, doomed to bring
into play every muscle in endeavouiïng to move and drag along
an enormous load, must have his feet differently armed to the
hunter or race-horse, with which speed is the chief requisite.
Taking into account the different character of the horny
textures, it is none the less true, however, that the same rule
holds good in all with regard to the sole and frog sustaining
weight, though in the slow-moving animal it is of less impor-
tance, perhaps, than in the lighter and more fleet one. The
massive draught horse requires toe and heel projections or
" catches " on the ground surface of the shoes, to economise his
locomotive powers and to aid his powerful efforts ; though his
hoofs none the less require the observance of those conservative
principles which have been so strongly insisted upon, but which
are so very seldom applied.
It is quite unaccountable why, in London, the shoes for
draught horses should be so badly constructed. Generally, if
not altogether, of the faulty type we have been describing, their
ground-surface is either quite flat and smooth, or the ends of
the branches are merely thickened or raised into calkins. Con-
f 2
-ocr page 79-
68
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEIHG.
sequently, the foothold is most insecure, and, in starting or
drawing heavy loads, the animal receives no assistance from its
shoes ; on the contrary, but for the damage it would cause to
the hoofs, the horse would be more efficiënt without shoes. It
is paiuful to witness the insecurity and difficulty horses ex-
perience in drawing a very moderate load in the streets of
London, and to consider what a trifling amount of common
sense on the part of their owners would add immensely to the
comfort and utility of their timid and only half-efficient slaves.
Fout op a Dkaught Horse Shod with Toe-and-Heel-Catch Shoe.
Contrast what horses can do in the way of draught in any
town or city of the north of England—as in Manchester or
Liverpool—with the little they do in London, and say if the
horse-owners of the Metropolis are alive to their own in-
terests, or the comfort of their four-footed servants in this
matter.
It must be remembered that calkins are chiefly useful when
-ocr page 80-
m
THE S»OE.
the horse is "backing" a load; the toe, and particularly that
of the hind foot, is the part on which the animal relies to
start and carry the waggon forward. Therefore, in addition to
the calkins or heel-projections, there should be a toe-piece of
the same height as the latter, extending across the ground-
surface of the front part of the shoe (fig. 15). This addition to
the shoe need not increase its weight; indeed, it should enable
the farrier to dispense with the great clumsy masses of iron now
in use, and which are a mere waste of material, horse-power,
and horse-life.*
To give the greatest amount of strength and foothold to the
shoes of the heavy draught horse, with the least amount of
weight, should, therefore, be an object always kept in view
in making them. But, with this animal, another principal
* It is not in the matter of horse-shoes alone that London horse-proprietors are
^ehind those of many of the provincial towns. The omnibuses are worthy of two
cisituries ago. üncomfortable and inconyenient in the extreme for the passengers
they carry, they are stilt more so for the unfortunate horses which are harnessed to
them. There is a total absence of those indications of thoughtfulness for the ease or
welfare of the teams, which we see in nearly all other towns and cities. Those appa-
rently trifling appliances which add so much to the value and usefulness of the horse,
and which relieve him of a great deal that is onerous and fatiguing in his labour,
might have no existence whatever, so far as the Metropolitan omnibus owner is
concerned. The simplefoot-brake, which eases the horses so much in their incessant
pullings-up, has no place in the City 'bus ; and nothing, I think, can look more cruel,
improvident, and behind the age, than to see the poor horses of a heavily-laden car-
riage carried along, almost on their haunches, for some yards on the slippery streets
before they can bring their load to a stand-still, the driver at the same time straining
his arms and tearing at the unlucky brutes' mouths. It is intolerable that such a
state of things should exist, when, by a simple and inexpensive apparatus, horses
and drivers would be greatly relieved, and the public benefited. It looks so much
like wanton cruelty, that I fancy magistrates would not have much difËculty in
making up their minds to a conviction of the offenders. At any rate, the Koyal
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals might do worse than give this
discreditable treatment of horses its attention.
-ocr page 81-
70
PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
object is the preservation of the wall of the hoof, in order that
it may remain sound and strong for the retention of the naiis ;
to assist in effecting this, the sole and frog must be preserved
intact.
The form of the shoe in all cases should, in outline, resemble
the shape of the ground surface of the hoof. It has been
decided that its upper surface must be flat from the outer to
the inner margin. For horses other than those of heavy
draught, its width will of course vary; but it is an advantage
to have it as narrow as is compatible, in relation to its thick-
ness, with the amount of wear required from it.
The ground face of the shoe for other than draught horses
is the next point for consideration. This should always be,
if possible, parallel with its upper face : that is, the shoe
ought to be plane on both surfaces, and of the same thick-
ness on both sides, not only in the fore, but also the hind
shoes. This guarantees the foot and limb being kept in
a natural position. What are termed "calkins" on one or
both heels are very objectionable, for the simple reason that,
as has been stated, they raise the back part of the foot higher
than the front, and throw the limb forward; unless the hoof
meets the ground in its natural direction, some portion of the
leg or foot will be certain to suffer. Therefore whatever device
may be employed to prevent slipping and secure a hold of the
ground, should not interfere with the natural direction of the
limb or foot. If calkins are deemed necessary, then the front
part of the shoe ought to be raised to a corresponding height,
either by thickening its substance, or by adding a toe-piece. In
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THE SHOE.
the majority of cases, however, the benefit derived from these
projections is problematical; and it is certain that hundreds of
horses travel as safely without them as with them. In many of our
large towns and cities they are but little employed, and with
advantage to the legs and feet. For many years I have not
allowed a calkin to be worn on the shoes of any of the horses in
my charge, and no complaints of slipping or insecure footing have
ever been made ; nor have any reports of horses falling down
either on slippery turf or the smooth surface of paved streets,
from the absence of calkins, ever reached me. Having studied
the subject of farriery practically, for several years, in the large
cities of Glasgow and Manchester before entering the army, and
having during eighteen years' service been attached to those
branches in which light or riding horses, and heavy or draught
horses, are employed, my opportunities for observation have been
somewhat extensive. These opportunities have led me to forra
the opinion just given as to the value of calkins. While sta-
tioned with my regiment in Edinburgh in 1864-5, I obtained
permission to dispense with calkins on the hind shoes (they are
not worn on the fore shoes of cavalry horses), and though the
orderly and other duties were somewhat heavy on the streets
of that city—which are perhaps the most slippery in Britain—
no accident occurred.
For more than three years I have been stationed in a large
garrison town in the south of England, with nearly three hun-
dred horses—most of which are draught—in my charge. The
greater portion of these animals are employed several hours
every dny, conveying heavy loads up and down very badly made
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PRACTICAL ÖORSE-SHOEING.
7:1
and excessively steep roads ; no calkins or toe-pieces are worn,
no slipping is ever observed, while the sprains and injuries
arising from the use of calkins are unknown.
This imniunity I attribute not alone to the absence of these
projections, but to the care always taken to keep the hoofs
healthy, properly adjusted, and strong, with the frogs resting
as much as possible on the ground.
In attempting to prevent slipping, and to afford a firm hold
of the ground, without having recourse to calkins, a great
object is to diminish the wide surface of metal of the shoe,
iuterfering as little as possible with its resistance to wear.
The simplest method of doing this is merely to change the
bevel on the foot surface of the ordinary shoe to its ground
surface—making what is now concave, flat, and what is now the
flat slippery ground-surface, concave. 'The effect is alrnost
magical in the security it gives the animal during progression,
and is best exemplified in the case of the hunter, which is
usually shod with shoes of this description. Here again we are
only imitating Nature by copying the concavity of the sole.
There can be no doubt whatever as to the advantages to be
gained by using sucli shoes. The sole is pretty well supported,
as well as the whole of the wall, by the wider surface of metal
above, while the narrow surface towards the ground affords
security of tread.
For general purposes, this is an excellent form of shoe; but to
make it still more efficiënt, I devised a modification of it some
years ago, which is an almost exact reproduction in iron of the
ground surface of this part of the hoof; it has been emploj'ed
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78
THE SHOE.
on the road and in the field with most satisfactory results, both
on the fore and hind feet.
In this shoe (fig. 16), instead of the bevel on the ground
Fig. 16.
§ËË                  «lik
*                                              iftUnH                                       iflHjil
GtROüsb-sükï'aoe op the Modified Shoe, showing the beTel and catches.
surface gradually becoming shallower as it approaches the heels,
as in the ordinary hunting shoe, it becomes deeper until within
an inch or two of the extremity of the branch, where it has cut
down through the thickness of the inner border; it then abruptly
ceases, leaving a sharp catch on each side that, like the inflexion
of the wall at this part (fig. 6, d d), affords an excellent grip,
which moreover lasts until the shoe is quite worn out. With a
modification of this kind, three important objects are secured :
]. The plane upper surface, resting flat and solidly on the crust
and unpared sole, leaves no space in which foreign bodies—as
clay, stones, or gravel—may lodge, and in heavy ground suction
is lessened. 2. The metal is only removed from the parts where
it can be best spared, and where there is least wear; conse-
quently the shoe is lightened without being weakened. 3. The
level border and extremities of the branches afford an equal
bearing for the foot, while the gradually deepening bevel, with
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74
PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEINC.
its sudden check, secures a permanent and powerful catching
point, like that at the angle of the wall.
The shoe is easily made by any farrier, differing, as it does, so
little from the ordinary hunting shoe, and the shape is the same
for the fore as the hind shoe, except that the former is, of course,
more circular than the latter, to correspond vvith the shape of the
hoof.
To make its fabrication as simple, speedy, and easy as the
ordinary shoe, I have it made in two moulds or "cresses,"
which fit into the anvil. These moulds are of iron faced with
steel; one (fig. 17) has two wide, slightly curved transverse
grooves cut on its surface, the one side of each being shallower
than the other; in these each branch of the shoe is moulded.
The other cress (fig. 18) has also two indentations so formed
as to cut the check or "sunk calkin." With these moulds, the
shoe is as easily and quickly made as the common one, and
requires but little finishing. The moulds may be of three
Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.
Moulds for the fabrication of the Modified Shoe.
sizes, to suit different sized feet and different kinds of work,
and can be forged by any ordinary blacksmith or farrier.*
* I have given the models of these moulds, as well as patterns of the shoes, to
Mesèrs. Araold and Son, West Smithfield, London.
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?3
THE SHOE.
This shoe has been somewhat extensively tried on carriage
and saddle horses, and with the very best results. For hunting
or cavalry purposes it is excellent, particularly on slippery
grass-land, the sharp point of the catch biting the surface of
the ground most effectively.
Clips.—For carriage and saddle horses and hunters, each
fore and hind shoe should have a clip drawn up at the middle
of the toe, except in special cases, as when the horse over-
reacb.es, or from being required to jump or any other cause,
is iikely to strike any part of the back of the fore legs; in
which case the hind shoes require to have a clip at each side
of the toe—none in the middle—the hoof in front being
allowed to project beyond the shoe ; the Jatter should have all
sharp edges carefully removed at this part, particularly in the
case of hunters.
Clips, when judiciously placed, are of service in retaining the
shoe, and so permitting the number of nails to be diminished ;
but, as a rule, they should be as few as possible, as they are
sometimes a source of injury to the hoof, particularly if they
are situated in too close proximity to the nails.
Varieties of Shoes.—Various forms of shoes have been from
time to time proposed with a view to prevent slipping, but only
those which have had their ground surface grooved, bevelled, or
"toothed" have met with any success. In recent times, an
American shoe, the " Goodenough," has had wonderful qualities
claimed for it in this respect. It differs but little from the
common hunting shoe ; it has several trivial projections cut on
the outer margin of its lower surface, which may prevo>.t
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76
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING
slipping so long as they last, but in a very short time they
are worn away, and then it has nothing to recommend it
beyond the ordinary hunting shoe. The shoe is made by
raachinery.
Mr. Gi-ay, of the Mowbray Works, Sheffield, has introduced
machine-made shoes faced with steel, and grooved into two
or more sharp ridges on their ground surface. When fitted
these shoes are tempered; consequently they are harder than
iron, should wear for a longer period, and may thus be made
lighter. If their hardness does not cause them to be more
slippery on smooth pavement when the ridges have become
somewhat worn, than the iron shoe, they should be an im-
provement, and prove cheaper than those commonly in rise.
More recently, grooved and surface-cut rolled iron bars have
been introduced with some success for the manufacture of horse-
shoes.
Material.—Machine-made horse-shoes have, unfortunately
Bever proved successful, from the material of which they are
maïiufactured proving either very soft—when they were too
rapidly worn-out—or too hard, when they had a tendency either
to break or induce slipping.
We have remarked how important it is that the shoes worn
by horses should be as light as possible. It is generalijn a good
plan, if a horse wears his shoes more at one part than another,
so that they do not last a sufficiënt time, to weid in a small
piece of steel at that place, instead of thickening the shoe, and
making it heavier. The latter rnethod, which is that generady
adopted to save time, most frequently defeats its purpose—the
..
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THE SHOE.                                         77
increased weigrit eausing the animal to drag its feet heavily
along the ground, instead of lifting them freely.
Lightness and durability can only be attained by employing
the best material.
Nail-holes.—The form of the shoe having been decided upon,
the position and shape of the nail-holes, as well as their number,
have next to be considered.
The shoe ought to be attached by nails to those parts of the
wall where the horn is strongest and toughest. In the fore foot,
these parts are in front and along the sides, to the quarters;
thei'e the horn becomes narrow and thin, the nails find less
support, and are nearer to the living textures; this is more
particularly the case towards the heels, and especially the inner
one. In the hind foot, the wall is generally stronger towards
the quarters and heels. These facts at once give us an indica-
tion as to the best position for the nail-holes. In the fore foot,
nails can be driven through the wall around the toe as far as
the inside quarter, and a little nearer the heel on the outside.
In the hind foot, they may be driven around the toe, and even
up to the heels with impunity.
The form of the nail-holes is a matter of secondary importance.
The "fullering," or groove, around the border of the English
shoe, though artistic-looking, is a mistake; it is a waste of
labour, and of but little, if any, service. What is termed the
"stamped shoe," is in every way preferable. The square, or
somewhat oval cavity, wide at the top and tapering towards the
bottom, gives a secure and solid lodgment to the nail-head,
which of course should accurately fit the cavity; it does not
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PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEING.
weaken the iron, is easily made, can be placed nearer the outer
or inner margin of the plate as required, and when filled with
the nail-head is as capable of resisting wear as any other part of
the shoe. It is usually better to have the nail-holes stamped
" coarse" (that is, at some distance from the outer margin of
the shoe), at points corresponding to those parts of the hoof where
the wall is strongest; and " fmer," where the horn is thin and
its fibres short.
They should not, as a rule, incline outwards or inwards, but
be so perforated that the nail-pomt can take a strong or weak
(thick or thin) hold of the wall, according to circumstances.
If the hoof be strong, with plenty of wall at its lower margin,
then the holes may be stamped coarse, in order to take a short
but solid hold of it, by driving the nails pbliquely outwards (as
in fig. 19, a).
Fig. 19.
f.
Diagram op the Hoop and Shoe, to show the direction the nails should take.
The number of nail-holes through which nails are to be driven
should be as few as possible. Every nail penetrating the wall
cf the foot, no matter how skilfully it may be placed, may be
looked upon as a source of injury to it, by splitting asunder or
breaking its fibres. On the form and weight of the shoe, will
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19
THE SHOE.
greatly depend the number of nails required to retain it. With
that I have described as used in hunting, or as modified by me,
and which rests firmly on wall and sole, in addition to its being
as light as is compatible with a certain period of wear, but few
nails are needed. The ordinary heavy shoe, on the contrary, is
not only damaging to the foot, because it rests on such a narrow
basis ; but also because its weight and instability necessitate its
being attached by a large number of long thick nails, which do
great harm to the hoof.
With care in fitting a properly constructed shoe, and skill in
placing the nails firmly in sound horn, the usual number may
be considerably reduced; so that instead of seven to ten being
required, it will be found that from four to six are equally
serviceable, and even these may be of diminished size. For shoes
worn by medium-sized draught horses, I seldom allow more thaii
six nails in the fore and seven in the hind feet; more fre-
quently the former are secured by five nails—three in the
outside and two in the inside branch of the shoe, and the latter
by three on each side.
The fewer the number of nail-holes, the greater is the neces-
sity for distributing them wide apart; indeed, it is a grave
blunder to cluster the nails closely together in the hoof, as they
break and weaken the horn, and attach the shoe much less
securely than if they were spread over a wider surface. Calkins
demand the empioyment of additional nails, from their iiability
to become fixed between stones, and also from the strain they
occasion.
It must always be remembered, that the retention of a shoe
|
...
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80
PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEiNG.
for a sufficiënt period does not so much depend upon the
number of nails attaching it, as upon their disposition, and
upon its exact fitting and solid hearing on the wall and sole
of the hoof. It should also be borne in mind, that where there
is a clip there ought to be no nail; lameness is not unfre-
quently produced by a tightly adjusted clip making so much
pressure upon the nail and horn within it, as to cause pain and
inflammation.
We have alluded to the various patterns of shoes in use, and
pointed out their defects and requirements. As, in preparing
the hoof, general principles were laid down which are appli-
cable to every kind of animal—from the race horse to the
mammoth draught beast employed in our large manufacturing
cities—so in the shape of the shoe and its essential charac-
teristics general principles must everywliere prevail. Where
speed is demanded, as in the race-horse, hunter, etc, lightness
and security of foothold on soft or slippery land are the eilief
desiderata; with coach and other draught animals of less
speed, and which are principally used on paved roads, heavier
shoes are needed to sustain wear, and they must also afford
security; but while, with the racer, hunter, and other animals
nearly always moving over soft soil, calkins may be resorted to
without much detriment to the limb and foot, as they sink into
the ground, on the shoes of horses working on hard roads they
are objectionable for the reasons stated ; if they are resorted to
their injurious action should be averted by employing a toe-
piece of the same height,
For the race-horse the narrowest iron rim is sufficiënt,
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81
THE SHOE.
provided it is strong enough not to twist or bend. The present
form of shoe is not ohjectionable.
For hunters, hacks, and harness horses, a shoe of the modi-
fled pattern I have described is well adapted; even the ordinary
hunting pattern, but without the calkin on the hind shoe, is
infinitely preferable to that used for hacks and harness horses.
Another excellent form of shoe, introduced by Staff Veter-
inary Surgeon Thacker, and which has been in use for some
time at Woolwich on riding and harness. horses, deserves
to be mentioned here. It is broader in the cover at the toe
than the heels (fig. 20); at the toe it is slightly curved
upwards, to remove it from the greater amount of wear
occurring at this part, and also as a safeguard against stum-
.bling. This curve likewise acts as a clip to prevent the shoe
driving backwards. The foot surface is quite fiat, and rests on
the sole and wall (fig. 20). The ground surface (fig. 21) is
Fig. 20.                                                          Fig. 21.
bevelled somewhat like the hunting or modined shoe I have
described, with the intention of protecting the heads of the
nails from too much wear, and offering no line or cavity
whereby a stoDe can lodge or become wedged. The cover or
G
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82
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
"web" of the shoe is gradually brought very narrow at the
heels, its outer rim corresponding exactly with the crust, ana
the ends of the branches terminating at the heels of the foot;
thus offering protection to the crust only, and without
presenting any surface to be trodden upon, or allowing the
least suction in heavy ground.
The nail-holes are in the centre of the %véb, and are directed
outwards, by which the nails pass obliquely across the fibres of
the wall and secure a good hold, without approaching the
sensitive parts too closely. Three-fourths of an inch is
supposed to be the height necessary to drive the nails.
There are two small clips—one on each side of the curvature
at the toe, and these not only support the diminished number
of nails, but require that the farrier fit the shoe to the circum-
ference of the foot. The smallest-sized nails should be in-
variably used, and fitted into each nail-hole before applying
the shoe. Shoe to be light and made of good material. This
pattern, like the modined shoe I have proposed, is suitable for
either fore or hind feet.
It may be mentioned that, with the exception of the two side
clips at the toe, this shoe is nearly identical in shape with that
recommended by Golonel Fitzwygram in his excellent work on
Shoeing.
APPLYING THE SHOE.
The foot having been duly prepared, and the form of shoe
decided upon, the next step is to apply the shoe to the hoof, and
retain it there by nails.
......
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APPLYING THE SHOE.                               83
In ordinary practice, the wall of the foot has been only
partially diminished, the remainder of the task being left
until the shoe has to be fitted. This causes the farrier to have
a very imperfect idea of the proper shape or size of the hoof,
and he therefore prepares a shoe which he guesses is about the
size, though in nearly every case it is too small; and moulding
it according to his fancy, he proceeds to adjust the foot to it.
This is done by cutting more or less deeply into the wall at the
toe, to make the shoe appear long enough by imbedding the
clip deeply in its substance, or "letting it back," as it is termed.
The consequence is that, when the shoe has been nailed on, the
basis of support of the limb is very much diminished, a large
portion of the wall of the hoof—its strongest portion—projects
beyond the shoe in front and at the sides, and this is afterwards
carefully removed by the rasp, to the great injury of the most
essential portion of the hoof. In every respect, the foot is made
to fit the shape of the shoe, and as this is generally prepared
with a view only to neatness or the traditions of routine, the
organ suffers to please the fancy or fashion of the unreasoning
artizan.
By our method, the horn having been reduced to proper
dimensions, the shoe is now made to fit the hoof exactly, and
to follow the outline of its lower face. The part of the hoof
intended to be protected by the iron rim has been made as
level as possible by the rasp, aided a very little, perhaps, by the
knife ; the surface of the shoe destined to rest on this horny bed
has also been made perfectly level and smooth, particularly at
the clip or clips, and it is to be correctly fitted. The farrier
o 2
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84
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
should so mould the shoe that it will be an exact reproduction
in outline of the circumference of the hoof. To cause it to
appear so when applied, it may be necessary to remove a little
of the wall at the part corresponding to the clip, merely to
make the fit more accurate, and not allow any portion of the shoe
to project unduly beyond the horn.
The length of the shoe will vary with the services demanded
from the horse. For racing, hunting, and other purposes in
which the hind limbs are carried forward to an extreme degree in
propelling the body, the branches of the fore shoe must on no
account extend beyond the inflexion of the wall, otherwise the
shoe is liable to be torn off by the hind foot, and the horse
thrown down. The end of the branch should also be carefully
rounded off and bevelled (as in fig. 16), sq as to leave nothing
whatever by which the hind shoe might catch it.
With harness and draught horses, this extreme care in
shortening and bevelling the heels is not so necessary ; indeed,
in the heavier and slower-paced animals, it is frequently advan-
tageous to allow the shoes to be rather longer in the branches
than the hoof itself.
As a rule, then, the shoe ought to be wide enough at the toe,
quarters, and heels to support the entire thickness of the wall,
but yet not so wide or long as to endanger the opposite limbs
by striking them, or run the chance of being torn off by the
other feet treading upon it; and it should not interfere with
the frog, nor prevent that organ from playing its part in the'
physiology of the foot.
The adjustment of the shoe to the exact circumference of the
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85
APPLYING THE SHOE.
hoof, is usually effected at the same time as the fitting together
of the two surfaces of iron and hom which are to remain in
contact. To render both accurate, the horse should always be
shod at a forge. A hammer and anvil are necessary to mould
the heated shoe to the requisite shape ; and it is almost, if not
quite, impossible to obtain a perfectly true and solid adaptation
of the upper face of the shoe to the horn on which it is to rest,
within any reasonable time, unless it be fitted to the hoof in a
hot state.
Hot and Cold Fitting.—For very many years the two
systems of fitting horse-shoes in a cold and a heated condition
to the hoofs have been extensively and severely tested, and the
result has been that cold fitting is, as a rule, only resorted to
when circumstances prevent the adoption of the other method;
or when the owner of a horse, imagining that the hot shoe
injures the foot, incurs the risks attending a bad fit to guard
against this imaginary evil.
It is needless, in a brief essay like the present, to enter into
a relation of the observations and experiments which have
established the undoubted and great superiority of what is
termed " hot" to " cold " fitting. These will be found noticed
at some length in a work recently published by me.* It may
be sufficiënt to state, that the evils supposed to result from
fitting the shoes hot to the hoofs are purely chimerical. It is
true, when the sole is excessively mutilated, should the fanier
keep the heated shoe too long in contact with it, injury would
* " Horse-Slioes and Horse-Shoeing: their Origin, History, Uses, and Abuses."
London : Chaüman and Hall.
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86
PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
doubtless follow; but this accident is so exceedingly rare as
to be scarcely ever known, even in forges where shoeing is
performed in the most objectionable manner. The ill effects
imagined to arise from hot shoeing can easily be traced to
the operation of other causes, not the least of which is the
fashion of paring the lower face of the foot.
The chief objections to cold shoeing are the absence of
solidity, the foot being made to fit the shoe ; and the process
being more difficult and expensive.
The defective solidity is patent to every one who has had any
experience in the matter. It is impossible to level the ends of
the horn-fibres so accurately that they will all rest evenly on
the surface of the iron; so those which are most prominent soon
giving way to pressure, the bed of the shoe is altered, and this
becoming loose, is either lost, or we have projecting clenches.
And even should the fibres be made perfectly level, wet softens
them, causing them to become pulpy and shorter, by which means
the seat of the shoe is altered and the nails lose their firm hold
of the wall. Ample experience on active service, as well as that
gathered at home during peace, has demonstrated the instability
resulting from cold fitting.
Owing to the increased trouble and loss of time incurred by
this method, in attempts to make the shoe fit somewhat ac-
curately, but few farriers can afford or are willing to resort to it.
Hence, when it is practised, if the shoe is at all like the foot, it
is put on, and rasp and knife ensure the hoof being made to fit
the iron. This proceeding is very injurious.
In hot fitting we have none of these objections. The shoe is
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APPLYING THE SHOE.                               87
very readily adapted to the foot; it is more equally applied,
and rests solidly on the hoof, so that the nails are not broken or
displaced by the shoe becoming loose ; in fine, there is a more
intimate contact between the iron and the surface of the horn.
The very fact of burning or fusing the ends of the fibres ensures
a solid durable bed, whieh cannot be obtained otherwise; as this
destroys the spongy absorbent properties of the horn, and renders
it eminently calculated to withstand the influence of moisture.
The effects produced on horn by the hot iron have been com-
pared to those of fire on pieces of wood, the ends of which
have been superficially carbonized before being buried in the
ground. Every one knows that this operation contributes to
the preservation of the wood, by preserving it from the action
of humidity.
Horn is a siow conductor of heat, and it requires a very
prolonged application of the hot shoe to affect the hoof to any
considerable depth. Th ree minutes' burning of the lower face
of the sole has been found necessary to produce any indication
of increase of temperature by the thermometer on its upper
surface. It is never requisite that the shoe should be applied
longer than a few seconds.
The hot shoe, in fusing the horn with which it comes in
contact, impiïnts itself like a seal in melted sealing-wax, and in
this way the two surfaces of foot and shoe exactly coincide;
while no matter how expert the workman may be in using his
(ools to level the horn in a cold state, he can never do this so
quickly, nor so completely, as may be done by making an im-
pression with the heated iron, and consequently establishing
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88
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEIKG.
between the lower margin of the hoof and the shoe an exact
coaptation.
It may be added, that when the surface of the horn has been
softened by the action of calorie, the nails enter it more readily,
the clips and inequalities are more easily embedded, and when
it recovers its nabitual consistency after cooling, the union
between it and the metallic parts which are in contact becomes
all the more intimate because of the slight shrinking that
follows the expansion produced by the heat. Under these con-
ditions,the horn contracts on the slianks of the nails, and retains
them more securely.
All the most competent veterinary authorities who have
studied the subject, are unanimous in recommending hot fitting
in preference to cold ; the latter is only justifiable when it is im-
possible to adopt the former. The red-hot shoe at once disposes of
those inequalities which cannot be discovered or removed by
tools ; and it shows the workman at a glance the bearing of the
shoe on the hoof, as well as the imprint of the nail holes.
Without being re-heated, any alteration can be readily and at
once effected, in moulding the shoe to the shape of the hoof.
The whole surface of the iron intended to be in contact with
the horn should be distinctly impressed on the contour of the
hoof, so as to ensure the closest and most accurate intimacy
between the two ; and this carbonized surface should not be
interfered with on any account, except by the rasp, which is
only to be employed in removing any sharpness or inequality
on the extreme edge of the wall, that may have been produced
in fitting.
'■
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APPLYING THE SHOE.                               89
It is necessary to bear in mind that the shoe should be fitted
at a red-heat. lts application then need only be very brief,
and it is far more effective in producing a solid level surface :
it ought not to be applied at a black-heat. Should the margin
of the hoof not be sufficiently levelled by the rasp before the
application of the hot shoe, a slight contact of the latter will
show the inequalities, and these may then be removed by
rasp or knife. On no occasion ought the shoe to remain longer
on the hoof than is necessary to produce a solid and perfectly
level surface.
The Nails.—The shoe ha ving been made to fit the hoof
exactly, is cooled and finished with the file. It is then ready
to be attached to the hoof by nails. These should not be
unnecessarily large, as is too often the case, but well propor-
tioned to the size of the shoe. The heads should only be
sufficiënt to fill the nail-holes, when they are subjected to two.
or three smart blows of the hammer, and the shanks ought to be
thin. It is scarcely necessary to add that the nails, like the
shoe, should always be made of the best iron.
Driving the Nails.—In driving the nails into the hoof, every
one should be made to pass through sound horn. It is a
mistake to place them where the wall is broken or perforated
by previous nails, as this only makes bad worse; and care should
be taken to direct each nail so accurately, that it may make its
exit at the desired point in the face of the wall at once. Care-
less or unskilful driving of the nails necessitates their being
withdrawn several times before they are properly implanted;
and as each nail, however carefully it may be placed in the
f
-ocr page 101-
no
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEKTO.
wall at the first attempt, is a source of injury by splitting
asunder and perforating the fibres, it follows that when several
attempts have to be made the injury is proportionately increased.
A short thiek hold of the wall is better than a long thin one ;
and, if possible, no more horn should be included within the grasp
of the nail than is likely to be removed at the following shoeing.
By this means the wall is constantly maintained sound.
A foot allowed to grow strong in the manner I have de-
scribed, will suffer no inconvenience in having the nails driven
tightly into the shoe and hoof after they have been placed in
their proper situation.
Where the hoof is thin, as at the quarters and heels of the
fore foot, smaller and more slender nails must be used, and
these must be less tightly driven. The nails at the front part
or toe should be first hammered home firmly, then the quarter
and heel nails gradually lighter. Every nail should form a
part of the shoe, and the head should barely project above
it; when all are solidly disposed, they must be tightly " drawn
up " at the ends (the points having been twisted off previously)
by means of the hammer and pincers, using the same graduated
degree of force as in driving them home.
Gonclusion of the Operation.—Nothing now remains to be
done but to bend down, or " clench," the portion of nail so
drawn-up on the face of the wall. This should be accomplished
by shortening the fragment to a proper length by the rasp, so
as to leave just enough to turn over; the rasp also removes the
small barb of horn raised in drawing up the nail, but without
making a notch, and then the olench is laid down evenly. No
-ocr page 102-
91.
APPLYING THE SHOE.
more rasping or cutting should be allowed on any pretext
whatever.
Easping.—Very different to this treatment is that practised
in nearly every forge, where the front of the hoof is rasped
most unmercifully as high as the coronet. Indeed, in the
majority of books on farriery it is recommended that, though
the wall ought not to be rasped above the clenches, this must
be done below them: evidently ignorant of the fact that nearly
as much, if not more, harm is done by this operation below
than above these rivets.
Those who study what I have said relative to the structure
of the wall of the hoof, will readily enough understand the
amount of injury inflicted on the foot by this rasping.
Over the whole external face of this part there appears to be
spread a fine translucent horn, which looks like a varnish, whose
office, in all probability, is to prevent undue clrying of the hoof,
and consequent brittleness. Immediately beneath this are the
dense resisting fibres of the wall, which are intended to sustain
wear, and are best adapted to surmort a shoe, through the
medium of the nails ; in fact, they are the fibres which ought
to perform this duty, as beneath them, towards the inside of
the wall, the horn rapidly becomes soft and spongy, and more
like the pith of a rush.
In consequence of the farrier having neglected to remove a
sufficiënt amount of horn from the lower margin of the wall, when
preparing the foot for the shoe, or through having nailed on a
plate too small for the natural circumference of the hoof, a
large piece of this solid material projects beyond the shoe,
-ocr page 103-
M
PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEING.
particularly in front and at the sides. This is torn away l>y
the rasp, after the clenches have been laid down; and when this
has been done what do we see ? The wall of the foot, instead
of coming down from the coronet to the shoe in all its integrity
and evenness of slope, as soon as it reaches the clenches is
chopped abruptly downwards, giving the foot a stump or club-
like appearance, and greatly diminishing the extent of its
bearing surface. The greatest evil, however, is the loss of
the strong tough hom, whose presence is so necessary to protect
the lower margin of the hoof, and afford support and hold to the
nails.
In consequence of its removal, these have nothing to retain
them but the thin pellicle of soft hom remaining, and this
being so weak, and suddenly exposed to influences it was never
intended to encounter, quickly dries up, shrivels, becomes brittle,
and cracks or breaks away in flakes. Then we have a hoof de-
prived of its horn, and in as unnatural a condition as can well be
imagined ; it has been so barbarously mutilated as to require
the greatest care, at the next shoeing, to place the nails in a
shred of sound horn ; the operation of rasping and curtailment
being repeated each time increases the evil, and should a shoe
chance to come off on the road—an accident, it may be inferred,
extremely likely to happen—great damage will be done to the
pared sole, and the thin, brittle, split-up wall, and in all pro-
bability, after a few yards travelling, the animal will be lame.
The morbid desire to make fine work of shoeing, when the
horse was first shod, ends in the greatest amount of skill and
labour being required to continue it, and to keep the animal to
-ocr page 104-
08
APPLYING THE SHOE.
some extent fit for service ; though with deformed feet, seriously
damaged horn, and perhaps great suffering.
The truth of this can be verified by a casual glance at the
hoofs of almost every horse that passes us in town or country—
though perhaps it is most conspicuous in town-shod horses.
One of the most serious results of this excessive mutilation
of the lower part of the wall is the production of a chronic
form of laminitis, marked by slight subsidence half way down
the front of the foot and, to a less degree, at the sides, with an
abrupt rounded protrusion of the part that is always exposed
to rasping.
This deformity, which induces pain and altered gait in the
great majority of cases, arises frorn the irritation caused to the
sensitive parts within, by the removal of their natural pro-
tection ; but more particularly from the fact, that the riails, to
retain the shoe, must be driven through a sufficiënt amount of
the soft horn, and this brings them so near the living parts
that they press upon them, and to such a degree as to
set up an acute or subacute infiammation that leads to this
deformity and its attendant lameness.
Cases of this description will be found to be by no means
uncommon among the horses in our streets, and for many years
I have been able to tracé the evil effects of the practice from
their commencement until the animal was a hopeless cripple.
When the coachman, groom, or farrier's fancy causes the
rasp to be carried above the clenches to the top of the hoof,
then of course the injury is greatly aggravated.
The tuin semi-translucent horn that extends in a somewhat
mm
-ocr page 105-
94                         PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEING.
wide, whitish-coloured band around the upper part of the foot,
is chiefly intended by Nature, I think, to protect the fibres of
the wall from the effects of external physical influences, such as
heat and dryness, while they are being secreted, or so immature
as to be incapable of resisting these influences : for it will be
remembered that the wall is formed at the coronet, and this
covering guarantees not only the integrity of the newly-made
horn-tubes, but also maintains the secreting vessels that enter
them in a healthy condition, and competent to supply fresh
material for wear.
The destruction of this band, and the rasping of the fibres
beneath it, is detrimental to the healthy secretion of the wall-
fibres, and leads to the same result that paring the sole was
shown to do : shrinking of the horn-tubes containing the tufts
of vessels, wasting of these, a diminished supply of horny
material in consequence, and a thin brittle wall that scarcely
appears to grow in depth or thickness, and barely allows a
shoe to be attached to it. Sandcrack and other disea.sed
conditions of this part of the hoof are also mainly due to this
cause.
After applying the shoe in the manner we have described,
and laying down the clenches evenly on the wall of the hoof,
no more requires to be done, unless perhaps it be to round a
little more the edge of the narrow shreds of horn that may pro-
ject on each side of the clip, and thus prevent their liability to
split. The angle of the face of the hoof should never be inter-
fered with after the shoe is nailed on, but should be the same
from top to bottom as in the natural state. This is a matter
-ocr page 106-
95
APPLYIKG THE SHOE.
ot greafc importance. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the
preservation of the hom of the hoof in its integrity. No amount
of rasping or artificial treatment can give the hoof the beau-
tiful polish it has in its natural state.
Laying down Clips.—At this stage, it is usual to apply the
clip or clips more exactly and evenly to the hoof before com-
pleting the operation of shoeing; and even this apparently
trifling matter demands care. With gradually decreasing blows
of the shoeing hammer, each clip should be applied close to
the hoof, commencing at the bottom, where it springs from the
shoe, and ascending to its point. Clips should never be
driven tight into the hoof; this is injurious and may induce
disease.
When, in due course, the period arrivés for re-shoeing—
usually in a month or five weeks—the hoofs require to be
reduced to their normal dimensions ; then the rules we have laid
down for guidance are to be foliowed out in the most scrupulous
manner. The old shoe is to be gently removed from the foot,
by carefully cutting away the clenches with the buffer; the
pincers are to be inserted towards the heel, between the hoof
and shoe, and the latter prized steadily upwards from and
across the foot. When, by this means, the nails have been
sufficiently sprung, they may be withdrawn one by one. Par-
ticular care must be taken that no clenches or broken nails
remain in the hoof, as these are likely to turn the points of the
succeeding nails into the living parts of the foot.
Such, then, on the one hand, is shoeing as it is usually prac-
tised, to the great injury of the horse ; and, on the other hand,
-ocr page 107-
96                        PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEIKG.
shoeing as it ought to be performed, so as to maintain the
comfort and efficiency of this noble and invaluable animal.
It will be observed that no claim is here made to any won-
derful novelty or discovery in the way of a shoe that will
answer every purpose, and keep every horse wearing it in a
state of health. Such an invention must be left to those whose
practical experience is of the most limited character, and who
fancy that the evils of shoeing are concentrated in the metal
plate alone. It may be sufficiënt to say, in this place, that so
far as the comfort, utility, and well-being of the horse are con-
cerned, the preservation of the foot in health by abstaining
from mutilating and deforming it with knife and rasp, is of the
highest importance. If this be done, the shoe most appropriate
for certain purposes demands some attention, but is really a
matter of minor consideration.
Preserve the hoof intact and strong, and the animal will
travel long and soundly in a very uncouth foot armature ; pare
and rasp it according to " improved principles," and the most
laboured, expensive, and artistic device in the form of a shoe
will aot prevent discomfort, unsoundness, disease, and prema-
ture uselessness.
At an early period of my professional career, I was much
dissatisfied with the results of shoeing as it is practised in
ordinary forges, as well as with the unreasonableness of the
fashion of depriving the foot of its natural and most effi-
ciënt protection, and in a short time was led to perceive
that a vast majority of the horses so treated soon became
deformed and lame in their feet; while some of the diseases
-ocr page 108-
OTHER METHODS OP SHOEING.                     97
occurring higher up in the limbs could also be attributed to
this cause.
The rational method here inculcated was then adopted, and
now for very many years the only preparation the foot has
received for the shoe has been levelling the wall, in conformity
with the direction of the limb and foot, and removing as much
of its margin as will restore it to its natural length, leaving the
sole, frog, bars, and heels in all their integrity. Such has been
the treatment of the hoofs of the horses under my care in
various parts of the world, and in far more trying circumstances
at times, so far as shoeing is concerned, tha,n are likely to occur
in the regular work of towns; and so strong were the hoofs, as
a rule,—such solid blocks of horn did they appear, that when a
shoe was, by some rare chance, lost on a journey, there was no
danger whatever to be apprehended from marching the horse
ten, twenty, or even thirty miles, without it. Horses have
never been pricked in nailing, and foot diseases, it may be said,
have been all but unknown. The roughest roads and the
sharpest stones have been travelled over with impunity,and nearly
every hoof might be taken as a model, and be pronounced as
perfect as before the animal was shod many years previously.
This abstinence from paring and rasping, it will be seen, very
materially lessens the time and labour required in the ordinary
method ; indeed, nothing can be simpler than the conservative
principle of shoeing, and this simplicity can be effectively
carried into practice with one-half the instruction and toil
required for the popular mode.
Vaeious other Methods of Shoeing.—Other methods of
H
-ocr page 109-
9S
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEIira.
shoeing have been devised from time to time, and may be
referred to here.
To diminish the weight, and permit a portion of the posterior
part of the foot to come in direct contact with the ground, along
with the frog, a three-quarter shoe is often applied—the portion
of iron extending from the inside quarter to the point of the
heel being cut off, and the shoe at this part thinned a little.
The hom left unprotected is never interfered with. This is an
excellent shoe for saddle and carriage, and even draught horses,
which may be employed on the worst roads while wearing it.
For feet that have suffered very much from the effects of
rasping and paring, and which are liable to have bruised heels
(or corns), its use is attended with the greatest benefit; though
it possesses some faults which militate against its adoption
generally.
The same may be said of "tips," or half-shoes. An unreason-
able prejudice appears to exist against the use of these light,
short plates; but if they are applied in appropriate cases, there
can be no doubt whatever that they are entitled to a far larger
share of attention than they have yet received. Their very
limited employment hitherto, may have arisen from the im-
perfect manner in which they have been used. They protect
those parts of the wall most exposed to damage by wear—
extending around the toe, and reaching no farther than the
quarters; while the heels and frog, when left unpared and un-
rasped, are strong enough to meet all demands made upon
tliem, at the same time they are not deprived of their phj sio-
logical functions.
-ocr page 110-
99
OTHER METHODS OF SHOEING.
In addition to these considerations, the diminution in the
weight of the shoe is a matter of some importance. It has been
objected to " tips " that they cause too much strain to be thrown
on the back part of the limbs, from the front of the hoof being
lengthened out of proportion to the heels. This is certainly the
case; but with the majority of hoofs a little management in
partially imbedding the crescent-shaped plate at the toe, and
leaving the heels, frog, and quarters intact, will obviate to a
large extent, if not entirely, any harmful consequences. They
have been used by me, with the greatest advantage, on carriage
and saddle horses, and no objection could be urged against
their employment beyond those fancied faults conjured up by
grooms and farriers, who could not understand the object to
be attained in resorting to them.
Of course, the three-quarter shoe and the tip are only required
for the fore-feet; the hind-feet shoes, so long as they are level,
are not over heavy, and do not wound the opposite limbs, may
be of the ordinary pattern.
On this difference between the management of the fore
and hind foot we cannot too much insist. The fore foot is
particularly disposed to disease and injury; the hind foot
is wonderfully exempt. So much is this the case, indeed,
that the proper management of the first is all-important, while
the other requires but little attention. The reason of this is due
to the fact, that the horizontal body and long heavy neck and
head of the horse cause the largest proportion of the weight to
fall upon the front pair of supporting columns, and, through
them, upon the feet: the fore limbs are those most concerned
H2
-ocr page 111-
100                      PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOE1NG.
in supporting weight, the hind ones in propelling the body
forwards. Hence the necessity for allowing as much of the
lower face of the fore foot as possible to come in contact with
the ground ; and hence the prevalence of disease in it when
improper shoeing limits its points of contact to the narrowest
dimensions.
Another form of shoe is that commonly known as the " bar
shoe "—a ring or annular plate of metal, which increases the
surface of contact by resting, to a large extent, on the frog, and
allowing that important body to participate in weight-bearing;
in this way it also relieves the heels when these are weak or
injured. It is a very useful shoe, but the additional weight
given to it by the bar, and the extra strain on the nails
retaining it to the hoof, are drawbacks.
Preplantar Shoeing.—To apply a shoe in such a manner as
to allow the frog to receive a due amount of pressure, has
always been the aim of those who have made the horse's foot
an object of careful study. Even with the ordinary shoe, i
it be not too thick or garnished with calkins, the frog, if un-
mutilated, in the large majority of cases will rest upon the
ground for nearly the whöle of its length, and will sustain
beneficial wear. Nearly every one of the horses at present
in my charge, though shod with the army regulation shoe—a
very defective model—have their frogs in this condition;
while all the private horses wearing the modified shoe I have
described, exliibit the frog resting for the whole of its length
and breadth on the ground.
But this object, with others of importance, is perfectly
-ocr page 112-
■'
RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT
PEE
Afd. Hoef- en Klauwlcunde
attained in what ïas been desi^^todjAa /'«eripJantar or pre-
plan tar shoe and method of shoaingj-" ^Ipoduced by Veterinary
Surgeon Charlier." uf Pgriis:i|^~~fcea¥e- the...hoQf„£ntirely in its
natural condition, so far as frog, sole, and wall are concerned,
and imbed a narrow rim of iron, no thicker than the wall,
around the lower circumference of the foot—that exposed to
wear—in a similar manner to the iron heel of a man's boot,
and we obtain an idea of what the periplantar or preplantar
method of shoeing really is.
The principle on which this method of shoeing is based, is,
. physiologically, perfectly correct. Knowing that the horse's
foot is adrnirably constructed to perform certain definite func-
tions, and that the hoof, in ordinary conditions, is designed to
act as the medium through which the most important of these
are carried out, but that its circumference is liable to be broken
away and worn when unduly exposed; we have only to sub-
stitute, for a certain portion of this perishable horn, an equivalent
portion of a more durable material, and the hoof is secured from
damage by wear, while its natural functions remain unimpaired.
This novel method of shoeing has attracted so much attention,
and has in many instances, I might say in almost every instance,
proved so beneficia! and worthy of adoption, so far as my ex-
perience goes (I believe I was the first in this country to give
it a trial), that I venture to describe, as briefly as possible,
the way in which it is carried into execution in the forge.
The sole and frog, as well as the bars, are left unpared.
The crust or wall is bevelled off at the edge by the rasp, and
* Introduced in 1865.
-ocr page 113-
102                       PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
by means of a special knife -\vith a movable guide, a groove or
recess is made along this bevelled edge to receive the shoe.
M. Charlier's knife has a fixed guide ; so that no vai-iation in
the width of the recess for the iron rhn is permitted. This is a
great defect, as the shoe for a small-footed horse or pony should
not be so wide as that for a large draught or carriage horse.
The great inccnvenience resulting from this defect, and the im-
possibility of making the shoe fit accurately around the margin
Fig. 22.
A Knife devised for Preplantar Shoeing, ftonished with a Movable G-uide.
The dotted unes show the extent to which the Gcide can be moved
forward.
of the sole (without which its stability is endangered), caused
me at once to devise a knife with a guide, which cuts a
space of any width that may be necessary for the largest or the
smallest rim.* This recess is made a little shallower than the
thickness of the sole, and slightly narrower than the thickness
of the wall, not extending beyond the white line separating
the former from the Jatter (fig. 23).
Into this groove is fitted the shoe. This is a narrow, but
somewhat deep band of iron (or, as now, a mixture of iron and
steel), narrower at the top than the bottom, and forged in such
a manner that its front surface follows the slope of the foot.
* This knife is manufactured and sold by Messrs. Amold and Son, Instrument
Makers, West Smithfield, London.
-ocr page 114-
103
PREPLANTAR, SHOEING.
It is perforated by from four to six oval nail-holes of small
size, and if required may be provided with a clip at the toe,
though this I have never found necessary. lts upper inner edge
is rounded by the file, to prevent it pressing too much against
Fig. 23.
Hoop prepaked pok the Pbeplantar Shoe.
the angle of the sole, and the ends of the branches are narrow
and bevelled off towards the ground (fig. 24). '
The nails are very small, and have a conical head and neck
(fig. 25). They must be of the finest quality.
It is best to fit the shoe in a hot state, as it must have a
level bed and follow exactly the outline of the -wall. After it
has been fitted, it is advisable to remove, by a small drawing
knife, a little of the horn from the angle of the groove in the
hoof, to correspond with the rounded inner edge of the shoe.
This ensures a proper amount of space between the latter and
the soft horn at the margin of the pedal bone.
In strong hoofs, the shoe is almost entirely buried in the
groove ; but in those which have the soles flat or convex, with
-ocr page 115-
104
PRACTICAL HOKSE-SHOEING.
low heels, or which have been partially ruined by the ordinary
method of shoeing, it is not safe to imbed it so deeply, at least
to commence with.
Fig. 24.                                             Fig. 25.
The full-lenoth Preplahtab Shob.               The Pbeplahtab Nail.
The application of the hot shoe in fitting should not extend
beyond a very few seconds, and it should be pressed against
the crust, or downwards, but never towards the border of the
sole.
Fig. 26.
The füll-mnsth Pbbplaktab Shoe attached to the hoof.
The shoe is nailed to the hoof in the ordinary manner
(fig. 26). For saddle and light carriage horses, I have
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PKEPLANTAR SHOEING.                               105
usually found four nails—two on each side—sufficiënt to retain
each shoe. These should be placed wide apart at the toe and
rather close to the heel (fig. 27, a, b). Every nail must be
driven in sound horn, otherwise the shoe, being so narrow, rnay
get the branch twisted outwards; and nothing more is needed
than to lay the clenches down evenly on the wall. No rasping
of the front of the hoof is required, nor should it be allowed on
Fig. 27.
The ground sübface of a Hoof shod with the Full-length Preplantar Shoe.
any pretence. When the shoe is attached to the foot, we
then perceive, if it be sound and strong, that a portion of the
sole and bars, and the whole of the frog, meet the ground as
in the unshod state (fig. 27).
By many, the short shoe, about the length of an ordinary
tip, is preferred to that which extends nearly to the heels ;
and in the majority of cases it will be found more serviceable,
especially with horses used on soft land and at a quick pace
■—as hunters or racers. For more than two years I have
employed this shortened shoe on horses travelling on the roads
-ocr page 117-
106                       PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING-.
—hacks and carriage horses—especially when the heels were
high and strong. In these instances, the groove or recess was
not cut to the point of the heels, but only the length of the
shoe ; so that the wall beyond this stood on a level with the
plate (fig. 28).
Fig. 28.
Latebal View of a Hoop shod with the Shokt Pkeplantar Shoe.
Horses shod in this manuer have travelled splendidly over all
kinds of uneven, stony ground, as if the whole sole of the foot
had been covered with a plate of iron ; and the benefit to feet
and limbs has been wonderful. For galloping on turf or
slippery land, as well as for hard-wearing roadsters and carriage
horses, the grooved steel-faced bars made by Mr. Gray, of
Sheffield, are to be recommended for making the shóes from.
They are lighter, and more durable and elegant-looking, than
those made in the ordinary way (fig. 29).
The great advantages of this method of shoeing consist in its
simplicity, when farriers have been made to understand it; its
placing the hoof in a natural condition, so far as its ground face
-ocr page 118-
PREPLANTAK SHOEING.                               107
is concerned; the small number and size of the nails required
to retain it; the lightness of the shoe ; and the security it gives
the horse in progression.
Since its introduction by M. Charlier, I have tried this
method on a large number of horses of various sizes, and which
have been employed for hunting, road, carriage, and draught,
Fig. 29.
Short, grooved, steel-faced Preplantar Shoe.
and am perfectly satisfied that it is a varuable accessory mode of
defending and preserving the hoofs, and remedying some of their
diseases or defects. It cannot be applied indiscriminately to
every foot, and to make the groove in the hoof, and to fit the shoe
accurately, require some care. When the horn and metal
are combined in this way, it is somewhat astonishing for how
long a period a very light rim will sustain wear, even on hard
roads.
It has encountered much opposition from the coachman,
groom, and farrier class ; merely, it would appear, because it is
-ocr page 119-
108
PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
simple and novel, does not quite harmonise with what they have
been aecustomed to, and does not suit their ideas on the subject.
Many who do not belong to this class have condemned without
trying it, for the simple reason, one might infer, that they
imagined horses could not be made serviceable with it; while
others, through having given it an improper or inadequate trial,
have been unable to discover its particular merits. Even with
those willing to give it every chance of success, and if successful
adopt it, the fact that this method of shoeing is protected by
a patent has proved a serious obstacle ; not so much on account
of the additional expense attending it, as from the trouble and
annoyance of registering every shoeing and rendering an account.
It is a pity that any invention which is to benefit the horse
should be limited in its application by patents. The greatest
benefactors to the noble animal have not been those who put a
money premium on the benefits they conferred.
With an ordinary amount of care, any intelligent workman
can shoe horses in this fashion. The chief points to be attended
to, are making the recess no wider than the metal rim, which
is largely supported by the margin of the sole; punching
the nail-holes with a fine-pointed round punch, so as to cut
through as few of the fibres of the metal as possible; hammer-
ing the nail-heads to the same shape as the nail-holes; and
allowing the shoe to cool gradually, instead of immersing it
in water after it has been fitted hot.
The imbedding of the shoes should only be carried out by
degrees in cases in which the soles are thin, and it may re-
quire some time before they can be allowed to lie on a level
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PREPLANTAE SHOEING.                         109
with the sole. Though, as a rule, the shoes last for a much
longer time, comparatively, than ordinary shoes, yet it is
advisable not to allow them to be worn too thin at the toe, as
they are then liable to break.
Fig. 30.
Rasp for assisting in Forming the Recess in the Hoop.
When the foot is to be re-shod, nothing more is necessary
than deeping the recess to the extent the hoof has grown sinca
last shoeing, and applying the new shoe, which, of course, should
exactly correspond to the outline of this part of the horny case.
Though the shoe is more expeditiously and accurately fitted
in a hot than a cold state; yet when necessity requires it, a
tolerably satisfactory shoeing may be accomplished without
applying the hot rim. This is facilitated by the fine rasp
(fig. 30), the device of Messrs. Arnold, which completes the
work of the knife by making the recess level and regular.
I have not tried the shoe on the hind feet, because I do not
think it is so well adapted for them; as before mentioned, the
front feet only demand all our attention. Nevertheless, there is
no reason why, with certain slight modifications, it should not
answer perfectly well on the hind feet.*
* Mr. Stevens, Park Lane, Piccadilly, London, shoes with, and supplies models of,
the preplantar shoe. Messrs. Arnold also, I believe, furnish pattern shoes.
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110
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEINCL
WINTER SHOEING.
In such a variable climate as ours, it is not an easy matter
to provide economically and successfully for the occurrence of
frost and snow during the winter months, so far as shoeing is
concerned. Some winters are so mild, that there is no necessity
for making any difference in the shoe ; while others are so severe,
and the roads are covered with ice for such a long period, that
special appliances must be resorted to if the services of horses
are to be made at all available.
To be generally useful, these appliances must be cheap, effi-
ciënt, and simple.
The quickest, cheapest, but at the same time least durable
of these, is the " frost-nail." This is nothing more than the
ordinary horse-shoe nail, with the head perhaps larger than usual,
and flattened gradually to a thin edge. Two or three of the
nails are withdrawn from each side of the shoe, and replaced by
the frost-nails. The heads may be flattened in different direc-
tions according to circumstances. Sometimes the heads are of
steel, when of course they are more lasting. For short
journeys, frost-nails are useful and easily available ; but as
they only last for a brief period, and as their frequent
renewal injures the hoof to some extent, they are only to
be used when the services of the horse are not likely to be in
great demand for any length of time, or when the frost promises
to be very transient. They are best adapted for saddle and
carriage horses. To prevent injury to the hoof, and at the same
time to obtain all the advantages of frost-nails, I have often, in
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WINTER SHOEING.                                111
the winter season, had extra holes punched in the shoes—one
at the extremity of each heel, and one on each side of the toe.
These nail-holes were large, and were stamped so obliquely out-
wards, that the frost-nails, when required, could be passed
through them, and lapped firmly over the edge of the shoe,
without interfering with the hoof. They may be made alto-
gether of soft steel, the heads alone being tempered. I
have found this plan most convenient and effective, as the
hoof and shoe are not disturbed, and the nails can be renewed
as often as may be necessary.
The usual plan is to remove the shoes from the hoofs, and
give them sharpened calkins, and it may be toe-pieces, also sharp.
This is not a good expediënt if it has to be often repeated,
as the hoofs are damaged by the frequent nailing, the horses
are apt to be lamed, and the shoes to become loose. It is for
the time being, however, very effective; When the calks and
toe-pieces are only made of iron, and if the ground be not
covered with a sufficiënt layer of snow to protect them to some
extent, they soon become blunted, and the shoes then require
to be taken off and the process repeated. To remedy this, if
time permits, it is an excellent plan to weid in the calkin, or
toe-piece, or on the face of the shoe, a piece of steel (figs. 31,
Fig. 81.                                                    Fig. 32.
32 a), which, when sharpened and tempered, lasts a very
considerable time.
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112                     PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
In Bharpening the calkins, regard must be had to their
situation-that on the outside heel may be flattened across the
branch of the shoe (fig. 33), but that on the inside must be
drawn as much as possible from the outer margin of the branch
Fig. 33.
Kg. 34.
i___!
(fig. 34), in order to avoid treads and wounds to the opposite
foot
As a rule, it is better that toe-pieces of the same height as
the calkins be used on all shoes, to keep the foot and limb from
being injured.
The Canadian shoe, made of steel, concave on the ground
surface, with the concavity forming a sharp edge on the margin
is very useful when there is a thick layer of ice with snow
But perhaps the most useful, least hurtful, and expeditious
method of making the horse efficiënt on ice-covered roads, is by
the adoption of screw-studs. For these, each new shoe at the
commencement of the winter has a circular hole punched at
the heels, and another at the toe, if considered necessary
This 1S Bcrewed, and into it is fitted, for ordinary wear, a flat-
headed stud (% 35), which is turned in with a key or wrench
These studs last for some time, and preserve the shoe from
wear; when worn nearly to the level of the shoe, they are
removed and replaced by new ones. Should frost set in sud-
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113
WINTER SHOErNG.
denly, the flat-headed studs have only to be removed by the
groom when the horse is ï'equired, and sharp steel ones substi-
tuted. This can be done in a few minutes.
Fig. 35.                ,                                     Fig. 36.
Flat scrbw-stüd.                                           Sharp screw-stud.
The usual shape of the sharp stud is that of a wedge, the
screwed portion being much smaller than that projecting
beyond the shoe. This is a faulty conformation, which leads
to the stud frequentiy working itself loose and falling out, or
breaking off at the neck, leaving the screwed portion in the shoe.
For some years I have remedied this defect by employing
steel frost-studs of a conical or pyramidal shape, and having
the portion screwed into the shoe as thick as that projecting
from it (fig. 36). This pattern is not at all liable to turn
round and fall out on meeting the ground; while, being the
same thickness throughout, there is no check at the screw to
weaken the stud; consequently it does not break if carefully
forged and tempered.
Of all the appliances designed to enable horses to travel
safely on ice, without taking them to the forge, or requiring
the services of the farrier, none have stood the test of trial so
satisfactorily as this screw stud. I have experimented with
nearly every invention, but have found them either too compli-
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114
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
cated or expensive, not fit for severe work, or only adapted
for shoes of one pattern.
Quite recently, acting on a hint given me by Colonel Count
Pratasoff Bachmeteff, Commandant of the Emperor of Russia's
Body Guard, I have tried another form of frost-stud, which is
simpler, easier made, and, therefore, much less expensive, and
promises to be even more efficiënt than that just described.
This merely consists of a square piede of steel, about the same
length as the screw-stud, -which is pointed and tempered at one
Fig. 37.
A Shoe, with the Uhscrewed Steel Studs ; one, shown within the shoe, has
been remoTed from the aperture.
end (that which comes into contact with the ground or ice) and
flat at the other end. This fits into a similar-shaped hole at
the extremity of each branch of the shoe, and, if thought neces-
sary, in the middle or at each side of the toe.
This hole should be very slightly tapering from the lower to
the upper (or foot) surface, and it should be of such a size that
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115
SHOEESTG OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS.
the square stud will require a slight tap or two to make it fit in
tightly, yet without projecting at all beyond the level of the
foot-surface of the shoe. I was at first in doubt as to whether
the studs would remain in during work, or while the horse was
standing in the stable; but, to my surprise, they were firmly
retained in the shoes for a montb, though subjected to every
kind of test except on ice, which the season has not afforded.
A few blows on each side are sufficiënt to slacken them,
vvhen they require to be removed as no longer necessary,
when worn out, or when they require to be re-sharpened.
The weight of the horse evidently keeps them tightly fixed
in the shoe, and, from their being of the same thickness
throughout, there is little risk of their breaking. It would be
advisable, I think, to have the shoes a little thicker and broader
at the places where the holes are to be made. I anticipate that
this mode of rendering all kinds of horses efficiënt during frost
will be found eminently successful and very inexpensive, and
one readily carried out anywhere in a very short time.*
SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS.
Shoeing is a powerful auxiliary in the hands of a competent
farrier, for remedying the natural defects which are not unfre-
quently observed in the position of the limbs and feet of horses;
while to the scientific veterinary surgeon, it is no less a most
potent aid in curing or palliating ceitain maladies or deformities
of a special character.
* I have giyen a pattern of these studs to Messrs. Arnold, of West Smithfield.
i 2
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116
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
Perhaps the most frequent defects the farrier has to contend
with, are turning-out or turning-in the toe of the foot; both of
which malformations are not only unsightly, but are produc-
tive of more or less injury to the limb, from the unequal
manner in which some of its parts have to sustain the weight
of the body.
To rectify the leg or foot when the toe turns outwards, the
hoof should be levelled as before described, the margin of the
wall at the outside-toe, and back nearly to the quarter, being
well reduced and rounded. The clip is to be drawn up nearer
to the inside than the middle of the toe ; the shoe to be fitted
close to the outside-toe and quarter, but the inside, from the
quarter to the heel, should be more full than usual. In the
course of several shoeings, by this reduction of the wall at the
outside of the hoof, and the fitting of the shoe, a most noticeable
improvement will be effected.
When the toe is turned inwards, precisely the reverse treat-
tnent must be foliowed: the inside-toe must be reduced, the
clip of the shoe formed nearer the outside-toe, and the shoe itself
fitted close at the inside-toe, but wide at the outside. In both
cases the shoes ought to be of the same thickness throughout.
" Cutting," or striking and wounding the inner side of the
leg with the opposite foot, is sometiraes a cause of rnuch annoy-
ance. It may be due to weakness, fatigue, or to a sudden
change in the manner of shoeing; in which cases it is only
temporary. But it may also arise from malformed limbs or
faulty action, and these defects may be so exaggerated as to be
scarcely, if at all, remedied by shoeing alone.
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117
SHOEING OF DEFECTIVE LIMBS.
The usual part of the hoof with which the horse strikes the
opposite limb, is the inside-toe or quarter. Whichever of these
regions it may be, the hoof must continue to be levelled at right
angles to the direction of the pastem, and a shoe equally thick
throughout applied, the only difference between it and the
ordinary shoe being the removal of a portion of the iron from
the margin at a point corresponding to the portion that causes
the injury to the opposite limb; or the shoe, instead of being
narrowed in the branch at this part, may be straightened, so as
to lie within the hoof. No nails are to be inserted here; they
may be placed in front of, and behind the striking portion—at
the toe and heel. The hoof, after the application of the shoe,
may then be reduced at the quarter with the rasp, to diminish
its convexity, and thus avert " cutting " or striking.
The preplantar method of shoeing is well adapted for certain
horses that " cut."
Some horses have the awkward habit of lying like a cow, with
one or both fore legs doubled up at the knee, and the elbow
resting on the heel of the foot. Should the ordinary shoes be
worn, it almost inevitably follows that the ends of the branches
pressing upon the elbow will cause the formation of a large
unsightly tumour, which may in time become an abscess or
ulcerate. The prevention of this is in the hands of the farrier,
who has only to shorten and smoothly round the extremities of
the shoe, so as to keep them within the hoof. Most frequently
it is the inside heel, in which case a three-quarter shoe at once
remedies the evil.
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118
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOELNG.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE'S FOOT.
After what has been said with regard to the management of
the horse's foot in shoeing, there is but little to add concerning
its general treatment; as shoeing influences, more or less, for
good or for evil, the general condition of that organ, and renders
its ordinary management either a matter of much or of trifling
moment.
When it has been robbed of its horn by the farrier, and
brought to such an artificial and abnormal state as we have
indicated, then its preservation in anything like a healthy or
efficiënt condition is a matter of no small difficulty, and appears
sometimes to demand very curious, and often by no means
reasonable, practices on the part of the groom.
The most common are : applying to the face of the wall tar,
oil, fish-oil, or advertised mixtures of various kinds to make the
horn grow, prevent brittleness, cure diseases, etc.; and to the
sole plates of leather, bolsters of tow steeped in tar, filthy appli-
cations of cow-dung, mud or clay, and other matters.
It is scarcely necessary to say that to the unpared and unrasped
hoof these are not only unnecessary, but some of them even
positively hurtful. Oil, for instance, not only renders the wall
brittle, but loosens the nails; while cow-dung, from the ammonia
it contains, softens and destroys the frog.
The unmutilated hoof is easily kept in health. All it requires
is keeping cool, and moistening occasionally with cold water
during hot weather, or after severe exertion. When a journey
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GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP THE HORSE S EOOT. 119
has been long continued and severe, the horse should not be
immediately put into a stable, but ought to be walked gently
about until the circulation of blood in the extremities has had
time to accommodate itself to the altered conditions of rest.
By this means congestion of the feet and laminitis (inflamma-
tion) is averted.
In washing the hoofs a water-brush should not be employed,
but a soft sponge, with a view to prevent the translucent horn
on the front of the wall being destroyed.
The sides and cleft of the frog may be cleaned out occasionally
with a blunt pieker, though if sound this is scarcely required.
Nothing more is needed, so far as the every-day stable
management of the foot is concerned, except to caution the
groom against cutting away the hair immediately above the
coronet, as this acts like a thatch in preserving the frog-band, at
its commencement, from the effects of perspiration and
moisture.                                                       •
Much harm is done to the legs and feet by the somewhat
cruel custom of keeping horses, while in the stable, constantly
tied up in one position in stalls with sloping floors. This
fashion is not only entirely opposed to the animal's natural
habits—for the horse loves to move about and change his
attitude—but the limbs and feet, more especially the front ones,
are, instead of being rested, greatly fatigued; and this brings
about alterations which may be none the less serious because
they are not immediate in their effects. Various bad and
unsightly habits are also acquired, such as crib-biting, weaving,
wind-sucking, &c.
*
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]20                      PKACTICAL HOBSE- SHOEING.
A loose box with a level floor, even if no larger than a stall,
is infinitely preferable, and by all means to be commended
to those who place some value on the soundness of body, eye-
sight, and limbs of their horses, as well as regard their comfort.
STREETS AND ROADS.
The roads over which horses travel have also much influence
for good or evil on the condition of the feet and legs. In the
majority of the towns and cities in Great Britain, it would most
certainly appear that considerations for the safety, comfort, or
efficiency of the thousands of horses in daily use were altogether
lost sight of, or neglected, in constructing the public thorough-
fares.
Masses of the hurdest and closest-grained stone are laid down
in most streets in such a fashion, that they seem as if purposely
designed to afford an insecure foothold, and prevent the horse's
strength being profitably utilized. These paved streets—always
a source of danger to the animals—while hindering them from
employing their force to the best advantage, are also particularly
injurious to the legs and feet from the incessant efforts made to
maintain a footing. More especially is this the case in wet
weather, when they are covered with greasy mud, and in
summer when their dry smooth surface becomes leaded. It is
needless to say, that no kind of metal defence to the hoof will
for many days, if at all, ensure a firm foothold on such roads;
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121
STREETS AND ROADS.
and nothing but a metal defence has ever been found suitable
to the horse's foot.
Every device has been tried to meet the demands for travelling
with ease and safety on such paved streets, and none have
proved entirely successful. Nor is it at all likely that future
inventions will entirely meet these demands; the basalt or
granite pavement, perfectly smooth, and offering a most insecure
surface for fixing the foot during movement, is not at all adapted
for hors e traffic.
From the durability of these roads, they may be, to those
who have to pay for their construction and maintenance, more
economical than others on which horses can journey with ease
and without risk of falling down ; but they are far from being
economical to those whose carriages and waggons traverse
them. A portion of the horse's motive power is devoted to
maintaining his foothold, and the fear induced by this
insecurity operates against what remains - being applied as
profitably as it ought to be. So that less is gained in the
economy of construction and durability, and in the easier
traction of vehicles, than is lost in the injury done to the horse's
extremities, and the waste of power required to maintain its
equilibrium.
Even more injurious to feet and limbs is the barbarous,
slovenly, and stupid method prevailing in this country of
repairing macadamised roads—or what are intended for them—
by depositing a heap of angular stones in a loose rugged layer
of uncertain depth, and compelling horses and carriages to travel
over them until they are imbedded in a very irregular manner
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122
PEACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
in the soil beneath them. Such a practice is not only extremely
short-sighted on the part of those who make or repair roads in
this manner—as these roads can neither be durable nor very
serviceable—but also deserves the severest censure as most
cruel and destructive to horses. Not only is the labour in
drawing a carriage over such a surface immensely increased,
and the horse's strength thereby unprofitably expended, but
the unstable footing afforded by the loose masses of stone
throws a great strain in every direction upon the legs and feet,
and not unfrequently the animal is thrown down, and beeomes
seriously injured or blemished for Hfe.
If the hoofs chance to be pared and rasped according to the
groom or farrier's " irnproved principles," then the consequences
are greatly aggravated.
Certainly, within the last year or two, heavy rollers have
been brought into requisition to crush in the new metal, and
thus make a good and serviceable road; but the employment
of these is still far from general, and unless public opinion be
brought to bear more energetically against the suppression of
this evil, it is to be feared that their number will not be
increased, nor their utility more generally recognised.
The best mode of constructing and repairing our public
thoroughfares and highways, with a view not only to economy,
but to the safety and comfort of horses, is a matter that
deserves serious attention.
Taken in connection with our subject, it is one that cannot
be overlooked. "We may preserve and defend the horse's foot
to the best of our ability in our forges and stables, but if the
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123
INSTRUCTION OF FAEEIEES.
roads over which he travels are not adapted to his employment,
our exertions on his behalf can only be partially successful.
The chief desiderata in a roadway are, durability, cheapness
n construction, noiselessness during traffic, easy traction, and
secure foothold for the horses travelling upon it. All these
qualities should be found in a good road ; and it is to be hoped
that the day is not far distant when the material and the
method of utilising it which will confer this great boon will be
discovered.*
INSTRUCTION OF FARMERS.
The foregoing instructions relative to shoeing are, in substance,
those which I have been in the habit, for several years, of laying
before the farriers in the different regiments in which I have
served, and with an amount of success which amply rewarded
me for the trouble I took to see that they were carried into
practice. Not only have my own duties been considerably
lightened in the greatly diminished number of lame and un-
serviceable horses, but the labours of the farriers have been
considerably abbreviated and simplified; and by their being
able to understand the reasons for acting as I desired, their
* The wood pavement now in process of laying near London Bridge, gives at
present some reasou to hope that it will be au improvement upon every other kind
hitherto tried. It appears to be sufficiently elastic to relieve the horses' feet and
limbs from the uncomfortable jar they experieuce on stone-made roads ; it is com-
paratively noiseless ; the traction is easy ; and even when wet, it affords a good
foothold. This is due, no doubt, to the direction of the fibres (vertioal) in the cubes
of which the upper stratum of the pavement is composed.
•:,
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124
PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING.
intelligence was awakened, and they took an interest in carry-
ing out my views.
In our Army this is not always the case. The subject of
farriery is often looked upon much as it is in civil life—as a
matter that concerns the farrier only, and tradition and routine
extensively prevail. In saying this, however, I do not intend
for a moment to insinuate that the army veterinary surgeons
are averse to giving their attention to a most important, though
it may appear a minor, part of their duty. On the contrary,
many of them do so, and with the greatest advantage to the
service; but there is not the same encouragement offered
either to veterinary surgeons or fanïers, in this respect, as there
is in Continental armies. In the French army, for instance,
there are schools and professors of farriery, the most notable of
these being at the cavalry school of Saumur. In these, the
farriers are regularly trained to an uniform and approved system
before being posted to different regiments, and direct en-
couragement is given to these men by the institution of
competitions, in which the most successful are rewarded by
medals and gifts of money.
But not only does the French Government bestow some care
in the advancement of farriery in the army; it also stimulates
competition and improvement among the civilian farriers. So
late as the 28th, 29th, and 30th of April, 1870, there was a
concours of ' maréchalerie' at Valence, divided into two
sections—a civil and a military—presided over by two special
juries composed of eminent veterinary surgeons and pro-
fessors.
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125
INSTRUCTION OF FARRIERS.
At this concours, not only were models of shoes and shod-
hoofs exhibited, but the farriers—civil and military—were
tested in the various operations of farriery on the spot, by
shoeing saddle, carriage, and draught horses, draught and pack
mules, and oxen. A large number of gold, silver, and bronze
medals, as well as a considerable sum of money, were given
away.
These concours cannot but effect much good, by attracting
attention to this very important subject, and encouraging good
workmen.
In Belgium there are also concours, and if I remember
aright, farriers who attend them receive instruction from
properly qualified veterinary surgeons, who are authorised to
grant certificates of proficiency.
In both countries, as well as in Germany, the students at the
veterinary schools are taught the piïnciples and practice, and
even the manual details, of shoeing, and this instruction is of
great value to them in after life.
It is scarcely necessary to say that in*this country nothing of
the kind is attempted.
The Government does nothing to improve or encourage
veterinary science in any way; hence the low state of this
important branch of medicine and rural economy in Britain,
and hence the enormous losses she has sustained for so many
years. Hence, also, the degraded and barbarous condition of
farriery, even in our cities and towns. With the exception of,
on very rare occasions, the distribution of a prize or two at
some local agricultural show to farriers, who imagine that
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126
PBACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
paring and rasping, and a fantastically wrought piece of iron,
constitute the perfection of shoeing, the subject is thought un-
worthy of notice. Even at the veterinary schools during my
matriculation, it was dismissed in a brief lecture of an hour, and
then pathological shoeing was chiefly referred to. Nothing of
the principles or practice was ever taught.*
When the Veterinary Colleges are so indifferent to a matter
so closely related to the comfort and efficiency of the horse, we
cannot wonder that veterinary surgeons, as a rule, and farriers,
take but little interest in shoeing.
The rernedy for this, of course, should be, in the first place,
applied to the teaching schools. The anatomy and physiology
of the horse's foot, its management in health and disease, and
the principles and practice of shoeing, ought to be thoroughly
inculcated.
It would be most advantageous if, when this course was
adopted, farriers could be prevailed upon to attend, and after
due examination as to their competency to practise their art in
a rational manner, they were to receive certificates of profi-
* We have to note that since the first edition of this treatise was published, the
Eoyal Veterinary College advertises that among the other subjects taught, the
'' Principles and Practice of Shoeing " are included. With regard to the Edinburgh
Veterinary School, it may be mentioned that the Principal has published a work on
"Veterinary Surgery," in which, in the very brief chapter devoted to horse-shoeing,
he recommends a shoe in its essential features the same as that proposed by Mr.
Thacker, and alluded to at page 81, and also points out the desirability of non-paring,
the sole of the hoof taking its share in weight-bearing, and the hurtfulness of calkins,
in words almost the same as these employed in this little essay. These are somewhat
hopeful signs that the disgraceful neglect with which the subject of farriery has been
treated at the schools may yet be remedied. It is to be feared, however, that in the
excessively short period which is supposed to be sufficiënt to teach a young man the
rudiments of a scientific and difficult profession, but a very small space will be devoted
to the important question of how to preserve the horse's foot sound and efficiënt.
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INSTKTJCTION OF FARRIERS.                        127
ciency as in Belgium—these certificates carrying with them
similar advantages to those that the diploma of surgery confers
upon the surgeon.
In default of this, veterinary surgeons properly qualified for
the duty, and possessing the necessary convenience and oppor-
tunity, might be induced to receive and instruct apprentices in
farriery, granting them authorised certificates when judged to
be fit to practise the art.
Agricultural meetings should also be made the means of
instructing farriers in shoeing, and of stimulating competition
in the districts in which they are held. Of course, it must be a
sine qud non that the instructors and judges should themselves
understand the subject thoroughly.
These are the only means by which, I believe, the art of
farriery can be improved in this country, where nearly all
improvement is left to private enterprise. A profound know-
ledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot is not
absolutely necessary to the farrier. What I have sketched out
on these subjects in this essay, I have generally found sufficiënt
to enable my farriers to comprehend the nature of the organ
they were called upon to protect and preserve, and this much
was easily taught them in a short time. I have always had
more difficulty in making them unlearn their unreasonable
practices, than acquiring those which were novel, though
easier , and my chief antagonists in all improvements have
been the ignorant grooms and coachmen—the lovers of
well pared and rasped hoofs, oiled or blacked like a boot; hot
stables ; physic; bearing-reins; blinkers; cruppers; powerful
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128                       PRACTICAL HOESE-SHOEING.
bits; and everything, in fact, unnatural and injurious to the
horse.*
* I do not wish to speak harshly of a class of men who have much improved, and
who have shown themseives capable of further improvement, even since my experience
of them began. Many of them are most excellent, intelligent, and trustworthy, and
the welfare of the horses entrusted to their care is fully assured. Unfortunately,
these excellent servants compose but a small fraction of. the class, and, as a body,
they require educating in the matter of horse-hygiene and horse-management, quite
as much as the majority of the farmers do in horse-shoeing. Perhaps the time is not
very distant when owners of horses shall require, in addition to an apprenticeship in
the stable and on the coach-box, a certificate that the groom or coachman has attended
an elementary course of lectures od veterinary medicine.
Rickard Clay tfc Sons, Limïttd, London & Bungay.