THE GENERAL FRAMING OF THE HORSE.

ILLUSTRATED BY PLATES AND A LARGE SECTIONAL FIGURE.

By B. C. Second Edition, London, 1842.

Conceiving that a sectional view of the whole horse, if it could be executed, would be a
splendid object, and highly instructive for beginners in the veterinary art, and others desirous of
a general knowledge of this noble animal, I determined on the trial, and suggested the execution
of the drawings to my friend George Kirtland, sen., and with his assistance the section was
accomplished by the saw and the knife, and the drawing and engraving of it was made in the
year 1808, but more pressing labours on the foot of the horse, and some cross occurrences
prevented its being described by me, or published till the year 1813 ; which edition being now
this year, 1842, exhausted, I am induced to renew it with some important additional
observations.

Several remarkable circumstances are displayed to advantage by this novel and I believe
hitherto (1808) unattempted mode of viewing the animal, as the beautifully varied line and
incurvations of the spine, also the extraordinary bend, and incurvation of the vertebral column
beneath the withers, advancing it over the fore extremities and bringing this part almost to the
front parts of the neck, instead of proceeding as a natural external view of the animal would
lead us to suppose along the upper part of the withers and neck, is well seen; also the vast
length of the oesophagus, or gullet, and its passage through the diaphragm into the stomach;
also the remarkable and powerful elastic ligaments which are supporting the head and neck;
the situation and appearance also of the heart, the lungs, liver, stomach, rectum, womb, and the
two masses of the brain, are all familiarly exposed in this way, and being engraved upon a large
scale, the parts are very distinctly seen, and afford an interesting view of nearly all the internal
organization of this most beneficial slave of mankind. The assemblage of so many beautifully
formed parts, and the vast diversity of tints also give to the picture a truly rich and unusual
appearance.

For certain reasons the division of the body was not made exactly through the centre or
middle of the spine or back-bone, but rather on one side, which renders the view more useful,
and preserves entire the Mediastinum, or middle curtain, which separates or divides the chest
longitudinally into two chambers, or equal cavities, and which would have been destroyed by
such division.

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The execution however of this figure was not unattended with difficulties; and especially
the reduction of it to a symmetrical appearance after division, in accomplishing which I have
once more with pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of my worthy friend Sydenham Edwards,
since deceased, whose name as a natural history draftsman in many departments, will long
live in just admiration. He died and was interred in Chelsea, where he chiefly resided.

This description is accompanied occasionally, to relieve the dryness of mere reference, and
to give it the more interest and utility, with brief remarks on the physiology of some of the
parts, and of their diseases, especially where any new, or more correct view of the matter, seemed
to call for it.

That the reader may entertain some notion of the general plan on which this splendid
animal appears to have been framed, we shall precede our description with some observations
on the circumstance, in laying it down as a sort of general maxim or fundamental truth, that
the body of the horse is formed pretty much upon the square, that is his projected side; and
which property, varied as to its direction and extent, will be found to prevail through all the
families and various races of the quadruped world; such variation being suited to the respective
habits, and modes of life of each particular family.

This circumstance of the square form of the body of the horse to an artist not yet made
acquainted with it as a general rule, may be an interesting fact to observe, and tend much to
facilitate his labours in giving the figure truly, and in the subjoined plate will be seen the
exemplification of it: the body, legs, and feet being included in this measure, but not the head and
neck; for example, a line let fall anterior to, or touching the breast from the height of the
withers to the ground, forms one side of this square ; another drawn parallel to this and touching
the extremity of the buttock forms a second line, or side of the square; and one extending
horizontally along the back, touching the withers and rump and uniting the two former,
affords a third line, or side of the square; and the fourth is formed by a line drawn along the
ground, touching the lower edge of the hoof, and uniting the two first, is completing the
square.

By the observance of this guide as a general law, varying the outline according to the
contour of the respective parts, a symmetrical appearance will be ever obtained : on the other
hand if this rule is not known or not attended to, and there is much deviation either way, the
figure will appear long-legged or otherwise long-backed. Nor was this curious fact unknown in
ancient times, as we learn by Hierocles, a writer on veterinary subjects who lived in or about the
period of Constantine the Great, who observes, in the preface to his work, in language that
appears ironically meant, " that he did not intend to inquire, in treating of the diseases of
horses, whether the black colour could be distinguished from the brown; or whether the side
profile of the horse should be of an oblong or a square form; or whether he might have been
foaled in Areas or Cyrene, Hiberia, or Cappadocia, Thessaly, or Mauritania, or Persia." Ruel,
Scr. Grw. Veterin., lib. i., p. 4, Latine reddita, fol. ii. His work however, after this flippant
display, is little else than an imitation and copy of Absyrtus.

Many quadrupeds, which in form are less graceful than the horse, have the square
lengthened upwards, such are the elephant, the camelopardalis, the antelope, &c.; but by far the
most numerous tribes of animals are deviating from the square in the opposite direction, as the

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lion, tiger, bear, dog, &c.; and in a much more extraordinary degree the badger, otter,
squirrel, weazel, polecat, &c. and the burrowing and creeping animals.

Having noticed the square which the general outline of the horse describes, we shall now
venture upon some remarks on the further composition or framing of his trunk and limbs, which
may tend to give clearer notions respecting his construction, and of the intentions of nature and
advantages resulting from such arrangements. The spine or back-bone being extended
horizontally is forming the basis of the machine; the head and neck terminating it at one
extremity, and the sacrum and tail at the other.

The trunk of the horse however, taken alone, and separated from the limbs, appears to be
fashioned much after the manner of a boat, within which are disposed the various viscera and
organs for the life and support of the machine ; and the ribs are serving to enclose them as in
these vessels; the boat-like form is obviously best suited to cleave and pass through the surround-
ing atmosphere with the least resistance, and the machine by narrowing anteriorly gives com-
modious opportunity for the attachment of the fore-limbs. (See PL 3.) The sternum, or breast-
bone, by its perpendicular direction, sharpness, and depth, (more especially in front) strongly
resembles the keel of a vessel, and as having also the property of securing the ribs (See also
Frontispiece, No. 45); and it may be a circumstance worthy of remark, that the ancients
expressed themselves on equitation figuratively by the terms or epithets relating to navigation�
hence their equestrian Neptune, &c.�though perhaps it was not the above circumstance of the
figure of the trunk that occasioned this mode of expression; but was probably taken from
their first receiving from the Egyptians the managed horse, transported to their coasts on ship-
board, and hence also it was that the mountainous coasts of Thessaly became famous for the
Centaurs, men mounted on horseback, and made by their fanciful imaginations into one animal.
Or it might be from seeing the horse steered by the rein as ships at sea are governed by the
helm that led them to this figurative mode of expression. For before the discovery of the rein
they might have been considered by them as a sort of indomptable animal, and the idea of a rein
did not probably at once occur to them, or that they would be likely to obey it.*

This boat-like frame is decked over, or covered in, by the approaching of the ribs above,
and is then closed by the spine or back-bone strongly connecting them; and this spinal column
is made to carry the head and neck, whilst the opposite extremity of it, after dilating into the
broad sacrum, for the important attachment of the pelvis and hind limbs, is diminished and lost
in the pointed termination of the tail, which in some animals, as in the greyhound for instance,
becomes indeed a sort of rudder in guiding and stopping the animal in his swift runnings. So
that the analogy of the trunk to a boat is verified in more ways than one, and if not in all there
appears to be no way of conveying so familiar a notion of these structures as by this resemblance
or comparison. The ribs are eighteen in number on each side, and we have to remark, from
accidentally detecting it, that the first rib is differently attached to all the others, having an

* Perhaps the Parthians, or Numidians, were the earliest riders of horses, and for this reason, that
they simply guided them by a short wand held in their hand and without any rein, which was certainly
the most simple way of any, and therefore probably the first.

articulation with the sternum, a singular indication of approach to the clavicular groups of
animals.

To this frame and suspended to the underside of the back bone are disposed the various
viscera, hanging into its cavity; and what is remarkable, the liver, the most solid, and weightiest
of these, takes its place nearest to the centre of gravity, in the middle region of the cavity, and
so falls between the hind and fore limbs; the advantages of its being so placed in the sudden
turning round of the body must be obvious, and which has not before we believe been ever
noticed, so that it is to the quadruped world it would appear that we must look for the cause
and advantages of the peculiar situation of this viscus.

The Stomach, ever varying as to its dimensions and weight, is also placed next to it. Then
the kidneys, the smallest and lightest of all these viscera, are disposed in that part of the machine
where the greatest flexibility is required, viz., about the middle part of the loins. Whilst
the intestines, large, light, and puffy, are filling up with the mesentery the remaining space of the
great cavity of the abdomen.

Now the general cavity of the whole entire trunk of the body is seen to be divided into two
large unequal chambers or compartments, one forming the cavity of the chest, or thorax, and
the other the abdomen; which are separated from each other by a very stout fleshy curtain
called the diaphragm, or midrif, transversely carried or stretched across this cavity, and is directed
from the loins obliquely forwards and downwards to the point of the sternum, or breast bone,
its middle part white and tendinous, forming a broad disc, or centre, through which passes the
esophagus, or gullet; and the direction of this fleshy curtain we may observe, appears to be laid
nearly parallel to the lower opening of the abdomen, that is to the great opening which is dependant
upon the figure made by the termination of the ribs and false ribs. A third recess is also
seen, being a very much smaller compartment, and is provided by the arrangement of the bones
of the pelvis, but which is not however a distinct or separate chamber, being part of the great
cavity of the abdomen, and this part is called the cavity of the pelvis, or pelvic cavity. The
cavity of the chest also is again subdivided longitudinally, by a process or extension of its
membranous lining, called the pleura, and which septum, or division, is called the mediastinum.
Both the diaphragm and this are seen interestingly exhibited in the large coloured plate. Also
in the frontispiece, plain or coloured.

In further sketching our general view of this exquisite piece of mechanism, we may
observe that this boat-like trunk is elevated from the ground on four columns, which are unlike
the common pillars of a building, in being bent at large angles in their upper, and more slightly
in their lower parts, but are straight near the middle and with joints for permitting the necessary
movements.

The fore limbs again are of a different form and character to the hind limbs, which will
admit of explanation, by considering their very different offices and the unequal distribution of
the weight of the body upon them: the fore limbs being especially formed for receiving and
sustaining the greater weight, being nearer to the middle of the body; the hind for impelling
the mass forward; as the whole weight of the head, neck, and half of the body is reposing upon
the fore limbs, and what is remarkable, and which we may observe on inspecting the coloured

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plate is, that the spinal column is tending from both its extremities to form a deep incurvation
over the fore legs, and to make there its dip or most depending part, determining consequently
the weight towards this point, and these fore limbs therefore by their upright perpendicular
position acquire the greatest possible degree of strength for the support of it; and the knee
enlarging in the midst, is still augmenting the strength of the column.

It is to be observed, however, that the disposition of the weight, though truly unequal, is
not so much so as on a first view it would appear to be, from certain provisions calculated to
prevent this. For the horse, if viewed from an elevation, as from a coach-box where his back
is seen, will be found to present from head to tail, the figure of a lengthened cone, the point
being the head, and the haunches forming the base or widest part of the cone, and being made
of stout bone and muscle, are consequently very weighty; so that, although viewed laterally, a
much greater share would appear to be reposing on the fore limbs; yet is it of a much thinner
and lighter nature than the mass behind: the chest also filled by the lungs, the lightest viscus
or material of the whole system, and particularly large in the horse; yet does the head again,
placed so far in advance before the body upon the long lever of the neck, give to it a great
increase of weight and power over these front parts, tending to burthen the fore legs, and to
cause the weight upon these to be much more considerable than upon the hind ones.

We now shall confine our attention to the fore limb itself, observing first the nature of its
attachment to the trunk, chiefly by muscle, that being a mode or property the very reverse of
the hind extremity or limb, apparently as being designed to afford the greatest elasticity, and
yielding to the load: whilst the hind limbs, on the contrary, appear intended to project the
mass without any loss of momentum, by having a solid bony union and connection with the
trunk by a deep ball and socket joint.

Now the Scapula or blade-bone of the fore limb in the horse, appears remarkable for its
dimensions compared with that of most other animals, and the processes of the dorsal vertebrae
forming the withers, are also of unusual length and elevation, to allow ample space for its
upper parts to rest against, and affording thereby a peculiarly strong and noble character to the
outline of the animal; a construction that appears particularly necessary for receiving the
impetus of an animal of such extraordinary weight and powers of action.

In order to comprehend properly the upper portion of this fore limb of the horse, and the
names that have been conferred on its different parts, we must resort previously to a close
examination of the human scapula, when it will be perceived that no two bones bearing the
same name, can well be more dissimilar, as are indeed their uses in the respective animals, from
which the greatest confusion of ideas is likely to ensue by an imagined correspondence.

The human scapula, is in fact, an obtuse, somewhat square, or triangular bone, and very
short, its angle presented sloping down the back. In the horse, on the contrary, it is a very
oblong bone, and comparatively as to its length, narrow; which in birds indeed, is represented
by a thin long strip of bone lying along the back. Its surface in the quadruped also, is com-
paratively smooth and flat, but in the human, considerably tumid and convex, with a corres-
ponding concavity within, and presenting various undulations in its surface, at least in aged
bones, and especially those of people who have worked hard in their lives, or have much used
their arms.

As the prominent fulness and noble elevation of the human shoulder, is effected chiefly
by the acromion and coracoid processes of the scapula, which are directed upwards and supported
there by their connexion with the clavicle, giving to the arm a wonderful facility in rotating
and swinging about, whereas in the brute, who wants not these motions, it is made a simple
machine of support, and of power in the progression of the body, offices of more essential
importance to him, we may observe, than are the almost adventitious uses of the human arms,
in respect to the human body.

In fact, the horse's bone has no proper acromion or coracoid process; the latter in the
human directed upwards, is rising high, and extending itself above and over the joint with the
humerus, as the former is also, and may have very well received the name of acromion, or
topmost point of the shoulder; but in the horse, this same part is depressed and taking the very
lowest point or situation of the bone, having its whole flat superficies above it, going up to the
withers and resting against the dorsal processes. And so arranged, the scapula instead of
swinging a pensile or pendant arm, is rendered the wide fulcrum and broad basis of the support
of the body upon the limb, and its very great length and large surface, afford extensive attach-
ment for muscle, giving it the power of performing these important acts, and for which alone
it appears adapted and designed. Now all we can discern of a coracoid, is the appearance
of a rounded knob of bone projecting towards the articular cup; and all we can see of an
acromion, is the mere thickening of the bone, about the middle of the spine* or ridge of the
scapula, and is somewhat curving backwards, which point becomes the librating point of action
of this bone.

The neck of the horse's scapula also is made further to contribute to these properties, by
being of unusual length and flatness.

These bones thus viewed and considered, will leave no great difficulty in the understand-
ing and comparing of them, and of avoiding all mistakes as to the names of their respective
parts.

If any one should feel his left shoulder with his right hand, he would perceive the coracoid
process to be its summit or highest point, and that the acromion was giving the handsome
rotundity and fulness to the posterior of the shoulder, which balanced by the head of the
humerus in front, is forming together an arched figure of two equal sides, and without which
singular process of the acromion, the shoulder would have made but a flat, mean, and deficient
appearance behind; and would have been wanting also in strength and power for some of its
numerous displays of action.

In the lighter animals, as the dog and cat, the shoulder blade appears to be more loosely
applied to the body, and is standing out considerably from it at top, thereby acquiring greater
freedom and extent of action, and where, by the use of the paws in these animals, there is more
resemblance to the human hands; for the weight of the body being as almost nothing upon
them, such looseness is not much felt.

The horse's shoulder however, I have observed in travelling, stands out at top from the

* Properly signifying a thorn, but used by anatomists for anything thin or sharp.

bones of the withers, and when the horse is standing careless and at his ease, or resting upon one
limb; but when trotting out boldly, it becomes compacted and fine: this appears to be done by
the elevation of the body by the pectoral or slinging muscles, which by lifting the body upon
the limbs, is elevating the withers, and the shoulder thereby becomes in appearance more closely
applied to the ribs and more compacted, so that the body when in motion, will be found actually
higher than in a state of rest.

The muscles which attach the fore extremities to the trunk, are connected principally with
the scapula, and which are spreading in radiating masses over all the adjacent parts of the
trunk and neck, and converging to a focus, are inserted, not to the middle, but to the superior
parts of the inside of the scapula, binding it strongly to the body; at the same time, not fixing
it, but permitting its movements freely along with the limb: it appears also worthy of parti-
cular remark, that the two shoulder-blades, viewed in connexion, form by their approximation
upwards, a sort of oblong arch, that is together with the arm and limb, and which arch is
receiving the trunk placed within it; and the more this trunk gravitates from its own or any
incumbent weight, the more these points of the arch will be drawn together, and so be conso-
lidated, and rendered the more compact and stronger, that it would be next to impossible to
break down a machine formed on such principles. (See PI. 3, Fig. 2.) And there appear
also other muscles provided at the lower parts of the chest, which passing beneath the trunk,
and being attached to the inside of the limbs, suspend, or rather sling the body between them,
giving thereby a liberty and freedom of motion not less necessary than strength to all the
movements of the machine: these latter, lifting up the trunk at the time of action to the
requisite degree of liberty.

The contemplation of the uses of these muscles of the fore limb, and also those of the
arm and fore arm of the horse, if our conjectures respecting them are well founded, will throw
much light on the structure and intentions of the same parts in the human anatomy; for very
much the same parts exist in both, the horse being only deficient in the muscle of the clavicle,
and possessing all the others found in the human arm. For nature grandly simple and tenacious
of her plan, extends it through all her animals, modifying it variously however, but not depart-
ing from it even in the human structure; the human arms, for example, pendant on the sides,
perform very various offices, often more noble it is true, but certainly in one sense, of much
less importance than in the brute, where they are the necessary agents of his support and
progression; that what they perform in the human structure, compared with these, may be
considered as of a secondary or almost adventitious nature: so that in the brute must be sought
their primary uses and intentions, and the causes of their form and place; and in this way,
more just views we apprehend will be furnished concerning them; at least we venture to
suggest it as a matter for the consideration of more able anatomists.

The next member of the limb to the scapula, is The Arm, which compared to the human,
is very short, and so covered by muscle, that it is generally overlooked, and the fore arm
mistaken for it, not extending transversely beyond the outline of the limb. Might we venture
to attempt to explain the manner of its use, which we do with a view more to excite others to
consider it, than as a solution of its difficulties; we should first observe, that it is disposed

obliquely between the upright column of the limb and the lower advancing point of the
scapula, and against which it is abutting, and would push it by the application of any force
below, or on the foot acting against the ground, in a direction upwards and forwards, but being
restrained and held in its situation by the strong muscles connected with it, it becomes opposed
to this operation and firmly presents a broad surface or base to receive the impression; the
perpendicular although indeed flexible column of the limb, being so disposed beneath it as to
fall in a line opposite to the angle which the front and base line of the scapula make in meet-
ing at the top of the shoulder, thereby obtaining for it the most extensive surface of support
it can be made to afford.

Now the Arm bone or Humerus next, being held as it were in equilibrio between the
upright part of the limb and the scapula, becomes as an oblique librating beam, and the chiefest
power in giving play to the limb, the obliquity of this bone being maintained, and the collapse
of its angles prevented, which it makes with the scapula, by the peculiarly stout muscles which
are passing round the front of the joint; whilst others at the opposite end of this bone, appear
disposed to prevent a collapse of the angle which it is making with the upright column of the
limb, which column appears to be situated in a state of rest beneath the middle line of the
breadth of the scapula. And proceeding from the humerus, and attached to the olecranon, or
elbow, (which in the horse is constituted a fixed and firm part of the radius) and filling the
great triangular space between these two bones, are five strong deltoid muscles, which prevent
a collapse of the fore arm with the humerus, and when in action, these are forcing the body
forwards upon the limb previously advanced and fixed on the ground.

The Fore Arm succeeds below, and is situated as we have said, almost perpendicularly
beneath, and while it strongly supports, is extending the limb and elevating the body; and
round whose head or upper part, are assembled the muscles whose tendons go to the knee and
foot.

The Shank presenting almost a naked perpendicular column of bone, and much shorter
than the preceding, is farther contributing to extend the limb and to afford the power of deploy-
ment, and terminates by meeting the pastern bone and forming with it the fetlock-joint, making
there a pliant angle, upon which part of the weight and impression is dissipated, the rest
with diminished rigour being carried obliquely forward towards the foot, for it must appear
evident, that if the foot had been situated directly under the perpendicular line of the limb,
the weight would have been much more severely felt and oppressive, still none of the weight
can in reality be lost.

Finally occurs the Basis or Foot, possessing a remarkable elasticity for destroying the
effects of the impression of the weight, and also with an insensible covering of horn for the
contact and abrasion of the soil. Its plan, if we may be allowed the expression, appears to
be, that placed before the limb, it should receive near its front parts, the obliquely advancing
pastern and coronet-bones from the fetlock joint yielding to the weight; and that then the
hoof, by taking a reclining direction backwards, should convey the impression or weight
backwards again towards the posterior parts of the foot, where its elasticity and spring
principally reside, by means of the furch and the double inflexurcs of the hoof, thus prevent-

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ing any direct reaction to the fetlock or concussion to the trunk, and affording ease and
liberty to all the various parts of the foot as to the body: and which is in conformity also with
the general design of the fore limb and its attachments in easing the weight of the body, and
in softening the impression of the stroke; the fore foot therefore, as we have remarked, is very
differently constituted to the hind, in possessing more elasticity and extent of bearing on the
ground, a wider sole, and a larger, thinner, and less upright hoof, which will enable us satis-
factorily to account for the more injurious effects of the iron shoe upon it, than upon the hind
foot; and not, as has been hitherto erroneously supposed, from the hind feet being more
exposed to the dung and urine of the standing of the stall.

The hoof of the horse having been an object of our particular solicitude and attention,
we here advance the most improved views we have been brought to respecting it:�

The hoof of the horse, is most admirably constructed of a cylindrical circle of horn,
gradually diminishing in height from the front, the circle interrupted and broken at its posterior
part, with the ends or extremities inflected or turned inwards towards the centre of the circle,
thereby creating a triangular open space or cavity for the insertion of the furch or frog, which
is everywhere attached to the upper edges of these inflexions, and like the bow-string to the bow,
the furch is made of a softer and more elastic horn, yielding readily to the bow-like actions or
movements of the wall of the hoof, its true and real office: for the furch is not performing,
as has been heretofore strangely imagined, the operation of a wedge, in forcing asunder the
inflexions, but is almost wholly passive, receiving their impression and dilating laterally in con-
currence with them through their whole course, for the contrary, it is clear, would have
been the very inversion of good mechanics, or as the using a softer to rend a harder body;
or the employing a wedge of dough to cleave a block of wood.

The wall of the hoof formed entire in front, presents a more solid and stronger resistance
to the ground, than does the hoof of any other animal, but is possessed of certain elastic provi-
sions, by which the liberty of all its parts is maintained, and the horn being of an extra-
ordinary tough nature and insensibility to the soil, and being provided with an unceasing
power of restoration by growth, it completes the limb.

"We hope these suggestions respecting the nature and properties of the foot, may lead to
much more enlightened views and practices as to its treatment, and subvert the present baneful
measures in the defending it.*

The Hind limbs situated almost at the other extremity of the body, have a less load upon
them, and less occasion therefore for the perpendicular line of support, but are bent into vastly
more acute angles, and being thrown into a general backward direction, they obtain the neces-
sary impetus for the projection of the body, especially during very accelerated movements,
we therefore may distinguish these as the Propellers of the machine, and the fore legs as the
Supporters of it.

* The reader is referred for a more extended account of this beautiful organ, to the Hipponomia,
Second Edition, 1829 ; and of its destruction by common shoeing, to the Podopthora, with twelve
elegant plates of new objects.

It is by the angles of the fore limbs deploying, and of the hind limbs closing under the
body and fixing on the ground, and then returning again to a state of extension, that the body
is forced forward, and that nothing of the momentum should be lost, these hind limbs possess
a solid bony connexion with the pelvis, by ball and socket joints, as was formerly stated.

And it is to be remarked, that the Ilium or Haunch Bone, widely branching out in these
limbs, appears to hold a sort of correspondence, but reversed and opposed to the situation of
the shoulder blade in the fore extremity, and is actually a separate piece from the pelvis, from
which it can readily be detached by the scalpel, being held to it by ligament only. Though it
will not materially affect the view we are taking of it, whether it be considered as part of the
limb, or as part of the main trunk, or as common to both.�This widely branching bone allows
of vast surface for the attachment of the immense muscles which project the body; and with its
two coadjutors, the ischium and pubis, which are all three meeting in one point to form the
socket or acetabulum, for the reception of the head of the femur, or thigh bone, making together
a ball and socket joint of great strength, from whence the two bony columns of the hind limbs,
proceeding to the ground in a direction nearly parallel, not converging as do the fore limbs,
their forces are thus more powerfully directed upon the mass they have to remove, or trans-
port, the frame of the pelvis, first receiving their impression and conveying it to the trunk and
rest of the body.

The Femur or Thigh-bone being articulated nearly at the same height or level as the point
of libration of the scapula, which is somewhat higher than its middle, so this bone very similarly
situated as to height, is placed between the ilium and column of the limb, as the arm is in the
fore extremity, but reversed in its direction, advancing forwards to the stifle, as that does
backwards to the elbow (See PI. 5): it is describing however in its range of action, a much
greater portion of a circle, passing in strong movement, even considerably behind a perpendi-
cular line falling from the acetabulum to the ground, and going to a very great extent forwards,
thus powerfully projecting forward the mass of the body.

The Tibia or real leg-bone, next succeeds, and is projected backwards; and next, the bones
of the hock or tarsus, and to these succeed the metatarsus or shank, and then the two bones
going to the foot, as in the fore extremity. The hoof however, presents a slight difference, in
being harder, narrower, and more perpendicular or upright, in conformity with the impelling
powers and hardness of the rest of the limb.

I was led to observe in frequently dissecting this hind limb at the Veterinary College in
the years 1791 and 2, a singular variation of structure in the horse from the smaller animals,
which seems worth recording here. It is this, that the horse appears to be driven forwards
almost by the limbs alone and their muscles, whilst the dog and cat and other of the smaller
animals, which in comparative swiftness exceed the larger, effect their speed more by the
muscles of the back, some of which are inserted into the inside of the ilium in rather an extraor-
dinary way, and are acting there with great power upon the line of the spine, and bending it like
a bow and shooting the body forwards; this circumstance appears to have been overlooked by
Douglas in the Myologia Comparata, though written expressly on the anatomy of the dog: in
the horse, on the contrary, this part of the ilium is occupied by the muscles of the thigh, and

it is perhaps the rigidity arising from the magnitude of the spine in the larger animals, that has
rendered this principle incompatible or inconvenient to be applied with them, and may be the
cause of its not being pursued. In observing the hind legs of any animal, it may be presumed,
with tolerable certainty, whether speed or strength was intended to prevail, and in what degree,
by the acuteness of their angles and the length of the limb: thus the hind limb of the elephant
and camel is nearly a straight column; whilst the leg of the dog is crooked to a proverb.

A limb when detached from the trunk with its apparatus of muscles about it, makes the
appearance of a very lengthened cone or pyramid, whose point being inverted, is made to meet
the ground, and its broad basis to connect it to the body and give it play.

Having noticed separately the fore and hind limbs, we now take a view of them in
combination, in order to remark a very beautiful provision in their arrangement: and we ought
also to state, that this fact was not of our own observing, but was communicated to us several
years back by St. Bel, the first professor of the Veterinary College, and was probably not
unknown to the veterinary schools of France. It is this, that the bones of the two limbs of
quadrupeds are contra-disposed in the angles of their upper parts, sustaining by this means the
body reposing between them; the shoulder-blade, for example, is placed inclining backwards or
towards the loins; the haunch-bone, on the contrary, is inclining forwards towards the shoulder,
opposed to it, and directed somewhat after the manner of two rafters in the covering of a roof;
but their distance is so considerable in this animal, that the fact might easily escape notice:
the two bones below these, the arm and thigh-bone, are in like manner opposed, the thigh-bone
passing obliquely forwards to the stifle, the arm backwards to tl j elbow; the tibia again is
directed backwards to the hock, and the cubitus, or fore arm, though nearly perpendicular, is found
a little advancing forwards in the opposite direction; the remainder of the limb to the fetlock,
is made a simple perpendicular column (see fig. 5): it is obvi us by this arrangement in the angles
of the limbs so contra-disposed or opposed to each other, that the trunk, which reposes between
them, will be supported and held up, if the open state of these angles is maintained; for it
will appear evident, that if these angles had all of them been formed in the same direction ift
both limbs, the animal must have inclined and fallen backwards or forwards, as the disposition
might happen to be.

These arrangements may be very well observed on the living animal, but still better as
also some other parts of these observations by a view of the skeleton: to maintain their
opposing forces, and prevent the collapse of these angles, will be found perhaps one of the
most important uses of the muscles of these extremities, though hitherto but little attended to.

Having viewed the outline of the frame of the body, also the trunk and the limbs
separately and combined, and interspersed several detached remarks made at various times
during our studies formerly, and by some additions brought them into something like a
methodical arrangement where none before existed, so we hope they may serve as an imperfect
beginning or basis for receiving more fully digested views, and stimulate others to the farther
prosecution of the subject. We now conclude our labours in this way, with one remark more
respecting the moving powers of the limbs, and their distribution to effect the great object of
progression, which has appeared to us not to be merely obtained by the flexor and extensor

muscles, but is contributed to, if not chiefly caused, in several instances at least, by what have
been called the abductor and adductor muscles: for it may be seen on examination, that in the
upper parts of the extremities a four-fold position of the muscles is provided, being placed
before, behind, and on either side the limb, the two former bending and extending the limb
directly, have been called the extensors and flexors, those on the sides drawing the bone to the
outside or inside, according to their situation, considered singly, have been called abductors and
adductors, or, as they bring the limb towards or carry it from the body; these latter, we
believe, can be made essentially to co-operate in the progression of the animal, in the following
manner, viz. by contracting or acting at the same moment of time on both sides the limb,
which, if with nearly equal forces, the bone will not in this case be drawn in either of those
directions, but will be compelled to take a course in the diagonal, or at right angles to these,
in the direction of the flexors and extensors, with great power, describing a somewhat similar
line that a stick would, placed against a wall at one end and drawn by two cords at the other
with nearly equal force, it would not long remain stationary, but pass in a perpendicular line
between the two opposing cords, and describe a portion of a circle perpendicularly between
them; in this, or some similar way, these muscles could be of constant use, otherwise the
largest and most powerful muscles in both extremities would appear to be almost idle masses
of flesh, and truly idle offices have been assigned them, as turning out the limb a little, or
inwards a little, or grasping bodies, for which the animal can have no occasion, steadying the
body, &c, conclusions drawn from insulated views only, and such offices would be truly
unimportant, if not wholly useless, in these animals: we leave these remarks however, for a
more digested consideration; and now proceed to notice the numerous objects presented to us
in the sectional exhibition of this interesting animal.

Plate 4, figure 2, is showing how the body is supported by suspension between the two upright
�olumns of the fore legs, by an arch formed by the approach of the shoulder blades, which in more
weighty and therefore slower animals, are nearly perpendicular, and not so reclining backwards as in the
horse. In order to record their dimensions, we may observe, these limbs were sketched by the actual
admeasurement of the bones of the skeleton of the celebrated Eclipse horse, now in my possession,
that a comparison might be made at any future period with this noted race horse. The skeleton, I may
inform the reader, is a natural one, and the bones cleared from every thing but the ligaments of the
joints which hold the bones together. These dimensions were taken by a flat two-foot rule placed
parallel to or by the side of the limb, and the intersecting lines were drawn as nearly as possible through
the middle of the openings of the joints. The girts also, or circumferential measures, were made with
a piece of tape of about § of an inch wide. This figure on a larger scale, was done by Edwards after
accurate admeasurements ; he mistook however in all his drawings the top of the horse's shoulder for the
acromion, deceived probably by the name. In the first edition these drawings were mislaid and could
not be found, and under the pressure of the moment, as good a figure as the wood engraver could give
me was used instead; afterwards the original drawings being found, I had them reduced by a scale, and
engraved.

REFERENCES TO THE FIGURE.

The Head of the Horse, compared with most other quadrupeds, is remarkable for its length and
dimensions, formed by an increased size of the cavities of the face, and by the extraordinary elongation
and width of the jaws. The actual cavity containing the brain, not occupying more than perhaps a
sixteenth or a twentieth part of the entire head, the rest being made up of cavities of thin bone; and
there is no prominence or overhanging of the os frontis or its cells in the horse. The eye is sufficiently
prominent on the side for him to see before, and also behind him, and quick, full, and globular, gives great
animation to the countenance; and when under agreeable excitement, his dilated nostril, broad full lips,
and capacious mouth, impart a peculiar vigour and strength of expression, and with a noble generosity
of disposition to forgive injuries, that surpasses perhaps every other animal.

Parts of the Head, Fig. 1.�The Septum, or longitudinal cartilaginous division of the nose,
covered by the Schneiderian or olfactory membrane; it is the seat of catarrhs or colds, various farcy-
gleets and ulcerations, and of the true glanders. The blood-vessels are seen ramifying on its surface,
enlarged from inflammation and disease. The lower part of the Septum is perfectly white, the cartilage
being destitute of its membranous covering abraded by the saw. 2. The Nasal Bones. 3. The
Palatine Bones. 4. The Inter-Maxillary Bone holding the upper incisor teeth. 5. The Symphisis of
the lower jaw early in life obliterated and forming the lower jaw into one bone. 6. The Tongue.
7. The white dense membrane covering the palate, the lower half of double thickness, forming transverse
bars, and is the seat of the lampers, where it rests against and falls below the upper incisor teeth;
beyond this the six grinder teeth at the farther side of the mouth are also visible. 8. The Os Frontis
and its cavities. 9. The Parietal Bone. 10. The basillary process of the Occipital Bone. 11. The
Sphenoidal Bone, forming with the occiput the basis of the skull. 12. The Ethmoidal and its cells.
13. The Cerebrum, or greater brain, with its alternate layers of medullary or white, and cineritious or
darker matter. 14. The Cerebellum, or lesser brain, with its white arborescence or arbor vita, from
which proceeds the spinal chord. 15. The Plexus Choroides, is the red near it; Corpus Callosum; and
the white bulb near it, the Corpora Quadrigemina: all these parts may be best seen in a section as large
as life, of the horse's head, done by G-. Kirtland about the year 1806, with the parts of the throat also
in section. 16. Is a remarkable mucous gland lying behind an eminence of bone, called in the human
Sella Turcica; it is called the Pineal gland, also the Crus Cerebri.

Of the Fauces.�The nostril in quadrupeds generally terminates the face downwards, the mouth
being situated behind it, and the lips are here performing the double office of lips and fingers, to which
last in section these have a strong resemblance. 17. A capacious opening continued from the left nostril,
and passing over the bones of the palate, is seen the chief organ for the admission of air to the lungs.
18. A remarkable convex valve, formed of cartilage, closing the opening of the Tuba Eustachiana or
Eustachian Trumpet, or passage leading to the ear; for a particular description of this part, see Plate
II of the Section of the head above referred to. 19. The Velum Palati, without a distinct Uvula in
the horse. 20. The great cavity of the Fauces, leading into 21, the passage of the (Esophagus or
Gullet, lined throughout with a thick white membrane or cuticle, loosely adhering to the canal or

muscular pipe, and in the ruminants wholly covering the maw, or first stomach, and in the horse extend-
ing over a considerable portion of the upper part of the stomach; the (Esophagus enlarges near the
.stomach and becomes paler.

Of the Air Passages.�These parts have been attempted here to be introduced entire, having
been represented in section in the Plates of the head by Mr. Kirtland, above referred to. 24. Is the
Atlantal cornu of the Thyroid Cartilage, being part of the Larynx, or valvigerent head of the wind-
pipe. 25. The Epiglottis, or Valve, which shuts down during deglutition, preventing the food from
passing into the windpipe or trachea. 26. The short limb of the Os Hyoides. 27. The convex
reflexed edge or lip of the Aretenoid Cartilage. 28. The same covered with muscle. 29. The Cricoid
Cartilage. 30. The beginning of the Trachea, or Wind-Pipe: this part is very frequently absolutely
crushed, and more or less injured, by rough hands squeezing and pinching it under the pretence of
ascertaining broken wind, of which it appears to be an uncertain criterion; or at least but in the last
stage of it, when other symptoms and an attention to the nostrils and flanks are more sure guides. Two
fine horses I have seen destroyed by this gross practice, and others with difficulty of breathing, which
has never been recovered from, the membrane lining the pipe being dislodged by the gripe and stopping
the passage has created suffocation. See article Broken Wind in Eees's Cyclopaedia, and since published
separately. 31. The Cartilaginous Rings of the Trachea, about sixty in number, posteriorly broken
and thinner at the lower part of the pipe where it enters the chest, they are converted into oblong thin
elastic plates, at least at the back part of the trachea, and tiled one over another, for permitting perhaps
the contraction or collapse of the canal to the quantity of air required by the lungs. This canal is
smallest about its middle, gradually dilating to either extremity.

Of the Spine, or Back Bone.�The irregular curving line described by the spine is truly
remarkable and worthy attention, and is exposed advantageously by this sectional view : it appears to be
inclining downwards in both directions from its two extremities to form a curve at its lowest part over
the fore limbs, and determining as it were, the weight upon these two upright pillars of support; the
dorsal processes which we call the withers, are of prodigious length in the horse, filling up and strengthening
this otherwise externally hollow part; the extreme points of these bones serve also to form the prominent
outline of the withers, a part nobly characteristic in its contour of this race of animals: the extra-
ordinary length of these bones also most usefully serve to fit them for the application of the long and
large elastic ligaments supporting the neck and head, larger perhaps proportionably than in almost any
other animal, and farther advanced before the body; these are attached to the second vertebra chiefly, leaving
the atlas quite free; and they afford also a lodgment for the muscles to sustain and move these parts, as
also a rest for the shoulder-blades. Along the back and loins, the spine is gently raised into an arch
upwards, useful in opposing the weight of the suspended viscera in the cavity of the abdomen, and in
bearing burthens externally brought upon the back; forwards, it is carried in its passage almost to the
front parts of the neck, where, from an external view of the animal, the eye would certainly not be
led to suspect it, ascending rapidly to the head from the fore legs: the Camel being deficient in these
processes of the withers, the hollow wavering neck makes this construction much more obvious exter-
nally : and a second and lesser arch of the spine is formed at the sacrum, being somewhat raised above
and also convex below, affording superior width and a firmer support thereby, for the powerful opera-
tions required by the hind limbs in projecting the body.

In respect to the individual members or pieces composing this bony column, their particulariza-
tion is not necessary; its leading divisions we shall however notice, beginning at the head.

The first vertebra, 32, bears the name of Atlas in the human skeleton, from its supporting the
globe of the head; but in the horse and other quadrupeds it may be said to suspend rather than support
it, so that the same name will but indifferently apply. 33. Is the second cervical vertebra, and called in
the human Dentator, having angular or tooth-like projections: it is of remarkable length in the horse,
with a lofty longitudinal crest on its back serving for the strong attachment of the cervical ligaments,
a detached portion of which, passing over the atlas, is sent to be inserted in the occiput.
34. Seven are the number of the cervical vertebras, which number, according to that excellent observer
John Hunter, obtains in nearly or quite all the families of known quadrupeds, whether long or short
necked. Between the articulations or joints of these vertebra?, there is interposed an elastic cartilage,
expanding when there is a remission of pressure upon the column of these bones. 38. The first Dorsal
Vertebra and commencement of the withers. 39. The last Dorsal Vertebra: their number varies,
there being usually eighteen in the horse, sometimes nineteen. 40. The last of the Lumbar Vertebrae;
and over this there appears a remarkable space between two of the Dorsal Apophyses, or upright
processes of the vertebra?, which space is occupied only with ligament, or the muscles of the back, and
appears given to afford opportunity for the greater flexibility of this part of the spine in turning ; and
in the lateral movements, it is to be remarked also, that the superior branch of the ilium, or haunch bone,
is disposed opposite this opening, that strength should not be wanting, and to prevent the danger of a
dislocation from too violent or sudden lateral distortion. 41. The Os Sacrum. 42. The Os Coccygis,
and bones of the tail, diminishing to the extremity, and solid, terminate the column. The ass's tail is
said to have two more bones than the horse's.

We ought not to pass over without noticing it a knob or callous of bone growing to the under-side
of the lumbar vertebra?, and situated opposite the articulation or joint, which formation has been the
effect of excessive labour, or over proportioned loads to the powers of the animal, inflaming and
disordering these bones, and causing them to coalesce by ossific deposit, creating much pain and suffer-
ing to the animal. Some horses appear lame behind from these ossifications; being in the neighbourhood
of the kidneys, others have a difficulty in staking; others in backing with their load appear to suffer excru-
ciating pain; and some cannot be made even to attempt it by the severest usage: it may also be observed
on careful inspection, that four or five of the dorsal vertebra?, are in a similar manner knit together by
bony deposit, and the joints or separations in these are obliterated from the same causes probably. The
mare, the subject of this representation, was one of the horses of the Dunstable stage, and was brought
to the slaughter-house dead, having very suddenly died, and as was apprehended from being over-
driven.

The Spinal Marrow, or Cord, a continuation of the white parts of the brain, is seen loosely
lodged in its canal in the upper parts of the bodies of the vertebra?, sending off branches of nerves to
all the parts it is passing through, in its long course; and this spinal cord has been lately detected as
having a hollow canal through its centre, by Mr. Sewell.

Op tiie upper Parts of the Neck.�Between the processes of the withers and the cervical
vertebra?, is a large deep triangular space, filled up chiefly by muscle, but having in the middle longitu-
dinally a ligament of extraordinary strength and elasticity, forming upwards the Crest; it is of a
yellowish white colour, and divided into several portions, through which are seen the red fibres of the
muscles of the neck; a separated and very distinct flattened cord of this ligament is seen extending
from the extreme point of the processes of the withers to the back of the head, 43, inserted strongly
into the occipital bone. It may be useful to observe, that it is these ligaments when over distended, or

injured by blows near their insertion, that lead to the disease called Pole Evil. And these ligaments,
as we have formerly stated, being in a high degree elastic, appear to be the cause of that singular appear-
ance in the dying horse of the head being drawn backward; for the weight of the head being removed,
the horse at this time usually lying on his side and all muscular exertion ceasing, these ligaments uncon-
trolled powerfully pull the head towards the withers backwards, and with such force as often to create
considerable surprise. Above these ligaments is a mass of fatty cuticular matter, which becomes
distended by high feeding, and makes the crest full and hard to the feel of the hand, and also carries and
maintains his noble mane. This part with us was anciently called the Chine, and was derived perhaps
originally from the Greek word for the neck, avxv; aucheen. Hence we have it in old farriery books
the "mourning of the Chine" that is, farcy discharges from the nose were most ignorantly supposed to
proceed from this part. It is liable also by neglect to a disease called mange, especially in the coarser
bred horses, which may be readily got rid of by the assiduous application of soap and the water-brush;
and in very inveterate cases, the use of a mild red precipitate ointment may be required. This term
mange, we get without doubt from the French demangeaison, signifying the Itch.

Of the Thorax.�This cavity is posteriorly bounded by the Diaphragm, or in common language
the Midriff, which like a curtain, obliquely separates it from the abdomen; in its circumference
muscular, in its centre tendinous, which this section exhibits in an interesting manner. This muscle is
greatly concerned in respiration, and is the chief cause of the heaving and agitations of the flanks in
broken wind, and other complaints affecting the lungs or intestines, affording often a useful means of
judging of danger and of the approaches of death in these animals. The great trunk of the Aorta, or
chief artery, is seen passing through it near its insertion into the loins, and below this is seen the
(Esophagus or Gullet also passing through it to go to the stomach. Anteriorly the cavity of the chest
is maintained and supported by the Sternum or Breast-bone, 45; its deep or wide surface presents
several irregular rounded patches of redder and more porous bone, being the places of insertion of the
ribs; the uppermost of these 46, is singularly covered with smooth cartilage, as though it was designed
for a moveable joint, and may have some reference to the clavicle of animals. Near the middle of the
lower part of the chest is seen the Heart, 47, with its two chambers, the great and lesser ventricle, a. b.
the former impelling the blood through the body, the latter through the lungs only; at the upper part of
the heart and over these chambers, is seen the white internal coats of the Auricles, c. for receiving the
blood returning to the heart, and large openings are seen for its ingress to the heart and passage to the
ventricles. The Heart is loosely surrounded by a membranous bag, 48, called the Pericardium, formed
by a duplication of the Mediastinum, 49, 49, 49: the Pericardium is attached below to the Sternum.

The Lungs, formed of two large lobes, occupy the two cavities of the chest, having the medi-
astinum and heart between them; there is also a smaller central lobe to the lungs, which posteriorly
surrounds the heart, and is seen divided. 50. The three openings are three of the air-pipes or Bron-
chial vessels, continuations of the canal of the wind-pipe throughout the lungs, and are supposed to
terminate in cells, which late observations lead us to doubt. Through an opening in the mediastinum
purposely made, 51, is seen the left cavity of the chest with a portion of the extremity of the left lobe
of the lungs, collapsed from the admission of air into the cavity; another portion of the lobe is seen
near the upper extremity of the sternum in the anterior part of the left cavity 52: the ribs are also
obscurely visible through the same openings, their internal surface being covered with a fine membrane
called the pleura which lines the cavity of the chest, and is reflected over all its viscera. The oblique
fibres between the ribs are the intercostal muscles. The large tube or cylindrical pipe 53 near the back

bone is the aorta or main blood-vessel from the heart, distributing the blood to all parts of the body; it
is seen passing into the abdomen, where it is partially laid open, and above this opening another blood-
vessel is visible, which is the vena cava, 54, or great vein, bringing back the surplus blood to the heart
and lungs.

Of the Abdomen. Lying against the diaphragm, making a noble appearance, is seen the Liver,
being the left lobe of this viscus, 55. A smaller middle lobe is divided, exposing two or three orifices
of blood-vessels, whose white coats strongly contrast with the general colour of the part 56. The liver
of the horse is singularly circumstanced in having no cyst or gall bladder. The liver of the horse from
very high feeding with oats and distressing work is subject to be destroyed, much in the same way
as fermented liquors act upon the human liver; the disease so induced is called Farcy ;* too low and
watery food, and exposure in damp cold ground, will also induce the same complaint, especially after
high feed.

Passing backwards in the order of their occurrence, we next observe The Stomach, 57, a, single
pouch, but possessing within three or four different surfaces, approaching, though distantly, in structure
to the stomachs of the ruminating animals.

The stomach of the Horse and of others of his race or family, is made the singular habitation of
the larvce or grub of three or four distinct kinds of Bots^ or Oestri, whose curious history and mode of
propagation we have endeavoured formerly to unfold in an essay published in the third Volume of the
Linnean Society's Transactions, and since in a separate treatise, with representations of them in all their
states. The curvature of the stomach presented to the liver, is called the Small Arch by anatomists;
and its exterior convexity opposite this, the Large Arch ; the entrance to the stomach by the gullet,
58, the Cardiac Orifice, its exit where the intestine has been removed, the Pylorus, 59. Behind the
stomach, and of a bluish red colour, is seen the Spleen or Milt, 60, its usual companion, and perhaps
serving some useful office in regulating the digestive process. We cannot forbear stating very briefly,
that in an experiment made in the year 1792, in throwing in more fluid into the stomach of an ass than
the animal was willing to drink, or than was necessary to digestion, and on introducing the hand through
an incision made into the abdomen after some little time had elapsed for the digestion to be completed,
this viscus appeared, on again introducing the hand, to have lost its flaccid feel, and to have become
turgid, as though it had received the superfluous fluid; we mention it that it may be confirmed or
otherwise by future observers in their researches respecting it.

Immediately above the spleen is seen the Kidney, 61, receiving its artery from the Aorta, and the
Ureter passing from it and going to be inserted in the side of the bladder, being enveloped by mem-
branes, its view is somewhat indistinct. 62. Is the Bladder collapsed and corrugated, being nearly
empty of urine. Above this and lying upon it, is the Vagina, 68, and the Uterus or Womb, 63, the
latter very small in these animals, the foal being contained, not in the womb, but the Horns of the
womb, 64. The horn of the other side is cut off, that it should not obscure other parts, 65. To the
extremity of the left horn of the uterus, and lying upwards in the figure, is attached the Ovarium, 66,
and near it the Fallopian Trumpet, 67, a membranous twisted funnel, which conveys the impregnated
egg from the ovarium, where conception commences, into the horn of the uterus; arrived there and
adhering to its internal coats, it becomes the Fcetus. "Within the Vagina is seen the opening of the

* From farcio, to cram, the legs being swollen throughout like a stuffed pudding.

t We conjecture from the French, bout, the end, from their appearing at the extremity of the rectum.

Urethra, 68, and the Clitoris, 69, projecting backwards, whicli in these animals gives it the appearance of
being inverted in respect to its position in the opening of the human Vagina; but which is explained
when the prone position of the animal is fully considered.

Above the Vagina appears the Rectum or Arse-gut; the other intestines being necessarily removed
to afford a clearer view of the different organs of the abdominal cavity; a. is a piece of the sacculated
part of the Rectum; the balls of dung appear to receive their form and become hardened in these
pouches ; b. is a terminating sac to the intestines, a receptacle of the dung, and appears to consist
externally of longitudinal fibre|, having internally a loosely adhering coat, flaccid, wrinkled and red, covered
with a thick slimy mucus; the longitudinal fibres of the external sac being muscular, and contracting
from the stimulus of the accumulation of the dung balls, and shortening thereby, protrudes the inner
loose pouch with all its contents outwards, and forms it into numerous circular folds, which on account of
their appearance and colour, have been sometimes called the Rose ; the longitudinal fibres of the external
sac ceasing to act, and the abdominal muscles relaxing, it is by the weight and descent of the intestines
again drawn within the abdomen: c. is the Sphincter Ani, or Circular Muscle closing the rectum
externally.

We now trace the lower outline of the figure. 70. Is the Symphisis of the Pubis, or place of
union of the two bones composing it: this part is formed of an extraordinary depth or width in these
animals, affording ample surface for the attachment of the muscles of progression. 71. The Parietes,
or Coverings of the Abdomen, internally lined with a fine membrane called Peritoneum, which is
extended over all the viscera, and partakes very frequently of their disorders. The lowermost edge of
the boundary line of the abdomen below this, is termed by anatomists the Linea Alba, g. being a white
line formed by the concurrence in the middle of the abdomen, of the tendons of its various muscles.
Here the cavity of the abdomen is contracted and drawn up, from the weight of the intestines being
removed. 72. Is the udder of the mare. The rudiments of the Mamma, or Teats, which are found
with the males of most quadrupeds, were discovered by Daubenton in the horse in the prepuce, or
sheath of the penis (See Buffon's Natural History); and afterwards Hunter made the same remark.

73, 74. The Sterno-Mastoideus Muscle. 75. The Sterno- Thyroideus.

Of the Limbs.�The division being made nearly through the middle of the horse's body, does not
interfere with or affect the limbs, but exposes very advantageously their inner sides; and that the plate
might be rendered as extensively useful as it could be, we stript the limbs of their skin, and several
tendinous envelopements and the exterior muscles are brought into view for representation.

In the Fore Extremity is seen the lower part of the Brachio- Cervical Muscle, 76, passing down
from the neck to the middle of the arm, extending and carrying the limb forwards very powerfully
by the distance of its application from the centre of motion in the joint above; and extensive in its
action on account of its length, occupying nearly the whole line of the neck; the use the horse makes of
his neck is often seen in the gallop, especially if a little fatigued, but which by the absurd use of the bearing
rein, is often rendered useless; it forms with the Pectoral Muscle, 77, a strong aponeurosis, extending over
all the muscles and tendons of the upper parts of the limb, bracing them and forming a strong aponeurotic
cord or tendon inside the fore arm. 78. The Olecranon, Ulna, or Elbow. 79, The Flexor Magnus
Carpi, rising from the Humerus, or Arm-Bone, and terminating on the Post-Carpal Bone, which bone
forms the bold angular prominence posteriorly in the outline of the back of the knee. 80. Flexor Mesocynii
Internus, or Internal Flexor of the Shank, terminating on the internal prominence of the head of the
shank bone. 81. The Radius, or bone of the fore arm, mistaken generally for the arm of the horse,

which is above it, short and concealed by its fleshy muscles. 82, 83. Extensor Mesocynii, and Extensor
Pedis, extensors or straighteners of the limb after flexion, and carrying the body forwards to it fixed
on the ground, one tendon passes to the shank; the other to the foot.�For a more particular descrip-
tion of these muscles, see Rees's Cyclopasdia, article Anatomy Veterinary.

Of the Hind Extremity.�84. The Tensorius, or Fascia lata muscle, whose tendinous expansion,
or aponeurosis, embraces nearly all the muscles of the limb; it is advantageously situated for carrying
the limb forwards. 85. The Vastus Anterior, which with its neighbour and congener the Vastus
Internus, 86, and the Vastus Externus, on the opposite side, are all contributing to one effect, being
strongly inserted in the Patella or Knee-Cap, 87, which part is the real knee of the horse, but termed
with us the Stifle, perhaps on account of the hollow pit or indent and rising skin about and surrounding
it: the shortness of the thigh of the horse and its thick fleshy muscles almost conceals it from observa-
tion, it scarcely extending beyond the parietes, or line of the abdomen. The tibia at this joint is
provided with a remarkable cushion of cartilage for the condyles of the thigh to work upon or act
against. 88. A very broad flat fasciculated muscle {Adductor Complanatus), powerfully acting in
conjunction with the abductors on the other side of the limb in supporting the upper part of the tibia,
and in forcing the body forwards upon the limb when it is fixed on the ground; passing through a slit
or division of this muscle, is seen a large vein, 89, usually termed with vis the Plate Vein, perhaps from
the French Plat Veine; though according to Daubenton in Buffon's Natural History, what the French
call the Plat Veine, is situated on the inside of the fore extremity, lodged in the hollow or channel on
the inside of the radius, or fore arm; the misapplication of names in common use in this art, is not
unfrequent with illiterate shoeing smiths as may be expected, the greater share being French, and which
appear to have been derived from the Low Countries, or our Norman ancestors. 90. Is the Sacro
Tibialis Internus Muscle, powerfully acting in connexion with its opposed muscle on the opposite side,
viz. Sacro Tibialis Externus, in propelling the body from the limb made fixed on the ground. 91. The
Sacro Tibialis Posticus, a congener in its effects with the two former. 92. The Leg Bone, or Tibia,
which with the muscles disposed about it, has been sometimes with us called the Gambril, which appears to
be a useful distinction, separating it from the other parts of the limb, is perhaps derived from the French
Jambe, and is the Jambril, or Lesser or Shorter Leg, and not inaptly applied when compared with the larger
upper parts of the limb: it is this part which is commonly mistaken for the thigh of the horse, whose
shortness and concealment we have noticed before. 93. The Poplitalis Muscle, much the same as in the
human. 94. The Perforans Minor, or Auxiliary Perforans, combining in the horse the properties of
the Tibialis Posticus, and Flexor Longus Pollicis Pedis, of the human anatomy. 95, The Gastrocnemius
Muscle, forming the calf of the leg in the human anatomy; its very stout tendon is inserted into the
point of the Os Calcis, or Hock, 96, which part though placed so much above the ground, is correspond-
ing to the human heel; and this tendon, in allusion to the ancient tale of Achilles being dipped by the
heel in the river Styx, has been called the Tendo Achilles, 97. It has appeared to us to be the lower or
second point of insertion of this tendon and its coadjutory ligaments that causes the disease called Curb,
when strained and over exerted by the power which the Os Calcis has upon the parts below. 98. The
Perforatus Muscle, taking its rise in the hollow pit or fossa on the outside of the thigh bone, at the
back of the tibia, forming a tendon, which becoming flat and wide, covers over and strongly embraces the
above insertion of the tendo Achilles at the point of the hock, and assisting it also by taking attachment
to the side of the Os Calcis; below the hock, becoming a simple cord again, it passes through a restraining
ligament, and arriving at the back of the fetlock joint, again dilating, it forms anteriorly a smooth

annular ligament for the passage of the tendon of the Perforans, and then finally terminates by adherence
to the lower extremity of the pastern bone, and by spreading laterally to the sides of the coronet bone.
In man there is also a Perforatus, but much shorter, taking its rise upon the os calcis, and then divides
into as many tendons as there are toes; the foot of the horse, simply designed for support and progres-
sion only, often combines in one muscle the properties and structure of two or three, which are distinct
in the human, as in the case of the above muscle, and which makes it difficult to follow closely or com-
pare, and much less name them, after the human anatomy. Availing myself of the opportunity the
mention of these parts gives me of introducing some account of the disease called Grease, which invades
them not unfrequently, and appears generated by damp, wet, and cold applied to them, especially in the
decline of the year. Washing and slopping horse's legs on coming in from their work, is the most
usual source of it; dry rubbing with a soft wisp and leaving them till the next morning, is better; long
exposure to dirty roads in the commencement of the Winter, will also produce it, and chills indeed of
any kind. It is attended with considerable inflammation, pain, and suffering, especially by the distention
of the edges of the chaps when the animal is moved. The discharges which are highly foetid if allowed
to remain any time on the parts, and are supposed, and not without reason, to be poisonous, producing
the cow-pox on the teats of the cow, and therefore allied to small-pox, and perhaps by some singular
concurrence of circumstances its progenitor. The cure is accomplished best by keeping the sub-fetlocks
ever warm, poulticing for a few days, giving purgatives or diuretics to carry off the inflammatory disposition,
then with denicatives, such as jEgyptiacum, the sulphat of zinc in solution, to dry up and heal the
sores. A too dependant situation of the hind legs in the stable, is also injurious; turning them round
therefore, with their heads to the heel posts for a few hours every day, is beneficial. To prevent it all
washings without the most careful drying, should be avoided, and forbidden, especially whilst hot. The
name is probably derived from the greasy unctuous appearance of the discharge, for the French call it
eaux de jambes. 99, The Perforans, rising behind the head of the Tibia, is terminating under the
coffin bone, dilating beneath the furch. 100. The Extensor Longus Pedis, and the Tibialis Amicus
Muscles ; a remarkable restraining ligament is also seen here confining them down to the bend described
by the joint.�For further particulars respecting all these muscles and parts, and some of the viscera,
the reader is referred to an article published by the author in Dr. Eees's Cyclopaedia, entitled Anatomy
Veterinary.

P.S. As a very ungenerous and ridiculous attempt has been lately made to cast a doubt on the identity of the
Eclipse skeleton, now in my possession, it may not be amiss in this place to notify, that this celebrated horse never
went out of Dennis O'Kelly's hands, dying at his estate of Canons Park in Hertfordshire, of the gripes. St. Bel,
then about to be made professor of the Veterinary College, made a natural skeleton of his bones, leaving the ligaments
attaching the bones together, so that they could not in any way be changed. A few years after, Dennis O'Kelly gave
this skeleton to my friend, Edmund Bond, of Lower Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, who dying, his widow who still
lives, presented it to me in consequence of my assistance in disposing of her business and collecting her debts, &c.;
and it never was in any other hands whatsoever. The bones also themselves, which are remarkable, would sufficiently
evince their genuineness to any person not wilfully blind or prejudiced. Sixty guineas were offered me for it by the
College of Surgeons, and were refused, a hundred being demanded for this invincible monarch of the race-course.

RICHARDS, PHINTEE, 100, ST. MARTIN'S LANE.



	%?



		Sartfom Sculp
*Fnblijhtd. byB.* dark lj Gtftfptu S' as -Jus Oct direrts.		Sartfom Sculp





	ORIGINAL REMARKS ON THE GENERAL FRAMING OF THE HORSE. ILLUSTRATED BY PLATES AND A LARGE SECTIONAL FIGURE.

		By B. C. Second Edition, London, 1842.

Conceiving that a sectional view of the whole horse, if it could be executed, would be a splendid object, and highly instructive for beginners in the veterinary art, and others desirous of a general knowledge of this noble animal, I determined on the trial, and suggested the execution of the drawings to my friend George Kirtland, sen., and with his assistance the section was accomplished by the saw and the knife, and the drawing and engraving of it was made in the year 1808, but more pressing labours on the foot of the horse, and some cross occurrences prevented its being described by me, or published till the year 1813 ; which edition being now this year, 1842, exhausted, I am induced to renew it with some important additional observations. Several remarkable circumstances are displayed to advantage by this novel and I believe hitherto (1808) unattempted mode of viewing the animal, as the beautifully varied line and incurvations of the spine, also the extraordinary bend, and incurvation of the vertebral column beneath the withers, advancing it over the fore extremities and bringing this part almost to the front parts of the neck, instead of proceeding as a natural external view of the animal would lead us to suppose along the upper part of the withers and neck, is well seen; also the vast length of the oesophagus, or gullet, and its passage through the diaphragm into the stomach; also the remarkable and powerful elastic ligaments which are supporting the head and neck; the situation and appearance also of the heart, the lungs, liver, stomach, rectum, womb, and the two masses of the brain, are all familiarly exposed in this way, and being engraved upon a large scale, the parts are very distinctly seen, and afford an interesting view of nearly all the internal organization of this most beneficial slave of mankind. The assemblage of so many beautifully formed parts, and the vast diversity of tints also give to the picture a truly rich and unusual appearance. For certain reasons the division of the body was not made exactly through the centre or middle of the spine or back-bone, but rather on one side, which renders the view more useful, and preserves entire the Mediastinum, or middle curtain, which separates or divides the chest longitudinally into two chambers, or equal cavities, and which would have been destroyed by such division.



		Extreme, length from 7''.% 2aft Tib. 3f,SJh. </T^fY intern.WidtJi of Cheffr. 77/2In.

			J" fw&Cnt, JC



			1(1

		It is by the angles of the fore limbs deploying, and of the hind limbs closing under the body and fixing on the ground, and then returning again to a state of extension, that the body is forced forward, and that nothing of the momentum should be lost, these hind limbs possess a solid bony connexion with the pelvis, by ball and socket joints, as was formerly stated. And it is to be remarked, that the Ilium or Haunch Bone, widely branching out in these limbs, appears to hold a sort of correspondence, but reversed and opposed to the situation of the shoulder blade in the fore extremity, and is actually a separate piece from the pelvis, from which it can readily be detached by the scalpel, being held to it by ligament only. Though it will not materially affect the view we are taking of it, whether it be considered as part of the limb, or as part of the main trunk, or as common to both.�This widely branching bone allows of vast surface for the attachment of the immense muscles which project the body; and with its two coadjutors, the ischium and pubis, which are all three meeting in one point to form the socket or acetabulum, for the reception of the head of the femur, or thigh bone, making together a ball and socket joint of great strength, from whence the two bony columns of the hind limbs, proceeding to the ground in a direction nearly parallel, not converging as do the fore limbs, their forces are thus more powerfully directed upon the mass they have to remove, or trans- port, the frame of the pelvis, first receiving their impression and conveying it to the trunk and rest of the body. The Femur or Thigh-bone being articulated nearly at the same height or level as the point of libration of the scapula, which is somewhat higher than its middle, so this bone very similarly situated as to height, is placed between the ilium and column of the limb, as the arm is in the fore extremity, but reversed in its direction, advancing forwards to the stifle, as that does backwards to the elbow (See PI. 5): it is describing however in its range of action, a much greater portion of a circle, passing in strong movement, even considerably behind a perpendi- cular line falling from the acetabulum to the ground, and going to a very great extent forwards, thus powerfully projecting forward the mass of the body. The Tibia or real leg-bone, next succeeds, and is projected backwards; and next, the bones of the hock or tarsus, and to these succeed the metatarsus or shank, and then the two bones going to the foot, as in the fore extremity. The hoof however, presents a slight difference, in being harder, narrower, and more perpendicular or upright, in conformity with the impelling powers and hardness of the rest of the limb. I was led to observe in frequently dissecting this hind limb at the Veterinary College in the years 1791 and 2, a singular variation of structure in the horse from the smaller animals, which seems worth recording here. It is this, that the horse appears to be driven forwards almost by the limbs alone and their muscles, whilst the dog and cat and other of the smaller animals, which in comparative swiftness exceed the larger, effect their speed more by the muscles of the back, some of which are inserted into the inside of the ilium in rather an extraor- dinary way, and are acting there with great power upon the line of the spine, and bending it like a bow and shooting the body forwards; this circumstance appears to have been overlooked by Douglas in the Myologia Comparata, though written expressly on the anatomy of the dog: in the horse, on the contrary, this part of the ilium is occupied by the muscles of the thigh, and



			12 muscles, but is contributed to, if not chiefly caused, in several instances at least, by what have been called the abductor and adductor muscles: for it may be seen on examination, that in the upper parts of the extremities a four-fold position of the muscles is provided, being placed before, behind, and on either side the limb, the two former bending and extending the limb directly, have been called the extensors and flexors, those on the sides drawing the bone to the outside or inside, according to their situation, considered singly, have been called abductors and adductors, or, as they bring the limb towards or carry it from the body; these latter, we believe, can be made essentially to co-operate in the progression of the animal, in the following manner, viz. by contracting or acting at the same moment of time on both sides the limb, which, if with nearly equal forces, the bone will not in this case be drawn in either of those directions, but will be compelled to take a course in the diagonal, or at right angles to these, in the direction of the flexors and extensors, with great power, describing a somewhat similar line that a stick would, placed against a wall at one end and drawn by two cords at the other with nearly equal force, it would not long remain stationary, but pass in a perpendicular line between the two opposing cords, and describe a portion of a circle perpendicularly between them; in this, or some similar way, these muscles could be of constant use, otherwise the largest and most powerful muscles in both extremities would appear to be almost idle masses of flesh, and truly idle offices have been assigned them, as turning out the limb a little, or inwards a little, or grasping bodies, for which the animal can have no occasion, steadying the body, &c, conclusions drawn from insulated views only, and such offices would be truly unimportant, if not wholly useless, in these animals: we leave these remarks however, for a more digested consideration; and now proceed to notice the numerous objects presented to us in the sectional exhibition of this interesting animal.

		Plate 4, figure 2, is showing how the body is supported by suspension between the two upright �olumns of the fore legs, by an arch formed by the approach of the shoulder blades, which in more weighty and therefore slower animals, are nearly perpendicular, and not so reclining backwards as in the horse. In order to record their dimensions, we may observe, these limbs were sketched by the actual admeasurement of the bones of the skeleton of the celebrated Eclipse horse, now in my possession, that a comparison might be made at any future period with this noted race horse. The skeleton, I may inform the reader, is a natural one, and the bones cleared from every thing but the ligaments of the joints which hold the bones together. These dimensions were taken by a flat two-foot rule placed parallel to or by the side of the limb, and the intersecting lines were drawn as nearly as possible through the middle of the openings of the joints. The girts also, or circumferential measures, were made with a piece of tape of about § of an inch wide. This figure on a larger scale, was done by Edwards after accurate admeasurements ; he mistook however in all his drawings the top of the horse's shoulder for the acromion, deceived probably by the name. In the first edition these drawings were mislaid and could not be found, and under the pressure of the moment, as good a figure as the wood engraver could give me was used instead; afterwards the original drawings being found, I had them reduced by a scale, and engraved.



	13 (■■ REFERENCES TO THE FIGURE.

The Head of the Horse, compared with most other quadrupeds, is remarkable for its length and dimensions, formed by an increased size of the cavities of the face, and by the extraordinary elongation and width of the jaws. The actual cavity containing the brain, not occupying more than perhaps a sixteenth or a twentieth part of the entire head, the rest being made up of cavities of thin bone; and there is no prominence or overhanging of the os frontis or its cells in the horse. The eye is sufficiently prominent on the side for him to see before, and also behind him, and quick, full, and globular, gives great animation to the countenance; and when under agreeable excitement, his dilated nostril, broad full lips, and capacious mouth, impart a peculiar vigour and strength of expression, and with a noble generosity of disposition to forgive injuries, that surpasses perhaps every other animal. Parts of the Head, Fig. 1.�The Septum, or longitudinal cartilaginous division of the nose, covered by the Schneiderian or olfactory membrane; it is the seat of catarrhs or colds, various farcy- gleets and ulcerations, and of the true glanders. The blood-vessels are seen ramifying on its surface, enlarged from inflammation and disease. The lower part of the Septum is perfectly white, the cartilage being destitute of its membranous covering abraded by the saw. 2. The Nasal Bones. 3. The Palatine Bones. 4. The Inter-Maxillary Bone holding the upper incisor teeth. 5. The Symphisis of the lower jaw early in life obliterated and forming the lower jaw into one bone. 6. The Tongue. 7. The white dense membrane covering the palate, the lower half of double thickness, forming transverse bars, and is the seat of the lampers, where it rests against and falls below the upper incisor teeth; beyond this the six grinder teeth at the farther side of the mouth are also visible. 8. The Os Frontis and its cavities. 9. The Parietal Bone. 10. The basillary process of the Occipital Bone. 11. The Sphenoidal Bone, forming with the occiput the basis of the skull. 12. The Ethmoidal and its cells. 13. The Cerebrum, or greater brain, with its alternate layers of medullary or white, and cineritious or darker matter. 14. The Cerebellum, or lesser brain, with its white arborescence or arbor vita, from which proceeds the spinal chord. 15. The Plexus Choroides, is the red near it; Corpus Callosum; and the white bulb near it, the Corpora Quadrigemina: all these parts may be best seen in a section as large as life, of the horse's head, done by G-. Kirtland about the year 1806, with the parts of the throat also in section. 16. Is a remarkable mucous gland lying behind an eminence of bone, called in the human Sella Turcica; it is called the Pineal gland, also the Crus Cerebri. Of the Fauces.�The nostril in quadrupeds generally terminates the face downwards, the mouth being situated behind it, and the lips are here performing the double office of lips and fingers, to which last in section these have a strong resemblance. 17. A capacious opening continued from the left nostril, and passing over the bones of the palate, is seen the chief organ for the admission of air to the lungs. 18. A remarkable convex valve, formed of cartilage, closing the opening of the Tuba Eustachiana or Eustachian Trumpet, or passage leading to the ear; for a particular description of this part, see Plate II of the Section of the head above referred to. 19. The Velum Palati, without a distinct Uvula in the horse. 20. The great cavity of the Fauces, leading into 21, the passage of the (Esophagus or Gullet, lined throughout with a thick white membrane or cuticle, loosely adhering to the canal or

		r





17 bone is the aorta or main blood-vessel from the heart, distributing the blood to all parts of the body; it is seen passing into the abdomen, where it is partially laid open, and above this opening another blood- vessel is visible, which is the vena cava, 54, or great vein, bringing back the surplus blood to the heart and lungs. Of the Abdomen. Lying against the diaphragm, making a noble appearance, is seen the Liver, being the left lobe of this viscus, 55. A smaller middle lobe is divided, exposing two or three orifices of blood-vessels, whose white coats strongly contrast with the general colour of the part 56. The liver of the horse is singularly circumstanced in having no cyst or gall bladder. The liver of the horse from very high feeding with oats and distressing work is subject to be destroyed, much in the same way as fermented liquors act upon the human liver; the disease so induced is called Farcy ;* too low and watery food, and exposure in damp cold ground, will also induce the same complaint, especially after high feed. Passing backwards in the order of their occurrence, we next observe The Stomach, 57, a, single pouch, but possessing within three or four different surfaces, approaching, though distantly, in structure to the stomachs of the ruminating animals. The stomach of the Horse and of others of his race or family, is made the singular habitation of the larvce or grub of three or four distinct kinds of Bots^ or Oestri, whose curious history and mode of propagation we have endeavoured formerly to unfold in an essay published in the third Volume of the Linnean Society's Transactions, and since in a separate treatise, with representations of them in all their states. The curvature of the stomach presented to the liver, is called the Small Arch by anatomists; and its exterior convexity opposite this, the Large Arch ; the entrance to the stomach by the gullet, 58, the Cardiac Orifice, its exit where the intestine has been removed, the Pylorus, 59. Behind the stomach, and of a bluish red colour, is seen the Spleen or Milt, 60, its usual companion, and perhaps serving some useful office in regulating the digestive process. We cannot forbear stating very briefly, that in an experiment made in the year 1792, in throwing in more fluid into the stomach of an ass than the animal was willing to drink, or than was necessary to digestion, and on introducing the hand through an incision made into the abdomen after some little time had elapsed for the digestion to be completed, this viscus appeared, on again introducing the hand, to have lost its flaccid feel, and to have become turgid, as though it had received the superfluous fluid; we mention it that it may be confirmed or otherwise by future observers in their researches respecting it. Immediately above the spleen is seen the Kidney, 61, receiving its artery from the Aorta, and the Ureter passing from it and going to be inserted in the side of the bladder, being enveloped by mem- branes, its view is somewhat indistinct. 62. Is the Bladder collapsed and corrugated, being nearly empty of urine. Above this and lying upon it, is the Vagina, 68, and the Uterus or Womb, 63, the latter very small in these animals, the foal being contained, not in the womb, but the Horns of the womb, 64. The horn of the other side is cut off, that it should not obscure other parts, 65. To the extremity of the left horn of the uterus, and lying upwards in the figure, is attached the Ovarium, 66, and near it the Fallopian Trumpet, 67, a membranous twisted funnel, which conveys the impregnated egg from the ovarium, where conception commences, into the horn of the uterus; arrived there and adhering to its internal coats, it becomes the Fcetus. "Within the Vagina is seen the opening of the

	* From farcio, to cram, the legs being swollen throughout like a stuffed pudding. t We conjecture from the French, bout, the end, from their appearing at the extremity of the rectum. D

		' *



			#

		18 Urethra, 68, and the Clitoris, 69, projecting backwards, whicli in these animals gives it the appearance of being inverted in respect to its position in the opening of the human Vagina; but which is explained when the prone position of the animal is fully considered. Above the Vagina appears the Rectum or Arse-gut; the other intestines being necessarily removed to afford a clearer view of the different organs of the abdominal cavity; a. is a piece of the sacculated part of the Rectum; the balls of dung appear to receive their form and become hardened in these pouches ; b. is a terminating sac to the intestines, a receptacle of the dung, and appears to consist externally of longitudinal fibre\|, having internally a loosely adhering coat, flaccid, wrinkled and red, covered with a thick slimy mucus; the longitudinal fibres of the external sac being muscular, and contracting from the stimulus of the accumulation of the dung balls, and shortening thereby, protrudes the inner loose pouch with all its contents outwards, and forms it into numerous circular folds, which on account of their appearance and colour, have been sometimes called the Rose ; the longitudinal fibres of the external sac ceasing to act, and the abdominal muscles relaxing, it is by the weight and descent of the intestines again drawn within the abdomen: c. is the Sphincter Ani, or Circular Muscle closing the rectum externally. We now trace the lower outline of the figure. 70. Is the Symphisis of the Pubis, or place of union of the two bones composing it: this part is formed of an extraordinary depth or width in these animals, affording ample surface for the attachment of the muscles of progression. 71. The Parietes, or Coverings of the Abdomen, internally lined with a fine membrane called Peritoneum, which is extended over all the viscera, and partakes very frequently of their disorders. The lowermost edge of the boundary line of the abdomen below this, is termed by anatomists the Linea Alba, g. being a white line formed by the concurrence in the middle of the abdomen, of the tendons of its various muscles. Here the cavity of the abdomen is contracted and drawn up, from the weight of the intestines being removed. 72. Is the udder of the mare. The rudiments of the Mamma, or Teats, which are found with the males of most quadrupeds, were discovered by Daubenton in the horse in the prepuce, or sheath of the penis (See Buffon's Natural History); and afterwards Hunter made the same remark. 73, 74. The Sterno-Mastoideus Muscle. 75. The Sterno- Thyroideus. Of the Limbs.�The division being made nearly through the middle of the horse's body, does not interfere with or affect the limbs, but exposes very advantageously their inner sides; and that the plate might be rendered as extensively useful as it could be, we stript the limbs of their skin, and several tendinous envelopements and the exterior muscles are brought into view for representation. In the Fore Extremity is seen the lower part of the Brachio- Cervical Muscle, 76, passing down from the neck to the middle of the arm, extending and carrying the limb forwards very powerfully by the distance of its application from the centre of motion in the joint above; and extensive in its action on account of its length, occupying nearly the whole line of the neck; the use the horse makes of his neck is often seen in the gallop, especially if a little fatigued, but which by the absurd use of the bearing rein, is often rendered useless; it forms with the Pectoral Muscle, 77, a strong aponeurosis, extending over all the muscles and tendons of the upper parts of the limb, bracing them and forming a strong aponeurotic cord or tendon inside the fore arm. 78. The Olecranon, Ulna, or Elbow. 79, The Flexor Magnus Carpi, rising from the Humerus, or Arm-Bone, and terminating on the Post-Carpal Bone, which bone forms the bold angular prominence posteriorly in the outline of the back of the knee. 80. Flexor Mesocynii Internus, or Internal Flexor of the Shank, terminating on the internal prominence of the head of the shank bone. 81. The Radius, or bone of the fore arm, mistaken generally for the arm of the horse,



			«i

		19 which is above it, short and concealed by its fleshy muscles. 82, 83. Extensor Mesocynii, and Extensor Pedis, extensors or straighteners of the limb after flexion, and carrying the body forwards to it fixed on the ground, one tendon passes to the shank; the other to the foot.�For a more particular descrip- tion of these muscles, see Rees's Cyclopasdia, article Anatomy Veterinary. Of the Hind Extremity.�84. The Tensorius, or Fascia lata muscle, whose tendinous expansion, or aponeurosis, embraces nearly all the muscles of the limb; it is advantageously situated for carrying the limb forwards. 85. The Vastus Anterior, which with its neighbour and congener the Vastus Internus, 86, and the Vastus Externus, on the opposite side, are all contributing to one effect, being strongly inserted in the Patella or Knee-Cap, 87, which part is the real knee of the horse, but termed with us the Stifle, perhaps on account of the hollow pit or indent and rising skin about and surrounding it: the shortness of the thigh of the horse and its thick fleshy muscles almost conceals it from observa- tion, it scarcely extending beyond the parietes, or line of the abdomen. The tibia at this joint is provided with a remarkable cushion of cartilage for the condyles of the thigh to work upon or act against. 88. A very broad flat fasciculated muscle {Adductor Complanatus), powerfully acting in conjunction with the abductors on the other side of the limb in supporting the upper part of the tibia, and in forcing the body forwards upon the limb when it is fixed on the ground; passing through a slit or division of this muscle, is seen a large vein, 89, usually termed with vis the Plate Vein, perhaps from the French Plat Veine; though according to Daubenton in Buffon's Natural History, what the French call the Plat Veine, is situated on the inside of the fore extremity, lodged in the hollow or channel on the inside of the radius, or fore arm; the misapplication of names in common use in this art, is not unfrequent with illiterate shoeing smiths as may be expected, the greater share being French, and which appear to have been derived from the Low Countries, or our Norman ancestors. 90. Is the Sacro Tibialis Internus Muscle, powerfully acting in connexion with its opposed muscle on the opposite side, viz. Sacro Tibialis Externus, in propelling the body from the limb made fixed on the ground. 91. The Sacro Tibialis Posticus, a congener in its effects with the two former. 92. The Leg Bone, or Tibia, which with the muscles disposed about it, has been sometimes with us called the Gambril, which appears to be a useful distinction, separating it from the other parts of the limb, is perhaps derived from the French Jambe, and is the Jambril, or Lesser or Shorter Leg, and not inaptly applied when compared with the larger upper parts of the limb: it is this part which is commonly mistaken for the thigh of the horse, whose shortness and concealment we have noticed before. 93. The Poplitalis Muscle, much the same as in the human. 94. The Perforans Minor, or Auxiliary Perforans, combining in the horse the properties of the Tibialis Posticus, and Flexor Longus Pollicis Pedis, of the human anatomy. 95, The Gastrocnemius Muscle, forming the calf of the leg in the human anatomy; its very stout tendon is inserted into the point of the Os Calcis, or Hock, 96, which part though placed so much above the ground, is correspond- ing to the human heel; and this tendon, in allusion to the ancient tale of Achilles being dipped by the heel in the river Styx, has been called the Tendo Achilles, 97. It has appeared to us to be the lower or second point of insertion of this tendon and its coadjutory ligaments that causes the disease called Curb, when strained and over exerted by the power which the Os Calcis has upon the parts below. 98. The Perforatus Muscle, taking its rise in the hollow pit or fossa on the outside of the thigh bone, at the back of the tibia, forming a tendon, which becoming flat and wide, covers over and strongly embraces the above insertion of the tendo Achilles at the point of the hock, and assisting it also by taking attachment to the side of the Os Calcis; below the hock, becoming a simple cord again, it passes through a restraining ligament, and arriving at the back of the fetlock joint, again dilating, it forms anteriorly a smooth