


■».\'\' •••• •		«i



	• ; . . quot;
		\'t 1
t
	• cp - mc


.f / ; ■
	i	1
	r ■ CV.

	{
A\'\' \' \' \'\'\' .
	\'\' -\' 1

Het Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië.

PROEFSCHRIFT TER VERKRIJGING VAN DEN
GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE LETTEREN EN
WIJSBEGEERTE AAN DE RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT
TE UTRECHT OP GEZAG VAN DEN RECTOR
MAGNIFICUS Dr. C. G. N. DE VOOIJS HOOG-
LEERAAR IN DE FACULTEIT DER LETTEREN
EN WIJSBEGEERTE VOLGENS BESLUIT VAN
DEN SENAAT DER UNIVERSITEIT TEGEN
DE BEDENKINGEN VAN DE FACULTEIT
DER LETTEREN EN WIJSBEGEERTE TE VER-
DEDIGEN OP VRIJDAG 28 OCTOBER 1932
DES NAMIDDAGS 4 UUR

Aan het eind van mijn academische studie gaan mijn gedachten met dankbaarheid
terug naar allen, die daarbij mijn leermeesters zijn geweest.

In de eerste plaats dank ik U, Hooggeleerde Kohlbrugge, Hooggeschatte Promotor,
zoowel voor Uw onderricht als voor de uitgebreide voorlichting en hulp, die Gij mij bij
de samenstelling van dit proefschrift hebt willen verleenen. Gij hebt niet nagelaten, mij
vooraf te wijzen op de moeilijkheden, die mij bij dezen arbeid te wachten stonden, doch
daarna hebt Gij mij ook telkens weder geholpen, deze moeilijkheden te overwinnen. Niet
slechts van Uwe rechtstreeksche inlichtingen heb ik voortdurend profyt mogen trekken,
doch ook de onschatbare verzameling gegevens, onder Uwe leiding samengebracht in het
Ethnologisch Instituut der Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht, zijn mij van groot nut geweest.

Bij mijn reis door het bergland van Zuid-Sumatra, zoo rijk aan geomorfologische
problemen, werd telkens weer de herinnering gewekt aan Uw colleges. Hooggeleerde
Oestreich, en aan de excursies, die ik onder Uwe leiding mocht maken.

U, Hooggeleerde Van Vuuren, dank ik niet slechts voor Uw onderwijs, doch ook
voor de inlichtingen, die Gij mij bij het schrijven van deze dissertatie hebt verstrekt.

Zeer belangwekkend was het voor mij, onder Uw leiding. Hooggeleerde Van Ever-
dingen, kennis te maken met de theoretische zijde van eene wetenschap, waarmede ik
in vroegeren werkkring in nauwe practische aanraking was geweest.

U, Hooggeleerde Vening Meinesz, heb ik te danken zoowel voor uw onderwijs als
ook voor de wenken, welke Gij mij op reis hebt medegegeven.

Bij een archaeologisch onderzoek in het terrein is eenig inzicht in de geologie dikwijls
nuttig en bij mijn werk in Zuid-Sumatra heb ik in het bijzonder leeren waardeeren hetgeen
Gij, Hooggeleerde Rutten, mij daaromtrent hebt onderwezen.

Temidden van de tropische fauna en flora heb ik het menigmaal betreurd, dat ik
slechts korten tijd van Uw onderricht. Hooggeleerde Nierstrasz, Hooggeleerde Went,
Hooggeleerde Pullen, Zeergeleerde Hirsch, heb kunnen genieten.

Zeergeleerde Hol, Uw onderwijs zoowel als Uw aandeel in de leiding van de excursies,
waaraan ik heb deelgenomen, blijven bij mij in dankbare herinnering.

Bij het maken van de teekeningen en kaarten voor dit boek heb ik vele uren achter het
teekenbord moeten staan, waarbij ik ruimschoots aanleiding had om met waardeering terug

te denken aan hetgeen Gij, Hooggeachte Van der Zweep, mij op dit gebied hebt geleerd.

Ofschoon ik aan het begin van mijn studie slechts kort student was aan de Gemeente-
lijke Universiteit van Amsterdam, mag een woord van dank aan U, Hooggeleerde Dubois,

Behalve degenen, die rechtstreeks bij mijn academische opleiding betrokken waren,
hebben vele anderen mij zeer aan zich verplicht bij het schrijven van dit proefschrift.

Ik denk hierbij in de eerste plaats aan Professor J. C. van Eerde te Amsterdam, die
mij aanried, dit onderwerp voor mijne dissertatie te kiezen, die mij zijn reisaanteekeningen
ter beschikking stelde en die mij met groote bereidwilligheid in de gelegenheid stelde,
gebruik te maken van de studiebronnen, welke het Koloniaal Instituut te Amsterdam
biedt.

Dr. A. E. van Giffen te Groningen heeft zich vóór mijn vertrek veel moeite gegeven
om mij in te lichten omtrent de literatuur betreffende de megalithen en om mij practisch
op de hoogte te stellen van het ontgravingswerk.

Prof. Dr. L. PH. Ie Cosquino de Bussy en Prof. Dr. E. C. J. Möhr, beide te
Amsterdam, alsmede Prof. Dr. J. Schmutzer en Dr. Robert Kanters, beide te Utrecht,
waren zoo vriendelijk, de medegebrachte monsters voor mij te onderzoeken; het resultaat
van dit onderzoek is in het quot;Appendixquot; vastgelegd.

In Indië was ik uit den aard der zaak in hooge mate afhankelijk van de hulp van
anderen. In de eerste plaats spreek ik mijn groote dankbaarheid uit jegens drie catego-
rieën van Gouvernements-Ambtenaren:

Dr. F. D. K. Bosch, Hoofd van den Oudheidkundigen Dienst en Dr. P. V. van Stein
Callenfels, Inspecteur van dien dienst, hebben mij een bewijs van vertrouwen gegeven,
door mij toe te staan, enkele ontgravingen te verrichten en zijn mij menigmaal met goeden
raad behulpzaam geweest, terwijl Dr. K. C. Crucq, van denzelfden dienst, mij mede in-
lichtingen verschafte.

De Ambtenaren van het Europeesch Binnenlandsch Bestuur, met wie ik in aanraking
kwam, zijn te talrijk om hunne namen hier te noemen. Overal, waar ik kwam, hebben zij
zich de grootste moeite gegeven om mijn onderzoek te bevorderen.

De Ambtenaren van het Inlandsch Bestuur hebben mij vele malen op mijn tochten
vergezeld en in ruime mate voorlichting, hulp en gastvrijheid verleend.

die mij op de een of andere wijze hebben geholpen. Jegens degenen, die ongenoemd
moesten blijven, is mijn dankbaarheid voor de vele vriendelijkheid, die ik ook van deze
zijde ondervond, niet minder groot.

De uitgave van dit werk zou onmogelijk zijn geweest zonder financieelen steun.
Het heeft mij tot groote dankbaarheid gestemd, dat de wetenschappelijke Genootschappen,
welke tegenover den titel zijn vermeld, mij dezen steun wel hebben willen verstrekken!
Ik stel het op hoogen prijs, dat deze instellingen mijn werk waardig hebben gekeurd, er
hunne in de wetenschap sinds jaren gevestigde namen aan te verbinden. Moge dit boek
blijk geven, een dergelijk bewijs van vertrouwen te verdienen.

The Pasemah, 1—3. Explanation of Malay words, 3—4. Legend of Lidah Pait,
4—5. Earliest reports about remains, 6. Work of the quot;Controleursquot; Batenburg,
Junius, Hoven, and Resident Westenenk, 7. Journeys Prof, van Eerde and
Dr. Bosch, 8. The remains put under Government-protection, 9.

Palembang, 10—11. Hills near Lahat, 11—12. Karangindah, 12—13. Lahat, 13.
Djati, 13. Karangdalem, 13—14. Tandjoengsirih, 14—15. Tinggihari, 15—17.
Padang, 17—18. Pageralam (Marga Pagar Goenoeng), 18—19. Tebatsibentoer,
19—20. Tandjoengmenang, 20—21. Tandjoengtebat, 21. Pematang, 21—23.
Airdingin, 23. Loeboehan, 23. Geramat, 24. Lesoengbatoe, 24. Tandjoeng-
bringin, 25. Mingkik, 25—26. Tebatgoenoeng, 26. Nanding, 26. Tebingtinggi, 27.
Pelangkenidai, 27—28. Kebonagoeng, 28.

Pageralam, 29—32. GoenoengDempo, 32. Pematangbange, 32. Tandjoengara, 33.
Batoegadjah, 33—35. Padjarboelan, 35—36. Poelaupanggoeng,36—37. Goenoeng-
megang, 37—39. Moerapajang, 39. Batoetjawang, 39—40. Kebanagoeng, 40.
Kepajang, 40. Tjoeroep, 40-^2.

Oedjanmas, 43—44. Tegoerwangi, 44—53. Excavation of dolmen, 44—45.
Group of four images, 45—47. Excavation of stonecists, 47—52. Tjawang,
53—54. Goenoengagoeng, 54. Tandjoengsakti, 54—55.

The roads, 56. Batoeradja, 57. Pagerdewa naer Moearadoea Kisam, 57. Moeara-
^^^^^ 57—58. Batoeberak, 58—60. Talangpadang,
?nbsp;^fi^ains in the Lampongs? 60—61. Kosala in West-Java, 61—63.

Classification of remains, 66. Difference in execution of images, 67—69. Images
always betray original shape of material, 69—70. Dress, 70—73. Equipment
and ornaments, 73—74. Animals represented, 74—75. The buffalo not identic
with the nandi, 75. Physical features of images, 75—76. ,,Negroidquot; hair? 77.
The sculptors no „negrito\'squot;, 78—79. The elephant sacred with the Koeboes, 79.

State of decay and volcanic strata no clue for age, 80. No Hindoo-influence, 80—81
Kettledrums represented on the Batoegadjah, 81—82. Kettle-drums in the
Museum at Batavia, 82—83. Goloubew\'s opinion on the age of the kettle-
drums, 83—87. Rouffaers article, 87—88. Dr. Crucqs find in Bali, 88—89.
The opinion of Meyer and Foy, 89—90. Other bronze-finds in Dutch-East-
India, 90—92. The swords and helms of the images, 92—94. In Annam one
megalithic monument, 94. Stone implements in the Pasemah, 94. Controleur
Batenburg found iron, 95. Sacral meaning of the images, 95. Ancestral images in
the Batak-lands, 95—96. Dito in Nias, 96. Images in Central Celebes, 96—97.
Dito in New Guinea, 97—98. \'Tolynesianquot; images in Java, 98. Stone sculptures
in Borneo, 99—100. Dito in East-Java, 101.

Possible purpose of lesoengbatoe, 102—103. Stones of the same description
found elsewhere, 103. Purpose never proved, 104. Purpose of the troughs, 104.
Sarcophaguses in Besoeki, 105—106. Troughs probably served as skull-tombs,
106.

Upright stones contemporary with other remains, 107—108. Menhirs in
Khassia-hills, 108—109. Signification of menhirs, 109—110. Phallic symbols?
110—111. Menhirs in Nias and Madagascar, 111—113.DitoinFlores, 113—114.
Arndt\'s classification of megaliths in Flores 114—115. Other reports about
Flores, 116—118. Upright stones in Borneo, Seran and Celebes, 118—120. Dito
in Java, 120.

Tetraliths belong to the same period as the other megaliths, 121. They occur in
Java also, 121. Van Heekeren\'s opinion. 121. House-piles or graves? 122—123.
Signification of stone-avenues, 123—124. Similar monuments in the New
Hebrides and Tahiti, 125. Probably they served a sacred purpose, 125.

Sometimes combined with upright stones, 126. In South-Sumatra no burial
in the dolmens, 127. Similar monuments occur with the Khasi and in Nias, 127.
Dito in Celebes and Java, 128. Dito in Timor and Soemba, 129.

Stonecists in Europe, 130. In East-Java and in Malacca, 131. Recent stonecists
in Madagascar, 131—132. Stonecists in Ellice-Islands, 132. The beads in the
stonecists, 133—139. Finds of Dr. van Tuyn, 133. Opinion of Prof. Nieuwen-
huis, 133—134. Beads in the Museum at Leiden and in the British Museum, 134.
Beads from Malacca, 134. Dito from East-Java, 134—135. Dito from the
Philippines, 135—136. Analysis of beads necessary, 137. The opinion of Rouffaer,
137—139. Gold and bronze finds, 139. Iron found by Controleur Batenburg, 139.
Engraving and coloured drawing, 140—141.

Ancient graves in the Pasemah, 142. Resemblance between Terrace-graves
and Polynesian sanctuaries, 142—143. Dr. Stutterheims opinion on the Argapoera-
sanctuary, Java, 143. Baesslers description of quot;Maraequot;, 143. Cooks, Dumont
d\'UrvilIes and Wilsons drawings, 144. Nomenclature of Polynesian sanctuaries,
according to Heine Geldem, 144—145.

Pit-marked stones, 146—147. Relief Tebatsibentoer 3,147. Flat stones, 147—148.
Grave Kebonagoeng, 148. Gargoyle Pageralam 5, 148. Stone Pageralam 6, 148.
Stones Tjoeroep 1, 148. Trough Ranau 2, 148—149.

Megaliths and solar-cult, 150—151. Direction of the rise of the sun, 151. Orien-
tations, 151—154.

Solution of the race-problem not yet possible, ^5. Megalithic centres in the
Archipelago and surroundings, 156—157. Bronze-culture and megalith-culture
mixed in the Pasemah, 157. The culture of the Pasemah dates probably from
the beginning of our aera, 158. Megalithic monuments spread over four conti-
nents, 159. Perry and the Manchester School, 159—162. The opinion of Heine
Oeldern, 162—164. The finds in the Pasemah fit in with Heine Gelderns theory.
164—165. Caucasic theory of Prof. Kohlbrugge, 165—166. The theory of Dr.
Kruyt concermng Central Celebes, 166—167. Research for the present more
needed than theories! 167—168.

Page 13. Between line 5 and 6, insert: After the text of this book was printed,
we succeeded in getting into touch with Mr. Batenburg. Among other things, he told
us that between Lahat and Keban, 5 K.M. further North, more images are to be found;
further that an image is still standing on the Moearaenim-Soegiwaras road near Tandjoeng.

Page 15, between line 20 and 21 insert: After our return to Holland, quot;Controleurquot;
Vonk informed us that between Padang and the Selangis, another three images and one
quot;sacrificial stonequot; were found.

Page 19, line 14, add: Mr Vonk sent us photographs of this image later. It re-
presents a human figure with a buffalo in front and a child behind. The chief figure wears
the well known helm. The head has been sculptured separately and is fastened to the
trunk with cement.

Page 26, between line 2 and 3 insert: According to Mr. Batenburg, a dolmen
must be lying near the doesoen Benoeakeling, a little further on.

Page 26, under the last line, add: According to Mr. Batenburg, images must
still occur to the North of the main road, between the Kilometre-post 273 and 274, near
Bandar.

Page 28, between line 5 and 6, insert: Here, to the North of the main road, lie
the small lakes Tebat Besar, Tebat Poelau and Danau Aoer. According to Mr. Baten-
burg, an image must stand here also.

Page 28, after the last line, add: Mr. Batenburg told us that similar grave-stones
occur along the path that runs from Tebatsibentoer to Moearatiga (see Map III and IV).

Page 30, after line 25, add: According to Mr. Batenburg, however, this stone,
came from the doesoen Soemoer, lying between Kotaraja and Padjarboelan, near point
714 (see Map VI). In the same doesoen, there should also be a stone avenue.

Page 32, between lines 39 and 40, insert: 1,5 K.M. to the North-East of Pageralam,
lies the doesoen of Aloendoea. According to Mr. Batenburg, there still lies here a grave-
stone, on which a female figure has been chiselled out. The stone appears to be of later
date than the images.nbsp;.

Page 33, between lines 32 and 33, insert: quot;Controleur Vonk, mdeed, reported
to us that after our departure from India, two stonecists were found at Tandjoengara,
the walls of which are ornamented with coloured drawings, corresponding with those
of the stonecist Tegoerwangi 11 (page 47).

Page 37, between lines 4 and 5, insert: According to Mr. Batenburg, there is also
here a round shallow basin, borne by three human figures who have their arms thrown
around it.

Page 37. The head Poelaupanggoeng 4, described on this page, does not, according
to Mr. Batenburg, come from Poelaupanggoeng but from the neighbouring doesoen
of Soemoer. Compare addendum of page 30.

Page 39, between lines 11 and 12, insert: According to Mr. Batenburg, a very
large dolmen still lies in this neighbourhood. Further some remains must have been
excavated between Tandjoengmenang and Djemaring, about 2 K.M. West of the above-
mentioned images, including a small bronze ring.

Page 47, lines 13 to 15: what is stated there was later corroborated by Mr. Baten-
burg personally.

Page 136, line 27; add: We learned, however, from Dr. van Stein Callenfels who
visited Manila in 1932 during a journey made for purposes of study, that the proofs
of a local glass industry found by Otley Beyer, are verv convincing.

Page 159, line 3 and 4 stands: which we found in the stone-cist graves and the
megaliths of Hindustan. Read : which are found in the stone-cist graves of South Sumatra
and also in the megaliths of Hindustan.

Before proceeding to enumerate the stone images, dolmens and other remains
which we met with in South Sumatra, we will devote a few words to the territory in which
these monuments are found, although there can be no question of a detailed geogra-
phical description. (See Map I).

It is already becoming a custom to speak of the images of the Pasemah. It is true
that many of these remains are to be found in the Pasemah, but traces of this culture are
also revealed in the adjacent region of Lematang Oeloe, in Komering and elsewhere.

The Pasemah is an extensive plateau which stretches about 70 K.M. in a direction
North-West South-East, between the Barisan- and the Goemai Mountains. Half-way
along this plateau, against the Barisan, rises the magnificent volcanic cone of the Goenoeng
Dempo, the crater-top of which, 3150 metres high, dominates the whole region. The
volcanic tufa from the Dempo covers the entire plateau and hydrographically has divided
It ^ into two parts: the North-Westerly part, which discharges its waters with the Air
Lintang into the Moesi, and the South-Easterly part, which discharges its waters into
the Lematang, which river joins the Moesi in the lowland-plain of Palembang.

The watershed between the Lintang and the Lematang is at the foot of the Dempo,
between 700 and 750 metres. Pageralam, the capital of the district Pasemah Lands, is
situated at an altitude of about 710 metres. On both sides, the plateau slopes down in a
gentle gradient.

Typical of the landscape is, that almost the whole plateau is covered with high grass,
called alang-alang. Only the sides of the ravines, which cut deeply into the volcanic tufa
and through which wind the rivers (Lematang, Endikat, Selangis) are lined with forest.

The Boekit Goemai forms the North-Easterly border of the Pasemah. Its highest
summit, the Boekit Besar, the quot;Great Mountainquot;, rises North of Pageralam to a height
of 1736 metres. The mountain range is almost inaccessible. H forms the division between
the Pasemah and the Kikim region, which latter concatenates with the lowland-plain
of Palembang.nbsp;o

Along the South-West border of the Pasemah, the Barisan-chain forms the counter-
Part of the Goemai. It is, however, higher. To the West of the Dempo, the Boekit Man-
diangin reaches a height of 2260 metres, while in the South the Goenoeng Patah rises
to 2817 metres.

The South-East part of the plateau is the larger of the two. It bears the name of
Pasemah Lebar, that is quot;broad Pasemahquot;. This is the original home of the Pasemah-people
and it is here also that most of the remains are found.

the Lematang, where also many remains are found. The Lematang, which has its source
m the Boekit Padjamendara, an offshoot of the just mentioned Goenoeng Patah, flows
in a North-Easterly direction between the Goemai Mountains and the Boekit Soemoer-
tmggi, and forms the natural communication between the Pasemah Lebar and the Palem-
bang Lowlands.

There are a few other, less important lines of communication connecting the Pasemah
with the more low-lying coast districts. The Goemai-chain constitutes an almost insur-
mountable dividing-wall between the plateau and the lowlands of Palembang. Only a
few difficult footpaths thread their way through it. To the North of the Goemai, however,
there runs a road which connects the Northern part of the Pasemah, the so-called Lintang-
district, with that part of the lowlands named after the Kikim River, a tributary of the
Moesi. This road partly follows the ravine of the Moesi and at present can be travelled
by ai^omobile. In former times it must have been almost impregnable to hostile invasions.

Following the Moesi from the Lintang district up stream, we reach the plateau of
Redjang, which in some degree resembles the Pasemah. It was once, indeed, included
m It, so that formerly the opinion prevailed that the Pasemah stretched much farther to
the Northwest than it really did. The Redjang-plateau also stretches from the South-East
to the North-West, enclosed between the Barisan chain in the South-West and in the
North-East by the volcano Boekit Kaba and the Boekit Balai. A road leads from the
capital, Kepajang, through the Barisan, to Benkoelen on the West Coast.

A direct line of communication from the Pasemah to the West Coast is formed by
the road which runs from Pageralam through the Barisan, skirting Tandjoengsakti, a
small place lying in a beautiful basin-shaped valley along the Air Manna, and reaches
the ocean near Manna. This road, which crosses the Barisan through a narrow ravine,
was recently opened for auto traffic but is not without danger. It must also have constituted
an almost impregnable line of defence.

Finally, there is another road, leading from Airdingin to Moearadoea-Poelaupanggoeng
in the Semendo. The so-called Semendo-plateau is situated on the North-Eastern slope
of the Goenoeng Patah, where the numerous source-rivers of the Air Enim unite. These
have so intersected the Semendo that one gets the impression of a hilly country rather
than a plateau.

From the Semendo you can, on one side, reach the lowlands via Batoeradja, while
on the other side, footpaths run through the Barisan to the Ranau-lake and from there to
the Lampong-districts. We shall see later that it is just this road, connecting Pasemah—
bemendo—Ranau—Semangka—Lampongs, which seems to have been used by the sculp-
tors of the Pasemah. There are also several indications that these megalith-builders had
some communication with the more Northerly parts of the island but we had no oppor-
tunity of making a personal investigation in that direction.

As was to be expected from the publications of former writers, we found the most
megahthic remains in the Pasemah and Lematang Oeloe.

The isolated situation of the Pasemah, encircled as it is by the surrounding mountains,
renders it m the highest degree suitable for defence. Before Dutch authority was esta-
t^^se districts, the inhabitants of the Pasemah stood nominally under the

Sultan of Palembang. They were not regarded, however as inhahJtpnf« r.fnbsp;t i

districts, therefore, Pangeran\'isTo^nbsp;n^brntylaf^^^^^ buttoffiiT^\'^quot;quot;quot;®

The villages often bear names associated with the rivers on which thev Hp Th.
word moeara, for example, frequently occurs in thpnbsp;r.fnbsp;j ^ ^^^

A side-path which leads from the main road to a village, is called simmm and thJ.
word also occurs m names of places, for example SimpangHga.nbsp;^ ^ \'\'

The words oeloe and ihr also occur very generally in the namp«; nf rsU^^o \' •

re^ly quot;upstreamquot; and quot;downstreamquot;\' fhe inh^taS: ^X fafg^; A^ereCI

a) See Bibliography at the end of this work. Henceforward we shall mention in thp «ni,,
quoted. For the full titles, see the Bibliography. When different workrTthe

distinguished by letters. For the convenienceVnLout S rfdS rfave riate^al^^^^^^^^^ mentioned they will be
French and German have been left untranslated.nbsp;translated all Dutch quotations. Quotations in

b^\'^sLTratoriL\'quot;\'\'^\'nbsp;\'\' \'\'\' Netherlands India. For instance batoe. pronounce batoo.

are frequently called quot;orang oeloequot;; the Hollanders speak of them as quot;Oeloeneezenquot; and
of their language as quot;Oeloeneeschquot;.

One finds repeatedly villages with the name Lesoengbatoe, composed of lesoeng (rice
pestle) and batoe (stone). In these villages one frequently finds old stone mortars, repeatedly
described by us. A general name for a mortar is loempang.

The word batoe (stone) frequently occurs in geographical names and this can indicate
the presence of megalithic remains. It occurs, for example, in the name Batoegadjah
(batoe, stone and gadjah, elephant; see under that name).

Mountains and mountain-chains are indicated with the common Malay words boekit
or goenoeng. Rivers in the Pasemah are known as air (literally water) or soengei. More
to the South they are called wai. The small lakes, frequently found in the Pasemah
are called tebat while larger lakes are known as danau.

The inhabitants have various names for the ancient stone images which we describe
in this book. They are often called batoe djémë. Djëmë is a Pasemah word and means man.
The last ë is pronounced with a peculiar nasal intonation so that the word sounds a little
like djemoe. Further, one speaks of batoe orang (stone-man), orang djaddi batoe (man -
become - stone), and batoe tigas (sculptured stone).

Quite common also is the indication batoe Lidah Pait. Throughout the whole of
South Sumatra the legend is common, that a certain SerOenting wandered about in this
district in former days. This Seroenting was endowed with magic power, on account of
which he received the title of sakti. He possessed the power of turning people, animals
and objects into stone, to which power Seroenting Sakti owed his surname of Lidah Pait
or Pait Lidah {Lidah, tongue; Pait, bitter).

This legend of Lidah Pait is repeatedly mentioned by Westenenk, among other
writers. During our visit to South Sumatra we found that the tale was still very common
among the population. All the old images were declared to be the work of Seroenting
Sakti; one of the images at Tinggihari, for example, was regarded as a petrified Princess
and was therefore called batoe poetri. The story goes that the Princess once met Lidah
Pait. He asked her where she was going, but she was too proud to answer, upon which
she was immediately turned into stone. An oblong stone which lies beside the image is
regarded as the petrified basket of the woman.

The stone image of a bull at Geramat is also the work of Lidah Pait. In the doesoen
of Tandjoengara we had the pleasure of conversing with Mesioah, an old man who had
seen the invasion of the Hollanders in 1866 and who was reputed by the population to
be 115 years old. This man told us that the dolmen Tandjoengarah 2 (111. 85), the coping-
stone of which is more or less hollow on the top, was nothing else than a pan, converted
into stone by Lidah Pait.

Further, we were told that Lidah Pait met his end owing to meeting Mata Ampat.
Mata Ampat had four eyes, two in front and two behind. {Mata, eye and ampat, four).
Mata Ampat succeeded in inducing Seroenting Sakti to lay a wager with him. Each would
in his turn lie flat on his stomach under a palm tree, while the other would climb the tree

and throw down a large branch. First. Mata Ampat lay down under the tree but a. hp
had eyes at the back of his head he saw the branch fklling and sprang aside in t me

Mata Ampat was curious to know whether the tongue of Seroenting Sakti was reallv
bitter He touched the tongue of the wizard with his finger, which he then nrtTntn ^
mouth and tasted, with the result that he died immediatelynbsp;^nbsp;\'\'

This belief in people turned into stone is by no means rpitrirf^^ t^ fl,„
images. The Boekit Serelo, for example, the curioLly sS hill quot;far A
as one of the breasts of a petrified Princess. A group\'oSs on tL i^Ht B quot;
tTnnbsp;(f\'be confused with the Boekit Besar in the Goeln constitut^^^

highlands. - Andree traces the dissemination of the belief over the whol^world ^

^ Not only in South Sumatra but wherever we met with megalitLrrema^?
lation saw in these monuments something mysterious, anrwottgquot;
The idea that these stones are petrified human beings is aknnbsp;f arouna them.

Archipelago. In England, for example, on the boTde.Tfoifo dsh^^^^^^^^^
there IS a large excellently preserved circle of stones, with one upright ^one and he
remams of a dolmen. The group is known as quot;The Rollrishtnbsp;A

ancient popular belief the upright stone is a king;\\he S st\'o^^is
the fiye stones of the dolmen are five of his warriors who had plottefasainst S^Th.

Kmg had come to conquer England but, together with all his meThad beertumed bto
stone by an old woman. \')nbsp;lurnea mto

Of all the popular legends concerning the megaliths in South Sumatra however
there are none which throw any further light on their origin, with the Exception oHhe
stone near Batoeberak (see under that name). Great value is no longer attached to these

monuments, although till recently it was customary to swear solemn oaths before these
stones and at the same time to bring offerings.

The earliest reports concerning the remains in South Sumatra originate in the
period when the Netherlands Indian Government was engaged in establishing its
authority in the highlands of Palembang, and these reports thus came from military side.

In December 1849, S. Ullmann, Second Lieutenant of Infantry, made a trip from
Lahat to the marga Goemai Oeloe and between Poeloe Pinang and Padang, quot;on the
plateau of Boenkal Batoequot;, found several images, of which he gave a partial description
in 1850 Of two of these images he gave not very accurate but still recognizable sketches.
The one (Image A) is the same which we describe as Tinggihari 6. The second is Padang 1.
Thirdly, he describes another image, lying near Tinggihari 6, as follows: quot;Not far from
quot;Image A, I saw another, representing a woman, lying on her back with raised legs and
quot;bent knees, so that her genitals were visible, the breasts bare, etc. On her left side rested
quot;a dog.quot; This description does not tally with any of the images we saw. It is certainly
curious that a group of stones on the Boekit Besar near Lahat (not to be confused with
the peak of the same name in the Goemai) should be regarded by the inhabitants as a
woman engaged in unnatural intercourse with a dog (see page 11).

Apparently this report did not get the attention it deserved, for in the year 1860 the
Resident of Palembang, replying to a question of the „Bataviaasch Genootschapquot;
reported, that in his residency no remains of any importance were found. The president,
however, remembered having seen in Goemai Oeloe and the Pasemah some stone figures,
and a second letter was sent to the Resident, who made a further investigation and this
time found some stone figures in the marga\'s Goemai Oeloe and Semidang.

A much more detailed report concerning the images was published in the year
1870, by Medical Officer E. P. Tombrink who from 1861 to 1865 resided in the high-
lands of Palembang. Tombrink gave illustrations of 19 images, 3 upright stones, 2 mortars
(lesoengbatoe), of the just-mentioned group of unsculptured stones on the Boekit Besar
and of several stones dating from a later period. Tombrink, like Ullmann, adopted the
point of view that the images were of Hindu origin.

The sketches of Tombrink are unfortunately of very indifferent quality, so that it
is difficult to ascertain from them which images they actually represent. Although
many of the images are defaced and in a bad state of decay, they are not so shapeless as
Tombrink represents them. This may partly be due to the fact that he saw the images in
the years 1861—\'65, whilst the engravings from his sketches were probably made about
the year 1870.

In 1885, there appeared the fine book of Forbes, the English botanist who also
visited South Sumatra during his travels. Forbes did not restrict his attention exclusively to
the flora, but also went into details on matters ethnographical. He was a sharp observer
and a good writer and it is a real pleasure to read his book and compare his experiences
with conditions as they are to-day. In the sphere of ethnography, what he says is of im-
portance, because in recent times, owing to the increased means of communication in

South Sumatra a sort of ethnographical osmosis has taken place between the various
districts, so that It is sometimes difficult to say where the ethnographiS^icles ISv
come from. In Forbes\' time there was a sharper distinction between thrt^ot disScte
Forbes was ap^rently acquainted with Tombrink\'s descriptions andTems toW
received from his illustrations the impression that the images in the pLmah were dl
shapeless, coarse and defaced. Forbes discovered the images TeiroenvLTI A i^ t- i.
had remained unknown to Tombrink and expressed hTastolL\'wtX? fhl^fi^aS
were so well shaped and m such an excellent state of preservationnbsp;®

Forbes was also at Tandjoengara and saw there the stone Tandjoengara 4 as well
as the image Pageralam 1, which then apparently still stood in its or gfnafSac;nbsp;\'

In the meantime the Pasemah became whollv oacified anH tWoT fl . j ■
history of the search for remains. The first r^l\'^roncernTn\'g mrgerhaVcom:

m the years 1914—19, Controleur of the Pasemah Lands, having in that qualitvhis
seat in Pageralam, showed renewed interest in those remains, which interesfrs sWed
by his successors the \'^ontroleursquot; F. J. Junius (1921) and Dr. W. HoveT(1922^925)
Durmg the period of office of those three quot;Controleursquot;, various remairwe rediscovered
images which had collapsed were again set upright, and various fragments in danger rf

In the ■■Oudheidkundig Verslag 1914quot; Professor Krom published a compilation of
hterature-data, concerning antiquities in the Outer Islands; this list meSs several
of the stone-figures m South Sumatra, without giving a detai ed descriptiorPor Se

year, on the journey from Palembang to Benkoelen, he arrived at Pagerakm, where ^

administered. He then naturally felt great interest in the remains ifthe Pasemah Xch

Palembang, by which the Pasemah was brought under his jurisdiction. He ercouraged

investigations by the District-officers. visited several of the remains, while soT pub ^

Westenenk was the first who published sufficiently serviceable illustrations of several
of these remains. It was due to him that these remains gradually began to awaken the

interest which they fully merited and that they were referred to in various scientific works.

In the year 1929, Professor J. G. van Eerde, Director of the Ethnological Section of the
Colonial Institute at Amsterdam, made a journey to India for purposes of study. From
September 13 to September 16 he remained at Pageralam in the Pasemah in order to
visit the remains, with regard to which he wrote, on his return to Netherland, as follows :
quot;Of quite a different nature are the images which one can study on the Pasemah plateau
quot;when, established at Pager Alam, you explore the surrounding country. More especially
quot;the extensive dolmen-fields and the frequently immense dolmens which occur in the
quot;vicinity of several images, seem to merit attention. For it is quite possible that
quot;these \'batoe Kegawen\', \'batoe rang\', \'batoe wong\', \'batoe lidah pait\', as they are called
quot;here, are connected in some way with the numerous monoliths and dolmens met with
quot;here. In visiting the places where these remains occur, my attention was chiefly attracted
quot;by a group in an alang-alang field near Poeloe Panggoeng, containing a large image
quot;representing a woman (hair uncovered, eardrops), seated on an elephant with two
quot;children under her arms, situated near an immense \'hunnebed\', the coping stone of
quot;which has collapsed.quot;

Hitherto, attention had chiefly been directed to the images. Professor van Eerde was
the first who emphasized the importance of the dolmens, by which the problem suddenly
assumed greater importance, as it marked the sculptors of South Sumatra as quot;megalith
buildersquot; and during the last few years many people show an increased interest in the
problem of the megaliths.

From May 7 till May 31, Dr. F. D. K. Bosch, Chief of the Government Archaeolo-
gical Service, undertook a journey through Sumatra for purposes of study. In the quot;Oud-
heidkundig Verslagquot; 1930, which appeared at the end of 1931, Dr. Bosch writes:
quot;On the 21st, we reached Pagar Alam via Kepahiang. In the surrounding district, we
quot;inspected, accompanied by the demang, the principal sculptured works of which Weste-
quot;nei^ has given a detailed description in the Oudheidkundig Verslag of 1922, a dis-
quot;cription to which nothing need be added from our side. To the right of the road to Boemi-
quot;agoeng, just above the doesoen Pager Din and about a quarter of an hour\'s walk from
quot;the corner stones of which an illustration is given by Westenenk in his article (111. 22b),
quot;we found in a trench on the right hand side of the road a prehistoric grave, consisting
quot;of three flat stones placed on their sides and covered by a fourth, and a little farther
quot;the remains of a larger grave, which had collapsed. To the left of the same road lies a
quot;field, sown with large stones placed in rows and two groups of rocks which, owing to
quot;the manner in which they are placed, suggest dolmens. The help of the Civil Service
quot;was requested to keep these remains intact in their original position, as they are possibly
quot;of value for determining the date of the images in the Pasemah. Several photographs
quot;were taken, whilst later the attention of Dr. van Stein Callenfels was drawn to the remains.
quot;We continued our journey on the 25th of May . . . .quot; This article contained two photo-
graphs, of which the one represented the dolmen Tegoerwangi 6 and the other the remains
of the stone cist Tegoerwangi 13.

On the suggestion of Professor van Eerde and after discussing the matter with Pro-
fessor Kohlbrugge we left for India on January 31,1931, in order to investigate the remains
m the Pasemah, after havmg prepared ourselves as much as possible for the task at the
Ethnological Institute at Utrecht and the Colonial Institute at Amsterdam.

On March 4 we arrived at Batavia, where we remained some time in order to get
into touch with the Archaeological service. On April 7, we left Batavia per automobile
for Sumatra, via Merak—Gosthaven. From Oosthaven we left for Pageralam where we
arrived on April 22. At various places en route we got into touch with Government officials
and private persons. We settled temporarily at Pageralam and from there made various
journeys through South Sumatra.

On June 21 we left Sumatra for a time and proceeded to Java, in order to consult
with Dr. van Stem Gallen els. Inspector of the Archaeological Service and to make a
trip through West Java with Dr. van Tricht.

On July 22 we returned to Sumatra, making Pageralam again our headquarters, and
remaining there till we left Sumatra on October 12. We remained in Batavia till November
14, and arrived again in Netherland on December 18.

At the request of the Archaeological Service, we have made a list of the remains
foui^. Ihe monuments, contained in the list, have been placed under the protection of

quot;Monumentenordonnantiequot; (Staatsblad van Nederlandsch
Indie 1931, no. 238; Besluit van den Gouverneur-Generaal van 13 Juni 1931 No 19)

In view of the fact that the Archaeological Service was willing to register the monu-
ments but could contribute nothing towards the expense of supervision and upkeep, the
useful ettect ot this decision will depend greatly on the personal interest of the Govern-
nient officials. It must be said that during our investigations, all Government officials
showed great interest for the monuments. It is to be hoped that the numerous mutations
customary m this branch of Government service, will bring no change in this state of
affairs, and that the remams will not after a time, be forgotten and fall again into neglect

In describing the megalithic remains in South Sumatra, we will take the order of
sequence in which a traveller, traversing the country by the main roads, would meet
with such remains.

The territory covered in our investigations stretches from Telok Betong in the South,
to the frontier of Djambi in the North. Anyone acquainted with the topographical condi-
tions, will understand that it is impossible to thoroughly investigate such an extensive
tract of territory within a period of six months. We have, therefore, principally confined
our attention to the neighbourhood of Pageralam, where we remained for a considerable
time and where the megalithic images were first discovered and are most numerous. As
far, therefore, as the district of Pasemah and Lematang is concerned, we flatter ourselves
with the hope that our enquiry has been more or less complete, although doubtless there
are still remains lying concealed in the quot;rimboequot;, which escaped our attention.

Towards the outskirts of our field of work the investigation was naturally of a more
cursory nature and we had to rely more on the information of others. That fewer remains
are noted as occurring there than in the centre, is therefore no proof that in those districts
no more are to be found. At the same time, we acquired the conviction that the district
of Pasemah and Upper-Lematang just mentioned, must have formed the centre of this
megalithic culture.

In the Palembang lowlands no megalithic remains were found nor, as far as we
could discover, were they existant in the Kikim district, on the northern slope of the
Goemai, and the fact that this district is partly populated by the present inhabitants
of Pasemah, is an indication that the megaliths had nothing to do with these people.

PALEMBANG* In the town of Palembang, however, there is an image of the same
type as that occurring in Pasemah. The image in question at Palembang stands in the
garden of the Resident\'s house, near the garage, which is probably not its original place.
It is about one metre high and represents a figure squatting on his haunches. It is extre-
mely decayed: the features can only be distinguished vaguely.

a) The name of Pasemah is generally given to images of this sort. It seems to us more accurate, however, to speak of the
South Sumatra type, in view of the fact that these images are not restricted to the Pasemah district. In the same way, the primitive
rniages m Java were formerly known as the quot;Padjadjaran-typequot;, because they were first found in the territory of the small and ancient
kingdom of Padjadjaran, which must have been founded in 1433 and subjugated in 1526 or 1527 and which must have occupied
the site of what is at present Buitenzorg or its immediate neighbourhood. When later on such images were also found elsewhere,
they were given the more general name of quot;Polynesian imagesquot;.

Concerning the origin of this image, we could obtain no information in Palembang.
Between Lahat and the doesoen Bandar Agoeng in the marga Ampat Loera Lahat Tenggah,
Tombrink found an image, the trunk of which he sent to Palembang and the head to the
museum at Batavia. The image at Palembang still retains its head, however, so that it
can not have been the same one.

This image probably was in Palembang when Tombrink was there, because he writes *
quot;Before the house of the Resident in the capital Palembang, there are also a few Hindu
quot;antiquities, which presumably came from the highlands. Where they exactly were found
quot;however, I have been unable to discover.quot;nbsp;\'

We would just remark here, that Tombrink considered the images of the South
Sumatra type as Hmdu images; further, that in the garden of the Resident\'s house there
stand at present only two images, viz. the Buddha examined and described by
Perqum and that to which we have ourselves referred.

With regard to the origin, however, another hypothesis is possible. Tombrink writes
that m Lematang Ilir only temple ruins have been found near Tanah Abang, Marga
Ampat Petoelai Tjoeroep. This place lies between Moeara Enim and the confluence of
the Lematang and Moesi rivers, as the crow flies 108,5 K.M. upstream from this point
In 1830 the captain of Infantry A. H. von Gehren, Military commander at Palembang
sent an image from this place to Palembang. d) Should this be the image in question, then
it proves that the South Sumatra type has also been found far in the lowlands. We were
unable, however, to obtain any certainty on this point.

This case proves how undesirable it is to needlessly remove such monuments from
where-they happen to be found. This should only be permitted when it is possible to
precisely determme the original standing place and when this is published in a periodical
easily accessible to everyone. This is of great importance in order to be able to trace the
extension of a culture and also to have indications at hand in case of further investigations
and excavations.

If now we strike along the road leading to Lahat, we will perceive on approaching
the mountains, and about 16 K.M. to the East of that place, on the right bank of the Lema-
tang, the Boekit Serelo. This small mountain owes its name, which signifies quot;woman\'s
breastquot; to its peculiar form, from which form also the legends concerning the mountain
current among the population, have originated. (See Map II).

To the South of the Serelo are situated another three hills, around which also legends
are woven which might — incorrectly — give the impression that there are stone monu-
ments. On the Boekit Besar there stands a group of large rocks, in which the inhabitants
see the image of a woman engaged in unnatural intercourse with a dog. Tombrink relates
how he climbed the hill with great difficulty and how greatly disappointed he was to
find only natural stones. To make doubly sure, we climbed the hill ourselves, accompanied
by District Officer J. Horst from Lahat and, sure enough, found nothing but unworked
stones.

a)nbsp;Tombrink, page 31; he quotes on this point the quot;Notulen Bataviaasch Genootschapquot; of 12 Dec. 1863.

A little more to the South again, lies the Boekit Lepakkadjang; from its summit
there protrudes horizontally over the precipice a stone about the length of a man and
formed rather like a pillar. As far as we could see, however, it formed one with the rock
and had not been sculptured. According to the legend, prauws (native canoes) were
formerly moored to it, when this neighbourhood was still sea or lake. This legend of an
ancient lake lives in the whole district and has penetrated as far upstream as Pageralam.

Finally we will mention the Boekit Poenggoer. Poenggoer signifies quot;tree trunkquot; and
the mountain received this name owing to two pinnacles of rock, which also have not
been artificially shaped.

We have just named these three mountains in order to save later investigators a
useless journey. We have frequently noticed that the native population are unable to
make any sharp distinction between images and similar figures fashioned by the human
hand, and natural stones to which their imagination imparts some special formation.

KARANGINDAH. (See Map II). In this doesoen, which is situated about 8 K.M.
down-stream from Lahat on the Lematang river, we find the first image of the South
Sumatra type (see 111. 1 and 2). The image stands in the middle of the doesoen and has
already been described by Westenenk.

Examining this image, one is struck by a peculiarity which is found in many monu-
ments of this type, viz. an arbitrary alteration of the natural proportions. The sculptors
have enlarged what they considered of most importance, whilst they reduced what in
their eyes was of less importance, and further they have so reduced in size or distorted
the most protruding parts of the representation that the least possible material has been
lost. The image represents a man riding on an elephant, but the latter in proportion to
the former has the dimensions of a large dog. The animal itself has not been modelled
on one quot;scalequot;. The head and fore-legs are cleady visible, but almost nothing can be
seen of its hindquarters.

To have sculptured the elephant in a normal attitude, with head and trunk right
in front, would have required an enormous quantity of stone and the primitive sculptor
would have had to hack away much material between the animal and its rider. To avoid
these difficulties, however, the head of the animal has been twisted wholly to the right
and in an upward direction against the breast and shoulder of the man. On the photo-
graph one can see to the right of the man\'s neck, the trunk of the elephant; under that
the head; still further down, the neck, on which rests the large left hand of the rider, and
under that again the very much shortened left fore-leg.

The head of the man stands loose on the trunk. Westenenk wrote that the head was
lacking. Apparently it was found later, but by whom is not known. In the lower part of
the head and the upper part of the trunk there is a hole, which apparently served for a
fastening pin. The head, unfortunately, is badly damaged and the features have disap-
peared totally. Also Tombrink found the image without a head.

The man wears a peculiar breast ornament, consisting of oblong plates strung on
what resembles a cord. On the side of the left knee there is a round disc; a sword is visible

behind (see also 111. 216 and 221). Further, on the back, a broad girdle can be seen, from
which a narrow piece of some material hangs down. On the left wrist are two bracelets
Between the place where this image stands and the main road, there further lies a
large flat stone of a form almost square. It is curious that such stones, probably more or
less dressed in their present shape, are frequently found near images of this type.

LAHAT, In the small park between the District Officer\'s house and the quot;Julianaquot;
Hotel, stands a small image, 85 c M. high (111. 3) The image represents a kneeling figure
the head of which has been broken off, and holding in the hands an object, the nature of
which It is impossible to tell. Although the whole image shows strong signs of exposure
to the weather, one can still discern a sort of tunic, of which the front and back have been
sewn together immediately under the armpits only, and further hang loose. Further
there is a girdle, from which a piece of some material hangs out behind. This dress occurs
with many images of the South Sumatra type. This image came from the doesoen Djati
lombrink saw this image when it was still in its original place. He writes as follows
concerning It: After having climbed the hill, which is situated immediately behind the
doesoen Karang-Agoeng (the former, in Indian history notorious Djati), in the marga
boekoe-Limah, you come on a high plateau which, on the occasion of my visit to see
a Hindu image, was covered with ripening padiquot;.

DJATL The great main-road from Lahat to Pageralam leads, just past the former
place, along the doesoen Djati, where the image described above was found. In this doesoen
there still lies a fairly round stone, with a diameter of about 60 c.M., the surface of which
on the top and also partly on the sides is regularly pitted with cavities of an average dia-
meter of about 7 c.M. We found in one of the cavities a small oblong kali-stone with
which a fine powder had been scraped from the large stone, which was composed of fine
limestone. An inhabitant of the doesoen told us that this powder was used to clean the teeth
During a journey through West Java, we found a similar stone in the desa Tii\'
toedja, situated on the Tjisimeut, just East of the district of the Badoejs. Here the Loera
(village head) told us that the cavities had been made in the stone by children at plav
The same explanation was given us by the Krio of the doesoen Karangdalem. We wili
deal further with the subject in Chapter XIII.

KARANGDALEM, This doesoen also lies on the main-road, 9 K.M. from Lahat.
In the middle of the doesoen stands a small spirit-house, quot;roema dewaquot; or quot;roema pojangquot;\'
of the kind formerly found in all doesoens, but which are now disappearing rapidly under
the influence of Islam. Before this spirit-house stands an upright stone, 1.60 metres high
roughly hewn, so that one can distinguish a projecting upper piece, a short shaft of cylinder-
form and a thickened lower part. The stone stands on a small terrace, formed of smaller
stones, most of which again are pitted with cavities (111. 4 and 5). The inhabitants relate

that the stone was formerly brought from Mecca by a Hadji and that it was then so
small, that he could carry it in his pocket. Later it began to grow larger and larger. It is
probable that the stone was formerly partly embedded in the ground and that the surroun-
ding soil has been gradually removed or washed away. The inhabitants also say that
the stone stood there before the quot;roema dewaquot; was built.

The question now arises, what is the meaning of this upright stone and the stones
pitted with cavities. We prefer to deal with this question, however, in our epitomized
considerations which will follow this special description of the monuments.

TANDJOENGSIRIH, (See Map III). Upstream from Karangdalem lies the doesoen
of Tandjoensirih, at the confluence of the Air Lim with the Lematang. Between the Air
Lim and the Air Asam, also a tributary of the Lematang, lies a ridge of hills about 400
metres in height, the highest top of which is the Boekit Beringin Ketjil. On this ridge
there are again some remains, which can be reached by following the steep foot-way
ascending from Tandjoeng Sirih. These remains are as follows:

(1)nbsp;A large, flat stone, nearly round, with a diameter of 1.30 metres (111. 6)
The flat, hewn upper surface is divided into four partitions by upright borders, which
for the most part have disappeared owing to exposure to the elements. In each partition
is a round hole with a diameter of about 15 c.M. and as deep. We shall frequently meet
with these stones again. They occur with one or more holes, sometimes even as many
as six. The inhabitants call them lesoeng batoe (literally: stone rice-mortars).

(2)nbsp;An image representing two people, one squatting behind the other. The image
has fallen and lies now on its right side. The whole is very rough and extremely weather-
beaten. The foremost figure has very primitively sculptured features, while in the case
of the other no face can be distinguished. A bracelet and ancle-rings can still be seen but
all further details are lacking (see 111. 7 and 8). The image is 1.65 metres high and reminds
one strongly of a quot;Polynesian imagequot; with approximately the same representation, in
the museum at Batavia (see 111. 224, fifth stone from the right).

(3)nbsp;An image which has fallen on its face and is partly embedded in the ground.
What it represents is very difficult to determine. One can clearly see, however, the
head-covering in the form of a helm, which also occurs in the case of various other images,
and also the necklace of large beads. The height from the hips to the top is 1.70 M. (see
111. 9).

(4)nbsp;An image representing a human figure riding on a buffalo, with a child in front
(111. 10—13) The animal, probably a quot;karbouwquot; (Indian buffalo) is in proportion

too small like the elephant of the image at Karangindah, and here also the head is bent

TiT.u UM^ right hand the rider is grasping the right horn, while the left hand
holds the child. The whole image shows strong evidence of decay, probably owing to
the alang-alang fires, which are regularly ignited by the inhabitants throughout the
whole district. On those parts where the original surface has not suffered one can see that
it has been very smoothly worked, while various details have been rendered with great
finesse.nbsp;®

Again the rider wears a tunic, the front and back of which have been sewn together
under the armpits. The stitches of the laces have been clearly indicated under the right
arm. The necklace consists of many large beads which, although the majority of them
have been damaged, still clearly show an angular shape. It is clear that cut stones and not
round beads are here represented. (See also III. 216 and Chapter XI.) This image, like
the one already described, wears a head-covering in the form of a helmet. In front it fits
closely to the head and has a narrow brim along the forehead. Behind, the brim stands
out from the head, a little similar to the German helm in the world war.

The eyes are rendered somewhat diagraphically; the edges of the eye-lids are very
finely sculptured. The nose is badly damaged but must have been short and broad with
flattened base. The cheek bones project; the mouth is broad, with thick lips\'; the
under-jaw is broad, with strongly rendered corners. The general form of the face is
short, broad and prognathic. We shall frequently meet with this type of face which
reminds one of the negroid type. The question whether a negro race is actually repre-
sented here, will be discussed later.nbsp;^

The child is partly seen near the head of the animal (111. 13). On the right arm it
wears a broad bracekt, ornamented with zig-zag motives. The features, unfortunately
are badly damaged. On the back of the head, however, a section of the origina surface
remains and this part is covered with small hemispheric bodies, placed in rows, and vagudy
resembling negro hair. (See 111. 11). We will return to this question later

TINGOmARL From the above-mentioned doesoen Tandjoensirih, a path formerly
led over an offshoot of the Goemai Mountain, to Tinggihari. At its commLemenTtl^^

the doesoen Poelaupinang. The path runs over the ridge of a hill, enclosed between

the Air Lematang and its left tributary, the Air Lim, and in the dry s ason ^^^^^^^

small automobiles. Along this path, 5,5 K.M. before Tinggihari, are to be found a numbe

but fell down when the path was constructed. Tombrink represents it leaning ov^^r t)

It IS thus quite possible to distinguish an under piece of natural, and an upper piece of

worked stone. All that is possible to make out of the representation, rendered quot;en reliefquot;

IS a human figure on the side now lying upward, and a crocodile or some such animal on

the side farthest from the path. Further, on the knees of the human figure there lies what
might be the paw of an animal or the leg of a child, which in that case should be lying
at the side turned to the path.

Quite close, there lies a large, flat stone of 3.80 M. greatest diameter, with a few
smaller stones beside it. On the large stone an irregular hexagon has been scratched, with
three diagonals; on a smaller stone a section of a circle with two crossing diameters.
These engravings are perhaps of later date, however, as several Roman capital letters
are visible thereon.

(2)nbsp;(111. 16). A sitting figure, badly damaged. The head has almost entirely gone.
The necklace and upper border of the tunic are still clearly visible. The same is to be said
of the right hand. The edges of the nails are quite visible, which again demonstrates that
the images — some of them at least — in their original form were finely worked. It is
possible that the right hand supports a child, but the whole is too much damaged to deter-
mine exactly what the representation signifies.

(3)nbsp;A large, unworked oval stone, against one side of which a human figure is lying.
Westenenk regards this as an unfinished image. The whole is 3 M. long.

(4)nbsp;(111. 17 and 18). A sitting figure, badly damaged. As far as the face is present,
it shows once again the features of the image Tandjoengsirih 4, with the curious eyes,
the form of which is defined by an upper-lid of the shape of a circle-bow and an almost
straight under-lid (see also 111. 214).

The head is encirled by a band, from which something protrudes behind representing
perhaps straightly trimmed hair. The head-wear in the shape of a helm is here absent.
Around the neck there is again the necklace of beads, closed behind with a large plate of
the shape of a very flat cone (see 111. 216 c). Over the back is a narrow cloth hanging down
from the shoulders. Under there is again a sort of tunic.

The lobes of the ear are somewhat enlarged, so that it is probable that they formerly
held eardrops such as are visible in other images. These can no longer be distinguished,
however. The whole is 1.80 M. high.

(5)nbsp;(111. 19). The image of a human figure, squatting beside an Indian buffalo, the
horns of which he grasps. In proportion, the buffalo is very small. The head of the man
has been broken off and now lies, badly damaged, before the image. It represents again
the well-known type, with helm. A necklace is visible, but further ever^^hing is very
indistinct.

(6)nbsp;(111. 20—22.) This image is called quot;Batoe Kintjirquot; by the inhabitants of the
Marga Goemai Oeloe, because they see in it a woman with a distaff. The image represents

a squatting figure. The headwear is probably a simplification or less clearly rendered form

.Westenenk says of this figure: quot;It was especially the discovery of imale No 1

which threw a new light upon the whole. The element: difference of class was suddenly

more strongly accentuated and there arose above the helmed nobles and warriors a

|gure who was apparently a chief (Prince ?). No. 1 then, was immediately called \'The

the helm alone tells us more On the helm there were the two projections pLided S
a hole in w^ch undoubtedly waving feathers or wings could be placed On nonl of
the other helmed heads were these projections found. Moreover, Ais badly dXaged
and weather-beaten giant, whose head above the ears has a circun;ference of mSan
two metres is represented with an elephant between the knees (the trunkTclearW

So far Westenenk. It seems to us a little hazardous to give royal dignity to the figure
represented, on the strength of the two projections on the helm. Moreover, w could not
discover the small and meek e ephant, although on the back of the image there is a figure
of some sort which Westenenk apparently has taken for a trunk. We have here nothW
\'nbsp;^^^^nbsp;^hi^h - cloth is drawn

Beside the image lies a stone of parallelepiped shape, 2.45 M. in length and close
by, on the path, a flat stone table of 1.55 M. greatest diameter

Similar oblong stones are to be found in this neighbourhood. It is possible that thev
formerly stood upright, like the stele Tinggihari 1. Tombrink found not only this stone
standing m an oblique positi^ he gives a picture of a second upright sLe in this
neighbourhood (IlL 8) on which human features are very vaguely indicated. ProLbly
this is one of the oblong stones which we found lying on the ground.

(7) (111. 14). In the doesoen Tinggihari itself, behind the house of the Pasirah of

Goemai Oeloe, lies yet another head with helm of the well known type, badly damaged
but originally very smoothly finished.nbsp;^ udxudgea,

Padang. A little farther there is a piece of open ground, surrounded by shrubs and bamboo
where three other images stand :

(I) (111. 23). A thickset, squatting figure, b) The dress consists of an oblong four-
sided cloth, with a hole m the centre through which the head is passed, so that one énd of

the cloth hangs down over the back and the other over the drawn-up knees. The border
of the cloth passes over the upper part of the arm and is clearly visible on the photograph.
This article of dress absolutely resembles the quot;ponchoquot; of South America. We will refer
to this point again (see Chapter V).

Both the quot;ponchoquot; and the squatting attitude with knees drawn up, are found in many
images in South Sumatra. The image further shows broad bands round the wrists and
a neck ornament, consisting of three vertical rows of beads or similar objects, strung
together on a cord which encircles the neck; behind the neck the knot in the cord is
clearly visible. (See also 111. 216 e.)

The head covering is wanting and the head itself is somewhat primitive and very
indistinct.

(2)nbsp;(III. 24). An image representing a squatting figure, holding in the hands an object
which is difficult to distinguish. The girdle, which consists of three parts, can be disting-
uished clearly, as well as the piece of cloth which hangs down from it behind, but the
head is wanting and the whole is extremely weather-beaten and badly damaged. Close
to this image lies a large stone, under which can be seen a stone which supports it; this
may be a dolmen.

(3)nbsp;Near these two images stands another and smaller one. It consists only of a
trunk from which the head is wanting. Only the upper border of the tunic can be seen;
no further details are visible.

We shall now return to the main post road and follow it in the direction of Pageralam.
Near Poelaupinang, a bridge leads from the left to the right bank of the Lematang. About
2.5 K.M. upstream from this bridge, lies the point where the upper course ceases and the
middle course begins. Above this point, the river streams through one of those narrow,
deep ravines, so characteristic of the landscape of the Pasemah; below this point, however,
the valley begins to broaden; the river itself widens out, forms great pebblestone banks
and islands. In down-stream direction, the valley no longer has the shape of a V but shows
a steadily widening bottom on which the inhabitants in this neighbourhood have laid
out their quot;sawahsquot; The line of division lies at an altitude of between 150 and 200 M.

After crossing the bridge, the path climbs, on the right bank of the Lematang, with
several hairpin corners, in a steep incline to a height of over 300 M. and so reaches the
level of the extensive plateau of the Pasemah Lebar, which stretches further to the South-
West and in a slight gradient rises to the foot of the Dempo. The plateau, for the most
part covered with alang-alang (high grass), is intersected by several deep ravines.

PAGERALAM. (MARGA PAGAR GOENOENG.) About 2.5 K.M. to the South
of the bridge near Poelau Pinang, is a side-path which turns to the left towards the
South-East. This path leads to a group of doesoens, which together form the marga
Pagar Goenoeng situated on the right tributary of the Lematang which bears the name
Air Moelak. This tributary itself has other tributaries and on one of these, the Air

Pageralam, not to be confused with the capital of the same
name of the sub-distnct Pasemah.nbsp;^

indicated. The tigress is grasping with both front paws the head
of a small human figure which with both hands is trying to extricate itself from thfclaws
The human figure appears to be clothed with a girdle or loin-cloth
, Mr. Vonk wrote that several quot;lesoengbatoequot; were lying in the neighbourhood of thp

ijabitants related that m this marga there was another image, representing a human

Fully 9 K M. farther than the bridge over the Lematang, against the tertiarv tn-.n
gulation point P. 1883, 396, 8, lies an extensive ladang complex, f^r the mo^^^^^^^^^^^
recently laid out. On the map the place is given as Tebatsibentoer.nbsp;^ ^

(1) (111. 27.) An image, badly decayed and damaged. The general form suggests
^anTiir^^^^^^^^^^nbsp;^^nbsp;^^^ ^^nbsp;A smooth necf-^

(3) (111. 29 and 30). A stone of parallelopiped shape, somewhat irregular in formation
One ong side measures 1.65 M., the other 1.25 M. The width is 75 c.M. and the heSt
60. It contains a representation m very light relief, which has the peculiarity of begini^fng
on the upper surface of the stone and finishing on the end surface, as if the representaZn
had been folded over the stone The relief shows a human figure, probably dancW

part of the body, the head and the arms on the end surface. Particularities are as follows
The head, owing to the peculiar manner of representation, stands upside-down; it has
no head-covering; the features are gross, with a large mouth and thick lips; eai^s with
very extended, projecting ear-lobes which have been pierced; the arms are flung upwards
a ong two short ribs of the stone; the lower arms are encircled with rings The onlv
clothing on the trunk is a sort of ballet skirt. The legs, apart from three ancle-rings are
bare and the knees are lightly bent. The feet show three toes.

The manner in which the whole figure is represented, is\'singular. Head and trunk
are given absolutely en face, while the legs, on the contrary, are en profil The feet again

relatively^ to the legs, are twisted, so that they are depicted right from above, each toe
being visible separately.

This singular method of representation, partly en face and partly en profil is to be
found both in Javanese and in Egyptian art; moreover, it is a repeatedly recurring pheno-
menon in primitive art and also in art as practised by children

This very singular stone, which was discovered by Mr. C. Raupp at Tandjoengtebat
and also was unknown to the native population, is the only one of its sort which we found,
although large, parallelopiped shaped stones will be met with on several occasions; they
never showed relief work. Van Heekeren gives a copy of a relief again representing a
woman, which occurred in East Java near Pakisan The attitude of the woman is different
and the relief work not so finely finished, but for the rest, the wide mouth with the thick
lips and the distended ear-lobes, the relief of Pakisan recalls that of Tebatsibentoer.
The stone also reminds us vaguely of the batoe-larong of Djambi

If we again follow the main-road, we presently come to a side-path that leads to the
doesoens of Moearodanau and Tandjoengmenang.

(1)nbsp;In the doesoen, two large, flat stones (111. 31). The largest is rectangular in
shape, 2,10 M. long, 1,75 broad and 75 c.M. high. The longest side of the largest stone lies
North 3 degrees West. This stone is regarded by the inhabitants as a holy grave; formerly
a little house was built over it.

(2)nbsp;(111. 32) A group of three large stones. Under that farthest to the West
stand two upright stones (to the right on the photo); under that farthest to the East, an
upright stone and one which has subsided. Later on, we shall find examples of dolmen,
consisting of a coping stone and two supporting stones. The whole group lies, roughly
speaking, East-West. The direction, measured over the large stones, is West 10 degrees
North—East 10 degrees South. The coping stones, however, have apparently subsided a
little from the supporting stones, so that originally the North-South component will have
been somewhat greater.

(3)nbsp;In the doesoen, four large, upright stones of about one metre high, standing
m a rectangle of 3 by 3,50 M. The direction of the long side of the rectangle is West
10 degrees South, East 10 degrees North. We shall find this orientation again in the case
of other megaliths, but will deal with this later. We shall also frequently find such groups
of four upright stones. (See Chapter IX)

(4)nbsp;Due South of the doesoen we find again four such stones in a square of 3 by
3 M. whose bearings are also East 10 degrees North.

(5)nbsp;(111. 33). About 300 M. to the South of the doesoen, there is an image which

has collapsed. It is damaged and difficult to decipher. The head, with helm and smooth
neck-rmg, is broken and lies beside it. On the trunk it is still possible to distinguish the
head of a child with the same head-covering, resembling curly negro hair, as is described
under Tandjoengsirih 4, page 15. Unfortunately, the position of the sun was such that
this hair did not come out on the photograph.

TANDJOENGTEBAT, On the inner pathway which leads from the just men-
tioned Moearodanau to Tandjoengtebat, you find an image (111. 35) that has also been
described by Westenenk and which represents a human figure with a child. The head
IS very indistinct but here again the quot;tunicquot; and girdle are clear. The aduh figure grasps
with his left hand the left arm of the child, of which the head is wanting, while in the
right hand it holds an object which it is impossible to distinguish. The child wears a
girdle, vaguely discernible. The image is called by the inhabitants quot;batoe boetaquot; which
signifies quot;blind stonequot;, possibly because the eyes are no longer visible. The height of
the image is 1.60 M.

Beside this image there lies a large parallelopiped-shaped stone, 2.30 M. long and
about 1 M. broad and high. Our guide told us that this stone formerly stood on several
smaller ones which have now sunk into the ground, and that it is a grave. Further, that
a similar stone lies near Pandanarang Oeloe, which was also regarded as a grave, where
the inhabitants brought offerings and swore oaths. This, we may say, still occurs in con-
nection with several megalithic remains.

PER^TANG. From Tandjoengtebat, just mentioned, a footpath leads in north-
westerly direction, through the ravine of the Lematang, which is crossed by an old sus-
pension bridge, to the Pematang Rubber Estate, and farther across a broad alang-alang
plateau to the ravine of the Selangis. This path formerly communicated with the now
deserted doesoens of Arahantige and Sekajoen on the other (left) bank of the Selangis.
From here a path leads to the not far distant doesoens Padang and Tinggihari (see page
15—18). On the above-mentioned alang-alang plateau, just before you reach the Selangis
ravine, this path passes a group of monuments to which Westenenk save the name of
quot;Image-Park of Pematangquot; (111. 34).

Coming from the direction of Tandjoengtebat, one meets successively with the fol-
lowing objects :

(2)nbsp;An image, very indistinct, possibly representing a human figure with a child,
riding on a buffalo. The head of the child is wanting; with the adult figure it is still present\'
Height, 1.50 M.

(3)nbsp;(111. 36.) A human figure with a child, riding on a buffalo Both heads are

wanting. The adult figure sits astride of the animal; the child has twisted itself more to
the right. The left leg hangs down along the left side, the right leg is thrown over the back
of the animal. The child is grasping the tail of the animal with its right hand. Both figures
wear a girdle, in which a sword has been sheathed behind.

(4)nbsp;(111. 37.) A group of flat stones, of which two stand upright in the ground, against
which the third (and largest) is leaning; this latter has a greatest length of 1.70 M. Presum-
ably it lay formerly upon the other two smaller stones, the whole thus forming a dolmen.
We will just remark here that we will always employ the name „dolmenquot; for one large
stone placed by human agency on other, smaller ones. In South Sumatra, however, the
dolmen were probably not used as tombs. We shall refer to this later (Chapter X).

(5)nbsp;Close by, a large, more or less flat stone; greatest length, 2.25 M. This stone
resembles somewhat a very rough image. It is possible that it is an image in an incompleted
state, although this is not certain.

(6)nbsp;A human figure on a buffalo (111. 39 and 40) The horns and right fore-foot
of the animal are especially clear. The image has been finished with great care. The nails
of the right hand, for example, are clearly discernible. The proportions, however, are
again distorted. The head is very large; arms and legs short; the hands very large and the
animal ridden, very small. A necklace of large beads can be clearly distinguished, with
a fastening plate behind in the form of a flat cone, similar to that which occurs at Tinggi-
hari 4. (See 111. 216c). From Westenenks photograph, it is apparent that the image formerly
lay on its right side. This side is then much better preserved that the left side which has
suffered much from exposure to the weather. The features are again typical quot;negroidquot;,
short and broad shape, eyes somewhat protruding, short, broad nose with flattened roots,
broad mouth with thick lips, prognathic jaws, strong cheek bones; broad angular under-jaw.

We see here again the broad bracelets, together with the helm, the girdle and the
rings around the calves of the legs and ancles. The total height is 1.93 M.

(7)nbsp;(111. 41 and 42.) A human figure with a child. The adult figure is grasping
with the left hand the right leg of the child and with the right hand, the left upper arm. With
its right hand, the child is holding the left wrist of the adult. The child supports itself on
the ground with the left leg. Both heads are wanting. The chief figure wears a girdle con-
sisting of two parts and over that the usual tunic; broad bands round the wrists and several
fine thick rings on each leg. Further, over the right shoulder and under the left arm, there
hangs a sort of shoulder-belt, consisting of a thin cord or band from which is suspended
a row of small objects. Westenenk suggests that these are bells. For the rest, Westenenk
would seem to have held a wrong conception with regard to this image. He says: quot;This
chief, also riding on a horned buffalo.quot; As far as I could see, no buffalo was to be dis-
covered. There is certainly a child — for a quot;chiefquot;, a strange attribute!

(8)nbsp;An image almost undecipherable. It is impossible to see what it represents
Height 1.45 M.

(10)nbsp;(111. 38.) A very roughly-worked image. It seems to represent two figures
but It is too vague to distinguish further details. Possibly it is unfinished.

(11)nbsp;A large, flat stone, 2.50 M. long, with a smaller stone beside it. The whole
may have been a dolmen, in which case one or more smaller stones must be embedded
m the ground under the large stone. This is by no means certain, however.

(12)nbsp;Two stones standing together, the larger of which measures 1.70 M.; both
probably unworked.

Unfortunately, several heads in the image park of Pematang have been broken
off and are now to be found in the garden of the Club House at Pageralam and in that
of the doctor\'s house. In order to ascertain to which image each head belonged, it would
be necessary to collect them and fit them together. According to Tombrink, a quot;lesoeng-
batoequot; must also be lying in Pematang but we failed to find it.

AIRDINGIN. (See Map IV). We shall now proceed farther along the main road
leading from Tandjoengtebat. A kilometre and a half past this place, a side road leads
to the South, in the direction of Semendo. On this road, close to the junction, lies the
doesoen Airdingin. Mr. Raupp had heard from the inhabitants that several images must
also be lying here. And sure enough, after a long and difficult search, we found, in the
thicket situated close to the doesoen, an extremely weather-beaten image, which we partly
excavated. The head, which was broken off, we found in the ground (111. 43).

The image represents a squatting figure with a buffalo before him — at least the head
of the animal. Further, beside and over both arms something which possibly represents
a snake, though that is not certain. The space between the figure and the buffalo, forms
a somewhat shallow basin. The head is very much decayed. We placed it temporarily on
the trunk in order to take the photograph but the ruptured surfaces were much too
decayed to determine exactly the correct position.

Beside this image, two other flat stones lay in the ground. The Krio, who was well
acquainted with the story which represents Lidah Pait as the maker of these images,
expressed his joy that this dangerous man was now dead. Further, he related that no doesoen
may ever be built on this ground. Should that ever happen, all the people would die
with the exception of twenty-five, but these would be extremely handsome and well-built.
This story is slightly reminiscent of the maxim still honoured by the Badoejs in West
Java. Here in the desas of the Central-Badoejs, no jnore than 40 families must reside.

LOEBOEHAN. In this doesoen, situated about 3 K.M. from Airdingin, there
must be standing another image without a head, but we failed to find it.

Following first the road which leads to Semendoh, we come to the doesoen of Kota-
agoeng, from where a side-path runs in south-westerly direction to Kebondjati. This
path traverses the ravine of the Air Matalintang. Beside the path, 1300 M. past the bridge
which crosses this small river, stands an enormous block of stone, called quot;batoe soerauquot;
by the inhabitants. Soerau (in Javanese quot;langgarquot;) is a small house of worship. The stone
has a pointed form and on all sides deep grooves run from the summit downwards. These
grooves, however, are probably due to erosion. Close by again lies a group of 4 stones
in a square with sides of about 3 M. The orientation of the square is again East 10
degrees North. (Compare Chapter XIV.)

The road to Semendoh, which runs to the South, now turns sharply to the North-
East. After passing Moearatiga, it skirts the new doesoen of Geramat. The old doesoen
of this name lies more downstream on the Air Moelak.

GERAMAT. Here, on the North side of the road, in an open field, lies another
group of monuments, viz.

(1)nbsp;(111. 45.) Image of a bull; length 1.45 M. «) The head was broken off and could
not be found. The stone between the legs has not been sculptured away but remains
as a rectangular block. The tail lies along the right flank. Between the hind-legs the scrotum
is clearly represented. On the lower part of the neck, there is the large fold of skin com-
mon with Indian buffaloes. As a whole, the plastic is excellent. Tombrink found a similar
image, but more defaced, near the doesoen Batoe Roesoe in the neighbourhood of
Fenantean, marga Pagger-Goenoeng. (See Map III).

(2)nbsp;pi. 46.) Image of a human figure riding on a buffalo. The right hand grasps
the right horn. The head is badly preserved and details are no longer visible. Bracelets
and leg-rings are discernible. The animal is again too small in proportion to the
rider and the hindquarters are almost invisible. Only the tail is clear. On the back of the
rider there is a mass of stone, badly damaged and decayed but it is no longer possible

to say what it represents — perhaps a child. There are several stones in the neighbour-
nood but no dolmen.

lesoengbatoequot; of the well-known type. The flat upper surface has been divided by
upstanding borders into six sections in which are six holes. This is the largest lesoeng-
batoe that we came across.

LESOENGBATOE. A doesoen of this name lies a little farther along the road
to beniendoh, m which a mortar must lie of the same type as that formerly mentioned,
Dut which we were unable to find. The name is used very frequently in the neighbourhood
to denominate localities.

TANDJOENGBRINGIN. (1) The doesoen of this name may be reached from
Moearatiga, just mentioned, by means of a footpath. According to stories current there
must be images in this place We succeeded in finding one (111. 47). The image represents
two human figures with a child between them, sitting on a buffalo. This latter is very
small and very indistinct but can easily be recognised by means of its right hind-leg which
has been rendered true to nature. The child lies on his stomach between both figures
so that the head comes out behind between the shoulders of the two adults while the
legs and the very clearly represented genitals are visible on the front side. All three
figures wear a smooth neck-ring In the case of the right-hand figure (left on the photo),
a three-fold girdle is fairly well discermble; it is possible that the right-hand figure is
wearing a head-covering of the usual helm model, but the whole is too much decayed
to enable one to distinguish many details. In the case of the left-hand figure, no helm is
to be seen. The image stands aslant. The height is 1.45 M.

We pass a similar group of stones on our way to the doesoen Tandjoengkoeroeng
Oeloe, where we again reach the road leading to Semendoh.

From the junction of three roads near Airdingin, we pursue our way along the main
road to Pageralam. At first this road runs, with a few long windings and hairpin-bends,
through the beautiful, deep ravine of the Air Endikat, a right-bank tributary of thé
Lematang, which like the main river, has its source on the 2817 M. high Goenoeng
Patah, after the Dempo the highest mountain in the district.

MINGKIK* Very soon we reach the doesoen Mingkik, situated between the
Endikat and the Air Pasemah. The new doesoen lies close to the post-road; the old
lay 500 M. to the West.

From Mingkik a footpath leads in a westerly direction. Crossing the Pasemah by
wading, one finds on the left bank a hill, on which there is a monument, which is regarded
by the inhabitants as a holy grave (111. 48 and 49).

It consists of two terraces of earth, the steep sides of which are constructed of kali-
stone. The top of the lower terrace measures 7.50 by 8.50 M. and it is about 1.50 M.
high. On it stands the second terrace, 4 by 3.50 M. large and 60 to 70 c.M. high. Part of
this upper terrace has been marked of by a row of stones ; within this part two stones stand
upright. The sides of the terrace run Northwest—Southeast and Northeast—Southwest.

The whole was overgrown with alang-alang and bamboo. It seemed to engender
considerable fear in the inhabitants and our guide felt very little inclination to clear away
the vegetation around the monument. We managed to clear the northern corner sufficiently,
however, to take a photograph. On this photograph you see this corner of the upper terrace
and the north-easterly side of the same, constructed of river stones; further, before the
sitting man, the row of stones and on the left the two upright stones.

In the neighbourhood of this double terrace, we also found one upright stone of a
height of 40 c.M. and a row of five small upright stones, the highest of which measured

35 c.M. and the orientation of which was 120 degrees — 300 degrees, thus almost
Southeast—Norhtwest.

On the main road, between kilometre stone 267 and 268, on the west side of the road,
is the entrance to the rubber estate of Tebatgoenoeng.

TEBATGOENOENG, The estate-road runs first through the ravine of the Air
Pasemah and then leads to the house of the Head Manager, which is situated on the ridge
between the Pasemah and the Air Loeangbioeng. In front of this house stands an oblong
trough, indistinctly ornamented with a human figure which lies allong-side it (111. 44). We
shall meet with many of these troughs again. Proceeding farther into the estate, the road
leads first through the ravine of the Loeangbioeng. Coming to the boundary of the rubber
estate, you see before you an alang-alang plateau, through which flows the Air Loeang-
kokoi. Crossing the river, you come to several ladang houses on the place where the
doesoen of Nanding formerly stood.

NANDING, (See Map V). A few hundred metres to the South-West of this place,
lie the following monuments :

(1)nbsp;(111. 50.) An image, representing a human figure with a child. The head of
the adult has broken off and lies on the ground. The chief figure, which wears broad
bracelets but on which, owing to decay, further details cannot be distinguished, holds
the child in front of it with both hands. The head of the latter is hanging to the right.
Height, 1 metre. A flat stone lies near.

(2)nbsp;(111. 52.) A block of stone, in which a head is very roughly hewn. Possibly the
image is unfinished. The edge has been worn smooth owing to the Indian buffaloes
rubbing themselves against it. Height 1.20 M.

(3)nbsp;(111. 51.) Close by is a big, flat stone, with three smaller ones beside it. The large
stone may originally have been supported by the smaller ones and the whole might be
regarded as a dolmen.

From Nanding one can walk due South and reach the main road at Loeboekboentak,
where it reaches its most southerly point.

To the South of the road, you will find on the ordnance map 1 : 100.000 the doesoens
Tebingtinggi and Sosokan Tebingtinggi. In this connection, Sosokan signifies quot;newquot;
and frequently occurs here in the names of localities, owing to doesoens having been broken
up and constructed anew elsewhere, which renders it very difficult with the aid of a
map to find one\'s bearings. On the map, both doesoens are situated on the east bank of
the Air Pasemah. Apparently since the survey was taken an exodus has again taken place,
for at present Tebingtinggi lies on the west bank, a few hundred metres from the little
river and about 1 kilometre to the South of the main-road.

TEBINGTINGGL To the North-East of the doesoen lies a sawah, in which occur
the following remains :

(1)nbsp;(111. 53.) A mortar or lesoengbatoe with two holes; measurements, 1.20 x 1.30 M.

(2)nbsp;(111. 54 and 55.) A large image; height 1.35 M.; circumference 6.50 M. It is
extremely decayed and badly damaged and it is difficult to ascertain what it represents.
With some trouble, however, it is still possible to distinguish three human figures,
twisted together as if engaged in wrestling. One of the heads is quite discernible while
a sword can be seen on the back of another man.

(3)nbsp;(111. 56 and 57.) A human figure on a buffalo. Height 1.35 M., circumference
4.90 M. Again badly defaced, decayed and indistinct. The head of the man has quite
disappeared, while half of the head of the animal has been broken off. Here also, it is
possible to see a sword on the back of the man.

At kilometre-stone 279, the main-road runs past a small, beautifully situated lake
which is called Tebat Lebar. According to the inhabitants this lake is the home of a
giant snake which formerly belonged to Lidah Pait and which retired here after his
death. The inhabitants dare not bathe in the water. At kilometre-stone 280, the path
begins to wind downwards into the magnificent and deep Lematang ravine. Here, on
the right bank of the river, there is a holy spot, close by the deserted doesoen of Perdipo.
It is nothing more, however, than an old, probably Mohammedan grave. Near it, on the
bank of the stream which shoots in a beautiful waterfall into the Lematang, is a stone
which, according to the inhabitants, bears the imprint of a human foot, but it is only a
small and natural hollow.

Where the path again begins to ascend with many windings from the ravine to the
higher plateau, you find, at kilometre-stone 283, a side-path running to the South-West
and leading to the doesoen of Pelangkenidai (the name given on the ordnance map is
Pelangkendidai).

PELANGKENIDAL From here a footpath runs in a South-Westerly direction
through the shallow ravine of the Air Boengatandjoeng and further along the triangula-
tion point of the fourth order, 913. At this point lies what is known as the grave of Lidah
Pait (111. 59, 60, 62 and 63). It reminds one strongly of the grave near Mingkik. It consists
of a rectangular earthen terrace with upstanding borders of kalistone. Size, 7.50 by 6 M.
On this terrace, not quite in the middle, there lies a rectangular heap of stones somewhat
of the shape of a cushion and measuring 2.25 by 2.50 M. While the ground slopes a little,
care has been taken to make the terrace quite horizontal, for which reason the terrace
on the North-East side rises somewhat higher above the ground than on the South-West
side. On this side a trench runs round it which gradually merges into the grass field at
the North-East side. The height of the terrace from the bottom of the trench is about
one metre ; the stone-heap is three-quarter of a metre high. The east corner of the terrace
is overgrown by a large stump of bamboo which conceals its real form.

The inhabitants call this place the grave of Seroenting Sakti (Lidah Pait) although
according to most, that person was buried by the side of the Ranau Lake, where the place

he was buried was pointed out to us. Some people say that only an arm of the magician
was buried near Pelangkenidai and others that it is merely a cenotaph. However that
may be, the place is held high in honour; offerings are regularly brought and oaths sworn
at the grave, while the stems of the bamboo are quite covered with vows, most of them
engraved in the still quite common quot;rentjongquot; script.

KEBONAGOENG. At kilometre-stone 290, a left side-road leaves the main
road and leads to Tandjoengsakti, but we shall deal with it later on. A little farther, a
right-hand side-path leads to the doesoen Kebonagoeng. In the immediate vicinity of
this doesoen, there is another grave which we will just mention, although it is probably
of a much later date than the megaliths. It consists of an earthen terrace on which stand
four tomb-stones (111. 61). Three of these are rough and badly decayed; the fourth (111.
58) consists of a reddish sort of stone; the front side is finely ornamented with arabesque,
leaf motives and a bird. On the rear side, which could not be photographed owing to the
stone leaning too much over, we found six human figures, somewhat primitively repre-
sented. The central and largest figure sits with legs a little drawn up and is naked except
for a head-band and an ornamented girdle. A kris is thrust into the girdle behind. The
genitals are clearly rendered.

Around this central figure, five smaller figures are grouped also armed with the kris
and several with lances. One of them holds high a square object. The kris came into vogue
in the Archipelago in the time of Modjopahit. From the fact that the kris occurs on these
tomb-stones while oidy swords are represented on the images of the South Sumatra type,
one may deduce a disparity in age.

Southwest, which does not agree with the Mohammedan custom. The sculpturing of
human figures on tomb-stones also is not Mohammedan usance.

The other three stones are much more crude and lack arabesque, although it is
also possible to discern the same sort of human figures.

PAGERALAM, We are now in the proximity of Pageralam, the capital of the
sub-district Pasemah and seat of the quot;Controleurquot;. Here we find several remains which
have been collected from the surrounding country by the quot;Controleursquot; Batenburg,
Junius and Hoven. They are as follows:

(1)nbsp;(111. 64 and 65.) Large, bulky, squatting figure, probably representing a mother
and child. The clothing consists of the cloth already described, resembling a quot;ponchoquot;
the border of which can be clearly distinguished half way down the upperarm. The
front half of the cloth hangs over the drawn-up knees which are clasped by both hands.
The feet come out from under the cloth. No head-covering, girdle or ornaments are
visible. The features are again very unrefined, with short, thick nose, broad mouth with
thick lips, very pronounced and broad cheek-bones and broad, angular lower-jaw.

A child is carried on the back which, with its left hand, grasps the left shoulder
of the mother; the right hand and head lie against the right shoulder. The girdle of the
child is indicated. The image is 1.30 M. high and originated in the doesoen Tandjoengara \'\')
which we will deal with later. (See page 33.) It reminds one strongly of a similar image,
but without the child, in the Museum at Batavia, which must have been found in the
Lampongs, although it was impossible to determine the exact place. (See 111. 197 a and b.)

(2)nbsp;In the same garden, behind the house, the image of a human figure, riding
on a buffalo. (111. 66 and 67.) Again the animal is represented too small and its hind-
quarters slope down as if it had subsided on his hind-legs. The features of the image
are very coarse; round, protruding eyes, broad nose, a large mouth with thick lips. The
image has somewhat the appearance of putting out its tongue. There is no head-covering;
a girdle or loin-cloth is just indicated, from which a long, narrow piece of cloth hangs
down behind to the ground. The right hand grasps the fore-head of the buffalo. While
the head, horns and fore-legs of the animal are clearly discernible, the hindlegs are not.
The height is 95 c.M. According to Westenenk, the image must have come from Goe-
noengmegang, where other remains are still standing. (See page 37.)

(3)nbsp;Before the house lies an oblong trough (111. 68.) of the same type as that on the
rubber estate of Tebatgoenoeng, but in a much better state of preservation. The interior
of the trough is 104 c.M. long, 18 broad and 8 deep. A human figure lies along it, grasping
the trough. The left arm and leg are represented as passing under the trough. The
countenance is course, strongly prognathic, with protruding eyes and distended ear-lobes.
The head was formerly broken off but was restored to its place by quot;Gontroleurquot; Junius.
A girdle is visible, from which a piece of cloth hangs down behind. Behind the back of
the man lies an object which probably represents a bronze drum; we will discuss that
later. (See Chapter VI.) The trough seems to have come from Soekaboemi. (See Page 37.)

(4)nbsp;In the same garden, a lesoengbatoe. (111. 70) The stone is shaped more or less
like the head of a buffalo; nostrils and mouth are indicated. The upper surface is provided
with an upright border and with a mortar hole. The length of the whole stone is
1.15 M. The diameter of the hole is 13 c.M.; the depth 16 c.M.

We found this mortar on the post-road. North-West of Pageralam, 200 M. past the
side-path leading to Padjarboelan, lying in the ditch on the south-westerly side of the
road. As its position was not very safe, quot;Gontroleurquot; Vonk was kind enough to have
it transported to his garden.

(5)nbsp;In the same garden lies a water-spout, (111. 69) in the form of a triangular
gutter which reminds one somewhat of the well-known gargoyles on the towers of Notre
Dame at Paris. It has the form of the upper half of a human body lying on its breast;
the back has been hollowed out to make a gutter and the mouth has been bored through
to allow the water to escape. The head is badly decayed and indefinite, but one can
still distinguish on the ears the distended ear-lobes with rosette-shaped eardrops. Accor-
ding to Westenenk, this spout came from the doesoen Soekamerindoe where it was
found in a ravine in 1920.

(6)nbsp;In the same garden, on the path leading to the office, stands a small stone,
68 c.M. high (111. 71). The form is apparent from the photo. The stone is set off
with a few lines, but further not ornamented. From a comparison with the grave at
Kebonagoeng (page 28) it appears to be a tomb-stone. It seems to have come from
Padjarboelan (see page 35).

(7)nbsp;A head (111. 72, 73 and 74) originally in the image-park of Pematang (see
page 21). This consitutes one of the most beautiful fragments of the sculpture work of
this period. The countenance again shows all the characteristics of this type: round,
somewhat protruding eyes; short, broad, flat nose, with strongly depressed nose-base;
prominent cheek-bones; a large mouth with thick lips; prognathic jaws; broad, angular
lower-jaw; short and broad features. The ears are large but not distended. In none of

the other images is the helm so discernible as here. The edge of the helm runs in a
straight line along the forehead, bends downwards just before the ears, in a pure bow
and behind the ears projects far out as a neck protection. A piece has here been broken
off so that on the photo it looks as if the helm ended behind in two points. Above the
nose and above the ears, the helm is provided with round plates.

The whole sculpture is executed with extraordinary force and style and the plastic
power of the countenance is extremely expressive. The work as a whole is a striking
expression of the artistic skill of its creators.

(8) (111. 75). Another head, similar to No. 7 and also coming from Pematang, but
not so well preserved. The length from the chin to the end point of the helm is here 90 c.M.

^ ino^e primitive head, without a helm but with a band round the
head. The face is more schematic and the eyes are round and protruding The head
recalls that of Pageralam, No. 2 (see page 29). The nose is still shorter and broader
than of the two former heads and right over its base there runs a fold from one eyebrow
to the other. This head also must have come from Pematang. From the chin to the back
of the head, it measures 50 c.M.

(10)nbsp;(111. 77—79.) A man with an elephant. «) The head of the man has been
broken off. He wears a girdle or loin-cloth, with a piece of cloth hanging down behind;
weapons and ornaments are lacking. The right hand is grasping the jaw of the animal ;
the left hand is holding the left ear.

It is characterised by the same distorted proportions as has already been noted in
other images. In proportion to the man, the elephant is too small. Of the animal itself the
head is much too large; the fore-legs relatively too small and the hind-legs still smaller,
so that the back of the animal slopes downwards behind.

For the rest, the elephant has been sculptured with great care. The trunk assumes
the form of a beautiful curl; the tusks are clearly indicated; the ears are curiously out-
lined in the form of a heart. On the left fore-foot the nails are clearly discernible. The
eyes are large. One peculiarity strikes you strongly in the general execution of the image
and which is also present in others. The sculptors have evidently sought a block of
stone the natural form of which already suggested that which they intended to shape.
In executing the work, this natural form has been as far as possible left intact so that
only comparatively little material had to be hewn away. All around the stone, quot;en reliefquot;
work has been added but this quot;reliefquot; embraces the stone so closely that the effect of
free sculpture, as it were, has been attained. It originally came from Goenoeng Megang
(page 37). Height 90 c.M.

(11)nbsp;(111. 80.) In the same small park lies an oblong trough, without ornamentation.
The interior is 58 c.M. long, 22 c.M. broad and 13 c.M. deep.

^ (12) (111. 81.) A trough; interior, 60 c.M. long, 20 c.M. broad and 10 c.M. deep.
This stone, like the lesoengbatoe Pageralam No. 4, again resembles somewhat the head
of an Indian buffalo, but it is a question if this was done intentionally, as here the
mouth and nose are not indicated.

(13)nbsp;Another oblong trough, of the same model as No. 11, but with ornamental
work at both extremities, resembling a knob, possibly representing a human head.

(14)nbsp;(111. 82.) In the garden of the doctor\'s house, on the way leading to the
hospital, there is another head, resembling No. 7 and 8, but not so well preserved.
It also comes from Pematang. The height is 80 c.M.

GOENOENG DEMPO. In the division Talang Pasai of this estate, there is
another group of four upright stones. Between these stones the super-intendent of the
estate, Mr. Blok, had a pit dug to a depth of one metre and afterwards explored still
a meter deeper with a ground-bore, but found nothing exceptional. Here also lies a
lesoengbatoe with two holes. The division Talang Pasai is named after the former doesoen
Talang Rempasai.

Along the estate road, one can proceed by automobile up the mountain slope to
the fourth division. The house of the manager of this division is situated at a height
of 1650 M. With the automobile you can climb further to a height of about 1800 M.,
just below the boundary of the part which has been cleared for the tea plantations. From
there you can reach the top in about 3i hours walking.

The top of the Dempo principally consists of an old, semi-circular shaped crater
wall m the South-East. This encloses an old crater bottom which in the North-West
is itself intersected by the new crater with the crater lake. The old crater wall is 3022
M. high, the old crater bottom a little lower and the top of the new crater wall, called
the Goenoeng Merapi, is 3159 M. high.

On the old crater bottom as well as on the Goenoeng Merapi, one finds various
heaps of stones some of which are called by the inhabitants quot;Kramatquot; (grave). They
form mostly little walls of circular or oval shape and are composed of loose pieces of
lava, a few of which stand in an upright position. The inhabitants come regularly
to this place with offerings, including goats and chickens. We received the impression
that these quot;Kramatsquot; are of comparatively recent date but we had no time to explore
the whole summit.

From Pageralam, a country road leads past the doctor\'s house and hospital just
mentioned, to the doesoens of Pagerbanjoe and Pematangbange. The latter doesoen
was formerly situated higher up the slope of the Dempo, but was transferred.

PEMATANGBANGE. In Pematangbange we found a very distinct dolmen,
consisting of a roof-stone of a length of 2.40 M., the greatest length of which lay North-
bouth. This roof-stone rests on four supporting stones (111. 83).

We now follow again the high-road which leads from Pageralam to the North-West
and finally reach Benkoelen. On the left we soon reach the doesoen Tandjoengara.

TANDJOENGARA, (See Map VI) We will just call to mind that the image
Pageralam No 1 (page 29) originally came from this doesoen. Further, we find here
various megahthic antiquities, viz:

(1)nbsp;In the middle of the village, a stone on which a human face has been rendered
very roughly. All further details are lacking (111. 84).

(2)nbsp;In the doesoen there lie a large number of great volcanic blocks. In some
cases a large stone has been placed on several smaller ones, constituting a dolmen The
finest is given in 111. 85. It consists of a roof-stone with a circumference of 5 50 M
resting on three other stones.nbsp;\'

(3)nbsp;In this doesoen there lies another lesoengbatoe; the upper surface is divided
mto three sections by upright borders and has three holes (111. 87).

^^ (4) In the sawah to the West of the doesoen there stands a large monolith or quot;men-
hirquot; around which a representation quot;en reliefquot; has been worked. «) This represents two
human figures in combat with a snake. The one is sitting and is attempting with his
hands to keep the snake, which is biting him in the forehead, at a distance. The other
is standing and defending himself against the animal which has wound itself around
him. The representation is rather primitive and gives very few details. The sitting figure
wears a girdle. Both, perhaps, have helms but this is not clear. The height is 1 35 M
(111. 86).

(5) In this same sawah there lie a great number of blocks of stone. Frequently
one finds a large stone with a few smaller stones beside or partly under it. These groups
must probably be regarded as dolmens which have collapsed. This hypothesis may seem
a somewhat daring one but is supported by the fact that we also found a dolmen which
was intact (111. 88). The roof-stone is 1.95 M. high and has a circumference of no less
than 10 M. It rests on four supporting-stones, lying in the form of a square, the sides
of which lie about North-South and East-West. It seems a miracle how the builders
were able to transport this gigantic stone.

In the same sawah we also found two flat stones lying together on the ground
which, after comparison with the stone cists near Tegoerwangi (see Chapter XI) we
concluded to be probably the roof-stones of such a coffin. We had no opportunity of
making a closer investigation. Presumably, however, many such coffins are to be found
here in the ground and this locality offers a splendid field for extensive excavation.

BATOEGADJAH. Near the doesoen Pagergading, just opposite the place where
the side-path to the already mentioned doesoen of Tandjoengara turns oflF the main
road, another side-path on the other side of the main road strikes off in a North-Easterly
direction. This path leads to the doesoens Padjarboelan and Poelaupanggoeng. From
this side-path, a footpath leads to the place where on the ordnance map 1 : 100.000

the doesoens of Koto Raja and Batoegadjah are indicated, on the lovely little lake of
Tebat Kotoraja.

The ordnance map is here very much out of date. Both the last mentioned doesoens
have been removed. There present situation is indicated on our sketch-map.

The name of the doesoen Batoegadjah (Elephant stone) is derived from a very re-
markable monument which stands on the now deserted spot in a bamboo wood close
to the lake (111. 89—95).

It represents a recumbent elephant, with a warrior on each side. As regards the
general execution, what has already been said of the image Pageralam No. 10 (page 31)
also applies to this monument. A large block of stone, having something of the form
of an egg, has been used and the shape of the stone somewhat suggests an elephant lying
down. Around this block, the details of the animal have been chiselled out quot;en reliefquot;,
while the two men are represented in very shallow rehef against both flanks. Westenenk,
thus, writes as follows: quot;Among the wares hawked in India by Chinese pedlars are
quot;canary-stones around which have been carved various figures, animals, tiny men on
quot;horseback, etc. and it is remarkable how the artistic carver has utilised the so small
quot;and round surface to bring out the details of the figures, even if sometimes they are
quot;crushed together or curiously distorted. The first thought that struck me when I caught
quot;sight of the Batoe Gadjah was: \'A gigantic canary-stone but of andesite\'.quot;

Let us now examine the image in detail. The stone measures, from the trunk of the
elephant to the tail, 2.17 M. The head of the animal is excellently modelled, skilful advan-
tage being taken of the natural form of the stone. The trunk is curled upward and to
the left in a graceful bow; the right tusk is damaged; the left is well preserved and bent
a little back so as not to jut out over the surface of the stone. The ears lie back along
the neck. The fore-legs are drawn up as in the case of an elephant in recumbent attitude
while the hind-legs, as far as such are visible, are extended a little backward. The nails
are indicated.

The warrior on the left kneels on the right knee beside the left side of the animal
and grasps the left ear with hands, the fingers of which are short and thick. The head
of the man is turned quite round so that he looks directly to the rear (see 111. 90). He
wears a helm of the same shape as do the heads in the garden of the club-house at Pager-
alam (page 30). Where with the latter the rear-peak of the helm is more or less blunt,
with the Batoegadjah it is more extended to a long point. This is probably to be attributed
to the fact that in the case of the sculptured heads, such sharp points would immediately
break offquot; and thus could not be represented. The head is once again of the usual type,
with round eyes, flattened nose-base, short, broad nose, prognathic jaws, a large mouth
with extremely thick lips and a pronounced angle on the lower jaw (angulus mandibularis).

Round the neck there is a thick, plain ring. On the upper part of the body no clothing
is visible. A two-fold girdle is clearly discernible, in which a broad sword has been
stuck. This sword has a long hilt, the head of which is of a peculiar shape, resembling
an inverted shoe (see also 111. 221). In front and behind, a loin-cloth hangs over the
girdle. In front, this loin-cloth is draped over the thigh, while behind it hangs straight
down. More especially on the left leg, the leg rings, seven in number, are clearly visible.

Ut this, Westenenk gives an inaccurate explanation. It is a bronze drum, which as quot;leit-

tossil IS of great importance m determining the antiquity of the image. We will deal with
this more extensively later (Chapter VI).

his case no sword ^ visible, as that was apparently worn on the left side which is here hidden

by the elephant. There is a broad band round the right wrist. The leg-rings on the right

leg are ten in number A two-fold girdle is again clearly visible, from 4ich, in front

and behmd, a piece of cloth hangs down; further, behind, a second piece of cloth hangs

over the girdle The whole probably represents a loin-cloth. One can also conceive of i

as the front and back part of a tunic, but this is probably not the case, because with other

images where the tunic occurs, the line of division between fore- and hind part from

the armpits to the girdle is clearly indicated, whilst further the circular hole for thé neck

IS also discernible. Neither the one nor the other is the case. In the case of the left-hand

nian, the breast is quite discernible so that the neck-hole ought to be seen. In the case

of the right-hand man, the same applies to the line of division between the front and
the back.

With the figure on the right, one can clearly see the drum hanging over the right
shoulder with a strap. Further, it must be remarked that with both figures, the ears are
of normal size and evidently not pierced or ornamented.

With regard to this image, another peculiarity remains to be mentioned, which Weste-
nenk does not seem to have noticed. Between the two hind-legs of the animal, under the tail
and a little to the right, the head of a second animal is seen (see III. 95). It is a broad head,
with round neck, resembling that of a buffalo. The large ears remind one of an elephant;
there are two tusks which, however, are not directed downwards but curve upwards from
the lower jaw till just under the eyes, like those of a wild pig. The snout is short and very
broad and again suggests a buffalo. It is thus not clear what sort of animal is represented;
some legendary monster perhaps? Further the position of the head is strange. The inhab-
itants, therefore, interpret the whole as a representation of an elephant bringing forth
its young.

PADJARBOELAN» Fully two kilometres to the North of Batoegadjah lies the
new doesoen of Padjarboelan, which contains the following remains:

(1)nbsp;(III. 97.) A lesoengbatoe with four holes. The upper surface is again divided
into four sections by upright borders, but here these borders are worked into the form of
snakes twisted around each other. This is the only lesoengbatoe known to us where this
kind of ornamentation occurs.

(3)nbsp;(III. 99.) Ditto with three holes and close to it one very badly defaced, with
two holes.

a) Westenenk mentions this lesoengbatoe and made a foto of another with 4 holes (111. 11) which we were unable to find

(5)nbsp;(111. 102.) Two oblong troughs of the usual model, without ornamentation.

(6)nbsp;(111. 101.) A dolmen, consisting of one large stone resting on three smaller
ones. In this doesoen there lie many large stones, more of which should probably be
regarded as dolmens.

(7)nbsp;Before the house of the Pasirah lies a large, flat, somewhat rectangular stone.

POELAUPANGGOENG. Crossing the Air Dendan at Padjarboelan, one arrives
at the doesoen Poelaupanggoeng, also a new doesoen not yet indicated on the ordnance
map. A little farther, lies the old doesoen of Soekaboemi. In an alang-alang field, about
one and a half kilometres East of Poelaupanggoeng, close to two small lakes, are the follo-
wing remains:

(1)nbsp;On the footpath, an oblong trough (111. 103). One extremity is broken off; the
other shows a knob, which has probably represented a human head. The trough, thus,
has about the same shape as that of Pageralam No. 13, but is larger.

(2)nbsp;(III. 104—108.) An image representing a human figure, with two children, on
an elephant. quot;) The elephant is again very small; the head is about all that can be seen
of it. The chief figure again wears a helm; the peak over the neck is more rounded than
is the case with the heads at Pagaralam; the border along the forehead with the typical
httle curve before the ear is however still visible, notwithstanding the bad state of preser-
vation. The countenance is badly defaced and shows, as far as these are visible, the well
known features. The ear-lobes are pierced and distended and the rosette shaped eardrops
can be clearly distinguished (III. 108). A wide band runs round the neck. Possibly this
is meant to represent the upper border of the clothing, which consists of a tunic and a
girdle. At the side, against the shoulders, are round plates, under which, on both sides,
three parallel, slanting stripes run over the upper arm. On the wrists are broad bracelets.

The chief figure sits astride of the elephant, grasping the head with both hands.
Under both arms of the chief figure sit children, of which the two heads and of each
child one arm, come out behind. The left arm of the child on the left rests on the head
of the elephant. The children wear neck-rings and bracelets. In case of the child on the
right, one can see very clearly what appears to be curly hair (see III. 107) like that of the
child in the Tandjoengmenang image, No. 5 (page 20).

The head of the elephant, with the eyes, trunk and tusks are visible. The image stands
in a somewhat sloping position and is 1.45 M. high.

(3)nbsp;(III. 109.) At a distance of three metres from this image lies a very large
dolmen. The large, flat coping-stone is broken in five pieces but its original condition
can easily be reconstructed. The coping-stone must have measured 12.70 M. in circum-
terence. Under and between the pieces of the coping stone,.three supporting stones are
visible, and probably a fourth supporting stone lies hidden below.

The coping-stone reveals round, fairly deep little cavities, but these have not been
designedly constructed, for they also occur on the broken surfaces of the stone, as is seen
in the photo. They must be due to exposure to the elements and the corrosion of the
light corrosive minerals (veldspath. See also page 38).

(4) The doesoen Poelaupanggoeng is still new. Westenenk, therefore, does not
name it but refers to the remains described above as situated in the vicinity of Soekaboemi.
According to Westenenk also, there was found here the trough Pageralam 3 (page 30)
as well as the head (111. 110—112), of which he writes: quot;A small negro head, found
quot;near doesoen Soekaboemi, the fragment of a mortar. Is it going too far here, in the case
quot;of a so excellently executed piece of sculpture, to speak of a portrait? Is this friendly
quot;little head the portrait of a good-natured negro, carrying the mortar of his master?quot;
Westenenk bases his negrito theory partly on the nature of the hair on the images (see
also Chapter V). We would remark, however, that just in the case of this head, no hair is
represented. Further it seems to us that there is no more ground for seeing a portrait in
this head than in the images, especially as it is apparently meant as ornamentation.

The distended ear-lobes are here also clearly visible. The head is 15 c.M. high and
is now in the possession of Mrs. Westenenk Nehring Bogel, at Wassenaer, who was obhging
enough to allow us to photograph it. The trough Pageralam 3, according to Westenenk,
also comes from this neighbourhood.

Returning now to the main road and following it farther in North-Westerly direction,
we cross near Goenoengkaja the Air Dendan, just mentioned, and afterwards its tribu-
tary, the Air Risil. A little later, we turn into a side-path leading North-East and presently
arrive at the doesoen Goenoengmegang.

(2) (111. 114). An irregularly shaped, more or less round trough, of an interior
diameter of about 40 c.M.

^ (3) (111. 115.) An oblong trough. The interior measures 73 x 25 c.M. and is
9 c.M. deep.

, (5) (111. 117.) A lesoengbatoe with one hole, having a diameter of 11 c.M. and a
^epth of 10 c.M.

g (6) (111. 118.) A small dolmen, consisting of a coping stone with a very flat upper
^quot;ace, resting on three smaller stones.

(7)nbsp;(111. 119 and 120.) A group of four upright stones standing in an irregular
square, the sides of which lie roughly Northwest—Southeast and Northeast—Southwest
and are 3.50 to 4 metres in length. On the little plan, the heigth of the stones is given
in centimetres.

Following the path past the doesoen, one comes to a bridge over the Air Dendan,
already mentioned several times. Just before the bridge a footpath turns off to the left
in northerly direction. This path skirts a sawah, which contains various remains. From
this sawah, formerly a coffee plantation, came the image of the man with the buffalo
which now stands behind the house of the quot;Gontroleurquot; at Pageralam (Pageralam No. 2)
and the image of the man with elephant in the garden of the Club there (Pageralam
No. 10) Further, the following remains stand here at the present moment:

(8)nbsp;(111. 121—122.) An image representing a man in combat with an elephant.
The animal lies on its back with its four feet in the air. The man sits astride the belly
of the animal, between the hind-legs, and grasps with the left hand the curled trunk.

The man has no head-covering. The countenance has suffered much from decay.
It is short and broad, with round eyes, while the features, as far as these are visible, are
of the usual type. Ear-drops and neck-ring are not present. The only clothing seems to
be a girdle over which hangs behind a cloth folded double in the form of a loop. Further,
on the back to the left, a sword has been stuck into the girdle. The long hilt of the
sword has a knob in the form of an inverted shoe. In the hilt, just under this knob, there
is a hollow which may also represent a complete hole and which is semi-circular in shape.
Under the hilt there are two knobs on the sheath, the purpose of which apparently is to
prevent the sword from slipping down through the girdle (see also 111. 221e).

Head and trunk of the elephant are distinctly represented and very well executed.
The rest of the animal is again very small. The upturned hind-legs reach no higher than
the man\'s girdle.

Against the right side of this image, without any intervening space, there stands
a dolmen, consisting of a large stone with a circumference of 6.50 M. and resting on several
smaller stones, of which three are visible. On the large stone several small cavities are
visible, which do not give the impression, however, of having been designedly made. They
are probably due to decay, like those of the dolmen Poelanpauggoeng No. 3. If you exa-
mine the stones in the various rivers and streams in the neighbourhood, you will frequently
find similar cavities. They are easily distinguished from the artificial little cups such as
those we found near Djati and Karangdalem.

(9)nbsp;(111. 123.) In a coffee plantation, in the vicinity of No. 8, lies another stone
which has something of the shape of a man on an elephant. Only the head of the man
IS distinct; further details are not visible. The stone is 1.15 M. long.

(10)nbsp;(111. 124.) In the siring (irrigation canal for the rice culture) which skirts

the sawah, there stands still another image of a man with elephant. Unfortunately it
stood almost completely under water so that only the head and hands of the man and
the trunk of the animal^ were visible. Westenenk writes with regard to it: quot;This \'shield-
quot;bearer\', also engaged in combat with an elephant, showed after excavation a right side
\'\'in a good state of preservation. The head, projecting above the ground, and the left
quot;side, are mutilated. The significance of the whole, therefore, is difficult to determine.quot;

(11)nbsp;Close to this image lies a lesoengbatoe with one hole, the diameter of which
IS 13 c.M. Several smaller stones lie around.

(12)nbsp;^ (III.^ 125.) Nearby also lies a very large lesoengbatoe which apparently has
fallen on its side. It has a beautifully smooth upper surface, divided into four sections
by sharply chiselled upright borders and containing four stamping-holes.

MOEARAPAJANG« (On the ordnance map indicated as Moearo empajang.) This
doesoen lies on the main road, opposite the point where the Air Empajang, coming from
the Goemai Mountains, falls into the Air Lintang Kiri. From this doesoen a footpath
leads to Talangtinggi. Following this footpath for half an hour, you will see on the right
hand (west side) a coffee plantation. The place is called Talang Talang or Talang Loear,
put is not given on the map. Behind this, there lies amongst the bushes a large, flat stone,
irregular in shape and about 4 by 4 metres large. This stone is regarded by the inha-
bitants as quot;pojangquot; (dedicated to ancestors) and the natives go there with offerings,
to pray and at night to sleep and dream, to which dreams they attach great importance,
^ny one defiling the stone, becomes sick. Around the stone stands a circle of Hanjoewang
bushes (here called quot;poedingquot;), with which graves and holy places are generally beautified.
Whether the stone is shaped by human hands, it was impossible for us to determine.
We will just call attention to the fact, however, that such flat stone tables are frequently
n^et with beside the images, and may reward the trouble of an excavation. ^

BATOETJAWANG* (See Map VII) Following the main road in a north-westerly
direction, we come, in the doesoen Goenoengmeraksa Baroe, to a side-path on the right,
which leads us to the doesoen Batoetjawang, on the left bank of the Air Lintang Kiri.
Near this doesoen stands the finest dolmen that we ever came across (see III. 126—127).
It consists of a large, flat coping stone which shows a curious stratification, from which the
jnonument possibly derives its name; quot;tjawangquot; signifies branch. The coping stone is
tully three metres long and broad and rests on four upright standing stones, which seem
to have been additionally trimmed. The coping stone itself is about 70 c.M. thick; the
open space below is as many centimetres high. The four quot;feetquot; stand in an irregular
^uare, the sides of which lie roughly Northeast—Southwest and Northwest—Southeast.
I here are no traces of any stones which may have filled up the spaces between the feet,
J^or of a hillock which formerly may have covered the whole, as in the case of the well-
^nown quot;hunnebeddenquot; in Netherland.

A little farther, the main road crosses the upper course of the Moesi near Tand-
joengraja. To the North of this place, near Talang Padang, the road turns to the East
in the direction of Tebingtinggi, while the old road to Kepajang turns to the West. This
road is no longer kept in a state of repair and has been replaced by a new road, the so-
called quot;Moesi-tracequot;, which follows the left bank of the river from Tandjoengraja. Near
Keban, the old and the new road come together again.

KEBANAGOENG» (See Map VIII) Just beyond the boundary between the sub-
districts of Tebingtinggi and Redjang, of which the former belongs to the Residency of
Palembang and the latter to Benkoelen, lies the doesoen of Kebanagoeng, indicated on the
ordnance map as Kebon-agoeng. Above this marga capital, on an offshoot of the Boekit
Koemajan, is the doesoen Batoebelari. The Pasirah of Kebanagoeng told us that quot;lariquot;
signified quot;rowquot; and that the doesoen was so named after a group of four stones stan-
ding in a rectangle (111. 128 and 130). The stones are not large but high, considering their
width. The rectangle in which the stones are standing measures 6.50 by 4.50 M. The long
sides lie East, 5 to 6 degrees North.

Close to Batoebelari is the doesoen Batoekalong, which is not given on the ordnance
map 1 : 100.000. Kalong signifies necklace. From the quot;Controleurquot; of Tebingtinggi
we learned that here stood formerly an image of a human figure with a necklace. We did
not succeed in finding it, however. The Pasirah of Bermani Ilir, Abdul Latif, at Kebana-
goeng, was obliging enough to make further investigations. He reported that the place
where the image had stood was really known but that in the course of a landslide which
occurred in 1916, the image had disappeared in the river. The Pasirah Alamsari, and
quot;Controleurquot; Tengbergen had formerly also instituted a search which had proved
fruitless.

KEPAJANG. In the neighbourhood of Kepajang we heard nothing of megalithic
remains, except that in former times an image had stood on the Boekit Kaba. There
exists a report made by V. D. C. (Van der Crab?) in 1864, according to which quot;Con-
troleurquot; Pruys van der Hoeven found on the edge of the northerly crater a sitting image,
life size, decayed and with a sword in thequot; hand. We did not climb the Kaba ourselves
but sought information at Kepajang from, amongst others, Mr. H. van Ess, who had
eight ascents to his credit, and the Pasirah of Kesambebaroe, near Tjoeroep. It seems
that the image is no longer there. According to the above-mentioned report, it stood on
the edge of the northerly crater. Probably this monument also has fallen a victim to
a landslide.

At Kepajang, the road splits again, one branch going to Tjoeroep and the other to
Benkoelen. We did not visit the latter place. The Resident, however, Mr. W. J. R. Zieck,
was kind enough to make enquiries for us, but unfortunately with negative result.

TJOEROEP. (See Map IX) Our harvest here was not abundant. The following
stones are to be seen:

(1)nbsp;To the right of the road leading to Soebangajam lies Air Pannas, a group of
warm springs, the water from which flows into the Air Kesambe, a tributary of the Moesi.
Near these springs lie two stones to which our attention was drawn by Resident Zieck.
The largest (111. 132) is 90 c.M. long and broad and (above the ground) 45 c.M. high!
The upper side is hollowed out a little. The other (111. 131) measures 73 by 73 c.M.
and its lower side stands in an apparently new cement base. The upper surface is flat,
with an upright border. The stone stands, with another, natural, stone, under a small
shed of bamboo. The stones are still regarded with veneration by the population.

(2)nbsp;On the Air Simpang estate, directly above the junction of the Air Simpang and
the Air Moesi, partly in and partly outside of a splendid high bamboo wood, lies a ceme-
tery where the coolies employed on the estate are buried. In this bamboo wood are several
upright stones of which the largest, called Batoe Misan, is 1.40 M. high (111. 133).

On the same estate is another stone, to which offerings are brought. It lies to the
North of the principal buildings, in the ravine of the Air Simpang, halfway up the slope.
This stone, however, turned out to be natural rock.

(3)nbsp;About a kilometre downstream from the junction of the Moesi and the Simpang,
on the left bank, lies the doesoen Sigoering. Wading across the river, you find on the right
bank, on a mound under a shed, a pentagonal stone which is the object of veneration from
the side of the natives (111. 129). On this stone lie several smaller stones, two of which
very clearly had the form of arcs of a circle. We had already seen such small stones shaped
in a bow in the sanctuary of Kosala in West Java (111. 202) where they served to keep a
stone ball (batoe pelor) in its place. We made enquiries as to whether a similar ball
had originally stood on the stone at Sigoering and learned that formerly three quot;pelorquot;
had really stood there. (See further page 62.) The stone is called quot;batoe lebarquot;, which
signifies quot;broad stonequot;.

From Tjoeroep we proceeded via Loeboeklinggau to Soeroelangoen, the capital of
the sub-district Rawas (district Palembang Lowlands). In the Rawas neighbourhood, we
found no remains of any importance. The village name Lesoengbatoe does again occur
here but we found no stone mortars. Another doesoen has the name of Batoegadjah,
but this name is derived from a natural rock in the River Rawas, which in shape somewhat
resembles an elephant.

To the North of Moeararoepit and West of Soeroelangoen lies a small lake, Danau
Raja, where a stone was reputed to stand to which offerings were brought. We proceeded
there, with the quot;Controleurquot; of Soeroelangoen, but found only several natural stones.

Soeroelangoen, which is situated close to the frontiers of Djambi, was the most northerly
point reached by us in the course of our investigations. We would gladly have gone on
to Djambi to examine the stone images there, mentioned by Boers but lack of time
compelled us to turn back here.

The shortest way back to Lahat runs over Loeboeklinggau, Moearabeliti, Tebing-
tinggi and Boengamas; along the North-East side, thus, of the Goemai Mountains and

through the Kikim district. We paid short visits to all those places, but neither personally
nor through the mediation of the various Government officials, who were always most
willing to help us by obtaining information from the native chiefs, did we succeed in
finding megalithic remains.

In Moearabeliti, in the compound of the quot;Gontroleurquot; there stands an image,
found at Moearaklingi, at the junction of the Soengei Klingi and the Air Moesi. On the
same spot, situated or the left bank of the river, the remains of a tjandi (temple) were
found, while not so long ago, on the right bank, an ancient enclosing wall was discovered.
The image is not of the South Sumatra type but is Buddhistic. The countenance is com-
pleted, but of the remainder only the rough outlines are given. The position of the
hands is probably the quot;witarka-moedraquot; (attitude of reasoning)

Near Boengamas is the place where the brothers Sarasin described a workshop for
making stone implements. \'\') This spot was declared by the Government a reservate
but this regulation seems to have been forgotten and the new railway line from Lahat to
Tebingtinggi runs in a deep cutting through a corner of the reservate. A considerable
part, however, is still intact so that the damage done may not prove so great.

Let us now return to the neighbourhood of Pageralam and follow the side-road
leading to Tandjoengsakti, which strikes off the main road near Kilometre-stone 290.

OEDJANMAS, (See Map X). Skirting the doesoens Djambatakar baroe and lama,
we arrive in Oedjanmas, which is indicated on the ordnance map 1 : 100.000 under its
former name of Loeboektandjoeng. In the middle of the doesoen a stone-cist grave must
formerly have lain, similar to several which we shall presently meet with. It has unfor-
tunately been demolished by the population. The coping stones, the remains of which
are still to be seen in the village, have partly been broken up and utilised for various
purposes. The walls must still be standing in the ground and the longitude axis is roughly
East-West. Another stone cist grave was found here by Mr. de Bie (see page 52).

Just to the West of Oedjanmas a culvert bears the inscription: Siring Tandjoeng
Tjermin. This siring (irrigation canal for the rice fields) runs to the doesoen of the same
name and there falls into a tributary of the Selangis.

(1)nbsp;(111. 134.) In the sawah to the South-East of the culvert, lies an irregularly
shaped and unhewn stone block in which a hollow has been scooped out, resembling those
in the numerous lesoengbatoe, but a little larger than usual. The interior of this hollow
is fairly smooth. Evidently we have here the most primitive form of lesoengbatoe.

(2)nbsp;(111. 135.) South-West of the culvert lies in pother sawah a lesoengbatoe of
the usual type, in a bad state of preservation. It contains one hole.

(3)nbsp;(111. 136.) Near the just-mentioned lesoengbatoe stand three upright stones.

(4)nbsp;In the same sawah lie the remains of a broken lesoengbatoe with at least four
holes.

(5)nbsp;On the other side of the path, to the North-West of the culvert, a group of four
stones forming an irregular circle. They do not stand upright and have possibly collapsed.

Following the path farther in the direction of Tandjoengsakti, we come first to a
side-path on the right, the entrance (simpang) to the doesoen Tegoerwangi Baroe or Soso-
kan Tegoerwangi. A bridge leads farther over the Air Batoenipih, one of the many small

streams which have their source in the ravines of the Dempo. A little farther we come to
a small bridge, through which a rivulet passes, to which officially the name of Air Garamat
is given, but which is called Siring Agong by the inhabitants. The following bridge leads
over the Air Loeankering, indicated on the ordnance map 1 : 100.000 as the Air Selangis.
It is really the upper course of the Selangis but the inhabitants do not know this part of

Between the bridge over the Air Garamat and the bridge over the Loeangkermg, the
road runs through sawahs. These fields contain many remains and are for us of the greatest
importance. We have made a map of the locality on a scale of 1 : 2000 and on this map
indicated the various remains. (Map XI).

TEGOERWANGL The monuments lying round here may be classified as
follows, (a) numerous upright stones, quot;menhirsquot; if you will; (b) a group of four such
stones; (c) several dolmens; (d) a group of four images and (e) various stone-cist graves.

(1)nbsp;The upright stones or quot;menhirsquot; occur in the sawahs, both to the North and
South of the road. We have given several of these in 111. 137 and 138. Several of these stones
are of a height of 1.50 M. Many of the stones in these sawahs do not stand upright. A
remarkable thing is that along the Siring Agong, near 1 on the map, a number of these
immense blocks lie in a row. Whether this is the work of human hands cannot be said
with absolute certainty.

(2)nbsp;(111. 139 and 153.) On the map near 2, is a group of four upright stones. They
stand in a rectangle of fully 3 by 4 metres. The long sides lie East 20 degrees North.
They are about 1.40 M. high.

(3)nbsp;At 3 on the map is a dolmen, consisting of a flat coping stone and several small
stones, the latter having almost completely sunk into the ground.

(4)nbsp;(111. 140.) At 4 a dolmen like that at 3. The supporting stones, with one excep-
tion, have sunk into the ground; the coping-stone, however, still lies just above the ground,
so that on one side there is a small space between.

(5)nbsp;(111. 141). Of this dolmen, half of the coping-stone, which is almost round,
lies under the surface of the sawah; the supporting stones have sunk quite under the
surface. Owing to the fact, however, that the trench of the road skirts it, the whole of the
coping stone, with two of the supporting stones have come into view. This dolmen justi-
fies the supposition that more of the large stones in the sawah, all indicated on the map,
must be regarded as sunken dolmen.

(6)nbsp;(111. 142—145). The dolmen No. 6 consisted of four supporting stones and
a coping-stone. The four supporting stones stood close together, forming an irregular
square. The coping-stone had glided a little down off the supporting stones to the South,
so that the supporting stones S 2 and S 3 stood free. Further, from the copingstone D,

a piece D 1 had been broken off. The supporting stone S 2 was the highest, viz. 90 c.M.
S 3 was somewhat lower; S 4 still lower; while S 1 protruded only 20 c.M. above the
ground. S 1 has probably subsided and caused the coping-stone to glide down. In any
case the two southerly supporting stones have been lower than the two northerly. The
southern half of the coping-stone, however, was thicker than the northern half, as is
apparent from photo 141 and section 145, so that the flat upper surface of the coping-
stone must originally have formed a fairly horizontal table.

What has already been said concerning other dolmens applies also to this one, viz.
that the stones did not really form an enclosed chamber, so that burial within the dolmen
could not have been the object. To convince ourselves as to whether burial had taken
place under the dolmen, we demolished it with the consent of the Government
Archaeological Service and proceeded to excavate the ground on which it had stood.
The excavation is marked on the drawing with a line of crosses.

In the pit thus made, we found first a 40 c.M. layer of sawah soil of a dark grey colour,
under which was more brown-coloured clay. Beneath where the supporting stones had
stood we did, indeed, find some stones but no stone-bed proper, such as occurs, for
example, in the case of thequot;hunnebeddenquot; in Netherland. At a depth of 60 to 80 c.M.
lay many yellowish stones, partly cleaving together in a compact mass. At a depth of
1 M. to 1.20 we struck a layer of black or brownish stones, partly loose in the clay and
partly — in the southern part of the pit — forming a coherent mass. In view of the fact
that this darker layer of stones gave the impression of not having been disturbed and
of occupying its in situ position, we proceeded no farther with the work of excavation.

Traces of a burial were not found. The dolmen was not restored and the stones
now lie around figure 6 marked on the map. (See further appendix).

(7)nbsp;A low dolmen, the supporting stones of which have sunk almost entirely into
the ground, while the coping-stone forms a flat stone table.

(8)nbsp;A group of four images in a row, marked A to D running from North to South
(111. 147 to 152) 4. These images formerly lay in the shallow ravine of the Sirmg Agong.
quot;Controleurquot; Junius had them removed from there and placed on the edge of the
ravine, which has since then further crumbled away so that the danger-exists of Image A

There are stories of more of such images lying in this vicmity — some put the number
at eight. A coolie who had formerly assisted in the work of transportmg the images gave
the number as five. No one, however, was able to indicate more than the four mentioned
above. Wading in the Siring Agong we made a search both up and down stream but

The four images are similar and apparently form a set. They represent a human
figure on an elephant but the animal is only clearly visible m case of Image 13. On Image
one can discern the left hand of the man grasping the trunk of the elephant, which is
curled back. One sees this less clearly on the photograph. .nbsp;^nbsp;,

All four images are very roughly executed. Head-wear is lacking. The features show

a) Westenenk.c. Ill 22; Forbes, page 201; quot;Oudheidkundig Verslagquot; 1930, page 151.

large, round, bulging eyes; a very short and broad nose with a deep fold over the base;
a broad mouth with very thick lips. At the corners of the mouth, the lips are as thick as
in the middle. Pronounced cheekbones and a broad lower-jaw. The faces are short and
broad, with a low forehead. The ear-lobes are large; the ear-drops clearly visible in
the case of C. In the case of B the bracelets are well preserved. The height of the
respective images is as follows: A 1.35 M.; B 1.35 M.; G1.50M.; and D 1.60 M.
We ought to mention, however, that the images have sunk partly into the ground so that
originally they may all have been of the same height.

A remarkable thing is that the images are not only similar as regards the general
form but that all four have, at the back of the head, a sort of pillar-shaped, unworked
extension which projects above the head. The back of each image also has been left
unworked and contains a deep groove which runs from the top till near the bottom.
Only in the case of C does this groove run right to the ground. With all four this groove
is widest and deepest at the top, becoming narrower and more shallow as it progresses
downwards.

In the siring lie the fragments of a large, flat stone plate of uniform thickness (111.
146). One can perceive that the sides have been hewn straight. Close by lies a piece of
stone in the shape of the letter L, the whole of which has been dressed and which is
provided with a species of notch (see 111. 154). It may be the remains of a cornice or of
a basement.

In view of the fact that the images, the plate and the stone shaped like an L, were
all found close together, it is natural to assume they formerly formed part of one monu-
ment. The images with their unworked backs with the groove give the strong impression
of having stood at the four corners of this monument. Extensive excavation work might
bring more fragments to light and solve the riddle (see also Chapter VI).

These images have already been mentioned by Forbes. He writes with regard to
them : quot;Some of the most interesting objects in the Pasemah Lands are the sculptured
quot;figures found in so many parts of it. The greater number of these are so broken and
quot;defaced that no satisfactory result can come from their examination. They have been
quot;ascribed to Hindoo origin by at least one writer. Hearing that there existed two of
quot;these \'men turned to stone\' at Tangerwangi not far from my camp, I paid them
a visit. I found them to be immense blocks of stone, in excellent preservation, which
could certainly never have been seen by the writer to whom I refer. They are
carved into the likeness of the human figure, in a posture between sitting and
quot;kneeling, but which it is not quite easy to make out from the way in which the
quot;stones are lying. Besides the two of which I had heard, I discovered, by clearing the
quot;forest, a third and then a fourth, both prostrate on the ground in such a way as to indicate
quot;that they probably fell from the result of earthquakes or by stones ejected from the
quot;volcano at whose base they had stood. Each figure has a groove down the back and
quot;they had apparently stood on a flat pedestal, with their backs towards one centre, with
quot;their faces more or less accurately to the cardinal points of the compass. The features
quot;of all four are of the same type of countenance; but the race now living in this region

quot;did not form that model and it is equally beyond question that Hindoo features are
quot;not represented.quot;

quot;Controleurquot; Junius fished the images out of the shallow ravine of the Siring
Agong. According to Forbes\' description they were not lying in his time in a ravine
but together in the forest. It is highly probable, therefore, that the ravine originated
later. The name suggests this, for quot;siringquot; means an irrigation canal so that here we are
probably dealing with a small stream the course of which has been diverted on behalf
of the rice culture.

(9)nbsp;The trenches or quot;siringsquot; to the right and left of the road have incidentally
brought to light five stone-cist graves. The fact alone that the road touches as many as
five such tombs justifies the supposition that many more lie scattered in the vicinity.
We shall deal with these cists — as far as they are exposed — successively. No. 9 is
a coffin which at an earlier period was opened and emptied by quot;Controleurquot; Baten-
burg. In it were found the point of a lance, made of iron and much decayed, and yellow
beads. The remains of the tomb were shown to me. They lie now under the berm
of the road and are partly washed by the water of the siring.

(10)nbsp;(111. 155). Of this stone coffin parts of the covering slab and a small portion
of the southerly long side could be seen in the siring. They were found by one of the
coolies. The berm of the road had been encroached upon to the extent seen in the photo-
graph. In view of the fact that the easterly, short side of the coffin was wholly or partly
absent, we took no steps to open it.

(11)nbsp;(111. 156 to 167.) As regards construction, this was the finest and at the
same time, the largest stone cist, that we found. It lies under the sawah on the south side
of the road. Clearing away the plants a little we could see the points of two covering-slabs,
the upper edge of the northerly side and a small corner of the two short sides (111. 156).
The siring was drained and the sawah partly cleared away, after which the upper part

The cover was now seen to consist of two large stone plates 1 and 2, ot which 1
was more than 2.50 M. long. Further, there was a smaller, square covering stone, No.
3. whilst at (4) a part of the cover was wanting. The openings between the covering
stones themselves and between the covering stones and the walls had been closed with

The covering-slabs were raised by means of autocrics and pushed up the bank oyer
balks of wood. The upper sides of the walls now stood open. After the coffin was emptied
— of which more presently - the construction could be examined and drawings
made (111 162_164)

. The longitudinal axis of all stone-cists which we found ran roughly East-West;
in this special case East 8 degrees North. Both the long walls consisted of two large
slabs, the North wall of Nos. 5 and 6; the South wall of 13 and 14.

, «) According to a verbal statement made by Mr. Batenburg to Professor van Eerde. We met coolies, formerly employed
y Mr. Batenburg, and they confirmed this statement.

The West wall consisted of a single large stone, No. 15. The East wall was more
complicated (111. 159, 162, 163). It consisted of a large, rectangular threshold stone,
running from the North to the South wall and reaching halfway the height of the cist.
The under-part of stone No. 6 of the North wall had been somewhat dressed so that
it fitted over the extremity of the threshold stone. Above the threshold stone, the East
wall consisted of an immovable part and a quot;doorquot;. The immovable portion was com-
posed of a small stone plate. No. 10, held fast between a sort of buttress No. 9, a small
stone No. 11 and a side-piece No. 12. The remainder of the East wall was closed by the
quot;doorquot;, a thin slab No. 8 which stood quite loose, only leaning against the covering-stone
No. 1. The buttress 9 and the projecting part of the sidewall 6 formed a sort of small
portico without a roof.

The bottom, which sloped a little down from East to West, consisted of three plates,
16, 17 and 18. The interior measurements of the coffin were: 2.35 M. long, 1.37 broad
and 1.30 high. The upper side of the covering-stone 1 lay only 25 c.M. below the present
surface of the sawah.

The whole bore witness to having been constructed with great care. The stone
slabs of fairly uniform thickness probably have been shaped into this form by heating
and sudden coorling (Chapter XI). The edges have certainly been touched up. This is
evident, for example, in case of the threshold-stone and the stone No. 6 fitting into it.
All the openings between the large stones are carefully stopped up with small stones.

The cist was filled with earth from top to bottom. The work of emptying it was
performed exclusively by the writer, assisted by Mr. Beer, of the Bataafsche Petroleum
Maatschappij and Mrs. Surbek of Pageralam. Coolies were not employed in this part of
the work. We will here express our best thanks to Mr. Beer and Mrs. Surbek who for
weeks on end rendered us their assistance in the strenuous and tiresome work.

As we were quite ignorant with regard to the height in the cist at which our first
findings might be situated, we went to work with the greatest circumspection, even with
the top layer. With wooden spoons and pieces of bamboo, the earth was scraped out,
layer after layer. Every spoonful of earth was crumbled with the fingers and carefully
examined. The following came to light:

The water of the siring which flowed past the coffin could penetrate into it through
the place where a covering-stone was wanting, (indicated on the drawing with the figure
4) and through several smaller openings. According to the inhabitants, this siring is no
more than 15 years old but even before it originated, ground water must have penetrated
the coffin through the small openings. The contents of the coffin consisted of alternate
layers of gray sawah earth and coarser sand. The latter was in parts red in colour and
somewhat compact, especially at greater depth. After drying, this substance became more
brown in colour and extremely brittle. The layers were not horizontal but formed, as
it were, small deltas with the large opening in the covering and the various small holes
as bases. Several stones had also entered by the large opening. The lowest 20 c.M. formed
no strata and was probably not deposited by the siring but had come there at an earlier
period. Only this bottom layer contained the findings which we shall describe.

These findings, all of which lay on or just above the stone bottom, were as follows
(see 111. 171 and 172):

28 flat beads of the same colour (No. 2 and 3). The beads numbered 1, 2 and 3
lay together in a group, indicated on the ground-plan with I.

1 gold nail in the form of a drawing-pin, with a round head and blunt point lav
among the beads mentioned above, (111. 172, No. 9).

1 green, transparent bead in the form of two hexagonal pyramids, with the bases
agamst each other and with the tops lopped off. (No. 7 on 111. 171. No. II on plan.)

1nbsp;yellowish-grey bead of glassy material (No. 8; lay near III) and also small pieces
of a second and similar bead.

2nbsp;dark-blue beads (No. 9; lay near IV) and pieces of a third and similar bead.

63 small beads (No. 4, 5 and 6), colour: stone-red and various tints of ochre-yellow.
Several were of cylindrical shape, some round, some in the form of disks or rings; the
smallest was no more than one millimetre long and broad. These beads lay together in
a group, near VI.

To our great disappointment, no trace of any human bones, not even teeth, were found.
There were also no discolourments which might have served to indicate the position of the
bodies. The nature of the dark, muddy earth did not, in any case, readily lend itself to that.

The findings were presented to the Museum at Batavia, except for a few beads which
were put apart for a mineralogical examination.

Stone No. 13 contained an engraved drawing, which consisted of a chessboard pattern
of horizontal and vertical lines, containing an intricate figure, the significance of which
we could not guess. We made a tracing of it, which we give in reduced size in 111. 165.

On the large stone No. 15, which formed the East wall, several horizontal and vertical
lines were also engraved. Further a drawing in colour was found on this stone. The out-
lines were given in white lines and the sections were coloured stone-red, black and ochre-
yellow. On the photographic reproduction (111. 160), only the white lines are visible.
The light contrasts between the other colours themselves, only vaguely visible and between
those colours and the natural stone, are too weak to come out on a photo. We made a
tracing of it, therefore, transferred it to brown drawing-paper and copied the colours
With pastel. We give a reduced reproduction in 111. 167.

Unfortunately a great part of the drawing is effaced and from what remains it is
very difficult to make out the meaning of the whole. We made a separate copy of the
white lines and attempted, by filling them in with stipple lines to partly reconstruct it
(111. 166). Thus, the small circle at 1 was conceived as an eye, the small line at 2, as the
under part of a nose, 3 as a mouth, 4 as an ear with distended, round ear-lobes, 5 as the
back of a helm, 6 as the chin, 7 as the shoulder with, at 8, the upper arm. It is possible
^ conceive this part of the engraving as a head of the same type as occurs in the images.
Even if this interpretation were correct, however, the rest of the engraving remains obscure.
The large curve at 9 resembles somewhat the trunk of an elephant; the small figure in
^e form of a leaf at 10, suggests the right ear of the elephant of the image Pageralam
No. 10 (see 111. 77), but this quot;earquot; would be placed quite wrongly in respect to the trunk,
fhe three curves at 11 remind one of three fingers as these appear in the image just men-
tioned. It is impossible from all this, however, to arrive at a consistent whole.

It would be better, perhaps, to consider the curve 9 as the horn of a buffalo of which
10 would then constitute the ear. With respect to the horn, the ear would then be pro-
perly placed and the broad white band 12 would then be a band round the neck of the
animal. We might then further imagine that the man has thrown his right arm around
the neck of the buffalo and that the fingers of this right hand again appear at 11. We would
then have the same motive as is present in the image Pageralam 2. ^nbsp;^

This reconstruction, however, demands considerable imagination while a part of
the drawing would still remain obscure. We present it, however, in lieu of a better one.
It is to be hoped that more of these drawings will come to light. Interpretation might
then be possible by comparison.

In addition to this drawing, remains of others in the same colours were found on
other stones; on stone 14 of the south wall, a few circles and curved lines were visible;
on stone 5 of the North wall, some white lines and other traces of colour; on stone 6 of
the same wall, red stains in the form of circle segments.

In the earth within the cists various stones were found of a soft, red material. Rubbing
these over the stones of the coffin, we obtained the same colour as occurs on the drawings.
Very probably this material served to execute the drawings.

After the examination, the coffin was refilled with earth. If we had not done so, the
siring would have filled it with mud. Moreover, we feared that some of the stones would
subside inwards if the coffin remained empty. Afterwards the covering-stones 1, 2 and 3
were replaced in their original position.

The usufructuary of the sawah was Hadji Kiadjir Djalam of Pagerdin. He received
compensation and, in presence of the quot;Gontroleurquot; of Pageralam and of the Pasirah
of Boemiagoeng, engaged not to restore the excavated part of the sawah, so that the stone
cist continues to lie exposed.

(12) About 40 M. to the East of the stone cist just described, and at the bottom of
the same siring, there was visible a part of the upper side of two flat stones, which also
suggested the covering-stones of a cist. Excavation proved that our supposition was
correct and revealed the stone cist No. 12. As the map shows, this lay only 7 M. from dolmen
No. 4 and 9 M. from dolmen No. 6 (111. 168—170).

The cover of the cist consisted of three large stones and a few of smaller size and
was still quite closed. For the rest, the construction was the same as that described above;
a threshold-stone, however, was absent and there was no door proper. It is possible that
the smallest stone of the west wall served as a door but this was by no means clear. The
cist was also somewhat smaller than No. 11; interior 2 M. long and 1.20 broad. The North
wall consisted of two slabs, the East wall of one slab, the south wall of one large slab
against the outside of which two smaller stones were leaning. The West wall consisted
of a large thick stone and a smaller and thinner slab. The latter was perhaps used as door.
The floor of the coffin consisted of one large plate which covered the whole length of the
coffin, while the corners were filled up with smaller pieces. The axis of longitude was
here also roughly East-West, viz. East 17.5 degrees North.

In view of the experience gained with the former coffin and the knowledge that the
findings were exclusively restricted to the lowermost layer, the upper layers of the earth
which entirely filled the coffin were removed more rapidly than on the former occasion.

The distinct stratification of coffin No. 11 was not found in No. 12. This must pro-
bably be ascribed to the fact that this coffin was not lying in the siring but in the ground
under it. It was also well closed so that it was more difficult for the water of the siring to
enter it. The whole coffin was filled with a uniform mass of clay. The findings were situated
on the bottom and in the earth just above it, to a height of about 30 c.M. Most were found
within 10 c.M. from the bottom. These findings were:

1 ochre-yellow bead No. 11, with distinct lines running in the direction in which
it was pierced.

1 similar bead, but more flat and more orange-red, with lines running in the direc-
tion of the piercing; No. 13.

1372 small beads of the Nos. 19 to 27. The most were ochre-yellow; a few very
pale, nearly white; some red. In case of a few, lines again ran in the direction of the piercing.
The smallest of these beads had a diameter of 1 millimetre, while the length in the direction
of the piercing was a half millimetre. The excavation of these tiny articles was a real work
of patience.

5 light-bluish-green beads, No. 17 and numerous fragments of the same; these
beads were very brittle and in an advanced state of decay, so much so that during the
work of excavation they frequently crumbled into pieces.

1 dark-blue bead. No. 18, of the same sort as No. 9 from coffin 11, but badly
damaged.

The beads were spread uniformly through the whole coffin so that the places are not
specially marked on the ground-plan.

1 small bronze plate. 111. 172, No. 1, (marked I on the ground-plan. 111. 170). It
shows decorative work consisting of two sets of two curves, between which runs a row of
small hemispherical nobs. In addition to this row, there are a few other uneven marks
which possibly must also be regarded as similar nobs. These nobs seem to have been
enibossed in the bronze for they correspond with round pits at the back side of the 1 m.M.
thick and badly decayed plate. The curved lines, on the other hand, look like laid-up work.
Those uppermost on the drawing project a little over the plate. To the right and left
of the undermost curves, are two triangular holes and also in the border of the plate,
to the right of the uppermost lines, a part of a similar hole is visible.

Numerous very thin bronze fragments (4 of which are shown at No. 7). One of the
fragments shows some decorative work, consisting of two small nobs. These fragments
lay spread throughout the whole cist.

4 small bronze objects, of spiral form. No. 2, 3, 4 and 5 (near II, III, IV and V
^respectively on the plan) ornamented with small buttons. On No. 4 there was also a
sinall ring.

3nbsp;small fragments, which had formed parts of similar objects (near VI). Fragment
No. 8, found in coffin No. 11, is probably of the same sort.

8 fragments of coarse earthenware, three of which lay together at VII; the others

were scattered through the cist. The largest measured 3.7 by 2.25 c.M. All the pieces were
about 3 to 5 m.M. thick. Several appeared to be burnt black; one had an upright border,
while several small parallel lines seemed to have been made on another.

There were no coloured drawings on this cist. On the central covering-stone, how-
ever, a line had been engraved in the form of a large 8, close to which were a number of
horizontal and vertical lines, resembling a section of a chessboard.

After the examination, the coffin was again filled with earth and closed. In view of
the fact that the embankment was partly excavated, it was not possible to leave the tomb
exposed; it was for the most part covered again with earth. We will deal with the contents
of the stone-cists more exhaustively in Chapter XI.

(13)nbsp;Obliquely opposite to the former stone cist lay the remains of another one.
No. 13, in the northerly siring; of this cist, two pieces of the side-walls, one covering-stone
and a piece of the westerly short wall were still visible. This coffin must have been smaller
than the others. It was not possible to determine exactly the axis of longitude but it must
have run roughly East-West (111. 173).

(14)nbsp;Before leaving this neighbourhood near Tegoerwangi, which offers so rich a
field for the investigator, we shall first call attention to the stone, seen in III 174. It lies
to the East of the four images. It forms an enormous block of stone, against which, on
the West side, three smaller blocks are lying. On the East side also, a smaller stone lies
beside it on the ground. It is doubtful if this is a dolmen. It is hardly conceivable that
the megalith builders could have raised this gigantic block which must weigh some
twenty to thirty tons. At the same time, it must not be forgotten that the coping-stone
of the great dolmen Tandjoengara 5, could not have weighed very much less.

After our departure from Sumatra, another stone cist was discovered by Mr. C. W.
P. de Bie. This coffin lay at the side of a freshly dug fish-pond, behind the doesoen
Oedjanmas, mentioned above (page 43). Unfortunately the coffin has been broken up
by the inhabitants who utilized the stones for their own ends. Before its destruction,
however, an accurate drawing was made by Mr. de Bie, who also examined the contents.
He was kind enough to inform us of his findings, and to place his sketches at our disposal
(111. 175 and 176), for which we express here our best thanks.

In 111. 175, one sees at a the upper side of the covering-stones; at b one of the
short sides in which a door has been made; c is the ground-plan of the coffin, on which
d indicates the place where Mr. de Bie found a bronze plate; e represents another short
wall. The floor consisted of small stone plates.

The bronze plate is represented separately in 111. 176. It was rectangular in form;
somewhat round in the middle. On one of the short sides, the border was bent back.
The plate was thicker in the centre than at the ends, as can be seen in section b. The
bronze was badly decayed. As to the bearings of the coffin, these are unkwown to us.

On the short route from Pageralam to Tangjoengsakti we have described 9 stone
cists, viz. 2 at Oedjanmas, 5 near Tegoerwangi and 2 at Tjawang (see further). Consid-
ering that our cursory search resulted in the discovery of so many of these graves,
the hope seems well grounded that a systematic excavation on a larger scale would lead

to much greater results. It is to be hoped, however, that the material will not be spoilt
by amateurs who have too little time and too little knowledge to do it justice.

Opposite Tegoerwangi, on the right bank of the Air Selangis, lies the hill Boekit
Kajoemanis. According to reports there stands here a „batoe balaiquot;, a stone in the form
of a house. It turned out, however, to be nothing more than a large, somewhat over-
hanging natural block of stone.

The road Pageralam—Tandjoengsakti skirts farther the doesoens Pagerdin and
Boemiagoeng. From the last-mentioned doesoen, a side-path leads to the estate of Tand-
joengkeling. From this side-path again, a footpath leads to the doesoen Tjawang.

- TJAWANG* (1) In this doesoen a stone cist was formerly found. Westenenk
gives us a photo of it, with the following description: quot;An excellently preserved
quot;grave at Tjawang, 4 K.M. from Boemiagoeng. It is called by the inhabitants \'Kloat
quot;Sang Adji\', and according to them is a cave where a chief of the Pasemah\'s concealed
quot;himself from the Hindoos. The grave is fully 2 M. long and 1.30 broad, while the height
quot;of the upright stones is 1.20 M. The very regularly placed stones are on an average
quot;25 c.M. broad and on the inside smoothly dressed. In the entrance lies a threshold.
quot;The enclosed space was covered with three large, thin, stone plates. Fifteen years ago,
quot;a house stood on the top. The inhabitants of the house were always ill but did not
quot;know that the hollow sounding stones between the piles of their dwelling concealed
quot;the secret of all their misery until an expert constated the presence of a quot;Kloatquot;, upon
quot;which the house was taken to pieces and transferrred elsewhere. So runs the tale at
Ijawang .

In Van Ronkel\'s dictionary, the word quot;kloatquot; is spelt quot;keloeatquot; or quot;chalwatquot; and
signifies quot;seclusionquot;, quot;solitaryquot;; quot;berchalwatquot;, to seek seclusion for religious exercises.
We were struck by the fact that during the excavation of the coffins Tegoerwangi 11
and 12, the

population referred to them as quot;keloeatquot;. The people generally did not
regard them as graves. Some people thought that the stones formerly must have been
of wood which had later become petrified.

The cist described by Westenenk was still there and recognizable, though for the
greater part it had again subsided under the ground; only the three covering-stones were
above the surface. The direction of the axis of longitude, as far as that was measurable,
was East 23 degrees North; the door faced the East.

(2) (111. 177.) In the middle of the doesoen we found still the remains of a small
stone coffin, the interior of which was 200 by 55 centimetres large. The covering-stones
were wanting. A large, flat stone lay beside it — it is visible on the photo. The axis
was directed East, 22 degrees North.

(3) (111. 178 and 179.) About one kilometre to the South-East of the doesoen,
the direction of the estate Tandjoengkeling, there further lies an image which has
en over and which represents a squatting figure with something in front of it which

i, difficult to recomize. The head is wanting. Over the right shoulder one can distinctly
see a beh froTXch something hangs over the back of the man, which m itself would
be difficult tHecognize but which, comparing it with the Batoegadjah, appears to be

GOENOENGAGOENG. The road after Boemiagoeng skirts Goenoengagoeiip
From hefe t^d ft%ath ascends to the top of the Dempo, This footpath was generally
folWed L former tim\'es when the automobile road from \'^e -täte Goenoeng Dem^^
did not yet exist. The inhabitants of the doesoen still generally follow this road when

of ?he images Tegoerwangi 8. Like those images it has also a groove down the back, ihe
Ine is further so defaced and decayed that a form is nonbsp;~

in the West. This watershed forms the boundary between the Residencies of Palembang
and Benkoelen.

TANDTOENGSAKTL From the watershed which lies about 1200 M. high, the
winding road falls steeply downwards 700 M., through magificent scenery along the
7per CO-- of the Air\'^nna, in the direction of Tandjoengsakti.nbsp;- ^^^^^^^^^

bLin-shaped valley in the centre of the Barisan. A Mission has been established here
for « but it makes very few.converts amongst the —n ^
for the greater part are inclined to animism in thought and only in the last few years
have accepted a superficial Mohammedanism.

(1) Entering Tandjoengsakti from the direction of Pageralam, one sees a school
on th leffhand\'side of^he\'road. Opposite this school there is a k-Pon^
in a small coffee plantation behind this house there stands a group «f upnght ston^
(111. 181 and 182). These stones form a small stone avenue (see also Chap fr ^
stand in a square of about 7.50 by 7.50 M. in two rows of three. These rows face North

with an A, the inhabitants regularly bring offerings and swear oaths. The more M^am

medan inclined amongst them lay the Koran on the stone during the ceremony. When

one considers that also the Arabs, before Mohammed\'s time, were acquainted with

stone worship, one understands that here also applies the saying: Lt 1 on revient

(2) (111. 180.) In the doesoen of Goenoengkerto near Tandjoengsakti lie several
large stones. One is a very distinct dolmen and several of the others very probably so.

We heard a rumour that there were other images at Karangagoeng, near Simpangtiga,
in the neighbourhood of Tandjoengsakti, but we could obtain no further confirmation.

Further in the Barisan, about 3 K.M. from Tandjoengsakti, there must be another
spot where the inhabitants worship and which is called Doesoen Sebasa or Doesoen
Silam. According to Van Ronkels\' dictionary, quot;silamquot; means quot;darkquot;, quot;absolute darkquot;
but it was explained to me here as meaning quot;disappeared without leaving a trace behindquot;.
The story goes that in this place a doesoen disappeared during a siege. We had no oppor-
tunity of visiting the place. It is possible, however, that it contains something worth
seeing.

At Tandjoengsakti we were obliged to finish our enquiry. Mr. B. van Duuren, who
was then quot;Controleurquot; of Manna was so obliging as to seek information from the native
chiefs in his sub-district. He drew our attention to the stone avenue Tandjoengsakti No. 1
but was unable to learn more concerning megalithic remains. From another quarter, how-
ever, we heard a report, concerning images of men and animals in stone in the neigh-
bourhood of Bintoehan on the West Coast, but the rumour was too vague to justify such
a long journey.

Here then, we will stop, as far as the road Pageralam—Tandjoengsakti is concerned.

quot;alsoThe ancient footpath leading from there to the Ranau Lake (\'\'quot;»S^^^XtU to ^
quot;at Paeer-Dewa near Moeara Doewa) was fairly sown with images and that to such

quot;of tL weather and the periodical grass fires of successive generations m the last tew
quot;ceiiuriro^^^nbsp;numbers of images and hundreds of fragments (especially

quot;nertTe^lhge oI Lk^boeli) are still found lying on the ground, justifying the sup-
quot;position that a closer enquiry would lead to the discove^ of many more )

V^estenenk was here perhaps a little too optimistic. He speaks °f
of images and hundreds of fragments, but he only mentions 30, counting images, troughs
and fragments together. He was right, however, in his assumption that many more awaited

w7also instituted a search along quot;the ancient footpathquot; (leading from the Eastern
part of the Pasemah) quot;to the Ranau Lakequot;. This old footpath - or one of them at leas -
must have run from Bandar through the Endikat Ravine, skirting »r ^
Kotaagoeng and Moearatiga (see page 24) and then further East over ^^e sa^d e betwe^
Boekit Soemoertinggi and the Boekit Pandan, to the Semendo Plateau in the Bmsan, farther
from there along fhe Air Enim and the Air Ogan t^BatoeradJa and the Ogan^^^^^^^^^
This road, which no longer branches off from the mam road at Bandar m the Pasemah

From the Semendo, footpaths run to Pagerdewa near Moearadoeakisam, ment^J«^
by Westenenk, from where a fairly good road goes to ^oearadoea on the Komen^
the capital of the sub-district Moearadoea. From this placenbsp;^^^^^

the natural communication between the above mentioned lake and the southern part ot

wquot;Sd Aetemendo Plateau several times but without results. Mr. M, F, Engek
the quot;Controleurquot; of Lematang-hilir (capital: Moearaenim), withm whose ^quot;quot;sdiction
the Semendo falls, and who was so kind as to seek information concerning \'^^s a^d
megaliths from the native chiefs, was unable to supply us with any data. Enquiries were
also made in the same direction by Messrs. Wenckebach and Dairanler of the Bataafsche
Petroleum Maatschappij, who regularly visited Semendo, but also without result.

BATOERADJA» (See Map I). In Batoeradja, the capital of the district Ogan and
Komering-hoeloe, a small image stands in the compound of the Assistant-Resident (111. 183).
It is extremely decayed and indistinct but appears to represent a squatting human figure. The
height is 50 c.M. At the bottom there is a hole of a diameter of 6 c.M. which apparently
served for a fastening pin. The place where this image was found is not exactly known.

An opinion prevailed that the place received its name (meaning Kings\'stone) from
the image, but this is inaccurate. Tombrink writes that the name is derived from a
natural block of rock in the river Ogan, which somewhat resembles a human figure and
this explanation was confirmed to me by the native population. «)

PAGERDEWA near MOEARADOEA KISAM. (See Map XII). (1) (111. 185.)
About 500 M. East of the doesoen, a very rough image lies on the northern berm of the
road to Moearadoea Komering. A human head with large ears may still be distinguished.
The face has almost disappeared. What the image represents is not clear but, from
its general form, which recalls the images Goenoengmegang 9 (page 38) and legoer-
wangi 8 A—D(page 45), it again suggests a human figure on an elephant. }

(2) (111. 186). A few metres distant from this image, in a sawah on the same side
of the road, there lies a dolmen, consisting of a large coping-stone (2.50 by 3.50 M.)
and under it two supporting stones, still clearly visible. The copmg-s one has shpped
down a little and partly subsided. One or two other stones will probably he in the ground

trip in this neighbourhood, to enquire for information with regard to such remains,
but heard of none, with the above-mentioned exception. We explored this part oi the
country twice, with the same result. That Westenenk speaks of tmages (m the plural)
near Pagerdewa may be explained by the fact that the populat^^n see an elephant m the
above-mentioned dolmen. They call it, indeed „batoegadjah .

The quot;Gontroleurquot;, however, of a local chief learned that near the ^oe^en ^
bangan, on the road from Moearadoea Kisam to Moearadoea Kommermg.
stood a circle of stones (cromlech), but this was cleared away when the road was constructed.

MOEARADOEA KOMERING. (See Map I). Apinst the house of t^e
leurquot; in this place, there stands a small image ^^ich strongly reca Is the ^^^^^
images of West Java (111. 184). It represents a human figure with
folded on the breast. The little image is much more primitive than ^^^
the Pasemah. It ends at the bottom with a pin which evidently served for the fastening.

RANAU LAKE, (See Map XIII). We remained some days ^^^^^^^^^^^
of this lake In our enquiry we were afforded much assistance by Mr. Cat, Head
Manager of the estate Sng Raja, who kindly acted as guide and interpreter.

Lfm to meanTo become petrified with terrorquot;. We were unable to discover if it really

RATOFBERAK. (See Map XIV). East-North-East of Liwah. you will find on the
ordnfntJS tK-n of PeUaiak. At present,
and it forms the capital of the marga of the same name. The

bank of the Wai Robok, a small river and one of the sources of the Wai bemangka.

rn In the doesoen there is a dolmen which is called Batoeberak It consists of a
flat cSing stonl 1 70 M^ng, resting on several smaller stones which, however, have

(2) In the doesoen there is further a smaller dolmen, the coping-stone of which
measures 1^0 M One supporting stone is still clearly vbible; the °ther hav^sunk in o
the ground. On the coping-stone are slits, as if stone implements had formerly been

a) Notulen Bataviaasch Genootschap 1885, page 13. 52. 92, 163; 1886. page 38, 65. Catalogus Groeneveldt No. 412 a

(3) Crossing the Wai Robok near this doesoen, you will find on the high left bank
a megalithic monument (IlL 189-193) consisting of a very fine quot;menhir (A), a dolmen (B)

In its present form the menhir A has evidently undergone some trimming ; i has a

rhomboid section, and is 1.45 M. high (111. 192). On the top stands a loose piece (11. 193)

which is 26 c.M. high. On its upper side it has been hollowed out m semi-circular form

rests on several small stones. The six which are visible are indicated on the ground-plan

while several more have probably sunk into the ground On the coping-stone there are

again several smooth, shallow slits as if they had been used for sharpening stone implements.

Against it stands the dead trunk of a quot;poedingquot; tree.nbsp;K„tf„rth^r

The upright stone C (to the extreme right m 111. 191) is one metre kgh but further

shows nothing remarkable. A, B and C lie in a line which runs roughly Northwest-

®°quot;\'Thfowner of the coffee plantation in which these stones stand recounted as follows
concerning them. According to him, the whole formed a place of ^-quot;fif?-her^^^^^^^^
four genemtions back, his own forefathers once a year sacrificed

of thf doesoen. The victim was placed with her back to the menhir. Jh^ ^roT
which crowned it represented a bride\'s crown. Death was inflicted by « the ~
The whole seemed to be a fertility-ritual. It often hapjened on the oc^
sacrifices elsewhere that the victim was regarded as a bride so that the brides cro™ is
quite consistent with the story. The stone, according to our
Kenjangan. Kenjangan is the old name of the marga and the race
seemed to have 4en called Boeai Kenjangan. The dolmen was said to have served as a seat
at those meetings and the knives to have been sharpened on the upright stone U

not far from here, on the upper course of the Semangka. At this lat er P\'^^®\'
negligence was committed of sacrificing a girl in the initial stage of struma and « punf-
ment, many women of Kenali have sufi\'ered from this sickness up to the present day ;

. Finally, we were informed that the dolmen can make a growhng noise. Jhis happen^^

once when a tree was uprooted and fell upon it. When the tree was removed, the sound

\'\'\'quot;The Pasirah of Liwah told us further that near Oemboelbalak, ^5 K.M. to the North
of Liwah, Westenenk had found a stone which contained writing. )
Further we will just mention the lizard stone at Antatai. We
few days in this neighbourhood. A lengthy and systematic search in this vicinity
^er-Semangka and the Belalau Plateau seems to us very desirable.

b)nbsp;For sound-uttering stones, see also Kruyt, loco citato.nbsp;u inrliiJ over 1912quot;. page 104 and plate XXII. According

c)nbsp;See ..Jaarverslag van den Topographischen ^\'enst in Nederl^^^^^^^nbsp;^ P^^ 7 K.M. from Negorobatm.
to this report this stone, called ..Batoetoehsquot; was found N. W. 1914 I page 4.

See also Westenenk.a. page 26; also „Oudheidkundig Verslag 1913 IV ^ge y^ annbsp;fnbsp;^^^ _

d)nbsp;Description and photo in .Jaarverslag van den Topographis^nbsp;^^ The accompanying
the situation of this ..Batoe Nagaquot; (lizard-stone) as Antatai. Marga boeo. near tria g

foto shows a well preserved doLen with a lizard, carved „en relief on the coping-stone.

In the Lampongs, we twice paid a short visit to Telok Betong and Tandjoeng Karang

We wrnotTcessful in obtLing any information there concermng images of the
^Xsumatra type, although Resident F. J. Junius, the same whonbsp;f

W^t Pageralam, had taken considerable pains to preserve the images in the Pasemah,

rnegtutfiic monument, which absolutely proves that megalith bmlders were also in the Lam-
S 111 193-195). n a coffee plantation here there is a genuine stone avenue consisting

Manager of the estate, who showed us the alignment, told us that the sort ot stone usea
L no\'tquot;urther%;rr in the neighbourhood. The distance between ^^
row is eenerally 2 to 4 metres whUst the distance between the four rows is b to S metres
The Kat ome stones have fallen a little out of the line and that -veral h-e c^
is easily explained by the circumstance that before the estate was opened up, this Part ot
the grouS 4s covered by forest. The power demonstrated by tropical trees m pushing

At the conclusion of this enumeration of the remains found, we will just refer to the
ima^rrepresented in 111. 197. It stands in the Museum at Batavia It shows a strong
^embW to ?he images Pageralam No, 1 (P^S^ 29. Ill- 64 and Padang
and 111 23). Posture, clothing and execution are absolutely the same The Head oi the
Antiqtrian Service iWormedls that this image - No. 471 of the Catalogue - was fou^^
in the Lampongs, although the exact place was not known. This isnbsp;^^^^^^^^^

any case this image proves that the image-sculpturmg people from the Pasemah have also

\'quot;quot;Ihere\'ii\'Smore evidence in support of this conclusion. We have already
ment^oS(p;ge 59) the Lizard stone at Antatai, discovered by the Topographical Service
Tnd referred fo by Westenenk. The works published Westenenk ^
also known to Jongejans «). He writes: quot;Some time ago, when I was able, through the
quot;good ofHces of the Resident of the Lampong Districts to peruse notes
quot;Bengkoeloe, I was struck by seeing that four princely children of

quot;kabau) were mentioned as the oldest \'pojangs\' of the population of ^ahk Boeta ^
quot;upper lands from where originate the paksi of Seman?ka) who, after having expel ed the
quot;original races, settled permanently: the first in Kenali, the second m Batoe Ber^, the
quot;thi^d in Kembahang and the fourth in Soekau. This agrees with what is mentioned in our
quot;document. They met there - says Westenenk - two races ; theToemi and the Boc^a
quot;(one thinks immediately of Buddha). Here also roamed Seroentmg Sakti, surnamed bi Pahit

quot;Lidah (Bitter Tongue) whose name still lives in the Lampongs He had the power to turn

quot;into stone whatever resisted him. Along the road leading to Semangka fo example,

quot; here iX so-called Batoe Kelasa. The writer calls atention to this road. Wei now, this

quot; road hL been extended and is comparatively easy to trace. Although the distinc ive mark^

quot;which remain are not so numerous as in Kroe, a few are^own and are even objects

quot;of veneraTon and fear for the inhabitants of Semangka The road does not terminate

quot;her™conti™es - always along the coast - to Telok Betong Kalianda, Sekampong

quot;aquot;d Toelanf Z^ng. In Semangka, I met with only three petrified objects which were
ana loeiang ijawiug.nbsp;snbsp;buffaloes on the shore,

quot;near the kampone Pakoe on the south part of the east strand. Bitter 1 ongue, theretore,

of inaking two trips to West J^f/^J\'^g^^^^^rS, physician at Batavia, who had
to the Polynesian imagesnbsp;there;^:;, ƒ\' ^isLd the res^^^ of his studies over the

Badoejs in his essay quot;Levende Aquot;tiqu^e ten m ^ Jja^nbsp;^^ ^^^ opportunity and
to accompany him on two occasions. We gladly iook au 5

of it will be found in the booklet —TCc^dves was made after his
therefore, to a few remarks. The drawing which Van i quot;^t gm^nbsp;^^^

open spaces in the very thick forest (quot;perken Van TncM ca^ ; Sometimes these
nection with each other and the floor of which is coverea wm

stones make the impression of being slightly dressed and fitted to each other. They form
also somewhat rectangular terraces, but these are by far not so finely and regularly built
as the drawing would lead one to suppose. Compare our 111. 198 with terrace No. 5 of
the drawing in question.

Van Tricht writes hereover: quot;The two just-mentioned sections of terrace No. 5
quot;have here and there sharply defined stone borders and heavy, square, cornerstones. These
I\'and the stone floors on terrace No. 4 remind one strongly of old foundations of buildings.
quot;One would have to assume, however, that the remainder had been made of wood or
quot;bamboo, as there are no remains of walls and no loose stones, etc. etc.quot; And further :
\'\'These (viz. the Karang-Badoejs), like the Kanekes, probably withdrew slowly from the
I\'North to the protecting mountains and finally were left at peace in the Taneuh Bongbang.
\'\'It is not impossible that the first \'trekkers\' lived in Kosala and that this may have some
\'Iconnection with the inexplicable stone floors. As already said, the theory is quite accep-
quot;table that these are the foundations of former wooden or bamboo houses.quot;

This theory of old house floors seems to us improbable. As far as we know, the floors
of houses in India, even when these are not built on piles, are not paved with such large
stones. Moreover, several of the quot;floorsquot; at Kosala are too small to have served for an
ordinary house.

It seems to us that another solution is possible. In 111. 4 and 5 we give a representation
of a spirit-house of the kind formerly common in all doesoens in the Pasemah. At present,
the influence of Islam, most of these have been demolished but one still meets
with them here and there. They are small houses, much smaller than the dwelling-houses
and they stand on four high piles. These piles are sometimes simply planted in the flat
ground in the village square. Sometimes also, as in the illustration we give, they stand
on a small terrace, consisting of earth in a small rectangular wall of unhewn stones. In
the doesoen of Perdipo, near the Lematang, we again found such a terrace and when
we enquired what it was, we were informed that here, in former days, a spirit-house
had stood.

Now, in the Pasemah, such small houses are called quot;roema dewaquot;, which means
quot;house of spiritsquot;, but sometimes they are also called quot;roema pojangquot;, that is, quot;house
of ancestorsquot;. It seems to us not impossible that the quot;floorsquot; in Kosala really constitute
in this sense the floors of the houses of the ancestors — not the houses of living ancestors
but of the souls of the ancestors. Our opinion found strong corroboration in an illustra-
tion given by Kubary of such spirit-houses on the Karolines. He gives a sketch of such
a quot;shrinequot;, which is strongly reminiscent of the „roema pojangquot; of the Pasemah, both
as regards shape and size. This small house also rests with four high piles on a small
rectangular stone floor and on this floor stand, as at Kosala, four upright, somewhat
sloping stone slabs.

Our photo (111. 199) shows the upright stone on terrace No. 3 on the drawing. One
can ^ainly see that the stone has been dressed and set on end.

Of the quot;batoe pelorquot; described by Van Tricht, we give an illustration (202). This

IS of importance in connection with the stone which we found near Tjoeroep in Sumatra
(Page 41 and 111. 129). There are also in Kosala stones on which lie more balls than
^e. In Kosala, the here represented (largest) quot;batoe pelorquot; has a diameter of 45 c.M
The pentagonal stone, on which the ball rests, has a greatest length of 1.25 M. One can
see clearly on the photograph the small, bow-shaped stones which prevented the ball
from rolling from its place. In the case of the stone at Tjoeroep, the ball, as already men-
tioned, was lacking, but the small bow-shaped stones constituted for us a distinctive mark.

Our illustration No. 200 gives a view of what Van Tricht indicates as terrace No. 3.\'
You see in the foreground, a flat stone, with several quot;batoe pelorquot; upon it; beside it
an upright stone, and in the background the upright stone shown in 111. 199.

Of great interest to us also is the group of four upright stones standing in a square
of about 2 metres, recalling as it does similar groups of stones in Sumatra (compare Chapter
IX). On our photograph (111. 201) the stone farthest back is rendered almost invisible
by the vegetation. Van Tricht describes these stones as standing on terrace No. 2.

Van Tricht further informs us that near Kosala, a short distance from the plots
( \'perkenquot;) or terraces, there stands a small image, a stone Artja (statue) and remarks
concerning it : quot;This Artja seems to be a Buddha image, executed with the very inferior
artistic workmanship of Padjadjaran. The face is badly damaged and looks to the South
East. The position of the hands does not represent a definite \'moedra\' — possibly an
attitude of penance (tapa). The soles of the feet are placed against each other, the points
quot;of the toes directed straight downwardsquot; (see our 111. 203).

LEBAK SIBEDOEG, In the booklet «) mentioned above, Van Tricht refers
^rther to the Lebak Sibedoeg, hitherto only known by the report of quot;Contrôleurquot;
Privé, b) We proceeded there together and found a very remarkable sanctuary of which
the description by Privé gives a not quite correct idea.

We have indicated the position of this sanctuary on Map XVI also. It was very
diincult to find the way, however, through this mountainous region covered with exuberant
vegetation. The ordnance map gives all the small rivers in stipple (thus unmeasured)
so that we cannot absolutely answer for the correctness of our map. In any case it is
quite certain that the sanctuary is situated on the right bank of the stream Tji Bedoeg,
a right-hand tributary of the Tjisaroea, which is itself a left-hand tributary of the Tjiara,
which flows into the ocean near the desa of the same name. We reached the sanctuary
Via the Goenoeng Bapang, indicated on the map, and the flat mountain top of about the
same height which is indicated — but not by name — on the ordnance map, about 1.5 K.M.
o the South-West of the first-named. As far as the orientation is concerned, therefore,
We cannot have gone very far wrong.

On the right bank of the small river that winds in a great bow around the South,
West and North sides of a hill about 20 M. high, we found first of all a large upright
stone (111. 207), 2 M. high, which the inhabitants referred to as quot;bedoegquot;, that is quot;drumquot;
^ which, as our coolies informed us, emitted sounds in the night of Thursday and Friday,
smaller stone lying beside it was pointed out to us as the drum-stick.

Climbing the hill, one finds various stone remains which formerly may have been
terraces. The eleven terraces of which Privé speaks, however, are difficult to distinguish.
We did find the entrance near the river but it is doubtful if this is the work of
human hands.

On the flat hill-top, however, which is covered with a thick bamboo wood, lie two
architectural constructions in a good state of preservation (see 111. 204). These consist
of (1) : a terrace, 14.5 by 8 M. large at the base ; the upright sides are built in two steps,
made of rough river stones, some of which might give the impression of having been
trimmed a little (see also 111. 206). (2) : a sort of stepped pyramid, with a front terrace.

The stepped pyramid consisted of four steps, each about 1.5 M. high, so that the
whole had a height of about 6 M. The front terrace faced the West ; on this front terrace
there lay again a fallen quot;menhirquot;, the length of which was 2.40 M. and the thickness 0.5 M.
The thickest end of this quot;menhirquot; still rested on a pedestal ofheaped-up river stones, the
square base of which had sides measuring 1.60 M. (111. 205).

Between the large flat terrace and the front terrace of the pyramid stands again a
group of four stones such as those found in Sumatra and near Kosala. In this instance, the
stones are rather thin and oblong in shape. The highest protrudes 1 M. above the ground ;
one of the four has collapsed. The sides of the square in which the stones stand, again
lie North-South and East-West and these sides measure about 2 M. (see 111. 206).

We had no time to take careful measurements of these architectural constructions.
For that it would, indeed, be desirable first to clear away the bamboo wood. The thick
vegetation also rendered it very difficult to take photographs. We had the South-East
corner of the double terrace cleaned a little and one sees this corner, with the four standing
stones beside it in 111. 206. The two steps can be clearly distinguished as we posted a
coolie on each of them. One can also see the method of construction, viz. with river stones.

We were unable to take a photograph of the pyramid, the method of construction
of which is similar to that of the terrace, so that we had to content ourselves with a sketch
(111. 204).

SALAK DATAR, With Dr. van Tricht, we further visited Salak Datar. This
sanctuary, which lies not far from Wijnkoopsbaai, is indicated on Map XVII. In 1842,
Hasskarl gave a discription of this place, which description is cited by Dr. van Tricht
and practically agrees with what we saw.

We found here a low terrace, more or less rectangular in form. One of the short
sides showed some irregular projections. The upright sides of the terrace, one of which
is represented in 111. 208, consisted of large, rather irregular stones. The whole terrace
measured about 28 by 35 M. The long sides lay East 10 degrees South—West 10 degrees
North. On this terrace lay several large, flat, rectangular stones, some of which were 1 M.
long (111. 209); further, a few upright stones with some fallen stones beside them (111.
210); finally a large flat stone with 7 holes. This stone (111. 211) was 2 M. long; the holes
had a diameter of 21 to 24 c.M. and a depth of 12 to 14 c.M.

TJI ARTJA* ^ Finally, we visited with Dr. van Tricht the sanctuary of Tji Artja,
the situation of which is indicated on the same map. Hasskarl describes it loco citato as
follows : quot;Not far from here (viz. from Salak Datar), on the Goenoeng Soekarameh, there
quot;is a stone image (artja) in sitting posture and six feet high, attired in priest\'s clothing,
quot;turban, necklace (bangot) and \'taspek\'. The eyes look towards the West. It is regarded
quot;as the remains of a holy man who came here to fast and pray and was then turned into
quot;a stone image.quot; In 1885, Vorderman found here two sitting images, defaced, which he
regarded as Polynesian, surrounded by flat stones of tabular form placed perpendicularly
in the ground.

On this place we also found two images, one large and one small (111. 212). The large
one, and apparently that to which Hasskarl referred, was not 6 feet high, however, but
measured no more than 60 c.M. The image was much decayed. The features could barely
be distinguished, the turban not at all; the necklace was only slightly perceptible. The
image holds the hands together and in the hands a hole has been made. From the small
image the head has been broken off; it measures now no more than 20 c.M. while the
attitude strongly suggests the small image of Kosala (111. 203). The only difference is that
the image of Tji Artja has no back support and that the left hand supports the right elbow
and not, as is the case with the Kosala image, the right hand. Is it possible that this image
is of Buddhist origin?

Around the images lie several flat stones. Behind there lies a stone of pillar formation
which probably had formerly stood upright. Some metres away we found a fine quot;menhirquot;,
1.70 metres long (111. 213). A small stone lay beside it and a flat stone in front.

We will consider the Bantam remains again later on. We will here terminate our
descriptive enumeration of the remains found and forthwith proceed to a consideration
of the same in group formation and to a comparison with similar remains found in other
regions.

Now that we have concluded the enumeration of the remains found, we must proceed
to a summing up and a comparative consideration of the same.
The remains may be divided into the following groups:

Following this classification, we will now study the remains, group for group. In doing
so, we must consider whether there are grounds for assuming that all these objects really
belong to one single megalithic culture. Indications as to their age will have to be sought.

In order to obtain data concerning the purport of the remains, it will be necessary
to search for parallels elsewhere. In this respect, however, we shall confine ourselves to

adjacent territory and seek our collateral objects chiefly in the Archipelago itself. As this
Archipelago is for a considerable part populated by races coming from or through Further
India that territory also cannot be entirely excluded from our field of enquiry.

We must here state explicitly, however, that this book claims to be no more than a
study over the megaliths in South Sumatra. It is only for a better understanding of these
megaliths that we bring forward collateral material from elsewhere, viz. from those regions
whose megalithic culture is possibly related to that within our own sphere of enquiry.
We recall here the serviceable hint of Sternberg : quot;Deshalb führt das vergleichen von
quot;Instituten von Völkern, die durch gewaltige Entfernungen und gewaltige Zeiträume
quot;voneinander geschieden sind, wie das Perry und Elliot tun, zu oberflächlichen, durch
quot;nichts begründeten Folgerungen.quot;

This book is not a compilation of data, covering the whole Archipelago. Such a com-
pilation would fall far outside the compass of this study, would demand too much space
and too much time and further, would prove premature to-day, owing to the fact that
in various parts of Netherlands India, the detail work hitherto carried out has been insuf-
ficient.

A fortiori we were of opinion that it was necessary to restrict ourselves considerably
in comparisons with the Pacific.

Finally, we must regard the megaliths of South Sumatra in the light of various theories
which exist concerning the megalithic culture in general. Here also, however, we consider
It necessary to impose upon ourselves severe restrictions. We are not qualified to enter
into a general and critical discussion over these theories. We confine ourselves, therefore,
to a brief enquiry into the question, in how far our finds are in accordance with such
theories.

The various images represent human figures, sometimes singly, sometimes in groups
of two; in a single instance in a larger group (Tebingtinggi No. 2, page 27); sometimes
J^ith a child; once with two children (Poelaupanggoeng No. 2, page 36). Frequently
these figures are represented with a buffalo; frequently also riding on, standing beside,
or in combat with an elephant. The images have, without exception, suffered greatly
irom defacement as well as from decay, which on a superficial observer makes the impression
, ƒ they have been roughly executed. Some of the images, however, have lain on their
sides or been partly buried in the ground. About ten years ago, they were again set upright
oy the quot;Controleursquot; Batenburg and Junius. From those parts which formerly were
^ H ^^^ ground, it is frequently possible to see that the original surface was smooth
and that small details were very finely finished.

Nnbsp;example of this nicety in treatment, we may mention the image Tandjoengsirih

4 (111. 10, etc). In spite of the fact that the head is badly damaged, one can still notice
w skilfully the eye-lids have been chiselled. Further, the image wears the tunic already
repeatedly mentioned. The lacing under the right arm, which connects the front and back
m- k u^^^® article of clothing, is represented with the greatest nicety.nbsp;--

the impression of being roughly executed, the little cord from which the neck ornament
is suspended and which is about as thick as an ordinary curtain cord, is very clearly worked
out, not to speak of the knot with the two loose ends behind the neck. In the case of the
badly damaged head Tinggihari No. 7 (111. 14), the edge of the helm above the forehead

Beside these more finely finished images, however, some of which, hke that ot 1 and-

ioengsirih 4, are also distinguished by good plastic and a fairly complicated composition,

there are others which are simple and primitive in conception and rough in ^ecution.

We refer here in the first place to the two small images, that of Moearadoea Komermg

(111 184) and that of Ranau 1 (111. 187). Both images, in every respect, rem^ind one ot the

most primitive forms of quot;Polynesianquot; images, formerly called images of the Padjadjaran

type occurring in Java (111. 224). Both consist of an oblong stone, on the top ot wh^ich

a Lad is given, roughly represented in quot;reliefquot;, whilst on the front surface, the thm,

shapeless limbs are awkwardly sculptured out in the same style. No attempt has even

as can be seen from the photograph, stands at the head of a group of small upright stones
in the form of a horse-shoe. The whole reminds one strongly of a sanctuary in the neigh-
bourhood of Cheribon (Java), of which Wilson gives a description. Wdson states that
in Cheribon. on the Serang Lemo. there is a sanctuary, consisting of a small terrace
with upright trachyte plates. Further up, on the Pasir Aki aki, stands a group ot Polyne-
sian images on a small terrace. From the illustration it is apparent that the whole design
resembles the stone group near Ranau. The only difference is that on Pasir Aki aki there

Comparing the two quot;Polynesianquot; images with a monument like landjoengsirih

No. 4, one might imagine that the two former images should be ascribed to those sculptors

who have left behind the similar images in Java, and that the latter is the work of quite

another sculpturing race. Between the most primitive images, on the one hand, and those

of much finer quality, on the other, there is, however, a series of transition forms. Further

dolmens and upright stones occur not only in the Pasemah but also in the vicinity of Ranau,

where the Polynesian images stand. Finally, the primitive images are sometimes combmed

in groups with others of a higher standard of execution. These three circumstances have

confirmed our opinion that the finely executed images of the Pasemah, ^th the interior

images there and with the Polynesian images of the Ranau district and ot West Java,

If now we follow the ladder further, leading from the Polynesian
developed monuments, we would first mention the image at Batoeradja (111. 183). it
reminds one strongly of the Polynesian images, but the plastic is fuller and more free than
in the case of the two very primitive images just mentioned. It recalls a Polynesian image
at Kamal in East Java, of which a photo is given by Van Heekeren, in the same way

as the image at Moearadoea recalls an image found by the same writer at Soekasari, also
in East Java.

Somewhat higher again stands the image Tandjoengsirih No. 2 (111. 7—8). Here,
the two trunks as well as the limbs are already better represented, but the finishing touches,
especially of the features, are still rough and primitive. One can already find, however,
an arm-band and leg-rings represented. The greater dimensions of the image also —
it is 1.65 m. high — bear evidence of a greater technical skill. This image recalls a Poly-
nesian image in the Museum at Batavia (111. 224, fifth stone from the right), but this latter
is much smaller.

Better again is the image of a woman, Pageralam No. 1 (111. 64) which stands on the
same artistic level as an image found in the Lampongs and now in the Museum at Batavia.
Although as a whole somewhat clumsy and rough in finish, the plastic, also of the features,
is finer, whilst the clothing is also represented.

On an ascending scale there follows an image of the same kind, Padang No. 1 (111. 23),
where the head shows less style in plastic but is more finely finished and where the neck
ornament is represented with great nicety; the images Tegoerwangi No. 8 (111. 147)
which, notwithstanding the rough and clumsy form, already reveals great technical
skill; the images Pageralam No. 2 (111. 66) and No. 10 (111. 77) which although still rough
in finish and simple in details are more life-like and less constrained in composition. At
the top of the ladder stand the image Tandjoengsirih No. 4, mentioned in the beginning
and several of the images of Pematang (111. 72—75), the heads of which, sculptured with
power and style, lie in the garden of the Club House at Pageralam.

Is it now possible to determine from this artistic ladder the relative age of the monu-
ments? Are the more primitive images the oldest and do those more artistically finished
date from a later artistic period?

Probably not. It is improbable, indeed, that the several images have all been made
in the same period. Sometimes, perhaps, a primitive image is really older than one better
executed. With the various groups of images, however, which, just owmg to their group
formation, suggest that they originated in one and the same period, one finds very primi-
tive and more developed forms standing together. From the image-park of Pematang,
for example, came the two heads Pageralam No. 7 and No. 9 (111. 73 and 76 respectively)
oi which the latter is much more primitive than the former. The image Pageralam No. 1
came from Tandjoengara, while in the same doesoen stands Tandjoengara No. 1 (llh 84),
a lump of stone hardly deserving the name of image. Among the three images of Tand-
joengsirih, we find the very primitive image No. 2, beside the fine monument No. 4,
Poth just discussed. From a difference in style, therefore, we may not conclude a difference
P period. Probably it is to be attributed in many cases to the fact that the more beautiful
images were made by artists who made a trade of such work, who were at least highly
ptted and possessed greater skill, whilst the less handsome examples were made by
less trained sculptors (compare page 96).nbsp;, , , r i ,,

With reference to the problem just discussed, we must still remark that we fand all
torms of sculpture, from very shallow quot;reliefquot; to almost free plastic, but that absolute
treedom of plastic is never reached. The sculptors have never been able to detach them-

selves entirely from the original form of the stone as Nature shaped it. In the case of the
stone Tebatsibentoer No. 3 (111. 29), we find the female figure represented m very shallow
relief on the flat upper surface of the stone. This upper surface was apparently too small,
so that the work is continued on one of the short sides of the stone. In the fight with the
serpent represented on the upright stone Tandjoengara No. 4 (111. 86), the relief work is

With the Batoegadjah (111. 89 a.f.) the relief runs over the whole stone. The whole
stone mass is used to represent the body of the elephant. The natural form of the stone
was apparently such that very little touching up was necessary. With other monuments
again, one finds almost free plastic, only occasionally the animal ridden is represented too
small in proportion to the rider, or the legs, especially the hind legs, too much shortened.
Sometimes, the head of the animal is bent backwards towards the rider, and apin the
riders have too short legs. In the case of the image Pageralam 1, the whole head is trans-
formed and crushed, as it were, into the shoulders. All such distortions are concessions

The images also reveal differences in the matter of clothing and equipment. The two
small Polynesian images of Ranau and Moearadoea alone, and the image of two human
figures Tandjoengsirih 2, show no clothing, whilst the child between two human figures
in the image Tandjoengbringin 1, is also nude. Further, there are images where, owing
to decay, it is impossible to determine whether clothing was originally represented or not.

The most simple article of clothing is the girdle which occurs only in the case of
children, to the exclusion of other clothing. It is also possible that a simple loin cloth
is here meant. Such an article of clothing is seen in the case of the man grasping the trough

A girdle, with a loin cloth over it as the only clothing, occurs several times, inter

alia in the case of the Batoegadjah and also with the image Goenoengmegang 8. In the

first example given, this dress is worn by human figures with swords, beside an elephant,

and in the second, by a human figure who is victorious in combat with an elephant. Here

then, a male dress is meant. For the rest, it is not always easy to determine whether men

or women are represented. It is for this reason that in the enumeration, we employ so

frequently the general term quot;human figurequot;. The (male) genitals are represented only

in the cases of the small Polynesian image near Ranau and m that of the chiM of land-

joengbringing 1. Female breasts are never clearly indicated. In the case of the image

Pageralam 1, what one might at first sight assume to be breasts, are only the drawn-up

The upper part of the body is sometimes covered with the article of clothing which

in South America is called a quot;ponchoquot; and which consists simply of a long rectangular

piece of cloth with a hole in it, through which the head is pushed. This clothing we find

only in the case of human figures who sit in a squatting attitude with knees drawn up.

The image Pageralam 1 is so clothed and carries a child on the back.. Further, the poncho

is never combined with a sword, and is thus perhaps an article of dress for women.

The distribution area of the poncho is very extensive. Buschan relates as follows

with regard to it: In North America this article of dress is common among the Pueblo
Indians, where it is worn by men.

In old pictorial representations, of Aztec origin, we find women wearing an article
of clothing which resembles the poncho.

In South America, the poncho of the Chaco Indians (Tschiriguano, Tschane),^ is
well known. P. Schmidt considers the poncho in South America as one of the Polynesian
culture elements.

Further, this article of dress is worn on the frontiers of the tropical forest region and
the Andes; in the South by the Araucanians, in the Andes by the Checua and the Aimara.

Buschan gives an illustration of a bronze knife and an earthen pitcher m the form
of a human figure, from which objects it is apparent that the ancient inhabitants of Peru

Speaking of Polynesia, Buschan says: quot;Nach der ersten groszen polynesischen
quot;Wanderung erfolgten noch weitere, von denen die bedeutendere, die auf die erste wahr-
quot;scheinlich folgende, nur den Nordrand Melanesiens berührte, über Melanesien ging
quot;und auch von Polynesien nur den Norden und Nordosten traf, mit der über Melane-
quot;sien verlaufenden ersten (altmalaiischen) sodann zusammenstiesz. Mit ihr kamen der
quot;Bügelausleger der Kanus (im Gegensatz zu der im Süden und Melanesien üblichen
quot;Befestigung des Auslegers durch senkrechtes Stabwerk), sowie das mit einer Seite am
quot;Mast festsitzende Segel, das Beil mit drehbarem Zwischenstuck, entwickeltere Formen
quot;des Kokosnuszschabers, die Standtrommel mit Schnurspannung, der Poncho, der Panzer
quot;und vielleicht auch die mit Haifischzahnen besetzten Waffen.nbsp;r. t

With regard tot the Tahiti-, Paumoto-, Marquesas- and Cook-group Buschan
says: quot;Die Kleidung bildeten Rindenstoffe; für gewöhnlich wurde m em Stuck Rinden-
quot;stoff ein Schlitz gemacht und durch diesen der Kopf gesteckt; das so entstandene Kleid
,;hing hinten und vorn bis zu den Knien herab und wurde durch ein um den Korper bis

zur Brust herauf gewickeltes breites Stück Stoff zusammengehalten.
^ Cook also gives a description of the poncho of Tahiti. He writes that the women
frequently wear several, the one over the other. Wilson writes that on Tahiti, this arUcle
of clothing was called a quot;tebootaquot;. The description given by Stuart. is based on these
data.

^ From this original form of the poncho, there are also deviations. In Ajnerica the^^^^^^^
and the back part are often sewn together from under the armpits downwards. We haye then
the article of clothing which, besides the real quot;ponchoquot;, is frequently met with m the images
?f South Sumatra and to which we gave the name of quot;tunicquot;, because the Roman tumca,
m Its original form, was also a sort of shirt without sleeves; later, shortnbsp;were added

Macmillan Brown/) writes under the heading, quot;Polynesian arts and methods that
^^^^h^merica,quot; as follows:

quot;Of manufactured articles it is not likely that so primitive a people as the Polgt;™
quot;contributed much to peoples that could so excel m textdes and pottery and gold and silver
quot;wk AXe\'the tipl or mantle with a hole in it for the head, which belongs to Tahiti
quot;Ind eoes as far wesf as the Caroline Islands, is practically the same as theponcfio of South
quot;Amerka It kZt likely that it could have come off to the Pacific isknds without bringing
quot;CiuTmaiLandpot It may have arisen in both areas independently; but if it spread
quot;from one to the other, it must have come from Polynesia.nbsp;i r.

In his extremely interesting article over the mountainous districts of NaP^e and Besoa
in Central Celebes, Kruyt writes with regard to Lamba, the sacred spot of the To
as follows : quot;Further, on a hook, there hangs a piece of buffalo h de .....nbsp;^P!

quot;^quot;ce of hide (which is called humba) reminds one of the oldest model of baadjes
quot;(looslhanging shirt) of the Toradjas. It consists ^ p^^^^ beaten bask wjth a hok
quot; t for the head, so that the one half covers breast and stonaach whilst the other hangs
quot;down over the back. This \'humba\' is probably a sort of old fashioned cuirass, copied
quot;from the leather jackets of the Spaniards and the Portuguese.quot; From this it appears that
th^^oLho was also known to the Toradjas, though why it should be taken for g^
that the quot;humbaquot; here described should have originated under Spanish or Portuguese

quot;Ziegen,- Baren-oder Tigerkatzenfell (Abb. 575).quot; Mr. Leroux, Conservator of the
at BLvia, drew our attention to the war-mantles which occur m Nias and elsewhere
One can conceive of such a mantle originating from the poncho by cuttmg the front piece
from the middle of the neck downwards. We would not go so far as to say, however,
that such a conclusion is correct. With the images of the Pasemah the front piece, like

that of the real poncho, is always closed.nbsp;, „ • , j • c •nbsp;fK^r^

We might further observe that the name quot;poncho is also used in Spain, but there

it refers to an article of clothing apparently derived from the Gallic quot;Sagum , the war-

It is possible to conceive of the tunic, repeatedly mentioned in our enumeration ot
the remains found, having originated from a poncho, the front and back Parts oj w^
are sewn together under the armpits over a length of some 10 cen imetres At the heigh
of the girdle, both parts hang loose from each other. This article of clothing is clearly
represented on seven occasions. We never find it in combination with the sword, and never
in the case of human figures in combat with an elephant It does occur once, however,
in the case of a human figure riding on an elephant, viz. with the image Poelaupanggoeng 2.

It is possible that this also is an article of femimne dress. It is also conceivab e
however, that the men, engaged in war or hunting, were only attired in a lorn-cloth, whilst
on other occasions the upper part of the body was covered, in wkch case poncho and
tunic might also have constituted male dress. In the case of the

the shape of the tunic deviates somewhat from the usual. At the back the hole for the
neck is not round but has been cut out in triangular form; the ring which encircles the

neck follows this form, in contradistinction to other neck rings which are round. It is
possible, therefore, that this ring may represent the rim of the tunic. On the upper arms
there are further round plates, under which are three oblique and parallel stripes, from
which it might be deduced that this tunic had ornamented sleeves (111. 108).

In the case of Tinggihari 4 (111. 18) there is a special article of dress, consisting of a
long, narrow, straight piece of cloth hanging down behind from the shoulders, over the
tunic. Further, we would recall the quot;ballet-skirtquot;, represented in the quot;rehef Tebatsi-
bentoer 3 (111. 29).

Helms or at least a headdress which resembles the same, occur with many images.
The shape is generally the same. It fits closely to the forehead and temples, where it is
ornamented with a narrow border which always describes a curve just before the ears.
It extends behind in a sort of peak or protection for the neck. In one case, that of the large
image Tinggihari 6, this head-dress on the top bears two projections containing holes
From this, Westenenk concludes that the image in question is that of a king ), which
seems to us a rather rash conclusion. In the case of this helm, the peak over the neck
slopes nearly straight downwards. Such projections on the head, containing holes m which
ornaments such as feathers of the Argus pheasant can be thrust, are found m many wooden

With the image Tinggihari 4, where the helm is absent, a
the head. At the back sornething protrudes from under this band, which might be neck
hair straightly cut but might also represent a sort of smooth cap. A head-band is also
visible in the image Tebingtinggi 2 and likewise in Pageralam 9.

Neck ornaments occur many times and in various forms. Sometimes they consis
of smooth rings, as in the case of the Batoegadjah. Frequently they take the form of strings
of beads, consisting of very large beads gradually diminishing m size towards the back of
the neck. These beads are sometimes round and sometimes cut m angular «hape; this is
most clearly visible in the case of the image Tandjoengsirih 4 (111. 11). Somet^es t^se
strings of beads are closed behind with a round, flat cone-shaped plate (for exa^ with
Pematang 6 and Tinggihari 4; 111. 18). We will deal with these beads ^^^^^/^haPter

With the image Padang 1, we find a breast ornament consisting of three ve tical
rows of beads or stones, suspended from a small cord. With the image
hangs on the breast a row of large plates, strung on a cord. An oversight of the various

still visible. In those cases the lobes of the ears are greatly distended. Examples of this are
\'nter alia, the gargoyle Pageralam 5 (111. 69), the image Poelaupanggoeng 2 (HI- IW)
and the images Teloerwanii 8 (111. 151). In case of the latter the process of decay l^as
made the eardrops almost imperceptible. The relief Tebatsibentoer 3 (111- 30) quot;o
greatly distended ear- lobes, standing out from the head. It is impossiwe to ascer
the images if the eardrops were worn by both men and women.

, This custom of pierLg and distending the earlobes is very pTl^^\'rh\'wwr
also frequently to be found in Hindoo-Javanese art. It must not be forgotten, however

that the custom also existed in the Pre-Hindoo, old-native culture^This is clear from
representations of human heads on various kettle-drums with pre-Hindoo ornament

Representations of human figures on the megaliths m Besoeki also show this P^cuhanty )

as well as the images of Nias. The custom is also prevalent to-day, for example, with the

^^^^On\'the wrists, we sometimes find rings sometimes flat, broad bands. The fact
that not only the left but also the right wrist has such a band, proves that it is not simply

In Dutch East India, these wrist bands are at present found in New Guinea }
Many images have smooth, thick rings round the neck. They remind one strong y
of similar rings still worn in Nias. Rappard writes as

quot;Special mention must be given to the neck-ring worn by the men in Sout^
quot; \'Llaboeboe\', a mark of distinction among these head-hunters for

quot;red their first head or killed their first enemy in combat This dark-coloured neck-ring
quot; conSts of a great number of shives of coconut shell, polished at the edges and strung on
quot;a brass ring The copper ends of this ring, which taper out thmly, are soldered to a
quot;round copper plate. The coconut shives are strung m succession according to size
quot;until the 4ole in the middle is about the diametre of a Netherlands florm. So fine
quot;and regular is the finish that at first sight one would not take it for an object worked in
quot;coconut shell but rather a product of the rubber industry. The dark gleaming colou
quot;is obtained from a mixture of oil and black or dark-brown colouring. The wealthy chiefs
quot;in South Nias wear this distinction in gold.quot; One finds these rings also, if smaller and
thinner in form, among the present inhabitants of South Sumatra. Large neck rings also
occur in Indo-China. b) Many images show leg-rings. The custom of wearing leg-rmgs
is so wide-spread in the Archipelago that we need give no examples. With some images,
however, these leg-rings enclose the whole leg from ancle to knee m a closed sheath.
As far as we know, they are not worn so in India at the present time. They are still worn

Swords occur with seven different images. The principal forms are given in lU. Zll.
They are invariably short and broad, with a hilt which is long m proportion On the
upper part of the sheath, one or two protuberances are visible which apparently serve to
prevent the sword slipping through the girdle. The sword is always carried rather fa
Lck on the left hip. The hilt terminates m a more or less distinct
sometimes the form of an inverted shoe. In the case of Goenoengmegang 8, there ^unde
this pommel a semi-circular hollow which perhaps represents a pierced hole. We will

As regards the animals represented, we may remark that the elephant is so Jtimes

portrayed as an animal for riding on and sometimes also in combat with Man, but never

h)nbsp;Buschan, II, page 847; Hodson, page 31 (Leg-rings used as a help in climbing).

singly. In one single instance, the buffalo is represented singly, and also frequently ^ an
animal for riding on. There are also instances where men are represented with a buffalo,
but not astride of the animal, as in the case of Pageralam 2 (111. 67). This possibly represents
a hunting or offering scene. We further remark here that neither with elephants nor with
buffaloes, do ornaments, a harness or parts of a harness occur. Besides buffaloes and
elephants, we find in one case the representation of a serpen^ viz. m the reliet land-
joengara4. In one instance, tigers are represented (111. 25). On the stone Tmgghari 1,
there is a crocodile or a lizard. Other animals are not represented.

It is remarkable that the buffalo is so often represented as ridmg-ammal This custoni
occurs in other parts of the world. In Central Asia, the Yak is used not only as beast of.
burden but also as riding-animal. Also in Africa, the cow is used as ridmg-ammal.
Buschan mentions that the custom is prevalent with the Baggara Arabs m Kordofan,

In Netherlands India, on the contrary, one can sometimes see a native returning from
his sawah, mounted on his buffalo, but the buffalo is not generally used as a riding

In Indonesian art, however, buffalo riders do occur, viz, on the wood-carving work
of the Bataks, which serves to ornament the well known magic N^ds. An article has been
published on this subject from the pen of Dr. J. G. Huyser The writer points ou that
quot;buffalo-ridersquot; repeatedly form a motive in the carved work on ^e magic wand and
magic horns. From numerous quotations, he shows that the f\'\'f
the influence of Hinduism; Batara-Goeroe (Qiva) is ^own there. Ij
Huyser now sees representations of giva seated on bs bull, \' Nandi . Other ndmg-am-
mals which more resemble horses, and smalUnimals w.th fish tails, are also interpreted

Huyser\'s argument seems to us extremely weak, ^though quot;
influence felt in the Batak Lands, it does not follow that every fnbsp;^^^

figure on a bufelo represents giva. Anyone familiar with this sort of Batak art will admit

very well known to the older inhabitants of the doesoens. We ca^ot recognize g^^^
the riders of buffaloes represented in the images in the Pasemah. We shall return to this

a survey of the dress and equipment of th h^man figures
and mentioned the animals represented together with them on the
ject these human figures themselves to a closernbsp;^^^^^ u^e ^

South Sumatra so very interesting is the fact that megalith builders have ra^l^ett
quot;self portraitsquot; behind them so excellently sculptured and showing such a wealth
detail.nbsp;i

In the first place we would remark that the images of the South Sum^^^
not lend themselves for anthropometric^ enquiry. A pair of compasses can only be success

fully applied to works of sculpture when the artist used the instrument himself in order
to render the proportions of his model as accurately as possible in the statue, or in any
case has ocularly attempted to approach these proportions as nearly as possible. Now with
the images of the South Sumatra type, this is certainly not the case. Even a superficial
examination of an image like Pematang 6 (111. 39) reveals a very arbitrary treatment as
regards the proportions of head, trunk and limbs. This is also the case with the proportions
of the heads themselves. The method of adapting the forms of the image to the contours
of the natural stone has frequently contributed to this, and it is here, in our opinion, that
an explanation must be found for the representation of many heads with extended necks
and protruding chins. This method of representation again, can lead to exaggerated prog-
nathism, like that occurring in the image just mentioned. We must, therefore, rely on the
general impression obtained from the contours of the features.

From the general bodily form of the images, one gets the impression of a short in
stature, but heavily built, muscular race, although it is uncertain in how far the images,
in this respect, are true to nature.

The heads, so far as these show in some degree careful finish and have not suffered
too much from decay or damage, reveal the following type:

The forehead, with the more primitive heads, is frequently somewhat low and rece-
ding (Pageralam 2; 111. 66). This is not so pronounced in the case of the better executed
images, although not so easily perceptible owing to the helms. (Pageralam 7; 111. 72).

The arches of the eye-brows are often heavy and curved, but a decided thorns supra-
orbitalis cannot be constated.

The eyes are large. Sometimes, expecially with the most primitive heads, they bulge
out considerably and are simply represented by two half balls (Pageralam 2, 111. 66 and
9, 111. 76); sometimes the form is a little more extended in the direction of the corners of
the eye (Pageralam 7, 111. 74); sometimes they are represented as much less protruding,
while the eye-lids are distinctly rendered. The upper eye-lid then takes the form of an
arch; the lower forms a straight line so that the general form is as shown in 111. 214 (below).
Other examples are Padang 1 (111. 23) and Tinggihari 7 (111. 14). Mongoloid eyes with
quot;epicanthusquot; were never found.

The root of the nose is depressed; with the more primitive heads, a fold runs across
from eye to eye.

The nose itself is short and blunt; the sides very broad. With the more primitive
heads, this form of nose is simplified to a low and broad trapezium (Pageralam 9, 111. 76).

The mouth is broad, with coarse, thick lips, which are as thick in the corners as in
the middle. It is curious that in the case of Pageralam 7, the corners of the mouth are
somewhat open whilst in the middle it is almost closed. Several heads are distinctly pro-
gnathic; with some of them this is very strongly the case.

The lower jaw is broad, with the corners very pronounced. The chin sometimes pro-
jects far forward.

The hair is, with many heads, and just with those which are best executed, covered
by the helm. Where no head-dress is present, the hair is difficult to discern and one cannot
ascertain the nature of it. Westenenk writes regarding these images: quot;Those which

\'\'wear no helms and whose short, apparently curly hair covers almost the whole forehead.quot;
This is quite inaccurate. In the cases of images with no helm, the surface of the head is
mdeed somewhat rough owing to decay but it is never possible to absolutely constate
curly hair. Only in three images, in which children are represented, is there a characteristic
which might be interpreted as curly hair. The images in question are Tandjoensirih 4
(111. 13), Tandjoengmenang 5 (page 21) and Poelaupanggoeng 2 (111. 107). In the last
example, only one of the children — that on the right — shows the characteristic just
referred to. In these three instances, the head of the child is covered with small half balls,
about 1,5 c.M. in diameter, placed in regular rows. If one must conceive this as a repre-
sentation of hair true to nature, then it must certainly be curly hair, characteristic to
negroes, Negroids and Melanesians. The Germans give the name of quot;Pfefferkornformquot;
to this form of hair.

In our opinion there are two objections against concluding, as Westenenk does, that
these three cases prove that a negroid race is represented. In the first place, the same
form of hair is found with Buddha images and also with Greek images, in which cases
no one will assert that a negroid is meant. In the second place, if negritos are really repre-
sented here, why is this form of hair not found with all images represented with uncovered
head, such as those of Pageralam 1 and 2 and of Padang 1?

It seems to us that the little balls on the children\'s heads can be explained in another
way. The sculptors have used beads largely. This is clear, not only from the necklaces on
the images, but also from the beads found in the stonecists. In one grave we found nearly
1400 beads of various kinds (see Chapter XI). Is it not possible that the heads of the three
children are covered with a cap or net, set with such beads?

We find support for this theory in the following. With the image Tandjoengsirih 4,
the half balls which cover the head of the child, are distinctly visible. The face of the child
IS badly damaged. The left eye, however, is clearly perceptible. And now it is seen that
the peculiar head-covering descends to just above the left eyebrow. This is conceivable
when it represents a cap. If it is meant for curly hair, however, the uncovered part of the
torehead ought to be larger.

, ,, ^^se of the two negroid skeletons of an old woman and a boy, discovered in
the quot;grotte des enfantsquot; near Grimaldi (Mentone), the skull of the boy was covered with
tour rows of nassa-shells. In the grotto of Ofnet (Bavaria) a large number of skulls were
Uu^ \'nbsp;^^^ women and children were adorned with the teeth of deer and with

shells. Finally, we recall here the curious head-covering of the famous quot;Venus of Willen-
aort which is reminiscent of what we found with the images of children in the Pasemah.

If it is difficult in the case of a living human being, to determine at sight to which
i^ace he belongs, more especially in a territory like East India where from times imme-
J^orial, transfusion of various races has taken place, it is, in our opinion, quite impossible
. positively conclude, from the very limited number of sufficiently finished and preserved
iniages of which, as regards their degree of truth to nature, we know nothing, that a negroid
race existed in South Sumatra.

. It there IS insufficient anthropological ground for such a conclusion, from an ethno-
ogical standpoint there are positive arguments against it. The Megalith builders in South

Sumatra lived, as we will demonstrate later, in the bronze period. They possessed swords
and large bronze drums. They wore a rather complicated dress. They adorned themselves
with various ornaments, including glass beads in various forms and combinations; they
were not ignorant of pottery (see page 51); they could tame buffaloes and elephants; m
the art of sculpture they were well masters; they constructed baths or other water-works,
as is apparent from the gargoyle at Pageralam. More than anything else, the fact that they
were megalith builders marked them as a fairly well organized people, for the enormous
stones required for such work can only have been transported and put into position by
chiefs who had a sufficient number of workmen at their command.

Let us now draw a parallel with the various negroid races in the East:
The Andamanese make stone implements for shaving off their hair and tatooing them-
selves; further they make tools from shells, wood, the teeth of swine, and iron, probably
derived from ships which formerly stranded on the coast. The clothing worn by most
consists of an apron of leaves, grass or bark. They live as hunters and collectors.

The Semangs of Malacca seem to be still ignorant of stone or metal-working, unless
imported. Most of their tools they make from bamboo and their bows from wood. They
are nomad hunters and collectors, living chiefly in family groups. The tribal bond is

The Aetas of the Philippines also live as hunters and collectors. Keane describes them
as quot;a race of such extremely low intellectquot; The slight civilisation they know seems
for the greater part to be due to foreign influence.

The Papuas have never reached the bronze period. They passed from the well known
stone implements to modern import articles. The same applies to the quot;dwarf tribes
of New Guinea, such as the Tapiro and Pesechem.nbsp;. i •

The Melanesians have for weapons wooden clubs and spears, the latter with points
of stone or bone. For the rest, they only know the bow and arrow. Metals were unknown
before the advent of modern import articles. They do not know the buffalo as domestic

It seems clear, then, that all eastern Negroid peoples, or eastern Melanoderms or
oceanic negroes, or whatever one likes to call them, stand on a much lower cultural level
than our sculptors of South Sumatra. If you class these latter with this melanoderme group,
then you have the choice of two hypotheses: either this whole group of races formerly
possessed a higher culture which all of them, however, have lost, with the exception of
the inhabitants of the mountains of South Sumatra (a hypothesis which seems improbable,
because no other Oceanic negroids have remains of this higher culture), or one must
admit that all the eastern negroids have remained at a low cultural level, with the single
exception of the South Sumatra group. How is it to be explained, however, that of all that
extensive group of races, this one small tribe, living in a remote, almost inaccessible
mountainous region deep in the interior of South Sumatra, attained a civilisation so much
higher than those other races with whom it was associated.nbsp;i j t •

From the data discovered, it is only possible, in our opinion, to conclude this: the
faces of the images in South Sumatra, owing to the shape of the lips, remind one somewhat

of negroes; the form of hair is not sufficient proof of this. The strongly protruding chin,
agam, is not negroid. This peculiarity recalls rather the parts of the skeleton found in the
Upper Lands of Djambi by August Tobler. The torus supradrbitalis which seems to
be slightly indicated by several images, recalls again the Australians and Tasmanians and
also the Wadjak-skulls found in Java by Dubois in 1890. The short, broad, flat nose,
With sunken base is also Australasian, but this is contravened again by the protruding chin.

From an ethnological point of view, there are objections to the hypothesis of a Ne-
groid or Australian race. On the whole, we are of opinion that the images do not support
a classification with a definite race and that they may just as well represent a Malayan type.
Till further excavations provide us with serviceable anthropological material, we would
do better to adopt the standpoint that the race in question formed one of the branches
of Austronesian peoples which swarmed out from South East Asia over the Archipelago,
and form the big majority of the population.

In connection with tihe race question, a story we heard during our enquiry is worth
mentioning. Mr. C. Raupp, of Tandjoengtebat often went out elephant-hunting with
the Koeboes, who dwell on the Soengai Teras, a tributary of the Soengai Semangoes,
m its turn a tributary of the Moesi. He related that these Koeboes regard an elephant
as sacred, on the ground that this animal was the riding animal of their ancestors. They
kill an elephant only in cases of extreme necessity.

These same Koeboes assert that they descend from the Redjangs who ruled over the
whole of South Sumatra. This apart, however, the story of the elephant is really remar-
kable when one reflects that these Koeboes dwell only twenty or thirty kilometres distant
from Lahat, not far thus from the image of Karangindah, (page 12), representing a man
With an elephant. The idea occurs involuntarily that these Koeboes are perhaps the descen-
dants of the megalith builders. At my request, Mr. Raupp, when with the Koeboes,
sought for images and megaliths but could find nothing of that description.

Regarding the antiquity of the images, one can only conclude from the degree of
decay which they reveal, that they must be very old; how old, however, it is impossible
to determine from their state of decay, as no comparison with antiquities of well-known

In its later eruptions, the Goenoeng Dempo deposited its material chiefly m a Northerly
direction. This is clear from the morphology of the volcano. It is now remarkable that
to the North of the mountain, megalithic remains are seldom found or only at a great
distance, whilst they are numerous on the Eastern and Southern slopes. It is not impossible
that such remains formerly stood on the Northern slope also but that they have been
buried during eruptions under lava and ashes. The history of the older eruptions
however, is not sufficiently known, to conclude from this anything relative to the antiquity
of the remains.

Tombrink associates the images with Qiva and he does this on the occurrence of a
bull and an image with four arms and two heads. The bull, as we have seen, occurs in
Geramat without a rider. It is very little reminiscent, however, of the well known Nandi.
Where the latter is depicted in a recumbent attitude, the bulls of South Sumatra stand
upright. The Nandi is provided with neck ornaments, whilst in South Sumatra these are
entirely absent. Where buffaloes are represented as riding-animals, they carry sometimes
one human figure, sometimes a human figure with a child; in one case a man armed with
a sword, behind whom sits a boy with the same weapon; near Tandjoengbringin, a buffalo
carries two human figures and a child. If now we recognise Nandi\'s in all these buffaloes,
we shall have to admit that Qiva in those days showed a remarkable readiness to lend his
riding-animal to all and sundry. Further, there is in the position of the images, in their
attributes or in their general execution, absolutely nothing which recalls the well known
Hindoo images. The story of Tombrink concerning two heads and four arms probably
rests on an inaccurate interpretation of the image Tandjoenghirih 2, which represents
two human figures, as can be clearly seen from 111. 8.

Westenenk noticed this also. He writes: quot;Where these figures differ so absolutely
quot;from the well known products in Dutch East India, dating from the Hindoo period,
quot;we must think of other sculptors than those who brought their art to the Boekit Segoen-

Westenenk rejects then further the view of Rouffaer quot;that it is here a question of

quot;a Hindoo period dating from the last years of Madjapahit, thus from the 15th century,quot;
and offers the suggestion that we are dealing here with a relic of an expedition of the
Prince of Funan, then a great Empire which extended over the Southern part of the
lands of Indo-China.

Here Westenenk has recourse to Aymonier (le Cambodge III, page 387) and bases
his hypothesis on what the same writer says on page 380, viz. that these warriors made an
extensive use of war-elephants and that they are described as quot;running naked (read:
very lightly clothed, wearing very probably no more than a loincloth).quot;

These arguments seem very weak. It is true that with several of the images, the upper
part of the body is naked, but one must admit that this is too general a custom in the East
to serve as a characteristic of any special race, and as elephants are numerous in Sumatra
even at the present time, other peoples besides the Funans may have tamed them. It is
sufficiently known that this happened quite recently in Atjeh.

In his quot;Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenisquot;, Krom writes with regard to the works
of sculpture in the Pasemah: quot;At present we stand before an enigma, although we are
j\'able to restrict the uncertainty in some degree. It seems to us inadmissible that this art
quot;should have stood, even indirectly, under Hindu influence and (as has been suggested)
quot;should have come from Hinduised Further-India. On the other hand, a few features
quot;are not unlike what can be perceived in a later phase of Javanese art, which stood under
quot;a strong Indonesian influence, with regard to which we will say soniething more in
]|chapter 13. This would lead us to suppose the existence of a non-Hinduised people
quot;in a part of Sumatra, which had relations with the megalith builders and probably made
quot;such monuments themselves, whilst their art and manner of representation had parallels
quot;with what at a later period in Java, appeared as an Indonesian element. Although it
quot;is quite possible that the people who created this art might have come from^^ elsewhere,
quot;they must, in our opinion, be associated in some way with Indonesian art.quot; ^

Fortunately, we have one indication as to the antiquity of the images m the Batoegad-
jah (111. 89—96). Let us consider with this purpose 111. 93. Here the right-rear part of the
image has been photographed apart. At the top, to the right, one sees the pomted back
part of the helm of the man on the right, whose face, turned to the right, falls outside the
photograph; under, one can see a part of the neckring and under that the upper arm;
at the bottom, to the right, you can see the double girdle over which hangs the lom-cloth.

Over the shoulder of the man, there runs a band or belt. The part of this belt running
above the shoulder, passes into an eye and then ceases; the part running under the arm
passes behind and above the girdle, through a second, badly damaged eye and then also
disappears. Both the eyes are fastened to an oblong object which rests behind, against the
back of the man, from shoulder to girdle. Behind this object, that is m the direction ot
the elephants tail, one sees a rectangle represented, with, quite at the back (that is to the
left in the photograph) a broad, somewhat raised brim.

Westenenk explains the belt over the shoulder of the man thus:In any case
\'he (that is, the man) seems to have thrust his arm through a loop of the harness.

quot;which makes it possible for the soldiers to go into battle pressed against the side of an
quot;elephant.quot; Now this is rather strange. In what position will the soldier find himself
when the animal passes between two trees? Or when it presses too much on one side
against its neighbour? Or when it charges? How must the man on the left use his right
arm in combat?

The oblong-shaped object hanging perpendicularly behind the back of the man is,
according to Westenenk, a quiver. In that case, it is strange that no bow is represented on
any of the images. Moreover, if it is a quiver, then the belt over the shoulder must be
regarded as the strap of the quiver, in which case the soldier is no longer hanging with
his arm in a loop. Further, the strap of the quiver would have to be fastened to the front
side of the object adjacent to the shoulder of the man. On the image, the strap passes
through the eyes just on the side not adjacent to the shoulder. With such a fastening,
the quiver would immediately turn over.

With regard to the rectangular object represented behind this so-called quiver, near
the tail of the animal, Westenenk writes: quot;one can see distinctly on both sides of the
quot;elephant and behind the warriors, pieces of cloth hanging down, fastened to a cord or
quot;band passing over the hindquarters of the elephant. Or were, perhaps, these pieces
quot;of cloth really pieces of wood which served to protect the hindquarters of the elephant?quot;

We would remark here that there seems little necessity to protect with wooden boards
the hindquarters of an elephant, as long, at least, as a hostile attack with light artillery
is not expected, with which remark we will refrain from further consideration of this
hypothesis.

The so-called quiver and the wooden sheets form one whole. They signify an object
which is represented on the left as well as on the right side of the elephant and which is
carried by the men by means of a strap over the shoulders. With the man on the left,
a small part of this object is covered by the sword (111. 90); with the man on the right,
the whole of it is visible.

To make our meaning clearer we have in 111. 94A given a tracing from 111. 93, of the
object in question. If we now compare 111. 93 with 111. 95 which was taken from another
angle and in another light, then it is apparent that in 111. 93 the object is slightly distorted
as a result of the curved surface of the stone, so that in reality the part marked 1 on the tra-
cing is larger; and further that at the figure 2, a part has crumbled off. Taking this into
account, we arrive at the reconstruction of 111. 94B. If now we turn the last sketch 90
degrees and leave the strap out for the moment, we get 111. 940.

Comparing now this last-named sketch with 111. 95, which represents a bronze kettle-
drum in the Museum at Batavia (No. 1071 of the Catalogue), we see that the object in
question on the Batoegadjah is nothing else than a representation, and one very true to
nature, of such a kettle-drum. Herewith we find not only a solution of the riddle of the
soldier hanging in the loop, of the quiver and of the armoured elephant, but it also assists
us enormously in estimating the antiquity of the images.

The Museum possesses various examples of those bronze drums, some intact, others
in fragments. They are contained in the following numbers of the catalogue:

No. 1070. Found on the island Rotti, near the hamlet Lole where formerly the village
Ing-go-oi was situated. Whilst the population of Rotti had no objections to Dr. J. A.
van der Chijs, then Inspector of Native Education, acquiring this instrument in 1871,

it appeared that the inhabitants of the Soior and Alor Islands, which he subsequently
visited, attached great value to it and that they made him considerable offers in order
to acquire it. From this it may be deduced that the signification or at least the remem-
brance of instruments of this nature has not been lost by the population of these islands.
They called it quot;mokomaleiquot; and it is possible that other examples might be found there.
Also those on Letti and Saleier were highly prized by the population which is, indeed,
frequently the case with ancient and consequently mysterious objects. Notulen Bataviaasch
Genootschap 1871 Byl. B, pag. V.

No. 1070b. Found at Keboemen, District Pemalang, Res. Pekalongan. Not. Dec.
1909, page 199 and Not. May 1910, page 52.

No. 1071b. Not. 1887, page 83. Village Banjoeming, District Singenlor (Semarang).

No. 1071c. Not. 1899, page 125 (June IV, 2e) Mersi Banjoemas, on the boundary
of the district Poerwokerto.

No. 1071d. Game from Pekalongan; found in the river. See Not. Dec. 1899, page
216, first part. April 1900, page 50, third paragraph. Not. 1901, supplement X; Not.
Nov. page 113.

No. 4736 (= 1071e). Not. Oct. 1904, page 101 and Nov. 1904 VI c., page 114. Found
by a native when cultivating his field near the village Babakan, District Tjipetri, Depart-
ment Tjiandjoer, Preanger Reg.nbsp;i • ic

We owe the above hst to the courtesy of Dr. Bosch, Head of the Archaeological Service.

A very extensive literature exists concerning these kettle-drums. A very important
article is that of Victor Goloubew, of which we here give an abridged extract:\'\')

Goloubew begins by mentioning the kettle-drum in the Museum at Hano^ which
corresponds with that in the Museum at Batavia. It was found in the province of Ha-nam,
in 1903.

The area over which the kettle-drum is found, includes the whole of South Eastern
^sia, with Burma and Insulinde, and extends in the North to Mongolia. Goloubew
adopts the classification of Heger\'^) and distinguishes four categories of kettle-drums:
. (1) The drum consists of a foot in the form of a blunted cone; above that, a part
in the form of a cylinder; above that again, a part which bends outwards and ends in a
small, sharp brim where the side of the drum joins the upper surface. Many examples
of this sort have been found in Tonkin, South China and the East Indian Archipelago.
According to Heger, this model was first made by the Miao-Tseu and the Loio, wild
tribes who lived and still do, in the mountains of Kouang-si, Kouei-tcheau and bseu-tch ou.
t IS the same type which we find on the Batoegadjah. All the characteristics, also the
orim along the upper surface, are distinctly recognizable.

, (2—3) The upper surface projects outside the drum. The side wall is concave;
the division in three parts is less pronounced. This is especially the case with type 3,
is found only with the Karens of Burma. Type 2 seems to have originated m South

(4) The upper surface does not project outside the drum. The drum is low with
respect to the diameter. The profile has the form of an S, distended. All these drums come
from China; many are of modern make.

Goloubew now returns to type 1, to which the drum of Hanoi belongs and which,
in its connection with the Batoegadjah, is most interesting for us. This type occurs in
two regions (1) in the Archipelago and (2) in South China and Tonkin. In which of those
two regions did it originate? Dr. A. B. Meyer and Dr. M. F. Foy presume that the drums
were made by the Chams or kindred races in South Indo-China. They supposed that the
drums were introduced into Indonesia by Proto-Malayan races indigenous to Malacca
and driven from there by immigrants from the North. The fact, however, that in Cambodja,
Cochinchma and South-Annam, not one drum has been found, whilst many have been
found in Tonkin, is against this theory.

Goloubew further quotes Hirth, who asserts that the metal drum is of Chinese origin
and was invented in the first century after Christ, during expeditions against wild tribes
in the South. According to him, they replaced the ordinary drums, the skin of which had
deteriorated during the expeditions. (Would it not have been simpler to replace it with
a new skin? v. d. H)

De Groof^) does not agree with Hirth. He is more inclined to ascribe the drums
to the Man from Indo-China and South China. With the Man, they constituted marks
of distinction and were used to announce the outbreak of war.

Heger, on other grounds, arrives at the same conclusions as De Groot. He notes
that two examples were not found in China itself but quot;en marge de la Chine proprement
dite,quot; and a third example was discovered in 1902 in the province of Phu-Ly. He seeks
the origin in Tonkin and Nord-Annam.

Parmentier draws attention to the similarity of the decoration motives on the oldest
drums with those on bronze weapons from Tonkin. It was not possible, however, to
exactly determine the date of the latter.

Goloubew then passes to the excavations carried out by Pajot in 1924, near the village
of Dong-son, in the province Thanh-hoa, on the right bank of the Song-ma. Here, Pajot
found graves absolutely differing from the ordinary old Chinese brick graves which are
found everywhere in Tonkin and Thanh-hoa. They were ordinary graves in which the
dead were laid stretched out at full length. The graves also contained bronze objects,
chiefly drums; further fragments of arms or tools of iron; earthenware; beads of baked
clay; earrings of jade and other material; and coins. A bone of the fore-arm wore an arm-
band of green, glassy and very hard material. Remains of a coarse kind of cloth still cleaved
to various bronze objects. There were also axes of ground stone and curious objects made
of schist, sometimes almond-shaped, sometimes elliptic. These latter form a difficulty
as they seem to represent a much older stage of culture than the other objects.

The bronzes of Dong-son are both numerous and varied. With the exception of
a few, they seem to be products of an indigenous metal industry. They may be divided
into the following groups:

Further, a small number of objects of Chinese origin, of great importance for deter-
mining the date.

These four objects lead Goloubew to the conclusion that the graves of Dong-son
were dug in the Han period (206B.C. till 220A.D.). From the sword, he further concludes
that the graves do not date earher than the beginning of the second century after Christ.

Besides this terminus ad quern, Goloubew calculates also a terminus a quo from the
coins, which terminus he fixes at about 50A.D.

In Dong-song, about 20 drums were found, in addition to the fragments. The largest
has a diameter of 33 centimetres and is 27 c.M. high. We would remark here that the
drums of the Batoegadjah reach from the upper part of the shoulder to the girdle, and
are thus as great or perhaps somewhat greater. The drum of Hanoi and that in the Museum
at Batavia are larger.nbsp;-kt i • ,

Another drum of Dong-son has a diameter of only 125 m.M. and is 98 m.M. high.
Many are of still smaller dimensions and have sometimes an eye on the upper plane.
The smallest is only 4 c.M. high and has on the upper plane a representation of an animal,
^ith the exception of the largest, all these drums must be regarded as models on a small
scale, made for the exclusive purpose of being placed in graves. We may mention here
that a similar small drum, made, however, of baked clay, and which also measures only
a few centimetres, is to be found in the Museum at Batavia.

Concerning the use of the drums, Goloubew then writes : quot;Le rôle de tous ces tam-
bours parait être en tout premier lieu symbohque et rituel. Ce sont des instruments
f appel magiques destinés à rallier les âmes autour de quelque grand chef d outre-tombe.
Ils devaient être considérés comme aussi indispensables aux guerriers^ detunts^ que
leurs lances, leurs poignards et leur flèches. Peut-être même faut-il y voir des objects
divinisés, doués de vertus surnaturelles. Quoi qu\'il en soit, un fait parait certain : les
tambours de bronze tenaient une place importante dans la vie sociale et religieuze de
ce peuple mystérieux que les fouilles de Dong-son ont rendu à l\'histoire.

Goloubew then describes further the arms found in the graves of Dong-son Ut
fecial interest to us is the fact that he gives us illustrations of various short swords or
Paggers, which show a fair resemblance with those which we found represented on the
images of South Sumatra (111. 221). He further describes bronze plates, m which he
sees pieces of armour. One of them (Plate XIc) is 13 c.M. long and rectangular m torm.

It has four eyes which apparently serve to fasten it. Is it possible that the peculiar objects
which we found on the breast of the image at Karangindah (111. 1 and 111. 216/) also repre-
sent such bronze armour plates?

From the graves of Dong-son came various metal ornaments, including bronze
arm-rings. In this connection we must mention that during our excavations at Tegoer-
wangi, we purchased from the inhabitants various bronze arm-rings which had been found
in the ground, several in a sawah direct East of the doesoen Sosokan Tegoerwangi (111.
217). Some of them showed the spiral motive (111. 220) also seen in various bronzes of
Dong-son. In Bali, many bronze rings were also found, several very thick. On the whole,
it seems probable that the arm and leg-rings which appear so frequently on images of
the South Sumatra type, must also have been of bronze.

Goloubew then proceeds to discuss the representations of human beings found in the
graves of Dong-son. First of all he mentions two axes on which human figures are repre-
sented, similar in every respect to those depicted on the drum of Hanoi. Also the style
is the same. They represent warriors, more or less disguised as birds : quot;guerriers, parés
quot;de plumes et formant comme des cortèges fantastiques d\'hommes-oiseaux. L\'un d\'entre
quot;eux joue du Khène.quot; quot;Khènequot; is an instrument which also occurs in Netherlands India.
The Germans call it a quot;Mundorgelquot;. With the Dajaks it is called a quot;klidiquot;. Others play
with castanets, still used by the Annamites. quot;Il s\'agit donc d\'une manifestation choré-
quot;graphique ayant sans doute un caractere sacré, peut-être même d\'une de ces danses
quot;totémiques ou les membres d\'un clan s\'indentifient à leur bête éponyme dont ils imitent
quot;l\'aspect et les mouvements.quot; As regards the other objects with representations of human
figures, we may pass them by.

We will just mention further that in the graves of Dong-son, a small number of
iron objects were also found, viz. points of lances and arrows, the blade of a sword and
fragments of another sword. The swords are of Chinese origin. Remarkable further are
an iron sword, the end of which is fixed into the bronze hilt and a bronze lance the extreme
point of which is made of iron. Goloubew deduces from this the great rarity of iron in
Tonkin, as the export from China was impeded or prohibited. These iron findings are
chiefly of interest for us because quot;Controleurquot; Batenburg also found the point of an
iron lance in the stonecist Tegoerwangi No. 9 (page 47).

The fragments of earthenware from Dong-son we may disregard because, although
a few morsels of earthenware were found in the stonecist Tegoerwangi 12, they were too
few to make comparison possible.

Finally, we may mention a very interesting comparison which Goloubew draws
between representations of ships manned by the bird-people already referred to, occurring
on the drum of Hanoi and similar representations by the Dajaks. quot;II s\'agit de la barque
quot;d\'or dans laquelle arrivèrent jadis à Bornéo les premiers Dajak. Depuis qu\'elle cessa
quot;de voguer sur les mers, cette barque transporte les âmes des trépassés vers l\'Ile du
quot;Paradis située au milieu du Lac des Nuages. Elle est commandée par un génie appelé
quot;Tempong Telon. Sa proue et sa poupe imitent la tête et la queue du Tingang (Buceros)
quot;dont, du reste, elle porte le nom. Son mat, orné de plumes, sert de perchoir aux oiseaux
quot;qui accompagnent les morts. Une sorte de roof, établi à l\'arriéré, abrite des tambours et
quot;des gongs. Il n\'y a point de rameurs. Le pilote est armé d\'une lance. Tempong Telon
quot;lui-même manie le gouvernail.quot;

Goloubew then describes the quot;Tiwahquot;, the great Dajak festival of the dead.
Finally he reaches the following conclusion : „Ainsi, le tambour de Hanoi avec sa riche
quot;décoration figurée serait le témoin d\'une civiHsation primitive dont il subsiste encore
quot;des traces chez les Dayak de Bornéo. Il en est de même quant aux bronzes sortis des
quot;fouilles de Dong-son. Le fait n\'a rien qui puisse nous surprendre. Les travaux de H.
l\'Kern ont démontré depuis longtemps la proche parenté entre les Malayo-Polynésiens
quot;et certaines races de l\'Indochine. D\'autre part, on a trouvé des cranes à affinités indoné-
\'\'siennes dans les provinces de Ninh-binh et de Hoà-binh, et même au Nord du Delta
quot;tonkinois.

^ quot;Il y a quelque dix ans, M. L. Finot écrivait à propos du tambour de Hanoi : \'Ce
\'qui ressort de ces bronzes antiques, c\'est l\'image d\'un peuple agriculteur, chasseur,
\'marin, probablement totémiste, dont le costume est sans analogue en Indochine et se
\'retrouve au contraire dans certaines îles océaniennes. Ne faudrait-il pas y reconnaître
^justement ces Indonésiens que la linguistique et l\'ethnographie nous montrent établis
\'d\'abord sur les côtes de l\'Indochine, puis abandonnant ces rivages à de nouveaux arri-
\'vants pour aller porter dans les îles de l\'Archipel leur langue, donUe continent n\'a gardé
\'que des débris — et leurs coutumes, qu\'il a bientôt oubliées?\' quot;

Goloubew states further that the history of the people of Dong-son remains unknown.
We do not know when quot;these Indonesiansquot; settled on the banks of the Song-ma, nor
what resistance they offered to the Sino-annamitic expansion. It was very probable that
a part of this people were absorbed by the Muong and perhaps also by the Indonesians of
the Je-nan or Chams.nbsp;r j • t

At the end of his article, Goloubew refers to a drum of the type I, found m Laos and
now in the Museum at Hanoi. For two reasons this drum is for us of importance. In the
nrst place, it contains a border of lizards. These lizards we find in South Sumatra, sculp-
tured in stone, b) Further a decorative motive is used resembling an S with two tangents.
Goloubew points out that this motive, to which Heger gives the name Tangenten-spirale,
occurs with the Dayaks, the Toba-bataks and other Indonesian peoples. He tound it
again on a drum, of Javanese origin, found near Tjandjur in the Preanger Regencies We
saw the same motive, but without the tangents, on a bronze urn m the Museum at Bata-
via. (See also page 91 and 111. 218.)nbsp;, , . r .. j

So much for Goloubew\'s article. We will revert to it again later but wish first to draw
attention to a comprehensive article, with extensive bibliography, contributed^ by U. P.
Jlt;ouffaer to the Encyclopedea of Netherlands India, sub voce quot; Keteltrommen .
. The following are some of the conclusions which Rouffaer arrives at : (1) they were
introduced into Java and the eastern islands from South China and Further India, between
100-600 A.D.; (2) at that time they actually served as quot;giant drums , partly for sacred
places in Java in the same way as church bells are used by us, and partly on small islands
for calling the people together for great festivals or in case of danger; (3) several examples
;vere certainly brought over as poesaka during the exodus from Further India to Nether-
lands India____; (4) the quot;rnany-rayed starquot; and quot;croaking frogs , never used for

ecorative purposes in Netherlands India, prove that these drums m their ancient type.

were not cast in Indonesian but in pre-Indonesian times, and at the same time are of pure
heathen origin, that is pre-Hindu, cast thus between the Yang-tse and the Mekong rivers ;
(5) several drums were certainly introduced into Java by the ancient Peguans . . .
We might point out that Rouffaer deals in this article with several types of drums integrally,
and not merely the ancient type (Heger I) as represented on the Batoegadjah. He writes
further: quot;A^, however, these kettle-drums have nowhere been found in Polynesia and
quot;nowhere in Sumatra, but only in Java and in several islands lying in the old Molucca
quot;route, (then for a considerable part in the hands of the Javanese), these drums must have
quot;been introduced from South China and Further India in the transition period between
quot;the prehistoric and the historic period of our India, thus between 100 and 600 A.D.quot;

Two objections might be offered to what is asserted in this passage. In the first place,
these drums were really known in Sumatra, as the representation on the Batoegadjah
proves. In the second place, it is very much the question if these drums, as Rouffaer
states, and which has hitherto generally been taken for granted, were really introduced
into East India from South China and Further India (with Canton as export harbour).
We would point out here that Dr. K. Ch. Crucq, of the Archaeological Service, found
a mould for kettle-drums in Bali. A newspaper report of January 2, 1932, mentions this
fact. In answer to a written request from our side for information. Dr. Crucq was kind
enough to send us a detailed description of the mould and authorized us to print it. Dr.
Crucq, then, writes as follows:

quot;The fragments of a mould of a kettle-drum which I discovered are to be found at
quot;Manoeabe (near Tegalalang, sub-department Gianjar, South-BaH) in the \'Poerah
quot;Poeseh\', where as \'artjes\' (stones with magic power) they are regarded with veneration.
quot;There are three pieces, the largest of which belongs to the base of the drum (the portion
quot;below the middle belt). One of these parts gives the whole breadth of the middle belt,
quot;besides a small piece of the head; the other piece shows only a part of the breadth of the
quot;middle belt. It has been a mould for drums of the \'slender\' long model, somewhat diabolo-
quot;shaped, such as, for example, the famous drum of Pedjeng, which place is situated not
quot;far distant from Manoeabe. Both of the first-mentioned pieces show the customary
quot;decorative work: along the under-side a border of triangles (two rows of triangles — a
quot;row of S shaped motives — two rows of triangles); along the under-border of the middle
quot;belt, a similar band, on which stand perpendicularly eight triangle-borders (each consis-
quot;ting of two rows of triangles with the bases against each other, thus diamond-shaped,
quot;a row of S-shaped motives, and two rows of triangles again, with the bases against
quot;each other); these bands run to the upper border of the middle belt. On the drums of
quot;this model, the middle belt has eight similar vertical triangle-bands, above four of which
quot;stands a double head; above the other four an ear of the drum, alternately: head-ear-
\'\' head-ear-head-ear-head-ear.

quot;The third and smallest piece has belonged to the part above the middle belt. It
quot;shows a double head, a piece of the middle belt, with the vertical band under the head
quot;and a triangle-band above the head, coinciding with the two other horizontal triangle-
quot; bands (two rows of triangles — a band with an S-shaped motive — two rows of triangles);
quot;the uppermost part, on which a ribbed band ought to be, is lacking. As already said,
quot;the mould was destined for drums oi the model of that of Pedjeng, with which it corres-
quot;ponds absolutely. At the same time, it is of much smaller size than the very large \'Moon

quot;of Pedjeng\'. The piece of our mould under the middle belt measures 48 c.M., the middle
quot;belt itself 24 c.M. Owing to the absence of the upper border, the total height cannot be
quot;exactly determined. The upper part, however, is always shorter than the under part.
quot;Our mould must have been.about 1 M. to 1.10 M. high. The circumference of the under
quot;border, calculating with quot;bow, arrow and cordquot;, may be estimated at about 242 % c.M.
quot;The pieces, although clearly belonging to one mould, do not match; they belong to two
quot;different halves of the mould (as you know, the kettle-drums show two vertical cast-
quot; seams; they were cast in two halves which were soldered together; also the ears and cover
y were cast separately). It is possible and even probable that the famous drum of Pedjeng
\'\'was cast in the same foundry to which our mould belonged. As you know well, the well
quot;known kettle-drums belong practically to two models, the model of our mould and that
quot;of Pedjeng : slender and diabolo-shaped; and the short, thick, bell-shaped model (like,
quot;for example, the drum of Ngoc-lu, of which an illustration is given m Bulletin Ecole
quot;Française d\'Extreme Orient, XXIX, Plate 1) (and the drums of the Batoegadjah —
quot;v. d. H.). It is true that both sorts show the triangle-bands as decorative motive,
quot;if not always in the same proportion and division, but the latter sort show no double
quot;heads, if many other decorative motives : birds, ships of the dead, human figures, etc.
quot;Also the ears are placed differently (two and two together). The slender model never
quot;shows the frogs (rain-callers?) which in the case of the short model sometimes sit on the
quot;cover. It is now remarkable that, as far as I know, outside Indonesia, only the short
quot;model occurs while in the Archipelago both sorts are met with and that, for example,
quot;the drums of Alor which are certainly of later date than the others, alone possess the
quot;slender model. In my opinion, this shows that the short model is the original and oldest
\'form and that it was already in use on the continent before the Malayo-Polynesians
\'penetrated into the Archipelago. The slender model must then have been a variation,
.which either originated m the Archipelago itself or was a speciality of those Further
Indian peoples who swarmed into the East Indian Archipelago. The former seems to me
most probable.quot;nbsp;, , , i i ,

.. .quot;It is typical also that with the later drums of Alor, the double head makes way

quot;Summing up, therefore, we can not constate that the kettle-drums as such first
originated in the East Indian Archipalago, but we can constate that there is every reason
„for believing that the long, slender type of these objects is an Indonesian variation, while
./t is certain that such drums were cast in the East Indian Archipelago. In short the
Malayo-Polynesians brought with them from their native country the art of casting these
drums, an art which they continued to apply here, whilst variations in the model arose
.The drums found here in the Archipelago, therefore, will certainly for the greatest

So far the communication of Dr. Grucq. We found it so interestmg that we gkd y
^vail ourselves of his permission to print it in extenso. It is seen that it renders debatable
the opinion of Rouffaer that the drums in the Archipelago were all imported from Indo-Chma
, We cannot treat here, or even mention, all the literature on the kettle-drum. We must
draw attention, however, to the fine book by Dr. A. B. Meyer and Dr. W. Foy. In this

book, the kettle-drums are classified, not in four, but in six types, although here also the
type with which we are dealing is regarded as the most ancient. On page 18, we find:
quot;Gefunden werden sie im Indischen Archipel, aber das sie dort nicht gemacht sind ist
quot;selbstverständlich.quot; The writers then seek further the origin of this type of drum in
the following way: On the drums of Saleier are peacocks and elephants. The drums,
therefore, must originally have been made in a country where both animals were common.
The authors find this country in Further India and South China. According to Chinese
reports, these drums were already in existence in the year 43 A.D. At that time there
lived in the territory mentioned:

the Khmer in Lower Siam, Camboja and Lower-Cochinchina;
the Annamites in Tonkin, North Siam and in the East of the present independent
Shan States;

the Barmans along the middle courses of the Irawadi and to the West of that river,
and probably also in Aracan;

the Tai (Shan) peoples in South China, and perhaps also in Further India along the
Saloeen.

The writers then state further that the drums must have been made in a coastal
district, as ships, very probably sea-ships, occur on them and come to the conclusion,
on various geographical grounds, that they must have originated with the Khmer in
Camboja-deca.nbsp;, ^

The peacock is further interpreted as the sun-bird and is associated with the sun,
often represented on the upper surface of the drums; the frogs sitting on the drum are
symbols of water and associated with rain-magic.

Finally we would refer here to the standard work of Heger also quoted by Golou-
bew and Rouffaer. This writer classifies the drums in four types. The drum of the Batoe-
gadjah belongs clearly to the type quot;Heger Iquot;. The second part of this work contains a
great number of beautiful and very clear illustrations of various kettle-drums and of the
decorative motives occurring on them, the development of which is very precisely traced.

There are various indications that seem to demonstrate that one bronze culture
spread itself over Further India, Malacca and Insulinde. During our stay in the Pasemah,
we bought from the inhabitants a number of bronze arm- and leg rings, which were exca-
vated in a sawah near the doesoen Tegoerwangi, and elsewhere. Illustrations of several
of these are given in 111. 217 and 220. Some of these show as decoration small double
spirals in quot;reliefquot;, with a small knob on the central point of the spirals (111. 220). This
same decoration occurs on various bronzes from Dong-son, illustrated in the above-
mentioned article by Goloubew. Others are plain, have an opening and correspond with
similar rings found by Dr. Van Stein Callenfels in Bali.

Rings of the same kind were also found near Martapoera (Sub-department Ogan and
Komering-hoeloe). One was shown to me by the Assistant-Resident in his office at

Batoeradja, together with a bronze axe found at the same place, a so-called quot;Tullenaxtquot;,
without an ear. Van Heekeren found near the megaliths of Besoeki a number of copper
and bronze arm-rings and a small gold ring.

The view that there is a connection between the arm-rings from the Pasemah and
the bronze culture of Indo-China, is supported by the following : The quantitative analysis
of a fragment of one of these arm-rings from the Pasemah had the following result :

One is immediately struck by the very high lead percentage m this analys^. This
now is just a point of agreement with the ancient bronze kettle-drums of the type Heger 1.
Heger writes as follows:nbsp;. , r^. . .

quot;Wenn wir nur die drei Hauptbestandteile, nämlich Kupfer, Blei und Zinn ms Auge
lassen, so erhalten wir fur:

.. quot;Von den Trommeln des Typus III gelang es mir nicht, ein stück zur Analyse zu

... quot;pie ob\'igen Zahlen sprechen für sich. Wenn wir nur d^ drei Typen I, H^d IV
..ins Auge fassen, so ist die Legierung der Trommeln vom Typus I die Kupferarmste,
jene vom Typus IV die Kupferreichste, Typus II steht da in der Mitte zwischen beiden.

to JL Pnbsp;of the quot;Koninklijke Vereeniging Koloniaal Instituuf\' at Amsterdam was kind enough

quot;Was den Bleigehalt anbelangt, so sind die Trommeln vom Typus I daran am reich-
quot;sten, jene vom Typus IV (der eigentlich chinesische Typus) am ärmsten. Typus II steht
quot;wieder zwischen beiden in der Mitte.quot;

Heger notes further that the drums possess no zinc and that the high percentage of
lead also occurs in old Chinese coins of this period.

We have, therefore, three indications of a connection between the arm-rings from the
Pasemah and the ancient kettle-drums from Indo-China: (1) the place of discovery,
Tegoerwangi, close to the megaliths; (2) the double-spiral decoration motive and (3)
the high percentage of lead.

It was in South Sumatra also, near Korintji, that the beautiful bronze urn (111. 218—
219) was excavated which is now in the Museum at Batavia. It is remarkable that this
urn again shows very finely the decoration of the double spiral.

Finally we may mention that we also found bronze fragments in one of the stonecist
graves of Tegoerwangi and that Mr. De Bie found a bronze plate in a grave of the same
kind at Oedjanmas (page 52 and 111. 176).

We would just supplement the statement made by Rouffaer with regard to the use
made of the kettle-drums, by the following:

The middle-sized models were used as war-drums and were carried by the warriors
on the back, as is apparent from the Batoegadjah; we have learnt from the excavations in
Indo-China that the smallest models were destined for burial with the dead. This latter
custom prevailed in Netherlands-India; proof of this is the small kettle-drum made of
baked clay, which is now in the Museum at Batavia.

The swords occurring on the images of the Pasemah show, without exception, two
very characteristic features:

(1)nbsp;They are bilateral symmetrical. If you draw a line over the middle of the sword,
the two halves thus formed are exactly the same. Through this characteristic, these swords
resemble the Roman swords and are sharply distinct from the sabre and from the various
weapons still customary in India, such as the klewang, mandau, kris, rentjong, etc.

(2)nbsp;They are very short. The sword of the Batoegadjah, for example, reaches no
farther than the knee of the soldier who wears it. Moreover, all the swords are very broad,
so that they make a blunt impression.

The symmetrical form of sword also occurs on the Hindu-Javanese reliefs, but there
they are longer and thinner than those of the Pasemah. The symmetrical, broad and short
sword (dagger) is a weapon met with in various parts of the earth in the bronze period.

(4)nbsp;The occidental (France, Great Britain, Belgium, Switserland, South Germany
and Bohemia.

(6)nbsp;The Scandinavian (Scandinavia, Denmark, North Germany, a part of Finland).

Of these seven provinces two, viz. the first and the seventh, are associated with the
Orient. In all these provinces, bronze swords and daggers are found. Frequently these
weapons show a great similarity with the swords from the Pasemah. In North Syria, for
example, a bronze dagger was found near Shamra, on the coast opposite to Cyprus, «)
which corresponds in every respect to the sword of Pematang 3 (111. 36). It is remarkable
that cup-holed stones, pierced stelae and carnelian beads, were also found during these
investigations.

Between the genuine daggers of the bronze period, which are very short, measurmg
with the hilt only 30 c.M. and the genuine long swords which may have a length of about
90 C.M., is the intermediary form, the quot;Kurzschwertquot; of between 50 and 60 c.M. If the
proportions of the images in the Pasemah are correct, the weapons represented there must
be short swords of that description. It is also possible that the sculptors have made the
weapons somewhat too large in order to bring them out more distmctly, in which case
they may represent daggers. Certainly they are not the long, thin swords such as we know

In discussing the kettle-drum we referred to the fact that Goloubew describes swords
from Dong-son and other places in Indo-China, the form of which reminds one strongly
of those of the Pasemah. In 111. 222 we give several bronzes of Indo-China and m 111. 221,
for purposes of comparison, sword forms from the Pasemah. It is remarkable that the
peculiar quot;shoe formquot; of the knob of the hilt of Goenoeng Megang (111. 221) again occurs

^ The most typical feature of the images in the Pasemah is the helm there repesented.
These helms have, practically speaking, all the same form. The crown is smooth without
f comb and corresponds with the form of the head. Only in one case, viz. that ot 1 inggi-
hari 6, does the helm bear two projections with holes. The front of the helm fits closely
to the forehead and is set off with a small boarder in „reliefquot; which curves downwards
over the temples. The back of the helm has always a projecting peak which apparently
serves to protect the neck. Sometimes this neck protection projects rather tar out and

At the present time, various peoples of the Archipelago wear helmet-shaped head-
gear, sometimes made of metal, sometimes of plaited rattan, provided or not with a hnmg
and which often suggest Portuguese or Dutch influence. We found none, however, which
[esembles the helms of the Pasemah. In Indo-China, however, a prehistoric bronze helm
has been found (see 111. 222). This helm was presented by M. d A^gence to the Ecole
;^rancaise d\'Extreme Orientquot; and was excavated in the province of Nmh-bmh (lonkinj.
This bronze helm reminds one strongly of several helms of the Pasemah when one regards
these from behind and a little to one side. Although photographs, which the Director
of the E. F. E. O. was kind enough to send us, showed a form slight y different from
the helms from South-Sumatra, we consider it probable that the sculptors of South
Sumatra used such bronze helms as a model. It is remarkable that the same collection
large cylindrical bronze bracelet excavated in the province of Ha-dong (I onkmj,

when one considers that such cyHndrical arm-cuffs also frequently occur with the images
of the Pasemah (see page 74).

Finally, we may mention that Goloubew gives an illustration of a bronze ceremonial-
axe, which we reproduce in 111. 222. Axes of this form are also known in the Archipelago;
the Museum at Batavia contains several.

When we now consider, on one side, the images of the Pasemah and the bronze
remains found in South Sumatra and other parts of the Archipelago, and on the other side,
the bronze culture of Indo-China, then we may safely assert that the sculptors of the
Pasemah had a bronze culture corresponding with that of Indo-China. It may be explained
thus that the bronze objects were exported to South Sumatra from Indo-China. The
number and variety of the bronze objects, however, found in the archipelago but more
especially the communication made by Dr. Crucq (page 88) make it more probable
that the art of casting in bronze was also exercised in the Archipelago itself.

Megaliths were not found in Tonkin nor in its vicinity, as far as we know, with one
exception:

In 1909, at Sa-Huynh (Quang-ngai) in Annam, a depot of about 200 urns was
discovered. Later another depot of 120 urns was found. Near these depots was a tumulus
which contained a rectangular stone chamber, 7 metres long and 3.30 metres broad. This
chamber was constructed of large, upright stone slabs, with smaller stones between.
The axis of longitude lay East-West. In the East wall was a door and a short distance in
front of it, a sort of wind-screen made of similar stone slabs. A short stone corridor, partly
destroyed, led from the North corner of the West wall. The description does not mention
how the chamber was covered.

Parmentier, who writes the description, thinks that the stone chamber and the urn
depots must date from the same period. The urns contained numerous beads, fragments
of a simple bronze arm-ring and iron debris. He is of opinion that the findings must be
of later date than the stone period — as is apparent from remains of bronze and iron —
but earlier than the Chams.

Before concluding our consideration of the outward aspect of the images, we might
point out that it is not unprobable that stone implements were used in the work of exe-
cution. This possibility was also brought forward by Westenenk. It is very possible
that in East India, as in Further India, the bronze period lasted only a short time, and
that during this time, many neolithic tools were used. (Compare the article of Goloubew
quoted by us.) Although we ourselves during our investigations did not find such tools,
we had little trouble in collecting about thirty stone axes or chisels from the inhabitants
of the Pasemah and neighbourhood. These are now in the Museum at Batavia. These
objects are called by the population quot;gigi njaroequot; which means quot;tooth of the lightningquot;.
The natives frequently find them when tilling the soil and attach great value to them as a
panacea against sickness. The axes are made of several very hard sorts of stone, and
suitable for working the soft stone of the images, as an experiment we made proved.
A number of the axes we collected are given in 111. 223.

d)nbsp;Regarding\' such stone implements, see Kleiweg de Zwaan, page 569 (Survey of Bibliography).

It would appear, however, from the finding of quot;Controleurquot; Batenburg, that in the
Pasemah, as in Indo-China, iron was already known. It is therefore possible that the sculp-
tors employed iron tools. If stone implements have been used these must have been
rougher, heavier and less finely executed than those we collected.

And now, after considering the outward appearance of the images, we are confronted
with the great problem: what did these monuments signify?

To this question, Westenenk had an answer ready at hand : quot;The impression received

quot;is not that the images were used for purposes of worship. They seem to be exclusively an

quot;expression of art, of the desire to create.quot; One might ask on what this opinion is based.
Westenenk adduces no arguments whatever to support his assertion. Even if at the present
time, there were nothing in the images to suggest that they were used for purposes of worship,
this would not exclude the possibility of their formerly having been used for such a purpose.
Moreover, a short investigation revealed the fact that several of the images stand m the
proximity of graves, and others near dolmen or upright stones.nbsp;i • ,

When one stands before one of these great images of the Pasemah, sculptured with
so much care and devotion and attempts to imagine how much labour and how much
time it must have cost to erect and complete such a colossus, the impression received is

It is not necessary to adopt the extreme standpoint, a standpoint which, atter Keinach,
seems to have become more or less fashionable, viz. that with the primitives all art must
be associated with religion or magic, to think in a case like this of something more than
\'an expression of art, of the desire to create.quot;

There are, however, more positive indications in this direction. We have already refer-
red to the existence of graves and megaliths in the vicinity of several images. In addition
to this, there are in the Archipelago and at a comparatively short distance from the Pase-
mah, ethnological parallels which make it very probable that the images of the bouth
bumatra type must be conceived as ancestral images.nbsp;t^ \\t •

^ „ In the Batak-Lands, stone ancestral images of recent date are known Dr. Van Stem
Gallenfels gives a description of such images from Pananggalan, Salak, Si Aboe, Djamboe
and Si Antar. These are images of men and women on horses and elephants, and also
without a riding-animal. They were comparatively recently erected for deceased rajahs,
f er the last great festival of the dead. A group of such images, from Name Bintang
Sub-Department Toentoengan, Department Boven-Deh, was depicted by Van Stem
Gallenfels and transported to the Deli Museum. In their style, these images differ some-
what from those of South Sumatra.nbsp;, M T D

A model of such a Batak image was sent by quot;Controleurquot; E. L- Rouveroy van
Nieuwaal, to the Bataviaasch Genootschap, with a statement that such images were in
reality hfe-size; the women were represented sitting on a rice-mortar, the men on horse-
back. The name given to these images is quot;partoekanquot; or quot;partanda .

Small stone images from the Batak Lands may be seen m the collections in the Museum
Batavia, the Colonial Institute at Amsterdam, and in the Batak Museum near Brastagi.

Meerwaldt also describes such images but with another name. He writes: quot;The
quot;inhabitants of Nai Pospos, a piece of country between Silindoeng and Baros, seem to be
quot;skilled in the art of carving grave stones. An example of their art, which is about ten
quot;years old, will be found in the village of Rampa, near kilometre stone 11, situated on the
quot;way from Siboga to Silindoeng. It is the image of a horse and rider, of which the horse
quot;has a fearfully long head, with lips curled back.quot;

It seems, however, that the stone images of the Bataks must not always be conceived
as ancestral-images. Joustra, indeed, writes:^) quot;Although also known elsewhere, the
quot;pangoeloehalang seems to have played a more important role in Central Batakland than
quot;in other parts; principally or perhaps exclusively in war. The pangoeloebalang is a
quot;rough stone image which contains, in a hollow, the substance possessed of magic power
quot;(in the Karoland poepoek; here it appears that it is also called pangoeloebalang), the
quot;preparation of which is accompanied by so much cruelty. For the most part, this sub-
quot; stance consists of pieces of a child which has been killed by pouring melted lead into its
quot;mouth, after it had promised to ruin the hereditary enemy of the tribe.quot;

Kramer, with respect to the well known wooden images of Nias, also makes a sharp
distinction between idols and ancestral images.

In Nias, a short time ago, in addition to the well known wooden images, large stone
ancestral images were made and regarded with veneration. With respect to them, Schröder
writes: quot;a neck-ring and an ear-pendant were regularly met with. A sword and an arm-
quot;ring were also represented; a head-covering, after the model of those in gold, was conti-
quot;nually seen. Besides these images, sculptured with great artistic skill, others were found
quot;in which human features were only vaguely indicated.quot; This last remark is important
in connection with the opinion we expressed (page 69) that in the Pasemah, the quot;Poly-
nesianquot; and other very primitive images belong to the same culture as those executed
with more care.

According to Schröder, the images in Nias chiefly represent men. The genitals are
frequently represented very distinctly, as was also the case with the small image we met
with in South Sumatra on the Ranau estate (III. 187).

We recall also the fact that in Nias, besides these stone images, upright stones and
recumbent stones also occur, the latter of which sometimes show resemblance to the

In Central Celebes, in the neighbourhood of the Posso Lake, in the mountainous
district of Besoa and Napoe, are a number of stone remains, partly described in 1898
by Dr. Matthes. In 1908, a more complete description with several illustrations, was
given by Kiliaan,/) with regard to which Kruyt made some notes, ß) The matter came
before the Bataviaasch Genootschap; the Assistant Resident of Central Celebes supplied
further information. Mr. Pleyte and Dr. Riedel spoke on the question at the meeting.
Later Dr. Kruyt published several articles on these remains.

c)nbsp;Kramer, page 473. On this question, read also Kruyt, a, page 439 and Rappard, page 580,

From these data it appears that the complex of megalithic remains near the Posso
Lake forms an important object of comparison for the remains in South Sumatra. In
Besoa and Napoe were found: stone images, large stone pots (funeral urns?), stones
with holes which were regarded by the inhabitants as stone rice-mortars, a stone table,
and a group of seven upright stones. We will touch repeatedly on these remains again
and will consider here the stone images more closely.

In the quot;Tydschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschapquot;, Kruyt writes : quot;I came
quot;across the greatest collection of these remains on the \'Pada pokekea\', at the foot of the
quot;Western mountains. Here stood twenty stone pots, large and small,quot; and further:
quot;Near the pots I also found three stone images, all in a recumbent position (fallen?);
quot;they had all about the same dimensions. Two of these images apparently (see below)
quot;represented men. The image of the woman is 1,60 M. long and measures 50 c.M. over the
quot;shoulders.quot; Further: quot;Finally, on the hill Boeleli, one finds another 4 pots and a little
quot;further down towards the plain, stands upright a large image of a man It measures ab(we
quot;the ground 1,75 M. and is 70 c.M. broad. The face is turned to the North. The To
quot;Besoa give this image the name of \'tadulako\', which means \'champion .

Further Kruyt writes: quot;In Napoe I found such remains only m one place, not to
quot;from Sabingka, at the foot of the Eastern mountains, near the slope of a hill called Tokeoba.
quot;There stands an image, rising 1,20 M. above the ground and with a breadth over the
quot;shoulders of 78 c.M. The image does not stand quite upright but heels^over. Several
quot;stones lie round the image, probably placed ;there in order to support it.

Kruyt states further that the present inhabitants attach practically no value to the
remains. Several legends are still prevalent among them but the information they are
able to give with regard tot the origin of these monuments, is as ittle rehable as what
we heard ourselves over the images in the Pasemah from the population there

From the illustrations, it is apparent that the images of Central Celebes
sculptured very roughly and in primitive fashion. They have no legs, a rather shape ess
trunk, no arms and very primitively shaped heads. In the case of the first ^^age, breasts
are clearly visible, and between them an object which suggests a penis
although the position is then inexplicable. Below is a square hole, s^^b as also occu^^^^
in the images of the Bataks. The second image distinctly shows f ^PP^^^\'^^^^^^
agam occurs the penis-shaped object, with right and left two hook-shaped cur^ ^^
navel. The third image shows - as far as one can see - only the P-n^\'^h^^^^
(again on the breast) with the two curls. In the case of the image of the male hgure, a

Grubauer gives illustrations and descriptions of images at Watutau^) and at Bomba )

and describes a defaced image at quot;Buliliquot;.nbsp;, j j ....llJna «^Hahtlv

Upright stones, on which a human face has been sculptured,
the images from Central Celebes, were also found in New Gumea, on the Empress Augusta
victoria River.«)

a) Kruyt, b.
o; Grubauer, page 487.
1 G-^ubauer, page 512.
ei p ^^^auer, page 517.

The same stone was mentioned again by Haddon, as follows : quot;In one area of the
quot;Sepik, in the open space in front of a ceremonial house, is a mound of earth surrounded
quot;by vertical slabs of wood, the central and front one of which is higher than the others,
quot;and is decorated with a large, deeply carved human face; this or other boards may be
quot;surmounted by an elongated conical projection. Associated with these railed-in mounds
quot;are standing stones forming a row or partially surrounding the mound. The mound
quot;has not previously been recorded and there are only two mentions of the stones. Reche,
quot;in 1913, gave a less clear photograph of that seen in Fig. 11 \'from 293 kilometre village\'

quot;(now known as Angerman)____Ghinnery (1927), describing the neighbouring village

quot;of Mindimbit, says that, facing one of the ceremonial houses, are eight rough standmg
quot;stones, kamhak, of great antiquity; each has a name, seven are standing and the fallen
quot;one is called \'mindibit\'. Father Kirschbaum told Ghinnery that these stones play some
quot;part in the sacrificial rites of the people; human flesh is not eaten, but a portion of the
quot;body of a person killed is laid beneath one of the stones. Ghinnery adds : \'Similar standmg
quot;stones are to be seen in other villages but, in each case, their origin is obscure\'.quot;

We have seen that images occur in South Sumatra which absolutely agree with the
so-called quot;Polynesianquot; images or images of the quot;Padjadjaran-typequot; in Java. An inclusive
description of these Javanese images has not hitherto been given. A number of them have
been transported to the Museum at Batavia (See 111. 224 and 225). From an archaeological
point of view this is to be regretted, for exact data as to the original location of the material
is generally lacking. They have little value for a museum and if they had been allowed
to remain where found, they might have served as guides for further investigation and

Illustrations of these Javanese images are scattered in various works. Kinsbergen
gives the best collection of photographs. Professor Krom writes: 0 quot;Van Kinsbergen,
quot;like so many describers of Javanese remains, began in the West, with the result that
quot;more than a fifth of his collection is devoted to West-Javanese remains of very little impor-
quot;tance.quot; To this one-sidedness of van Kinsbergen, however, we owe the only fairly
extensive collection of photographs of these images.

Professor Krom^) writes as follows over the Polynesian images : quot;In the case of the
quot;Polynesian remains hitherto discussed, we have found no trace of direct Hindu influence.
quot;This is the case, however, with a latter category of remains, originating from the indigenous
quot;inhabitants of Java, which evidently still remained in honour, also when foreign influence
quot;had already made itself felt. We refer to the stepped terraces and elevated sacred places
quot;situated against the sides of the mountains, Kaboejoetans and such-like, which are to be
quot;met with all over the island (we will refer to this again later on) but which have retained
quot;most of their original condition in those districts where the Hindu culture was least
quot;felt. Pointed stones set upright are frequently found and also rough images of human
quot;figures, generally misshapen, almost formless and exceeding all reasonable proportions.

d)nbsp;vln^KinsbeSS Nos. 22a—h, 24, 27, 28, 35, 36, 49, 51, 73, 74. See Oudheidkundig Verslag 1914, supplement D.

quot;Formerly, when they were still exclusively known in the Soenda Lands, the territory
quot;of the ancient kingdom of Padjadjaran, these sort of images went by the name of the
quot;Padjadjaran type; now that it is known that they occur not only over the whole of Java
quot;but also outside it, they are rightly called by the more general name of Polynesian images.
quot;It is clear that the sculptors of these artless products have not escaped the i^uence of
quot;the powerful civilisation which had spread over the plains. This is proved, in the first
quot;place, from the awkward attempts frequently made to make these images resemble proto-
quot;types from the Hindu pantheon. Gane9a, especially, seems to have exercised great
quot;influence. The second proof is still more instructive, and is supplied by the dates on a
quot;few of the images, dates in the characters of the Hindu-Javanese Kawi script. The most
quot;remarkable thing is that these dates are comparatively late, not earlier than the 14th
quot;century. From this may be deduced that these clumsy representations were executed,
quot;and the sacred places ornamented with them, during the resplendent period of the
quot;Madjapahit Kingdom and the last days of the Hindu-Javanese civilisation, and m any
quot;case, that it would be a great mistake to regard them as the products of the Javanese
quot;population when they first came into contact with the culture of the Hmdus, just arrived

Of interest is also what Professor Krom writes elsewhere:/) quot;One continued to
quot;execute rough stone images, which represented the ancestors, far into the Hindu period.
The Javanese Polynesian images also, therefore, are conceived as ancestral images.
. A very interesting report also on ancient native sculpture in Borneo was drawn up

1926 (published, with several photographs in 1929 in the Oudheidkundig Veplag
by Mr. A. M. Sierevelt, Captain of Infantry, in his quality as acting Controleur of Apo
Kajan (Borneo). Captain Sierevelt writes as follows: quot;Three quarters of an hour s walk
quot;upstream from Long Oeroe, on one of the islands in the Kajan (nearly abreast ot Long
;;Soengan, a right-bank tributary of the Kajan), the remains of an ancient grave were
found, made of roughly-worked soft stone, of gray exterior and bluish m colour where
.broken. Even the oldest men of Long Oeroe were unable to say fmm which tribe this

.grave originated. Enclosed photographs, six in number, show what, m my opinion, are tne
..pillars of the grave (The sixth was a plain, squarely capped long stone). These pillars
..bad to be excavated; they projected only about 30 c.M. above the ground. It is probable
..that they formerly stood on the ground, because at the bottom they were e^c^^^^^^^^^^
..heavy cobblestones, which probably served to prevent them from falling. Had the pillars
..originally stood in the ground, these cobbles, so it seems to me would not have been
..necessary. To give you some idea of the height, I may state that the pillars were 1 25 M.
..bigh. The roof of this sepulchral monument must have consisted of a
Jftmg on the flatly chiselled parts of the pillars (distinctly seen on Photo 2). The rem^n
..f the roof lay in fragments on the ground and will later be collected by me, an attempt
..to arrive at a reconstruction of the grave. The fragments of the coffin also of stone lay
..scattered in the vicinity. A completely intact coffin is reported on the Long Danoem
..(above Nawang) and this will be transported to Long Nawang, with a view to the recon-
struction of the grave. How it was possible to place a dead body m it, however, considering

quot;the small size, is not clear to me (folded or broken, perhaps, as is customary with some
quot;tribes, in order to render it possible to place a corpse in a martavaan

quot;On the Long Kedjanan (a left bank tributary of S. Kajan, not far down-stream
quot;from Long Kawang), visited by me last April in the company of the Assistant Resident
quot;for Boelongan Affairs, there lie the remains of a similar grave.quot;

Further, M. Sierevelt writes concerning several graves at Kajang Poera, hewn out
of the rocks: quot;traces were found in the rocks of human faces carved in a very primitive
quot;style, with large round eyes, large ears, with \'belahong\' (ear-ornaments) and a large
quot;grinning mouth. Above one of the graves, the eyes were hollowed out to form round
quot;holes in the rocks, which penetrated to the grave itself.quot; These are probably quot;soul-holes_ ,
openings through which the soul of the dead might pass, such as occur, for example, in

Further: quot;just above Data Genojan, on the right bank of the Kajan, a grave was
quot;found, corresponding with the remains of the grave above Long Oeroe, but more intact
quot;(see photo). The coping stone lay broken on the ground, while pieces had even b^n
quot;wantonly broken off the grave itself. In the undermost corner, the basin of the cothn
quot;had been purposely made to slope down a little, and a hole had been bored m this corner,
quot;probably in order to allow the fluids resulting from the decomposition of the body,

quot;On two opposite sides of one of the pillars, which are four m number, a human

quot;face had been roughly sculptured. The other pillars and the coffin itself, were unworked.
quot;The coffin proper gave me the impression of not being shaped from stone alone, but of
quot;a composition of stones, lime and clay. The broken edges gave the impression of a con-

ornamented with roughly sculptured quot;reliefquot; work, representing as far as can be seen,
human figures with large, distended ears and great round eyes. Part of the quot;relief work
cannot be explained from the photographs. Very remarkable are the two photographs
of the pillar of a grave at Lepo Bakong Long Poh. This pillar has the general form of the
images Tegoerwangi 8 (111. 147). It consists of a more or less pillar-shaped, upright stone.
The base is about quadrangular. On one angle, a human figure has been sculptured m
relief; the figure begins about the middle of the stone and ends just under the top. 1 he
figure sits with knees drawn high up and bent outwards; the arms are raised. The head
shows the characteristics above mentioned. The opposite angle of the stone has been
hollowed out to form a vertical groove which, as is also the case with the images of Tegoer-
wangi, does not extend to the base. The upper side is also flat.

From the statement and the photographs of Mr. Sierevelt, a probable explanation
of the stone images of Tegoerwangi is that these four images must have stood at the four
corners of a square or rectangle, with the sculptured work turned outward and with the
grooves towards the centre of the square. On these images would have rested the stone
plate which now lies in fragments in the Siring Agong, as was presumed by Professor
van Eerde during his visit. This stone must then have served to close a stone sarcophagus,
no longer present, which stood with its four corners in the four grooves of the images.

Perhaps the trough Ranau 2 (page 58 and 111. 188) has formed part of a grave of the

Concerning ancestral images, one can also find much that is important m Kruyt s
book quot;Animismequot; -), but it would take too much space here to give extracts from his
book. We will, therefore, simply refer the reader to it.

We have already referred to the analogy that exists between some images n South
Sumatra and similar images discovered by van Heekeren m Besoeki m the vicinity of
megaliths and a stonecist. It might be appropriate to mention here that vaquot; Heeke en
also gives a\'description, with a photo, «) of a human figure sculptured ^^f ^ ^e

Borneo. lt;i) We had no opportunity of finding out, but it would be worth wb e to ascertam

whether the relief of Tebatsibentoer, in the Pasemah (page 19) ^^J^^^Xlsland
Van Heekeren gives sketches of such reliefs from Besoeki, ^PO-Kaj^. Easto I^
and the Solomon Islands. It would carry us too far ho^quot;;,nbsp;^^^

to New Guinea, Melanesia and the more remote islands of the
sculpture work is everywhere found. We consider such
only when they are based on very detailed descriptions and \'quot;f f^

sculpture in différât places, is in itself no proof that these works belong he same cu^

excavations on a large scale are necessary and hitherto this has not been done, at least

, We forget also too easily the factor of distance in these
when data are jotted down on small survey-maps. The marks ^eno ^
then naturally lie close together, thus easily suggesting an association which is by no

quot;Lesoengbatoequot; is the name given by the inhabitants to the stones containing one or
more hollows, and of which we found about twenty. For the sake of expediency we have
called them by their native name, and also because various doesoens where such a stone
lies or perhaps formerly has lain, bear this name.

These stones generally have a flattened upper-surface, around which runs an upright
border. In this upper surface one or more hollows have been made, each with a diameter of
about 15 C.M., and as deep. Where there is more than one hollow, the upper-surface of
the stone is divided by upright borders into as many sections as there are hollows. Only
in one case, the upper-surface of the stone was not made flat (111. 134). Once, the upright
borders have been worked to represent snakes twisted together (111. 97). Once the stone
has been worked into the shape of a buffalo\'s head (111. 70).. Sometimes immense blocks
of stone have been used in making the lesoengbatoe (111. 125).

The question now arises: for what purpose were these stones used. The native name
signifies quot;stone rice-mortarquot;. This tells us very little, however, as these stones clearly
were not made by the present population, were not used by them, and as far as human
memory can go back, have not been used.

Rice-mortars they cannot have been. The hollows are much too small for that, as is
immediately apparent when one compares them with the wooden rice-mortars generally
used. Stone rice-mortars, indeed, are met with in the Archipelago, inter alia in Bali.
Nieuwenkamp gives a sketch of several in a compound at Singaradja. The difference in
shape, however, from the lesoengbatoe, strikes you at once.

We learned also that rice-mortars of stone were made a short time ago at Malang in
Java, but could not ascertain if this was still so.

It is possible that the lesoengbatoe were mortars (in Malay, lesoeng or loempang),
which served to bruise other foods than rice. At the present time, stone mortars are found
everywhere in Indian kitchens and in the shops where they sell kitchen utensils. In the
price-list of a shop in The Hague, where Indian dishes were sold, we even found
quot;loempang batoequot; offered at fl. 1,75. These mortars, however, differ in shape from the
lesoengbatoe; they are much smaller and have only one hollow, which hollow is less
deep and has more the form of a basin. As a whole, also, it is much smaller. The exterior

of the stone is also dressed so that the loempang has the form of a little basin or of a

We learned, however, that in the Padang Highlands ,n Sumatra, the populatioquot;
make loempangs which consist of a natural stone. By preference, a stone is selected with
a somewhat flat upper surface. In this upper surface a hole is made c°quot;esp°ndmg
with the hollows in the lesoengbatoe. These loempangs have no more than one hollow^
Stones in the form of the lesoengbatoe are found also m other parts of India, and then

stones, and a round stone with a hole, around which is a square frame-work Van Heeke-
ren\'), also found in Besoeki quot;stones with a hole which narrowed
quot;propably used in husking a species of grain.quot; He gives a ph°tog™ph f
but it is evidently not of the type described by Stemmetz, as it is spherical and has not

found beside a dolmen (to be discussed later) in the fen^ng Mountains in^so^^^^
and which he describes as follows: quot;a stone wrth a flat side J^f aj^ole had b^en
quot;made, with a diameter of about 15 c.M. at the top, and

quot;for bruising ricequot;, \'i) Later, Kruyt reports further that thenbsp;th ^

upright border^) - thus exactly corresponding with the lesoengbatoe. J^ruyt was o

the opinion that these stones served to husk a sort oi S^fain.nbsp;„(est care, and

, The fact that the lesoengbatoe are sometimes finished ^^ Jf^j ^
tbit they are frequently found in the neighbourhood of gravennbsp;j^^^^f

\'njght lead to the supposition that these objects themsdv^ ^s^^^^^
religious ritual, for example, sacrificial stones. Among Aed^wmgs made by ^

referred to above, there is one, however, of a stone rice mortar wn cnnbsp;^
^culpture work in the form of a tortoise. Further, we

the settlements have disappeared, the megaliths and tl^enbsp;^^ound for
found together. Until the contrary is proved, it seems to us that there

«) Steinmetz, page 18.
i Heekeren, page 14,
Hubenet,
Kruyt,b, page 1339.
«I Kniyt,e, page 5.

It is probable that the workmen, finding a large stone in their settlement, let it lie
where it was and simply made a hole in it. This is specially clear in the case of the lesoeng-
batoe in 111. 134 (Oedjanmas 1). In a more finished form, the lesoengbatoe had a flat
upper surface and an upright border. The large lesoengbatoe with several holes, such as
given in 111. 125 (Goenoengmegang 12) were perhaps used in common by several fami-
lies or by a whole village. In the villages in Dutch East India, one still finds large wooden
rice mortars with several hollows, which do not serve one family but belong to the village
community.

In any case, we will not conclude this chapter without pointing out that this inter-
pretation of the lesoengbatoe as mortars for grain, is nothing more than a hypothesis,
and that no evidence which could support it is forthcoming either in South Sumatra,
Selebes or East Java. It is remarkable that one of the stones of Stonehenge, in England,
shows two hollows which, when we examined them closer, absolutely corresponded
with the holes in the lesoengbatoe. Also with regard to Stonehenge, divergence of opinion
exists as to whether these hollows should be regarded as mortars for grain or as sacri-
ficial cups for liquid or other offerings.

The troughs also, of which we found twelve, constituted a repeatedly recurring
phenomenon. They always lay, or where they had been removed, had lain, in the vicinity
of megalithic monuments, whilst their ornamentation, whenever they had any, was wholly
in the style of the images.

Concerning these objects, what we learned from the inhabitants was as little reliable
as the information they imparted with regard to the lesoengbatoe. Once, indeed, we were
told that they were quot;loempangquot;, that is, mortars, and it was explained that something had
been ground or rubbed within them, with a round stone. When I asked my informant,
however, if he had actually seen this done, or had heard of its being done formerly, he
was obliged to answer in the negative.

During his visit, Professor Van Eerde was told that the troughs resembled wooden
bowls in which yarns were dyed in former times, when the art of weaving — unfortunately
no longer extant — was still practised in the Pasemah. This explanation, however, seems
rather unsatisfactory.

Inspecting the troughs, one can see immediately that they must have cost much time
and labour. This is very evident in the case of the trough Pageralam 3 (111. 68). This fact
justifies the supposition that the objects must have been in some way associated with
religion or with the ritual for the dead.

Possibly they should be regarded as sacrificial bowls; they may also be conceived
as coffins for bones. They are too small to have served as coffins for a complete dead body,
but it is quite possible that they formed a receptacle for the bones. The dimensions make
this theory plausible. The interior of the trough Pageralam 3 is 104 c.M. long, 18 broad
and 8 deep; the two of Goenoengmegang measure 73 by 25 by 9. Against the theory,
however, there is the fact that lids were never found, although the troughs of Goenoeng-
megang (111. 115 and 116) and that of Tebatgoenoeng (111. 44) show respectively an
exterior and an interior rabbet.

If these troughs really served as cofiEns for bones, the question arises, what is the
connection between them and the stone cists. Were the stone cists perhaps used for the
first burial and the troughs for the second? This would explain why no remains of bones
— not even teeth — were ever found in the stone cists. Or did the stone cists and the
troughs represent two different systems of burial? In that case, the question again arises
whether the two systems prevailed synchronously or whether the one is older than the

In the literature on the subject, we find the following references to troi^hs of this
type in other places in the Archipelago: Among the megaliths of Besoeki, Van Heekeren )
describes sarcophaguses which must greatly resemble these troughs, as follows: I he
quot;simple stone cist consists of an oblong, deep cofhn on which the bulging cover fits;
quot;the outside is rough owing to decay but the inside is smooth. It appears that the head
;\'of the stone coffin generally lies on the East, and the foot on the West side. The cover
quot;is hollowed out, but much less deep than the coffin itself. The coffins themselves are
quot;sometimes very shallow and of such small dimensions (there are some under a metre
length) that the question arises whether they should really be regarded as coffins
and not as a sort of water trough. The covers are generally found lying m the vicinity.
.\'They might possibly be coffins for children. With the most simple form of sarcophagus,

^ This description shows points of agreement with the troughs of the Pasemah.^ n
gesoeki, however, covers were found, whilst none were discovered m the Pasemah. m
Besoeki not only very small, but also very large sarcophaguses are met with, whilst those

The sarcophaguses of Besoeki also show ornamental work, ^^^h regard to this
Van Heekeren writes: quot;Various coffins or fragments of the

..povers, show engravings. In the desa Kretek, on the slopes of the U. J5eser, there
gt; a broken but clearly Lognisable cover of a sarcophagus engraved ^ith crossed ^
.whilst in the desa Kemoeningan there is a fragment of a «ar^Phagus on whi^^^^^
.;very primitive human figures are engraved, both with pointed beard and large round
eyes. .nbsp;1 • •

.. ^ quot;The geometrical figures engraved on fragments at Toenggoelangm and consi^^^^^^^
..of concentric circles, semi-circles, equilateral triangles, etc. are on a much higher ^ane.
..Steinmetz states that one of these figures is well known as a pattern for h^ti^^o^^
..under the name of Kawoeng, whilst the two others resemble those foun^ m ™
..by Dr. Herman ten Kate, on dolmen-like graves. These figures look to me as ^engraved
..on plaster-work. The surface on which they have been executed is of a dark reddish
brown colour.nbsp;j / \\ \'1

quot;Another method of decoration employed was to sculpture human and (or) ammal
tigures \'en reliefnbsp;,nbsp;r j

.. quot;They were not always sculptured on the same place. S^etimes they a^^^^^^^
..on the cover, sometimes on the coffin itself, but also occasionally at the head, or the toot
ot the sarcophagus.

quot;In the desa of Kretek, there is a large coffin, the East side of which contains the
quot;following figures :

quot;In total, five human figures, whilst a sixth was found by Steinmetz on a fragment
quot;which had been broken off. Further, two figures of animals, one of which is probably a
quot;tiger crouching for the spring, whilst the other might represent a bird of prey, with

So far Van Heekeren. Comparing his photographs with our findings m the Pasemah,
it is evident that the ornamental work on the stone cists of Besoeki differs in style from
the sculpture work of the Pasemah.

Steinmetz writes that he took two stones which he saw from a distance, for quot;tela-
waksquot;, that is, water-troughs (or what the Javanese of to-day regard as such). Unfortuna-
tely he gives no description of these quot;water-troughsquot;; possibly they are the same obje9ts
described by Van Heekeren as small sarcophaguses?

The supposition that the troughs were used for the interment of bones finds strong
support in Schroder\'s book dealing with Nias.

In Nias, according to this writer, both definite and temporary interment are common.
In the latter, which especially occurs in Central Nias, the bones are exhumed after ^ a
certain time; the skull is then either preserved at home or deposited in a quot;skull tombquot;.
There are three varieties of skull tombs : (1) a flat stone, also regarded as an abode for the
spirit of the deceased; the skull can be deposited under it, as the flat stone rests on several
smaller stones\'\'); (2) stone pyramids, one to two metres high; (3) stone troughs with
cover. Schröder gives a photograph (111. 214) of this last description of skull tomb, from
which it appears that such troughs, in shape and dimensions, strongly resemble the troughs
of the Pasemah. The tomb illustrated contains a skull, two Chinese plates and a cocoa-nut
and is without ornament. \'=)

According to Hutton, some of the Sema-Naya tribes (Assam) practise the same form

Of upright stones, (menhirs.) stones evidently set up by human hands, many were
found, both singly and in groups. Such stones, not arranged in a palpable group or
figure, are:

(2)nbsp;The quot;stelequot;, (formerly standing upright) Tinggihari 1. decorated with reliej
work. (111. 15.)

.(3) In the vicinity, we find large, oblong stones which probably formerly stood
upright, such as the stone lying before the image Tinggihari 6. (111. 20.)

(4)nbsp;Small, upright stones are found on and near the terrace grave near Mingkik.
(111. 48.)

(6)nbsp;Near Oedjanmas stand three upright stones. (111. 136.)nbsp;^ i r , ,
^ (7) We found several more near Tegoerwangi, on the often mentioned field.

this field, various other stones are lying which perhaps formerly stood upright, borne
of the stones here have been placed in a row (see Map XI), although it is not certam
whether this was purposely done. (111. 137 and 138.)

We learned that on the road leading from Tandjoengenim to Soegiwarp, an upright
stone stands near kilometre-stone 204. but we had no opportunity of verifying the report.

If we now in the first place consider the neighbourhood in which these stones were
toun^ we notice the following:nbsp;,nbsp;j i . ^

The stone of Karangdalem is encircled by cup-marked stones, and sculptured.
It stands only 4 km to the South of the doesoen Djati. where the image now standing m
l^hat was found and where also again a cup-marked stone was found, and 4 km JN.JN.li.
ot the Boekit Beringin Ketjil. where stands a lesoengbatoe and a group ot images,
itnbsp;n^ar Tinggihari lies near the well known image-group there and is

The stones on and near the grave of Mingkik are very small. There are no im^ages
near the graves, although these are found near the doesoens Airdingin and Nandmg.

respectively 5 km to the N.E. and 5 km to the S.W., whilst the image-park of Pematang
lies at about the same distance in a northerly direction.

The three stones near Oedjanmas lie close to three lesoengbatoe. In the doesoen,
we found the remains of a stonecist, and no more than three km distant, lies the sawah
ground of Tegoerwangi with its images, dolmen and stonecist graves; on this sawah also
stand the stones mentioned sub 7.

The upright stone of Batoeberak stands near a dolmen, whilst in the vicinity there
are otherquot; dolmen. Images of the genuine South-Sumatra type were not found in this
neighbourhood. The only works of sculpture in the vicinity are the small quot;Polynesianquot;
image near Ranau and the already mentioned quot;lizard stonequot; on the upper reach of the
Semangka (See further page 59).

From the above, we think that we are justified in concluding that the discovery
of upright stones in the Pasemah is not due to mere accident but that they for the most
part must be classed with the same megalithic culture, to which also the images, dolmen
and stonecist graves belong, even if some, for example those near Tjoeroep, may be of
later date.

Wherever megalithic culture has existed, we nearly always find upright stones.
They are very numerous in France, more especially in Morbihan (South coast of Brittany),
and the name menhir given to these stones by the inhabitants there, has been generally
adopted as the archaeological term to denote such monuments. It is no matter for surprise
that many attempts were made to discover the original purpose of the menhirs. In the
earliest work on megaliths, in which the subject is comprehensively dealt with, the some-
what ancient but still interesting work by Fergusson, several theories are already offered.
Discussing the menhirs in Europe, he thinks of tomb-stones and also of memorial stones
erected after a battle.

Most interesting is what he writes about menhirs found in the Khassia hills, between
the valley of the Brahmaputra and the plain of Sylhet, North-East of the Ganges delta.
These menhirs are not old; at least many of them are not. Fergusson writes, following
Major Godwin Austen: quot;If any of the Khassia tribe falls ill or gets into difficulties, he
quot;prays to some one of his deceased ancestors, whose spirit he fancies may be able and
quot;willing to assist him. Father or mother, uncle or aunt,or some more distant relative,
quot;may do equally well, and to enforce his prayer, he vows that, if it is granted, he will
quot;erect a stone in honour of the deceased. This he never fails to perform, and if the cure
quot;has been rapid, or the change in the luck so sudden as to be striking, others address
quot;their prayers to the same person and more stones are vowed.quot; The description of Godwin
Austen dates from about the year 1869. Here the menhir seems to be a votive memorial.

In the Khassia hills menhirs are frequently met with, combined with short stone
rows and also standing beside a flat stone table. The latter combination, which Perry
calls a quot;dissolithquot; also occurs in our Archipelago. We will refer to it later. Perry deals
repeatedly with the Khassia in his works.

Buschan gives a survey of the megaliths in Assam and West Burma in the following

passage quot;): quot;Mit dem Totenkult und Jenseitsglauben hängen auch die in Assam und
quot;Westbirma und in einigen Gegenden Indonesiens häufigen megalithischen Denkmäler
quot;z. T. zusammen, weshalb sie an dieser Stelle besprochen sein mögen. Wichtiger als die
quot;megalithische Gräber (Steinkisten als Grüfte für die Aschenurnen bei den Khasi,^s
quot;Schädelbehälter auf Nias, mit Steinen belegte Erdhügel oder Steinplattformen bei
quot;einigen Nagastämmen) und als die da und dort vorkommenden eigentlichen Grabsteine
quot;sind die Steindenkmäler, die man zu Ehren eines Verstorbenen (aber mcht auf seinem
quot;grab) oder als Erinnerungszeichen für Opferfeste oder sonstige wichtige Begebenheiten
quot;errichtet. In Assam umfaszt das Verbreitungsgebiet der Megalithen die Wohnsitze der
quot;Garo, Khasi, Sinteng, Mikir, der westlichen Naga (Lhota, Rengma, Angami, und
quot;Nagastämmevon Manipur) und eines Teiles der Kuki-Tschin-Stämme. Wahrend die
quot;Steine im äuszersten Westen dieses Gebietes bei den Garo nur klein und teils üpier-
quot;steine für Götter, teils Denkmäler für gefallene Krieger sind, erreichen sie bei den ^asi
quot;und Sinteng eine gewaltige Grösze (vereinzelt bis 9 m Hohe) und dienen dort mit
quot;wenigen Ausnahmen dem Ahnenkult. Sie bestehen aus Menhirs, die stets m ungerader
quot;Zahl (drei, fünf, sieben, neun) in einer Reihe aufgestellt ynd und davor hegen^^^
quot;Steinplatten oder Steintischen (Abb. 570). Man glaubt, dasz die Seelen der Vorfahren
quot;die Denkmähler als Ruheplätze benützen. Die liegenden Stemplatten (sie werden
quot;gegenüber den \'männlichen\' Menhirs als \'weiblich\' bezeichnet) dienen bisweilen auch
quot;als Altäre oder als Rastbänke für Wanderer. Bei den westlichen Nagastammen bestehen
quot;die Denkmäler aus teils einzelstehenden, teils in umfangreichen Stemsetzungen (S e n-
kreisen, Steinalleen u.s.w.) angeordneten Menhirs, aus hegenden Steinplatten, btein-
•tischen und Steinhaufen. Menhirs werden sowohl zu Ehren des ^.f^^enequot; ^
\'von einem seiner Söhne als auch von reichen Leuten bei Gelegenheit der von ihnen
\'veranstalteten Weihefeste errichtet, durch die sie weltliche Ehren bei L^b^\'«quot;
den Eintritt ins Paradies nach dem Tode zu erlangen trachten_ Daneben gibt es ^
Gedenksteine für allerhand historische Begebenheiten und fteme fle
Kultzwecken dienen. Bei den Luschei und einigen anderen Kquot;k.-Tschin-Stan^en^^^^
gt;en ebenfalls Menhirs und Steinplattformen als Denkmäler fur vers orbene Haupdmge
oder als Gedenksteine für die erwähnten religiös-socialen Weihefeste
die der Naga, Khasi usw., deren Steindenkmäler mit ga^ J™\'Jer
weder unbearbeitet oder nur roh zugehauen sind, sind die Totenderamp;mder de
Kuki-Tsehin-Stämme (neben steinernen kommen auch solche aus Holz vo ) öfters mi

Reliefs verziert, die den Toten, seine Familie, seinen Besitz und ƒ quot;^a ithS
;;quot;nd Opferhandlungen darstellen (Abb. 571). Auch m Indonesien sind megalithische

^ We have given this long quotation in full, not only because it ^^ ^^^^
form much comparison material in Assam and Burma, but also, and e^^^
quot; shows so clearly that the same megalithic monument, even in he ^ame repon c^
be of varied signification. It is thus interesting to look for P^\'f

South Sumatra, but it should never be forgotten that the value of ^
limited and that oke should not immediately conclude that similar form implies a similar

Déchelette writes : quot;La véritable destination des Menhirs demeure problématique.
quot;On a produit à ce sujet maintes hypothèses, mais, pour la pluspart, elles ne reposent
quot;sur aucune donnée positive.quot; He mentions the following hypotheses offered concerning
them: quot;fétiches divinsquot;, quot;idoles primitivesquot;, quot;symboles religieuxquot;. quot;Auraient-ils été
quot;érigés pout commémorer à travers les siècles le souvenir de grands événements, tels que
quot;faits de guerre ou traités d\'alliance, ou, dans certains cas, pour marquer les confins
quot;de deux territoires, pour servir d\'indicateurs des nécropoles ou des dolmens?quot; He men-
tions further the hypothesis of du Chatellier that people were interred under the menhirs.

He gives also the valuable hint : quot;II est d\'ailleurs problable que le problème comporte
quot;des solutions multiples .... Nous confondons à coup sur ici sous une meme dénomi-
quot;nation des monuments divers . . . .quot; As Déchelette refers only to Celtic and Gallo-
Roman remains, this hint a fortiori applies to upright stones in general.

The writer states further : quot;L\'érection des grands menhirs se rattache, selon toute
quot;apparence, aux anciens cultes litholatriques, dont les vestiges abondent chez un grand
quot;nombre de peuples, notamment dans l\'orient sémitique. On a maintes fois rappelé,
quot;à propos des menhirs, divers textes de la Bible : Jacob, en commémoration d\'un songe,
quot;dresse la pierre qui lui a servi d\'oreiller et verse de l\'huile sur son sommet. Josué après
quot;le passage du Jourdain érige, sur l\'emplacement du camp des Hébreux, douze pierres
quot;prises dan le lit du fleuve. Samuel dresse une pierre après une victoire sur les Philistins,
quot;due à la protection de l\'Eternel, et appelle le lieu ou il la place du nom de \'Pierre de
quot;secours\'. Le culte des bétyles survit jusqu\'à la fin du paganisme dans la région gréco-
quot;romaine. Mais tous ces rapprochements ne justifieraient en aucune façon l\'hypothèse
quot;de l\'origine orientale des cultes litholatriques de l\'Occident. La vénération des pierres
quot;n\'est que la forme ordinaire d\'un fétichisme grossier commun à tous les peuples primitifs.quot;

We will not go farther into the question of a general solution of the problem of the
menhirs. A solution capable of being generally applied has not been found and perhaps
never will be found, because it is not certain that the menhirs had everywhere the same
signification. Theories concerning menhirs in a special region are only of importance
to us when that region is so situated that it is possible to conceive of an association with
South-Sumatra.

Now, there is one menhir theory which is sometimes applied generally, but which
is of special importance as regards Insulinde. This theory explains the menhirs as phallic
symbols.

The symbol of the lingga combined with the yoni, is everywhere known in Java.
The lingga has the form of a small pillar, with a base generally octagonal and a round top.
It rests on a square pedestal, the yoni. It would be difficult to recognize in the lingga a
representation of the male, and in the yoni, of the female sexual organ, were it not for the
fact that in addition to this traditional form, other and sometimes extremely realistic
representations occur, both in the country of origin, British India, and in Java. The
Museum at Batavia contains a very naturalistic representation of a penis in erection,
of the height of a man.

The lingga as a symbol of generative, lifegiving power is associated with Çiva. In
the most ancient dated Middle-Javanese inscription, standing at Tjanggal in Kedoe,

and wearing the date 654 Qaka (732 A.D.), King Sandjaya announces the setting up of
a lingga and refers at the same time to a Qivaitic sanctuary brought over from Koen-
djarakoendja, the old fatherland in Hindustan.

In view of the fact that the upright stones of South Sumatra not only have another
shape than the Hindu-Javanese linggas, whilst there are no indications of Hindu influence
in the whole megalithic culture of the Pasemah and its neighbourhood, there is no reason
for assuming that the upright stones here are identic with the Qivaitic lingga symbol.
It is possible, however, that even before the arrival of the Hindoos, a_ phallus-cult existed
in Insulinde, in which case it will be better not to designate its expressive symbols with the
name lingga, in view of the fact that this is associated with givaism, but simply to speak

There are indeed many indications of such a pre-Hindu ferülity-cult, with the upright
stone as symbol, in the Archipelaffo and the neighbouring regions.

In the first place we would recall that Buschan describes quot;male and female stones

In Nias, we find this same distinction between male (standing) and female («cu^ent)
stones. Schröder gives a description of these.\') He relates that in some Parts of Nias
round, recumbent stones, called female stones are found beside standing P^^le stone
Sometimes a hole has been made in the round, female stone, by means of wluA it
placed on the male stone. In this connection, Schröder refers to Schmiß who wr tes a
follows c): -Das eigentliche Gebiet des Sonnengottes als höchsten Wesens imt der
\'Erde als Gemahlin zur Seite finden wir auf den Südwest- und Sudost- Ii^eb
\'Freilich tritt auch dort nirgends der Sonnengott unter einem Namen wie ^

quot;Dagegen stimmt es wieder ganz mit der Religion djeser Inseln uberein wenn
auch auf Madagascar noch deutliche Spuren einer Phal^f hen Verehrung
«ch finden. Mondain berichtet, das man in übergroszen Anz^ ^^F^rt mif ^m
Steintafeln antreffe, zumeist leicht geneigt aufliegend, ganz
von ihren Verehrern Übergossen werden; man verehrt
bekommen. In den Zentralprovinzen findet man daneben
Konische \'Menhirs\', roh zugemeiszelt, manchmal auch «hne jede Bearte
f nnt sie vato lahy-; die Madegassen wissen nicht, was es mit gt;hnen fu eme Bew^^^^
hat ; sie sind seltener als die vorhin genannten Sterne und

Es kann kaum einem Zweifel unterliegen, dasz wir m der ersteren Ar\'jon bte^ da
membrum muliebre der Terra Genetrix, in der letzteren Art d^-X^rArtl von
Sol Geniter zu erblicken haben. Es wäre wichtig zu erfahren, ob d e beiden Art^n v^
Steinen auch nog in äuszere Verbindung gebracht werden. Wirnbsp;wo

Gleiche, was wir auf der Luang-Sermata-Gruppe in den ^udos-I^eln hndm
em hölzerner Pfahl in einer steinernen Platte stand; nur dasz hier m ^adagaskarj^
das männliche Prinzip in Stein dargestellt wurde, vielleichtnbsp;f^XTuTfbS

dazu gebrauchten Holzarten (besonders Ficus religiosa) m Madagaskar nicht zu haben

quot;waren. Auch darin zeigt sich eine Ubereinstimmung mit jenen Strichen Indonesiens,
quot;dasz die Erdgöttin eine intensivere Verehrung genieszt als der Sonnengott.

quot;Eine andere Wendung nimmt die Sache aber wieder durch eine Nachricht bei
quot;Th. G. Rappard, \'Het eiland Nias en zijne bewoners\', aus Nias, dasz dort, während
quot;die mofeo-mofeo-Spinne in das Ahnenbild gebracht wird, auf dem delà (= Brücke, ein
quot;freier Platz vor dem Dorfe) ein aufrechter Stein und am Fusze davor ein flacher Stein
quot;gesetzt, und dort ein Opfermahl für die Bewohner des Dorfes gehalten wird. Da Phal-
quot;lismus für Nias auch sonst deutlich bezeugt ist — vor den Häusern der Häuptlinge und
quot;Vornehmen stehen oft stilisierte Phallus —, so scheint hier auf Nias ein gleicher unvei-
quot;mittelter, später Zusammenstosz von phallischem Sonnenkult und altindonesischem
quot;Mondkult vorzuliegen, wie er uns auf Madagaskar so auffält.quot;

Here Schmidt sees a clear connection between upright stones, phallism, and sun-cult.
We will refer to the latter again. (See Chapter XIV)

We must point out, however, that also in Madagascar, upright stones do not seem
always to be intended as phallus symbols. Ellis, for example, writes: quot;The Malagasy
quot;have also a custom of erecting stone pillars, of considerable height, as memorials, though
quot;without any kind of mark or inscription on them. These are called fahatsiarovana,
quot; \'causing to remember\'. A name is also given them, derived from their position, mit-
quot;sangambato, \'an elevated stone\'. No particular intention is proposed by these, beyond
quot;that of perpetuating the memory of the fact that such an one (known to his family)

Schröder, in his work, shows himself somewhat disinclined to accept the idea ot a
phallic cult in Nias. With reference to the male and female stones, he writes : quot;A second
quot;point which deserves full attention is how a phallus is sculptured at the bottom^of an
quot;upright stone, showing clearly that the stone as a whole cannot represent such.quot; We
should rather say that this phallus representation is an indication of the phallic intention

In Schröders works, indeed, there are indications enough pointing to the existence

of a cult of fertility in Nias. With respect to the ancestral images, he states that they

make no ithyphallic impression, but he gives photographs of several himself m which the

male genitals are not only represented very large and very distinctly, but with the penis

unmistakably in erection. He even gives a large coloured plate showing the details oi a

coflin with small polychromatic images carved from wood, representing men and women

we read that the people themselves designated the standing stones as male and the recum-
bent stones in which a hole had been pierced, female, it is surely not going too far when we
state that the male stones in Nias should really be regarded as phallic symbols.

An unequivocal report with regard to this phallism was given by Rappard, who
writes as follows : quot;Further the stone blocks in front of the dwellings of chiefs and

quot;people of standing deserve to be mentioned, the so called gowe salawa, which are erected
quot;all over the isle as a proof of wealth and distinction and in honour of deceased relations
quot;and which enjoy a fetishistic veneration. At the foot of these stones, which are sculptured
quot;sometimes in human form or (what happens more often) in the shape of a phallus, as a
quot;rule a second, flat stone is found. They are called the male and the female stone m con-
quot;nectiop with the veneration of the pudenda, symbolising the desire for a numerous

Let us now turn to Flores. There exists an extensive monograph over Endeh, the
central part of this island, from the pen of Jhr. B. C. C. M. M. van S^chtden Controleur
B.B.quot;. The photographs illustrating the work were chiefly taken by Mr Ch. C F. M.
le Roux, then survey Chief of Civil Public Works, now Conservator of the Museum
at Batavia.nbsp;^ • r ^

Van Suchtelen quot;) writes concerning the villages in Endeh: quot;The nucleus is formed
quot;by a small squarequot;. quot;In the middle of this small square, there is an upright stone, the
quot;foot of which is surrounded with flat stones, the \'toeboe moesoe Jh\'s forms the common
I\'offering place for all the inhabitants of the Kampong who have further, for special
\'use, a small offering post near their house, which is called \'oro pesangga or. for short,
quot;saga\', leaving out the \'ng\'. Vows are sworn at the toeboe moesoe. In the case °f ser ous
quot;deliberationsfthe chief places himself on or near the toeboe moesoe. In case of an exten-

„ ^ Further: quot;The iLs publici have one meeting place where offerings a^de to
them, and that is the spirithouse, sao heda or sao keda or ^^at serves for suc^
West these sao keda are found nowhere. There, one seems to ^e \'n a hansrt^

between an old, discarded institution and a new one not yet accepted. For we we^^^^^^^^^^

„a Peo, a forked post^the offering-instrument par .xcelfenc. of the Nageh^a«^^^^^

, one is satisfied with the toeboe moesoe. an upright stone surrounded by several recumben
,gt;tones, in the middle of the Kampong. By the Endeh races proper, this stone is used tor

offering to the moon, sun and morning star.quot;\') , . ,nbsp;„ „,„„anVi tn the

joni-sign as an amulet against spirits, angry at having bp exorcised^A^
example of faith in the resisting power of this sign is to be
Tanah Toasche. At one of the enLnces to the Kampong there f ,
„taming numerous yoni-signs. The first answer to the question what purpose they served,

„«other purpose, tao djaga, to keep guard. The explanation is ^«y
„»habitants. Yoni and ling^m are then certainly the most powerful means driving
away evil spirits. Undeniably it Is here a question of magic power. )

We would just remark that van Suchtelen employs the Çivaitic terms yoni and lingga,
although he never suggests Hindoo influence.

In various photographs in van Suchtelen s book, the stones are very clearly represented.

In West Flores, we again find the upright (male), and the recumbent (female) stones.
In 1931 Arndt writes concerning these : The Nad a, the non-Mohammedan inhabitants,
bring their ancestral offerings to a wooden offering-post, ornamented with carved work,
which is called nad\'u and is identified with a male ancestor. The offerings destined for an
ancestress are brought into a small house, called b\'aga. Every nad\'u has a peo. quot;Der peo
quot;ist ein länglicher Stein, der einige Meter hinter dem nad\'u aufrecht in die Erde gesetzt
quot;wird zum Andenken an den Vater des Vorfahren, der im nad\'u verehrt wird. Er dient
quot;zum Anbinden der Opferkerbauen.quot; The mother of the ancestor who is honoured in
the nad\'u, is provided, as sanctuary, with a small house, placed on the roof of the b\'aga.
quot;Innerhalb des Kampongs finden wir neben nad\'u, b\'aga und peo gewöhnlich noch sehr
quot;auffälige Steinbauten, die ture. Türe bedeutet soviel als aufschichten, besonders Steine,
quot;und mag vielleicht mit dem malaiischen atur, ordnen, zusammenhängen. Diese zu irgend
quot;einem Zweck aufgerichteten Steinbänke oder Tische heiszen auch selbst ture. Von
quot;diesen haben im Kampong religiöse Bedeutung : der ture Kisa nata (nua), der ture
quot;lesa xui und der ture sao. Jede dieser drei Arten besteht aus einer groszen, rechteckigen
quot;Plattform von hegenden, flachen Steinen, die an manchen Orten einfach auf der Erde
quot;liegen, an anderen durch aufrechtstehende längliche Steine über dieselbe wie Tisch-
quot;platten erhöht sind. Diese liegenden flachen Steine heiszen weibliche Steine. An der
quot;hinteren Längsseite dieser Plattform erheben sich eine Reihe langer, aufrechtstehender
quot;Steine, die an manchen Orten eine Höhe von drei und mehr Meter erreichen, sie werden
quot;männliche Steine genannt.quot; Arndt further relates that the ture kisa also serves for the
worship of ancestors who are buried under it. The ture lesa is set up when a kampong
is built, whilst the ture sao is constructed near the house of the oldest ancestor to keep
alive the remembrance of all ancestors. Arndt gives several photographs of the stone

A year later, Arndt published an extensive article, dealing specially with the megalith

In this very important article, Arndt classifies the megaliths of West Flores as follows :

(e)nbsp;Dissoliths to commemorate the discovery of treasure, springs, plants for

What strikes us more especially in this article is the fact that the megaliths in this
small territory reveal as great a diversity of form as of purport. Nearly all the theories
advanced by archaeologists to explain the prehistoric megaliths are applied ^re to the
recent megaliths of Flores. We see in this confirmation of the opinion of Dechelette,
already quoted, that the same form of megalithic monument may have a different purport
in different places. When in Celebes, for example, we see upright stones serving as ofle-
nng-stones, we may not conclude from this that such stones found m South Sumatra or

Stone walls run under, along the ancestral houses and serve also as foundations tor
the small forefather-houses. Compare the small terraces under the \' roema pojang in

^ Stone slabs generally occur in association with menhirs (dissoliths) but also apart
Sometimes they rest on several smaller stones (compare the dolmen Tegoerwangi 5),
but sometimes also they simply lie flat on the ground, reminding one then ot the stone
slabs that we repeatedly met with in South Sumatra, for instance those at Karangindah
and Tinggihari.\'^Generally they cover the graves of women but also of men; sometimes

Menhirs may be associated with stone tables, but they also occur apart. They may
serve as a tombstone but also as a memorial stone for someone dead. Very pma^ab e
IS what Arndt relates regarding a menhir which stands on a hill

Badzava, which menhir formerly served to determine the beginning of the period when
the rice must be sown. When, seen from the house of the tribal chief, the «^n rose above
this stone, seed-time was considered to have come. Here we have a
logical parallel with one of the theories advanced to explain Stonehenge, m Engk^^^^
Remarkable is further a dissolith mentioned by Arndt and which ^^ ^
which means quot;grind-stonequot;. Tradition states that it was on this «t«^^
inhabitants of Ngusu first learned to sharpen their weapons. Wenbsp;^^^^^

Batoe Berak, in South Sumatra, that one of the stones had served to whet kmves ^^
actually found grooves on the dolmen there which seemed to have oeen caubeu y

beings - the same legend, thus, which exists in South Sumatra
, According to Arndt, sun-ethology, moon n^ythologY f d ancester^^^^^^^^^
^losely interwoven among the Nad\'a, but originally it is probable that the megaliths were
Product of moon mythology.

Owing to the courtesy of Mr. C. C. F. M. le Roux, of Batavia, we were allowed to

The French archaeologists call such a stone a quot;polissoirquot;. See Dechelette, I, page 523.

peruse an unpublished Record concerning the sub-district of Ngada (Flores), from the
pen of B. H. F. van Heuven. In this Record we found the following :

The sub-district of Ngada extends over the whole breadth of Flores. The
population may be divided into three groups: (1) the Ngada proper, (2) the Nage, who
have more points of resemblance with the Endeh, (3) the Manggrai. The great majority
of the people are animists.

With the Nage and Ngada, one distinguishes (1) the deities, (a) spirits of the air,
dewa, (b) spirits of the earth, gai; (2) lower spirits, nitoe; (3) the souls of ancestors;
souls of ordinary people are called mai; those of ancestors who have been dead a consi-
derable time are called gai.

In the spirit world, a distinction exists between male and female elements and each
have their own places of offering. The beginning of the rainy season after the East monsoon
is regarded as the union between heaven, lidjoe and earth, watoe tanah.

Nage territory. The territory is divided into district groups, formerly practically
independent, each with its own offering post, peo. The peo consists of a forked post,
2,5 to 3 M. high, placed in a round pedestal constructed of stones and called nambeh.
The peo is dedicated to the male element among the gods; beside it stands a small house,
heda, the dwelling-place of the female element among the gods. Peo and heda are dedicated
to spirits possessing more general power. In addition to these, there is in every district
group, outside the Kampong, a lano lokka, destined for offerings to those spirits who
exercise a special influence on agriculture and hunting. The lano is destined for the
male element and consists of a standing stone; further, aflat, recumbent stone, the nambeh
on which the offerings are laid. To the lano belongs the lokka, a small simple house, in
which a flat stone is also frequently found. The lokka is dedicated to the female element.

Ngada Territory. Here also are offering posts, where the ancestor comes when
offerings are made. The post is here-called ngadoe and the pedestal toere. A small house,
called baga is dedicated to the wife of the ancestor. Ngadoe and baga are the names given
to the ancestors as well as to the offering places dedicated to them. No stones are present

lano consists of a collection of oblong, upright stones 0,5 M. high. Their number corresponds
with the number of houses of the family group. Beside every upright stone, there is a
recumbent stone, nambeh, on which the offering is laid. To the lano belongs a lokka,
a small house for the female element.

With a view to maintaining relations with the other gods, here regarded as one
general group, each family group constructs the so-called toere, on which is placed the
watoe lewa with its attribute, the nambeh mezeh. A toere is a platform, rectangular in
shape, rising about 1 M. above the ground, and consisting of a heap of flat stones. It has
a breadth of 3 M. whilst its length is said to vary according to the number of houses occupied
by the members of the family group. The toere\'s are placed in one or more rows, according
to the available space, perpendicularly to the length axis of the Kampong, with the front
facing the rear-side of the ngadoe\'s. They serve as meeting places and as seats for the
spectators during kampong festivities. Along the rear border of these stand lengthwise,
oblong ftat stones, 2 M. in height, the tops of which project a little in the direction of the
ngadoe\'s. Before each of these stones, called watoe lewa, a Hat stone, nambeh mezeh, lies

more or less in the middle of the toere. The watoe lewa are dedicated to the male element
and the namheh mezeh to the female, otherwise thus than with the lano lokka. The toere
of the various family groups are sometimes built close together, sometimes separately.

Rouffaer further, writes as follows concerning the tomb-stones of the Ngada or
Rokka in Central Flores : quot;Whilst the graves in East-Soemba are megahthic m the manner
of our hunnebedden — upright stones as side walls, covered by an enormous flat stone
resting on the top of these — the much more numerous grave-stones within a Ngada
Kampong are clearly monolithic; enormous, slender and long stones (generaUy somewhat
bent) which have been planted in the ground to serve, let us say, as \'sepulchral pillars .

Further the writer states: quot;On the one hand, these monoliths, called watoe eboe
or \'ash-stones\', directly correspond with the curious batoe berdagoe^ or chin-stones
in the ancient Menangkabau, which have never met with the attention they deserve.
On the other hand they prove beyond all doubt that a genetic connection must have
existed between a part of the population of Central Flores, namely the Ngada-tribe
and a part of the population of Soemba, namely, of East Soemba and (probably) Central
Soemba.quot;

^ Van Staveren does not quite agree with Rouffaer. He writes:quot;) quot;The Ngadanes^
does not use images or other objects for paying honour to the various Wai s (souls
of the dead). He considers the souls absolutely free and untied from matter. On the
spots where he honours them, however, he places long stones upright, against the b^e
of which several flat stones are laid. The stones themselves are not ^^onoured by h m,
they serve him simply as an altar for offerings. In the kampongs one h^ds gene^
along the border of the terraces everywhere met with, whole rows of these upright
stones which are called watoe lewa, long stones. These typical ^onohths co^^^^^^^^^^ ot a
..sort of stone easily split, which is hewn with great difficulty from the

Pendicular river walls. Offerings are laid on these watoe lewa for the dewa s rurt^^^^^^^
on page 142: quot;Outside every kampong, one finds, as a rule, several graves of person
who have died a violent dealh. These persons were buried together ^^^ ^^^^^
P^ced at the head of the grave. The number of ^^

piacea at the head ot the grave, ine numuci ui ^t^\'s——„ \'
the number of dead that the gLe contains. This grave .s closed
quot;pon it. These graves resemble the watoe lewa\'s, except that they ^re
whilst the broad side of the upright stones facesnbsp;^Af

as with the watoe lewa\'s. This conformity possibly explains the fact thatthe Mmu ^s
of the Meetbgs of the Batavian Society, Vol. XLVIII - 1?10,nbsp;.and 4 aje^^ter

f ave-stones in the kampongs and also gives a photograph of the «\'^I\'^J^L^ Z
\'\'ampongs, the graves arJnot indicated by stones. Such a stone is very
serves then only to prevent the grave of a very important person f^om being fo^^^^^^^
S\'^ch graves, therefore, are found in only a few kampongs. Thenbsp;^s t^

vary considerably and are perhaps dependent on the =^t\'stic sense of the designe^r^ In
kampong Bo M^eh, I saw one formed by three upright stones; in kampong lakka,

quot;one in the form of a \'hunnebed\', viz. three upright stones, half-length in the ground,
quot;on which rested a flat, round stone like the top of a table; finally in kampong Boba,
quot;one in the form of a tomb, that is, of a rectangular parallelopiped.quot;

This passage from Van Staveren shows how careful one must be in associating
the purpose of one megalithic monument in one place with similar monuments elsewhere.
It shows also how important it is to pay attention to trifling differences in shape; from
which it again follows that one cannot be too accurate in describing such monuments.

Finally, we would refer the reader to the finely illustrated article of Professor
Bezemer.

From the examples given, one may conclude that in the Archipelago an ancipt
native custom existed, and in a certain degree still exists, of raising stones and calling
these quot;malequot; stones, representatives of the male element. It is clear from what we found in
Nias that it is difficult to draw a sharp line between this custom and quot;phallismquot; proper.

One must not go too far again and simply consider all upright stones as phallic
symbols. This is clear, inter alia from a statement of Kruyt over the To Napoe in Central
Celebes. He writes:quot;The To Napoe also consider Pamona as their place of origin.
quot;Pamona was formerly one of the principal villages of the Toradjas, situated on the
quot;Posso Lake. After the village had been taken by the Loewoe (the people of Wotoe)
quot;and the principal chief, the datoe of the Toradjas, led away as prisoner, the Toradjas
quot;spread themselves over Central Celebes and to commemorate this fact, erected seven
quot;stones near Pamona, one stone for each tribe.quot;

The seven stones and the legend associated with them were mentioned by Dr. Mat-
thes in 1898. In how far the explanation of these stones given by the inhabitants is
correct, it is impossible to say, but in any case there are no indications here which point

From Borneo also, there comes a report of the existence of upright stones. In Koetei,
on the Mahakam (East Borneo), four upright stones were found, which are regarded
as Yupa\'s, offering-stones. They contain Hindu inscriptions, but it is possible that the
stones themselves were erected before the Hindu period, or at least that the custom of
erecting such stones dates from before that time.

In Seran, upright stones also occur, on one of which a human face has been carved.
It is possible that these stones also are associated with phallism./)

Upright stones are also found in Celebes. Grubauer describes them under the name
quot;simbuang batuquot;. They are unworked stones, about the height of a man, grouped in a
circle or in a double row and serving to tie up buffaloes destined for sacrifice. Such
groups are found in the neighbourhood of Salulimbing and Bilalang, not far from Rante-
pao. 2) He found a similar stone group near Bulili in the district of Bada. Here the stones
stood in a circle round a stone image, the head of which was missing. In the vicinity
there also lay a block of rock with engraved figures, whilst here and elsewhere, stone

ƒ)nbsp;Duyvendak, page 70—72 (with Bibliography); Valentyn, III, page 2 and 57.

sacrificial tables were found. Grubauer found two upright stones that did not serve
to fasten buffaloes destined for sacrifice, on the road to the Posso Lake, close to the Boekit
Takala. These stones stood about halfway between Masamba and Leboni. Here the
inhabitants sacrificed to the mountain spirits.^)nbsp;.

Professor van Vuuren also refers to the upright stones of the Saadang- Toradja m
Central Celebes. He writes as follows regarding them:quot;From there also we know the
quot;remarkable monoliths, met with in every tribal district at the entrance to the chiet
quot;Kampong, in circle form on the Tantoenoe\'an\', that is, the place were sacrifices are
;;niade. They are splendid, slender, upright monoliths, generally higher than a man,
to which certain animals destined for sacrifice are still fastened during the festivals
\'for the dead held by the Saadang-Toradja. Can these monoliths, there still in use con-
/tribute in any degree to explaining the purpose of the \'menhirs in Brittany? When
,^the film of the festivals of the dead was shown in Paris, the French praehistorians were

Professor van Vuuren was obliging enough to place his notes made in Central Celebes,
and which have not appeared in print, at our disposition, with permission to make use

These notes are much too comprehensive to give extracts in extenso We restrict
ourselves, therefore, to accentuating the following points, for us the most important
^ In the first place, it appears from these notes, that in Makale (^entol ^
atter the death of a prominent man, an extensive festival of the dea is e ,nbsp;.

«rpse is entombed in a grave cut in a rock. On such an occasion, quot;quot;»^rous buffaloes
sacrificed, v^hich are fastened to the upright stones (simboeang batoe), m a circle
M m two rows. As there are generally more buffeloes than stones, these latter a« supple-
mented by heavy wooden piles driven into the ground. This

Heme Geldern, who states that megalith-building peoplp frequently substitute wooden
monuments for those of stone, when they find themselves in a region where suitable
fone is lacking. When, therefore, two megalithic centres

fwm each other, it is quite possible, according to Heme Geldern, \'^at they belong^to
the same culture, and that in the intervening country, wood was used owing to the absence
ot stone. lt;!)nbsp;( u k f

, , In the second place, we are struck in these notes with the fact that one of the but-
ftloes (called tandi rapasan) which is the last to be sacrificed, is specia^^^^^^^^
the riding-animal of tL deceased in the other world. We are \'nclined to see here the
Nation of the numerous buffalo-riders which we met with m thenbsp;°

f fmatra and also of the riders on buffaloes so often found m the B^tak wood-camn^and
n which Mr. Huyser - in our opinion incorrectly - sees representations of (^iva on

\'owmg information, which is of considerable interest: The Toradjas are quite aware

of the fact that these upright stones were formerly the scene of human sacrifices; a survival
of those times still exists in the custom of sacrificing a piece of human flesh, for example,
a severed finger-top, together with the buffaloes. This renders credible the story told
to us in Batoeberak, to the effect that three or four generations back, a maiden was annually
sacrificed at the upright stone which stands there (see page 59).

In the fourth place, it is evident from the notes that one cannot just explain all
upright stones in Central Celebes as sacrificial piles, used during festivals of the dead.
We read, for example: quot;Three tribal fathers of Simboeang, namely Tang di Salla,
quot;Toppong and Rande, have concluded an alliance with Sawitto at Mappak and in order
quot;to seal the same, have placed stones in the ground at Sakombong, the chief settlement
quot;of Mappak, a custom which is general in these regions when an agreement is concluded.quot;
In South Sumatra also, no single explanation can be applied to all upright stones.

Finally, we would point out that in Java, besides the innumerable Qivaitic Linggas,
many upright stones are found, with regard to which it is by no means certain whether
they are related in any way to the Hindu-Javanese religion. We have already described
various of these upright stones in West Java. The Argapoera sanctuary, to which we
will refer later (Chapter XII) contains many of these ,,andesite slabsquot;.

The combination of an upright and a recumbent stone also occurs in Java. We found
examples of such in West Java (111. 210 and 213) and near Kota batoe, in the district and
department of Buitenzorg, Verbeek mentionsquot;a sacred bathingplace, with a flat stone
and a thick, pile-shaped stone somewhat rounded at the top (lingga?). Two smaller
stones, a little like images, are unworked. Brumund, Verh. XXXIII 1868, page 70, 71.quot;

From the examples given, it is apparent enough that in the Archipelago and the
surrounding territories, a very ancient and widely spread custom existed of setting up
stones, but that the motives were very various. As regards the purpose of the menhirs
in South Sumatra, all that can be said at present is that, in view of the other findings,
it is not improbable that they are associated with the cult of the dead, while it is also
possible that at the same time they had a phallic meaning. The one does not exclude
the other. The Kurds in the Caucasus, for example, have the custom of setting up a large
stone phallus on each grave as a symbol of fruitfulness and in a vague sense of the re-
surrection.

. In South Sumatra, upright stones are very frequently found m groups of four, plapd
•n a square or rectangle. In our opinion, there can be no doubt that this custom origi-
nated from the same megalith culture which produced the images and the stone-cist
graves.

. 1 he third tetralith is found near Kotaagoeng (page 24), in a aistrict wn. =
™ages occur (Airdingin, Loeboehan, Geramat). The fourth is situated ^quot;»af rf
Tandjoengbringin (page 25); the fifth in the estate Goenoeng Dempo, »quot;\'y t™ quot;
kilometers distant from Tegoerwangi (page 32); the sixth m the doesoen Goenoengme-
Sang (page 38), so rich in remains The tetralith of Kebmagoeng is \'^»\'f^™
130), although an image seems to have formerly stood in the neighbourhood. Asjgarfs
the eighth group, thai near Oedjanmas, it is not quite f\'tam if the stones have s^
quot;Pquot;ght. The ninth tetralith, that of Tegoerwangi, stands in the ^\'ddle of the sa^
grounds, where the stone-cist graves, the four images and the dolmequot; were also found^

Heekeren, who found them in Besoeki in the vicinity of the other megaliths, writes

■■oflh? S-s\'afpraoeln seem to form a centre of almost all the culture phenomena

quot;oVrl^d lt:rwever, one meets with numerous —hs
quently the shape of a cone or cylinder, on the upper part of which «^nd^^
„two hemispheres have been placed (photo 10), which in one or two places stand in their

... These stones are sometimes regarded as supports, on which the beams ot a nou^^

quot;Excavations might possibly throw some light on the subject. Within the rectangle
quot;at Pakaoeman, the same yellow beads were found as in the dolmen at Pasaralas.

quot;These rectangles may have been joint graves for the poorer inhabitants, for example,
quot;and the stones themselves may have had an ithyphallic meaning.

quot;It is, moreover, curious, that these monoliths should occur outside the area of the
quot;stone-cists. One can trace them Westwards as far as the desas of Kamal, Ardjasa and
quot;Baratan, where they are sometimes found in the vicinity of Polynesian imagp.quot;

With reference to this extract from Van Heekeren, we note the following : It is clearly
evident that also in Besoeki, the tetraliths form one with the other megaliths. In Besoeki,
they seem to have been worked, but this is not the case in South Sumatra, nor with the
two which we found in West Java.

In the Pasemah also, an inhabitant of the doesoen Tegoerwangi advanced the sup-
position that such a group served as the supports of a building. The theory, also mentioned
by Steinmetz, seems to us incorrect, generally speaking.

It is true that in South Sumatra, there is a very general custom of placing stones
under the piles of a house, but then there is always a fixed proportion between the di-
mensions of the stones and the distance which separates them. These proportions in no
way agree with those of the tetraliths. The groups near Tandjoengmenang, Tandjoeng-
bringin and Tegoerwangi form quadrangles, between three and four metres long and
broad, so that only a small building could have stood on them. Each of the stones, how-
ever, weighs certainly two or three tons, so that it is hardly conceivable that such enormous
blocks should have been transported hither merely for the purpose of supporting a small
house.

The four stones at Batoebelari stand in a rectangle measuring slightly over 6 by 4
metres. The stones here, however, are again much too thin to have served as a solid foun-
dation for a small house. Moreover these stones are much too pointed on the top to serve
as foundations for the balks of a house; for that purpose, one chooses stones which can
lie firmly on the ground and with somewhat flat tops, like those seen in 111. 87, which is
a respresentation of a rice store-house at Tandjoengara. The tetraliths which we found
in West Java again consisted of very thin stones which would have collapsed under a
strong pressure, and they stood in squares of about 2 metres (page 63 and 64).

Nevertheless it may be that, just as we pointed out in the matter of the upright
stones, the various tetraliths have served for different purposes, so that some of them
are to be considered as graves, others as pillars for some building. In the last case, we
will probably have to think of some building with a sacred character, for if it seems incon-
ceivable that the megalith-builders took the trouble of bringing together four stones,
weighing several tons each, only to put a small dwelling or rice-barn on top of them;
such a labour is quite explainable as soon as the cult of the dead or the spirits is concerned.

Indeed, Kruyt writes about the village Anakala on the isle of Soemba: quot;Here is
quot;the sanctuary, the Beti meting kawoekoe kabaringoe (kaharingoe watoe is \'stone pile\').
quot;This is a small house of not more than 3 m square, standing on four stone pillars, having
quot;each more than one metre circumference. Here in the marapoe are kept the sacred objects,
quot;which guarantee the prosperity of the village.quot;

If the tetraliths did not serve as foundation stones for buildings, for what then did
they serve? The theory of Van Heekeren that they were graves (mass graves?) serving
for the interment of the more common people, seems to us by no means improbable.
We found, indeed, a large tetralith in the burial-place at Tegoerwangi, situated near
the stone-cists. It is clear that such stone-cists were only meant for the better classes
in the community, as the construction must have cost much time and trouble, together
with the services of a considerable number of labourers. It is quite credible, therefore,
that the less well-to-do could not afford such stone-cists and buried their dead — probably
in common with others — under a more simple monument, although m the vicinity ot
the stone-cists.nbsp;. i • ..u ^ ^

, We had unfortunately no opportunity of carrying out excavation work in the tetra-
liths. The manager of the Dempo estate, indeed, made an experimental excavation under
the stone group on the estate, but found nothing; this is no proof however, that a grave
did not exist there. We shall, therefore, have to await the results of further excavaU^
Kruyt drew attention to the fact that in Central Celebes, the stone ^ms are round
whilst in the Minahassa they are square. He states that these two forms ^ave the
meaning. The circle is the symbol of the horizon, the square of the four Points of the
compass. Both signify the universe and are meant to drive away evil influences. ; it is

Two clearly recognizable stone avenues were fouiid in South Sumatra: a small one
«noting of 6 stones at Tandjoengsakti (111. 181 and 182) and a arger one, consisting
of 42 stones, in the Talang Padang estate, near Telok Betong (111. 194-196)^ The short
row of small, upright stones near Mingkik (page 25) might also be regarded as a stone

,., In the megalith culture, stone avenues are well known. We recall the rows of ^
kilometres in length, near Carnac in Brittany; the stone avenue near ^shdown ^^^^^
England) consisting of 800 stones, and the remains of avenues near ^vebu^^
^ Much has been written concerning the signification of these f
regard to those in Brittany, Obermaier\') writes: quot;Uber den Zy\'-^^^iger br^^^^^^^
Steinreihenanlagen ist viel diskutiert worden; soviel laszt
„dasz sie keine Grabbauten sind, sondern heilige Stätten darsteW, aUwo ^
„bestimmten Festzeiten aus we ter Ferne versammelte. Die SteinreAengas^
„7hl heilige Straszen, gebildet aus Ahnensäulen, wo die laubigen in »
„Aufzuge erschienen, ^nd die sie abschUeszenden CronJechs die
„^0 die Priester ihres Ambtes walteten. Carnac war wohl
„Wallfahrtsstätte, in deren Dolmen die Berühmtesten

„^unschten, wo die bedeutendsten Persönlichkeiten \'bren Ahnenmenhir erric
„W ssen wollten, und zu dessen Tempelbauten an hohen

Déchelette writes with some circumspection : quot;L\'archéologie préhistorique ne saurait
quot;dissimuler l\'incertitude de ses conjectures sur la destination de ces importants monu-
quot;ments des ages primitifs, alignements et grands cromlechs. Ni l\'étude de leurs dispo-
quot;sitions architecturales, ni l\'examen critique des traditions populaires qui y sont attachées
quot;ne nous apportent la solution du problème. Les hypothèses abondent. Quelques-unes
quot;présentent un certain degré de vraisemblance; d\'autres, en plus grand nombre, ce classent
quot;dans le fatras des écrits que l\'on nomme le \'roman préhistorique\'. Les alignements et
quot;les enceintes sont-ils des monuments religieux, notamment des temples solaires ou des
quot;lieux de sacrifice, des cénotaphes, des lieux d\'assemblée politique ou judiciaire, des
quot;monuments triomphaux ou commémoratifs? Chacune de ces hypothèses a été défendue
quot;à diverses reprises, mais sans arguments décisifs.quot;

As in the case of the upright stones, we will not go further into the question of the
solutions which one has attempted to give to the problem of the stone avenues in general,
but rather seek objects of comparison in Netherlands India and the adjacent territory.

In the first place we must note that the short row of stones near Mingkik stood in
the immediate vicinity of the terrace grave. The group of six stones near Tandjoengsakti
did not stand near other megaliths; although several stones lay on the other side of the
road, there was nothing specially noticeable about them. They were natural stones,
quot;batoe sadjaquot;, as the inhabitants used to say in similar cases.

We were also unable to find other megaliths near the stone avenue of Talang Padang.
Among the planters of the estate, however, there was a story current to the effect that
when the ground was opened up, stone circles were found. Although investigations were
instituted both during and after our visit, this rumour was not confirmed. It must be
pointed out, however, that this estate immediately adjoined the tropical forest, which
proved a barrier to further search. It is quite possible, however, that more stone monuments
lie here.

Several stones of the avenue have fallen over and lie somewhat outside the line.
The tropical forest, which a few years ago still covered the grounds which form the estate,
is probably responsible for this. It is sufficiently known — in Sumatra we saw clear evi-
dence of the fact — that tropical trees, in their powerful growth, are able to push aside
heavy blocks of stone. Further, there is the possibility that during the work of clearing
the forest and removing the tree-stumps, the monument has been somewhat disturbed.

Probably a systematic excavation would be worth while, but then it would be neces-
sary to examine systematically fairly considerable tracts of ground, and we were not in
a position to do that.

Proceeding now to look for parallels of these monuments, we must, first of all, point
out that we already referred to stone avenues when discussing the upright stones. We
said then (page 108) that the upright stones of the Khasi and other tribes in Assam and
Burma, are frequently grouped to form short stone avenues. The recumbent, female
stones which are found there, we did not find in the stone avenues of Sumatra. In Celebes
also, the sacrificial stones sometimes stand in two rows. In Nias and the Little Soenda

Islands, this is also more or less the case, although the stone rows there are not so

Speiser states that in Vao, one of the islands of the New Hebrides, pigs are sacrificed
on stone sacrificial tables. In the vicinity of these tables are found stone rows which
he explains by stating that on the occasion of every great sacrifice, a stone is added to
the row.

Baessler states that upright stones have been placed on the square or front terrace
of the Marae in Tahiti, which are regarded as ancestral monuments The stones stand
m rows and the illustration given by Baessler reminds one somewhat of the stone avenues
which we met with in Sumatra. In Tahiti also, these stones have the form of fiat, unworked
slabs of stone, set up athward the direction in which the rows lie, as was also the case

\'^fedenS^b the small stone avenue of Tandjoeng Sakti, which consists of
SIX stones, one might ask the question whether a house has not formerly o^
stones; at the present time, it is customary in this region to place tne ousnbsp;, .

piles, which themselves rest on low and flat stones, not standmg upright, bu thm^
quot;light have been different in former times. Kubary, for

of a house in the Carolines, resting on twelve upright stones which ^^and m ^
of six. These stones are as high as 0,75 metres and took the place of ooden foun^^^^^^
piles such as we know in the Archipelago. Eliminate the house and you have a stone
avenue.nbsp;. ,nbsp;, ,

^^ ^ On the other hand, the five small stones at Mingkik stand in
he large stone avenue of Talang Padang does not give the

^ house. It is probable, therefore, that the stone avenues of South Sumatra had a sacred
quot;leaning.

In South Sumatra, megalithic monuments are frequently met with, consisting of
one large stone, resting on several smaller stones. For the sake of convenience, we have
invariably given these stones the name of dolmen. One might also speak of stone tables,
but this name suggests a flat coping-stone, which with the South Sumatra type is not

in their most developed form, at least as far as is known at present. We found dolmens
also in the Ramw District neac Batgsberak, where images of the South Sumatra type are
no longer met with. We woufd pomt out, towever, cAac a sma//^ rolyacsidii miamp;gc wa^

Semarv^ka, not far from Batoeberak and that the image m the museum at Batavia came
from somewhere in the Lampongs, so that h )s not ImproWble that Jurt^er investigation

in this vicinity would bring to light more examples of ancient native sculpture. (5ee

When discussing the upright stones, we already referred to the tact that we tre-

quently found dolmens near such upright stones. We are then strongly re^nded of the

quot;male and female stonesquot; which also occur elsewhere, for example, with the Khasi and

in East India in Soemba and Flores. The same combination, to which Perry gave the

name quot;dissolithquot;, is also found in Nias. This combination is specially clear m the case

of the menhir and the dolmen of Batoeberak (111. 190), and also near Tegoerwangi we

find both sorts of monument in close proximity. On the other hand there is no menhir

in the vicinity of the dolmen of Batoetjawang nor of that of Pematangbange (111. 126 and

Whilst some dolmens have a very flat coping-stone, thereby strongly reminding one
of the stone tables of Nias and of the female stones of the Little Soenda Islands, the
coping stones of others are much thicker and more spherical. There are also transition
forms, however, where the coping-stone has a more flat upper surface, so that it is pro-
bably not a question here of two different sorts of monument, but simply of a difference
in form, due again to a difference in the available material.

On no occasion did we find any indications that the dolmens in South Sumatra had
been used as a grave. For such a purpose, their construction was generally unsuitable.
The supporting stones are frequently so low that there is almost no space between the
coping-stone and the ground. Where the supporting stones are higher, for example in
the case of the dolmen of Batoetjawang, they make the impression of the legs of a table
and not of walls of a small chamber. Frequently also, the supporting stones stand so close
together that there is almost no space between them. We never came across dolmens m
the form of a tomb, as these exist in Besoeki. The investigations made in the case of the
dolmen Tegoerwangi 6 (page 44 and 45) brought to light no trace of mterment, also in

the earth under the stones, but a stone-cist grave lay in the immediate neighbourhood.

When we again proceed to look for parallels in the Archipelago and the territory
surrounding it, we find many. In the first place, we refer the reader to what has already
been said concerning the Khasi (page 109) where the recumbent, female stones are dedi-
cated to the ancestress. We would recall further that flat (female) stones also occur m the
Kleine Soenda Islands (see page 115).nbsp;^ ... . , ^

Gurdon, when describing interment customs, has a passage from which we might
conclude that with the Khasi, other dolmen-like monuments occur which are not meant
as memorial stones for ancestresses. He states that the Khasi burn the dead bodies. Ihe
remains of bones not consumed by the fire, and the ashes, are placed m an earthen urn

temporarily interred în a quot;bone respositoryquot; which beais yW iv^me o£
l^A i. M t ! i ^ â^^ t \'T^ ft /^t w * w^ ^ ^ ^ f ^ ^ ^ mrnbsp;rt/quot; /gt; A///* A-r uffei? ^^nbsp;.yCairit in

says tAat t6e door is dosed arter tóe urn Aas been depcsitedmjde^^fw^ds.
^^wai 0Ï these urns are sent together to a cmerarmm, ■«W\'n ^tto
,/fcAquot;. aertc) writes-. quot;Die Bezeichnung Crom/ecii wird in Grosz Bnta^men furaUe
„f)«en von Megalithdenkmalern miszbraucht und ist daher dort
„ Wgeiommen. Wk verstehen Wer darunter mch der franzossschen

Steinkreise.quot; With the word cromlech, indeed, Gurdon does not
i fone circle. He describes these cineraria as quot;built of blocks of stone,
„^tone platforms and sometimes resting on the ground They are ff^^^f ^ ~
„«able size. The cromlech is opened by removing one of the heavy stone slabs n fr^t
„There are no windows. The Lmlechs are generally square or oblong, but are some

^HerT^ne fejetsion of the cineraria as dolmen-like, closed rnonu^
which perhaps may be compared with those of Besoek,. It seems very desirabk^
the va, megalithic monuLnts of the Khasi should be more closely ^^led ^ketched
pijotographed and their form and dimensions carefully noted. We should tften

re., ^fnbsp;fquot;quot;her point out that stone tables are found m N«as, which ^

126), is met with in Nias, although there the stones used m the construction are

Concermng Central Celebes, Kruyt writes in his description of the remains of Besoa
and Napoe: quot;Not far from here (that is, from the other remains on the Pada pokekea)
quot;lies a large, flat, oval stone, 2,20 m long and 1,90 m broad, with a thickness of 30 cm.
quot;This stone was laid on several smaller stones after the manner of a table. It is broken
quot;right through in the middle.quot; The editor of the periodical adds in a note: quot;Evidently,
quot;thus, in the form of a dolmen, in other words, as a covering for a grave.quot; In our opinion,
this latter statement would have to be proved by means of excavation.

Dolmens are met with in Java also. A planter told us that they are found onthePasir
Padang estate, in the Regency of Soemedan, District Darmaradjah, sub-District Wado.
In the grounds of the estate are three mounds, the Goenoeng Sanghian Gedogang, Goe-
noeng Babalean and Goenoeng Baloekboek. It was said that dolmens lie on two of these
three mounds but we had no opportunity of verifying this report.

Steinmetz describes and gives sketches of dolmens which he found near Telagasari,
in Besoeki.Van Heekeren found a similar grave near Pakaoeman, in Besoeki. These
graves differ somewhat in shape, but both form genuine burial chambers, in contra-
distinction to the dolmens of the Pasemah, which were not meant for graves. The coping-
stone of the dolmen at Telagasari shows on the front side a female figure quot;en reliefquot;,
with a broad mouth, thick lips and (artificially distended?) ears, the lobes of which are
pierced. This latter feature repeatedly occurs in the sculpture work of the Pasemah.

In 1903, Mr. J. B. Hubenet, Chief Engineer of the State Railways sent to the Bata-
viaasch Genootschap, 75 beads and a parcel of bones and teeth. In a letter to the Genoot-
schap, dated May 20, 1903, he reports that these were found during the construction
of the railway line between Kalisat and Banjoewangi. The letter reads further as follows:
quot;Just East of the tunnel through the Kendeng Ridge, which forms the frontier between
quot;the Departments of Djember and Banjoewangi, we came across an ancient burial place.
quot;Each of the bodies had been placed within a heap of stones, resembling somewhat
quot;the \'hunnebedden\' met with in Netherland.

quot;On an edging of small stones, which surrounded the body, as it were, had been
quot;placed a large coping-stone, of a length of 2 metres and a breadth of 1 metre; 60 to
quot;70 cm thick. All the stones were rough, just as Nature had provided them.

quot;In one of these graves, the beads and remains of the body, accompanying this
quot;letter, were found.quot; Then follows the communication regarding the stone mortar, which

In 1921, this district was subjected to a more thorough investigation by Mr. 13.
de Haan, architectural inspector of the Archaeological Service. He opened a dolmen,
strongly resembling the graves found by Steinmetz and Van Heekeren.He found
some remains of bones, very much decayed, a stone artefact, a small gold ring and a
number of beads. These beads we will refer to again later. (Chapter XI).

Ten Kate, in his description of a journey in the Timor Group, provides various
data concerning recent dolmen-like graves. He gives also several illustrations of these
graves, from which it is apparent that they have sometimes the form of simple dolmens,
resembling those of South Sumatra. Sometimes also the stones are chiselled a httle, so
that the coping-stone and the four supporting stones form an actual table. In the coping-
stone, cavities have been made, destined to place offerings in. At the short sides stand
one or two upright stones. Sculpture work quot;en reliefquot; also occurs on this sort ot grave.
Other graves have the form of a stunted, four-sided pyramid, restmg on a terrace ot
stones and covered by a large, fiat stone. Others again have the form of little houses. -
Dr. D. K. Wiehnga distinguishes the following methods of burial _m Soemba: (1)
stone urns with the form of stunted pyramids, the upper part contammg one or more
cavities for the bones, and covered with a large flat stone, projecting on all sides;
dolmen-like graves, consisting of four upright stones, on which rests a flat rectangular
coping-stone; at the head as well as at the foot end stands an upright stone; (3) in an
ancient burial-place, earthen-ware urns containing bones were found. This last method
of burial is now no longer customary.

The stonecists formed one of the most gratifying finds in the Pasemah. From their
situation, one may positively conclude that they belong to the same culture as the other
megaliths and they alone can perhaps contribute something towards unveiling the secret
of the race to which the megalith builders belonged. We have already stated that the
neighbourhood near Tegoerwangi probably conceals many more stonecists than those
we found, and that the hope seems justified that also the sawahs near Tandjoengara
contain many of these graves, whilst other perhaps lie elsewhere in the vicinity of the
megaliths. Time and means were wanting to undertake an enquiry on a large scale but,
in any case, the two graves which we emptied have already provided much useful material
for comparison.

The general structure of the graves is sufficiently evident from the description and
the illustrations. Such stonecists are found at widely divergent places.

Van Giffen divides the megaliths, according to their form, into simple and compound.
The compound he divides again into stone rows, stone circles and megalith graves in the
more restricted sense. These latter are again subdivided into megalith graves containing
one and more chambers, while finally, in the case of the one-chamber graves, a distinction
is made between small vaults or chambers (dolmens), large vaults or chambers (respec-
tively corridor-, door-, porch- or stepped domeshaped graves) and stonecists (German,
Steinkisten; French, Cistes, Caissons, Coffres en Pierre; Dutch, Steenkisten; Swedish,
Kistvaens, Hallkista Danish, Kiste). As a characteristic of the stonecists. Van Giffen
then further mentions the absence of a special entrance and the presence of a covering
mound. Neither the one nor the other applies to our Indian stonecists.

In Europe, the stonecists date from the end of the stone period and the beginning
of the bronze period. Stonecists, however, are found in many other places. If the North-
European megalith culture frequently shows very large examples, the smaller forms are
in the megalith culture very widely disseminated.As in the case of the other megaliths,
we shall, however, seek our comparison material exclusively in Netherlands India and
its neighbourhood.

passage: quot;In the desa of Ardjasa I found a stonecist absolutely different from the graves
quot;hitherto found in Besoeki. This grave, corresponding with similar stonecists m Europe
quot;which marked the end of the neolithic and the beginning of the bronze period, consists
quot;of a subterranean rectangular vault, formed by four large and thin stone slabs and covered
quot;by another slab. The length of the grave was fully 2 m; the breadth, 0.75 m. The grave
quot;was situated under a bamboo house, formerly inhabited but which was deserted by the
quot;inhabitants when these were pursued by misfortune and sickness. Their attention was
quot;attracted by the hollow sound under the floor and when the floor was taken up, they
quot;came upon the roof of the stonecist. When I visited the grave, it had already been opened.

hole had been made in the roof. The vault was quite empty and I did not hnd a
quot;flooring.quot;

^ From the list of remains given by Van Heekeren, it appears that other megaliths were
found in the neighbourhood. One may conclude from his description that this grave
corresponds with our stonecists in the Pasemah, with one difference, that the latter had

^ Stonecists were also found in Malacca, namely, m Per^. They are described by
Evans. «) These graves are built in the same way as those m the P^h They are
somewhat longer and narrower, however, and composed of granite dabs. One of these
graves Hes East-West; the others, however, in different directions. During the work of
excavation, numerous fragments of a rough sort of earthenware .\'quot;^re found, f^
some iron remains, bronze remains and three cornelian beads Remains of bones were not
Evans judges these graves to date from between the late neohthicum and the
Hmdu period. This agrees, therefore, with our finds in the Pasemah.

jnegaliths of Pengkalan Kempas (Negri Sembilan), where several upright ston^, recum
bent stones and a Mohammedan grave were found. The upright ®
sculpture work quot;en relief and one of them bears the inscription Mah whdst the

Mohammedan grave, on the other hand, has a Peculiar foundation of rough sto^^^^^^

\'s difficult to dLrn^ine whether the whole group dates from the Mohammedan pen^^
«^^hether the Mohammedans have here utilized a megalithic monument which already

quot;quot;\'ta^s\'UtSd\'S:^^^^^^ in what, in his opinion, was fheir origina^^
cemented them sprucely together, which seems to us a not altogether desirable method
or restnraf;«,,quot;nbsp;...

. Most of their graves are family tombs or vaults. Ine site navmg
,. arge excavation is Lde in the earth, and the sides and roof ƒ
..\'mmense slabs of stone. Incredible labour is often employed innbsp;^

their appointed positiL, each side or wall of a vault or tomb, six or seven nign

quot;and ten or twelve feet square, is often formed of a single stone of the above dimensions.
quot;A sort of subterranean room is thus built which, in some parts of the country, is lined
quot;with rough pieces of timber. The stones are covered with earth to the height of from
quot;fifteen to eighteen inches. This mound of earth is surrounded by a curb of stonework
quot;and a second and third parapet of earth is formed within the lower curb or coping,
quot;generally from twelve to eighteen inches in height, each diminishing in extent as they
quot;rise one above another, forming a flat pyramidal mound of earth, composed of successive
quot;terraces with stone facing and border, and resembling in appearance the former heathen
quot;temples of the South Sea islanders, or the pyramidal structures of the aborigines of
quot;South America; the summit of the grave is ornamented with large pieces of rose or white
quot;quartz. The stone work exhibits, in many instances, very good workmanship, and reflects
quot;great credit on the skill of the native masons. Some of these rude structures are stated
quot;to be twenty feet in width and fifty feet long.

quot;The large slabs used in forming the tombs, as described already, are usually of
quot;granite or sienite. The natives have long known how to detach blocks of stone from the
quot;mountain mass by means of burning cow-dung on the part they wish to remove, and
quot;dashing cold water along the line on the stone they have heated. Having been thus treated,
quot;the stone easily separates in thick layers, and is forced up by means of levers. \'Odies\',
quot;charms, are employed in marking out the desired dimensions of the slab, and to their
quot;virtue is foolishly attributed the splitting of the stone, though they well know, that not
quot;all the \'odies\' in the kingdom would split one stone, if the usual heat were not applied.
quot;When the slab is detached, bands of straw are fastened round it, to prevent breakage
quot;in the removal. Strong ropes are attached to the slab, and, amidst the boisterous voci-
quot;ferations of the workmen, it is dragged away from the quarry. In ascending a hill, they
quot;place wooden rollers under the stone, and move them forward as it advances----

quot;The entrance to the vault is covered by a large upright block of stone, which is
quot;removed when a corpse is taken in, and fixed in its former position at the termination
quot;of the ceremony.quot;

Ellis then describes the funeral of King Radama, who died on the 3rd of August,
1828. His grave was thirty feet long and broad, and 16 feet high. A small building in
European style was specially constructed for the ceremony on top of the grave.

When we now compare these graves in Madagascar with our finds in South Sumatra
and West Java, it is clear that these graves consist of a vault, corresponding in every
respect with the stonecist graves of the Pasemah. Even the door which we found in the
grave Tegoerwangi 11, is present. Above this vault rises a terrace, or stepped pyramid,
the smaller forms of which agree in all respects with the grave at Mingkik (111. 49); even
the upright stones on the summit are there. The larger royal graves in Madagascar compare,
in shape and dimensions, with the Lebak Sihedoeg (111. 204) which we met with in West
Java. We shall refer to these terrace graves again (Chapter XII).

Stonecists were also found by Kennedy in Vaitupa, one of the Ellice Islands; these
still contained skeletons. We have already referred to the fact that one large stone
sepulchral vault is known to exist in Indo-China (page 94).

an examination, the first feature that strikes us is the large number of beads which were
found. Similar beads were also found in other places in the Archipelago and the surroun-
ding territory. We shall begin by giving a survey of the places known to us where these

Dr. J. van Tuyn states as follows concerning the ancient beads m South Sumatra:
The beads found by him have a diameter of 1 to 10 mm. They are of three kmds (1) round
beads, made of glass of many colours, (2) cyhnder-shaped, of hard-baked clay, terra cotta,
yellow or brown and (3) round beads of pale red agate (cornelian). (The two kinds hrst
mentioned we also found in the graves.) With the beads, fragments of coarse earthenware
were also found. The writer mentions the following places where the beads were found:
^ Department of Komering Hilir, East of the Kampong Djermoen, on a small island
of sand, lying in a marsh and called Talang bakar. Further, in the vicimty of the Kampongs

. , Mesoedji district, in the sand of the Soengei Menang and Soengei Tjeper. Further
m the Soengei Gadjamati, and to the South of the Mesoedji m Boengm poepoeran 8 km
South of Wiralaga. On the Soengei Boeaja, a tributary of the Mesoedji, near Tebing Tinggi.

These beads were formerly sought by the inhabitants, who frequently washed them
out of the river sand. This employment was suspended for a time during the rubber boom

The writer states that the places where the beads are found, are ancient beach dges
remains of a former shore line On geological grounds (the receding of the coas -lin^^
^ later period), the writer is of opinion that a fairly dense coast population lived in these
places about 1400 years ago, and left these beads behind them.

We can not judge the geological arguments of the writer, but we ^^^^ ^^
» the following remark wLn we take it for granted that he
Tuyn found the beads are indeed beach-ridges, marking an old «^or^
1400 years ago, there is no reason why the population at that
^any beads in the rivers, that the recent population could find a
the beads out of the sand. It seems to us more probable that the \'^^Zrnttld ^
^^st have changed their bed in the centuries since elapsed, have destroyed old burial

It is possible that the erosion by the rivers has caused such ^^one\'Cists to^^^^^^^^
^hen the graves here like near Tegoerwangi contained great numb^^^^^^
^ater of the rivers may have carried away the beads and deposited these further down
«trearn with the river-sand on the places, where the population now fi^ds the^
^^ If our supposition is correct, we may further conc ude that the
perhaps much older, than 1400 years; it would probably pay o search
Ws for stone cist graves upstream the places, where Dr. Van Juyn foun^
iL^\'^nbsp;farther upstream not only stone cists are still to be founO^^^^

^^rtlTso^quot;^^]^^^nbsp;writes concerning these beads:quot;) „Einen Beweis dafür,

„dass in der Tat viele Perlenarten, die man über den indischen Archipel verbreitet findet,
„übereinstimmender Natur sind, erhielt ich im Jahre 1898 in Batavia, als mir Dr. C.
„Snouck Hurgronje alte Perlen zeigte, die ein Araber in den Lampong-Districten in
,,Süd-Sumatra aufgekauft hatte, um sie später auf Timor sehr vorteilhaft zu verkaufen.
,,In Süd-Sumatra sind diese gelbbraunen Perlen nämlich infolge der zunehmenden Ent-
,,Wicklung der dortigen Bevölkerung, gleichwie auch an den Küsten Borneos, sehr billig
,,zu haben, während sie auf Timor, wo sie unter den Namen muti salah oder muti tanah
,,bekannt sind, noch einen hohen Wert besitzen. Auch unter den Bahau sind diese Perlen
,,sehr geschätzt. Noch merkwürdiger ist die Tatsache dass Einwohner von Kroe inBen-
„kulen, an der Westküste Sumatra\'s, gegenwärtig (1902) nach West-Borneo und von dort
„den Kapuas aufwärts ins Innere der Insel ziehen, um ihre alten Perlen den Bahaustämmen
,,zu verkaufen. Aus dem Kapuasgebiet zogen sie sogar über die Wasserscheide zum
„Mahakam, fuhren den Fluss hinab bis zur Ostküste und kehrten von dort in ihre Heimat
„zurück, nachdem sie auf der Reise quer durch die Insel ihre Perlen sehr vorteilhaft
,,an den Mann gebracht hatten.quot;

We might just remark here that during our visit to South Sumatra, these beads did
not appear to be so very cheap. At that time, they were no longer traded in. We were
told, however, that they were formerly very expensive, in distinction to an imitation, of
which we saw rather many. We learned that the Pangeran of Kebondjati in the Pasemah
still possessed a small chest full of genuine old beads, for a necklace of which a buffalo
was formerly paid.

The Ethnographical Museum in Leyden contains several beads which, as we were
kindly informed by the Director, belong to the collection presented to the Museum in
the year 1906 by the then Gontroleur B. B. Mr. E. E. W. G. Schröder. They were found
near the railway line Kalisat-Banjoewangi (Java), in the tropical forest and deep in the
ground. One of the beads (No. 1552, 25) is red in colour and corresponds with No. 16 in
111. 171. The second is yellow and corresponds with our bead No. 10. The third is of dark-
blue glass, double hexagonal and corresponds in every respect with similar beads which
De Haan found in a dolmen in the same district. (See page 128.)

In the British Museum, we saw dark-blue, light-blue and yellow beads of glass,
which came from Japan, and the exterior of which agreed in every respect with those
which we dug up in South Sumatra. These were labeled as belonging to the quot;Franks
Collectionquot;, and were excavated by William Gowland, F. S. A. from a dolmen in Japan.
Their age is put at 700 A. D.

Beads were found in the stonecists of Malacca, referred to on page 131. Evans
mentions that iron remains, bronze remains and three cornelian beads were found. Dr.
Van Stein Callenfels, who saw the beads from Malacca and to whom we showed those
which we ourselves found, told us that in the graves of Malacca there were also beads
of the same sort as the terra-cotta coloured beads from the Pasemah.

Numerous beads were also found in the burial place at Besoeki, discovered by
Hubenet and later more closely investigated by De Haan (see page 128). One can find
illustrations of a portion of those beads in the „Oudheidkundig Verslagquot; but the photo-

graph does not give them all. In the Batavia Museum we had an opportunity of seeing
them. (Catalogue no. 5805.) De Haan mentions that 79 beads, 54 teeth, one stone object,
a small golden ring and a number of bones, were found. In the Museum, we saw not
only the very large beads which are given in the above-mentioned photograph m the
».Oudheidkundig Verslagquot;, but also several hexagonal ones of the shape of our bead
No. 7, in 111. 171. Those from Besoeki, however, were more oblong m shape whilst the
colour was also different. Like our own, these beads were of glassy material but some were
dark-blue in colour, and others quite colourless. Further, there were smal round amber-
coloured beads, many terra-cotta, like our own No. 1 and No. 2 (pipe-shaped), as well

Dixon states with regard to recent archaeological finds m the Ftuiippines\')
, Till the year 1926, the most ancient, archaeological finds dated from the period of
the Sun Dynasty (960—1279 A D ). In 1926, however, H. Otley Beyer examined a depot
in the neighbourhood of Manilla, where he could distinguish the following strata:

(5 and 6) Iron knives, daggers, axes and spear points. Earthenware very ^v^quot;
gent quality, shape and decoration; glass beads and ornaments ( bangles m ayerj,
only green glass, coloured with iron; in layer 6, blue glass, coloured with copper, turther,
beads of half-precious stones: agate, corneHan, amethyst, rock-crystal.
(7) Chinese earthenware.

:;the prehistory glLra^d\'^^orfod-sTre\'S^uth of India, These ™ ^
„tombs and urn burials which are found by the hundreds of thousands, which atao^
„certainly antedate the historic Chera, Chold and Pandy^ f f ^r^.^^Xs beaS
„goes back to the beginning of the Christian era or before. As ^
„«nd bangles have recently been made in the Malay Peninsula,^
„and ,n North Borneo, the inference is inescapable that we have clear evidence of a trade
contact between the northern Philippines and southernnbsp;\' ^^^^

„first millennium B. 0. The extensive trade and colonisation \'ate\' conc^uests of tte
„^outh Indian Kingdoms, in Sumatra and Java as well as m Mo-Chma in the early
„centuries of the Christian era, are of course well known. This new material ^
„seems to make it clear that th s was far from being the beginnmg of ^quot;ch contact^^^^^
„rather the last stages in an association reaching as far as the northern

quot;to maritime traders bringing typical Indian products to China as far back as the 7th
quot;century B. C. These accounts have generally been regarded with incredulity or strong
quot;suspicion at least. In view of this evidence from the Philippines, the probability of these
quot;accounts is greatly increased, with consequences for the history of Chinese culture which
quot;are obvious.

quot;A whole new chapter seems thus to be opening in the early history of south-eastern
quot;Asia and Indonesia. So little serious attention has yet been paid tothe pre-history ofthe
quot;whole of southern India, that the course of its development and the origins of its culture
quot;are still virtually unknown. That the knowledge of glass-making reached it from western
quot;Asia is extremely probable, either by way of the sea-trade with southern Arabia, Meso-
quot;potamia and Egypt, or possibly overland. Thus southern India becomes a way-station
quot;between western Asia and the Phihppines in the diffusion of one cultural trait at least.quot;

So far Dixon. His suggestions are certainly very interesting and extremely far-reaching.
At the same time, they are based principally on the finds of beads. And now it is quite
worth while to notice what he says when writing over these same beads: quot;It is certain
quot;that some at least of the iron objects were of local manufacture, since deposits of iron
quot;slag and evidences of iron smelting have been found. It is uncertain as to the glass, but
quot;unfinished beads adhering to each other in series of half a dozen or more are found and
quot;clear evidence of the repairing of broken bangles.quot;

It seems very questionable, if the quot;beads, adhering to each other in series of half a
dozen or morequot; must be considered as a proof of a local industry. Although glass beads
have been made sometimes by breaking up a small glass tube, we know also a description
of bead consisting of such a glass tube with five or six spherical sections separated by
shallow incisions; these beads where not meant to be broken into parts, but where used
in this form for nec-laces and so on. Beads of this description, originating from several
parts of the world, may be studied in the British Museum and in the Provincial Museum
at Bonn.

If Dixon\'s supposition is correct, and if the beads from Manilla are really manufac-
tured on the spot, we are reminded of what Professor Nieuwenhuis wrote quot;Vom
quot;Kultur-historischen Standpunkt aus können die formen der Kunstperlenquot; (including
glass beads) quot;daher nicht wie Bernstein, Kaurimuscheln und vielleicht auch Perlen
quot;aus Natursteinen, dazu dienen, alten Handelsverbindungen zwischen den verschie-
quot;denen Teilen der alten Welt auf die Spur zu kommen.quot; Though one might adduce
against this passage from Nieuwenhuis, which he bases on the fact that beads of the same
shape and colour are found in different parts of the world and in very different periods,
(first) that in the Archipelago and surrounding territory, the blue and green glass beads
frequently go together with quot;Perlen aus Natursteinenquot;, namely, with the cornelian beads
and also with the glass quot;moetisalalah\'squot;, and (second) that these glass beads were found
in archeological stations of one and the same period, namely, the transition from the bronze
to the iron period, so that there is some justification for regarding them as belonging to
the same culture period, still the finding ofthe „semi-manufacturedquot; articles near Manilla

a) Compare Van Eerde,b, Stein Callenfels,c, and Gonda. Concerning beads from megaliths in Hindustan, read the
comprehensive and finely illustrated article by Beck.
h) Nieuwenhuis,a, page 151.

shows clearly that one must be careful in jumping to conclusions and that considerable
excavatory work will have to be performed before anything like certainty can be obtained.

That the yellow or terra-cotta coloured glass beads found by us in the stone cists
from Tegoerwangi are traded by the natives in several parts of the Archipelago, and are
known in the Timor-group under the name of moetisalah or moetitanah can easily be
proved. But Rouffaer has demonstrated, that similar beads are known practically all
over the world.

Now we quite agree with Professor Nieuwenhuis that a bare similarity of form and
^lour is no proof for a common origin and, in consequence, for an ancient trade route.
Phe only way to solve the riddle with a fair degree of probability is to subject the beads
to a minute mineralogical and (quantitative and qualitative) chemical analysis. Such an
investigation would take a considerable time and labour, and would by far exceed the
scope of this book; moreover, it might be rather difficult to convince the museum-conser-
vators, that it is better to let a sufficient number of beads die a honourable death m the
hands of the chemist than to lengthen their life in the museum for the pleasure of a

^ The only thing we can do here is to give in the Appendix the analysis of the material
found by us in the Pasemah. Perhaps it may be possible later, when more such data are
^nown, to come to a solution of the secret of these beads.

A comprehensive article on the beads of the Indian Archipelago and more especially
on the quot;moetisalahsquot; of the Timor Group was written by Mr. G. P. Rouffaer in the year
«98. This article covers no fewer than 265 pages and provides a very detailed survey ot
the literature on the subject. The promised continuation of the article has never appeared.
A he conclusions arrived at by Mr. Rouffaer are as follows :nbsp;„ . r • u a

.. „ (1) It is absolutely certain that the numerous cornelians, of excellent hmsh and
..^ell known shape, excavated from the graves in Savoe in 1848 are Cambayan, that is
„^atanpurian cornelians, of small type; Cambayan\'small beads thus of aqiq = cornelian,

... \'(2) It is highly probable that the few small brownish-red and yellow beads found
..there at the same time and which (according to Professor Virchow) almost certa nty
.consist of baked clay, are not only of the same age and of the same origm as these ^^
Cambayan cornelians but, considering their colour and their shape as given m the illustra-
tions of Professor Virchow in 1885! also the prototypes of the \'present ^oeUsd^s
other words, the present, generally yellow and orange moetisalahs of the limor
..Group,ofpartly disk and partly pipe form, in their whole habitus of ^rm and colou
..^Iso go back to the origiml clay beads manufactured in the town
present glass substance must represent a later imitation ^fter the ancien^^
clay beads; a later imitation, which we will deal with under D. (This part of the article
nas not appeared • v d H )nbsp;n u

\'\'(3) It is almost ahsolutely certain that the import of small cornelians from Cambay
Malacca, into Timor stopped when the Portuguese destroyed for Ae sbppmg
trade to Malacca and the Mday Archipelago of the Mohammedans in Hmdusto^^^^
J^^i^e finishing blow was given by Governor-General D. Joao de Castro, soldier and

quot;navigator who ruled from September 12, 1545 till June 5, 1548; that is about the year
quot;1550; so that it must have been about the period from 1550 to 1600 that the change took
quot;place in the substance of the ancient Cambayan \'moetisalahs of clay\' in Timor,
quot;to the present, now also antique \'moetisalahs of glass\' there.

quot;(4) The numerous small cornelians and rare clay beads of brownish-red and
quot;yellow colour, excavated in Savoe in 1884, must have been brought to Timor between
quot;approximately 1400 and 1500; of an age, therefore, which can be most safely fixed at
quot;about 1500; as far as the cornelian stones are concerned, they certainly came from
quot;Ratanpur [Barbosas \'Limadura\' or(?) Nimodra]; whilst the small clay beads very pro-
quot;bably came from the town of Cambay.quot;

In order to attain certainty as regards the composition of the beads we found, we
applied to Dr. J. Schmutzer, Professor of Mineralogy at Utrecht, who was so kind as to
examine samples of the various sorts for which we herewith tender our best thanks.

Professor Schmutzer, then, wrote on April \'22, 1932, as follows: quot;The beads sub 1
quot;and 2 I have left intact, in view of the fact that they are unique. I could determine in
quot;another manner, indeed, that both consisted of glass. No. 1 is apparently a fairly good
quot;imitation of beryl, a semi-precious stone which in its pure form is known as smaragd.
quot;It is clear, from the specimens prepared for microscopic examination and also from the
quot;considerable degree of fusibility, that all the other beads, without exception, also consist
quot;of glass, including Nos. 5 and 6, although these latter resemble somewhat baked clay.
quot;The glass has been fused from quartz-sand mixed with feldspath, as the enclosed resi-
quot;duum of these minerals testifies.quot;

The numbers here referred to by Professor Schmutzer, are those of the samples
sent to him and do not correspond with those on our coloured illustration (Fig. 171).
With Nos. 1 and 2, Professor Schmutzer means Nos. 7 and 8 respectively of the illustration;
with Nos. 5 and 6, he means 10 and 1 respectively. The last two are beads which go by the
name of moetisalah. Chiefly remarkable in the report is Professor Schmutzer\'s statement
that these latter beads consist of glass although somewhat resembling baked clay.

Let us now return to the article of Rouffaer. He destinguishes the following kinds
of beads:

(1)nbsp;Cornelian beads, undoubtedly originating in Cambay and brought into the
Archipelago about 1500 A. D.

(2)nbsp;Clay beads, also coming from Cambay and exported from there to the Archipel-
ago about the same periode.

(3)nbsp;Glass beads, the present moetisalahs, imported into the Timor Archipelago
after 1500.

Ad. 1. We ourselves found no cornelian beads in the graves of South Sumatra.
Dr. van Tuyn, however, did find them in the Lampongs and according to him, they must
have been used there about 1400 years ago. Further, similar beads were found in Java,
in Malacca and in the Philippines and always in prehistoric graves dating from the begin-
ning of our era and perhaps still older. Dixon has noted that it is not impossible that

even in this prehistoric period, trade relations existed with Hindustan (See above pages 135—
136). It may thus very well be, that these cornelians, as Rouffaer thought, came from Hin-
dustan, but in any case, their export must have taken place much earlier than he thought.

Ad. 2. When Rouffaer deals with clay beads, he bases his arguments on data from
the literature on the subject, of which those of Professor Virchow seem to him the most
reliable. It does not seem, however, that Professor Virchow is here supported by a
thorough mineralogical examination of the beads.nbsp;, , , i i d r

In view ofthe fact that the glass moetisalahs somewhat resemble clay beads, as Proces-
sor Schmutzer wrote to us, we suspect that Professor Virchow and others have made a
mistake and judging these beads from their exterior, have wrongly concluded that they
were of baked clay.nbsp;, .nbsp;i

The same mistake seems to have been made by Dr. Van Tuyn who in his article
writes about quot;hard baked earthenware and terra-cotta. coloured yellow or brown . Ur Van
Tuyn further wrote to us in a letter dated March 20, 1932: quot;I have also seen the beads
sent by you to Bandoeng and they resemble those which I had found without however
the - much more rare - agate beads.quot; These beads, however, are of glass, not of baked
day.

^ All of which makes us suspect that the clay moetisalahs of Timor described by
Rouffaer, do not exist (although, Lturally, clay beads do occtir elsewhere) but that various
writers have erroneously taken the glass moetisalahs for baked clay.
, Ad. 3. The present glass moetisalahs, of which Rouffaer speaks, were \'m^rted
fter 1500 as „substitutesquot; for more ancient clay and still morenbsp;cornelian bead

but are themselves very ancient prehistoric beads. From the finds .^r. Van l uyn it
IS clear that these beads were known in Sumatra as far back as at least 1400 yc^s ^d
they were probably in use both there and in Malacca about the beginmng ot our era. )

With regard to the further finds in the stonecists of the Pasemah, we would note

^ ,The small gold nail (111. 172, no. 9) is an object that occurs m various pam of Ae
yorjd in the bronze period. Ebertquot;^) gives illustrations of a number ®quot;ch ^■JX
Kung Björns Hog, Ae most important grave mound of the bronze period in Swedem
The nails here were found partly Lse and partly serving as

bronze sword. We saw two Lall gold nails of exacdy the same shape n a bronze spe^
P^nt^in the British Museum (Inscription; quot;Found in the Thames near Taplow, 1903,

The bro^\'i/r^Ltsfouid K were unfortunately greatly f cay^^
quot;nable to determine to what objects they belonged. Goloubew is of ^Ätwe^^^^
drums such as we saw represented on the Batoegadjah date from fe transition between
the bro^e and the iron periods. This agrees with the fact that we br°nze remains,
w^ \' gt;ntroleurquot; Batenburg informed Professor Van Eerde,, that in Ae gr^c icfj
9, he found an extremely decayed iron lance-point, besides yellow

The engraved lines which we met with on the stonecists Tegoerwangi 11 and 12
(111. 167) stand quite by themselves. Van Heekeren and Steinmetz, indeed, describe engraved
work occurring on the megaliths of Besoeki, but the style is different from those which
we found.

Very curious also are the mural drawings of the stonecist Tegoerwangi 11 (111. 165).
Such coloured drawings occur in megalithic graves elsewhere. With regard to them Ebert
writes as follows : quot;In vielen Gegenden, namentlich in England, in der Bretagne,
„auf der Pyrenäen-Halbinsel und auf Sardinien (Anghelu Ruju) sind die Wände, nicht
,selten auch die Decken der entwickelten M. mit Gravierungen, in Spanien und ander-
,,wärts (Steinkiste von Göhlitzsch by Rossen; Band II Tf. 16) vereinzelt auch mit Male-
„reien geschmückt, die zweifellos eine religiöse Bedeutung haben. Die Motive sind vor-
„wiegend geometrische : Systeme Konzentrischer Halbkreise (Band VII Tf. 210); Reihen
„schachbrettartig geordneter Dreiecke und namentlich, wie auch bei der Giebelkrönung
„des Midas Grabes in Phrygien, einfache und Doppelspiralen (Tf. 152b), die G.Wilke
,,(Religion der Indogermanen 1923 S. 178 ff.) neuerdings von der Schnecke herzuleiten
,,versucht und wie diese als ein Symbol der Mond-Todesgottheit gedeutet hat. Nicht
,,selten erscheinen auch eigentümliche schildartige Figuren (Band IV Tf. 13) vielleicht
,,stilisierte Gesichtsdarstellungen (Dechelette), und, wie in den Grabgrotten Frankreichs,
„geschäftete Beile (Band IV Tf. 47b). Weniger häufig sind Tiere, dann meist gehörnte
„und Schlangen, die gleichfalls auf die Mond-Todesgottheit hinweisen und bisweilen,
,,wie später im Kret.-Myk. Kulturkreise, mit dem Beil zusammen auftreten. Auf die
„gleiche Gottheit sind auch die in den Gräbern von Anghelu Ruju dargestellten, in mittel-
„europ. Hallstattzeitl. Gräbern auch plastisch ausgeführten Mondbildern (S. Mondidol)
„zu beziehen (Opferplatten), während die in den gleichen Gräbern wie auch in den skand.
,,und engl. Megalith-Bauten vorkommenden Schiffsdarstellungen z. T. die Bootfahrt
„nach dem Jenseits versinnbildlichen (Band II Tf 209 b—c; s. Bootsgrab), z. T. auch,
„namentlich soweit sie in Verbindung mit Radfiguren auftreten (S. Radornament), wie
„die gleichfalls häufig dargestellten Kreise mit Strahlenkranz auf astralmythischen Vor-
„stellungen beruhen. Nur ganz vereinzelt finden sich menschliche Figuren, so einige
,,rote Malereien in der Orca dos Juncaes in Portugal (J. Leite de Vasconcelles Religiones
„da Lusitania I, S. 363 ff) und eine Ritzzeichnung in einem Dolmen von Coräo bei Abamia
„in Asturien (Mus. Madrid).quot;

Such prehistoric drawings, as far as we know, have hitherto not been reported in the
Archipelago or its neighbourhood. Rock drawings do occur but it is certain that these
are partly of later date and pardy of a date which cannot be determined. As far as we had
an opportunity of examining representations of such drawings, they seemed to us much
more roughly executed than those from the graves in the Pasemah.

Dr. F. G. Kerr describes a few rock drawings near Me Kong in the district of Muk-
dakan in East Siam. They represent human figures and hands, in red and grey colour;
when they were executed is unknown.

Dr. Mersh Strong gives a description of similar drawings in British New Guinea and
states that others have been found there and in the Marshall Bennet Islands.

Count Lajonquiere reports them in the Bay of Panga, near Puket Harbour, Malacca;
of these also the date is unknown.

Ivor H. M. Evans found drawings in grottoes at Lenggong, upper Perak, Malacca.
These were made by Negritos and are assuredly not prehistoric, as several of them represent

On a steep, elevated coral coast in the Kei Islands, Portengen saw rock drawings,
some of which looked new whilst others showed traces of decay. They represented human
figures which also might have been animals; further a few ships, two triangles repres^ting
human heads, stars, fish, lines, shell-fish shapes and for the most part, hands. ihese
same drawings were also mentioned by Von Hoevell.

, All these various rock drawings differ from the drawing in the grave at Tegoerwangi,
in their roughness of execution as well as their presumably later date.

In many doesoens in the Pasemah graves are found which, according to the inhabi-
tants, are ancient. At the present time, interments take place in the usual Mohammedan
manner, only very simply. Modern graves can be recognized by a slight elevation of the
ground on which two unornamented stones or wooden posts have been placed. The
dead are laid on their right side with the face towards Mecca, to the West. Consequently,
the grave itself is oriented North-South, as are also the stones planted upon it.

The ancient graves differ from the modern in that they form a small terrace about
half a metre high, the upright borders of which are constructed of river stones. The
dimensions of the terrace are dependent on the number of dead which are there interred.
On the terrace, upright natural stones again stand in pairs. With ancient graves, however,
these pairs of stones are not directed North-South but in different directions. We were
told that these graves were oriented hoeloe, i.e. upstream.

It may be that this custom is accociated with the direction in which the land of
spirits is supposed to lie. With regard to this, Alkema and Bezemer write as follows :

quot;The location of the land of spirits is generally sought in the West____those, who live

quot;at the foot of a high mountain, imagine it to lie at the other side of the same mountain.quot;
The Goenoeng Dempo, the volcano which with its cone-shaped top, 3100 m. high,
dominates the whole plain of the Pasemah, is still visited by the inhabitants of the surroun-
ding districts who, notwithstanding their conversion to Islam, go there to make offerings.

Whether this method of interment is a custom bequeathed by the ancient megalith
builders, we cannot say. In that megalith culture, however, we are inclined to include two
monuments which are regarded by the inhabitants as graves and venerated as such, viz.
the terraces of Mingkik and the quot;Grave of Lidahpaitquot; or quot;Seroenting Saktiquot; near Pelang-
kenidai (See 111. 48, 49, 59, 60, 62, 63).

The resemblance between the grave of Mingkik and the terraces of the Lebak Sibe-
doeg in West Java (111. 204 and 206) and the Polynesian sanctuaries is further too striking
not to imply a connection between these monuments. Not only can the grave of Mingkik,
in form and method of construction, be compared with the Lebak Sibedoeg, but there
is also the fact that in the case of the first mentioned grave, we found upright stones both

a)nbsp;Concerning graves in the Kisam region, See Forbes, pag. 182. Concerning similar graves in the Moluccas, See Riedel,a,
(inter alia Plate 11).

c)nbsp;Compare Kruyt, a, page 497 (quot;Vulkaan- en zeegodenquot;). See also Forbes.

on and beside it, whilst on the front terrace of the Lebak Sibedoeg as well as at the foot
of the mound, we met with a large menhir. We are of opinion, therefore, that these monu-
ments also may safely be said to belong to the same megalithic culture. This view receives
support from the fact that the Lebak Sibedoeg in Bantam stands in a country from whence
came so many Polynesian images and that the Polynesian quot;Ahuquot; — with which we will
deal at greater length presently — occur in very different sizes, sometimes consisting of
many steps, and again only one or two steps high, and also accompanied by primitive
images and upright stones.

During the third Congress of thequot;Oostersch Genootschapquot; held in Leyden m 1923,
Dr. W. F. Stutterheim spoke on quot;The so-called Lingga-sanctuary of the Argapoera m
Java.quot; We give here in abridged form, the contents of the Report:

Dr. Stutterheim pointed out that Professor Kohlbrugge in 1899, had declared this
sanctuary to be a lingga temple Professor Krom accepted this under reserve; he was
inclined to think of an older quot;Indonesianquot; (or rather quot;old Indigenousquot;) rehgious ritual, ƒ)
The sanctuary, said Dr. S. further, consists of a terrace with a low wall surrounding it;
a stair leads to the terrace, not through the wall but over it. On this terrace hes another
terrace and on it again an altar-shaped elevation on which pointed slabs of andesite
stand. Dr. S. drew attention to the resemblance with the Welirang, the Goetji-top and
perhaps also with the Kawi and with the Soekoeh on the Lawoe. The spea^r further
drew a comparison between this Argapoera sanctuary and the Marae in Tahiti, lie quoted
hereby Baessler who explained the marae as family monuments.nbsp;^

In the subsequent discussion, Mr. Lekkerkerker stated that the pointed, upriglit
stones also occurred in Bali and other Soenda Islands and possibly were assoaated with
ram magic. Mr. Kruyt remarked that the rain magic was a secondary matter. The stones
were raised in the memory of the dead. These dead could command the ram and conse-
quently there arose a subordinate stone cult, with rain magic as its object, hmally, Mr. btein
Callenfels advanced the suggestion that these sanctuaries were built not during the Hindu

. In this connection we would note the following: Baessler^) states that m lahiti,
the marae consist of an open place, rectangular in shape, surrounded by a small wall.
In this open place stand upright stones which are meant as monuments to the different
ancestors; (these stones stand in rows and remind one of stone avenues) One of the short
sides of this open place consists of a stepped pyramid, built of very large stones. The
^arae serve in the first place as family monuments; further as offering-place, m former
times for human sacrifices, and finally also sometimes, but not always as burial place.
In addition, however, there are found in Tahiti other monuments of the same shape as
the marae. but larger, which go by the name of quot;ahuquot; and which in the first place are
n^eant as graves. Many marae have unfortunately been destroyed under e i

Cook also gives some details about the marae in his books .On plate LXXXVIII,
he shows a human sacrifice in the quot;Morai of Otahitiquot;. Plate XXV gives a representation
of a small house, such as one meets with in the marae. Here we see on the ground, a rec-
tangle of stones, which recalls again similar rectangles on the terrace of Salakdatar (See
page 64).

The commander of the corvette \'TAstrolabequot;, Jules Dumont d\'Urville, describes
similar terrace sanctuaries in the island of Tongataboe, (Tonga Group) In plate 95
he gives a representation of a monument quot;destiné a la sépulture de la race royalequot;, the
form of which in every respect corresponds with the quot;ahuquot; of Tahiti. It consists of four
steps and has the shope of an oblong rectangle; as far as can be seen from the drawing,
it must be about 4 metres high. At the one end of the uppermost terrace stands a stone,
hollowed out on the top, somewhat in the manner of the head-piece on the menhir of
Batoeberak (See 111. 193). Further, Dumont d\'Urville, in plate 101, gives a quot;plan des
tombeaux des chefs de Tonga tabouquot;. On this plan, we find a number of terrace graves
lying together. Some are oval in shape, one or two steps high; the most, however, are
rectangular, almost square and consist of one to five steps. Several constitute the burial
place of five kings. The largest blocks of which the monuments are constructed, measure
20 by 8 by 2 feet. The largest graves measured in total 180 by 120 feet and were 20 feet
high. Small huts — places for prayer or spirit-houses — stood on the top. The monuments
here were not called quot;ahuquot; but quot;faitookaquot;.

From a print by Wilson d), it appears that the quot;ahuquot; in Tahiti are not always built
of very large blocks but sometimes also are constructed in the same technique as Mingkik
and Lebak Sibedoeg, viz. with comparatively small stones, dressed a little or not at all.

The similarity of the monuments of Mingkik and Lebak Sibedoeg on the one hand,
and the quot;ahuquot; of Polynesia, on the other, seems to us so striking that we must regard
them as identical. For this opinion, we find strong support in the assertion of Dr. Stutter-
heim that the sanctuary of Argapoera and similar temples must be derived from the Poly-
nesian sanctuaries. Here in Mingkik and Lebak Sibedoeg, the quot;ahuquot; recurs in its purest
form, absolutely free from Hindoo influences. We have already pointed out that similar
terrace-graves occur in Madagascar (page 132).

Concerning the names of Polynesian sanctuaries, Heine Geldern writes as follows : ƒ )
quot;Das marae, malae oder male Polynesiens war ein häufig mit Steinsitzen für Häuptlinge
quot;versehener Versammlungs- und Kultplatz, bisweilen ganz offen, bisweilen im Viereck
quot;mit Steinmauern oder mit aneinander gereihten aufrechtstehenden menhirartigen
quot;Steinplatten umgeben. Bei den mit Mauern umgegeben marae scheint im algemeinen
quot;der religiöse Charakter besonders stark hervorgetreten zu sein, so dasz man sie in manchen
quot;Fällen wohl geradezu als Tempel bezeichnen kann. Das ahu ist normalerweise eine
quot;steinerne Pyramide oder läszt doch wenigstens erkennen, dasz seine Form von einer
quot;solchen abgeleitet ist. Das wort bedeutet \'Haufen\'. Im östlichen Polynesien hat stellen-

e)nbsp;Concerning the mingling of Hindoo-Javanese, with old-indigenous elements, see further, Krom, c, Chapter V, page 177.
See alsoo Rigg; and further Van Tricht, page 60.

weise eine Vermischung der beiden Formen und infolgedessen auch ein Austausch
beider Bezeichnungen stattgefunden.quot;

^ Further, (on page 296): quot;Auf den Marquesasinseln waren ahu und marae endgültig
miteinander verschmolzen, wobei sich auf einigen Inseln der Name ahu, auf anderen
der Name me\'ae erhalten hatte. Diese ahu und meae hatten mit den entsprechenden
Bauten der Gesellschaftsinseln usw. fast nichts mehr gemein. Sie bestanden aus einer
oder mehreren Steinplattformen oder Terrassen und waren ausschlieszlich Tempel
und Bestattungsplätze .... Dem marae oder malae des übrigen Polynesien entsprach
jedoch nach Form und Bedeutung auf den Marquesasinseln gar nicht das me\'ae sondern
der tohua genannte Fest- und Tanzplatz .... Er bestand aus einem bisweilen gepflas-
terten Rechteck mit in Stufen ansteigenden steinernen Plattformen für Zuschauer an
einer oder mehreren, bisweilen auch auf allen vier Seiten.quot;

In South Sumatra, we found pit-marked stones on two occasions, viz. one stone in
the doesoen Djati, near Lahat (page 13) and several other stones around a menhir in Karang-
dalem (111. 5). As a welcome supplement to these finds, we came across a similar stone at
Tjitoedja, in West Java.

We have already mentioned how the inhabitants explained these stones to us. The
village heads at Karangdalem and Tjitoedjah told us that children at play had made these
marks in the stone. This explanation, however, does not seem to us quite acceptable. The
making of such a stone is far from being child\'s play. The small, naked inhabitants of the
kampong must then have inherited megalithic tendences in a considerable degree. I once
asked the Loerah of Tjitoedjah to call a couple of children and request them to make such
a mark in the stone but he promptly excused himself

We do, however, accept the statement told us, that toothpowder may have been
rubbed from the stone at Djati, for we ourselves saw a small rubbing stone and some
powder lying in it. It seems to us improbable, however, that this explains the origin of
the pit-marked stones.

We are more inclined to beUeve that they constitute remains of the ancient megalithic
culture. Both in Java and in Sumatra we found these stones in a region rich in megaliths.
The stones near Karangdalem, moreover, formed one monument with the menhir
standing there.

Stones with similar marks or cups (German, Schalen; French, écuelles, bassins, godets,
cupules; Swedish, àlvkvarnar) occur with other megaliths in various parts of the world.
They are not found in Netherland but they occur in Germany, Scandinavia, Great
Britain, France, the Mediterranean coast, Switzerland, Italy, Russia, the Orient and
British India.

There has been much controversy concerning the purpose of these stones. Ebert
conceives them as offering stones for sacrifices to the dead. Van Giffen states that their
meaning is quot;vague and uncertainquot;. Déchelette says that they are sometimes explained
as sacrificial stones and sometimes as quot;pierres commémorativesquot; but is of opinion that
they certainly possess a religious or symbolic character.

Déchelette further points out that formerly there was considerable discussion as to
whether these cups in the stones were made by men and were not the result of erosion.
It is evident that such a mistake is also possible as regards South Sumatra. In 111. 122,
one sees on the upper surface of the dolmen which lies close to the image Goenoeng-
megang 8, various round cavities, with regard to which we were at first doubtful if
Aey were natural or artificial. The problem was solved for us, when in the great dolmen
Poelaupanggoeng 3 (111. 109), we found exactly the same cavities in the ruptured surfaces
of the coping-stone. In view of the fact that these ruptured surfaces must be of later date
than the monument itself, we are obliged to assume that these cavities originated m the
disappearance of the more deciduous parts of the stone. As a matter of fact, we later

The pits on the quot;pit-marked stonesquot;, however, are easily distmguished from those
due to erosion by their uniform shape and by the regularity of their distribution over the
whole upper surface.

Concentric circles round the pits and small channels connecting two pits occur
elsewhere, but we did not meet with them in Sumatra and Java.nbsp;, a u • i

As far as we know, no pit-marked stones have hitherto been found in the Archipel-
ago. Steinmetz alone, in the article repeatedly cited mentions a stone lying m the bom-
Pejan River, near the desa Kedjawan, doekoeh Buto dakon. The stone was 1.50 by ^.75 m
large and covered with quot;numerous small holes, which I do not believe were artificial.^
Offerings were still brought regularly to the stone. The report seems to us to merit veri-
fication.

^ Several of the remains which we found do not quite fit mto the classification we have
followed in describing them. Some of them may also not belong to the culture represented
m the other megaliths. For that reason, we introduce them here under a special heading.

(1) The stone with relief, Tebatsibentoer 3 (111. 29) certainly does belong to the
fnegaliths. This is evident, not only from the relief work but also from the fact that it
IS situated near two images. This stone, however, is quite umque. A block of stone of he

same shape,quot; but without rehef, lies near the image Tandjoengtebat. According to ^

mhabitants, this latter stone rests on several others which have sunk into the ground,
and constitutes a grave. Both stones, indeed, somewhat resemble in shape the copmg-
stone of the grave at Telagasari in Java, described by Van Heekeren and Stein^^
IS also ornamented with a human figure in relief. It would be worth while, therefore, to
carry out some excavation work under both the stones in the Pasemah.

^ (2) With respect to the flat stone near Moearapajang (page 39)
whether this is a natural stone or whether it should be included among t^^^^^^
quot;monuments. In any case, it is remarkable that we frequently find such stones near the
^negahths, inter alia at Karangindah (page 13) and near various images at Tinggihari
(page 15)

According to Arndt, such flat stones also occur with the Nada of Flores, under the

name of nabe. There they serve either as grave-stones or as commemorative stones for
the dead. We would here call attention, therefore, to this sort of stone. Here also,
excavations might bring certainty.

(3)nbsp;The grave near Kebonagoeng (111. 58 and 61) consists of four stones, one of
which contains beautiful decorative work and looks quite new. This stone, therefore,
has certainly nothing to do with the megalith culture. We give a photograph of it, however,
because this grave, as far as we know, has not been mentioned in the literature and because
the decorative work on the stone has been executed in a curious style which, for instance,
resembles in no way the quot;sultan\'s Gravesquot; at Palembang. The other three stones look
more ancient. They lack the beautiful arabesque and are only decorated with
small primitive human figures. We should hesitate, however, to include them with the
megaliths. According to the inhabitants, the grave is a hundred years old which, considering
the fact that these people have very little idea of chronology, probably means that it is
very old, some generations old. It probably dates, therefore, from the pre-Mohammedan
period; the Islam was introduced very late in the Pasemah. It is probably not prehistoric,
because our chauffeur, who otherwise had very little respect for the remains, showed a
holy terror for this grave, because one of his ancestors was reputed to be buried in it.
The inhabitants of the village also hold the grave in honour.

The stone, a photograph of which we give, consisted of reddish granular material,
perhaps brick. Possibly this stone is associated in some way with the decorated bricks
which were found in the Residency of Palembang — now in the Museum at Batavia —
and which were also decorated with birds and arabesque.

(4)nbsp;The gargoyle Pageralam 5 (111. 69) undoubtedly dates from the same period as
the images and other megaliths.

(5)nbsp;The small stone Pageralam 6 (111. 71) corresponds in shape with the three ancient
stones of the grave Kebonagoeng. It shows no human figures but only a chiselled border.
Like the grave just mentioned, it probably is of later date than the megaliths.

(6)nbsp;The two rectangular stones Tjoeroep No. 1 (111. 130 and 131) do not lie in the
vicinity of megaliths. To judge from their shape, they do not chronologically belong to
them. At first sight, one might take them for yoni, more especially in view of the upright
border of one of the two. The spout, however, which is always present in the case of the
yoni, is lacking. Perhaps the following report of Joustra concerning burial customs in
Padang Lawas (Batak Lands) will give some indication on the meaning of these stones.
Joustra writes: quot;The coffin is lowered into a grave which is filled with earth whilst the
evil spirits are being driven away. On the grave, a mound is formed, on which a cube-
shaped stone (nesan) is planted, on which is placed the rapotan with food, etc. destined
for the deceased.quot;

(7)nbsp;With regard to the stone trough Ranau No. 2 (111. 188) very little can be said.
Hindoo remains, indeed, are found near Djepara, but whether the basin, which contains
no decorative work at all, is related to these in any way, cannot be determined. In our
opinion, it is not impossible that it is an ancient stone sarcophagus, dating from the

b)nbsp;Groeneveldt, page 131, No, 440. See also Tombrink. Concerning ancient graves in the Pasemah, see also page 142.

pre-Hindoo period, but we have no certainty of this. In this connection, however, we
would point out that sarcophaguses have also been found in the Batak Lands. Meerwaldt
reports them in the Toba district, whilst Joustra speaks of quot;stone mausoleums and

The sarcophaguses in the Batak Lands are generally much larger than the trough
of Ranau. In Bali, on the other hand, stone coffins have been found, with about the same
dimensions and which must have been destined for dead bodies in a squatting attitude. ^
Further, we recall the graves in Borneo, described by Sierevelt, which we compared with
the four images Tegoerwangi 8 (page 99). It is not impossible that the trough belonged
to such a grave.

As far back as 1723, Stukeley expressed his opinion that the well known megahthic
monument of Stonehenge, near Sahsbury had served for a solar-cult and was orientated
according to the rising of the sun on Midsummer Day. Lockyer elaborated this theory
and explained the difference which existed between this astronomical point and the point
to which the axis line was actually directed, as due to the reduced angle of the ecliptic. In
1680 B.C., the two points actually coincided and this therefore must have been the year
in which the sanctuary was founded.

Stone improved on the calculations of Lockyer and arrived at 1840 B.C. as the year
of construction. This theory, however, has been combatted from various sides and a
summary of the objections advanced has been given by Somerville. Ebert calls the ideas
of Lockyer practically useless.

Perry is so convinced that a connection exists between megalith culture and solar-
cult, that he gives the title quot;The Children of the Sunquot; to one of his books. Here he follows
in the footsteps of Elliot Smith, who considers solar-cult and megalith culture so closely
connected that he speaks of quot;Heliolithic culturequot;. Elliot Smith gives a small map in
which he shows by means of small arrows, how this culture has spread. He shows here
how Sumatra, Java and Celebes formed a centre of this civilisation, and with his small
arrows, suggests its dissemination from Sumatra and Java to Celebes and from there to
the North. From the comparison between our finds in Java and Sumatra and those of
Kruyt in Celebes, it is clear, however, that the proofs are still insufficient to justify the
standpoint that the megalith culture in Celebes was derived from that of Sumatra, although
points of agreement do exist. Further, Kruyt says (see page 167) that the megalith builders
in Celebes came from just the opposite direction, namely, from the North.

In this connection, we would remark the following with respect to the megaliths of
South Sumatra (See 111. 224):

We found the much discussed kettle-drums only in effigy. Of the numerous drums
of this description found both in Further India and in the Archipelago, we know, however,
that they have a star-shaped figure on the upper surface which is regarded as a represen-

a)nbsp;Ebert, XII, page 447 and 448 sub voce quot;Stonehengequot;. See also Stone.

tation of the sun and as an indication of the worship of this heavenly body. It may now
be regarded as probable that the kettle-drums, used and represented by our megalith
builders in South Sumatra, also had such a sun figure on the upper surface (See 111. 96).
This might indicate that they also were sun-worshippers. We have no certainty on this
point, however, especially because it cannot be determined m how far this figure m tlie
course of time had become a purely conventional one.nbsp;. . ^ ,nbsp;j

^ We would also point out here, that in the country of origin of these kettle-drums
Tonkin and neighbouring regions, no megaliths have hitherto been found, with the
exception of the grave mentioned on page 94, so that, as far as this country is concerned,

Although we will adopt a neutral attitude with regard to the theories of Perry and jhers
regarding sun-worship and megaliths, we are of opinion that m ^e^j-f^^ ^^^^^^^^^
great attention should be paid to the orientation of the same Even if the megaliths had
no direct connection with Tsolar-cult proper, it is quite possible that t^ ^ved ^^
the direction of the rising of the sun and thus to determine,

of seed-time. Arndt gives an example of this in Flores (see page 115). Nieuwenhu«

tions another example in the case of the Mahakam Kajan in Borneo Der o^^^^^^
Saattag fiel diesmal wie auch sonst öfters, nicht mit dem

Den ersteren bestimmt der alte Priester Bo Jok nach dem Stand der ^ ^^f^^tZ
neben dem Hause zwei längliche Steine, einen grösserennbsp;^u^^

und dan den Zeitpunkt beobachtet, in dem die Sonne in der ^\'\'^\'SfJZ^^ex^e^^
bindungslinie diesL beiden Steine hinter den gegenüberhegenden ^^^
Der Saattag ist der einzige, den Bo Jok auf astronomischem Wege b^t^^t. Im ^
\'jist die Zeitrechnung bei den Kajan eine mehr oder weniger willkürliche und vom

view of the fact that the stones are somewhat irreguto m «^ape, f e ™enbsp;Zo

advanced against Lockyer\'s calculations, mentioned above. \'Xind TkÏÏ^^^^^^
yan Giffen, discussing the direction of the giant graves in Netherland, makes

\'\'quot;foTewLing the orientation, we generally used a fch-alka^^
Pnsm sight, placed on a support, the border divided into full de^rees^
account the fairly considerable degree of arbitrariness,

axis line, the accuracy of this instrument may be regarded as quite sutticient.
Regarding the orientations found, the following may be notea.

various direct^ns. Further, they have frequently fallen down and have sometimes
displaced.

(2)nbsp;Lesoengbatoe. The shape of these objects makes it impossible to determine a
line of axis.

(3)nbsp;Troughs. We have seen that these objects should probably be regarded as
coffins for bones ; they would then be identical with the smaller sarcophaguses in Besoeki.
Van Heekeren remarks concerning the coffins there : quot;It has appeared that the head of
quot;the coffin generally lies East and the foot West.quot; In the case of the troughs in South
Sumatra we found no definite orientation. These small objects, however, can easily be
displaced and in several cases it is certain that they have been.

(4)nbsp;Upright Stones. In the cases of stones standing separately, there is no question
of orientation.

(5)nbsp;Groups of four stones. As can be seen from the scheme of bearings, the tetraliths
show a certain preference for the orientation East-West. The only exception is that of
Goenoengmegang. Here the square in which the stones stand is so very irregular that
the axis determined must be regarded as very arbitrary. (See Plan, 111. 119). In the case
of the tetralith of Pagerdin, the deviation from the line East-West amounts to about 20
degrees, whilst the others approach this line. With the Lebak Sibedoeg, the terraces as
well as the small tetralith lie East-West. The direction here was determined by means
of a pocket compass.

(6)nbsp;Stone avenues. The stone avenue of Talang Padang lies almost East-West;
that of Tandjoengsakti deviates considerably from this line and is oriented more North-
South.

(7)nbsp;Dolmens. Here, in most cases, no axis line can be determined. Some lie on four
stones, which are then oriented very arbitrarily; others again rest on two, three, or more
than four stones. In the case of the offeringplace of Batoeberak, the two upright stones
and the dolmen lie in one line, which runs almost Northwest-Southeast.

(8)nbsp;Stonecists. All the stonecists found lay approximately East-West. It was only
possible with regard to a portion of these stonecists, to determine the axis line with
sufficient accuracy to include the same in the scheme of bearings. With the stonecist
Tegoerwangi 11, the door looked East. As regards the stonecist Tegoerwangi 9, excavated
by quot;Controleurquot; Batenburg, the orientation is not known. The stonecist Tjawang 1,
which was examined by Westenenk was still sufficiently exposed to allow of the orientation
being taken, and that has been given in the scheme. Here also, the door has been on the
East side. In the case of the fragments of the stonecist Tjawang 2, the axis line was deter-
mined rather arbitrarily, but we have included it in the scheme. In the case of this (small)
stonecist, no door could be seen.

We recall here, that in the case of the stonecists which were found in Malacca, there
was no dominant orientation.

(10) Terrace Graves. The grave of Lidah Pait and that near Mingkik lay approxi-
mately Northwest-Southeast; the orientation of the Lebak-Sibedoeg m West Java, on
the other hand, was clearly East-West, with the front terrace looking West. With reference
to what we have already written concerning the Soekoeh in Java, it is worth observmg
that also in the case of this sanctuary, the lowest terrace faced the West. _

Resuming, we can say that with the megaliths of South Sumatra, a certain preference
IS noticeable for the direction East-West. In the case of a few monuments, the direction
IS Northwest-Southeast, whilst with others, no preference for any special orientation can
be noted.

Before drawing conclusions from the orientation, one ought to remember that the
total number of megaliths found is comparatively small so that in the orientation, the element
of chance may play a role. Further, an East-West orientation of the graves is no proof
of a solar-cult. Rivers himself is convinced of that. He writes, for example-) ^
. speaks of an ancient solar-cult in.Mangaia, but it is doubtful whether this is more han
an inference from the mode of orientation of the dead. It probably ^quot;ses direct^ ^^^^^^

.;the behef in the direction of the home of the dead and only corresponds with the direction

In the Archipelago also, this custom is well known. Alkema and Bezemer) write .
..Further, the grave Lst b; directed towards the West, because the West is though
..to be the entrance to the land of spirits. The houses intentionally
..to the West, so that when returning home, one\'s back is to the West OtW^

would appear as if one were walking to the West, toward ^^e land of spirits I his
corresponds with the fact that with several of the stonecists we met \'
îhe East side. When the body was carried into the stonecist, it

in the direction of the land of spirits. Martin reports that m Semm the Ghr stians aœ
buried with their head towards the East.;) We are of opinion, ^her^ th^^^^^^^

ave round till now, does not form sufficient material to justity conciusionb w__^

to solar-cult, and restrict ourselves to giving the orientations found, m the accompanymg
scheme of bearingsnbsp;•nbsp;• 4.u

^ „ In connectio^with the possibility of solar-cult we «aight ^
following. Tombrink writes : quot;Notwithstanding all these stories, ^e P^^
, Joedo. passirah of the marga Goemaij-Lembak, one of the ^^^
.,\'n these districts, maintains positively that, although ^e People frorn Lemat^amp; ^^^^
„■quot;ore especially from Goemai came from Loebi, their first ^ff^\'^^f ^^^^^^
«un, and that of the Pesemah from the moon, ) and that they stepped on to the earth

quot;on the Boekit-Besar. He was supported in that opinion by numerous other chiefs,
quot;including the old pangeran Siera Boemi Landoeng, passirah of the marga Soekoe-Lima.quot;

In view of the fact that the megaliths were probably not built by the ancestors of
the present inhabitants, we cannot decide from this story whether the former were sun-
worshippers. As it is not impossible, however, that some blood of the ancient megalith
builders still flows in the veins of the inhabitants of the Pasemah, the story may really
originate in that ancient period and not be imported by later immigrants. In any case,
we cannot omit giving it here.

wbch constituted our Ladquarters for six months, our wo\'K*\'\'® A\'f /nbsp;res

and must be regarded as oSy the beginning of an investigation. Only ^ ^^
distant from Pageralam, there are are^ with regard to which ^^ ^.nk ourselves just^^^^^
m stating that the megaliths found above ground, how important ^ese in themselves
may be, form no more kn the beacons marking the way for more extensive and metho-
dical excavations.nbsp;u • i i

The megalith field near Tegoerwangi proved to be an important burial-plac^ We
were able to examine two graves but we lacked the time and thenbsp;^

mvestigations further. We afe absolutely convinced, however, »hat a further en^
not prove fruitless. And then there are other areas near Tandjoengara Goenoengmega^^^^^^^

Pematang. The vicinity of all the megaliths, indeed, will have to bV^rr^f^ton rSns
^ Such an extensive enquiry would also very probably bring to hght skeleton remains
and artefacts from which it would be possible to draw further eonctoons
. As long as the ennnirv remains in its oresent embryonic stage, however, such conclu^

^ Nortde are approaching the end of this work, however, it may be useful to
take a retrospective survey and to Isk what our finds, considered as a whole, h^^
m this resDect. »Ithonah L tnnw beforehand that the time for definite conclusions has

and artefacts from which it would be possible to draw further conclusion.
. As long as the enquiry remains in its present embryonic stage however such c^clu
sions would be premature and dangerous. The reader mil thereforenbsp;\'nbsp;5

carefully refrLfrom giving an answer to the question: which race built the megalith

Utn.nbsp;.nbsp;A. 1

^«^^e a retrospective survey and to ask what our tinds consiueicu ao .nbsp;^ ^^^

tills respect, although we know beforehand that the time tor aennue cuii^
^ot yet arrivednbsp;i anrl

, From the very beginning, we must sharply distinguish between race people a^^^
culture. In South Sumatra we have found a number of megaliths, \'^L
remains, a number of beads, in short, some cultural possessnbsp;f ^rimmnlpte

have lived there formerly. Of that culture as a whole, these remains give a ve^
idea^because only those objects most impervious to the influence of time, have remamea

\'^\'quot;Muswequot;™ further speak ofthe ra.e of megalith builders o/

hth builders in South Sumatra? The Archipelago is at \'be presen time tte

various races. It is quite possible that in the Pasemah a couple rf mmen^

there lived a population in 4ich one racial element Predominated It is not probable^

! formed a pure race. As long as our knowledge remains as circumscribed as it is day,

quot; IS safer to speak of the people of megalith builders.

As we have already observed (page 75), the images teach us very little regarding the
physical attributes of this people. Of the 53 images which we found, only a portion were
sufficiently well executed and sufficiently well preserved, to be regarded as possible portraits.
But even if one accepts the view that they are reliable portraits, there still remains a
considerable element of uncertainty. Westenenk spoke most positively of Negritos but
here, in our opinion, he went too f^ar. Several images show something of the negro type
but it is impossible to state with certainty if they were Negroids or Malays, or perhaps
a mixed race. During our stay in the Pasemah and also elsewhere in the Archipelago,
we frequently saw people who might very well have served as models for some of the
images and yet no one will go so far as to assert that the Pasemah is to-day inhabited by
a negroid population.

If we wish to know more, therefore, of the people of megalith builders, as long
as no important discoveries have been made in the sphere of anthropology, we can only
investigate the few cultural remains of that people which we possess. But we must also
remember that culture and people are not inseparately bound together. The Hindoo
culture elements in Java are numerous but only a very small number of the ancestors of
the present population, came from Hindustan. We are quite well aware that what we state
here are truths generally known but it is only by keeping these truths steadily before our
eyes that we shall escape the danger of drawing reckless conclusions.

If we now compare the complex of megalithic remains in South Sumatra with other simi-
lar complexes in the surrounding territory, than we can compile the following summary:

Mortars like the lesoengbatoe? „ , . „ ,
Stone sarcophaguses, some very small (skull tombs.\'\').

Stone rice-mortars (compare lesoengbatoe).
Stone urns (compare skull tombs).
Upright stones.
Dolmens (see page 128).

This list is not complete; only the most important centos of ^^^^^^^^^^^
are mentioned. It demonstrates, however, in our opinion that ^henbsp;htve poTnts

over a large part of the Archipelago and outside it, besides points
of agreement which can hardly be regarded as simple convergency,

With regard to the remains which we found in South S» and which^^^^^^
consist of stone, we would note further that the kettle-drums represented ^^^^
gadjah, and also a few bronze objects, indicate a connection with Tonkin
on the one side, and with Bali, on the other. With the exception of one
llths have hltbprtn bppn fniind in Indo-China. In the case ot tne oronzB imu» x.«..,.

le one side, and with Bali, on the other. With the exception ui ^
have hitherto been found in Indo-China. Iquot; the case of the bronze finds in Bah t^^^^
-acemporary stone sarcophaguses lt;■) proved that working in stone wasnbsp;^

however, megaliths proper hate not been reported. It seemsnbsp;\'^^p ƒdid n^^

bronze culture and of the megalith culture which we found combined m ^^ Pas^quot; ^

quite cover each other elsewhere. From this it is apparent that fJ^X^LXtn!
of cultures has probably taken place and that we must be careful m drawing conclusions

with regard to the origin of its former populations, from the cultural remains found there.

Further, we would recall that the same sort of beads which we found in the stonecists
of Tegoerwangi, were excavated from similar graves in Malacca and from a dolmen in
East Java, which again points to a connection between these three districts. See further
page 135.

The megaliths in the above list may be divided into recent and ancient. We know
almost nothing of the people who built the ancient megaliths. Very little has been done
in the sphere of excavation and useful anthropological material has not come to light or
was lost owing to unexpert treatment. It is naturally uncertain that the builders were the
ancestors of the present population. In some districts, in South Sumatra, for example,
this is even very improbable, as the present inhabitants possess no traditions or legends
which might throw some light on the origin of the megaliths. An enquiry into the question
of the race of the present population in the regions where the ancient megaliths are found,
would therefore have little value.

In the case of the recent megaliths, the position is different. Should it appear that
a certain race element dominated in the population which built these megaliths in various
districts, this would constitute an important piece of evidence, and one which ought to
lead to a systematic search for megalithic remains in places inhabited by the race in question
and where hitherto no megaliths have been reported. Such an enquiry, however, would
properly belong to a work over the megaliths of the whole of Netherlands India, not to
a monograph over the ancient megaliths in South Sumatra.

It is our personal belief that one should be very careful in expressing an opinion at
the present time, regarding the race of megalith builders in Netherlands India and that
at the moment nothing positive can be said, at least concerning the megalith builders in
the Pasemah. The hope is justified, however, that a further enquiry would bring more
to light. Let us patiently wait, therefore, till the necessary facts have been collected. The
investigation, after all, is only in its first stage.

We do know something, however, concerning the period in which the megalith
culture flourished in South Sumatra. Here we must use the kettle-drums as quot;Leitfossilquot;.

We have already remarked that drums of this type occurred in Indo-China in the
first century of our era. Rouffaer, indeed, is of opinion that they were only introduced
into Java several centuries later, but then as quot;poesakaquot;, thus as antiquities. In the case
of the Batoegadjah, however, the drums were far from being antiquities but are here
represented as objects in use, part of the equipment of the warriors who went into battle
with their elephant and their swords.

We further stated that no Hindoo influence is apparent in the images. The theory
of a small isolated mountain tribe which remained intact in its impenetrable mountains
whilst the Hindoos had already established themselves on Sumatra\'s coasts, cannot be
accepted. Both the bronze culture and the megalith culture indicate a relatively high
level of civilisation and contact with the outside world. If the Hindoos were there, the
megalith builders would surely have got into touch with them. Everything considered,
we are of opinion that the period of florescence of this megalith culture might be fixed
at not earlyer than the beginning of our era.

When we speak of Hindoos, we naturally always mean the immigrants into the Archi-
pelago, who left behind them the quot;Hindoo-Javanesequot; monuments. We found no trace

whatever of their culture in the South-Sumatran images. It is, however, not impossible
that at a still earher period, prehistoric relations existed between Hmdustan and the
Archipelago. A possible indication of this are the beads which we found m the stonecist
graves and the megaliths of Hindustan. (See page 135).

Further, it is naturally by no means certain that all the monuments m South Sumatra
were made exactly in the same period. It is probable that this culture h^s gradually become
extinct. One might perhaps accept the view that one coherent megalithic culture was
formerly spread over the whole Archipelago and that both the prehistoric megaliths which
we met with here and there, and the recent megalith culture such as now exists in boemba
and Nias, are the remains of this one culture. This has been by no means proved however.
Considerable ethnological and archaeological enquiry must be made before that end is
reached.

Megalithic monuments: dolmens, giant graves, upright stones or menhirs, stone
circles or cromlechs, pit-marked stones, rough stone imaps, stone terraces, so-cal ed
quot;cyclopicquot; walls, etc., occur in various forms in all parts of the world, except m Australia.
As far back as 1872, Fergusson described such quot;rude stone monuments in England
Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia and North Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Algeria
and Tripoli, the Mediterranean Islands, West Asia, India and America. Since that time
many others have become known. They also occur in Siberia, Chma, Japan and the islands

^ The most ancient of these monuments date, as far as we know at present ^om the
Neolithic period; the most modern are still erected to-day, inter aha in Nether^^^^^^^^
India. In form, the megaliths over the whole world reveal not only many differences but

, It is not surprising, therefore, that a lively controversy has arisen ove the quest on
whether these monuments are related to each other or not. It may De assumeu Liidi uxe
monuments were first built in one part of the world and that the custom ^pread from ^^^^
spot over four continents, either by the migration of the original creators or by one people
taking it over from the other or by both circumstances in ^ombmation.

other, took to building quot;rude stone monuments\' . This controversy ^^
minor part of the great struggle in the field of ethnology between the Elementargedanken

of Bastian and the quot;Migration-theoryquot; of Ratzel. ,nbsp;r .^„.r^Pf^nrv and

or are opposed to the various theories advanced with regard to the spread of the megaliths

In the first place, there is the so-called quot;Manchester School . In 1917, fery^^^^^
his book quot;The Lgdithic Culture of Indonesiaquot;. The Publications ofJVestene^^^
the images in the Pafemah had not yet appeared, but those of Tombrink had
The Polynesian images and the teLces of West Java were aheadynbsp;^ Steinmetz

had published in 1898 the results of his enquiry into the megaliths m
not seek the opinion of Perry, however, over these questions, for he states laconi^^^^^^
I propose, therefore, for the present, to leave on one side all peoples whose culture shows

quot;signs of the influence of such higher civiUsations as are associated with Brahmanism,
quot;Buddhism or Islam, and to confine my attention to those whose culture appears to be
quot;relatively simple. The portions of Indonesia which for this reason I shall omit, are Java
quot;and Madura, Bali and Lombok in the Sunda group; the Banda and Seranglao groups;
quot;Ternate and Tidore in the Moluccas; the south-west portion and the Mohammedan
quot;coastal peoples of Celebes; the coastal states of Borneo; the whole of Sumatra and the
quot;Malay Peninsula and the more advanced parts of Assam and Burma. These regions are
quot;left blank on sketch map number one.quot;

We feel obliged to comment on this, that one should not proceed to formulate theories
concerning a cultural, stream which flowed over East India, when one a priori leaves out
of consideration a considerable part — the most considerable part even — of.the Archipel-
ago. We quite agree with Perry that the circumstances in these portions which he omits
to deal with, are extremely complicated and insufficiently elucidated, but in that case
one ought rather to wait with forming conclusions concerning the megalith culture in
quot;Indonesiaquot; as a whole. It is clear from what Perry writes at the end of his book that he
himself is aware of the existence of a hiatus : quot;It is necessary to extend the area of the
quot;inquiry to the parts of Indonesia which have been ignored.quot; Indeed, it is. We would
rather reverse the process, however, and first quot;extend the area of the inquiryquot; before
proceeding to formulate general theories.

Reading the quot;Conclusionquot; of Perry, one almost gets the impression that it is hardly
necessary to concentrate further mental effort to the solution of the problem and that the
secret of the megalith builders can hardly be called a secret any longer. We shall give
here in short the conclusions he arrives at. These are no less than the following:

Those parts of India which Perry deals with in his book and which form actually
a small part of the Archipelago, saw an influx of immigrants who :

10.nbsp;they founded a priesthood, a dignity which was obtained by dedication or was
hereditary,

14.nbsp;they had little permanent influence on the indigenous population; of their
culture they practically left behind them only irrigation terraces, gold-working,

stone-working and the making of megahthic monuments, in those places where
a ruling caste remained behind.

This is a long list! It is not our intention to subject the theory of Perry as a whole
to criticism. «) We will just enquire, however, into the conformity of this theory and
the finds hitherto made in the Pasemah which assuredly formed an important
megalithic centre.

And then we may be brief. We have shown in the preceding chapters that there are
grounds for assuming a connection between the megaliths in the Pasemah and those in

other parts of the Archipelago. We also found gold----one small nail m the stonecist

near Tegoerwangi. Bronze was also found, but this bronze culture seemed to be connected
with Tonkin and Laos where hitherto almost no megaliths have been found. I here are

indirect indications of sun-worship but these are more associated with the bronze culture

than with the megahth culture. We found almost no direct indications Pf ^^^^^^^
one assumes that the upright stones and the dolmen in the P^sf^^^^^.Y J/.nH wm.
with the quot;malequot; and quot;feLlequot; stones in Assam and the «^lall Sunda Islands and ^
the monuments of Nias, and then explains the upright stones m all th^se areas a^o as
phalli. Whether the cultivation of rice on irrigated fields, still common m South Sumatra
was inherited from the megalith builders, still remams to be Proved
^ In 1923, Perry published his well known book: quot;The Children the Su^^^^
he traces the quot;ArcLic civilisationquot; from Egypt as far as America. The second edition
appeared in 1927nbsp;• i • b\\ \\7

In this book,\' Perry no longer leaves Sumatra and Java lt;gt;quot;\'^
wonder! He had meanwhile discovered from the catalogue ot t^e Leyden Mu^^^^^^
compiled by Dr. Juynboll, the existence of Polynesian .mages f J«™\'^nbsp;„

of late years dolmeL hav^ been discovered in Javaquot; to whgt;ch he add^^ foXer
•this information to Heer Kruyt.quot; It is a pity that he did not ask Heer Kruyt lor turner
■nformation. The latter might have provided him with much more which he might have

^^ Meanwhile, Perry seems also to have realised the existence ^fff^^\'VErrphy
The publications of Tombrink and Westenenk are still absent m quot;

but he cites Forbes, who gives a short description of the f~Tnt S Ibk to collect
Perry drops Sumatra with the words: quot;Unfortunately I havenbsp;^^^^^

Mr.nbsp;Forbesnbsp;makenbsp;it clear that stone-working strangers were wimdermg a^^^^^

at some unknown time in the past. Another region of ^^\'ch httle is k^^^^
quot;Southern Celebesquot;. Indeed, there is much in Java and Sinatra that requires mvest^at on
but we know something more than what is mentioned by PerrV-/\'^ ™ ^h SuStra
discuss the theory of Perry as a whole. We would only remark that he ^e^^
very superfieially and has evidently not taken the trouble to looknbsp;^ ^^^^

„iUcism of .h, .heory of Perry a»d .he Manchester S^ool jee »nbsp;^^ KoUbr„»^,e. page 179,

Krom e and ƒ page 42-^5-, Hottoi,b, page 391,tf; Schrieke, .. and b: Sternberg, page at

says concerning tlie theory of Perry: quot;It may reasonably be doubted whether the basis
quot;is strong enough to support the superstructure. To begin with, there exists at present
quot;no exhaustive survey of the stone work of the region, and its distribution has not been
quot;correlated with the geological and topographical conditions affecting the comparative
quot;availability of stone and other materials. Nor, on the other hand, has there been an exhaus-
quot;tive survey of the cults and myths, etc., supposed to be specially associated with the use
quot;of stone. In fact, the evidence on all these matters is at present incomplete.quot;

Sternberg writes as follows concerning the Manchester School:^) quot;Es ist nicht
quot;verwunderlich, dasz es in vielen, sogar ganz soliden gelehrten Köpfen durcheinander-
quot;geht und sie zu mehr als gewagten Verknüpfungen treibt. Nur durch eine derartige
quot;Massenhypnose kann man auch das Erscheinen solcher Arbeiten erklären, wie der von
quot;Perry und Elliot, die mit groszem Talent und Enthusiasmus dartaten, dasz die ent-
quot; ferntesten Kulturen, darunter die amerikanischen, unter dem Einflusz Ägyptens ent-
quot;standen seien, das in der Blüteperiode seiner Seeschiffahrt seine Kaufleute und Kolonisten
quot;in alle Welt geschickt habe, — Theorien, welche in neuer Aufmachung die alten, längst
quot;verworfenen Theorien Gohineaus wieder darbieten. Wenn aber, ohne auf ähnliche
quot;Extravaganzen weiter Bezug zu nehmen, so hervorragende Ethnologen wie Rivers sich
quot;ihnen anschlieszen, wenn solche autoritive Organe wie die Londoner \'Folklore\' sich
quot;zustimmend äuszern, wenn unter dem Einflusz von Elliot eine neue, die sogenannte
quot;Manchester-Schule der Mythologie entstanden ist, dann beweist das nur, das sich
quot;bezüglich der Geschichte uralter Wanderungen zwischen den Kontinenten Daten zu
quot;häufen beginnen, die beträchtliche Glaubwürdigkeit haben.quot;

The views of Perry were also not shared by Heine Geldern He accepts, however,
a relationship between the megaliths of Assam and Burma and those of the West (Europe,
North Africa and Syria) on the one side, and the Ahu and Marae of Polynesia on the
other. As link between the latter and Assam and Burma, he mentions the nanga-sanctuaries
of Viti Levu (which, as Stutterheim showed, somewhat resemble the sanctuary of Arga-
poera in Java) and further meeting-places and stone pyramids of Nias. What we remarked
regarding the terrace-graves in Sumatra and the Lebak Sibedoeg, fits in perfectly with
Heine Geldern\'s theory. He further refers to several megaliths in the Archipelago and
also to the quot;leider noch so wenig untersuchten, mit Menhiren und altertümlichen Stein-
quot;figuren besetzten Terrassenanlagen auf Java, von denen manche wohl sicher der vorhin-
quot;duischen Zeit entstammen, wenn sich auch ihr Gebrauch bis in die spätesten Zeiten
quot;der Hindujavanischen Periode erhalten zu haben scheint.quot;

We would note here that Heine Geldern more or less tacitly assumes that the recent
megaliths in Insulinde, for instance those of Nias, should be regarded as the latest descen-
dants of the prehistoric megalithic culture. This seems to us very probable, but honesty
compels us to point out that it is not proved. We can only obtain certainty on this point,
when the centres of recent megalith culture, like Nias and Soemba, are subjected not
only to an ethnological but also to an archaeological enquiry. If these centres are really
the last existing descendants of a prehistoric megalith culture which spread over the whole

of the Archipelago, painstaking excavations on the spot may lead to results which would
throw more light on the ancient megalithic culture.

In any case, such an investigation would never be superfluous because with the recent
sculpture work in the Archipelago, we are always confronted with the question to what
extent it has been affected by Hindoo influence. This is ev dent for example
article by Mr. Huyser, which we have already cited, in wkch he re^rds the buffalo-
figure in Batak wood-carving work as the fivaitic Nandi, which seems to us improbable.

Thus we always arrive at the same conclusion: let us be extremely careful m he
matter of general theories and begin by increasing, by means of conscientious and deta kd
enquiry, our collection of facts, still very incomplete. Much work, den«.ndmg bo^ t m^
and money must still be done in this direction before we have a suflicently sohd foun-
dation on which to construct a general system.

he combats the conception of Perry that the megalith builders fP^ead themse^^^^^

he world in search of gold and other precious objects: quot;So bildet die G™ndlage ^^

^le z.B. nach Madagaskar und Polynesien, so ist dochnbsp;f fi nden hat Ta sdbsquot;

, eme Art primitiver Missionstätigkeit könnte man in dem
denken. So sind, wie mir scheint, die Megalithen als Zeugnisse emer gt°szen rehgi^en
Bewegung zu betrachten, einer der frühesten, die man archao ogisch mchweisen k^n
;;und sowohl was ihre räumliche und zeitliche Entwicklung als auch was ihre Kultur

geschichtlichen Folgen betrifft sicher keine der geringsten^ ^nbsp;International

Important also is a lecture delivered by Von Heme Geldern at tr^
Congress of Orientalists, held at Leyden in September, the brief re^rt ot^w^^
reads as follows:\') quot;Auf grund der Steinbeilformen lassen sich m budostasienvoria g

. schnitt charakterisiert, war über Indien, Ostasien \'\'■^t\'^.^\'Äesien Da sie ^^^^^^
, Molukken usw.) verbreitet und findet sich heute noch \'\'^..Melanes^n^ Da «le n w

1 sie ist die Schulterbeilkulter, deren Verbratu^
Zentralindien über Hinterindien und Formosa bis nach Japan und jxor

quot;auch die PhiHppinen und Nord-Celebes (Minahassa) umfasst. Ihre Träger waren Völker
quot;austroasiatischer Sprache und vermutlich mongoloider Rasse.

quot;Noch später drangen Völker deren Beile viereckigen Querschnitt hatten, aus China
l\'über Hinterindien und die Malaische Halbinsel nach Indonesien und von dort einerseits
quot;bis nach Japan, anderseits nach Ozeanien vor. Träger dieser Vierkantbeilkultur, die der
\'\'neolithischen Yang-shai Kultur Chinas nächstverwandt war, können nur die Uraus-
\'\'tronesier gewesen sein. Die polynesische Kultur entstand im philippinisch-nordcele-
quot; hessischem Gebiet aus der Vermischung der Vierkantbeilkultur mit der Schulterbeil-
\'\'kultur. Archäologische Funde und Ethnologische Verhältnisse erlauben der Kultur
quot;der Uraustronesier zuzuschreiben: Bandkeramik, der chinesischen von Yang-shao
l\'und Kansu sowie jener des donauländischen Kulturkreises (Tripolje, usw.) verwandt,
\'\'jedoch nicht mit aufgemalten, sondern nur mit eingeritzten Ornamenten; Lanzenspitzen
\'\'aus Schiefer; flache, mittels kronenbohrers hergesteüte Steinringe; serienweise Erzeugung
\'\'von Steinbeilen mittels Sägetechnik; Rindenstoffbereitung; Auslegerboote (schon auf
\'\'den Flüssen des nördlichen Hinterindien auftretend); Rinder- und Schweinezucht;
\'\'Errichtung von Megalithdenkmälern; Kopfjagd. Auf Grund ihrer Beziehungen zum
\'\'chinesischen Neolithicum einerseits, ihrer vermutlich in vorarischer Zeit stattgefundenen
\'\'Einwirkungen auf Vorderasien anderseits lässt sich die Einwanderung der Uraustronesier
quot;aus China nach Hinterindien und auf die malaiische Halbinsel vermutungsweise zwischen
quot;2000 und 1500 vor Christus ansetzen.

quot;(Paraîtra sous une forme élargie dans le Tome XXVII de la revue Anthropos.)quot;

If we now consider in how far our experiences in South Sumatra fit in with this theory
of Von Heine Geldern, then it is apparent that considerable agreement exists.

Here, Heine Geldern attributes the megaliths to the quot;Uraustronesierquot;. In our opinion,
there is no indication that the images in South Sumatra were made by Negroids or by
Caucasians; it is quite possible, therefore that they are the work of these quot;Urau-
stronesierquot;.

The rectangular axe seems to be typical of the culture of these people. Such implements
mdeed, are very generally found in the South Sumatran megalith district. (111. 223).

These peoples would seem to have come to the Archipelago via Further-India and
Malacca. We found, inàeeà, points of agreement between the Pasemah, on the one side,
and Malacca (stonecist-graves) and Further-India (megaliths of Assam), on the other.

They are reputed to have gone from Indonesia to Japan. We found in the stonecists of
the Pasemah, blue, green and yellow beads of glass, which also occur in Japanese dolmens.

Further, they would seem to have gone to Oceanica. W^e have shown that not only
the Lebak Sibedoeg in West Java but also the terrace-graves in South Sumatra, correspond
in form with the quot;ahuquot; of Polynesia.

Our ceramic finds were too trifling to allow of comparison with band-ceramic. Accor-
ding to Heine Geldern, cattle-breeding was known to the quot;Uraustronesierquot;. We have
seen that the buffalo frequently occurs in the images of South Sumatra.

There is only one point of divergence between our finds and the conclusions of Heine
Geldern. The latter depicts a people still living in the middle of the stone age, whilst,
as we have stated, the megalith builders of South Sumatra, although they probably used
stone implements, were certainly acquainted with bronze and probably with iron. This
might be explained in the sense that this megalithic culture constituted a last bloom of

^e quot;Culture of the rectangular axesquot; occurring in the transition period previous to the
Hindoo period.nbsp;. „ „ ,

^ Heine Geldern estimates that the migration of the quot; Uraustronesier to Further-
India and Malacca, took place between 2000 and 1500 B.C. The kettle-drums which we
found represented on the Batoegadjah, however, synchronise with the second Han Dynasty
in China, which reigned during the first two centuries of our era This would seem to
indicate that the above-mentioned migration took place later or that the emigrants did

not burn their ships behind them, but maintained trade relations with the mother country

^ Another theory, which regards the relation between the megaliths over a great part
of the world, is that developed by Professor J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, m his work Systematisch

. Professor Kohlbrugge points out, that the megaliths occur m a broad g whi^h
encircles the whole worid. The writer demonstrates this with the help of a s^tch-map
and notes that this girdle corresponds in a remarkable degree with the girdle of the sol^^^^
worship as estabhshed by Frobenius.^) The writer agrees with the opmion ^^
by various authors, including Keane and Haddon, that the megaliths must be a^ribe^
Caucasian people which emigrated from Asia to Europe on the one side ^^^^ ^o the ^
Pacific and America, on the other, leaving rough stone monuments every where b^^^^^^

This is not the place to ded with the theory as a whole. We will merely consider

very briefly in its light our finds in South Sumatra.nbsp;.nbsp;k,„-1rlfgt;rlt;?

bronze period in the Archipelago do not at all coincide chronologically with those periods

. With regard to the Caucasian descent of the megahth builders we
the following: If the images in the Pasemah «allynbsp;J

by a negroid population, this would fit in very badly with the Ca^^^jS^^
We have tried to show, however, that there are not

Negroids, then thefe is a grelt probability that they belonged to a ^aby. thus a M^go o.^^
population stream. As long as the contrary is notnbsp;it would, m our ^^^^^

best to assume that they Wonged to one of the ernigrant »\'yearns fhich
East Asia, populated the ArchW- and which by some
Kiom, are called quot;Indonesiansquot;. Prof. Kleiweg de Zwaan prefers the terms
Maleiersquot; (Initial Malays), Praemalays or Protomalays.nbsp;^ ;

„■»e^t herequot; (namely, with the Kakhyens) quot;going ^^^t^J^^/jSTjofd popd^ all
which is found either separate or interspersed amongst the Mongoloio pop

Krom.f, p. 34. Kleiweg de Zwaan,a, p. 145, 151.
a; Keane-Haddon, page 186. Compare Kohlbrugge,c, p. 160 and 257.

quot;over the South-east Asiatic uplands from Tibet to Cochin-China, and passing thence
quot;into Oceanica.quot;

We would note further that the kettle-drums of the Badoegadjah are ascribed by
Meyer and Foy, to the Khmers. Keane and Haddon now say with regard to these
Khmers: quot;Yet theyquot; (namely, the Shans) quot;appear to have been herequot; (namely, in Siam)
quot;preceded by the Caucasic Khmers (Cambodjans), whose advent is referred to in the
quot;national chronicles to the year 543 B.C. and who, according to the Hindu records, were
quot;expelled about 443 A.D.quot; It is thus very well possible that the population who built
the megaliths of South Sumatra contained Causasic elements, just as it is also possible
that they assimilated older negroid elements. Our finds, however, gave us no reason to
think here of a predominant Caucasic or a predominant negroid race. The physiognoumy
of the South-Sumatra images is certainly not typically caucasic.

With reference to his finds of images and other stone remains in Central Celebes
and on ground of other data, Kruyt thought it possible to distinguish four population
strata there, viz.:

2.nbsp;A race, traces of which may still be found among the Toradjas of to-day, in a
dark colour of the skin, round, broad features and a flat nose.

3.nbsp;The stone-working race which left behind them the images, stone urns, stone
mortars and quot;village stonesquot;.

4.nbsp;The race of potters whose custom it was to bury the ashes of deceased persons
in earthen urns.

Kruyt notes that two types of eyes occur in the images of Central Celebes, viz. the
round type and the oblong, which agrees, therefore, with what we saw in Sumatra. The
writer is now of opinion that the images with round eyes, represent the original population
(thus the second strata) and those with the almondshaped eyes, the stone-working immi-
grants. From the distribution of the stones, he thinks he can deduce that these people
came from the North and he thinks that the almondshaped eye is an indication of the
Mongolian descent of the stone-workers. These then must have come to Celebes from
Asia via Japan.

The two distinct types of eyes are conform to what we found in South Sumatra, and
they are also distinguishable in Javanese and Balinese art. In Bali they are known under
the names quot;kekasaranquot;, the round type, and quot;kemanisanquot;, the oblong type. We are not
convinced that they are proof of two distinct races. Anyhow the present Balinese consider
them as symbols of two opposite idees, the quot;kekasaranquot; of the coarse, demoniac, the
quot;kemanisanquot; of the refined. ^ (See ill. 214 and 215.)

Kruyt points out that the stone-workers penetrated deep into the mountains before
they settled. This agrees with South Sumatra where we found the megalith culture exclu-
sively in the mountains.

Kruyt deduces from the fact that the stone mortars are too small to have served as
rice-mortars, that they probably were used for grinding some kind of grain, for example,

Coix agrestis. We must remark here that i/the quot;lesoengbatoequot; were really used for
that, still one should not deduce from this, as Kruyt does, that the people who made them
were ignorant of rice. They might very well have ground rice in the still customary wooden
mortars and something else in the stone mortars at the same time.
^ With respect to the fourth strata, the race of potters, Kruyt remarks that a though
the use of earthen ash-urns is in itself nothing special, the custom of bu^y^^^
IS remarkable. He is of opinion that these immigrants had probably come
of Hinduism and that they probably introduced rice and certainly the cultivation of
nee on irrigated fieldsnbsp;i • - j. j

. ^ Kruyt is further of opinion that the bronze axes found in S—P^^^^f
with the stone-workers, dthough the places where they were foundnbsp;^^

with those ofthe megdiths. According to Kruyt, the axes must have been bgug^
Ae country by the immigrants, for no tin is present there. Kruyt here t^fers to Go \'in^
The deduction seems to us not quite correct, as the find of Mr. Crucq (page 88) proves
that bronze was also cast in Bah, although there also no tm is tound
^ , It is of importance for us that Kruyt puts the immigration of t^e
Celebes immediately before the immigration of the potters ^^o had co^
influence of Hinduism. We came, indeed, to the same conclusion with rega^
. ^ We further draw attention to the fact that Kruyt gives sketches of f
bas) showing human heads which in style reveal a strong resembtoce to the^h^^^^^^^
on ancient kettle-drums, such as that of Pedjeng m Bah.nbsp;the ^

by stone lids, on which four sitting animal figures occur \'^^ich je called
which in our opinion are absolutely identical with the four frogs, found so trequen y
on the bronze kettle-drums of the type Heger I. „,,.,,nbsp;rnbsp;North.

The circumstance that stone urns occur in the Mmahassa constitutes on^^^ ,
others, which leads him to this conclusion. Theirnbsp;to East

Formosa, Poelau Bottol, the Minahassa, Lore (Napoe, ®cs°a, Bada)^\'^^^^^ which we
Java.«) This does not explain, however, the various P^*\'fIndo-
have referred, between East Java, West Java, Sumatra N\'as-Mad« to somewhat
China and Burma. It seems to us, therefore, that the theory ot Kruyt
anticipates the investigation into the facts.

o acknowledge that the work has been very ^ncofnplete^ F^ quot;Se^^ry and to what
f India and during that period we devoted ourselves wholly ° ^^ J^ble to study
tood in direct connection with it. In South Sumatra, indeed

the material in greater detail than has hitherto been done, ^^t how ^ ^ have
^o. even in this restricted field. As far as the work of excavation is concerne

is true, has made a beginning with the prehistoric enquiry, but this work is impeded by
a regrettable lack of funds and a consequent shortage of workers. Moreover, the splendid
products of Hindoo-Javanese culture have tended to act like the moon whose light causes
the stars to pale. Temples and works of sculpture dating from this period have so strongly
attracted attention that little interest was left for the few discovered relics of a more ancient
period which, as was only natural, did not satisfy our aesthetic sense in such a degree.

Fortunately a change is becoming apparent, thanks also to the fact that from various
sides, attention is being drawn to the megalith culture in various parts of the world.
And now, with regard to a further enquiry, two paths stand open.

The one way has been followed more especially by the writers of the Manchester
School. They have attempted to arrive at extremely far-reaching conclusions, basing the
same on the comparatively few reports of investigations in this field which have till now
been published. This might be defensible if the field-work could already be regarded as
more or less complete. On the contrary, however, the systematic, archaeological work of
investigation in this sphere, has hardly begun.

Men like Perry, Macmillan Brown and others have done meritorious work in drawing
attention to the megalith problem in and around the Pacific and in showing that
the agreement between various megalithic monuments is too great to be dismissed with
the non-committal word quot;convergencyquot;; in short, that quot;the riddle of the Pacificquot; exists.
The great danger of their method, however, is that our collection of facts is still too slight
to draw from them well-founded conclusions.

The second path was already pointed out by Fergusson in 1872 : quot;The one path that
quot;seems open to us is a careful examination of each individual monument, accompanied
quot;by a judicial sifting of all or any traditions that may attach to it, and aided by a comparison
quot;with similar monuments in other countries. By this means, we have a chance of arriving
quot;at a fair proximate degree of certainty; for, though no one monument will tell its own
quot;tale directly, a multitude of whispers from a great number may swell into a voice that
quot;is clear and distinct and be audible to every one; while no system yet invented, and no
quot;a priori reasoning, can lead to anything but deepening the ignorance that now prevails on
quot;the subject.quot; And fifty years later, Professor Schrieke, referring to the theory of the Man-
quot;Chester School, gave the same advice, with the words ; quot;What we need is : positive know-
quot;ledge, acquired through inductive methods, and not speculations about possibilities.quot;

We already possess numerous data concerning the megaliths in the Archipelago.
Very meritorious work has been performed by men of various professions who have devoted
to it the little leisure time at their disposal. A systematic enquiry, however, has not yet
taken place. For that, it is necessary to send men into the field who can give all their time
to the work and who can dispose over the necessary funds. For it is not enough to discover
megaliths and describe them, but it is also necessary to carry out excavations, especially
in the vicinity of the megaliths. And to carry out excavation work as it ought to be done,
requires money and much time.

Should this book contribute something towards increasing the interest in the problem
of the megaliths in Netherlands India and towards promoting a systematic enquiry, the
writer will be satisfied.

^he colour is much lighter than is usual with the images, v. d. n^nbsp;(secundary?)

, Stone of the dolmen itself. A basalt, but rather acid;nbsp;ceSnbsp;the typical

unHnbsp;of the region, consisting of andesitic materia (stone ^cif ash eruption. The yellow

stot\' «^fface-layer originated ffom a P/^^aps sligh ly ^nbsp;^artilayers probaWy

S \'nbsp;the excavation, is the tuff, from which the two descrio^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^

^till coherent. The brown or black stone at the b^f m of the exc^^^
Anbsp;a conglomerate of lapilli, from, a more basic magma, con^^^^^^^^^

All these materials are quite common m a volcamc county iiKe nnbsp;^th was undis-

than iuf\'l\'^^^ f\'^oquot;^ the cist consisted of pyroxene-andesite again, ngxnbsp;surface-earth and

S snite^o^^in mentioned above. The cist contained alternating lay^^^^^^^nbsp;The

s^^i^^tly acid volcanic ash, the latter bound together by ^o a \'ed^nbsp;^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^he
cis?quot; impregnated pieces of pumice, and thus (o^me^ the littk ^^^^^^

^\'st, which may have been used for the coloured drawmgs on the stones.nbsp;^^^^^^^ ^

founH^quot;quot; purpose the red and white pieces of soft stone may^^nbsp;^^^ are older,

to th?\' and it may be that they can be found in th® ravines oi mnbsp;^^^
the^oducts of weathering in a young-volcanic country. The Bataks us

be weathered, white volcanic ash, mixed with rather much plastic white clay. Probably it was used
to make the dye stick and perhaps also to stop the joints. Most of it was found on the bottom.

The undermost layer of earth in the cist, in which the beads were found, did not differ from the
surface earth; it smelled rather fresh and probably it got into the grave in recent times.

The cist was built from the same stone as the former one and was filled with ordinary surface-
earth, which probably also got into the tomb in later years.

All the above-mentioned materials are quite common in this region, and there is no reason to
suppose that they were imported from elsewhere.

6* BEADS, found in the two stonecists. See pages 48, 49, 51 and Chapter XI. The beads are
numbered according to 111. 171.

Yellow beads like numbers 4, 10, 14, a.s.o. The slide is in reflected light chrome-yellow; m trans-
lucent light opaque grey with violet spots and flames; many fragments of quartz and feldspath as
inclusions in the mass. Obviously the beads have been melted from quartz-feldspath-sand under
addition of lead-oxide.

Stone-red beads like numbers 1, 2, 16. The slide is in reflected light stone-red, in translucent
light opaque blue, perforated like a sponge by colourless spots. The beads contain inclusions of
quartz and feldspath.

Qualitative analyseis: SiOa, Fe, K, Na, a little SiOi, a little Al, traces of Mn.

Dark-blue beads, like numbers 9 and 10. Azure-blue, rather homogeneously coloured glass.
The number of beads was insufficient for a chemical analysis.

Blue-green heads like number 17. Unter the microscope the glass mass showed thm radial
opaque lines.

Bead no. 7. As only one bead of this description was found, no chemical analysis was made.
It is a light olive-green glass bead; obviously a rather succesful imitation of beryl. Surface dead, a

result of weathering. Shape : double six-sided pyramid, the points blunted by a flat plane. Dimensions:
m the sense of the pyramid-axis 15 mm. Diaieter perpendicular to this axis, between two angles,

„ ^ Bead number 8. Also a single specimen. Light browmsh-yellow glass bead, con^st ng of a
of darker colour and, sharply distinguished from it, a lighter crust. Shape: ellipsoid, length axis of
rotation 7 mm., diameter equator 9 mm.

by the Mineralogical and Geological Institute of the State-Umversity fnbsp;Chemical analysis

^^emer, Prof. T. J. Plechtighe\'den en Gebruiken bij en ^a de^g{n918. p. 177 seq., 207 seq.

\'^ laedpn n ^^nbsp;See also under Alkema.nbsp;• »u^rW T Perry. Journal Royal Asiatic bociety

____ of Griat Britain and Ireland, 191^ p.nbsp;Royal Asiatic Society of
----- b. quot;The Children of the Sunquot; by W. J. t\'erry. jou

P. —. Het Kakean-Genootschap van Seran. Dissertation, Leiden, 1926.
Vlax —. Reallixon der Vorgeschichte. Berlin, 1924—1929.
C. van —. a. De Volken van Nederlandsch Indië. First edition, Amsterdam, 1920.

- c. Kort Verslag nopens de studiereis van den Directeur der Afdeeling Volken-
kunde naar Nederlandsch-Indië (4 April—21 November 1929). 19de Jaarverslag
der Koninklijke Vereeniging quot;Koloniaal Instituutquot;, Amsterdam, 1929.

Engelhard, H. E. D. —, Controleur B.B. Letter to the quot;Bataviaasch Genootschapquot; concerning the images

Evans, Ivor H. N. —. a. A Grave and Megaliths in Negri Sembilan with an account of some excavations.

Fergusson, James —. Rude stone Monuments in all Countries; their Age and Uses. London, 1872.

Fischer, H. T, —. Het heilig Huwelik van Hemel en Aarde. Dissertation, Utrecht, 1929.

Forbes, Henry O. —. A Naturalists Wanderings in te Eastern Archipelago. London, 1885.

Frobenius, Leo —. Voni Kulturreich des Festlandes. Dokumente der Kulturphysiognomik. Forschungs-
institut für Kulturmorphologie. München—Nymphenburg, 1923.

Godwin Austen, Major R. H. —. Further Notes on the rude stone Monuments of the Khasi Hill

Goloubew, Victor —. I\'Age du Bronze au Tonkin et dans le Nord-Annam. B.E.F.E.0. XXIX, 1929,

Gonda, Dr. J. —. Kleine Bijdrage tot de Kennis van den Kaneelhandel in de oudheid. T.A.G. 1923,

Goslings, B. M. —. Demonstrated bronze axes from Celebes in the meeting of ethnologists, Amsterdam,

Groeneveldt, W. P. —. Catalogus der Archaeologische Verzarrieling van het Bataviaasch Genootschap

Groot, Prof. Dr. J. J. M. de —. De antieke Keteltrommen in den Oost-Indischen Archipel en op het

Vasteland van Z. O. Azië. Verslagen en Mededeelingen Koninklijke Akademie
van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, 4, II, 1898, p. 330—392.

Grubauer, Prof. Albert —. Unter Kc^fjägern in Central-Celebes. Ethnologische Streifzüge in Südost-

Haan, B. de —. Rapport over de Werkzaamheden op Oost-Java. O.V. 1921, II, Bijlage H, p. 55 seq.

Haas, A. —. Burgwalle und Hünengräber der Insel Rügen in der Volkssage. Stettin, 1925.

Chatelin, L. N. H. A. —. Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der Niassers. B.T.L.V. 1880, p. 150 seq.

Indochine Française. Chronique. B.E.F.E.0. XXVII 1927 p. 421 seq.

Cook, James —. a. Journal of a Voyage round the World in H.M.S. Endeavour (1768—1771).

—-- b. Voyage dans l\'Hémisphère Austral et autour du Monde. Paris, 1778.

- c. Reize rondom de Waereldt. Vertaald door J. D, Pasteur. Leiden, 1795—1803.

C., (van de Crab?). Oud Beeld op den Vulkaan Kaba. T.B.G. 1864, p. 188.

Déchelette, Joseph —. Manuel d\'Archéologie préhistorique, celtique et gallo-romaine. Cinquième

mille, Paris, 1924.

Dixon, R. B. —. Recent archaeological Discoveries in the Philippines and their Bearing on the Praehistory

of eastern Asia. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia,
1930, p. 225 seq.

Dumont d\'Urville, J. S. C. —. Voyage de la Corvette l\'Astrolabe excécuté pendant les Années 1826,

1827, 1828, 1829.

Duyvendak,

Ebert, Prof.

Eerde, Prof. ^

Had don, A. C. —. Wonders of Native Art and Culture in little-known Parts of New Guinea. With Photo-
graphs by E, W. P. Chinnery. The Illustrated London News, April 9, 1932.
See also under Keane.

Hasskarl, J. K. —. Soemedang op de Grenzen van het District Lebak in Bantam. Tijdschrift voor Neder-

landsch-Indië 1842 p. 128 seq.
Heekeren, H. R. van —. Megalithische Overblijfselen in Besoeki. Djawa, Juli 1931, p. 1 seq.
Heger, Franz —. Alte Metalltrommeln aus Südost Asien. Leipzig, 1902.

Heine Geldern, Dr. Robert —. a. Ein Beitrag zur Chronologie des Neolithicums in Südostasien.

Festschrift Pater Schmidt, Wien, 1928.
--- b. Die Megalithen Südostasiëns und ihre Bedeutung für die Klärung der Mega-
lithenfrage in Europa und Polynesien. Anthropos, 1928, p. 276 seq.

Congres International des Orientalistes. Leiden, 7—12 Septembre 1931. Leiden,
1932, p. 129 seq.

---d. Urheimat und früheste Wanderungen der Austronesier. Anthropos, May—Aug.

Helfrich, O. L. —. Bijdragen tot de Kennis van het Midden-Maleisch (Basemahsch en Serawajsch Dialect).

Verh. B. G. LIII, 1904; LXI, 1915; LXIII, 1, 1921; LXVIII, 3, 1927.
See also under Wellan.
Hirth, Fr. —. Ueber hinterindische Bronzetrommeln. T\'oung Pao, I, 1890 p. 137 seq.
Hodson, T. C. —. The Naga Tribes of Manipur. London, 1911.
Hoevell, G. W. C. Baron van —. De Kei-Eilanden. T. B. G. XXXIII 1890 p. 102 seq.
Hoven, Dr. W. —. De Pasemah en haar Verwantschaps-, Huwelijks- en Erfrecht. Dissertation, Leiden, 1927.
Hubenet, J. B. —. Letter, addressed to the Bataviaasch Genootschap, 20 May 1903, concerning dolmens

in the Kendeng-Mountains, East-Java. Not. B.G. 1903, p. 55.
Hutton, J. H. —. a. The AMami Nagas. London, 1921.

of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1922,
p. 55 seq.

---a. The use of Stone in the Naga Hills. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological

Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1926, p. 71 seq.
Huyser, Mr. J. G. —. Bataksche Ruiterbeeldjes; Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Batak-plastiek. Nederlandsch-
_nbsp;Indië Oud amp; Nieuw, 1927—1928, p. 39 seq. , ^ , . ^ ^

Jensen, Christian —. Grabhügel und Hünengräber der nordfriesischen Inseln m der Sage. Globus,

1898, p. 129 seq; 147 seq.
ongejans, J. —, Controleur B.B. Een en Ander over Semangka. T.B.G. 1919, p. 229 seq.
oustra, M. —. Batakspiegel. 2de druk, Leiden, 1926.
unghun, Franz —. Die Battaländer auf Sumatra. Berlin, 1847.

^ate, H. ten —. Verslag eener Reis in de Timorgroep en Polynesië. T.A.G. 1894 p. 195, 333, 541, 659, 765.
Jeane, A. H. — and A. C. Haddon, Man past and present. Cambridge, 1920.
Kennedy, Donald Gilbert—. Field Notes on the Culture of Vaitupu (Ellice Islands). Supplement Jour-
^nbsp;nal of the Polynesian Society, December 1931.

^ern, Prof. Dr. J. H. C. —. Over de Sanskrit-opschriften van (Muara Kaman, in) Kutei (Borneo) (± 400

A.D.). In Verband met de Geschiedenis van het Schrift in den Indischen Archipel.
Verspreide Geschriften Amsterdam 1882, VII, p. 55 seq. Verslagen en Mede-
deelingen van de Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Letterkunde,
p.nbsp;2de Reeks, XI.

Kerr, Dr. A. F. G. —. Note on some Rock Paintings in Eastern Siam. Journal of the Siam Society XVIII,

Kiliaan, J. Th. E. —. CmS Gezaghebber. Oudheden aangetroffen in het Landschap Besoa (Midden-

^msbergen, J. van —. Lijst van de Fotograösche Opnamen van —. O. V. 1914 Bijlage D.
ivleiweg de Zwaan, Prof. Dr. J. P. —. a. De Rassen van den Indischen Archipel. Amsterdam, 1925.

------- b. Wat weten wij van den Vóórhistorischen Mensch in den Indischen Archipel

Kohlbrugge, Prof. Dr. ï H. F.^—. a. De Linggatempel en andere Oudheden op het Yang-gebergte.

T.B.G. 1899 p. 70 seq.
------h. Tier- und Menschenantlitz als Abwehrzauber. Bonn, 1926.

Kohlbrugge, Prof. Dr. J. H. F. —. c. Systematisch en Beschrijvend Leerboek der Volkenkunde.

Groningen—Den Haag, 1930.
Kramer, Fr. —. Der Götzendienst der Niasser. T. B.G. 1890 p. 473 seq.

Krämer, Dr. Augustin —. Der Phallusberg von Molokai (Hawaii-Inseln). Globus, 1898 p. 8 seq.
Krom, Prof. Dr. N. J. —. a. Voorloopige Lijst van Oudheden in de Buitenbezittingen. O.V. 1914 Bijlage T.

--b. Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst. Tweede druk, \'s-Gravenhage 1923.

--d. Het Grensgebied der Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst. Verslag van het vierde Congres

van het Oostersch Genootschap. Leiden, 1925, p. 6 seq.
--e. De praehistorische Archaeologie van Java en Sumatra. Mensch en Maat-
schappij 1926, p. 378.

Kruyt, Dr. Alb. C. —. a. Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel. \'s-Gravenhage, 1906.

--De Volken, die Midden-Celebes bewonen en de wijzen van hunne Lijkbezor-
ging. Comité voor Indische Lezingen en Leergangen. 4de Koloniale Vacantie-
cursus voor Geografen, 1923.

--e. L\'Immigration préhistorique dans les Pays des Toradjas occidentaux. Hommage

du Service Archéologique des Indes Néerlandaises au Premier Congrès des Pré-
historiens d\'Extrême-Orient à Hanoi, 25—31 Janvier 1932. Batavia, 1932.

Kubary, J. S. —. Ethnographische Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Karolinen Archipels. Unter Mitwirkung

von J. D. E. Schmeltz. Leiden, 1889.
Lajonquière, .—. Essai d\'Inventaire Archaeologique de Siam. Bulletin de la Commission Archéo-
logique de l\'Indochine, Année 1912. Paris, 1912, p. 19—181.
Langen, A. —. Letter from —, concerning i. a. beads from Timor. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. Organ der

Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Sitzung
18 October 1884. 1884 p. 426. See also under Virchow.
Lekkerkerker, C. —. De Ontwikkelingsstadia van den inlandschen Landbouw in Verband met de plant-
aardige Voeding in den Indischen Archipel. Koloniaal Tijdschrift 1917 p. 592 seq.
Lindblom, K. G. —. The Use of Oxen as Pack and Riding Animals in Africa. Stockholm, 1931.
Ling Roth, Henry —. The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo. London, 1896.
Luquet, G. H. —. l\'Art et la Religion des Hommes Fossiles. Paris, 1926.
Macmillan Brown, J. —. The Riddle of the Pacific. London, 2nd edition, 1925.
Martin, Prof. Dr. K. — .Reisen in den Molukken, in Ambon, den Uliassern, Seran (Ceram) und Buru.

Matthes, Dr. B. F. —. Van Paloppo naar Posso. Mededeelingen Nederlandsch Zendeling-Genootschap,

Meerwaldt, J. H. —. Aanteekeningen betreffende de Bataklanden. T.B.G. 1894 p. 513 selt;^
Menado, Resident of—.Letterfrom — concerning stone urns in Central-Celebes. Not. B. G. 1907,

p. 63. (With remarks from C. M. Pleyte and Dr. J. G. F. Riedel.)
Mersh Strong, see Strong.

\' Meyer, Dr. A. B. — und Dr. W. Foy. Bronzepauken aus Südost-Asien. Dresden, 1897.
Mills, J. P. —. An ancient Stone Image in Assam. Man, February 1930 p. 34—35.
Moo jen, P. A. J. —. Steenen Doodkisten op Bali. Nederlandsch-Indië, Oud amp; Nieuw, 1928—1929

Morgan, Jacques de —. La Préhistoire orientale. Paris, 1925.
Moszkowski, M. —. Auf neuen Wegen durch Sumatra, Berlin, 1909.
Neumann, J. H. —. Karo-Bataksche Offerplaatsen. B.T.L.V. 1927 p. 514 seq.

Nieuwenhuis, Prof. Dr. A. W. —. a. Kunstperlen und ihre kulturelle Bedeutung. Internationales

Archiv für Ethnographie, Leiden, 1904 p. 136 and Tafel XIX.
--b. Quer durch Borneo. Leiden, 1907.

Nieuwenkamp, W. O. J. —. a. De Trom met de Hoofden te Pedjeng op Bali. B.T.L.V. 1908 p. 319 seq.
--b. Zwerftochten op Bali. Amsterdam, 1922.

Obermaier, Dr. Hugo —. Der Mensch der Vorzeit. Berlin—München-yWien, 1911—1912.
Palembang, Resident of —. Letters concerning antiquities in his Residency. T.B.G. 1861 p. 20

Parmentier, H. —. a. Anciens Tambours de Bronze. B.E.F.E.O. XVIII, 1918, p. 1 seq.

Ngai, Annam). B.E.F.E.O. XXIV, 1924, p. 321 seq.
Perquin, P. J. —. Oudheidkundig Onderzoek te Palembang. O.V. 1928, III en IV, Bijlage J, p. 123 seq.
Perry, W. J. — a. The megalithic Culture of Indonesia. Manchester, 1918.

Portengen, J. A. —. Verslag van een Onderzoek naar Doodengrotten op de Kei-Eilanden. Not. B.G.

1888, Bijlage VI p. XXXVII. Plate opposite p. 105.
Praetorius, C. F. E. —. Eenige Bijzonderheden omtrent Pa embang. De Indische By, Tijdschrift ter

Bevordering van de Kennis der Nederlandsche Volkplantingen en derzelver
Belangen, uitgegeven door C. L. Blume. Leiden, 1843 (only volume) p. 376 seq.
Privé, J. W. G. J. —, Controleur B.B. Report concerning the Lebak Sibedoeg. Not. B.G. 1896 p. 3 seq.
Raffles, Thomas Stanford — The History of Java. London, 1817.
Rappard, Th. C. —. Het Eiland Nias en zijne Bewoners. B.T.L.V. 1909 p. 477 seq.
Ravenhill, T. H. —. The Rollright Stones and the Men who erected them. Birmingham, 1926.
Reche, Dr. Otto —. Der Kaiserin-Augusta-FIuss. Ergebnisse der Südsee-Expedition 1908—1910, heraus-
gegeben von Prof. Dr. G. Thilenius, Band I, Hamburg, 1913.
Reinach, Salomon —. Cultes, Mythes et Religions. Paris, 1908 , « , , „ , ^
Riedel, Joh. Gerard Fried.—. De sluik-en kroesharige Rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua. s-Graven-

Rigg, Jonathan —. Gunu^ oSgka or a Paradise on Earth; a Tale of Superstition. The Journal of the

Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. Singapore, 1850, p. 119 seq.
Rivers, W. H. R. — a. Presidential Acfdres to Section H. Report British Association for the Advancement

Roos, S. —, Controleur B.B. a. Het Eiland Soemba, volgens de jongste Mededeelmgen. Tijdschrift voor

Nederlandsch Indië, 1874, p. 352 seq.nbsp;u . t7m ^ c u w i,
--b. Bijdrage tot de Kennis van Taal, Land en Volk op het Eiland Soemba. Verh.

Rouffaer, Dr. G. P. —. a. Waar kwamen de raadselachtige Moetisalah\'s (Aggri-kralen) in de Timor-groep

--b. Letter concerning megaliths in Flores. Not. B G 17 October 1910 p. 110 seq.

Rouveroy van Nieuwaal, E. L. —, Controleur B.B. Report about a Batak gravestone, presented to the

Museum at Batavia. See Not. B.G. 1891, p. 65.
Sande, G. A. J. van der —. Nova Guinea (Résultats de 1\'Expédition Wichmann 1903). Voll. III, Ethno-
graphy and Anthropology, Leiden, 1907, p. 97 seq. , ., - , ,
Sarasin, Paul —. Neue lithochrone Funde im Innern von Sumatra. Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden

Schaeffer, F. A. Claude —. Read a paper on his excavations at Ras Shamra in Syria for the Académie

des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 9 Oct. 1931. ,Photographs of his find^ see
1\'Illustration, 21 November 1931. The objects are in the Musee du Louvre, Pans.
Schmidt. P. W. —. S. V.D. Grundlinien einer Vergleichung der Religionen und Mythologien der austro-
nesischen Völker. Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften
in Wien, Band LIII, Wien, 1910. . . . ^nbsp;, , ^ ,,

Schouten, G. A. —, Controleur B.B. Letters, concerning antiquities at Djepara near Lake Ranau. Not.

B.G. 1885, p. 13, 52, 92. 163; 1886 p. 38, 65. . ^ . . , ,, ,, . .
Schrieke, Prof. Dr. B. J. O. - a. The Evolution of Culture in the Pacific in Relation to the theories of

the quot;Kulturhistorischequot; and the quot;Manchester Schoolsof ^cial Anthropology.
Paper, read at the third Pan-Pacific Science Congres. T.B.G. 1926 p. 514 seq.
---b. Eenige Opmerkingen over Ontleening m de Cultuurontwikkeling. Djawa,

Schröder, Mr. E. E. W. S —^l^\'ias. Etiinographische, geographische en historische Aanteekeningen en

Smith, Prof. Grafton Elliot —. a. Megalithic Monuments and their Builders. Report British Association

for the Advancement of Science. Dundee Meeting, 1912, p. 607. See also Man,
1912, p. 173.

of Science, Birmingham Meeting, 1913. See also Man 1913 p. 184, 193, seq.
-;- c. The Migrations of early Culture. Manchester, 1915.

Speiser, Felix —. Südsee-Urwald Kannibalen. Reisen in den Neuen Hebriden und Santa Cruz Inseln.

Stein Callenfels Dr. P. V. van —. a. Rapport over een Dienstreis door een Deel van Sumatra. O.V.

Steinmetz, H. E. —. Oudheidkundige Beschrijving van de Afdeeling Bandawasa (Residentie Besoeki).

Sternberg, Leo, J.—, Leningrad. Die Ethnologie der Gegenwart. Neueste Fortschritte, wissenschaftliche

Strömungen und Methoden. Ins Deutsche übertragen von A. Byhan, Hamburg.
(In russischer Erstveröffentlichung in der Zeitschrift quot;Ethnographiaquot;, Moskau
1926, Nr. 1 und 2 erschienen.) Ethnologische Studien, Band 1 Heft 4; Halle
(Saale) 1931.

Stone, E. Herbert —. The Stones of Stonehenge. A full Description of the Structure and of its Outworks.

Strong, W. Mersh —. Rock paintings from the Central District, Papua. Man, 1923, no. 119,

Stuart, Martinus — en Jaques Kuyper. De Mensch, zooals hij voorkomt op den bekenden Aardbol.

Stutterheim, Dr. W. F. —. Het zoogenaamde Lingga-Heiligdom van den Argapoera op Java. Verslag

derde Congres van het Oostersch Genootschap, Leiden, 1923, p. 28 seq.
Suchtelen, Jhr. B. C. C. M. M. van —, Controleur B.B. Endeh (Flores). Mededeelingen van het Bureau

voor de Bestuurszaken der Buitengewesten, bewerkt door het Encyclopaedisch
Bureau. Aflevering XXVI, Weltevreden, 1921.
Tombrink, E. P. •—, Officier van Gezondheid 2de Klasse. Hindoe-Monumenten in de Bovenlanden van

Palembang, als Bron van geschiedkundig Onderzoek. T.B.G. 1870 p. 1 seq.
Topografische Dienst, Jaarverslag van den—.

Tricht, B. van —, Arts. Levende Antiquiteiten in West-Java. Batavia and Soerabaja, no date. Appeared

originally iri Djawa, Tijdschrift van het Java-Instituut, Soerakarta, 1929.
Tuyn, Dr. J. van —. De Batoe-Manik van Oost-Palembang en de Noordelijke Lampongsche Districten.

De Mijningenieur, geologisch-mijnbouwkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-
Indië, 1932, 2, p. 20 seq.

Ullmann, L, —, Tweede-Luitenant der Infanterie. Hindoe-Beelden in de Binnenlanden van Palembang.

Indisch Archief. Tijdschrift voor de Indiën. I, 1850, 2, p. 493—494.
Valentijn, François —, Onlangs Bedienaar des Goddelijken Woords in Amboina, Banda enz. Oud en

Nieuw Oost-Indiën. Dordrecht-Amsterdam, 1724—1726. (8 volumes).
Verbeek, Dr. R. D. M. —. Oudheden van Java. Lijst der voornaamste Overblijfselen uit den Hindoetijd

op Java met eene oudheidkundige Kaart. Verh. B.G. XLVI, 1891.
Virchow, Prof. Dr. R. —. Discussed the ethnographical objects from Savoe send by A. Langen. Zeit-
schrift für Ethnologie. Organ der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethno-
logie und Urgeschichte. XVI, 1884, Sitzung 20 December 1884. (See also under
Langen.)

Vogel, Dr. J. Ph. —. The Yupa Inscription of King Mulavarman, from Koetei (East Borneo). B.T.L.V.

Vorderman, Dr. A. G. —. Arts. Verslag van een tocht naar de Wijnkoopersbaai. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift

voor Nederlandsch Indië, XLIX, 1890, p. 225 seq.
Vuuren, Prof. L. van —. a. Nota over een door den Heer L. van Vuuren uit Celebes medegebrachte en

Vu uren, Prof. L. van —. b. Het Wereld-Rythme in Oost-Aziä en het Aangrijpingspunt van het

■--c. Zur Anthropogeographie von Zentral-Celebes. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft

Lezingen en Leergangen. Vierde Koloniale Vacantiecursus voor Geografen,
Amsterdam, 1923.

Wellan, J. W. J. — en O. L. Helfrich. Zuid-Sumatra. Overzicht van de Litteratuur der Gewesten

Benkoelen, Djambi, de Lampongsche Districten en Palembang. Deel I (tot
einde 1915) Den Haag, 1923; deel II (van 1916 tot en met 1925) Den Haag, 1928.
Uitgave van het Zuid-Sumatra Instituut.
Westenenk, L. C. — a. De Hindoe-Javanen in Midden- en Zuid-Sumatra. Handelingen van het Eerste

Congres voor de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Java; Solo, 25 en 26 December
1919. Uitgegeven Batavia, 1921; p. 1—46.

Wielinga, Ds. D. K. —. Doodencultus op Soemba. De Macedoniër. Zendingstijdschrift. 1923 p. 297 seq.
Wilken, Prof. Dr. G. A. —. a. Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel. De Indische

--b. iets over de Beteekenis van de Ithyphallische Beelden bij de Volken van den

Indischen Archipel. B.T.L.V. 1886, p. 393—401. Also in quot;Verspreide Geschrif-

Wilson, James —. Zendelingsreis naar den Stillen Oceaan onder Bevel van —. Vertaald door Jodocus

Heringa. Dordrecht en Amsterdam, 1802.
Wirtz, Otto —. Nias, die Insel der Götzen. Zürich und Leipzig, 1929.

Witkamp. H. —. a. Een Verkenningstocht over het Eiland Soemba. T.A.G. 1912. p. 744 seq.; 1913. p. 8

--b. De Steenen quot;Kanonnenquot; in Zuid-Kerintji (Sumatra). TA.G. 1922 p. 345 seq.

Woensdrecht. Jac. —. Photo without description of a stone image in Bada (Central-Celebes). Nederlandsch

Zeyll de Jong. H. J. van —.Bandoeng. Presented the Museum at Batavia with a small earthenware

kettle-drum, found in a lime-kiln at Tjibadak, Java. Catalogue of the Museum
nr. 5983. See O.V. 1929 III and IV plate 40.

Bezemer, 87, 118, 142, 153.
Bie, de -, 43, 52, 92.
Blagden, 161, 162.
Blok, 32.
Boers, 2, 4, 41.
Bont, de -, 2, 20.
Bosch, 8, 83.
Brehm, 75.
Brumund, 64, 120.

Chatellier, du -, 110.
Chinnery, 98.
Chys, van der -, 82.
Cook, 71, 144.
Crab, van der -, 2, 40.
Crucq, 88, 94, 167.

Déchelette, 92, 110, 115, 124, 130, 140, 146, 147.
Dixon, 135, 136, 138.
Dubois, 79.

Forbes,\' 6, 7.\' 29, 33, 45, 46, 47, 142, 161.
Foy, 84, 89, 166.
Frobenius, 165.

Groeneveldt, 2, 83, 98, 118, 148.
Groot, de -, 84.
Grubauer, 97, 118, 119.
Gurdon, 127.

HeekereA, van -,quot; 20, 68, 69, 74, 91, 101, 103, 105,
106,121,122,123,128,130,131,140,147,152.
Heger, 83, 88, 90, 91.
Heine Geldern, 119, 144, 162—165.
Helfrich, 3, 4.
Heuven, van -, 116.
Hirth, 84.
Hodson, 74.
Hoevell, van -, 141.
Horst, 11.
Hoven, 3, 7, 29.
Hubenet, 103, 128, 134.
Hutton, 106.
Huyser, 75, 119, 163-

Jensen, 5.
Jongejans, 4, 60.
Joustra, 96, 148, 149.
Junius, 7, 29, 30, 45, 47, 60, 67.
Juynboll, 161.

Kleiweg de Zwaan, 78, 79, 94, 165.
Kohlbrugge, 9, 120, 142, 165, 166.
Kramer, 96.
Krämer, 118.

Macmillan Brown, 71, 144, 168.
Martin, 153.
Matthes, 96, 118.
Meerwaldt, 96, 149.
Meyer, 84, 89, 166.
Moojen, 157.
Moszkowski, 2.

Sande, van der -, 139.
Sarasin, 42.
Schaeffer, 93.
Schlechtendahl, 60.
Schmidt, 71, III, 112, 153.
Schmutzer, 138, 139.
Schouten, 58.
Schrieke, 161, 168.
Schröder, 96, 106, III, 112, 134.
Siereveh, 99, 100, 149.
Snouck Hurgronje, 134.
Somerville, 150.
Speiser, 125.

Staveren, van -, 117, 118.
Stein Callenfels, van -, 8, 9, 90, 95, 134, 136, 143,
167.

Steinmetz, 103, 106, 128, 140, 147.
Sternberg, 67, 161, 162.
Stone, 104, 115, 150.
Strong, (Mersh-), 140.
Stuart, 71.
Stukeley, 150.
Stutterheim, 143, 144.
Suchtelen, van -, 113, 114.
Surbek, Mrs. -, 48.

Valentyn, 118.
Verbeek, 64, 120.
Virchow, 137, 139.
Vogel, 118.
Vonk, 19, 30.
Vorderman, 64, 65.
Vuuren, van -, 119, 120.

Westenenk, 4, 7, 12, 15—17, 21, 22, 26, 29—31,
34—39, 42, 45, 53, 56, 59, 60, 73, 76, 77.
Wielinga, 129.
Wilke, 140.
Wilken, 5, 112.
Wilsen, 68.
Wilson, 71, 144.
Witkamp, 2.

Abamia, 140.
Aegean-Mycenic, 92.
Aetas, 78.
Africa, 74, 75.
Africa, North -, 162.
Agong, see Siring -.
Aimara, 71.

161, 162, 164.
Asturia, 140.
Atjeh, 81.
Australia, 159.
Australian, 79.
Avebury, 123.
Aztec, 71.

Babalean, Goenoeng -, 128.
Bada, 118, 167.
Badak, Marga -, 61.
Badoej, 13, 61.
Baggara Arabs, 75.
Bahau, 134.
Balai, Boekit -, 2.

Bali, 86, 88, 90, 102, 149, 157, 160, 166, 167.
Balik, Boekit -, 60.
Balkans, 92.

Baloekboek, Goenoeng -, 128.
Banda, 160.
Bandar, 56.
Bandar Agoeng, 11.
Bandingagoeng, 58.
Banggoe, 113.
Banjoeming, 83.
Banjoewangi, 128, 134.
Bantam, 5, 61, 65, 143.
Bapang, Goenoeng -, 63.
Baratan, 122.

Batak, 75, 95, 96, 119, 148, 149, 156, 163.
Batavia, passim.
Batoebelari, 40, 122.

89, 92, 157, 158, 165, 166.
Batoekalong, 40.
Batoenipih, Air -, 43.
Batoeradja, 2, 56, 57, 68, 90.
Batoeroesoe, 24.
Batoetjawang, 39, 126, 127.
Bavaria, 77.
Bawang, 59.
Belalau-plateau, 59.
Belgium, 92.

128, 131, 134, 135, 140, 152, 159.
Bilalang, 118.
Bintoehan, 55.
Blambangan, 57.
Boeai Kenjangan, 59.
Baeaja, Soengei -, 132.
Beringin Ketjil, Boekit -, 107.
Boeleli, 97, 118.
Boenkal Batoe, Plateau of -, 6.
Boelongan, 100.
Boemiagoeng, 8, 50, 53, 54.
Boengamas, 41, 42.
Boengin poepoeran, 132.
Bohemia, 92.
Bo Manoeh, 117.
Bomba, 97.

157, 160.
Brahmaputra, 108.
Brastagi, 95.
British India, 110, 146.
Brittany, 108, 119, 123, 140.
Buitenzorg, 120.

Cambay, 137, 138.
Cambodja, 81, 84, 90, 166.
Camboja-deca, 90.
Canton, 88.
Carnac, 123.
Carolines, 72, 125.
Caucasus, 120.

157, 166.
Celebes, North -, 164.
Chaco-Indians, 71.
Chams, 87, 90, 94.
Checua, 71.
Chera, 135.
Cheribon, 68.
Chile, 71.

China, 84, 136, 159, 163, 164, 165.
China, South 83, 84, 86—88, 90.
Chold, 135.

Cochinchina, 84, 90, 166.
Cook Islands, 71.
Coräo, 140.
Curds, 120.
Cyprus, 93.

Flores, 113—115, 117, 126, 147, 151.
Formosa, 163, 167.
France, 92, 108, 146, 159.
Funan, 81.

Goemai, Boekit -, 1, 2, 5, 15, 39, 41, 153.
Goemai Lembak, Marga -, 153.
Goemai Oeloe, Marga -, 6, 15—17.
Goenoengagoeng, 54.
Goenoengkaja, 37.
Goenoengkerto, 55.

Goetji, 143.
Göhlitzsch, 140.
Great Britain, 92, 146.
Grimaldi, 77.
Grisee, 128.

ava. East -, 20, 68, 69, 104, 157, 158, 167.
ava. West -, 9, 13, 41, 68, 98,103, 120, 121, 132,

Kaba, Boekit -. 2, 40.
Kajan, 99, 100, 151.
Kajang Poera, 100.
Kajoemanis, Boekit -, 5, 53.
Kakhyens, 165.
Kalianda, 61.
Kalisat, 128, 134.
Kamal, 68, 122.
Kanekes, 62.
Kansu, 164.
Kapuas, 134.

Kebanagoeng, 40, 121.
Keboemen, 83.
Kebonagoeng, 28, 66, 148.
Kebondjati, 24, 134.
Kedjawan, 147.
Kedoe, 110.
Kei-Islands, 141.
Kembahang, 60.
Kemoeningan, 105.
Kenali, 59, 60.

Madjapahit, 81, 99.
Madura, 160.
Mahakam, 118, 134.
Mahakam Kajan, 151.
Makale, 119.

Malacca, 78, 90, 131, 134, 135, 137—139, 141,
, 153, 156, 158, 160, 164, 165, 167.
Malang, 102.
Man, 84.
Mana, 2.

Mana, Air - ,2, 54, 55.
Manchester (School), 159, 162.
Mandiangin, Boekit -, 1.
Mangaia, 153.
Manggrai, 116.
Manilla, 135, 136.
Manipur, 109.
Manoeabe, 88.
Mappak, 120
Marquesas, 71, 145.
Marshall Bennet Islands, 140.
Martapoera, 90.

Masamba, 119.
Matalintang, Air -, 24.
Mecca, 13, 123, 142.
Mediterranean Coast, 146.
Mediterranean Islands, 159.
Mekong, 88.
Me Kong, 140.

Melanesia, 71, 77, 78, 101, 163, 166.
Menang, Soengei -, 132.
Menangkabau, 117.
Mentone, 77.
Merak, 9.

Merapi, Goenoeng -, 32.
Mersi Banjoemas, 83.
Mesoedji, 132.
Miao-Tseu, 83.
Mikir, 109.

New Guinea, 74, 78, 97, 101, 140.
New Hebrides, 125.
Ngada (Nad\'a), 114—116, 147.
Ngoc-lu, 88.
Ngusu, 115.

Oedjanmas, 43, 52, 92, 104, 107, 108, 121.
Oemboelbalak, 59.
Oepi, Estate Air -, 58.
Ofnet, 77.

Pager Goenoeng, Marga -, 18, 24.
Pakaoeman, 121, 122, 128.
Pakoe, 61.
Pakisan 20.

Poelaupanggoeng, Moearadoea -, 2.
Poelaupinang, 15, 18.
Poenggoer, Boekit -, 12.
Poerwokerto, 83.

Salak Datar, 61, 64, 65, 103.
Saleier, 83, 90.
Salisbury, 150.
Saloeen, 90.
Salulimbing, 118.

Soemoertinggi, Boekit -, 2, 56.
Soenda, Little-Islands, passim.
Soenda-Lands, 99.
ooenggoetan, 132.

Soeo, Marga -, 59.
Soerabaja, 128.
Soeroelangoen, 41.
Solomon Islands, 101.
Solor, 83.

Sompejan river, 147.
Song-ma, 84. _
Sosokan Tebingtinggi, 26.
Sosokan Tegoerwangi, 43.
Sotja, 103.

Southeast Islands, 111.
South Sumatra, passim.
Southwest Islands, 111.
Spain, 72, 159.
Sseu-tch\'ou, 83.

Tahiti, 71, 72, 125, 143, 144.
Tai (Shan), 90.
Takala, Boekit -, 119.
Takka, Kampong -, 117.
Talang bakar, 132.
Talang Loear, 39.
Talang Talang, 39.

Tandjoengara, 33, 52, 69, 70, 75, 122, 130, 155.
Tandjoengbringin, 25, 70, 80, 121, 122.
Tandjoengenim, 107.
Tandjoeng Karang 60.
Tandjoengkeling, Estate -, 53.
Tandjoengkoeroeng Oeloe, 25.
Tandjoengmpang, 20, 36, 66, 77, 121, 122.
Tandjoengraja, 40.

Tebatsibentoer, 19, 20, 66, 70, 73, 101, 147.
Tebingtinggi (Lampong Districts), 132.
Tebingtinggi (Palembang Lowlands), 40—42.

Tegoerwangi, 5, 7, 8, 33, 43, 44, 52—54, 57, 69.
73, 86, 90, 92, 100, 107, 108, 121—123. 126,
127, 130, 132, 133, 139—141, 149, 152, 155.
158. 161. 169.
Telagasari, 128.
Telok Betong, 10, 60, 61, 123.
Tenasserim. 90.
Teras. Soengei -. 79.
Ternate. 160.
Thames. 139.
Thanh-hoa. 84.
Tibet. 166.
Tidore, 160.

115. 147.
Tjandjur, 87.
Tjanggal, 110.
Tjawang, 52, 53, 152.
Tjeper, Soengei -. 132.
Tjiandjoer. 83.
Tjiara. 63.
Tji Artja. 61. 65.
Tji Bedoeg, 63.
Tjipetri, 83.
Tjisaroea, 63.
Tjisimeut, 13.
Tjitoedja, 13, 146.

Wadjak. 79.
Wado, 128.
Warwickshire, 5.
Watutau. 97.
Welirang. 143.
Willendorf. 77.
Wiralaga. 132.
Wynkoops Bay, 103.

Karangdalem.
„Lesoengbatoequot; Tandjoengsirih 1.
Image Tandjoengsirih 2; front.
The same image; back.
Image Tandjoengsirih 3.
Image Tandjoengsirih 4; left side.
Image Tandjoengsirih 4; front.
The same image; right side.
Image Tandjoengsirih 4; detail.
Head Tinggihari 7.
Stone Tinggihari 1.
Image Tinggihari 2.
Image Tinggihari 4; front.
The same image; back.
Image Tinggihari 5.

Image Tinggihari 6; front.
The same image; back.
Image Padang 1.
Image Padang 2.

right side.
The same image; front.
Image Tebatsibentoer 1.
Image Tebatsibentoer 2.
Stone Tebatsibentoer 3.
The same stone; end-surface.
Stones Tandjoengmenang 1.
Dolmen Tandjoengmenang 2.
Image Tandjoengmenang 5.
Part of the „image-parkquot; Pematang.
Image at Tandjoengtebat.
Image Pematang 3.
Dolmen Pematang 4.
Image Pematang 10.
Image Pematang 6; right side.
The same image; left side.
Image Pematang 7; front.
The same image; left side.
Image Airdingm.
Through Tebatgoenoeng.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.
61.
62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.
81.
82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

8,
9.

10,
11.
12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

Image of a bull, Geramat 1.
Image Geramat 2.
Image Tandjoengbringin 1.
Grave near Mingkik.

S. E.-corner of terrace.
107. Lebak Sibedoeg; the big menhir, called
„bedoegquot;.

XVL Kosala and Lebak Sibedoeg, 1 : 100.000.
XVII. Salak Datar and Tji Artja, 1 :100.000.

		M
	r: -VJ...
	.ï gt;
	:

Photo Controleur H. W. Vonk.
25. Image Pageralam (marga Pagar Goenoeng); right side (p. 18).

128. Group of four stones, Batoebelari near Kebanagoeng;nbsp;129. Stone Tjoeroep 3 (p. 41).

159. Stone cist Tegoerwangi 11; east-wall, with threshold-stone and door,
seen from the inside (p. 48).

160. The same stone cist; inside of west-wall, stone no. 15,
with vestiges of drawing in colour.

171. Beads from stone cists Tegoerwangi 11 and 12
(X 2; p. 48—51 and Chapter XI).

172. Bronze fragments (1—8) and gold nail (9) from stone cists Tegoerwangi 11 and 12;

175. Stone cist, discovered by Mr. C. W. P. de Bie at Oedjanmas; demolished by
the population. After a drawing by Mr. de Bie (p. 52).

213. Tji Artja; menhir, with smaller stone beside and
flat stone in front (p. 65).

215. Eyes of Balinese images; above: quot;kekasaranquot;,
below: quot;kemanisanquot;.

222. Bronze articles from Indo China (p. 93 ; after B.E.F.E.O. XXVII plate XXVI).

The following maps are simplified copies from the survey maps of the Government
Topographical Service at Batavia. For Sumatra we used the maps 1 : lOoToO and
sometimes the (still mcomplete) maps 1 : 25.000. For Java the maps 1 : SO.O^were
used. The survey-maps bemg rather out of date, some alterations had to be Zde
Ihe numbers of the sheets used are quoted on our maps for comparison.

Abbreviations: A. = Air, river; Bt. = Boekit, mountain; G. = Goenoem moim
tain; T. - Tebat, small lake; W. = Wai, river.nbsp;goenoeng, moun-

Map XI. Burial-place near Tegoerwangi, 1 : 2000. The point F lies 380 M, east from kilometre-stone 297,
measured along the north berm of the road (p. 44—53 ; surveyed by the author).

Map XVI. Kosala and Lebak Sibedoeg, 1 :100.000 (p. 61—64i ordnance maps 1 :50.000, 13 C, 13 D, 14 D, 14 A, 14 B).

De megalithische oudheden in Zuid-Sumatra zijn resten van een cultuur, welke
daar omstreeks het begin van onze jaartelling heeft gebloeid en welke samenhangt met
de bronscultuur van Zuidoost-Azië.

De megalithische oudheden in Zuid-Sumatra pleiten ervoor, dat de volken met
Austronesische talen den Archipel hebben bereikt langs Malakka en Sumatra.

De megalithische oudheden in Zuid-Sumatra geven steun aan de meening van
Gabriel Ferrand, dat een migratie van Sumatra naar Madagascar heeft plaats gehad
omstreeks de tweede tot de vierde eeuw na Christus.

(Gabriel Ferrand; Essai de Phonétique comparée du Malais et des Dialectes
Malgaches; Paris, Leipzig, la Haye, 1909.)

Van de zoogenaamde bronzen „bijlenquot;, die in den Archipel zijn gevonden, moeten
sommige niet worden opgevat als bijl, maar als beslag voor een graafstok.

De methode, door Dr. Ronhaar toegepast bij zijn studie quot;Women in primitive
motherright societiesquot; wijkt, in tegenstelling met schrijvers bewering, niet af van de
door vele ethnologen gevolgde.

(Dr. J. H. Ronhaar; Woman in primitive motherright societies; Groningen,
den Haag, Londen, 1931.)

Ten onrechte beschuldigt Dr. Ronhaar Prof. Graebner van quot;division of tribes
into \'Kulturkreise\' on the strenght of one single characteristicquot;.

De meening van den Heer Schadee over het koppensnellen moet onbewezen
worden geacht.

(Marie C. Schadee; La Coutume de la Chasse aux Têtes et Ie Sacrifice chez
les Dayaks de Landak et Tayan; den Haag, zonder jaartal.)

In den Oost-Indischen Archipel is het schaakhuwelijk in vele gevallen niet een
zeer oude huwelijksvorm, doch een jonge vorm, ontstaan tengevolge van het opdrijven
van den bruidschat en van de kosten van het huwelijksfeest.

Terecht merkt Georg Höltker op: „So stark und unverkennbar auch der Einfluss
der ,Umwelt\' auf den Menschen ist: schlieszlich formt doch, wenigstens bei einem
gesunden Volke, der Mensch seine Umwelt, nicht die Umwelt den Menschenquot;.

(Georg Höltker; „Bachmann Kurt Wilhelm. Die Besiedlung des alten Neusee-
land.quot; Anthropos XXVII, 1932, 3, 4, p. 689—690.)

De verhoudingen in het politiek onafhankelijke Siam pleiten niet vóór de zelf-
standigheid van Zuidoost-Aziatische volkeren.

Het ware te wenschen, dat de Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indië een
grooter deel van zijn middelen besteedde voor het praehistorisch onderzoek.

Het verschijnsel der zwevende dalen in de Yosemite Valley kan niet worden ver-
klaard uit eene kanteling van het Sierra-Nevade-blok.

De vervaardiging van een toestel, waarmede blokdiagrammen mathematisch juist
kunnen worden geconstrueerd, is theoretisch denkbaar en practisch uitvoerbaar.

		ïSsïi-



	V; ;. :
tv. \' O ; V	.0

	, 67,5 %
	. 8,8 %
	. 21,6 %
	. 0,4 %
	. 0,4 %
Undetermined (oxidation?)	. 1,3 %
	100,0 %

	Kupfer	Blei	Zinn
Typus I	60,82—71,71	14,25—26,69	4,90—10,88
Ubergangsform I—II	76,02	10,64	12,39
Typus II	71,15—79,02	16,54—16,69	8,85—11,94
Ubergangsform I—IV	73,19-78,70	7,55—10,94	11,72—15,44
Typus IV	73,30—85,45	3,75—14,80	9,19—17,60



	■K
	■r
		\' ? ^ \' \'