







5,»*

TER VERKRIJGING VAN DEN GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE
LETTEREN EN WIJSBEGEERTE AAN DE RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT
TE UTRECHT, OP GEZAG VAN DEN RECTOR-MAGNIFICUS
DR H. BOLKESTEIN, HOOGLEERAAR IN DE FACULTEIT DER
LETTEREN EN WIJSBEGEERTE, VOLGENS BESLUIT VAN
DEN SENAAT DER UNIVERSITEIT IN HET OPENBAAR TE
VERDEDIGEN OP DONDERDAG 7 MAART DES NAMIDDAGS

Bij de beeindiging mijner academische studie is het mij een voorrecht hier getuigenis
te mogen afleggen van mijn dankbaarheid ten opzichte van hen, wier onderwijs ik
mocht ontvangen.

Teruggaande tot het begin mijner studie moge ik hier U, Hoogedelgestrenge Sciiaank
en U, Weledelzeergeleerde Thung Tjeng Hiang mijn gemeenden dank brengen voor de
bereidwilligheid, waarmede Gij beiden mijn eerste schreden bij de studie van het Chineesch
leiding gaaft.

In het bijzonder dank ik hier U, Hooggeleerde Uhlenbeck, voor alles wat Gij voor
mijne wetenschappelijke vorming hebt willen doen. Uw bezield onderwijs in het Sanskrit
zal mij voor altijd de Indische cultuur doen liefhebben. Dat Gij mij ook de beginselen van
het Russisch leerdet, en mij een inzicht gaaft in het Blackfoot en de Amerikanistiek in
het algemeen, heeft mijn horizon zeer verruimd, en zal mij ook bij mijn verdere weten-
schappelijk werk tot nut strekken. Nooit deed ik vergeefs een beroep op Uw veelzijdig
weten. Daarnaast heeft de vaderlijke vriendschap, waarmede Gij mij hebt vereerd, en de
gastvrijheid, welke ik van U en Uwe Echtgenoote mocht ontvangen, mij het verheven
begrip doen kennen, dat het Indische woord Guru in zich sluit.

Van mijne leermeesters aan de Leidsche Universiteit ben ik aan U, Hooggeleerde
Rahder, in meer dan één opzicht dankbaarheid verschuldigd. Niet alleen waart Gij mijn
leidsman bij de studie van het Japansch, maar ook gundet Gij mij het vrij gebruik Uwer
unieke Buddhologische boekerij. Zonder deze welwillendheid Uwerzijds ware het mij niet
mogelijk geweest het materiaal voor dit proefschrift te verzamelen. Ten slotte verleendet
Gij mij hulp bij mijne Tibetaansche lectuur, en mocht ik U steeds tot het geven van
inlichtingen bereid vinden.

Hooggeleerde van Ronkel! Gij hebt mij door Uw onderwijs in het Maleisch, en vooral
ook door de vriendelijke belangstelling welke Gij steeds voor mijne studie in het algemeen
hebt willen toonen, blijvend aan U verplicht.

Het past mij hier tevens U, Hooggeleerde Duyvbndak, te danken voor Uwe Chineesche
college's en het gebruik van het Sinologisch Instituut.

'Hooggeleerde FERGUSOij, zeer geachte Promotor! Uw geestdrift voor de studie van het
Chineesch en Uw uitnemend onderwijs deden mij U naar Utrecht volgen. Ik dank U ten

zeerste voor de vele tijd en moeite, die Gij aan mijn Chineesche studie in het algemeen
en aan dit proefschrift in het bijzonder hebt willen wijden. Vooral het geduld waarmede
Gij mijne vertalingen met de Chineesche texten hebt willen vergelijken, is mijn werk zeer
ten goede gekomen.

Ook U, Hooggeleerde Westba dank ik oprecht voor den tijd dien Gij ondanks Uwe
drukke werkzaamheden aan het Japansche deel van mijn studie hebt willen besteden.
Uw breede kennis is mij in meer dan één opzicht ten goede gekomen.

Ik moge hier ook mijn dank betuigen aan U, Hooggeleerde Gonda, voor het volgen
Uwer Sanskrit college's en voor de bereidwilligheid waarmede Gij mij steeds inlichtingen
verstrektet.

Ten slotte Mevrouw Persse de Josselin de Jong, vermeld ik hier dankbaar Uw vriendelijke
hulp bij het opstellen van den Engelschen text van dit proefschrift.

Een woord van dank aan de dames en heeren verbonden aan de Leidsche Universiteits-
bibliotheek mag hier niet ontbreken: ik werd door hen steeds met de grootste voor-
komendheid behandeld.

I avail myself of this opportunity to tender my best thanks to Dr. B. Bhattacharyya,
Director of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, for the valuable information he was kind
enough to send me.

I feel much indebted to Dr. A. Fonahn at Oslo, who kindly sent me photographs of
parts of the Tibetan Canon; to Dr. H. N. Handle of the India Office, London, who had some
photographs made of Indian palmleaf-manuscripts ; and to Mile M. Lalou, of the Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris, who was good enough to send me some Tibetan sSdhana's.

Buk. Bukkyodaijiten, Great Lexicon of the Buddhist Religion by OdaTokunö, Tokyo 1917.
Chin. Chinese.

progressive evolution through the northern Buddhist countries, Oxford 1928.
Grünwedel. — Grünwedel, Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei, Leipzig 1900.
Har. Harivariîça, ed. by N. Siromani, Ramagovinda and R. N. Pancharan, Calcutta 1839.
Him. Himitsujirin, Lexicon of Buddhist Esoterism, by Tomita Kojun, Tokyo 1911.
Hob. Hobogirin, Dictionnaire encyclopédique du Bouddhisme d'après les sources chinoises

et japonaises, Redacteur en chef P. Demieville. Tokyo 1929.
Hob. F. A. — Höbögirin, fascicule annexe (indices).

Kokushi. — Kokushidaijiten, Dictionary of Japanese History, by K. Yoshino and J. Hayakawa,

Mik. Mikkyödaijiten, Great Encyclopaedia of Buddhist Esoterism, Kyoto 1932.
mtr. mantra.

Sädh; Sadhanamülä, edited by B. Bhattacharyya, Gaekwad Oriental Series, No. XXVL
Tib. Tibetan

Ts. Taisho Issaikyo, the latest Japanese edition of the Buddhist Canon in Chinese,
used in Japan, edited by J. Takakusu and K. Watanabe, Tokyo 1924—29. As
this edition gives an quot;apparatus criticusquot;, and moreover is carefully inventoried in
Hob., all numbers of texts and pages refer to this edition. In this edition each
page is divided into three sections, which I have indicated by the letters
a, b and c.

Ts. P. S. — The Tripitaka in Chinese, Picture Section. Ed. by J. Takakusu and G. Ono. As
the pictures are not consecutively numbered, one is requested, when in doubt,
to consult the Index-part.

For the romanization of Chinese characters the usual English method has been followed.
For Sanskrit the most widely used scientific system has been adopted, sa standing
for Q- and ga for tt.

To save space the Sanskrit and Tibetan verses have not been printed on separate lines.
For the transcription of Japanese I have adopted (following Hobogirin) the system
used by Inouye in his quot;Comprehensive Japanese-English Dictionaryquot;, Tokyo 1920.

Nï7iclasi yajnaviel]ler ahaha çrutijUtai'n
Sadayahrdmjadarçitapaçuglûitam
Keçava dhrtabiuUUiarar'ira
Jaija jagadlça hare

In his endeavour to approach a higher, unknown and unknowable Power, mankind
has found in the Idol and in the Word the two most significant symbols. The Idol is the
outcome of a definite choice out of the various phenomena of the visual world; in this
chosen image a specific aspect of the mysterious Power is considered to be embodied. The
Word, on the other hand, is a special but involuntary combination of a few of the many
sounds to be distinguished by the ear, which combination then implies a special meaning.

As forms of expression of a higher Power, the Idol and the Word are therefore
identical. Religious feeling has always sensed this identity, both in its philosophical aspect,
which finds its expression in a combination like Logos and Thcos, and in its magical
aspect, to which in India a special branch of Northern Buddhism has been devoted.

Perhaps this similarity between Idols and Words is the cause of both having been
subjected to vicissitudes so variegated and incalculable, that it will in most cases prove
to be impossible, given the form and meaning which we now find inherent to either of
them, to arrive at a complete semantic reconstruction of the world of thought which was
embodied in an Idol or in a Word. Suppose, for instance, that a word is taken over
from one language into another and that the meaning, the conception it conveys, or, in
short, the whole world of thought which it connotes, has been entirely altered through
misapprehension or local adaptation. If then in the course of time the word should be
found to be in use in both languages, it will bo generally possible to state for a fact which
language has been the borrower; but a very scholarly and painstaking research would bo
required for the reconstruction of the semantic history which is attached to this fact.
This is only an example of a very simple case; generally the problem is much more
complicated.

At least as complicated is the semantic research concerning an Idol. In Unguistics
one can at least count on relatively concrete data, such as, for instance, texts from
different periods in which a word occurs in various connections. But in the search after
the history of the conceptions which are symbolized by an Idol, even comparative data

aftbrd insufficient support. One must pick a way through a labyrinth of subtle associations
and conjectured tendencies, in which cause and effect can hardly be distinguished, since
everything here is born of the subconscious, which stands quite outside the ordinary pale
of intellect and logic. The number of possibilities obtaining here is stupendous. Suppose
for instance that in a certain culture-area an Idol is met with, which in different periods
is connected with diametrically opposite conceptions. In such a case it may bo proved
that one has to deal with a quaint evolution of one and the same idea, which evolution
may then have been caused by cultural or sociological factors, as when a nomadic people
would take to agriculture, etc. But it could also be, that such a thorough divergence in
the conception attached to an Idol might be ascribed to the fact that through various
circumstances this Idol became the embodiment of two originally quite different ideas: in
the first place the idea with which the imago was originally connected in a certain
culture-area, and secondly the underlying thought of another god in quite another culture-
area, at some later date introduced in the former area through political agencies, such as
for instance enemy invasion. Owing to the fact that the native Idol happened to bear a
name more or less similar m sound perhaps, or more or less resembled the intruding Idol
in appearance, it was apt to be looked upon as the same in character and function, and
after some time even to be quite supplanted by the new Idol. And here again we have
stated only two of a long series of possibilities.

From the above it follows that it is impossible to embrace the nature of an Idol
entirely in a single definition. quot;We can not say, for instance: quot;X. is a God of Thunderquot;,
but at the most we can say quot;in such and such a time and place, X. was looked upon
as a God of Thunderquot;. This applies equally to the religions of a highly cultured people
as to the religions of peoples of a more archaic order; even more so to the first-named,
where there exists a stronger tendency towards limitation and definition, with a consequent
loss of minor deviations or special traits, which might have been of much aid to the
investigator in the course of his research.

In commencing my study on the MantraySnic aspect of the god Hayagrlva it
seemed incumbent upon me to make the above express reservation.

The Man tray an a is one of the many later forms of development of northern
Buddhism, which are usually indicated by the name Tantrism. It appears to me, however,
better not to use the word Tantrism in this study; for since nobody knows exactly what
it means, it is apt to cause much confusion. Most modern scholars therefore never use
the word without adding an observation as to its vague meaning. Some late-Qivaist works,

in which the worshipping of the female energy of the god was brought into strong
prominence, bore the very general name of Tantra, a word which by itself does not
mean more than a theoretical, scientific work (or a chapter thereof), a collection of
instructions or rules (cf. for instance Ka-tantra, PaFica-tantra etc.). From this word the
term Tantrism was deduced, which at the same time came to be applied to qaktic
tendencies in later Buddhism, and soon afterwards was used in Buddhology and elsewhere
to denote anything relating to religious erotics or black magic. For a long time it remained
a danger signal marking off an uncouth territory to all decent people. In reality the word
is thus a remnant from the initial stages of Mahayanic studies in the West, when only
very little was known of the later forms of development of Buddhism. Even now the
field which has been opened out by the assiduous application of some devoted investigators')
remains but small against the vast regions which are still unexplored. But we have in
any case proceeded so far that behind the tract of land marked off by the inscription
quot;Tantrismquot; we know of vast regions which are distinguished from each other by very
marked features. Hence the word Tantrism, which used to denote an unknown entity for
the want of better, might now well be dropped out of Indology entirely; for what was
supposed to be an entity is now proved to consist of a great many very heterogeneous
parts which can no longer be joined into one conception without falling into errors of
undue generalization or giving rise to confusion. On the other hand each of the component
parts may be denoted by its own usually very expressive name, e.g. Qaiva-siddhanta,
Vajrayana, etc.; and in case ono should wish to characterise in general terms the later
forms of development of Hinduism and Buddhism together, one might use expressions
like syncretic-magical, or some term to the same effect. In how far the word Tantrism
might bo maintained in ethnology in its arbitrary meaning of the religious-erotic is a
question which would have to be considered as a matter standing by itself.

Of those many later forms of development of the Mah ay an a we shall here only
give our particular attention to the Man tray an a, for it is in this system that the god
Hayagrlva has figured to a predominating extent, especially outside of India.

Mantra means magic incantation or formula and as such has been defined as
quot;power in the form of soundquot; 2). Yana (litt. vehicle) is a means of crossing the sea of
rebirths and attaining to Salvation; it is the usual term employed to denote a certain

1)nbsp;Bhattacharyya, de la Vallée Poussin quot;Avalonquot; (Sir John Woouiioffe) and others.

trend of Buddhism. Hence Man tray an a is the method through which one can reach
Salvation by muttering certain words and phrases. The roots of this curious system may
be traced back to very old, probably even pre-Indo-Aryan days. The belief in the power
of the magic formulae plainly evinces itself in many cantos of the Atharva-veda such
as the abhicarikiini, curses and incantations against demons, sorcerers and enemies
generally '). This belief seems to be particularly rooted in the propensity towards magic
existing among the ancient aboriginal tribes of India. Many of these ancient conceptions
were adopted by the Indo-Aryan conquerors and made an integrant part of their own
conceptions. In different parts of India, however, situated outside the centra of Indo-Aryan
culture, where the aboriginal population was better able to preserve its own character,
the native usages of magic and witchcraft maintained themselves in a form more closely
resembling the pristine.

When now in the S-i to 8th century A.D. the Mahay an a extended itself over these
tracts as well, conquering all foreign elements by the simple process of absorbing them,
we find it also incorporating amongst others these early conceptions in magic. Probably
for a great part also as a reaction against the many involved philosophical systems, cast
in an entirely Indo-Aryan mould, which at that time held great sway, these magical
conceptions came to fill an important part; so much so, that they wore soon adopted and
assimilated into the Indo-Aryan system. On strength of this we now find this magic lore
acquiring, more Indico, next to its secular aspect of procuring all sorts of material
advantages through immaterial means, also a hieratic aspect in the shape of a well-defined
philosophical system, the Mantrayiina.

This method of Salvation rests on the theory that man even in his earthly body
which is built up out of the five elements, can reach Buddhahood, and therefore every
human being in this life is potentially a Buddha. For the attainment of this state, which
means Salvation, it is not necessary to subject oneself to a strenuous discipline carried
on through many existences; the reciting of a certain formula, accompanied by the
corresponding posture of the hands is sufficient. Here we thus find the word restored to
its ancient, holy function, the form of expression par excellence of the all-highest Power.

As such it stands on a foot of equality with the Idol, or even above it, for though
these images may bring Salvation to the supplicant, they must first bo worshipped
according to special and extremely involved rites, of which prayer and incantation again

form an integral part. The mantra, on the other hand, is the short cut leading directly
to the goal. This omnipotence of the word finds expression in manifold ways. The image
of a god, for instance, is only held to be animated with its mystic life after some mantra's,
written on a piece of paper or on a wooden tablet, have been placed inside it. In Tibet
the cavity in which these mantra's are placed is accordingly called quot;mantra-placequot; '). Care
is also taken to write votive formulae on the reverse of paintings of gods and saints at
the spots corresponding to their vital parts.

The consequence of this great power of the word is that in the Man tray an a the
Gods, which under the influence of their identification with local deities often came to be
looked upon in a very material and therefore individual way, now resumed their higher,
abstract signification, and returned to their original value as symbols. In the Great Magic
Circle of the Mantrayana this idea is given plastic form by representing all Idols taken
up therein as emanations from the central figure Vairocana, whose mystic germ consists
of the sound a, the mother of all sounds according to the most ancient conceptions.

Finally I should like to add a few words on the iconographic history of the Mantrayana.
At the time of the rise of the Mahilyana the quot;three worldsquot; were already peopled with
hosts of gods and godlings. The origin of this apparent multiplicity must be looked for in
the fact that the entire Indian philosophy of life is based on the conviction that the all-
highest Power is present equally in all things. This conviction has been very pithily
expressed in the well-known formula tat tvam a si, quot;that art thouquot;. The belief in this
all-pervading life gave to its votaries a remarkable power of abstraction on one side and
of personification on the other. quot;There is no limit to a pantheon where hope, hell and
hunger, cows and corn, the west and wisdom, etc., are all called godsquot; In its deeper
sense this is a consequence of not recognising any distinction between mind and matter.
Mind is the only reality, outside of which nothing can exist. In the stylistic figures of
Sanskrit we find this thought clearly reflected. Thus for instance one would say of a sword
that it is as hard as the heart of a cruel man. Wo occidentals always reverse the order
and use the concrete first to illustrate the abstract. As a typical example might be quoted
the lines in Kalidasa's drama VikramorvaQi, where in the fifth act the Chamberlain
says to the King, whose arrow had transfixed a bird which had stolen a jewel from him:
quot;This bird has been killed by thy anger, which has turned into an arrowquot; {rof^ena te

mnrganatah galena). From this passage one sees clearly that to the Indian mind no definite
boundary exists between mind and matter. As usual, delicate psychic shades find here also
a faithful mirror in the language.

Although in the different yana's of Northern Buddhism the philosophical background
of the world of the gods is often formulated in a different manner, yet all these conceptions
ultimately rest on the above described principle of the all-pervading life. Hence MahaySna
could so easily absorb gods from other systems. Thus it has taken over, with or without
adaptations, most of the gods in the Hindu pantheon into its own system, where their
ranks go to increase the multitude of special Buddhist Saints and Gods. It also adopted
many local gods and probably even figures from foreign (the Near-East) systems. Thus the
Mahayana with its various schools could develop into a remarkable synthesis of elements
culled from the most widely different sources. Now in the Mantrayana these almost
unlimited numbers have been arranged somewhat more systematically. Besides being
classed under families {kula) they are now also combined into the different categories
formed by the mystic worlds {dhatu), fixed groups which are graphically represented in
the Circles of Meditation (mandala). These are, as it were, esoteric plans where every god,
every satellite, occupies his own special place. But through this very endeavour to
systematize new gods are born for whose origin it is now no longer necessary to search
for deep-seated causes. Thus some new god, with his specific, minutely described attributes
and his own magic formula, may come into being merely in order to occupy the fourth
corner of an altar, to make an odd number oven, to complete the scheme of colours, to
bring symmetry to two groups, etc. etc. And all these countless gods may mate with
their female counterparts to give birth to again new generations of gods.

Supposing now that a study has to be made of the real significance and nature of a
certain figure out of this stupendous pantheon in China one will have to take into
account all the different sources which may have contributed to the long history of its
development. In the first place it will be necessary to make sure whether one has to do
with an Indian god imported with the Mantrayana, or with a native god from China
which has been incorporated locally into the Mantrayana, or Mahayana in general. Should
the first supposition prove to be the correct one, it is necessary to find out whether the
god in question was originally a Hindu god, or belonged to Buddhism. In the first case
one should find out in how far the significance of the god has been altered by its transfer
to Buddhism. This is an important point, for some Hindu gods have been entirely degraded,
while others experienced material promotions, and others again remained pretty well on

the same level '). Should, on the other hand, the ligure prove to be an original Buddhist
god, it will be necessary, in case the origin cannot be traced directly (as, for instance, in
the many cases in which the god is a personification of a philosophic conception), to trace
its history as far back as possible. This will often bring one on to tracks leading to
territories situated outside the Indo-Aryan culture-area.

Having thus traced the figure, also from an iconographie point of view, down to its
original Indian shape, one will have to return to China again in order to compare the
significance and external shape of the figure in China with the result of the foregoing
study, in order to establish the changes in the figure which took place during the transfer.
To be able to do so we have first to make sure whether perhaps a similar figure was
already in existence in China and in how far this figure may have influenced the Buddhist
conception or may have been merged into it. This is a complicated question. By itself a
phantastically extended system, the Mantrayâna has always, wherever it came, drawn
freely from native sources. Only by this show of liberality could it gain a footing in a
country like China, where tradition stood so firm. Through this far-reaching process of
blending, the Chinese Mantrayâna has grown into an edifice which presents a perplexing
aspect to the student who wishes to analyse it in its component parts. And equally
perplexing as the religious system is the art which was inspired by it, as evinced in the
ornamentation of the walls of Mantrayanic temples and monuments in China. It is a
puzzling, but therefore none the less picturesque beauty, which in its bold mingling of

1) As to the attitude of tlu; Buddhist sects generally towards the gods of the Ilindu-pantheon,
15. T5h\ttaciiauyya says: quot;The attitude of the Buddhist priests towards Hindu religion and its gods and
goddesses was entirely unfavourable, if not antagonistic. They were not only iiostilc to the Hindu gods,
but their hostility proves further that they had a great hatred towards the members of other religions

also____quot; (in: An Introduction to Buddiiist Esoterism, Oxford 1932, p. 116; his point of view can be found

more fully discussed in his edition of the S.^diianamillii, II, p. CXXX). Amongst others he cites as examples
that many Buddhist gods hold up a head of Brahma, or crush Ganefa underfoot. A. K. Coomaraswamy
protested against this in the Journal of tlie American Oriental Society, vol. 40, p. 188, and gives quite a
different interpretation of the two cases cited above. Trutli probably is equally divided between the two.
It can not be denied that Buddhists often jjicturcd the Hindu gods in word or image in a humiliating or
derogatory way. But on the other hand one often finds the same gods represented by them in their full
dignity. Tlius on Tibetan pictures one often sees Ganeja crushed by a Maliilyanistic god; but the same
Ganeca is seen entiironed witli all his usual attributes on Tibetan bronze lamps. Hence it is evidently a
case of an incidental symptom, viz. local or sectarian spasms of Hindu-phobia on one side, where Buddhism
wanted to emphasize its own character, alternating on the other hand with more conciliatory frames of
mind. The farther one is removed from the hearth of Hindu-culture, the more one finds the latter attitude
prevailing.

the most widely divergent plastic elements, its quaint combinations of the enticing and
the terrible, puts all description to shame.

In Japan the Mantrayâna was finally brought into the most systematic form and
rounded off into a self-contained system, which constituted the tenets of the Shingon-sect.
But again one has to take into very good account the original Japanese ShintO-elements,
which here also have made their influence felt to a considerable extent.

Finally we must not exclude Tibet from our explorations either, as in the Tibetan
Canon rich material has been preserved, which besides amplifying and completing the
Indian data, presents in itself an enthralling field of research. Moreover, through the ages
there has been a rich interchange of cultural data between that country and China, so
that a study of Lamaism is indispensable for a right understanding of Chinese Buddhist
art and letters.

Although in this study of the god Hayagrlva I have taken China as a starting-point,
it appeared to me logically and historically more correct to pretace the chapter on China
by a review of this deity in India, after which I have furthermore taken a rapid glance
at the Tibetan data. For the sake of completeness I had to add a few remarks on the
occurrence of images of Hayagrlva found in Further-India and in Java.

I have tried to view this figure in as broad a light as possible, and attempted to
fathom its semantic history. It goes without saying, however, that the material I could
utilize for my study of this subject was insufficient to ensure a complete success of the
endeavour, which in the first place would have necessitated a lengthy search for more
realia in Indian and Chinese libraries. When these materials could have been brought
together, and when on the base of these, the many general problems connected with the
history of the Mantrayâna could have been elucidated, then only one might hope to be
able to make a thorough study of Hayagrlva and many other deities, whose semantic
history finely illustrates the development of religious thought in all countries where
Northern Buddhism was introduced. This paper can not be more than a preliminary review
of the territory to be explored, only suggesting some clues that might be followed up.
I would, however, consider my effort richly recompensed if it should appear that through
this study of mine of tlie sources here available, I have at least been able to smooth the
way for further research.

In the old Indogermanic conceptions the horse has taken an important place. It was
regarded as being most closely connected with the sun, and as such must have played
a large part in all fertility and fecundity rites. These facts are evident in greatly varying
sources. In the Nordic bronze-culture the horse appears about 1000 B.C., represented as
pulling along the disc of the sun ')• This representation is under the influence of Southern
Europe, even though the idea itself was undoubtedly immediately taken to the North by
the Indogermanizing conquerors. The same conquerors have introduced the cult of the
sun and the sun-steed into all the territories occupied by them

Therefore it goes without saying that among the Indo-aryan conquerors who invaded
the fruitful Land of the Seven Rivers about 2000 B.C., the horse stood in high esteem.
The material which is at our disposal in the Veda's is indeed too heterogeneous to allow
one to form a sharply outlined definition of the significance of the horse in the Vedic
period. For all that it is apparent from more than one passage in the Veda's that the
horse was brought into relation with the sun. A special horse-god is lacking to be sure,
but air horses mentioned by name appear to be more or less identified with the sun. The
most speaking example is the steed Dadhikra (Dadhikravan) which is sung of in
several hymns of the Rg-veda (IV, 38:2, 3, 5, 10; 40:2, 3; VII, 44:4). From these and
other passages (Rg-veda, I, 163:2; VII, 77:3) it will be clear that the horse was
especially connected with the sun 3).

1)nbsp;Cf. Soi'iius MOi.lkr, Urgcschiclite Europas, Strassburg 1905, p. HG, especially the picture.

2)nbsp;It is not necessary to dwell at length upon the facts relative to this subject. In the standard
works on arciiaeology and prehistory one may find all tlie material collected. Cf. i. a., E. Wahle, Deutsche
Vorzeit, Leipzig 1932, index s.v. Tfenl; II. Günteut, Der Ursprung der Germanen, Heidelberg 19.34, p. 49 sq.
For the horse-sacrifice cf. K. F. Johansson, Ucber die alt-indische Göttin Dliisana und Verwandtes, Uppsala
1917, p. 108 sq.; W. Koppers, Die Religion der Indogermanen in ihren kulturhistorischen Beziehungen,
Antliropos XXIV (1929), p. 1073 sq, and especially p. 1077 sq.

3)nbsp;Cf. also Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, 1897, p. 149—150 ; Jarl Charpentier, Die Suparnasage, Unter-
suchungen zui- altindischen Literatur- und Sagengeschichte, Uppsala 1922, especially p. 323, where Tärksya
is discussed.

In how far one could speak of a definite identification is difficult to say. The
language of the Vedic bards rose too quickly to daring poetical comparisons and ecstatic
identifications to enable one to draw any conclusive arguments from it. The later Indians,
however, (and this is most important for our subject) understood these passages in a
literal sense, and considered the divine horse as the sun. By degrees the signification ot
the horse as symbol of the sun and the idea of fruitfulness became more extensive. Its
significance as a fertility and fecundity symbol culminated in the great horse-sacrifice,
the Aqvamedha') (which in its origin goes back to Ur-Indogermanic fertility-rites; cf.
note on page 9).

It is in the epic period that one first finds the word Hayagrlva. It is connected
with various ideas, which I shall deal with separately.

The most prominent is the word Hayagrlva as epitheton of Visnu. After the
above considerations regarding a general conception of the connection between sun and
steed, the existence of this relation need not astonish us. Visnu indeed is in the Vedic
period probably, and later on surely, the sun itself. From the variants AQvaqlr.sa,
HayaQirsa, Aqvamukha, Vadavamukha appears that in this case Hayagrlva ought
to be translated as the quot;Horse-headed Onequot;.

Visnu with the horse's head is the reader and the promulgator of the sacred Veda's.
In Mahabhilrata V, 99, 5 2) Narada describes the town Patala, which lies in the middle
of the world of the snakes {mga). He then says: quot;Here on every auspicious occasion the
Horse-headed-one, the aditya, rises and fills the woiid that is called Suvarna, with Vedic
hymnsquot; {atradityo luiyagirali kale parvaui parvaniliMistliati siivariiUkhyaih vagbliir TtpurayaTi
jagal). And in Mah. XII, 127, where the name Hayaglrsa is alternated with Aqvagiras,
an Rsi tells about a beautiful region called Badarl, the abode of Nara and Narayana:
quot;where, o King, Agvagiras reads the eternal Veda'squot; (yatra cuQva^ira rajan vedrm patUati
^agvatUn). In this rubric one must also classify the identification of Visnu with the horse
Uccail.iQravas in Mah. VI, 34, 27, where Visnu praises himself in the presence of
Arjuna with the words: quot;Know me as Uccaihqravas among horses, born of nectar, as
AirSvata among the best of elephants, and the King among menquot; {uccaihgravasam agvanum
viddhi mrtm mirtodbliavaihjaimvatam gajendiWiam naranam ca naradhipam). The word
UccaihQravas is namely interpreted as quot;the loudly-roaring onequot;. Thus one may form a

1)nbsp;Cf. P. E. Dumont, L'Açvamcdha, description du sacrifice solennel du cheval dans le culte védique,
d'après les textes du Yajurveda blanc, Paris 1927.

connection between tlie promulgation of the Veda's and this name. But perhaps one ought
also to remember another association, namely that of the foaming sea, and then see
Visnu as quot;the sun-horse, rising from the oceanquot; '), although this view appears to me to
be less probable. This horse Uccaihqravas, the white horse of Indra, is counted among the
•Seven Treasures (sapta-ratnani) of a World-dominating King (cakravartm). The epitheton
amrtodbhava refers to its being produced at the churning of the Ocean. In the next
chapter we shall see how in Northern Buddhism this idea was further developed.

Another aspect of the horse's head also takes us to the sea: besides being a sweet-voiced
singer it is also a fire-spitting swallo we r. In Mah. XII, 340 Visnu appears before
the ascetic Narada and says: quot;In the shape of the Horse-headed-one in the north-western
ocean I drink good offerings to the gods and oblations to the Manes brought with devotionquot;
{ahaih hayagr'ivo hhutva samudre pagcimottare / pibami suhutam liavyam kavyah ca graddha-
yanvitam). A more detailed description is given in Mah. XII, 342, 60: quot;Formerly Narayana
was for the benefit of mankind the great Rsi called Vadavamukha. While doing ascese
on the mount Meru the ocean was summoned by him. And when it did not come, the
ocean was by him, who was angry, transformed into liquid water by the glow of his own
body. And at the same time he made the ocean to be salt like his own sweat. He said
to the ocean: You will be undrinkable, and then only your water will be sweet when it
is drunk by him who is called Vadavamukha. Thus this water is drunk, according to this
decision by him who is called Vadavamukhaquot; {naruyano lokahitUrtham vadavamukho nama
pura maharf^ir babhFiva / tasya merau tapas tapyatah samudra ahuto nayatas temmarsiten-
ritmagdtrosmana samudrali stimitajalah krtah svedaprasyandanasadrgag casya lavanabhavo
janitah / uktag capy apeyo bhavisyasy etac ca te toyaih vadavamukhasamjhitena pep'iyamunam
madhuram bhav^yati / tad etad adyapi vadavamiikhasamjrdteiiunuvartim toyam samudrat
plyate). Another representation is that this Vadavamukha is a manifestation of Aurva;
the fire which he spits out is then called Aurvanala^).

Mah. XII, 347, describes how Visnu as the Horse-headed-one brings back the stolen
Veda's, and kills the thieves, two asura's. This story seems to mo to be a later extension
of the motif of Visnu who with a sweet voice recites the Veda's: he is not only the
promulgator of the Veda's, but also their special protector, who restores them whenever
they are lost. By this incident Brahma is represented absolutely subordinate to Visnu. The
story goes as follows. Two powerful demons, Madhu and Kaitabha, steal the Veda's

from Brahma, and dive with their booty into the ocean. Brahma implores the aid of
Visnu, who awakes from his slumbers, and decides to bring back the Veda's. quot;Then he
awoke from his sleep, determined to obtain the Veda's. Applying his divine power he
assumed a second form. Then, shining like the moon, with a beautiful nose, and having
assumed a magnificent horse's head, the Lord went to the place where the Veda's were
hidden. His head was the firmament with the. lunar mansions and the stars. And his hair
was long, radiating like the rays of the sun. His ears were the atmosphere and the
underworld, his forehead was the earth. The Ganges and the Sarasvati were his hips, his
eyebrows the two great oceans. The moon and the sun were his eyes, while his nose is
said to have been the twilight. The sound orii was his notion, the lightning was his
tongue, and his teeth, o King, are said to have been the Fathers wo drink the Soma.
The Goloka and the Brahmaloka were the lips of the exalted one. And his neck, o
King, was the Night of Doom, that exceeds the three guna's. Having assumed this horse's
head, having various forms, the Lord that rules all entered the nether worldquot; {jdlmu
nidnmi atha tada vedakaryartham udyatah / aigvaryena prayogena dvitlyam tanum asthitcih
j sunasikena kliyena hhutva candraprablias tada j krtva hayagiraU giibhram vedaiuim cdayam
prabhuh / tasya murdha samabhavad dyaiih sanaksatrataraka / kegag casyabhavan dtrgha
raver amgusamaprabhah / karnav akagapaiale lalatam bliutadhnrint / gahga sarasvati groipjau
bhriivav Zistam mahodadhi / caksufi somasiiryau te nasa samdhya punah smrta / omkaras tv
atha samskaro vidyiij jihva ca nirmita / dantag ca pitaro rajan somapa iti vigrutidi / goloko
brahmalokag ca o^fjuw astam mahatmanali j grlva casyabhavad rajan krdaratrir gunottara /
etad dhayagirah krtva nanamurtibhir avrtam / antardadhau sa vigvego vivega ca rasam prabhulj).
Having arrived there Visnu began in a melodious voice to recite Vedic hymns. The two
demons hearing this go to find out the origin of these sweet sounds, neglecting the Veda's.
In the mean time Visiju takes the Veda's, and gives them back to Brahma. The two
asura's come back after having sought in vain for the divine singer. Not finding the Veda's,
they look for Visnu and challenge him to battle. In his horse-headed shape he defeats
them. The story ends with the words: quot;Thus did the majestuous Hari formerly assume
the form with the horse's head. This boon-granting, lordly shape is celebrated as an ancient
form of hisquot; {evam eva mahabhago babhuvugvagira harih / pauranam etat prakhyrdarh rupam
varadafn aigvaram).

Before discussing these motifs further, I must first mention some other places where the
name Hayagrlva appears in the epic with another value than as an epitheton of Visnu.

Mah. XII, 24, 23—34 describes how Krsna points out to the King Yudhisthira that

he is neglecting his royal duty when he prefers the life of a hermit to royalty. He puts
before him the example of the heroic Hayagrlva, a King of olden days, who died on the
battlefield, fighting against the superior forces of the enemy. Now he enjoys heavenly bliss.

Just the opposite of this good king is Hayagrlva, the king of the Videha's, who is
mentioned in Mah. V, 74, 15. The Pan^ava Bhima here speaks exceptionally gentle words,
and mentions the bad example of eighteen kings, who slew their relatives and friends.
Among these he also mentions Hayagrlva, king of the Videha's.

These two cases I only cite for the sake of completeness, as I do not dare to draw
them into my discussions.

Of direct importance to my subject, however, are demons with the element quot;horsequot;
contained in their names, which are repeatedly mentioned in enumerations of dânava's.
So Mah. I, G5 mentions among the sons of Danu {dânava's) next to Ç a m b a r a,
Puloman, Keçin etc. also Açvaçiras, Açvagrîva, Açvaçanku, Açva and
Açvapati. Is one of these identical with the danava Hayagrlva, who is mentioned
V, 130, 50? Vidura there describes the miraculous power of Krsna to Duryodhana, and
says among other things: quot;While sleeping on the vast deep he slew Madhu and Kaitabha,
and in another birth Hayagrlva too was slainquot; {ekfiniave ca svapatu nihatau madhiikaita-
bhaii I janmUntaram upagamya hayagûvas tatha hatali). We have seen that Madhu and
Kaitabha were killed on account of the theft of the Veda's. Was Hayagrlva punished for
a similar transgression? This passage gives no further information, and only implies that
the slaying of Hayagrlva took place later.

In the Mahâbhârata Hayagrlva thus appears in the first place as a special form of
Visnu, in which he promulgates the Veda's and defeats two demons who steal them; and
in the second place as an asura, who is killed by Vi.snu at one occasion or another
not further described.

In the supplement to the Mahâbhârata, the Harivariiça, we find again the horse-headed
form of Visnu mentioned as the slayer of the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha, and as
the restorer of the Veda's. In Harivariiça 2928 sq., this incident is depicted in a form slightly
differing from of the description in Mah. XII, 347: quot;Nârâyana and Brahma, fioating on the
deep, during many years remained resting on the waters, without moving themselves.
Then after a long time Madhu and Kaitabha I'opaired to this place where Brahmâ was
resting. Then, in those times of yore, Brahmâ, having seen the two asura's, horrible, tall
and hard to vanquish, struck Visnu with a lotus-stalk. Visnu at once rose from his berth,
sending forth a great effulgence. Then a terrible fight took place between the two (asura's)

and Visnu, in the world, that then had turned into one ocean, the three worlds having
turned into waterquot; {tav iibhau jalagarhhastliau ndiTiyanapitaniahau j bahun var^aganun apsu
gayanau na cakampatuh / atha dlrghasya kalasya tiiv ubhau madhukaitabhau / ajagmatus tam
uddegaj'n yatra brahma vyavasthitah / dr^tva tav asuraii ghorau mdliakayau durasadau /
bralimana tadito vifnuli padmanalena vaipura / idpapTdagu gayanat padmanablio mahady\dili\tad
yuddham abhavad ghoram tayos tasya ca .vai tada / ekarnave tada loke trailokye jalatam
gate). In Har. 15360 sq. we find this motif again summarized, but now the theft of the
Veda's is especially recorded: quot;When formerly two danava's stole the Veda's from under

the very eyes of Brahma, they were recovered by thee, o God! (i.e. Visnu)----Having

assumed the horse-headed form, and having killed Madhu and Kaitabha, thou gavest the
Veda's back to Brahma....quot; {danavUbhyfah lirta veda braknianah pagyatali pura ] iiaritndas

tvaya deva____; krtva hayagirorUpam liatva tu madlmkaitabhau / brahmane te 'rpita veddh —).

When Visnu comes from battle as conqueror he is praised by the muni's, and then
takes on a wonderful mystic form, which is described in Har. 11988 in terms which
remind one strongly of Mah. XII, 347, where is stated that he takes this form before
slaying the Veda-thieves. The description in Har. runs: quot;Having been praised in this way
by the different saints and ascetics, the great Hari remembered and assumed his vast
body with the horse's head. The Veda's made up his shape, his body consisted of all the
gods; in the middle of his head was Qiva, in his heart was Brahma; the rays of the sun
were his hair, the sun and the moon were his eyes; the Vasu's and Sadhya's were his
legs, in all his joints were the gods. Agni was his tongue, the goddess Satya his speech,
while his knees were formed by the Maruts and Varuna. Having assumed this form,
a great wonder to the gods, he pressed the asura down, with eyes that were red with
angerquot; (stuyamanag ca vividhaih siddhair munivarais tatha / sasmara viptdam deliaih harir
hayagiro malum / krtva vedamayafn rripai'n sarvadevamayam vapidi j giromadhye maUadevo
brahma tu hrxiayasthitah j aditya ragmayo vTdag caksiisJ gagibJiaskarau j janghe tii vasavah
sadhyrdi sarvasandJdsu devatdh / jihvu vaigvanaro devah satya devi sarasvati / maruto varunag
caiva jUnudege vyavastJiitrdi / evam krtva tatha rupam suramin adbhutam maliat j asuram
pldayam asa krodliaraktantalocanali).

These are the only places in the Harivaiiiqa where Visnu is described with the horse's
head. He is then continually mentioned as Hayaqiras.

The demon Hayagrlva, however, who is only slightly mentioned in Mah. V, 130
as an enemy of Visnu, here on the contrary takes a very prominent position.

imago of him. In the first place it is striking that in the whole Har., he is always denoted
by the epitheton quot;heroicquot; {liayagrivaQ ca v'lryavan^ Har. 203, 2281, 2650, 12985; balavan,
13380, 14282). In accordance with this he is then nearly always depicted in appreciative
terms. In Har. 203 he is mentioned in the enumeration of the danava's, the sons of
Kagyapa and Danu. Just as in Mah. I, 65 (see above) he is mentioned together with
Puloman, Kegin, Qambara etc., but the names Aqvagiras and Aqvagrlva are
missing here. As the enumeration of danava's as it is given in the Har. is the oldest
one '), one may conclude from this fact, that afterwards, when the demon Hayagrlva
gained more importance, by his side there were created analogous figures, with the element
quot;horsequot; in their names.

Now we find repeatedly in the Har. the demon Hayagriva mentioned as an enemy
of the gods, especially of Vi.snu. So for instance in the description of the different
avatara's of Visnu. In three steps the god measures the universe. Among the danava's
who oppose him is mentioned the quot;heroic Hayagrlvaquot; (Har. 2281). He also appears in the
great Taraka-battle. The gods are fallen upon by the danava's, and Visnu comes to their
aid. Har. 2433 says then: quot;The danava Hayagrlva appears in his chariot, drawn by a
thousand horses, crushing the enemiesquot; {yuktam hayasahasrena hayagrlvas tu danavah /
syandanam vuhaydm asa sapatnanikamardanaj'n). Elsewhere is related that tiie mighty
danava Naraka becomes over-bold and offends the gods. He goes to battle with four
generals, viz. Hayagrlva, Nisunda, Fail can ad a and Muru. Lines 6867 sq. describe
how Hayagrlva bravely fights Visnu: quot;Then the danava, his eyes red with anger, runs
forward like a stormwind, and, having climbed and rooted up a tree of ten fathoms, he
rushes on him (i.e. Visnu) with it. Ho hurls this enormous tree, that resembles a cloud,
with dexterity, and a roaring noise is heard when this tree cleaves the wind. But Visnu
without delay sending forth a thousand arrows breaks this tree, as if it wore a piece of
cucumber, in many pieces. Then with one arrow he pierces the breast of Hayagrlva. The
fiaming missile enters the middle of his breast, and by its excessive speed, having cleft
the heart, it leaves the body. He, the terrible, the strong Hayagrlva who, single-handed,
had fought all the gods during a thousand years, was killed by the Invincible Onequot; {punas
tu krodharaktukso vayuveyena danavah / dagavyamocchritafh vrksam samuruhya vanaspatini /
vrksam utpatya vegena pragrhya tarn adhuvata / ciksepa sumahrivrksani giksaya tu ghanakrtim /
vrksaveguniloddhritah gugruve simahdsvanah / tatah garasahasrena tvarammo janurdanah /
tan ca ciccheda citrabhaktinibhakrtim / punag caikena vmiena hayagrtvasya corasi / vivyadha

stanayor madhye sUyako jvalanaprabliah / viveça so 'tivegena lirdi hhittvâ vinirgatah / yah
sahasram samUs tv ekali sarvUn devUn ayodhayat j tarn jaghâna mahUghoram hayagrlvam
mahubalam). But with this Hayagrlva has not yet disappeared from the stage. For the
dânava's who were killed in the Târakâ-battle are reborn in the town where Visnu,
reincarnated as Krsna shall appear on earth. Har. 3109 sq. describes the reincarnation of
Hayagrlva: quot;He that, mettlesome as a horse, was known as Hayagrlva is reborn as the
steed Keçin, youngest brother to Kamsa. This bad one, loudly neighing, unchecked, with
flowing mane, lives alone in the Vrndâ-wood, and eats human fleshquot; {yo 'py asau hayavi-
krUnto hayagnva iti smrtah j keçi mma hayo jutah kamsasyaiva jaghanyajah / sa dusto
hesitapahili keçari niravagrahah / vpidavane vasaty eko nfmm mûmsUni bhaksayan). When
later another description is given of the struggle between gods and demons, Hayagrlva
the strong {balavmi) appears again, accompanied by a multitude of asura's, who, strangely
enough, have all horse's heads {hayagrivair mahUsuraih). Ho is then described as : quot;resembling
a white rock, adorned with white ear-rings, standing in his chariot he shone like a white-
topped mountain. On his standard that glitters with beryl, coral and other kinds of gems
and precious stones, one sees a seven-headed serpent. Hundreds of asura's of immeasurable
strength and great valour, having the best war-chariots, follow him like the gods follow
Indraquot; (Har. line 12989 sq. : çvetaçailapratikâçali çvetakiindalabhTisanah j çnçi^^
asthah çvetaçrhga ivUcalah / mahatâ saptaçlrsena râjatu nUgaketunâ / vaidnryamanidtrena
pravâlrmkm'açobhinâ / ainitabalajmndirajnadyut'im/h vararathinTim anujagmur ûrjiiânâm j
asuraganaçatâni gacchamânam tridaçaganU iva vasavam prayUntath). Finally Har. 13380 sq.
gives a detailed description of the violent battle between Hayagrlva and Pûsan, in which
the latter is defeated and put to flight.

The incarnation of Hayagrlva as Keçin is clearly a later motif. The Visn u-purâna
gives the older version of this story; hero Keçin is not at all connected with the demon
Hayagrlva. He is a demon who has the shape of a horse, sent by Kariisa to kill the two
children Krsna and Râma. In V, ch. 15 Kainsa says: quot;I will order the fierce Keçin, who
haunts the Vrndâ-wood, to attack them, and he is of unequalled might, and will surely
kill themquot;'). In ch. 16 is described how Keçin came to Kysna: quot;He came in the shape
of a steed, spurning the earth with his hoofs, scattering the clouds with his mane, and
springing in his paces beyond the orbits of sun and moonquot; % But Krsna thrusts his arm
into the mouth of this monster-horse and causes it to swell slowly, until the horse bursts.

The fact that Kegin as well as Hayagrlva, by their names and their descriptions suggest
a horse's shape, and were considered as adversaries of Visnu, gave rise to the identification
by rebirth (a very frequently occurring feature in Indian literature), which is dealt with
in the Harivamga.

We see the figure of the demon Hayagrlva gradually growing more important; a growth
which finds its continuation in the later literature.

With regard to the Visnupurana we have to note that here Visnu is incidentally
called the Horse-headed One. Important is V, ch. 17, where the horse is mentioned as an
avatara of god Visnu: ') quot;He, the unborn, who has preserved the world in the various
forms of a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a horse, a lion, will this day speak to mequot;. Here the
horse takes the place often occupied by Vamana, the dwarf. The commentary at this
passage says that the horse stands here for Hayagrlva, the horse-headed shape of Visnu.
This passage is the only one in the old literature, as far as I know, where the Hayagrlva-
form of Vi§nu is positively mentioned in the list of the avatara's. Probably it is a later
interpolation, inserted with many others, when this text became the principal work of
the Vaisnava's.

The Purana of the Vaisnava-sect which at the present time is best known, is the
BhSgavata-purana; this book has been composed much later. In VI, 6, 29 we find
Hayagrlva mentioned once more as a danava, one of the sixty sons of Danu. In this list
Puloman, gambara etc. again appear. VI, 10, 19 and VIII, 10, 21 mention him among
the asura's, who start fighting with the gods. And when in VII, 2, 4 Hiranyakagipu sees
that Visnu in the shape of a wild boar kills his brother, he delivers a wrathful harangue
to the assembled danava's; among them Hayagrlva together with other asura's joins
Vrtra in the battle against Indra, who has armed himself with the bones of Dadhlca

In this purana the theft of the Veda's is found in VIII, 24, 8, where the fish-avatSra
of Visnu is described: quot;At the end of the former kalpa there was the destruction (of the
universe) named after Brahma. Then, o King, the earth and the other worlds were flooded
over by the ocean. When the Creator who was sleepy dozed off for a moment, the strong
Hayagrlva robbed the Veda's that had come out of his mouth. The noble Lord Hari,
knowing what had been done by Hayagrlva, the King of the danava's, took on the form
of a Qapharl-fishquot; {as'id atitakalpante brahmo 7iaimittiko lai/ah j samudropaplutas intra

2) Endeavours have l)con made to connect Dadhlca, wiio also has a horse's head, with the general
conception of the horse-headed figure; cf. Bosch, in: Tijdschr. v. N.I. Taal, Land en Volkenk., LXVIl,
1927, p. 124.

loka bhnmyadayo nrpa / krilemgatanidrasya dludiih gigayisor hall / middiato nihsrlan vedan
liayagrlvo 'ntike 'karat / jmtva tad danavendrasya hayagr'ivasya cestitam / dadhara gapharl-
rupam hhagavTin harir igvarah). Then the story of the deluge is related at greath length;
thanks to the warning of the fish, the good King Satyavrata and the seven Rsi's are the
only ones who escape. At the conclusion of the episode we find: quot;When the danger ot
the destruction was over, Hari, having killed the demon Hayagriva, brought back the
Veda's to the Creator who had arisen from his sleeping positionquot; [atUapralayapaya idthitaya
sa vedhase / liatvasuram liayagrlvam vedan pratyaharad dharih). This same story is related
in the Agni-puriina.

In Bhagavata-purana II, 7,11 Brahma alludes to the theft of the Veda's with the following
words: quot;In my sacrifice then the noble Horse-headed One ') was the Sacrificial Male himself,
of golden complexion, full of incantations and sacrifices; whose soul were all the gods, and from
whose nostrils sweet words were created when he breathedquot; {sattre mamasa bhagavan haya-
ftrsrdJio I saksat sa yajhapuriisas tapan'iyavarnali / cJiandomayo makhamayo 'khiladevatatma / vaco

babliuviir uc^atih gvasato 'sya nastah).....quot;And he recovered the trace of the Veda's that had

fallen out of my mouth in the terrible watersquot; {visramsitan U7'iibhaye salile mukhan ma /
(idaya tatra vijaJiara ha vedamargan). Cf. further allusions in VII, 9, 37 and XI, 4, 17.

At this passage the commentator Qrldhara remarks that Hayaglrsan, the Horse-
headed One, must be understood as Visnu's descent as the Hayagrlva-avatSra. This
is then the last stage in the process of evolution; in the later literature we find this
evolution extensively dealt with.

The Devl-bhsgavata-purana for instance relates quot;that Hayagrlva, having received
boons similar to those received by Hiranyakagipu, that he should not be assailable by
man or beast, began to give trouble to the gods. The gods thereupon went to the Devi
and implored her aid. She directed them to go to Visnu and request him to be born upon
earth with the face of a horse and the body of a man, and kill the raksasa. The gods
prayed to Visnu accordingly; and pleased by their prayer, Visnu became incarnated in a
form half-horse and half-man, and hence known as Hayagrlva, and destroyed the raksasa
Hayagrlvaquot;

About the year 1700 Nabhadasa wrote his great work about the Vaisnava-
reformation of Ramanuja (12tli century), the BhaktamaU. It is here that we finally find
Hayagrlva positively mentioned in the official list of avatara's, where ho occupies the

2)nbsp;Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, Madras 1914, Vol. I, part I, page 200.

]8tl' place')- This fixed position he keeps also in the popular belief. Together with
Dattâtreya, MohinI, etc., he is reckoned among the so-called quot;minor avatara'squot; 2).

Taking now into consideration the total of the material collected, we discover,
notwithstanding the great variety, an obvious tendency, viz. the gradual convergence and
final amalgamation of two motifs, which are originally totally different; one, the horse-
headed shape of Visnu; the other, the demon Hayagrlva, whose name also
suggested a horse-headed appearance.

This demon Hayagrlva seems to have played only an unimportant rôle in the beginning.
However, by his suggestive name, this figure advances more and more to the front. Then
the demon Hayagrlva enters the list against Hayaçiras, god Visnu as a demon-destroyer.
The fight between the two is described: this incident is apparently made up in analogy
with other stories of demons, who are slain by Visnu, for instance Madhu, Hiranya-
kaçipu etc. As the motive for the slaughter of the demon Hayagrlva the theft of the
Veda's is mentioned. Herewith we remain completely in the sphere of the old association :
the horse-headed figure and the reciting of the Veda's.

In the mythical world of thought we distinguish in general two contrary tenors. On
one side an inclination to diverge and differentiate: one and the same theme is dissected
into small subdivisions, which gradually loosen themselves totally from the old connection
and develop into independent themes.

On the other hand, however, a converging and assimilating tenor is traceable; two
or more themes, which originally have nothing in common, become gradually identified
through an incidental conformity, and finally melt together in unity.

In the history of the development of the horse-headed figure we meet with an apparent
case of convergence. The final result of this process is one of those paradoxical
combinations, much beloved by Indians: Hayagrlva kills Hayagrlva3).

1)nbsp;Giuehson, Gleanings from the Bhaktamfila, Journal of the Asiatic Society, 1909.

2)nbsp;Cf. Uao, op. cit., and also: Gravely and Ramachandra, Catalogue of the South Indian Hindu metal
images in the Madras Government Museum, Madras 1932, p. 8.

;j) It would be interesting to investigate what place should be awarded in this connection to the story
which is told in liar. ch. 199 about the slaughter of Madhu and Kaitabha. These two demons here voluntarily
sulfered death by Visnu, and request from him the favour of rebirth as his incarnation. In the first place
one must solve the chronological question: from which time would this part of the liar, date? It would
also be well worth the trouble to institute a closer inquiry into the background of the Ilnmariimavi vada,
the fight between Rama and Parafu-rSma, both of them incarnations of Visnu. Perhaps this incident
has influenced the motif of quot;Hayagrlva slaying Hayagrlvaquot;.

I have on purpose repeatedly quoted in their entirety those passages in which the
Horse-headed figure is fully described. These descriptions must have made an exceptional
impression on the later reader and will have contributed to the fact that Visnu in this
mystical shape with the Horse's head enjoyed special favour. Finally these descriptive
passages, together with the (resultant?) iconographic indications in the different ägama's,
must have inspired the plastic artists to the creation of images in bronze and stone.

In the Hindu-literature the Hayagrlva-theme is repeatedly treated by itself, chiefly
by authors influenced by Visnuism.

In the first place, the motif of Visnu with the horse's head. To this figure many
songs of praise are dedicated. The best known is the Hayagrlvastotra by Venka-
tanätha'). Moreover one sees this wonderful shape of Visnu appearing in the titles of
books, where he by his presence enhances their religious value. I mention as an example
the Hay agrlva-upanisad 2), the Hay aglrsa-paficarätra^) etc. In the second place
the motif of the demon Hayagrlva and his death at the hands of Visnu. This subject
has been treated in a drama Hayagrlva-vadha, quot;The Death of Hayagrlvaquot;, by the poet
B h a r t r m e 111 h a'').

Visnu in his horse-headed form has also often been chosen as a subject by plastic
artists. The well-known scholar Hemädri (1260-1309 A.D.) cites some instructions as
to how Visnu in this form must be represented: quot;The horse-headed god should be made
with his spread feet placed in the hands of the Goddess Earth. He should have a white
complexion, and wear blue garments. The god should be made with eight arms; four ot
these the wise man should make keeping the conch, the discus, the club and the lotus.
The four other hands should be placed upon the heads of the four Veda's personified, and
the god should be adorned with all the usual ornamentsquot; {mürtimän prthiv'ihastanyastapädah
sitacchavih / mlämbaradharah käryo devo hayar.irodharah / kartavyo 'stabhujo devah tatkarei^ti
catiif^vatlia / gankham cakravi gadüm iiadmaih svakäraij, kärayed budhali / catvUrag ca kanxh
kuryu vedünäm deUadhürinüm / devena mürdhni vinyastidi sarvübharanadhUrina). The
Paficarätra Ägama describes another form, where the god has only four hands; these
hold the conch, the rosary, and the book, whilst the fourth shows the jmna-mudrU ®).

2)nbsp;Cf. One Hundred and Eight Upanisliads, ed. by Wasudev Laxman, Bombay 1925, page 539.

4)nbsp;Cf. RajatauanginI, HI, 2G0sq.: hayagrlva vad ham menthas tadagre d ar^ayan navarii,ctc.

5)nbsp;Cf. Kuisiina Sastui, South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses, Madras 191G, p. 55.

In the Laksmlnarasimha-temple at Nuggehalli (Mysore) two beautiful statues
have been preserved, representing Visnu-Hayagrlva, with respectively four and
eight arms').

The eight-armed figure (see Plate I) is represented en profile. The horse-head is clearly
visible. The god appears to be performing a dance of triumph on the corpse of his enemy,
which lies stretched out upon the ground. He is richly decked out with ornaments, and
wears his high kirlta-makuta crown. In the four right hands he carries the club
igada), arrow {hana), discus (cakra), and sword (khadga). In the four left hands: conch
(i^ahkha), shield (khetaka), bow (dhanus) and lotus [padma). This statue is a fine piece of
work by the eminent sculptor Mallitamma (13tlgt; century); next the signature of this
artist, the pedestal of the statue shows an inscription which declares that this is a repre-
sentation of Hayagrlva.

The second Plate shows Hayagrlva en face, with four arms, sitting cross-legged upon
a lotus-throne. Plere he also wears the kirlta-makuta on the clearly recognisable
horse-head. Unfortunately the objects which he holds in his four hands have been damaged,
but they appear to agree with the description of the Pancaratra Agama: the one right
hand shows, crossed before the breast, the jfiana-mudra, thumb and middle-finger
touching each other. The uplifted right hand shows the rosary {aksamaUi).

In popular religion Vi^nu-Hayagrlva is generally represented in a standing position,
with two or four hands. If he has two hands, then he carries in them the conch and
the discus 2). If he is represented with four hands then he carries besides them also a
sword and a shield (see Plato III). Conch and discus are here conventionalized in two
similar motifs, the one perfectly the same as the other. The development of this similarity
is depicted in Gravely, op. cit. page 22—23.

In the later developments of Hinduism the fierce (bhairava) gods gain ever more
importance.

In the first place Qiva, who has by nature already a very terrible character(?-awrfra)
in his quality as quot;all-destructivequot;.

Next him, however, we now see Visnu-Hayagrlva also gradually playing a great part.
In my opinion he owes this promotion to the fact that his special mystic form with the
horse's head as awe-inspiring demon-exterminator takes such a prominent place in the

1)nbsp;Cf. Report of the Archaeological Dejjartment for the year 1912—13, Mysore, page 2—3.

later literature, and, moreover, the fact as well which we mentioned above, that he was
so closely connected with the demon Hayagrlva.

On account of these circumstances his figure lent itself particularly to a transformation
into a Bhairava-god. At the same time one must keep in mind the fact that the background
of the horse-headed figure was formed by the ancient Indian horse-cult, connected with
sun and fertility rites. If the later Indians were consciously sensible of this background
or not I can not decide; but undoubtedly the existence of this connection, whether
consciously or not, has contributed to the fact that Hayagrlva advanced into the foreground;
for fertility rites play also a very large part in (^aktism, the veneration of the female
energy of Qiva, and his union with her, with the resultant maithuna-rites.

In the later Hindu literature one finds many detailed descriptions of the magical
power of Visnu-Hayagrlva. For example, the ninth chapter of the Yoginl-tantra is
wholly dedicated to the history and the veneration of the figure of Visnu-Hayagrlva
(vulgo: Hayagrlva Madhava) in the temple on the Manikuta mountain, near the village
of Hajo, Assam ')• This story is composed in the usual form of a conversation between
Qiva and his spouse Parvatl. Moreover the Kalika-purana gives in chapter 82 a
description of the heroic deeds of Visnu-Hayagrlva, localised in North-India.

This magical aspect of Visnu-Hayagrlva one finds further illustrated in the collections
of mantra's (magic formulae) which are specially dedicated to him. The Hayagrlvasa-
hasraksaramahamantra (ms. in Grantha-character, Catalogue India Office, soon to
be published, No. 6207) in particular gives a very clear idea of this god in his quality of
dispenser of material benefits. See further also the Hayagrlvamahamantra (ibid.,
No. 6206), and the Narayanlyamantrarahasya (ibid.. No. 5713).

In the following we shall now see that the later Buddhism wholly dissociates this
demonical aspect of Visnu-Hayagrlva from the great Hindu-god, and incorporates him as
a special deity in the Mahayanic pantheon.

When one begins an inquiry about the horse and the horse-headed figure in Buddhism,
then as a matter of course one thinks in the first place of the horse Kanthaka
that carried the Exalted One from the sheltered palace into the world. But after the

1) Cf. Gaurinath Cuakravarti, Notes on the Worship of Hayagriba Madhaba by the flindus and the
Buddhists (Journal Buddh. Text Society, Vol. II, 1894, App. II).

falfilment of that sacred task, this horse no longer comes to the front in Buddhism.

An important place, however, is taken by the steed Uccai h gravas which belongs
to the Saptaratnâni, the Seven Treasures of a Cakravartin, a World-ruler, and as
such is known by the name Açvaratna. This horse was, together with the other jewels,
taken over into Buddhism: for if the Prince SiddhSrtha had not turned into the Path
to Buddha-hood, then he would have become a World-ruler. This Açvaratna is generally
represented as carrier of the Cintamani, the Wish-granting Jewel. Another aspect of
this Açvaratna is the divine horse Balâha, which in Northern Buddhism plays a great
part on account of its connection with Avalokiteçvara. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteç-
vara is one of the most popular gods of the Mahayanic Pantheon. He presides over the
present Kalpa, the Bhadrakalpa, which period lasts from the death of Buddha
Çâkyamuni until Maitreya will become a Buddha. Avalokiteçvara is in particular considered
as a personification of compassion with all suffering creatures who are submerged in the
sea of birth and death.

The divine horse Balâha now is the saviour, filled with compassion, who rescues
some hundred merchants from the claws of man-eating she-devils. The merchants had
sailed out to acquire wealth in foreign countries. They suffered shipwreck, and were
stranded on an island where they were received by beautiful women with whom they
contracted amorous attachments. In reality these women were man-eating râksasT's, who
desired to devore their victims. The divine horse, however, appears before the merchants,
and offers to take them on his back and bring them again to the inhabited world by
flying through space. This rescuing horse is in the older versions of the story (dating
from the third century, cf. Ciiavannes, Cinq cents contes et apologues extraits du Tripitaka
chinois, I, p. 224—226) said to have been an earlier incarnation of Buddha. But later on
this horse Balâha is regarded as a special form of the Bs. Avalokiteçvara. In the Karan-
davynha one finds the motif worked out in details, and localised on the island of
Ceylon'). The merchants are led by a certain Simhala, they suffer shipwreck near the
island Tâmradvipa, inhabited by râksasi's in the form of beautiful women, with whom
they marry, just as in the older versions of the story. One night, however, by means of
a magic lamp, Siriihala learns that he and his comrades have fallen into the hands of
man-eating demons, and that ho will be put to death the following day. But just at the

i) Cf. for the horse Balâha and allied motifs the clever article by Golouhew, Le cheval B.il.âha,
B.E.F.E.O., part XXVII, 1927, p. 223. See also Hukeu, Études de littérature Bouddhique, B.E.F.E.O., part VI,
p. 21—22 and page :î5—36, and Hackin, L'Art Tibétain, collection de J. Bacot, Paris 19H, p. 87.

opportune moment a wonderful horse appears, who offers to restore them to their fatherland.
The horse, however, imposes the condition (the well known marchen-motif) that, on
departing, not one of them must be tempted by the wails of the raksasl's to cast one
glance behind him. The one who does this will be irrevocably plunged into the sea and
become a prey to the raksasl's. The merchants accept this condition gratefully, but not
one of them is able to keep his promise when ho hears the heart-rending lamentations of
the women they leave behind. Siriihala alone remains unshaken, and is safely brought
back by the horse. In India he raises a large army, and conquers the island Tiimradvlpa.
The inhabitants are converted to Buddhism, and the island is renamed Siiiihaladvlpa,
Ceylon. It is recorded at the end of the story that Siriihala is none other than Buddha
himself, and that the horse is a form of the Bs. Avalokitegvara.

It is with a view to the Chinese material to be treated in the next chapter that I
have here discussed the divine horse Balaha. In India there seem to exist no definite
indications that the horse-headed figure is identified with the horse Balaha. As we shall
shortly see there exists undoubtedly an indirect connection between the Horse-headed One
and the Agvaratna: both have the epithet Paramagva, the quot;Excellent Horsequot;, and both
are considered as forms of the Bs. Avalokitegvara.

The Indian data regarding the taking over of Visnu-Hayagrlva into Buddhism are
extremely scarce, and offer but little historical support. Therefore I may be allowed to
quote here already some Chinese sources.

It appears therefrom that the Horse-headed One was at a rather early date incor-
porated in the MahSyanic Pantheon.

In the Mahavairocana-sntra, which was translated into Chinese in the seventh
century, Hayagrlva {ho-yeh-chieh-li-p'o) is mentioned in the description of the Great Magic
Circle {mandala) as a Vidyaraja, who is placed close to the figure of Avalokitegvara.
Further in China in 653 A.D. a work was translated in which a special chapter was
dedicated to the worship of the Vidyaraja Hayagrlva, who is here understood as an aspect
of Avalokiteqvara. Moreover the celebrated Buddhist missionary Bodhiruci translated
about 650 A.D. a text in Chinese, where the Vidyaraja Hayagrlva was connected with
Amoghapaga, a special aspect of Avalokitegvara. On the ground of this information
we may then assume that, about 500 A.D., the Northern Buddhists in India venerated
Hayagrlva as Vidyaraja, and as an aspect of AvalokitoQvara.

We shall now try to discover why Visnu-Hayagrlva was received as Vidyaraja in the
Mahayana. Vidyaraja is an abbreviation of Vidyadhara-raja. King of the Vidyadhara's.

The Vidyâdhara's are known in Hinduism as a class of genii living in the air. Their
daughters, the VidySdharl's, are heavenly nymphs ').

In chapter I, I discussed already the very old Indian belief in the magic formula, the
mantra. Southern as well as Northern Buddhism has taken over and continued the cult
of these magic formulae In the Hinayana they were preserved under the name of
paritts. The doctrine of the magic word, however, reached its apex in the Mahâyana.
Here a new term was coined for the magic formula, namely dharani, derived from the
root dhr, quot;to hold, to carryquot;. The dharani is the holder, the carrier of magic power.
Next to this term also the word mantra remained in current use in the MahSyana. If
one will make a distinction between mantra and dharani, then one can say in general
that the dhSranl is longer than the mantra. A dharani, as a rule, is composed of a
collection of mantra's.

This same root dhr is contained in the word Vidyâdhara: they also are carriers
{dhara) of magical knowledge or magic power {vidyU). When the Man tray Snic principles
begin to flourish, then the Vidyâdhara automatically rise greatly in position. The Kings of
the Vidyâdhara, the Vidyârâja's, occupy important places in the Mahâyânic pantheon.
Suggesting dates for this evolution is a precarious task. It is difficult enough already to
trace the origin and development of the Mantrayâna itself. Although, as I pointed out in
Chapter I, Mantrayânic ideas already existed in Buddhism from the very beginning, one
should like to know when these general conceptions were combined and crystallized to
form the tenets of one separate sect, differentiated from the Mahâyâna. Chinese tradition
mentions as the patriarchs of the Mantrayâna successively:

The first two of this series are thus gods. Another lists commences with 1. Çubhâ-
karasimha and 2. I Hsing. Çubhâkarasiriiha^) originated from Central India.
According to the tradition he was a King of Odra, who renounced the world and became
a monk. In 716 he arrived at the capital of China, where he translated many Mantrayânic

1)nbsp;Kor the VidySrilja in general cf. PnzYLUSKi, Les Vidyäräja, contribution .a I'histoirc de la Magie
dans les sectes mahilynnistes, H.E.F.E.O., part XXIII, 192.3, page .301 sq.

2)nbsp;Cf. Waddeli., The DhSranl cult in Buddhism, its origin, deified literature and images, in: Ost-
asiatische Zeitschrift, I, 1912—1.3, p. 155 sq.

.3) Cf. the detailed biogra|)hy in Sung-kao-seng-ch'uan, ch. 2, and the article Zern mm in Mik.,
p. 13GG.

texts. He worked there together with I Hsing '), the famous Chinese priest (683—727), who
appears as second in the list.

Nagarjuna^) is the famous Mahayanic teacher, who flourished about the second
century A.D. According to the tradition he was in the Iron Tower in southern India
initiated by Vajrasattva. Nagabodhi is said to have been a pupil of Nagarjuna.
Several endeavours have been made by Buddhist authors to fill up the gap of 500 years
that severs Nagabodhi from Vaj rabodhi who appears next in the list of patriarchs,
and consequently should have been his pupil. Vajrabodhi was a son of the Indian King
iganavarman, and turned to Buddhism at Nalanda, in G80. In 719 he came to China,
where he worked in Lo-yang until his death about 740. Mik. p. 2248, s.v. Ryuchi, gives
an apt summary of the data on Nagabodhi, supplied by different Chinese and Tibetan
sources. I quote here some Chinese opinions. The Cheng-yuan-hsin-ting-shih-chiao-
mu-lu'*), compiled about 800 A.D., mentions Nagabodhi as teacher of Vajrabodhi. It is
said there (Ts. 2157, p. 875), that from his 28tl» till his 31st year Vajrabodhi stayed in
southern India. There he was during seven years a disciple of Nagabodhi, who seven
hundred years ago had been a pupil of NagSrjuna (oriental authors place Nagarjuna in the
first century B.C.), who was then miraculously still alive. The same author says in his
Piao-chih-chi 5) (Ts. 2120), Ch. VI, that during some hundreds of years Nagarjuna trans-
mitted the Mahayanic Doctrine to the acarya Nagabodhi. Nagabodhi transmitted it to the
acarya Vajrabodhi. Vajrabodhi went to the East, and taught it to Amoghavajra.
Amoghavajra afterwards went again to the West, to India, and discussed with Naga-
bodhi the Eighteen Gatherings of the Vaj raqekharasutra. All other data concerning
Amoghavajra, however, do not mention Nagabodhi, but Samantabhadra as Amogha-
vajra's teacher during his second stay in India. Then Nagabodhi is also mentioned as
teacher of Q u b h a k a r a s i lii h a, who, during his study at Nalanda, was a disciple of
Dharmagupta. Some Chinese authors think that this Dharmagupta is identical with
Nagabodhi, but this is denied by others. Finally Nagabodhi is mentioned as teacher of the
famous pilgrim H s u a n T s a n g. In the T z 'u-e n-c h u a n (Ts. 2053, written about 650 A.D.

1)nbsp;Cf. biography in Sung-kao-scng-ch'uan, ch. 5, and art. Icliigyo, in Mik., p. 70.

2)nbsp;Cf. Wallksku, Life of Nitgärjuna, from Tibetan and Chinese sources, Asia Maior, tü23; id., Lebens-
zeit des Näg.lrjuna, Zeitschrift für ßuddh., 1925, p. 237; N. Dutt, Aspects of MahiiySna Buddhism and its
relation to Ulnayilna, London 1930, passim.

by Hui Li) is told that in the great Amra-wood in the Ceka-land, Hsuan Tsang met
with an old priest, who turned out to be Nagabodhi, the disciple of Nagarjuna. He was
then 800 years old, but looked like a man of thirty.

Regarding the two last patriarchs historical information is at our service. Amogha-
vajra') was born in 705 on the island of Ceylon, and came together with Vajrabodhi
in China, where he died about 770. Hui Kuo^) was one of his pupils, who died about 800
at Ch'ang-an.

It will be clear that, from a historical point of view, this list of patriarchs has no
value; it shows all the characteristics of a later production. Leaving aside Vairocana and
Vajrasattva, one comes to Nagarjuna, who, as the great apostle of the Mahayana, was
very well suited for being the first human patriarch. He transmitted the Doctrine to
Nagabodhi, a rather vague personality, but known as his pupil. Now we skip some 500
years, and come to Vajrabodhi. We see, that in the ninth century in China several
endeavours were made to cover up this gap by ascribing to Nagabodhi a life of several
centuries, relying on statements like that about Hsuan Tsang's meeting. Finally the three
last patriarchs are almost contemporaries. I am inclined to conclude from these facts,
that the Chinese Mantrayana as a separate sect never existed on Indian soil. It
seems to have originated in China with the famous translators of Indian texts, in which
Mantrayanic principles prevailed. To enhance the religious prestige of the sect, the above-
mentioned list was constructed. A vague figure like Nagabodhi was suited very well for
linking up the real founders of the sect, like Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, with a famous
Mahayanic priest like NSgarjuna. Probably the list that mentions gubhakarasimha
and I Hsing as first patriarchs was the older one, that represented better historical
truth. It was replaced by the other list, which accredited to the Chinese Mantrayana a
venerable age. This does not imply, of course, that in India there did not exist similar
sects: later on in Bengal and Tibet several are known, and it is very probable that also
before the time of Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra there were one or more Indian teachers,
who taught the Mantrayanic principles, condensed into one separate system. In my
opinion, however, there did not exist any direct historical connection between one of these

The time has not yet come for us, however, to settle these points. We should wait

quot; 1) Cf. the lengthy biography in Sung-kao-seng-ch'uan, ch. I, and the article Fuku in Mik.,
page 189().

until, one day, the Chinese material has been critically treated: a difficult, but by no
means impossible task.

For my present subject, however, it is sufficient that we may assume that in India
about 500 A.D., at least the Mantrayanic principles were nourishing. This appears
clearly from a text like the Mahamayurlvidyarajfil, that was about 320 A.D. translated
into Chinese by a Prince of Kucha, Qrlmitra (cf. Ts. 986, 987).

About this time the figure of Visnu-Hayagrlva was taken over in the Mahayanic
pantheon as a Vidyaraja. We may assume this on the evidence of the occurring of
Hayagrlva in the Mahavairocana-sutra, mentioned above. No doubt can exist, according
to my mind, whether the Horse-headed figure owed this acceptance to the fact that in
Hinduism Visnu-Hayagrlva was celebrated as the Reciter of the Veda's, the Promulgator
of the Sacred Word. In this quality ho was exceedingly suitable for a transformation to
Vidyaraja. It is true that also other Hindu gods that were not especially associated with
the Sacred Word, for example giva, appear in the hosts of the Vidyaraja's. But no one
reached such a prominent position as Hayagrlva, who was regarded as most closely
connected with Avalokitegvara, and always retained the horse's head as unfailing charac-
teristic. Further all the Vidyaraja's bear a fierce character. Also in this respect the figure
of Visnu-Hayagriva lent itself excellently for the part of a Vidyaraja; for we saw how
extensively in Hindu-literature the awe-inspiring shape of Visnu with the horse's head
was described, and how closely this figure was connected with the demon Hayagrlva,
the strong. This figure fitted in so well in the Mahayana, that soon Hayagrlva was wholly
dissociated from Visnu. In enumerations of gods where Visnu is also included, Hayagrlva
is separately mentioned. His continually increasing importance is moreover aided by the fact
that as the Horse-headed One, he is particularly suited to be conceived as a horse-god,
or to be amalgamated with local horse-gods. This last appears to have been the case in
Tibet and Mongolia. In Tibet ho is known as rta-mgrin (coll. tamdin), the quot;Horse-necked
Onequot;. He is one of the Dharmapala's, quot;Defenders of the Faithquot;, and an awe-inspiring
demon-destroyer, Tibetan: drag-gged, quot;Terrible Executionerquot;. He is particularly worshipped
by horse-traders. Here also the magic power of neighing is brought to the front.
At an exorcism he announces his presence by neighing, and at the sound thereof the
demons take to flight ')• He has the same epitheton of quot;Excellent Horsequot;, Tib. rta-mchog.

i) Cf. Grunwkuel, page 1G4, 165, and the literature referred to there; Getty, page 162 sq.;
Waddell, p. 14G.nbsp;'

as the Açvaratna. This Horse-jewel is in Tibet also called rlun-rta, the quot;Aerial Horsequot;.
He is the swift messenger between this world and the abode of the gods. As such this
horse is the special conductor of prayers and magic formulae '); therefore it is represented
on special banners, encircled by magic formulae. When these banners are flown in the
wind, the divine horse will convey the prayers to the gods. Here one distinctly sees the
motif of the winged horse Balâha^). In general the presence of the Aerial Horse
gives a more intensive power to all sorts of magic formulae, and as such plays a similar
rôle as the sunbird Garuda (the vâhana of Visnu!)

Przyluski has already pointed out that the development of the Vidyâdhara's in
Buddhism has been apparently one of the factors that effected the advance into the
foreground of these figures in later Hinduism. Perhaps Visnu-Hayagrlva has also to thank
his important place in later Hinduism (where, as I mentioned above, as bh air a va he
stands equal to Çiva) to the fact that he took such a prominent place in Buddhism. It is
known that a rich interchange existed between Hinduism and Buddhism, as well in the
earlier as in the later periods. A comparatively late example is the case of Hayagrlva
Mâdhava at Hajo, who, as we saw above, is worshipped by the Hindu's as well as by
the Buddhists.

In Buddhist iconography Hayagrlva is represented in different forms. He appears
separately, or also as a secondary god. I may permit myself to give here a short summary
of the most important of these forms. I have supplemented the Indian data with Tibetan
material.

This form I call Râga, because Hayagrlva here bears on his crown the image of
Amitâbha, the progenitor of the Râga-kula. The Saptaçatikakalpa gives an

1)nbsp;Cf. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, London 1934, page 411; Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet,
Atlas, plate XVII; the best reproduction of a banner of the Aerial Horse is to be found in Journal of the
Buddhist Text Society of India, Vol. II (1804), part I; cf. also Bacot, Décoration Tibétaine, Paris, Pl. 24.

2)nbsp;quot;Waddell thinks (op. cit, p. 411 sq.), on the contrary, that the rluù-rta is of Chinese origin,
and that its prototype is the Chin. Dragon-horse, lung-ma. He confuses, however, the Chinese unicorn
cfiH-lin with the lung-ma-, the reproduction which he gives on page 410 represents the lin, as the Chinese
inscription on the top, left, correctly indicates. Cf. my discussion of the clii-Un in Chapter HI, section 2.
It is a pity that the second impression of Waddell's fine standard-work has not been revised by a sinologist-

extensive description of thenbsp;appearance of the god, and of the ritual according to which

he should be worshipped. Inbsp;give here the translation of the whole sadhana, together

Hail to Hayagrlva! Knowing the thought that inspires all Buddha's, viz.: quot;The self-
substance of all things is essentially not subject to birth and deathquot;, one will then see
the eight-topped Sumeru-mountain, adorned with the Seven Jewels. In the midst thereof
one sees a palace of a thousand miles square. Having entered there, and having first
declared one's attachment to the refuge afforded by the Three Jewels etc., by protecting
the Body, Speech and Mind, one may create the Magical Circle of the Sun that fills the
Sphere. Having then imagined the syllable harii that radiates with effulgence, one may
then by saying quot;Hail to all the Vajra's of Body, Speech and Mind, orii ah huriiquot;, make
all the Buddha's and Bodhisattva's that are distributed over the immeasurable worlds of

namo liayagnvdya. ihadya7iiitpamie{?)mvasthitah sarvasvabhdva iti saugatamatam viditva
tatali sumeruprstham astdsram saptaratnamayam tanmadhye sahasrayojanapramdiiam masu-
rakaih tatropavigya ratnatrayagaranagamanddipurahsaram kdyavdkcittam adhisthdya temivd-
kuQavydpisuryamandalam abJdnmndya tenaiva haj'/ikdram jvaladbhusvardkdram vicintya tato
namah samantakdyavdkcittavajrdndm om dli hum ityanena daQadiganantaparyantalokadhdtu-
vyavasthitdn sarvabuddhabodhisativdn dnhja jtidnakdrena pravegya punar dvitiyaUavikdrei^a

(rgya gar skad du . saptagatikakalpokta hayagrlva sadhanarii. bod
skad du. rta mgrin rtog pa bdun brgya pa las gsuns pahi rta mgrin gyi
sgrub thabs.) dpal rta mgrin la phyag htshal lo.dnos po thams cad ran
bsin gyis mi gnas pa ses pa ni bde bar ggegs pa rnams kyi dgoiis par
rig par byas nas.de nas ri rab yan lag bgryad pa rin po che sna bdun
gyi ran bsin la dehi dbus su dpag tshad ston gi tshad kyi gdan la iie
bar hdug ste.dkon mchog gsum la skyabs su hgro ba la sogs pa snon
du hgro bas lus dan dag dan yid byin gyis brlabs la.de yis de bsin du
nam mkhah khyab pahi hi ma hi dkyil hkhor la mnon par khyab par
sprul nas.de la de bsin du hUm yig hbar ba las hod zer gyi rnam par
bsam sin.de nas lus dag yid thams cad rdo rje rnams kyis phyag htshal
bas orii ah hurii ses pa hdis phyogs bcuhi mthar thug pahi hjig rten

2)nbsp;Oslo, Rgyud vol. 76, folio 242 verso and 243 recto; P. Cordier, Catalogue du Fonds Tibétain de la
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris 1915, LXXI, 318.

the ten quarters come. Having made them enter (the magic circle) by the different aspects
of Jfiana, by uttering a second time the syllable h a in one may startle the Horse-necked
One, and make him also enter (the magic circle). By uttering a third time the syllable
ham one may think this: quot;I possess the vajra-self-substance of Hayagrlva, who has a
red complexion; who is greatly awe-inspiring; who has three eyes, and a reddish-brown
beard; who appears terrible, with a protruding belly; whose face is showing the fangs,
and who is adorned with a garland of skulls with teeth and lips; whose crown is formed
by his braided hair; who bears Amitâbha on his head; whose second face is a blue
horse's head that is neighing; who with one foot tramples upon the Brahmânda, and with
the other on the end of the world; who is adorned with eight serpents; who has the
stature of a dwarf; who wears a tigerskin for garment; who is adorned with all ornaments ;
who threatens all gods and demons, having the Vajra and the staff in his hands; and

JiayaskandJiaram sahcodytiniya praveçya trtiyaliamkâre^uhameva hayagnvavajrasvabkUvUtmako
'ham raktavarnam mahâbhayânakam trinetram kapilaçmaçruraiidram brhadiidaram damqtra-
kaniUnam dantam^thakapalamalinai'n jatamukutinam amitubhaf^iraskam dvitlijamiikhai'n nilam
hayUnanam hlhlkâramdinam brahmUndaçikhanikrântath dvitiyena bhavTigraparyantam astanU-
gopetam kharvavUmanUkriram vyUghracarmanivasanam sarvalankïirabhûf^itai'n sakaladevasiiram
tarjantam grhltavajradandam 7irmtivarnriçca ragmayah sphiiranasamharanapUrvakam vicin-
tayediti. mantrajUpa : om hayagnva hr'ih hum phat svCdiU . asya bhagavatah prabhtivTit

gyi khams na bsugs pahi sans rgyas dan byan chub so m s dpah rnams
gdan drans nas ye çes kyi rnam pas rab tu sugs te.slar yan hurii yig
gfiis pas rta mgrin yan dag par bskul sin gdan drans nas rab tu sugs
to hum yig gsum pas bdag fiid de bsin du rta mgrin bsin du rdo rjehi
ran b.sin gyi bdag can sku mdog dmar po hjigs su run ba sbyan gsum
pa.drag po sma ra dmar ser can.gsus pa che ba.sal mche ba gtsigs
pa.t hod pahi phren ba can.ral pahi cod pan can. hod dpag tu med pas
dbu brgyan pa.sal gfiis pa sno sin hjigs su run pahi hi hll.ii sgra sgrogs
çin.tshaiïs pahi sgo nahi rtse mo nas rnam par gnon pa.gfiis pas srid
pa la sogs pahi mthar thug pa laho. klu brgyad kyis brgyan pa.mil.iu
thun gi rnam pa can. stag gi pags pahi çam thabs can. sbrul gyi rgyan
gyis brgyan pa. lha dan lha ma yin mthah dag la bsdigs par mdsad pa.rdo
rje dan dbyug pa bsnams ba.rta mgrin las kha dog sna tshogs bahi hod
zer spro ba dan bsdu ba bsam par byaho.snags ni orii hayagrlva hrlh

who is sending forth an effulgence of many-coloured raysquot;. The mantra runs: orii Haya-
grlva hrlh hum phat s v ah a. Thus is explained in the Saptagatikakalpa in which way one
should obtain, through the power of this Venerable One, the magical powers connected
with the Wish-granting Gem, the Holy Jar, the Wish-granting Tree, the Elixir of Immortality,
and the methods for prolonging one's life. Farther by chanting three hundred thousand
times the mantra of this Venerable One, one obtains both realms of a Cakravartin. One
will live in the abode of the Vidyadhara's,' surrounded by all the heavenly nymphs, and
enjoying manifold bliss. One will have Qiva as parasol-bearer, Brahma as minister,
Vemacitra as general, and Hari as doorkeeper. All the gods will be one's servants, and
the naked teacher Qankara will expose here his doctrine of all the guna's')- As long
as the Venerable Maitreya has not yet obtained Buddha-hood, so long one will remain

cintamani bliadraghatakalpatariirasarasayamdini siddhisadhanuni ahhimukhi hkavantityuktam
saptagatikakalpe. kihca bhagavato laksatrayajapat iiblmjacakravartirajyamamiiklftbliavati.
anekabhirapsarobhih parivrtah puraskrto vidyadharasthane bahalasukliammiubhavan eva
tisthati. devendrah chattradharo bhavati, brahmaca rnantrl, vaimacitn samyapatih, harih
pratiharah. samastadeva avalaganti. nagmcaryah gahkarah samastagunan upadargayatL ydvat
bhagavan maitreyo riabhisambudhyati tiivat tisthati. abhisambuddhe canuttarayam samyak-

hnrii phat svaha ses te.bcom Idan hdas hdihi mthus yid bsin gyi nor bu
dan.bum pa bzad po dan. dpag bsam gyi giii dan. bcud dan. bcud kyis
len la sogs pahi dnos grub rnams bsgrubs bsam don du hgyur ro ses rtog
pa bdun brgya pa las gsuns so.cis kyan bcom Idan hdas kyi bzlas pa
hbum phrag gsum byas pas hkhor los sgyur ba dan rgyal srid gfiis mdon
du hgyur ro.lhahi bu mo dpag tu med pahi hkhor gyis bskod sin rig hdsin
ma mdun du byas te.de la bde bahi hbras bu nams su myon §in gnas so.
lhahi dban pos gtugs hdsin par hgyur ro.tshans pahi snags pa dan. thag
bzans ris kyi dmag dpon dan hphrog byed dan. so sor hphrog byed dan.lha
rnams mthali dag stobs med par hgyur ro.gcer bu pahi slob dpon bde
byed dan mthah dag gi yon tan rnams no bar ston par byed do.ji srid

\) This passage is a sneer at Hinduism. Vemacitra is the King of Asura's. Qanltara is the
famous Vedilnta-philosopher of the 8«' century. He originated from the Dekhan, wliere the Digamhara-sect
of the Jaina's flourished; probably for this reason he is called here mockingly quot;nakedquot;, the Buddhist
author confusing him with the Digambara's. Moreover he wrongly ascribes the doctrine of the three guna's,
which belongs to Sariikhya-philosophy, to the Vedrinta-systeni.

(here in this paradise). And when (Maitreya) has become a Buddha, he will predict') to
the practitioner that he also shall reach the Highest Enlightenment. The sadhana as it
is quoted in the Saptaqatikakalpa is finished.

bcom Idan hdas kyis byams pa mnon par ma rtogs pa de srid du gnas
so.miion par rtogs nas bla na med pa yaii dag par rdsogs pahi by an chub
tu lun ston par hgyur ro.rtog pa bdun brgya pa las gsuiis pahi rta mgrin
gyi sgrub thabs rdsogs so.

This form 1 call Dvesa, because here Hayagrlva bears on his crest the image of
Aksobhya, the progenitor of the Dvesa-kula. Again I give the translation of the
whole sadhana, side by side with the Sanskrit text and Tibetan translation

The noble Hayagrlva, obtained according to the ritual described above, by the in-
spection of the red syllable hurii in the sun on the full-blown lotus, should be imagined
as having a red complexion; having three faces and eight arms; each face having three
eyes; his right face is blue, his left face is white; he is adorned with serpents; his feet
are placed in the Lalitaksepa-attitude; he is looking with angry eyes; his middle face is
smiling, his right face shows a rolling tongue, whilst his left face shows the fangs gnawing

piirvoktavidhanena vi^vakamalasUrye raktaUumkarajhananispannam aryahayagfivafn rakta-
variant trimukham astabhiijam pratimukham trinetram nilasitadakf^inetaravadanani sarpa-
bharanam lalituksepapadanyasam sakrodhadrstinir'ikf^amdncwi pratkamamukham smeram

(rgya gar skad du. hayagrlva sadhanam. bod skad du.rta mgrin gyi
sgrub pahi thabs.dpal rta mgrin la phyag htshal lo.)snon du bstan pahi
cho gas sna tshogs padma dan ni ma la ham dmar pohi ye ges las yons
su rdsogs pahi hphags pa rta mgrin mdog dmar ba.sal gsum pa.phyag
brgyad pa.^al so so nas sbyan gsum gsum mo.siion po dan dkar po ni
gyas dan cig qos kyi ?al lo.sbrul gyi rgyan can.hgyin bag gis gnon cin
gnas pa khro bohi Ita stans kyis gzigs pa.^al dan po bsad pa.gyas pahi

2)nbsp;Cf. Sadh., II, p. 508; P. Coiidieh, Catalogue, LXXI, 85.
van gulik, Hayagrlva

the lips; he wears a tiger-skin for garment; his four right hands show the Vajra, the
stair, the karana-mudra'), and the arrow, while of his four left hands one is showing
the threatening fore finger, and the other is touching his own breast; the remaining two
hold the lotus and the bow; he wears the image of Aksobhya in his crown. This is the
meditation called Paramagvavajra, the Yajra of the Excellent Horse. The mantra runs:
oria harii hayagrlva svaha. (The Tib. adds: The sadhana of Hayagrlva is finished. It
has been made by the pandita Amoghavajra, and it was translated by a bhiksu-inter-
preter of Khams).

lalajjihvam dak/^inamiikham damstravastahdhaustliarn vamamukham vyaghracarmanivasanam

tarjanikasvakucagraliapadmadhanur-
udyatavamakaracatu^tayam a^ohUyamaulinam dhyayaditi. paramagvavajro nama samadhi.
mantrajapa: om ham hayagrlva svaha.

sal Ijags hdril ba.mche ba gfiis kyis ma mchu btsir ba.gyon pahi sal lo.
stag gi pags pahi qam thabs can no.rdo rje dan dbyug pa dan.byed pahi
phyag rgya dan.mdah l.iphyar ba ni gyas pahi phyag bsinho.sdigs mdsub
dan ran gi nu ma bzun pa dan.padma dan g§u hphyar pa ni gyon gyi
phyag bsinho.mi bskyod pas mnan pahi dbu rgyan can bsam par byaho
ses bya ba ni rta mchog ye ges rdo rje ses bya bahi tin ge hdsin to.snags
kyi bzlas pa ni.oiii hayagrlva svaha. rta mgrin gyi sgrub thabs rdsogs
so. pancjit don yod rdo rje dan khams pa lo tsa va dge slon bris
bsgyur bal.io.

In this form Hayagrlva boars the special name of quot;Excellent Horsequot;. See Bhat., plate
XXXIX, d. This picture, drawn by a contemporary Nepalese artist, agrees for the greater
part with the sadhana (cf. Sadh., page 510). He has three faces and eight arms. The
right face is composed of the fourfold head of Brahma. The god wears on his own head
a large horse-head of a greenish Qiarita) colour. The upper right hand carries the quadruple
vajra, the next shows the tripataka-mudra (little finger and thumb touching each

1) Rmat., page 193: quot;Any hand showing this mudril is outstretclied witli tiie index and the little
fingers erect, while the thumh presses the two remaining fingers against the palm of the handquot;. The Tibetan
equivalent is explained in the Dictionary of S. C. Das as: quot;a gesture made in practising magic, in conjuring
up or exorcising ghostsquot;.

other, the remaining three fingers being erected straight). The two other right hands carry
sword and arrow. The four left hands carry the lotus-fiower, three peacock-feathers, the
staff and the bell. Round his waist he carries a tiger-skin, and he is trampling upon
Hindu-gods (cf. Biiat., page 147).

Another form drawn by a Nepalese artist is shown in Bhat., plate XXV, d. Here
Hayagrrva is represented in a dancing attitude, with three heads and eight arms. From
his hair a horse's head emerges. Two of the right hands carry the arrow and the mace,
whilst a third hand shows the karana-mudrä. His two upper loft hands carry the bow
and the lotus-flower, whilst the third shows the krodha-musti (cf. description infra,
page 53). The two remaining hands are bent to the breast; the right one is carrying the
vajra, the left one the noose. He is clad in a tiger-skin.

The god is here represented in his benign aspect, having one head and four hands
(cf. Bhat., plate XLIII, 1). The two upper hands carry the rosary and the lotus-flower,
the others are bent before the breast, forming the dharmacakra-mudrä. The god sits
cross-legged on a lotus seat. The original is to be found in the Macchandar Vahal, at
Kathmandu, Nepal. The pictures of the different aspects of Avalokiteçvara there are about
twohundred years old.

In this form the god has only one head, and two arms. Tho right hand carries the
staff, raised in a threatening attitude. The left hand, bent to the breast, holds the noose.
The colour of the body is red, and from the hair emerges a green horse's head. He wears
the tiger-skin, and is adorned with a garland of human heads, and a green snake. Under
each foot he crushes an evil spirit. This seems to be his usual appearance when represented
in Tibet as tutelary god, Tib. yi dam (see PI. V). A variant with four arms is given
in Grünwedel, page 163. There he carries in the upper right hand the vajra-staff, while
the other right hand is showing the threatening mudrä. His left upper hand is holding
the lotus-flower, the other, bent to the breast, carries the wheel.

wears a horse's head. His right hand, raised in a threatening attitude, bears a sword.
His left hand, bent against the breast, holds the noose. Round the waist he wears a tiger-skin.

8. The Mysterious Hayagrlva.
{rta mgrin gzan sgriib.
This is the fiercest form of the god.
He has three faces, six arms and eight feet
(see Plate VH). His crown is adorned with
three horse's heads. His three right hands
carry the vajra, the trident, and the sword;
his three left hands carry a flame, a banner,
and the noose. Round his shoalders he wears
a human hide, while the nether part of his
body is covered by a tiger-skin. With all
his feet ho is trampling upon snakes. Cf. also
Getty, the bronze statue on PLXLlV,i; all
ornaments of the hands, except the vajra
and the grip of the sword, have been lost.

Here it would also seem that might be
classed the beautifal small Javanese bronze
of Hayagrlva, described by Krom, in quot;Bij-
dragen tot Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Ned. Indiequot;, part 67, p. 383. The attributes,
however, are different, and the figure bears
but one horse-head on his crown.

On Tibetan pictures Hayagrlva occurs
in this fierce form often as attendant of the
Five Dreadful Kings, Tib. Sku liia. Cf. the
picture 1/1478 in the Leyden Museum.

9. Hayagrlva as summoned by
Atlqa (jo bohi lugs kyi rta mgrin).
He has three faces and four arms. His
crown is adorned with the horse's head (see
plate VIII). His upper right hand is carrying
VII. Mysterious Hayagrlva. (Oldenburg, ibid.) the vajra, his Upper left hand holds a lotus-

flower. The two remaining hands are drawing the bow with an arrow on it. Round his
waist he wears the tiger-skin. With each foot he tramples upon an evil spirit. It is said
that the god appeared in this form when he was summoned by the famous pandit
Atlga (982—1055).

The (jakti is said to be VajravSrShl or MSrlcl, the goddess of the dawn. As such she
too is connected with the sun, and usually represented as standing on a chariot, drawn
by seven horses. In the Padma Thang Yig Hayagrlva vanquishes together with her the
terrible Rudra (cf. Le Diet de Padma, Padma
Thang Yig, transl. by G. C. Toussaint, Paris
1933, p. 39). Her colour, however, is stated
to be yellow or red, whilst the qakti of
Hayagrlva is always represented as having a
blue colour. This question needs further in-
vestigation.

The bronze statue in Getty, PI. XLIV, c
(see plate IV) has three faces and six hands.
The two upper right hands carry the axe and
the magic dagger, the two upper left hands
hold the sword and the magic staff (khat-
van g a). The two remaining hands encircle
the (jakti, while the left hand is holding a
skull-cup {kapTila, Tib. thod pa). The god is
richly adorned with garlands of skulls, and
surrounded by a halo of flames. He is provided

with two large wings, which indicate that this statue belongs to the rfiin-ma-sect
(cf. de Roerich, Tibetan Paintings, Paris 1925, page 37). In this form the god may also
carry the quadruple vajra, the sceptre, the vajra and the skull-cup (cf. de Roerich,
op. cit. page 39; cf. also the mandala, Leyden Museum, 2286/1).

A special aspect of Hayagrlva is his appearance in the shape of the Magic Dagger,
S. kUa, Tib. phur bu. As this form, however, is confined to Lamaism, I need not treat
it here. Cf. Getty, Plate LI, where bronze daggers are given; originally they should

be made of the demon-deterring K h a d i r a-wood {acacia catechu), cf. the specimen of
Leyden Museum, 1119/37). For its meaning cf. S. C. Das, A short description of the
Phur-pa, in Buddh. Text Society of India, Vol. lY (1896), part II ')•

1) This form of Hayagrlva is especially interesting because of its ornamentation, which closely
resembles that of the Javanese kris. The typical ornamentation of the mystic dagger is as follows.
The hilt is formed by a more or less conventionalized vajra; the pommel represents a bha ira va-head,
usually that of Hayagrlva, cliaracterized by one or three horse's heads on his crest. In some cases the
pommel shows a garuda-bird. The trilateral blade is topped by a makara-head, from whose yawning
mouth it, as it were, comes forth. The blade is decorated by one or two twisted serpents, that sometimes merge

into the tongue or the hair of the makara-head. Figure a. shows a bronze
magic dagger (drawn after the original in Koloniaal Instituut, Amsterdam,
A^olkenkundig Museum, No. N. A. M. 29/8), where these motifs may be
clearly distinguished. The pommel is formed by the three heads of Haya-
grlva, with one horse's head on the crest. It should he noticed how exactly
this representation agrees with the directions of the siidhana's: the three
eyes and the protruding canine teeth are dearly visible, whilst the left
face is showing the rolling tongue. The hilt is formed by the vajra, sur-
mounted by and resting on coiled serpents. Then the makara-head, with
the typical curled upper lip, which resembles the trunk of an elephant. The
sharp canine tooth and the undulating tongue are noticeable. At the back
of the blade one sees cn profile two entwined serpents.

The Javanese kris shows this same ornamentation. The blade, straight
or undulating, represents a serpent, while the hilt is formed by a con-
ventionalized garuda-bird, or by the figure of a demon (but a). The
upper edge of the blade, gandja (cf. figure b) .shows a curious ornament,
the technical name of which is I am be liman, elephant's lip. In this
motif we recognize the remnant of a makara-head. Sometimes this
Figure a Figure bnbsp;lamb(5 liman coincides with the mouth of the serpent, whose body is

depicted on the blade (Leyden Museum, Catalogus, Part XI, Java, 191G,
Plate IX, fig. 1). In some specimens the analogy with the Tibetan dagger is complete. So kris 1G79/G of
the Leyden Museum has for hilt a finely carved horse's head, rising from flower- and leaf-ornaments. On
the breast of the horse a standing garuda with outspread wings is represented (cf. the drawing in
Catalogus XI, p. 133). The idea is worked out furtlier on number 1503/4: the ivory hilt shows a con-
ventionalized garuda, on its breast a winged horse is depicted, on its back the sun-disc with twelve
rays. These examples prove that the garuda as hilt of the kris was conceived as sun-bird, the kuda
sembrani of Javanese mythology. So we see that one and the same Indian conception underlies the or-
namentation of the Tib. magic dagger as well as the Javanese kris. The typical form of the kris, however,
can not be explained from Indian data. Perhaps Takahashi Genji is right when he connects the kris
with the ancient Chinese Chou-halberds, which show the same typical shape; similar specimens have
been excavated in Japan (Takahashi Genji, Doboko doken no kenkyn, Tokyo 1925). Be this as it may, at
any rate our comparison of dagger and kris supplies us with an important suggestion as to the method
that should be followed in investigating the Javanese kris: the problem of the ornamentation (Indian),
and the problem of the shape (Indonesian, probably connected with China) should be kept strictly apart.

As secondary god Hayagrlva as a rule does not bear the horse's head on his crest.
Usually, however, he may be recognized by his fierce appearance, his protruding belly,
and his snake-ornaments. His attributes are the staff or the club. On paintings his red
colour and his tiger-skin are noticeable.

Most frequently he appears together with Tara, Sudhanakumâra and BhrkutI
in the suite of Avalokiteçvara in his different aspects.

This group of four are the fixed attendants of Amoghapâça Avalokiteçvara.
To the left of the central figure Amoghapâça, are Hayagrlva and BhrkutI, to the right
first Sudhanakumâra and then Târâ. This representation was very popular in Mahâyâna
Buddhism, and spread from Northern India all over Tibet, China and the Indonesian
Archipelago. In a specimen of this group, found some years ago at Nâlandâ, Hayagrlva
is represented resting with his left hand on the club, while his right hand is raised in
greeting. (Cf. photo No. C.C. 2722, Arch. Survey of India; cf. also the photo in Foucher,
I, p. 101).

In the tjandi Djago (near Tumpang, Java), where in 1268 the ashes of King
Viçnuvardhana were deposited, a similar group occurred (cf. Brandes. Tjandi Djago,
Den Haag 1904). Tho stone figure of Hayagrlva of this group (now in the Batavia Museum)
is a fine specimen of Hindu-Javanese art (see Plate IX). Body and head are adorned with
snake-ornaments. His left hand is resting on the club, the right hand is raised in greeting.
The son of Visnuvardhana, the famous King Krtanagara, had five bronze copies made of
this group.

With this Javanese group may be compared the Nepalese picture (1943 No. 3) in the
Leyden Museum, whore Amoghapâça is represented with on his left hand first the red
Hayagrlva, and next to him Bhrkut-I, while at the right hand of the central figure Sudha-
nakumâra and the green Târâ appear. Hayagrlva wears here on his crown a green horse's
head. On Tibetan paintings too this combination is often met with. Cf. for instance
Grunwedel, the reproduction on page 129.

Later on this group of five is extended to far more complicated mandala-like com-
positions. Then Hayagrlva leaves his fixed place on the left side of the central figure,
and is to be found among the bhairava's on the foreground (cf. Leyden Museum, 2285/1).

From the llth_i2th century dates a finely executed dark basalt statue of Avalo-
kiteçvara, with at his left side a smaller image, undoubtedly correctly identified by Cohn

as representing Hayagrlva. He may be recognized by his fierce appearance and his raised
right hand. Here, however, he appears resting with his left hand on an axe instead of on
a club or mace (cf. W. Coiin, Asiatische Plastik, Sammlung Bar. E. von der Heydt,
Berlin 1932, p. 122; detail-photo of Hayagrlva on page 125).

Further Hayagrlva appears, together with BlirkutI etc., as attendant of other aspects
of Avalokitegvara; for instance Khasarpana (Biiat. p. 37, Sadii. p. 37, 40, 41, 44, 49,
59, 64) and Pad man a rtog vara (Biiat. p. 42, Sadii. page 77).

These are the main places, where Hayagrlva appears as a secondary figure. I may
add that occasionally he is represented in his quality of God of Fever on a statue of
Parnagavarl, together with gitala, the Goddess of Small-pox (Biiat., p. 110).

For further representations of Hayagrlva as a minor god see the above-mentioned
standard-works of Biiattaoiiaryya, Fouciier, indices s. v. Hayagrlva.

CHAPTER III
HAYAGRIVA IN CHINA
1. Horse-cult before the introduction of Buddhism

Recent investigations have disclosed that in ancient China fertility and fecundity
rites played an important rôle '). It is difficult to say with certainty whether the horse
was included in those rites. There are, however, some symptoms which point emphatically
to this direction. I willquot; try now to follow some of these traces, which lead us back to a
remote antiquity.

A reliable description of the customs and rites that were in vogue during the
Chou-dynasty (1050—256 B.C.) may be found in the Chou-li j^fif. In part IV we
come across some short records of sacrifices to horse-gods. In the passage where the
duties of the equerry, hsiao-jen ^ \ are described, we read: quot;In spring he sacrificed

to the Ancestor of Horses---- In summer he sacrificed to the First Horse-breeder____

In autumn he sacrificed to the First Horse-rider____In winter he sacrificed to the god

jjtl: • • • ^ ^ ^ • The commentaries furnish some sparse information about these
figures. The Ancestor of Horses is identified as the constellation Fang(Fang-su
forming part of Scorpio) which also bears the name of Heavenly Horse, t ' i e n - m a ^ ,
or Heavenly four-in-hand team, t'ien-ssu ^ The commentator Kuo P'o (fP
276—324 A.D.) explains this denomination as follows: quot;The Dragon is the Heavenly Horse,
therefore the four stars named Fang (that form the belly of the Dragon) were called the
Heavenly Four-in-hand teamquot;, gg ^ ,nbsp;SI ^ il- Whereas

then in spring this constellation is quot;en chaleurquot; sacrifices made in this season are supposed
to conduce the fecundity of the horse.

However, it appears to me that this is a secondary explanation. It would be more

1)nbsp;Kaiuxuien, Sonic Fecundity Symbols in Ancient China (Museum of Far Pkstern Antiquities, Bull. 2,
Stockholm 1930); Kuo Mo-jo, Researches on Inscriptions on Bones,

2)nbsp;Cf. Kaulgren, The early history of the Cliou-li and Tso-chuan Texts (Mus. of Far Eastern Antiquities,
Bull. 3, Stockholm 1931).

obvious to associate this sacrifice with the horses pulling along the Chariot of the Sun.
It is evidenced by several literary records that the ancient Chinese knew of such a conception.
The old Sun-hymn Tung Chiinnbsp;for instance, when speaking of the Sun says:

«1 drive on my horsesquot; ftS ^nbsp;'i'lie philosopher Ch'uang-tziinbsp;fourth

century B.C.) speaks in Chapter 24 of quot;ascending the chariot of the sunquot;, ^ 0
This very antique conception is soon overgrown by other ideas. A later commentary, for
instance, says that the horses of the sun are Dragons.

It seems very probable to me that the figure of the Ancestor of Horses is to be
associated with these horses of the sun-chariot; this would also be an explanation of the
circumstance that spring was selected as the season for sacrificing to this god.

The First Horse-breeder and the First Horse-rider arc a couple out of those many
anthropomorphic quot;First Cultivatorsquot; in which Chinese mythology abounds.

About the fourth figure nothing in particular is known. The commentary only mentions
him as a god who bears malice to horses. I have made an attempt to parallel this name
with expressions like t'ien-punbsp;quot;the way of Heavenquot; (cf. Shih-ching II, 8, V2)

and kuo-pu ^ quot;the fato of the landquot; (cf. Shih-ching, HI, 3, I1I2), and consequently
translated the name as quot;God that looks over the condition of the horsesquot;.

These data, however, are too sparse to produce a firm ground for further con-
clusions; they only prove the existence of a horse-cult. How the later Chinese tradition
supplemented these data will be dealt with in the second part of this chapter.

The horse is furthermore specially mentioned among the gifts that accompany the
dead into the grave. The Chou-li (IV, sub ta-ssti-ma ^ mentions among the
duties of the Great Marshall, ta-ssu-ma; quot;At the funeral sacrifice he should present
horses as victims, and announce their arrival to the deceasedquot;, ^^^fS^^tt-
According to the commentary this ceremony bears the special name ofchien-tien
the horses are led to the grave; there the Great Marshall solemnly announces their arrival
and then the horses are buried together with the deceased (ijJJ^jSH

work of minor importance in this ceremony: he adorns the horses (here they appear to
be the horses of the chariots), and buries them (t^A^^^fyli^^-^'^» ^^

Not only the King was given horses along with him into the grave, but also for the

grandees and the subjects in general this custom was in vogue. Compare for instance
I-li ^ ;|g, chapter XIII, Chi-hsi ^ ^. And then we may further quote Ch'un-ch'iu
under the Duke Yinnbsp;722—712 B.C.): quot;In autumn, the seventh month,

tho King sent the Minister Hsiian to present carriages and horses for the funerals of
Duke Hui and his wife Chung-tzuquot;, ^ , ^ ^ , ^ 3E 01 ^ PM ^fnbsp;#

jl^y}. The character fen g ll^^j has the special meaning of the presenting of horses, eventually
chariots and horses, at a funeral ceremony. Further particulars regarding this custom are
to be found in the Li-cm jjiffl the Book of Rites. Here we find two kinds of gifts at
funeral ceremonies, with different aims, kept strictly apart, viz. in the first place feng,
the offering of presents to tho deceased, being gifts destined to be buried together with
the deceased. And secondly fu IHtï, which means: presents given to the relations of the
deceased, to defray the expenses of tho funeral ceremony. These presents consisted of
silk, valuables etc. As a rule feng and fu are mentioned together. So for instance in
Li-Chi VI, 2, 7, where the good reign of King Wen (Wen Wang ^ ï) is described;
there we read: quot;As to feng, fu and the precious stones to be put in the mouth of the
deceased, they were all submitted to fixed rulesquot;, ^ ^ flfj 11$nbsp;, ^ IE

And in Li-chi VI, 2, 14, where the behaviour of tho prince's relations is praised: quot;They
took part in the mourning, and offered fu and fengquot;, ^ ^ mf .

The meaning of the presents that were given to accompany the deceased into tho
grave was mainly a magical one; they were supposed to communicate magic vitality
(yangnbsp;to the deceased. This was especially the case with tho jade (yunbsp;this

being considered as a receptacle par excellence of yang-force (cf. Karlgren, op. cit. page 39).
A similar rôle was played by tho cowry, pei in its quality of old fecundity symbol
(cf. Karlgren, op. cit., page 40, and Andersson, Children of the Yellow Earth, London
1934, Ch. XIX, «Aphrodite's Symbolquot;).

Besides these gifts, however, there were others, like utensils and weapons; these wore
simply meant to accompany the deceased to the Hereafter, and generally they were not
supposed to have a special magic power to impart vitality to the deceased.

Now the question is forced upon us: what was the function of these horses, which
accompanied the deceased in the grave? Wore they supposed to communicate magic
force to the deceased, or were they only meant to serve him as draught-horses for his
chariots in his life after death?

It seems that the character feng may provide a clue to this question. The ancient
form of this character is thus oven in the oldest form of this character, the cowry

is already inherentquot;). The character fu on the contrary obtained the radical pei only
afterwards 2); originally it meant nothing more than quot;to give, to presentquot; generally. Thus
the radical pei in the character feng must be interpreted quite differently from the
radical pei in the character fu. In fu it was added later to indicate that objects of
value were presented. In ancient China the cowry was a usual means of payment; therefore
fu is exclusively a contribution to the expenses of the funeral. This appears clearly from
passages like Li-chi I, first part, IV, 37; II, first part, II, 34 and XXIX, 47.

Feng on the contrary had a much deeper religious meaning. This is evidenced by
Li-chi XV, 6, where horses are also mentioned among fu-gifts, but quite apart from the
feng-horses: quot;The horses that were given to the deceased were led into the ancestral

temple; the horses and other presents----that were given to defray the expenses of the

funeral, were not led into the ancestral templequot; (|l?} il]| A® PI .nbsp;M ^ ^f...

^ A M5 PT )• Considering this special religious meaning of f e n g, we may assume that
in this character, where from the beginning the element pei was inherent, this pei, the
cowry, must be understood in its oldest, original meaning of fecundity symbol.
Therefore in my opinion these feng-horses were meant to be magic gifts, for communi-
cating yang-force to the deceased, just like the jade etc.

This would imply that also in ancient China the horse was considered as a fecundity
symbol; this fact might be explained from the above-mentioned conception of the horse
as combined with the sun.

Such a conception agrees well with the combination sun — sunhorse — fecundity-
symbol, that is spread the whole world over (cf. Ch. I).

However other possibilities exist. The material is inadequate to prove that my
explanation is right; we may just call it a probability.

Although one thus may find in ancient China some traces of a horse-cult that was
connected with fecundity- and fertility-rites, in the first century A.D., when Buddhism was
introduced, it seems that this association had fallen into oblivion. quot;When later on the
preachers of the Mahayana brought the figure of Hayagrlva to China, there is hardly one
tradition with which this Horse-headed One can be linked up.

1)nbsp;Cf. Takada [JJ, Koch ü-hennbsp;Tokyo 1925, vol. 99, page 16, and for this special
shape of the cowry vol. 99, page 4.

There may exist some connections between the White Horse that according to
the later tradition accompanies Buddhist pilgrims to carry the Sacred Books'), and the
Agvaratna, that is usually represented carrying the Seven or Five-fold Wish-granting
Gem. But this motif is sooner connected with Taoist and Confucianist elements than
with the special figure of the Horse-headed One. Compare for instance the Hsi-yu-chi

® IE' composed during the Yuan-dynasty, the fantastic account of the travels of
Hsiian Tsangnbsp;the famous Buddhist pilgrim; here (chapter XV) the White

Horse is explained as a transformation of a dragon, who by performing the holy task of
the transport of the Sacred Books, expiated a former sin 2). Perhaps this motif has been
infiuenced by the very ancient Chinese Lung-ma, Dragon-Horse, that in mythical
times is said to have emerged from the Yellow River, carrying on its back a mystic map').
In this connection one should, in my opinion, explain also the evolution of the Confucian
conception of the Unicorn and the Book. Usually the unicorn is represented in plastic
arts as holding some books in its mouth, or as carrying them on its back. It is said that
before Confucius was born, his mother saw an unicorn appear, that held in its mouth
a jade tablet, on which a prophecy regarding Confucius' future glory was written. This
is told in the Shih-i-chinbsp;^ collection of fabulous tales compiled by W^ang

(fourth century A.D.). The well-known quotation is lin t'u yu shu ^
quot;the unicorn spat out the jade writingquot;. By amalgamation with the idea of
the White Horse that carries the Sacred Books, this jade tablet was first understood as
meaning a real book, and finally by further anology the unicorn was made to carry it
on its back.

The ch'i-lin is a very complicated figure; the various elements that have contributed
to its present shape have not yet been satisfactorily analysed It would be of interest,
for instance, to investigate whether the often quoted lines: quot;The feet of the lin do not
tread on living plants, they do not crush living insects: this illustrates the virtuous and
generous nature of the linquot; (Chu Hsi, 1130-1200:nbsp;^M^

•1) Cf. the clay tomb-figure reproduced in IIentze, Les Figurines de la Céramique funéraire, Dresden,
plate 83.

2)nbsp;Cf the detailed account in Doré, Recherches sur les superstitions en Chine, Part VIII, page 358—359.

4)nbsp;Cf B. Laufer, Chinese Clay Figures, I (Chicago 1914) pag. 114, and the literature referred to there;
Doré, op. cit.. Part II, No. 4, p. 446; Ku-chin-t'u-shu-chi-ch'eng, XV, 56, 2.

reading Balaha, Valaha), in my opinion this is the idea that underlies the well-known
Chinese ch'ih-manbsp;quot;paper horsesquot;, vulgo chia-manbsp;sheets of paper with

some gods pictured on them, which are burnt at offerings: the divine horse carries the offerings
and prayers to the gods. Chinese sources explain this usage differently; the officially adopted
point of view^) seems to be, that the ch'ih-ma are a remnant of ancient horse-offerings
at burials. First the real horses were replaced by wooden ones, and finally by horses
made of paper. If this is true, then the conception of the Aerial horse (cf. the Tib. rlun
rta, described above) will have contributed to the fact that their use was ever more
extended.

In China no new traits were added to the figure of Hayagrlva. Generally he remains
in the secondary place, and if he advances to the foreground it is mainly because of the
fact that he is an aspect of the popular Bs. Avalokiteqvara. Traces of Chinese horse-cult
connected with seri-culture have been incorporated in Buddhism, but they are connected
with the famous Aqvaghosa, the quot;Horse-voicedquot;. This Bs. is usually represented as
riding a horse, and he is accompanied by a woman, whose head is covered by the head
of a horse, and who is called Ts'an-ming ^ This figure might be identical
with Ma-t'ou-niangnbsp;the Lady with the Horse's head, in Chinese popular

religion the special goddess of sericulture This subject would necessitate a separate
investigation. I could not, however, discover any connection between this conception and
the figure of Hayagrlva.

Nor does there exist any connection between Hayagrlva and the Horse-headed figure
that, together with a Cow-headed one, accompanies Yen-lo-wang jM] 3E'
who presides over tho fifth hell. Yen-lo-wang is the Indian Yamaraja, the King of the
Dead. In Chinese popular religion he is represented with on his right side a horse-headed
figure, that carries a spear with a long blade. The cow-headed figure is standing on his
left side®). These two figures are very popular with tho Chinese as demon-destroyers;

G) Cf. Doiu':, part VI, fig. 47; the horsc-hcaded figure is also seen at the right of Sung-ti-wang,
the King of the third hell; Mythologie Asiatique, Paris 1928, page 340.

figures are the usual attendants of Ch'eng-huangnbsp;the God of Walls and Moats,

who is one of the celestical Judges '). His cult seems to have become popular rather late,
viz. during the Sung dynasty. 1 think those two attendants were given to him in anology
with Yen-lo-wang, because Ch'eng-huang excercises a similar function. Here Ma-mien also
has a human body and the head of a horse; he is holding tho trident.

These two warlike attendants have been chosen out of tho Twelve Holy Generals,
Shi h-or h sheng-chiangnbsp;This group is the Buddhist adaptation of the

twelve ancient Chinese cyclic animals. Rat, Cow Tiger, Rabbit etc. -). They are represented
as warriors, having human bodies but animal heads. Each carries his own special weapon :
Ma-t'ou ^ (this is his original appellation) holds a lance and Niu-t'ou a mace
In China and Corea these twelve figures were used as guardians of tombs. A very fine
statue of tho horse-headed figure, carved in stone, is to be found near the King's tomb
at Kyong-tju, in Corea It dates from about the eighth century, and is a splendid
specimen of craftmanship. The figure is represented en face, and is clad in Chinese warriors
attire. The right hand holds a fiaming sword, whilst with the left hand he tests the
sharpness of the edge. Tho figure has a simple horse's head, without any decoration
whatever.

In the older passages of the Canon where Hayagrlva is mentioned, we find his
Sanskrit name transcribed with Chinese characters. Later on, however, the Chinese
translation Ma-t'ou ^ becomes more usual. Then he is called Hayagrlva Mahâ-
vidyârâja, Ma-t'ou ta-ming-wang J^IMi^^J]^^ Hayagrlva Avalo-
kiteçvara, Ma-t'ou kuan-shih-yin

Among the material here available to me I could not find any Chinese picture of
Hayagrlva. In the Japanese sources I found ono picture, which represents Hayagrlva,
with the special appellation quot;Chinese formquot;, jg |i| ; it is said that this form has been
taught by Çubhakarasiiiiha. Therefore I chose this picture for facing tho first page of this

3)nbsp;G. Masi'ero (in his contribution to quot;Mythologie Asiatiqucquot;, Paris 1928, p. 349) gives for these two
satellites the Sanskrit equivalents Agvamukha and Gofirsa, without adding an explanation as to their
origin. These names are indeed exact translations of Ma-mien and Niu-t'ou; I do not know, however,
on what source he relics for these equivalents. One will look for them in vain in Chinese Buddh. dictionaries.

4)nbsp;Cf. Eckarut, a History of Korean Art, London 1929, figure 153, and Ch. 9, Stone Figures by
Iloyal Tombs.

book. In chapter IV I have reproduced some drawings taken from Japanese sources, some
of which may be replica from Chinese originals. As I am not quite sure about this point,
I have prefered not to use them to illustrate this Chinese chapter. I have not the slightest
doubt that, apart from the pictures in Tibetan style of the Lamaist temples, in China
there must exist many pictures and statues of Hayagrlva in Buddhist monasteries etc.
As far as I know, however, none has been published.

In the following section of this chapter I have collected and translated the passages
of the Canon where Hayagrlva is dealt with, commencing with the shorter ones and
finally giving the longer text, that is exclusively devoted to his worship. Sometimes it
was necessary to add some observations as to the authenticity of these texts.

I permit myself to precede the translations by some remarks about the translating
of Mantrayanic texts in general.

3. Hayagrlva in the Chinese Canon
A. The Reading of the Magic Formulae (DharanI and mantra)

The reading of the magic formulae in Chinese Buddhist texts is a perilous task in
more than one respect. In order to make the dharanl's preserve intact their full magical
force, one did not venture to translate them, but limited one's effort to the rendering of
the original Indian sounds as accurately as possible. Sometimes the formulae were left
standing in the Siddharii-alphabet (hsi-t'an ^ the favourite syllabic writing
used by Chinese and Japanese Buddhists for reproducing Sanskrit words and sentences.
These Siddham-characters resemble the Tibetan Lafitsha-alphabet, adapted to the
Chinese brush '). According to Chinese usage it is written in vertical rows, from right to left
(cf. the mantra reproduced in Ch. IV, 3). In reading this Siddham-texts one does not en-
counter much difficulty.

Mostly, however, another method was followed, viz. that of transcribing the Indian
sounds, for better or for worse, by means of Chinese characters. Owing to the fundamental
difference of the two languages this method was naturally accompanied by almost

1) For the origin of Lantslia cf. A. II. Fuanckk, The Tibetan Alphabet (Epigrapiiia Indica, Vol. XI,
1911—-12, p. 2GC). The best exposition of the Siddham-characters with all the ligatures occuring, may be
found in the Japanese grammar of Sanskrit byWogihara Unrai

Tokyo 1929). Cf. further Ts. 2132 Ilsi-t'an-tzu-ch i # ^ ^ |E, and the following items; also the
article Shit tan in Mik. p. 990. For the Lantsha-caracters cf. A. Cso.ma 1)E Kouos, Grammar of the Tibetan
Language, Calcutta 1834, lithographed pages.

insuperable difficulties, for the solution of which many, often quite ingenious tricks were
invented. One of these was to add various technical directions to the texts, indicating
the pronunciation and intonation. Thus, for instance, the Indian sound tra was quite
unknown in ancient Chinese. It was transcribed as ^ *t a - *1 a, with the additional
remark erh-ho ZL ^, meaning: quot;combine these two!quot;, thus making ^ra (in Chinese
ears). To indicate a long vowel, such as in tu, one wrote ^ ( ), meaning: ta (extend!),
hence: tU. In the texts translated below many further examples may be found. As the
translators who introduced these transcriptions lived in different times and in different
parts of China, and as the Chinese language has always been differentiated in several
widely divergent dialects, it has never been feasible to arrive at the adoption of a definite
system of transcription, say in the shape of a few hundred characters which, either
separately or in fixed combinations, would render definite Indian sounds. As it was, every
translator used his own system, which soon led to a great confusion. Thus even the best
known words are found transcribed in the most diverging ways, e.g. the word Buddha
is found rendered in various texts severally asf^ , ,f||ç , .©C ^ Il ^ # ® .
f^. . No single system of transcription thus being able to answer permanently to the
exigences of a correct rendering, the reciting of the incantations must have been a
venturesome undertaking even for the ancient Chinese Buddhists ').

For the modern investigator the problem becomes still more intricate. For him the
modern pronunciation of the Chinese characters, which has little in common with the
pronunciation which they used to connote in ancient times, must be his principal indication.
Owing to the fact that the Chinese script is almost exclusively ideographic, the ancient
pronunciation is only known more or less hypothetically in respect of certain localities
and periods. Moreover, the transcribers or copyists often made mistakes or used variants
which may have had fatal effects. If to all this is added the fact, that the original formulae
were not always written in correct Sanskrit, and often were composed in later Indian
dialects, or in a jumble of both, it may be understood that the reconstruction of Sanskrit
texts which are thus transcribed into Chinese is a matter of great patience, and of a
considerable amount of conjecture as well.

Happily there are points of support to be found in the formulae that reached us in
the Siddharii-script; in the translations that often accompany the formulae; and in the
texts which have survived in the original Indian version, or in Tibetan transcriptions.

1) Chinese Huddhists therefore compiled many Sanskrit (transcribed) -Chinese Vocabularies, specimens
of which may be found in Ts., part LIV.

Some western scholars, moreover, have collected many important data. As a standard-
work may still be regarded Stanislas Julien, Méthode pour déchiffrer et transcrire les
noms sanscrits, qui se rencontrent dans les livres chinois, Paris 1861. The edition of the
Gandistotragâthâ, by Baron A. vonStaël-Holstein (Biblioth. Buddhica XV, St. Petersburg
1918) is also of much use; here we find the Sanskrit, the Tibetan, and Chinese tran-
scriptions printed side by side. 0. Rosenberg in his Introduction to the Study of Buddhism
(Tokyo 1916) registers for each Chinese character the Indian sound-equivalents to which
it may respond. Furthermore the Sankrit Indices of Mik. and Buk. may elucidate many
doubtful cases. The first critical treatment, however, is contained in the index to the
excellent paper of Sylvain Levi, Le catalogue des Yaksa dans le MahâmSynri, Journal
Asiatique, 1915. Here we find the Chinese characters which are used for tho phonetical
rendering of the different names occurring in the text, arranged according to their modern
pronunciation with the addition of the Indian sounds to which they correspond, mention
being made at the same time of the author who used them for such transcription. quot;When
some authentic texts of the Canon have been treated in this manner, it will be possible
then to find in the transcribed formulae important criteria for determining the authenticity
of other texts. I leave out of consideration here the enormous service which such critically
investigated transcriptions would render in the tracing back of the pronunciation of
ancient Chine.se ').

In the texts translated below I have, generally speaking, translated the formulae which
seemed relevant to me, adding at the foot of the page the Indian reconstruction, together
with the Chinese characters. The remark or h-ho after two or more characters I have
replaced by between them, and if a word was repeated, I have added (2 X). As a
rule I have not added the romanization to the Chinese characters employed to transcribe a
Sanskrit word or phrase, such being of little use in the given circumstances.

The magic formulae are especially important because they have faithfully preserved
the original Indian elements. We often meet in a dhSraiiT names and appellations of a
deity, which in China have been forgotten altogether, and which one therefore will seek
in vain in the Chinese text itself, in which the said dharani occurs (cf. p. 67, sub 116).

A special form of the mantra to which I should like to direct the attention here

-1) n. Kahlgrpin in his studies on ancient Chinese has used some Buddh. transcriptions; the way to
further research in this direction has been smoothed by Yamada Takao jjjnbsp;in liis quot;Index

Most of the magic formulae are introduced by means of the very ancient Indian holy
sound orii (tij|5; cf. Mik., p. 193). At the end one generally flnds the syllables hum and
phat. H arilnbsp;cf. Mik., page 128) symbolizes strength, with special relation to

the destroying of evil powers. A similar meaning is attached to the syllable ph
cf. Mik., page 1819), which means to split, to break. The sound ü (p.^; cf. Mik., p. 113)
also conveys the idea of destroying. A formula usually closes with svähänbsp;quot;Hail!quot;.

Many syllables, moreover, are mystic germs (S. hija, Chin, chung-tzu,
i. e. sounds in which the essence of a deity is contained. By the meditation over this sound
(inspection) one may evoke in oneself the image of a deity. So the germ hrlh (^ ^Ij)
represents the essence of the Bs. Avalokiteçvara. The germ of Hayagrlva is h am (jg;
cf. Mik., p. 1821), which is analysed as ha, the initial syllable of his name, with the
addition of the nasal (anusvUra) the symbol of the universe. Sometimes we find also
mentioned as his germ the germ kharii Mik., p. 458), explained as the first syllable
of khada quot;devourquot;, a part of the special mantra of Hayagrlva (cf. page 54), again with
the nasal sound added. Finally the syllable varii ; cf. Mik., p. 1826), the germ of the
god Vairocana, is repeatedly met with in Mantrayanic texts.

Inseparably connected with the mantra's are the mudrä's (Chin.: yinnbsp;literally

seals, the mystic play of the hands, or manual gestures. By the making of a mudrä
the mantra is sealed as it were, tho word is given shape by it.

The mudrä is a special case of tho belief which is spread over the entire world, that
the hand, or fingers as the case may be, represent a special magic agency 2). By the
adoption of certain gestures of hands and fingers the practitioner is supposed to transform

1)nbsp;l'or their meaning in Hinduism see Avalo.v, Sliaiai and Shfiiita, London 1929, chap. 24 and 25;
id., A Garland of Letters, VarnamSlS, London 192;}. For their meaning in liuddhism cf. the article A in
Hob.; also Stein, Ueber zwei Ausgaben der SaptaçatI, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgen-
landes, 1926.

2)nbsp;For the magical meaning of manual gostures in general cf. Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion
and Ethics, s.v. Hand.; quot;Imagoquot;, VII, p. 28, 29, 153, 154, 108, 345; Eciitekmeyer, Ueber Namen und sym-
bolische Bedeutung der Finger bei den Griechen und Römer, 18:55. For the Buddh. mudrn cf. Kawamoura
et de Milloué, Si-do-in-dzou, Gestes de l'olficiant dans les cérémonies mystiques des sectes Tendai et
Singon, Paris 1899; See also P. de Kat Angelino, Mudrû's op Bali, Den Haag, 1922.

himself into a conductor of the mystic forces which have been actuated by the pronouncing
of the mantra.

Just as with the recital of mantra's, so with the formation of mudra's extreme
exactitude is of the greatest importance. Hence in the texts every mudrii is found
described with meticulous care. Sometimes the fingers are referred to in these descriptions
by the usual current Chinese names, viz. ta-chih ^ thumb, shih-chih ^
(or t'ou-chihnbsp;index, chung-chihnbsp;middle finger, wu-ming-chih

^ ring finger, hsiao-chih /Jn little finger. This terminology, however, might
also be understood by laymen, who might be liable to wrongly use this powerful magical
instrument. Hence a more usual way is to name the fingers by their secret, mystic
apellations. In the She-ta-i-kuei gt;) ^ ^ ft, translated by Amoghavajra, these
mystic values are explained as follows: quot;The ten fingers are the Ten Virtues of Perfection
(S. paramitd), or also they are called the ten Essential Worlds (S. dharmadliUtu), or also
the tenfold Truth (S. tathatn). When folded together they form one entity, but when
spread out they have different names. The left little finger is called Charity (fan, S.
dana), the ring finger is called Morality (chieh, S. gda), the left middle finger is called
Resignation (jen, S. kmnti), the left fore finger is called Energy (chin, S. vmja), the
loft thumb is called Meditation (chan, S. dhyana). The right little finger is called
Understanding (hui, S. prajna)^ the ring finger is called the Means (fang, S. upUya),
the right middle finger is called the Vows (yiian, S. pranidhana), the right fore finger is
called Power (li, S. hala), the right thumb is called Knowledge (chih, S. jMrina)quot;Besides
this system others are mentioned, the description of which I need not enter into here,
as in the texts translated below only the system described above is used, varied with
the ordinary everyday namesFurther the left hand is sometimes indicated by the
mystic name ting the right hand by the appellation hui

1 shall, however, have to dwell slightly on the special names of different gestures of
the hand, which repeatedly occur in the texts.

3) In llio translation of the ChinosD texts I liavo acljeil tlio Chinese pronunciation in brackols to the
names of the fingers, where these were denoted by their mystic names.

In the first place six kinds of fists'), liu chung ch'uan @ ^ are
distinguished, viz.:

1.nbsp;Lot us-fist, lien-hua-ch'uannbsp;S. padma-musti. The fist is clenched
with the thumb outside, pressed against the fore finger.

2.nbsp;Vajra-fist, chin-kang-ch'uan ^nbsp;S. vajm-musH. The fist is clenched
with the thumb folded inside the other fingers.

3.nbsp;Turned-outwards, wai-funbsp;S. bahir-bandhana. The fingers of both hands
are entwined together in such a way that the tops of the fingers of each hand rest on
the back of the other hand.

4.nbsp;Turned-in wards, nei-fu ^ l-fl), S. antara-bandhana. The fingers of both hands
are entwined in such a way that the fingertops of both hands are invisible.

5.nbsp;Anger-fist, fen-nu-ch'uannbsp;S. krodha-musti. The little finger and the
index finger are bent hook-wise, the ring finger and middle finger are folded down over
the thumb turned inward over the palm of the hand.

6.nbsp;Tathagata-fist, ju-lai-ch'uan jji^ S. tathUgata-mufjti. The left hand is
clenched to a fist with the thumb pointing upwards, which is then enclosed by the
right hand.

The belief in the magical force of the krodha-musH is spread over the entire world.

Cf. Hastings, op. cit., sub voce Hand:quot;----the most common is the mano cornuta, in

which the index and little fingers are extended to imitate horns, the others being bent
over and clasped by the thumb. This gesture is both ancient and wide-spread in its use.
It is represented in early Christian art as a gesture of the hand symbolizing the Deityquot;.
Further it is used especially against the evil eye. Also in Buddhism this gesture will
scare away demons and evil infiuences.

Both hands folded together in some way or other are called ho-chang
S. ahjali. In Hinduism the anjali is nothing else than placing the hollowed hands together
in respectful greeting. In Buddhism, however, this term seems to be very loosely used,
meaning any posture of both hands together generally. Once I found ho-chang transcribed
as yamaka, quot;pairquot;, which seems to be a better appellation.

Twelve special ho-chang are distinguished, each of which has a separate name (cf.
Him., p. 452, and Mik., p. 879). Some of this group occur in our texts, and are
described there.

1.nbsp;MahEvairocana-sutra ^ Jg ^ M fJ^ ^ filP ® M W (Ts. 848),
translated by gubhakarasimha and I Hsing (cf. supra, page 25, 26).

Ch. I, p^age 6 and 7, Avalokitegvara is described as forming part of a mandala. To his
right is Tara, to his left BhrkutI, and in front of him Hayagrlva.

at dawn. White lotus-flowers adorn his body. He is surrounded by garlands of bright fire.

He should have a fierce appearance, showing his bare fangs. He has sharp nails, and the
mane of a lionquot; ').

«The mantra of Hayagrlva runs: Hail to all the Buddha's! Hnrii! Devour! Break!
Destroy! Svaha. (S.: namo samanta buddhanam hum khada bhahja sphatya svaha Chin •

2.nbsp;Ta-jih-ching-shu 0 ^ (Ts. 1796), an extensive commentary on the
MahSvairocana-sntra, written by I Hsing. On page 682 the passage quoted above is explained
in the following way:

quot;Beneath the Bs. Lok. one should then place Hayagrlva. This name means: Horse's

head. The colour of his body is between yellow and red, just like the colour of the sun

at dawn. He is adorned with white lotus-flowers and other ornaments. He wears a flaming

effulgence as garland. His nails are long and sharp, his face shows a pair of bare fangs.

His hair is like the mane of a lion. He has an extremely fierce appearance. This is the

S. agvaratna) of a Cakravartin, that wanders about tho four continents, nowhere and never

giving itself one moment rest, having the great force of all the Bs. Just like this is his

nature, and therefore he possesses this terrible might. Amidst the obstacles of birth and

death he is without the slightest care for his own welfare, and therefore many submit to

him. This is because of his pure heart full of compassion. And therefore his body is adorned
with white lotus-flowersquot;.

1) The Tibetan text of this passage runs: del.u l,og tu snags pa yis. rigs snags rgyal po stobs po ehe.
kha dog n, ma hchar ka bsin. padma dkar po rnam par rgyan. hbar bahi phren can mi bzad cin. spu dag
sen ge Itar hdug pa. sbyan ras gzigs dban bio Idan gyi. rta mgrin can ses grags pa bri. (cf. the critical
ed.tion of the Tib. text of the Ta-jil,-ching, by Ilattori, 1931, p. 68).

3.nbsp;Wu-liang-shou-ju-lai-kuan-hsing-kung-yang-i-kuei ^ fl ^ ^
Ig iff fifc ^ jH îj^ (Ts. 930), translated by Amoghavajra.

Page 69: quot;Then one should make the mudrä of the Bs. Hayagrlva Lok. One should
first make the afijali for marking off the place (i. e. the hands are laid with the palms
against each other, while the middle fingers and little fingers are erected straight), that
discards all evil influences. Then ono should bend both forefingers and both ring fingers
into tho palm of the hand, their nails touching each other. Both thumbs should be bent
slightly, without, however, touching the forefingers. Then the mudrä is formed ')• One should
chant the mtr. of the Vidyäräja Hayagrlva, that runs: Orii! He who is born from nectar!
Hürii phat svähä! (S.: om amrtodbliava hum phat svähä, Chin.: PI^ ^ Iß ^^^I^J

When one has chanted this mtr. three times, swinging round the hands folded in the
above-described mdr. three times to the left, then all demons and all evil influences will
be dispersed. Having swung round the mdr. three times to the right, the Immovable Sphere
(M ®nbsp;will bo effected 2).

4.nbsp;p'u-t'i-ch'ang-so-shuo-i-tzù-ting-lun-wang-chingnbsp;—
^ TM fira 3E Ä translated by Amoghavajra.

Page 199: quot;On the right side of the Bs. Lok. one should paint the Mahävidyäräja
Hayagrlva ( ^ ^^ I® p|ÖJ quot;A: Î)- ^^^nbsp;should be made like fire, and he

should have a fierce appearance. His nose should be like that of a monkey. He should be
adorned with snakes, and wear all ornaments like arm-rings and rings round the wrists,
while his head is adorned with a wreath of lotus-flowers.

Page 131: quot;Then Hayagrlva Lok.: on top of his head he bears the head of the
Açvaratna. He has three faces, each face having three eyes. The middle face bears on
its crest the image of a Buddha of Transformation (hua-fu -^^jj). His body has a
bright flesh-colour. His appearance is extremely fierce, his bare fangs biting the lips. He
has four arms and two feet. The left and right hand each show a mudrä. The left hand
shows the Brilliant Fist (kuang-chieh-ch'uan ^fe IS ^h® ^^^^^^
the ring and middle finger, while fore finger and thumb are erected so as to form the
shape of a beak. With the right hand one should make the same gesture. Both fore

1)nbsp;This rndr. is said to represent the form of a horse's mouth, m a-k'ou-hsing P

2)nbsp;chien-ku-chich, a sacred sphere, not to be shaken by any demon or evil spirit.

Angers should touch each other. This mdr. is made a little below the breast. The next left
hand also shows a mdr., whilst the next right hand shows the axe. The Bs. is splendidly
adorned with garlands. He is clad in heavenly garments, that shine with a wonderful
crystal colour. He is sitting cross-legged on a lotus flower, the right leg pressing the left.quot;

6.nbsp;Pa-tzu-wen-shu-kuei A ^ ^ ^ ^^ (Ts. 1184), translated byBodhirsi,
circa 800 A.D.

On page 785 the altar of Manjugrl-of-the-eight-syllables (S. a.^tabTja) is described. On
each corner a Vidyaraja is standing: Trailokavijaya ([^ H i:), Mahabalaguna
(iK, M ^J, Ajitanbsp;0), and Hayagrlva.

. «At the north-eastern corner one should paint the Vidyaraja Hayagrlva. He should
have three faces, and eight arms. Each hand holds an instrument. The left upper hand
is holding a lotus-flower, the next holds the amrta-jar, and with the other he is holding
the staff against his breast. The remaining left hand is entwined with the corresponding
right hand in a mudra. The upper right hand carries the axe, the next one holds the
rosary (shu-chu IgJ: S. japamUla), and the other the noose.

Page 271: quot;Then the Bs. Hayagrlva Lok. His left hand holds the axe, his right hand
the stalk of a lotus-flower. He is sitting cross-legged.quot;

The fundamental text which in the Chinese Canon is devoted to Hayagrlva is to be

The greater part of the sixth chapter of this work particularly treats of the figure of
Hayagrlva.

This Dharanl-sariigraha seems to me to be an authentic text, translated directly from
the Sanskrit. This may be concluded especially on account of .the style, an awkward and
therefore often not easily comprehensible Chinese. The translator was the Indian priest
Atikuta^')nbsp;translated as wu-chi-kaonbsp;cf. Mik, p. 14),

1)nbsp;This is only a tentative reconstruction of the original Sanskrit title, if there was any. Hob. F. A
p. 51 proposes Dhumnl-samuccaya.nbsp;'

2)nbsp;Hob. F. A., p. 128 uses Atigupta; but I think Atiknta, given by Mik., accords better with the
Chinese translation.

The earliest mention of the Dharanl-sarhgraha occurs in the catalogue Ta-chou-
k'an-ting-chung-ching-mu-lu ® fij ^ ^ g ^ (Ts. 2153), compiled by
Ming Ch'uan f^f^, who worked in Lo-yang about 700. In chapter I, page 379 we find
mentioned that the work contains 12 chapters, and was translated in 651 by Atikuta in
the Hui-jih monastery ^ 0 at Ch'ang-an.

Furthermore we find it mentioned in the great catalogue K'ai-yuan-shih-chiao-
mu-lu mnbsp;M (Ts. 2154), compiled by Chih Sheng ^^ (698-740).

The catalogue Cheng-yiian-hsin-ting-shih-chiao-mu-lu ^ JC^
g ^ (2157), compiled by Yiian Chaonbsp;(end of 8tigt; century) repeats word for

A short biography of Atikuta is furthermore contained in chapter 2 of quot;Biographies
of famous priests, compiled during the Sung-dynastyquot; (Sung-kao-seng-ch'uan
Ts. 2061).

To the Dharanl-samgraha an Introduction has been added, which is said to have been
written by a priest Hsiian K'ai ^ (or who furnishes therein a short description
of the life of Atiklit-a, and further narrates how he himself had written down Atikuta's
translation from the Sanskrit.

When wo now compare, however, these various notes on the Dharanl-samgraha and
its author, we must conclude that the data given in the K'ai-yiian Catalogue have formed
the material both for the biography in the Sung-kao-seng-ch'uan and for the Introduction,
which is alleged to have been written by Hsiian K'ai. The K'ai-yiian text mentions Atikuta
as the author, and Hsiian K'ai as the scribe. Unhappily I have not been able to find
further particulars relating to this Hsuan K'ai. In the Introduction accredited to him he
is introduced in the first person. If, however, the K'ai-yuan text and the Introduction
are laid side by side, it is plain that this Introduction is nothing more than a literary
recast and elaboration of the K'ai-yiian text (in which Hsuan K'ai is only mentioned in
the third person). This Introduction must be a later production, probably the work of
some Chinese priest, which was to give the impression of having been written by Hsuan
K'ai, the scribe himself, the intention being to enhance the authority of the DhSranl-
sariigraha still further.

In the following translations I first give the K'ai-yuan text, and then the Introduction
said to be of Hsuan K'ai.

The priest') AtikQta, in Chinese: the Extremely High One, was a man from Central
India. In his study he learned thoroughly all kinds of writing, in his conduct he was
pure like a flawless pearl. He could grasp the essence of the Five Kinds of Knowledge %
and miraculously penetrate the Threefold Canon. Next to these qualities he possessed the
inclination natural to all great men,, to benefit all creatures; so he did not grudge his
wisdom to other countries. His intention was to propagate the Buddhist Doctrine 3),
forgetting all fear of hardship and danger. Parted from the West he traversed the Snowy
Mountains, and in the East he crossed the sandy desert. Having sustained all hardships
he reached China In the year 652 5), the first month, he arrived at Ch'ang-an, with
a great many books in Sanskrit. On Imperial command he settled down in the Tz'u-en
monastery. The priest Ta-sheng-tsung and others, sixteen in all, and also Prince
Ying«) and Prince Ao^) and others, together twelve people, they all asked Atikuta to
establish in the Buddha-hall of the Hui-jih monastery an «Altar of the Collected
Dharanl's.quot; All the accessories of the said altar were arranged there by them. On the
day the method was practised several mystic phenomena manifested themselves. The
priests and citizens in the capital all exclaimed that they had seldom seen the like. The
priest Hsu an K'ai and others besought him eagerly to translate the manual for this

4)nbsp;i-ti-ch'ueh; dictionaries nor tlie ordinary reference-works (like P'ei-wen-y ii n - f u) give this term.

method. Then, from 653 till 654, in the Hui-jih monastery he chose the most important parts out
of the Chin-kang-ta-tao-ch'ang-ching'), and translated them. These extracts he
collected in twelve chapters. The priest Hsuan K'ai and others acted thereby as pi-shou^).

In that time the priest Master Anurudhamoksa, the Master Kagyapa and others,
of the Mahabodhi monastery in Central India, had translated the quot;Method for worshipping
Laksml-deviquot; in the Ching-hsing monastery. This was inserted in the tenth chapter;
therefore it has not been preserved elsewhere.

The doctrine of the magic spells, the mystic gestures and the altar (belonging to
them) is indeed the heart and marrow of all the sutra's. It is the leading tenet of all the
various magical practises. Its outlines are extremely profound and secret, beyond the
reach of superficial knowledge. Its meaning is mysterious and abstruse, thoughts cannot
fathom it. It is a secret among secrets, indescribable!

There was a priest of high virtue, called Atikuta, a man from Central India. The
cleverness and wisdom of this Master of the Law were quite out of the common, whilst
in virtue he surpassed all men. Since his twentieth year he cherished the (Buddhist)

1)nbsp;I could nowhere find more details concerning this work, the original title of which might be

2)nbsp;Pi-shou was the title of the copyist, who wrote down the text from the mouth of the translator
(the chih-pen ft $), at the same time perfecting the style. For the methods followed in China in
translating Indian texts, cf. the article by W. Fuchs, Zur technischen Organisation der Uebersetzungen
buddhistischer Schriften ins Chinesische, in „Asia Maiorquot;, Vol. VI, 1930, p. 84.

Doctnne, and rambled through the five parts of India, looking for kindred spirits. Very
humbly he wandered on, searching for the principles of the Law. Therefore he could grasp
e essence of the Five Kinds of Knowledge, and miracnlonsly penetrate all sections of
the Canon. Then he wished to transport the Water of the Law of the Western regions
and moisten therewith those who were thirstingly looking forward to it in the East, in
Ch,na He risked his life in dangers and hardships, intent on preserving the pith of the
Gr nd Doctnne He traversed steep monntains without being tired, he crossed the desert
w thont e,ng fafgued. Carrying on i,is head the venerable Scriptures, he came to this
Chmese iand. I„ the year 6B1 ,, i„ the flrst month, he arrived at Ch'ang-an, and on
npenal command he settled down in the Tz'tt-men^, monastery. Wi.en the Master of
^e Law had not yet said anything, he was not unlike a jewel; cherished in the bosom.
When he pronounced his elegant discussions, however, the treasures of his knowledge were

There l,ad been more than one who transmitted the Sntra's, the Discipline, the
nncples of the Doctrine, and the Magical Acts3,, but this School (i.e. the Mantrayana,
ad no yet prospered in China. Therefore, when eagerly besought three times, he at last
taught the rules for making (magical, altars. During the flrst ten days of the third month

the Altar of the Collected Dh.ra„rV. There Ta-sheng-tsung and others, sixteen in all
and also Prince Ying and Prince Ao and others, twelve people in all, assisted him while
he was officiating, and all together pronounced vows for the everiasting prosperity of the

Imperial House; that it might reach all countries, and benefit alike all classes, in order
to bring them great bliss. The holy auguries effected by this ceremony were so numerous,
that I am afraid I can not record them all.

When I was fortunate enough to become acquainted with this Doctrine, I could not
but dance from sheer joy. I went personally to the place where the books were translated,
with the intention to ask him to translate the whole work. But at that time he was very
busy, and I could not formulate my demands. Then, fearing that the abstruseness of the
matter would bring him to refuse, and thus great benefit would be lost, in the Hui-jih
monastery I asked the Master of the Law to promulgate a translation of the Sanskrit text,
and write down a translation of the most important parts, together twelve chapters, in
order to make prosperous the great foundation of the empire, and to preserve secret
treasure that elevates the people below. He set to work on the 14th day of the third month,
653, and on the fifteenth day of the fourth month, 654, his task was finished. Afterwards
the Master of the Law was summoned repeatedly to the Palace. During our casual meetings
he had no leisure to look over the text again with me.

This book is an extract from theChin-kang-ta-tao-ch'ang-ching, and it forms
but a small section of the Great Mantra-pitaka. I have tried now to correct these
general outlines; I offer them hoping that they may widely circulate and become known
all over the Empire.

The DhSranl-samgraha is composed in the well-known sariiglti-for m. It commences
with the narration of how Buddha, in the midst of a throng of gods, saints and disciples,
teaches in QravastI ^^^ different rites for the attainment of siddhi's. In succession
a countless number of gods and goddesses are described, and the ritual for their worship
is given, with mention of their special mantra's and mudra's and elaborate data

regarding their appearance. These latter descriptive passages are particularly important
from an iconographic point of view.

Chapter 5 then treats of different forms of Avalokitegvara. Then BhrkutI is
described, and after that, chapter 6 in keeping with the regular order deals with Haya-
grlva, as an aspect of Avalokitegvara. This text forms by itself a self-contained entity.
From the uniformity of style and composition and on the strength of some references to

previous chapters, it may be plainly seen that this text originally belongs to the Dharanl-
samgraha.

Section regarding the Mudra's and Mantra's to be used for
worshipping the Bodhisattva Hayagrlva Avalokitegvara

1. Mudra and mantra for protecting one's body') and for marking off
the placed), while worshipping Hayagrlva,

The middle-, ring- and little finger of each hand should be forked in each other, turned
outwards, each fingertop tapping the back of the other hand. This is the afijali3). Both
forefingers should be erected straight, being about '/^ inch apart from each other. The two
thumbs are touching each other, the knuckle bent. They should not touch the forefingers.
Moving the forefingers to and fro, one should chant the mtr.:

These are the mdr. and mtr. If one wishes to receive the discipline of this Bs., one
should begin with protecting one's body by making this mdr., and the chanting of this mtr.
One should chant the mtr. seven times over pieces of wood, or also seven times over
water. Then one makes tho mdr. over the water. One may also chant the mtr. over
white mustard-seed. If one says the mtr. over ashes or the like, in any case one should
i^pe^ Uio mtr. seven times, and make the mdr. over them. At the four corners of the

1)nbsp;hu-shennbsp;S. almaraksa, a ceremony whicli makes tlie body of the practitioner immune
from all evil inlluences. Cf. Mik., p. C09.

2)nbsp;chieh-chiehnbsp;tr.nbsp;ife, ^ ^ S. bandhaya-slman (corresponding to the Ilinduist
suna-bandhana) is the name of a ceremony which marks off a special place to be used for an offering
excluding all evil inlluences from it. Cf. Mik., p. 451.

altar one should erect the pieces of wood, thus marking off the place. If ono scatters the
mustard-seed, the ashes and the water in the ten directions, also in this way the marking
off of the place will be effected. When afterwards one performs the other rites, one will

The fore-finger, middlefinger and ringfinger of each hand should be forked m each
other, turned outwards, the tops tapping the back of the other hand. This is the aajali.
The two little fingers should be stretched out together, the thumbs should touch each
other, being strongly bent. Moving the thumbs to and fro, one should say the mtr.:

Orii! Shake, shake! Crush, crush! Devour, devour! Hayagrlva! u hnrii
phat, hail 2)!

These are the mdr. and mtr. If one is bitten by a venomous insect or by a snake,
or injured by bad people, one will be cured by making the mdr. and chanting the mtr.

There is another method if one wishes to make the clouds come. One should take
sum ana-flowers^), and before the image of Hgr. chant 21 times the mtr. over them,
scattering them over the feet of the image. Taking the flowers with the right hand, one
may scatter them over the place where one is practising, wherever one likes. When the
clouds are gone, after having repeated the mtr. seven times over the flowers, and then
scattering them, they will come again. There is also a method, if one wishes to rouse
love between two people. One should take fruits and repeat the mtr. 21 times over them.
When ono makes people eat these, their hearts will become confused, and they will love
each other fervently, having no thought for anything else.

2)nbsp;om dhuna dliuna matha matha khuda khada hayagrlva u hum phat svuhil, Chin. Ujg

hsi gives as pronunciation ot JI^j^ : p'o, that might correspond with an older *phat. As moreover hum phat,
is the usual ending of the magic formulae, I have adopted the transcription phat, altiiough the variants
read , that seems to suggest ham.

3)nbsp;me-kunbsp;; this transcription is indeed a riddle to me. Perhaps is a misprint iorfj^, tlie
whole standing for S. megha, cloud, tiie summoning of rain-clouds being a magical feat much practised
by Mantrayanic priests (cf., for instance, the biography of Amoghavajra, in Sung-kao-seng-ch'uan
^ j^l ). But I admit this interpretation is very questionable.

4)nbsp;^ ^nbsp;^ yellow, odoriferous flower; cf. Mik., p. 1328, and P. W., s. v.

The fore finger, middle finger, ring finger and little finger of each hand should be
forked into each other, turned outwards, the tops tapping the back of the other hand
This IS the a,VaK. Both thumbs should touch each other, bent at the knuckle. They should
not touch the forefingers. Moving the thumbs to and fro, one should say the mtr.:

These are the mdr. and mtr. When one wishes to have a dispute, one should take
the three perfumes fforocana'), musk') and camphor'), and rub them together, chanting
the mantra eightthousand times. With this mixture one should make spots on the top of
one's head, on both of one's shoulders, on heart and throat, between the eyebrows, and
at the back of one's head, where the hair ceases to grow. Then one should take white
mustard-seed, and repeat the mtr. thirty seven times over it. This mustard-seed one should
take m the right hand. At the place where the dispute will be held, one should scatter
them by the side of the door; some, however, one should keep in one's left hand. At the
time of the dispute, one should take with the right hand the seeds from the left hand
and secretly throw them at the man who is disputing. If one then snaps one's lingers!
one will vanquish him. The method is like this.

One should make the mdr. of protecting the body described above, with this difference

that one makes the tops of the forefingers touch each other, both being bent. One brings

the two thumbs forward, and pointing them towards each other at the top, one says
the mtr.:

The method is like this: when anyone is suffering from head-ache, one should take
a shp with his name written on it, and chant the mtr. over water. Having uttered the
sounds ilnbsp;one should throw this water over the head of the patient. Then, having

One should make flrst the head-mudra, erecting, however, both fore-flngers, the
tops touching each other. The middle-fingers should both be stretched out, in front of the
fore-fingers, touching their tops. One should say the mtr.: * * *.

These are the mdr. and mtr. When anyone is suffquot;ering from pain at the top of his
head, one should make this mdr. over the sore place. Having chanted the mtr., the pain
will vanish. •

The ring finger and the little finger of each hand one should fork in each other, and

bend them into the palms of the hands. Both middle fingers one should erect straight,
the tops touching each other. The two thumbs should be erected also. The right fore-finger
should touch the right thumb. The loft fore-finger is erected, slightly bent, by the side of
the middle-finger. The mtr. runs: * * *.

This mdr. and mtr. one can use for curing all kinds of diseases caused by devils;

One should make first the teeth-mudra of the Bs. Lok. Amogh apaga'). The
two middle fingers, however, should be erected straight, the tops touching each other.
The two thumbs should be also erected, tapping the middle fingers. One should flrst with
the left little finger touch the back of the right ring finger, and then the back of the
right little finger. One should say the mtr.:

Hail to the throe Jewels! Hail to the noble Avalokitegvara! To the
Bodhisattva! To the Great Being! To the Great Compassionate One!
Thus2): (etc., see in the footnote).

1) This ni(h-. is described in Ciiapter V of the Dhuram-samgraha, under 12, as a variation of the
niouth-mudra of Amoghapnga, which is rather complicated: quot;the two little fingers should be erectcd
straight. The right ring finger is twisted behind the left ring- and middle finger,quot; and brought between the
fore- and middle finger. The left ring finger is stuck forward between the right middle- and ring finger, and
then brought between the fore- and middle finger. The two middle fingers are erected straight, the tops
touching each other. The two fore fingers are bent, each hooking over the ring fingers. The two thumbs arc
erect, the tops touching each other, at a distance of about half an inch away from the little fingersquot;. The
teeth-mudrfi is formed by bending in this mdr. the two middle fingers a little, so that each presses the
top of the thumb. The two little fingers should be sticking out, the right one pressing the left, touching
the back of the ring finger. Surely one needs the nimble fingers of an oriental to reproduce this mudrii.

2) namo ratna-trayciya nama aryuvalokiteg.varaya bodhisattvaya mahasattvaya mahakariinikuya tadyatha

This mdr. and mtr. should be used for breaking the force of all kinds of spells. It
one wishes to make the charms said by other people powerless, one should make a three-
coloured flour-altar, measuring four cubits square. On the north- and the south-side one
should paint a lotus-seat. On these lotus-seats one should paint the shape of a tooth. On
the east-side one should also paint a lotus-seat, and thereon a vajra-mudrâ. One should
kindle twelve lamps, and prepare eight dishes of dehghtful fruit and food. Having eaten
these on the next day one should put on new clothes, and make new offerings, continuing
in this way till seven days have elapsed. The next day one should say the mtr. 108
times over white mustard-seed, each time one says the mtr. burning one seed in the flre.
Now all spells said by other people ') will be without any effect.

One should lift up the left hand, with the five fingers stretched out. The right hand
is hanging downwards, the tops of middle finger, ring finger and thumb touching each
other. The mtr. runs: * * *.

One should stretch out both hands, the left hand with tho palm turned outwards, the
right hand inwards. With the left hand one should support the back of the right. The two
thumbs should be erected. The mtr. is: * *

The ring- and little finger of both hands one should fork in each other, bent into the
palm of the hand. The two middle fingers one should erect, the tops touching each other.
One should bend the thumb right in front of them. With the two fore fingers one should
touch the thumbs at the base of the nail, while the nails of the fore fingers are touching
each other. The mtr. is: (same as quoted sub 6). This mdr. and mtr. should bo used to

Irata (2 X) tama (2 X) cinlû (2 X) innlt;h (2 X) n hwh phat phat svûhâ, ^nbsp; 'g

^Enbsp;explained l.y a naive commentary as: non-Budlt;lliist, bad peoplenbsp;^ #

cure all kinds of diseases, and for all suffering caused by evil spirits. All will be cured,

1. Hail to tho three Jewels! 2. Hail to tho noble Lok.! 3. To the Bodhisattva!
4. To the Great Being! 5. To the great Compassionate One! 6. Hail to the destroyer of
the sins of all beings! 8. Hail to him who delivers all beings from fear! 9. Hail to him
who sets at rest the fears of all beings! 10. Hail to him who cures tho maladies of all
beings! 11. Hail to him who breaks the bonds of all beings! 12. Hail to him who
effectuates for all beings the delivery from misery and distress... !

(The numbers 13—56 contain other epitheta of Lok., and continue then with
an enumeration of Hindu-gods, Visnu, Maheçvara, Nârâyana, Çiva, Skandha,
Kubera etc.; among magical formulae the name Hayagrlva occurs once. Then
there follow some fragments of special formulae of Hayagrlva :)
57. To the Devourer of wrong knowledge !... 59. Do homage ! Do homage ! 60.
Venerable Hayagrlva! 61. Devour! Devour!... 75. Clutch everything !... 105. Do! Do!
106, To Hayagrlva, phat! 107. To the Vajra-hook, phat! 108. Ruin, phat! 109. To the
Vajra-fang, phat!... 112. Destroy all bad spells, phat!... 116. To tho Horse-faced One!

i. namo ratnatrayuya 2. nama aryâvalokiteçvaruya 3. hodhisatlvmja ^i. maluisattvâya 5. mahûka-
runikaya 0. namah sarva-sallva-vyasana-ghâline 7. nmnah sarva-sallva-vyasanripahârinc 8. nama sarva-
sallva-hhayollaranaya 0. namah sarva-saUva-lhaya-praçamana-karaya 10. namah .larva-sattva-vyudhi-
cikitsana-karaya ii. namah sarva-sattva-bandhana-chedana-karâya I?, namah sarva-satlva-duhkha-pramok.iana-

karaya.....57. para vidyU-sambhakmna-karUya ...59. pUja pTija G(). hhayavan hayagrlva 01. khada khada ...

75. sarvam grahisva... 105. kuru kiiru 106. hayagrlvaya phat 101. vajra-kuraya phat lOS. vinâçaya phat
iOO. vajra-dam.«traya phat... 112 sarva-drnta-mantram vinâçaya phat... Chin.: 1-5 s^ ^ge CO. G

(For the greater part a repetition of the former one)
By only chanting these two mtr. one will obtain success. Although one has not been

taught the rules for altar and offerings, by only chanting them one will obtain a
manifestation ').

If one wishes to apply these methods (given above), one should begin with tying up
the Vinayaka's. Relying on the Great Mantra quoted above, one should do homage,
while chanting the binding-mantra, that runs:

quot;Thus: scatter! scatter! Disperse, disperse! Devour, svaha! Great Strong One! Guide
to all knowledge! To the Horse-faced One! To the Bhuta! phat')!quot;

This method should be practised in front of the image of Hayagrlva. One should begin

with taking * » * wood cutting off a piece of eight fingers. This one should burn in the

fire. Taking guggulu-perfumeone should make of it (i.e. the ashes and the perfume

mixed together) eight hundred pellets. These should be thrown one by one into the fire

each time saying the mtr. When all the perfume is exhausted, the Vinayaka's will be'
bound up on their own account.

Doing homage as described before one should say the mtr.: * * This method should
be used when people are suffering from polhUiones nocturnae. One should first say the mtr.

to this explanation the transc.ibed Sanskrit-sentence n.ight be something like•
l^aljnlumh stddham upnuvanti.nbsp;»quot;■quot;t^imufe iiKt.

f obs acle, „„/.„„-„„„„„ia,nbsp;The Buddlml, roinlcprolcd tinsnbsp;as -l.c L IcI, „vquot;

™™ „e . „at,.quot; t„c„co:nbsp;„„,.nbsp;Final,, it .tooj f..- al, cvi, i„„ac„ccs t a I ^

f 1,0 ITOt , ,ad,cal .wheatquot;, ,v,th ,u .jadequot; at the Hght side. This eharacter is not given i„ K'ang.hsi-

eight-hundred times over a white thread, and then make a chaplet of it. Each time one
says the mtr., one makes a knot in the cord, doing so thirty-seven times. Binding this
cord round the waist one will have no poUutiones nocturnae.

Doing homage as described before one should chant the mtr.: * * *. For applying this
method one should say this mtr. over a corner of one's garment, seventeen times, and
then make a knot in it. As soon as one has made this knot, the Tdmarak^a (cf. supra)
will be effected.

14. Mudra and Mantra to make Hayagrlva-Avalokiteqvara return to
his own abode (i.e. at the end of the ceremony), J^ ^nbsp;S tM: ^ l^fl •

Having done homage as described before, one should say the following mtr. in order
to make Hayagrlva repair to his own abode: * * *. The method is this: one should take
surabhi-flowers') in the hand; having once said this mtr., one should scatter the
flowers over the image. When one has done this seven times, the Bs. Hayagrlva will have
returned to his own abode.

One should take a newly-made earthen pot, which has never been used before. This
pot one should paint dark-blue, and on it one should paint the image of Hayagrlva-
Avalokitegvara. Its size should bo one vitasti^) of a Tathagata. One should give him
four joyful faces. That on the left side one should paint black, with green pupils and
protruding canine teeth. The face on the right side should have a flesh-colour; it is called:
quot;Mantra-devouring facequot;. The middle face should be a very regular-featured Bs.-face,
painted white. Above the top of the image, hanging in the empty space, one should paint
a dark-blue face, spitting out jewels. Each of these four heads bears a jewel-cap, and on
each jewel-cap is sitting a Buddha of Transformation The left hand of the Bs. holds a
lotus-flower, the arm being bent upwards so that the fist is right before the shoulder.
The right hand is hanging down, with the fingers stretched out, exhibiting the quot;Mudra of
Expelling Fearquot; Both hands have jewel-bracelets at the wrists. Round the neck of the

^nbsp;® ffi ^iit' siirabhi-piispa, cf.P. W., s.v.; the nower of several odoriferous plants.

2)nbsp;—a certain measin-e, the exact meaning of which is not stated, cf. Mik., 93.
The Indian vitasti is defined as quot;a long span between the thumb and little fingei-, or as the distance between
the wrist and the tips of the fingersquot;.

image one sliould put precious strings of jewels. The body should be adorned according
to the rules given in other places for the ornaments of Avalokitegvara. The image is
standing on a precious lotus-flower.

When ths image is finished, from the tenth day of the white moon-half) on, one
should eat milk-pap of rough wheat. The 13th, tho 14th, and the 15th day, all these three
days and nights, one should abstain from all food. Taking gakapica{?)-incense 2) and
gandha-nakuli-flowers3), one should chant the mantra over these two objects; each
time one says the mtr. throwing them before the middle-face of tho image, doing so eight-
thousand times. From the mouth of this face there will come forth a large effulgence,
which surrounds the body of the practitioner, and then goes back into the mouth of the
image. Then this mouth will emit a Wish-granting gem % If one gathers up this jewel,
one will obtain a life of fourteen thousand years, becoming one of the holy Cakravartin's=).
And after this life one will be reborn in Sukhavatl«), out of the feet of Avalo-
kitegvara.

(16) There also is another method. One should only eat pap of milk and rough meat,
given as alms, and chant the mtr. seventy thousand times. After 10 000 times the
Vinayaka's are bound up. After 20 000 times all charms can be completed. After 30 000
times one can complete the method for the drug that consists of anj ana and realgar ^
Having abstained from all food during three days and three nights, one should take the
medicine in one's dharma-hand. By chanting mtr.'s over the medicine, the three charac-
teristics will manifest themselves therein: thereby one knows that the medicine is ready.
The three characteristics are: heat, smoke and flames. Then one can (also) successfully
perform the antardharai^a«), being invisible, and become a Vidyadhara»), who

jp ete. Tl.e eorreet reading is: ^ ^nbsp;Wrigl.tea antidysenterica, S. anjana (d. Mik., 49). I

has free access to the palaces of the A sura's'). After 40 000 times one may leave the
earth and wander freely where one likes. After 50 000 times one may rise into space
according to one's wish. After 60 000 times one will get a life of a thousand years. The
practitioner can summon the immortals. Everything is spontaneously accomplished just as
he should wish it done. He can summon all creatures he likes. After 70 000 times the
hair of the practitioner will stand upright, having the shape of a conch==), and his thoughts
will carry him everywhere he likes. He is in the direct service of AvalokiteQvara, and
knows of all the living beings of the three worlds: this one is going to die, this one is

(17)nbsp;There is another method for those who want to vanquish an army During three
days and three nights one should abstain from all food, remaining in front of the image
of Hayagrlva, and rub the altar with incense. One should offer all kinds of flowers, clean
food and drink, milk, rice-milk and all kinds of fruits. One should pound sarjamsa-incense
and knead it with white wax into eight thousand pellets. Each time one says the mtr.,
one should throw a pellet into the fire, doing so till all the incense is exhausted. When
a throng of soldiers suddenly appears, then one is changed into a horse's head, and after
a short time one is transformed into the head of Hayagrlva. When the practitioner thus
miraculously approaches the soldiers, they will all be dispersed and destroyed.

(18)nbsp;Another method is to give first rough wheat to a cow to eat. One selects the
wheat out of the dung of this cow; when cleaned and dried one should pound it, and
then cook it, making milk-pap of it. From the first day of the white moon-half till the
thirteenth day, one should eat this pap. Thereupon one should abstain from all food. The
ground before the image of Hayagrlva one should cover with ointment, and strew all
kinds of flowers, burning all kinds of famous incense. When the offering of all kinds of
food is finished, one should pound kapiqa-incense«) into powder, and knead it with
water into pellets, to a number of 8000. Then one should light a fire, using khadira-wood^)

4)nbsp;® ^ ; I transcribe these characters as S. sainya, though I did not find this corroborated anywhere.

as fuel Each time taking one incenso-pollet, one should throw it into the fn-e, onch time
say.ng t e mtr. When in this way the eight thousand pellets are nsed up, th re„,ai
ashes wm he found to have altered into a piece of gold ■), weighing 100000 pound

( 9, Another method for destroying the spells said by other people. One should take
.t ie of ones own blood, and knead it with white mustard-seed into eight thousand
pellets^ On the fourteenth day of the black moenhalf,, one should abstain from food duTn
the Whole day, and light a flre in a furnace, using khadira-wood as fuel. Taking th

cl t n,e Chan mg the mtr. When in this way all the mustard-seed pellets are used up
all kmds of spells will be destroyed ') completely.

(20)nbsp;There is also a method, consisting of only chanting the mtr. When one travels

(21)nbsp;There is also a method for when there is a sun- or moen-eclipse. One should take
wo new earthen bowls, „lied with pure ghee. Holding these bowls in one's han ,
hould look up to the sun or tho moon. Having chanted the mtr. over the ghee in C

bowls, .t will grow warm, and sometimes smoke and flre will come out of it. When at
e same t.,ne one drinks this ghee or applies it to one. body, then one has only to

all one s fears w.ll be annihilated, and all obstacles and difliculties will vanish

(22)nbsp;There is also a method in case one is sufl-ering from ru ddha-wounds«, or in
case one .s bitten by venomous snakes, or one is suffering from • • • .wounds^). ;or all
the e wounds one should one thousand times chant the mtr. over yellow mud. If one

(24) All these methods should not be told to other people. Then they will succeed

according to one's desire. Wiien one makes a large mandala, one may not use it to
obtain foolish desires.

Again there is another method for making an image. One should take a piece of clean
cloth, that may not be cut off. One engages a painter of the greatest skill, without
haggling over the price. One should bathe in perfumed water, put on new, clean clothes,
observe the eight precepts, and do so day by day. On a pure and clean place one should
erect a quot;water-altarquot;, four cubits square. The practitioner, having finished the atmaraksa
and the marking off the place, should burn on this altar all kinds of incense, and strew
all kinds of flowers. When the offering is finished, one should on this altar put the painted
Bs., having the size of one vitasti of a Buddha. He has four faces in all. The middle-face
of the Bs. should be made very regular-featured, expressing compassion. It has a light flesh-
colour, while the hair on tho head is of a pure dark-blue colour. The face on the left side
one should make having a very angry look, and having a black colour. It has protruding
canine teeth. The hair on this head is standing up loosely, having the colour of flames.
The face on the right side one should give a broadly laughing expression; it has a light
flesh-colour, and is regular like tho face of a Bs. The hair on this head is of a pure dark-
blue colour. Each of this three heads carries a heaven-cap, and ear-ornaments of jade. On
each heaven-cap there is a Buddha of Transformation, sitting cross-legged. On top of the
middle-head one should paint a green-blue horse's head, with its mouth shut ')• Round the
neck of the Bs. one should put a beautiful necklace, and behind his back one should make
a halo of different colours. The left hand, bent to the breast, holds a red lotus-flower. This
lotus-flower should be on one level with the head of the Bs., and near the left shoulder.
On the platform consisting of this flower, one should paint a Buddha of Transformation,
clad in a red-brown garment 2), and sitting cross-legged. Behind his back there is a halo.
The right hand has an uplifted palm, with the five fingers stretched out. The arm is
evenly bent, and on the palm of the hand it carries a Wish-granting Gem. This round
jewel is white, and it is surrounded by a flesh-coloured halo. In this right hand, exactly
under tho jewel, there is a shower of all kinds of jewels. Over the right shoulder he wears
a tiger-skin3), put on in the same way as a saiiikaksika-garmentquot;). Under the right

1)nbsp;It is to be noted that the horse's liead is counted as a face of tlie god (cf. also sub. 15), contrary
to the Indian custom.

arm-pit this covering skin is fastened with a knot. A tiger-skin is used also to cover the thighs

Besides (the ornaments mentioned here) the bracelets, tho heavenly gown ■) etc., are all

according to the general rules for painting a Bs. If one makes tho Bs. sit erect on a red

lotus-flower, then there should in the empty place above him hang the precious parasol

covering tho head of the Bs. In the empty space above one should paint all kinds oi

heavenly musical instruments, and in the empty space on both sides one should paint

Çuddhâvâsa-gods^), dancing and offering. While painting this image one should mix
tho colours with perfumed sap, and not with glue.

(26) Altar for the initiation to the cult of the Bs. Hayagrlva Avaloki-
teçvara, .ilStHä:^^^^.^^.

If there is a çramana or a brähmana, or a good man or woman, who wants to
be taught the rules for the cult of this Bs., one should make an altar of four cubits square
as described above (see sub 7). One should choose an excellent place, that has been cleaned
and washed with water. Then one should smear the earth with perfumed water and cow-
dung. Ono should hang there all kinds of coloured banners, baldaquins, precious bells and
jade mirrors. Tho bod hi manda should be adorned with all kinds of gold and silver. In
the middle of this bodhimaiula a flve-coloured altar should be erected, four cubits square
First one should paint the white colour, then the yellow, then the red, then the blue and
finally the black. One should make there four gates. Right in the middle of the altar one
should make a lotus-seat, and thereon one should put the image of Hayagrlva. In front of
tho eastern gate one should make a lotus-seat, on which the Bodhisattva-with-eleven-
faces is seated. Before the northern gate one should make a lotus-seat, and place thereon
the Eight-armed Avalokiteçvara. At the southern side of the altar there is no need
to put a lotus-seat. There one should place the eight Dragon-Kings 3). m which order
should these eight be placed? The first is Nanda, the second Vasuki, the third Taksaka
the fourth Karkotaka, the fifth Padma, the sixth MahEpadma, the seventh Ça,V
khapâla, the eight Kulika^). To these eight Dragon-Kings one should only offer dry
nce^a^dj^ap. To tho other deities one should offer all kinds of drink and food. Also

1) fien-i-ch'iia ^ ^ , feathor-light garments of the gods.
^^ lîÈ ^ ; I am not sure my transcription is right.

one should light forty-flve lamps. One should begin with calling the eight Dragon-Kings to
occupy their places, using the mtr. of the body of the Bs. Hayagrlva '), saying the mtr.: * *

(27)nbsp;At the southern side of the altar one should place a brazier. Then one should
take linseed, rice and flowers, and mix these with honey. One should chant the mtr. of
the Heart of the Bs. % The things one has mixed together before saying the mtr., one
should throw now in the fire, each time one chants the mtr. When one has done this
1008 times, one should bid the Bs. Hayagrlva who dwells in the heart to come. Thereupon
one should bid the Eight-armed Bs. Avalokitegvara on the northern side to come. Making
the mdr. of the Body of the Bs.^), moving the fingers to and fro, one should chant

(28)nbsp;Thereupon one should bid the Bs.-with-eleven-faces on the eastern side to
come, using the mdr. of the lotus-seat. Having installed the seat, one should strew all
kinds of flowers, and burn all kinds of famous incense. One should off'er agaru^), kun-
duruka-5) and sandal-perfume. Tho practitioner should during one day abstain from
all food. If he can not stand tho hunger, he may eat soup made of perfumed ghee. Then
he should bathe himself, and put on new clothes. He should enter the mandala and
bring offerings. He should constantly think of the Bs. Avalokitegvara. Then one will get
all siddhi's and manifestations of all Bs. If one wants to have a dispute, one should make
an altar of this kind, and make offerings on it. Then one will always win, and not be
pressed hard by other people. One even can drive others into a corner. If an illness is
hard to be cured, one has only to make this altar: then all diseases will vanish. If one
is injured by poison or venomous insects or by a tiger, one only has to chant this mtr.,

it with koumiss^), in the same way as one would mix rice-pap. Hereover one should chant

thirty-seven times the mtr. of the Heart of Hayagrlva-Avalokiteqvara. If one gives this

pap to the sick person when he has an empty stomach, he will spit out all venomous

In Japan the horse is mentioned as occurring already in the mythological age.
Moe„rinbsp;-ft ^ IIK offe. unclean food to the

l ead ther ha been produced the o.x and the horse; en the top of her forehead there
had been produced millet; over her eyebrows there had been produced tho silk-wermquot; ■

nd her herce brother Susa-ne-o. Susa-no-o breaks tho dikes of the rice-flelds th t ,ad

eon la, out by his sister, and concludes his crimes by .laying a piebald horse v t

b^kward aymgquot;, and throwing this into the sacred hall, where his sister is weavi^

Bemg fnghtened she inflicts a bleeding wound upon herself with the spool; indignant at
tins outrage sho hides herself in a chasm.nbsp;quot;Mignant at

I Will not make an attempt to e.xplain this motif in a phallic sense, neither will 1
ndeavour to prove that this story is a remnant of an ancient incest-myth although t i

in popular belief the horse is closely connected with the idea of fecundity, and plays
a such, a very important rale in se.ual life. This may be explained by fact
halhc,sm ,s very popular in Japan; the well-known works on Shinto give am e
formafon concerning this matter,. The Japanese word for horse, uma, ccordingy has
anous sexual meanings. In the flrst place uma is a nickname for a prostitute
obveus reasons; furthermore it means a powerful membrum virile, and Lally i is a
^eer,-word for the menses,. In all these signif,cations it has found its way in^ p^p a
poetry. I^n m, opinion at the base of those associations lies the ancient conception whth

1) Aston, Nihongi, Cl,ro„iclcs of Ja,,a„ «■„„, the oarliesl time, to A.D. 097, Lo„,lo„ 1890 I „

connects the horse, via phallicism, with fecundity. So the motif of Susa-no-o outraging his
sister could be interpreted, if we take the horse as a phallic symbol, as a disguised
account of the fact that he violated his sister; after this pollution she hides herself in
the rock.

We see the horse also playing an important rôle in Japanese marriage-customs.
Most of the marriages are contracted in the evening; the marriage of a daimyO, however,
is contracted in the day-time, between eleven and one, the hour of the horse. See
further also Watanabe, Marriage customs in Japan, Yokohama, 1894, page 23 and 30.

These motifs are purely Japanese ; with regard to horses as sacrificial gifts, however,
the problem is more complicated. In this connection the Chinese custom of presenting
horses to accompany tho dead into the grave (cf. supra, page 42, 43) has probably been
of influence. It seems that this custom was imitated on a large scale in Japan; for in
the Taikwa Reform (645—650) this custom is disapproved of).

I do not venture to conclude whether, and to what extent, this custom is connected
with the presenting of horses to Shinto-temples. For these offerings preferably white horses
were chosen; they were led into an enclosure near the temple, where they could walk
about freely '-). Also with these horses the sexual element is traceable : the sacred horse
functions as a scape-goat for adulterous women. On the sixteenth of June in the Usaka-
jinja, the Shinto-temple of Usakamura, Fukigun, Toyamaken, the Shimotodachi-
festival is celebrated. Women, who in the past year have committed adultery, confess
this to the priest, and their sin is redeemed by the sacred horse being beaten. Formerly
the women themselves had to undergo this punishment^).

horse-offerings to temples. Originally these ema were, as may be derived from the name,

these ema originated from the custom of presenting live horses as offerings. Those people
who could not afford such large presents gave wooden horses, and those who had no
money for even these presents, gave images of horses. Later on pictures of horses were
not exclusively given, but also various sorts of other paintings, or even simple tablets

With some verses pencilled on them. According to this sonrce sexual images predo-
minated. It seems, however, that the authorities took action against this. The origin of
this practice lies, in my opinion, in the wide-spread belief that sexual representations

ward off all sorts of calamities'); the em a, being originally pictures of horses, were very
suitable for this.

Akihira^), carries the sacrificing of images of horses back to Oo Tadahira who in

which transmits the prayers of men to the gods (see supra, page 46) also contributed to

the development of this usage. As in Japan, however, Shinto and Buddhism are so strongly
mixed, this is difficult to ascertain.

In popular Japanese religion the ema obtained the signification of a thank-offering-

a seaman, safely returned from a dangerous voyage, presents a picture of a ship at sea.

The ema are also given as token of a vow that has been made: a drunkard, who turns

over a new leaf, offers a picture of a sake-bowl, fitted with a large lock; a gambler

gives a picture of a man cleaving some dice with an axe3). The inscription on an ema

IS usually nothing more than hônO ^ «presentedquot;; frequently also the date is

mentioned. It is not allowed to mention tho name of the giver; as a rule only the year

of his birth is quoted, for instance quot;offered by a man born in the year of the sheepquot;

Often the whole ema is nothing more than a picture of the cyclic animal, indicating the

birth-year of the giver. Finally some ema represent the substitute of the gift which one

would have offered, if one's means had permitted; to this category belong images of cows,
purses, pieces of gold etc.

The huge quantities of these votive pictures that were presented to temples, Buddhist
as well as Shintô. necessitated the adding of a special hall to the temple, called em ado
mThe ema-collections of tho Kiyomizu-temple ^ in Kyoto, the Hatsu-

I) Cf. Aston, Shinto, p. 180, 187; Walkv, Magical use of phallic representations, its late survival in

Clnne and Japan, Hull. Museum of Kar-Eastern Antiquities, III, Stockholm 1931, p. 01. A similar he,ill

exists m India: S. Lkvi, Le Nepal, 11, p. 21 speaks about sexual representations on the walls of temples•

Lexplica ,on que j en ai recueillie est uniforme: ces scènes passent pour avoir la vertu d'écarter la foudrequot;,
i) Cf. Kokushi, s. v. ema.

3) TI,osc cNa,„,,l„s arc take,, f,„„, ihc i„tc,cslf„g booklet -Ema, the votive ,,ict„res of Japanquot;, l.y

temple in Aki') have a well-merited fame 2). Often this hall has kept the character of a stable;
for instance at the great temple in Izumo, the Umaya, quot;stablequot;, where in 1666 a bronze
horse was placed Compare also the bronze hamp;rse in the Shinto-temple of Sum a, at Nagasakiquot;).

From the above-mentioned data it is evident that in Japan the horse was intimately
connected with the conception of fecundity, and as such gained great popularity in the

In the following chapter we shall see that the figure of Hayagrlva was readily linked

In Japan the Chinese Mantrayana was systematized further and rounded off to one
of the twelve great Japanese Buddhist sees, under the name of Shingon-shu ^
the Mantra-sect. The Japanese patriarch of this sect is the famous priest KoboDaishi
^^ ^ ^ (Kakai g 774—835); in 804 he set out for China, and became there
a pupil of the seventh patriarch of the Chinese Mantrayana, Hui Kuo (see siipra,
page 25). Kubo Daishi transmitted the Doctrine to his pupils Jitsu-enbsp;786—847)

It is not necessary to give here a detailed description of the tenets of the Shingon-
sect®). Generally speaking, they are an enlarged copy of the Chinese system, the pivot
being formed by the Magic Circle of the Two Sections (ryobu p^nbsp;the Vajradhatu

the phenomenal aspect of the world. Here also the figure of Hayagrlva must be looked
for in the third section of the Garbhadhatu, the Lotus-section (Rengge-bu
after the central figure AvalokiteQvara also called Kannoninnbsp;this section

Hayagrlva occupies the seventh place in the first row. See the picture of the Taizokai, in
Him., facing page 718. In Japan Hayagrlva bears all his Chinese titles, like Dairijimyoo

2)nbsp;In 1832 a catalogue of this collection was published, the i ts u k ush i m a-e m a-kaga m i (Weiucu,

3)nbsp;Cf. SciiuUHAMMKU, Shinto, Donn 1923, p.l75; on page 149 a picture of the emadö of Kitano, Kyoto

is given. The Leyden Museum possesses a beautiful model of an emadö at Osaka, 114G/1.

5)nbsp;For a good summary see II. Sciijudt, Eine populäre Darstellung der Shingon Lehre, Ostasiatische
Zeitschrift, 1918, p. 45, 1920, p. 103.

etc.; usually, however, he is called Bato-kannon (1 TO ffl A
seldom Mezukaunon). Cf. Chinese names on page 47, .upra.nbsp;^ ^

3ffi ft ® ili: His statues are to be found all along the countryroads, and slZi

M,l^^™-provmce, m the second month the people offer wooden with representation;
ot animals, cows, horses etc. to tlie image of Batsquot;).

The Shingon and Tendai-seots show a strong syncretic tendency; Shingon especially
ZZl nnbsp;that was incorpoiL il

Bodhisattvas. We saw in the first part of this chapter, that the horse in its quality o,

uthorities. Tins is most apparent in those cases, where one finds a simple stone, bearing
the name of BatOkannon.nbsp;'

d sc„bed or hinted at m the different passages of the Canon, quoted in the former chapter.
Some, however, are made according to the directions to be found in the special tex , in
Japan devo ed to Hayagnva, which I will discuss below. Although these representati^s
are copied from Chinese originals (that go back on Indian prototypes,, yet many of th
™ages, especially those in bronze, show a typical Japanese style. Compare, e. g.,

2)nbsp;Cf. Nihonminmkujilen, by T. Nak»vama, Tokyo 1933, s. v. „„a
•I) Cf. ASTON, Sliinto, page 187, 189; KoKusiri 815.

The Picture Section of Ts. ^^ ^ HI gives many images of Hayagrlva,
taken from manuscripts preserved in various Japanese monasteries. The text of these
documents is also to be found reprinted there. These texts contain lengthy discussions of
the Canonical passages regarding Hayagrlva, often in the form of a conversation between
teacher and pupil. I have selected here four pictures, which may serve to illustrate the
Japanese texts, as well as the Chinese descriptive passages, translated supra, Ch. Ill,
sub C and D.

The Taisho Issa ikyo contains all the scriptures that are used in Japanese Buddhism.
They are all written in the Chinese language; this fact, however, does not imply that

Tho works of the Shingon-sect are collected in Ts. XVIII, XIX, XX and XXI.
Here one finds, next to tho fundamental texts, translated by famous teachers like Vajra-
bodhi, Amoghavajra etc. from Sanskrit into Chinese, also a large number of longer
and shorter texts, the source of which is difficult to determine. They are often compounded
like a mosaic-pattern from fragments of these basic texts, scraps out of non-canonical
documents, together with many repetitions. The same detailed description of the ritual
with which a certain deity must be worshipped (i-kuei ij^, Jap. giki, S. kalpa) will
often be found repeated in exactly the same terms in a text which is dedicated to quite
another deity. It would be incorrect to speak here of plagiarism or falsification, especially
in those cases where the gods concerned belong to the same family (S. kula), or in another
manner could be classified in one and the same group. It goes without saying that the
ritual with which Aksobhya is worshipped, can just as well be used for his spiritual son
VajrapHni, and for his emanation Vajrasattva. But even if such a group-connection is
lacking, then the use of the same text for the worship of different gods is justified by tho
fact that all gods are identical as manifestations of the Void (S. gunyata).

When fragments from longer texts are detached and combined in a separate entirety,
dedicated to a certain deity, then this must be considered as a special mark of distinction
paid to that god.

An example of such a case may be found in the long text which is especially dedicated

to Hayagrlva in the Japanese Canon. The title of this text (Ts. 1072A) runs: quot;Methods

and Rules for Incantations and Offerings to effect a manifestation of the Great Fierce King,

ihis IS the most important text used in Japan for the worship of Hayagrlva.
The Ts.-redaction is based on three texts, respectively dated: KyohO-period f: ^ ,
1716-1735; the sixth year of the K y u - a n-period ^ i. o. 1150, and the eighth year
of the period Kuanji ^ «/A^ j. e. 1094. This text, which is divided into two chapters,
IS said to have been translated by Imperial command by Amoghavajra, who is
mentioned with all his titles and distinctions. This fact, however, does not prove the
authenticity of the text; the fame of Amoghavajra was so great, that his name was often
made use of to give more authority to a text by its presence. Hence the mention of
Amoghavajra did not prevent the priest Jogonnbsp;1639-1702) from doubting the

On minute analysis this text appears to consist of various fragments, that form an
artificial whole.

After some introductory verses, the text commences with the beginning of another
kalpa, viz. Ts. 1056, «Rules to be practised for the Bs. AvalokiteQvara-with-thousand-
eyes-and-hands, according to the VajraQokhara-sutraquot; (Chin-kang-ting-yu-ch'ioh
ch'ien-shou-ch'ion-yen kuan-tzu-tsai-p'u-sa hsiu-hsing i-kuei ching ^

m ^M^^J^l^^-f-Wim^^^mi^nm^.m)- This is a genuine Chinese
text, mentioned in the Ch e n g - y iian-hsin-ting-shih-chiao-mu-lu (see s^cpra,
page 57), page 879. Ts. 1072 A, on the contrary, is not mentioned in any Chinese catalogue.
Chapter I of our text is further wholly composed of shorter and longer citations from
Ts. 1056, alternated by fragments which mostly have nothing at all to do with Hayagrlva.
Then on page 159-160 a detailed description is given of the ritual which one should
perform in order to call up Hayagrlva in one's soul, and to behold him in the centre of
his Mandala, his Magic Circle. Now this passage forms the kernel, as it were, round
which the whole text is grouped. For the text that precedes it, although composed from
very heterogeneous elements, yet does not lack a certain unity: the leading thought is
to describe a series of introductory rites, which are required for preparing the body and
soul of the practitioner. When these rites are performed one will by the inspection of
various mystic syllables (blja) be able to behold the god. It goes without saying that for
the compilation of this text one made use of a text devoted to AvalokiteQvara, as Hayagrlva
is a special aspect of this Bs.

The second chapter is an elaboration of the Mandala of Hayagrlva. The various
figures that form part of this mandala are here again each dealt with in detail, together

With a precise description of their respective mdr. and mtr. All these figures having been
discussed at length, the remaining part of this second chapter consists of a collection of
fragments, for the greater part borrowed from Chapter VI of the Dharani-sariigraha,
alternated by short, independent passages. One of these, the description of Ilayagnva sitting
on a water-buffalo (page 168) has been taken from a text that is especially devoted to
another Vidyaraja, viz. Yamantaka (Ts. 1214: Sheng-yen-man-te-chia-wei-nu-

is a syiitliesis of all passages regarding Hayagrlva, scattered over other textsof the Canon.
In ch. Ill, section D, I have already translated these shorter references.

This special Hayagrlva-text is thus built up out of three authentic texts of the

A.nbsp;Ts. 1056, devoted to the Bs. Avalokiteqvara-with-thousand-eyes-and-hands; this
text is mentioned in a Chinese Catalogue, dating from the 8tii century.

C.nbsp;Ts. 1214, devoted to Yamantaka; this text existed in China during the Ming-

As this compilation does not occur in any Chinese Catalogue, we may conclude that
this Hayagrlva-text is a later Japanese production, written in honour of the god Hayagrlva.
One need not be astonished that it was in Japan that this text was compiled; for as we
saw above, in Japan horse and horse-cult occupied an important place. The figure of
Hayagrlva was linked up with these conceptions, and thereby gained greater importance.
On account of this promotion a special text was compiled which united all the material
concerning him that was available in the Canon, into one extensive ritual, grouped round

There remain, however, those passages that deal especially with Hayagrlva, and which
are not borrowed from A, B or C. These passages do not occur in other texts of the Canon,
for else they would have been registrated by tho priests who compiled the special accounts
of Hayagrlva, published in the different parts of Ts. Picture Section. It is difficult to
trace their origin. From their contents it appears clearly that they could not have been
written in Japan, for the general social conditions alluded to are typically Chinese. I quote,
for instance, a passage on page 168: «...if all kinds of calamities and disasters should
arise, and when tho land would be in disorder, when resentful enemies in other countries
plot an invasion, and make several attacks; when the people are discontented, and the

ministers plan rebellion; when epidemics harass tho land, when there are floods and
droughts, and when the regular course of sun and moon is brol;en...quot;nbsp;lt;«

but they can not be applied to Japan. This and similar passages conld be fragments of a
special Chinese Hayagrlva-text, that was lost at an early date. This, however, does not
seem very probable. In my opinion they are remnants of sMhana's and short rituals, that
have been transmitted in fragments, outside the Canon.

The remaining fragments, that have no special bearing upon Hayagrlva, are probably
to be found hidden somewhere in the Canon.

Finally the Japanese Canon contains three brief texts, that are devoted to Hayagrlva
Ts. 1078, Kayalciribaz.h. ^ I[|5 ^^ g||J JJ ^ ^ is a fragment of Chapter Vl
of the Dharaijl.samgraha, and so is also Ts. 1074 Kayakiribakanzeombosatsu-
juhodan, id. iifft^^^ g^lf.

Ts. 1072B, Batokannonshindarani ,IS SB ifi # ;(!«Iffi H ft is a brief text,
written in Siddha.h-characters. I reproduce this text below, with a transcription. As it
seems very corrupt, I have made no attempt to correct the Sanskrit.

om namo ratnatrayaya namah âryâvalokiteçvaräya bodhisatvaya mahä-
satvaya mahäkarunikSya obhyo namaskrtvä idam äryavalokiteçvara mu
• •'hayagrlvahrdaya... movantam yisyâmi ehyehi mahâvajra vajranakha
vajraroma vajrakeça vajrakhura vajradamstra hana daha paca gahna
bandha ranga basa jalda rtra dhuna vidhuna mathâ kasya kapha sarva-
devâm sarvanägäm sarvayaksâih sarvavihihethakâm sarvavisâm praviça
hayagrlva visasriya prajvâla âviça viçavajrakhuramavilam buddhadharma-
sarhghavacana manusyarajati manusyarahrdaya manusyara vikira garja
nadarii madagu * * vinihana hana hnrii hûm phat phat û svähä.

of quot;methods and rules for incantations and offerings to effect a manifestation
of the great fierce king, the holy hayagrïvaquot;

The text opens with the following introductory verses of a general nature; the name
Hayagrlva occurs once.

quot;Hail to Vajrapäni'), tho great Bodhisattva, the Lord of Mystery 2), who can explain
the highest Vehicle, and make one quickly realize3) the Enlightenment^). To Hayagrlva =),
who can remove all obstacles of Mära«), who, manifesting a fierce appearance, by this
contradictory moans yet shows his compassion. Who transforms himself into tho great,
awe-inspiring sun-disk, which illuminates the innumerable worlds, in the same way as the
darkness of tho practitioners of the Yo g a-doctrine «), to whom ho shows the ways of
quickly obtaining magical success »). Who abundantly sheds ambrosia 'quot;), washing away tho

memory-seeds') in the All-conserving-mind 2); who quickly effects the accumulation of pure
knowledge 3), completing the pure Essential Body. To whom I therefore do homage with
my head bowed to the ground.

Now I will explain the most secret Ritual, relying on the secret tradition and the
mysterious Nay a-doctrine

The Teacher =) should begin by choosing a pupil, who wishes to practise the Mantra-
yana«), and who has a pure faith in the'Three Jewels. Who reverently loves the Great
Vehicle, and thirsting looks up to the Yo g a-doctrine Who can practise well the conduct
of a Bodhisattva, and in whose heart there is no fear. Who will, in the search for tho
Yoga-doctrine, abandon his life and his earthly goods. Who is never wearied and ever
compassionate, and whose family is provided with all stocks of merit «). Who has a profound
erudition, who protects the Right Doctrine «), who loves and takes pleasure in the practice
of the six Virtues of Perfection '«); whose thoughts are full of compassion for all living
creatures, and who constantly is covered by the armour of the Great Vowquot;). Who saves
without exception all the living creatures of the innumerable worlds, and makes them
quickly realize the Enlightenment.

When the Teacher sees that the pupil is a man suitable to be made an instrument
of the Law '2), he urges him on with all means, beginning by explaining to him the
mysterious Path to Enlightenment'3), the subtle Practice of Knowledgein order to quickly
reach the road that leads to Buddhahoodthe acceptance of the Threefold Refuge'«i,

1) hsun-hsi-chung-tz« ^ ® S. vusana-blja: «Every act, mental and physical, leaves its
seed I,ehmd which is planted in the Alaya for future germination under Avvourable conditionsquot; (D T
Suzid., S ud.es the LankHvatilra Sotra, London 1930, p. 438. In the following I shall often quote'the
.7 T'h kT'nbsp;S-^«k'-'t-ClHquot;ose-English Glossary, which the author has added to this

4)nbsp;Li-ch'u-chiao _nbsp;5) a-che-li [J^ ^^ , S. ùcànja.
G) hsiu-mi-ycn-ti-tzu ^ ^nbsp;.

and he makes him develop the Bodhi-mind •). Then he teaches him the removal of all
obstacles in past, present and future the Threefold Morality and the discipline of a
Bodhisattva. Then he makes him enter the Round Altar He informs him about the
personal deity and by chanting magic formulae he protects the inaugural ceremony of
the Anointment«). He should teach him to draw the Magic Circle^), and inform him on
the special discipline to be followed when adoring this deity«): quot;From now on until you
become a Buddha, do not abandon the Bodhi-mind. Worship your Teacher, and try to
equal all the Buddhas. Keep firm to the Vajra. Be deeply reverent and abstain from

From the Teacher (the pupil) now receives the Vajra, and also the Vajra-stone«), to
search with these the ways to magical success. Till he comes to the Bodhimanda'«),
he should keep to these rules without ever abandoning them. Approaching with love the
Teacher who grants him the Anointmentquot;), he should receive the discipline regarding the
personal deity, resolutely, without doubt or errors, and then courageously go on to the

Page 155, 15-25; these lines are with some slight alterations taken from Ts. 1056,
where they occur on page 72, a 14—23.

3)nbsp;san-chung-chich ^ jg ^ , S. çda. Çila consists of strict observance of tlgt;c san-men H P^
or san-ycli ^ ^ (S. trividha-dvâra), i. c. jiurity of body, speecli and tliouglit.

5)nbsp;pen-tsunnbsp;; 's lt;l'fflcult to find an exact translation of this term. The Sanskrit tran-
scription runs gi iËi ^ t^ pW ^ ^nbsp;^^nbsp;quot;quot;

9)chin-kang-ch'ing ^nbsp;a Buddhist cult-object consisting of a sonorous stone, hung up in a

frame and struck like a bell. The ch'ing is a Chinese musical instrument. In India it was not known, but
the appellation chien-chih /fgnbsp;S. gandl, points to a similar Indian instrument, made of wood,

and struck with a wooden hammer (S. kolanaka). Cf., however, the extensive discussion m the I- an-i
Ming-i Chinbsp;GO, where chien-chih is translated as chung^, bell.

See further Mik^p 257 43rand 428, where a picture of the ch'ing is given, and Stael-Ilolstein, Gandi-
stotragâthâ (Bihl. Buddhica XV), p. XXI, with picture of a gandl.

Page 155, amp;25-c25 seem to have been borrowed from a text devoted to another
Fierce King. They contain, however, some references to Hayagrlva.

Page 155, c 26-page 156 c21 are all taken from Ts. 1056, where they may be found
on page 72, a 23-page 73, b 2.

Page 156, c 22-page 157, c20 quote various mdr. and mtr., without one single
reference to Hayagrlva.

Pago 158, b8-c2 contain mdr. and mtr., without any special bearing upon Hayagrlva.

Page 159, M3-page 160, «28 describe how by the inspection of various mystic
syllables one may behold Vairocana, and the wonderful abode on top of the mount
Meru. Here one will see at last a magnificent palace, where one may behold Hayagrlva.
The ritual to be followed by the practitioner is described 160, a28-amp;]4.

quot;Then in the middle of this palace one will see a lotus-flower. In the heart of this
lotus-flower one should imagine the syllable hrih ■). It emanates a great effulgence, that
Illuminates all the boundless Buddha-worlds. All suffering creatures obtain salvation as
soon as they are touched by this light. From this effulgence suddenly emerges the Great
Fierce King Hayagrlva. He has four faces, all having a fierce expression. Tiger-teeth press
the upper- and lower-lips. His eight hands all hold various weapons. He is sitting on a
lotus-seat that rests on a flat rock. On top of his middle head there is a green horse's
head. His hair is standing up loosely, like flames. The colour of his body is bright like
the sun-disc. His body is entirely surrounded by flames, which excel the Fire of Universal
destruction This fire consumes all the obstacles of Karma in men and gods. The crowds
of fierce gods and the Ten Virtues of Perfection (personified) surround him as attendants
The Bs. of the Eight Offerings 3) all occupy their places. At the four corners of the palace
there are the four MahäkumSra's viz. Pariltmll=), Paracana«), Ekaj atSrllksasa^),
and Aparati«). Each of them is on all sides surrounded by numberless attendants. The

eight quarters are occupied by the Eight Great Dragon-Kings, together with the countless
Dragon-Kings. And around these again, at the four sides, the twelve Great Heavenly
Kings are standing. Their attendants are recruited from the eight classes of other gods.
When one imagines the personal deity in this way, and the countless crowds of Holy
One's, one should observe meticulous care, and not forget the correct order in which they
all should be placedquot;.

Page 160, 6 25—page 161, a 26, compare Ts. 1056, page 75, 6 12—page 76, a 27. In
page 160, c24 occurs a description of the Hook-mudrâ of Hayagrlva, ^ ^^
l^^p: both hands are folded together so as to form the Vajra-combination ^
Milnbsp;fingers are slightly bent, resembling a hook, pointing to one's body.

Page 161, a27—c9 quote various mdr. and mtr.
Page 161, clO—15, compare Ts. 1056, page 76, «28-6 4.
Page 161, c 16—23 quote a certain mdr. and mtr.

The first chapter closes with the description of a special offering (page 162, c 6—16).

Page 163, a 5—page 164, a 10 give a description of the mdr. and mtr. which belong
to the Ten Virtues of Perfection. Compare Ts. 1056, page 77, 6 16—page 78, 6 29.

Page 164, all—6 13 give the mdr. and mtr. of the Four Mahâkumâra's, mentioned
in the description of tho Mancjala of Hayagnva (see supra p. 88).

Page 164 6 14—page 165, a 2 quote the mdr. and mtr. of the Eight Great Dragon-
Kings, mentioned above.

Page 165, a2—6 19 enumerates the mdr. and mtr. of the Twelve Heavenly
Kings: Içvara, Indra, Agni, Yama, Râksasâdhipati, Varuna, Vâyu, Vaiçravana, Brahmâ,
Pfthivi, Âditya and Candra.

Page 165, 6 20—6 26 correspond to Ts. 901, page 803, c5—11.
Page 165, 6 27—c 4, cf. Ts. 901, page 833, c 18—23. Ts. 901, however, begins the
mtr. with om, instead of namah samanta buddhUnam.

Page 165, c5—11, cf. Ts. 901, page 834, a 4—9. Again Ts. 901 has om instead of
7iamah etc.

Page 165, c 12—17, cf. Ts. 901, page 834, a 16—22; again our text adds namah etc.
to the mtr.

Page 166, a 10—amp; 6 seem original; a 10-14 give a mdr. and mtr. for the devouring
of all obstacles (fjjr ^ ^ . the mtr. is the same as quoted .yitpm, page 65).
A14—26 describe mdr. and mtr. of the quot;Sharp sword that destroys all obstaclesquot; ^
^nbsp;77)gt; caUing the fingers by their mystic names. The remaining text runs:

quot;The Holy, Great, Fierce King Hayagrlva. Now the most excellent basic mtr.
$ PP) is explained: both hands are folded together, both fore and ring fingers being bent,
so that the backs of their nails touch each other inside the folded hands. The mdr. is
then completed by erecting both thumbs. As soon as one has made this mdr. and chanted
the mtr., this mdr. will send forth a great effulgence. Out of the mouth (formed by this
mudra?) there will come a Buddha of Transformation. All devils and non-Buddhist obstacles
and all that have evil hearts will be dispersed, and take to flight hastily at the sight
of this mdr. From the AkaQa-sphere above unto the Vayu-sphere below, all the Vinayaka's
that live in the air or dwell under the earth will have no power to do any harm. In the
hearts of all of them Compassion is roused, and it will be impossible for them to do any
mischief. Those that practise the mantra's and follow the discipline of a Bs., will not be
hindered by obstacles and will obtain complete freedom. By making the mdr. and chanting
the mtr. all these people will be entirely identified with the Great Fierce Kingquot;.

Page 167, a 8—a 12 contain two mtr., that have no special bearing upon Hayagrlva.

Page 167, a 13—28 contain the Mantra of the Hundred Syllables of the Lotus-section

Page 167, a 29—6 3 give another version of the rite described in Ts. 901, page
837, a 2—8.

Page 167, 6 4—21 contain some original directions for the worship of Hayagrlva:

quot;Again the Mysterious Heart of tho Holy Hayagrlva of Matchless and Unthinkable
Strength is explained; (with his help) the methods for all kinds of rites can be eff'ected.

One should chant the mtr. over vegetables, 100 000 times. Then one should during
one day and one night abstain from all food; then only may one perform the Great
Offering, and execute the Ho ma-rite '). One should burn 8000 twigs of a kind of sandal-

wood '), both ends soaked in ghee. Then all the desires and hopes one cherishes in one's

If one wishes to obtain a Great Manifestation, ono should build in front of tho image
of Hayagrlva, an altar of four cubits square. In the middle of this altar one should place
a pewter vessel, filled with perfumed water. From the first till the fifteenth day of tho
month, one should burn incense, scatter fiowers and do homage and chant mtr. with great
devotion. One should do this day and night, without sleeping a moment, strenuously
keeping on without moving from one's place. When during fifteen days one has done so,
without interruption, and having said the mtr. 500 000 times the Great Fierce King
will manifest his Mysterious Body, and assist the practitioner. Ono will obtain the Great
Abhijüä's^), and know thoroughly all things that exist in the Three Worlds. Ono will
be well versed in all books that exist in this world, and know thoroughly all non-Buddhist

Also if one should effect a Great Manifestation, one is then enabled to shake the mountains

and rivers and stone walls, and stir the waters of the Four Great Oceans in the Trichiliome-

gachiliocosmos«). One can make the Sumeru and the Cakraväda-mountain
tremble, and grind them to dust. And all living creatures that live thereon will be
delivered from all pain and sorrow, and obtain great bliss, when they are touched by the

Pago 167, 6 27-C3, cf. Ts. 901, page 834, a 10-a 16. Our text adds at tho end of
the passage: quot;One will not suffer from disasters caused by heaven or earth, nor suffer
from any sickness. One will obtain great magical successquot;.
Page 167, c 4-7, cf. Ts. page 834, a 24—26.

Page 167, c7-9 add: quot;Bad cold, fever, headache, pain in the feet, all the 404 sick-

5) liji ^ supernatural faculties. Usually six are enumerated: divine sight, divine hearing, the
faculty of reading others' thoughts, the faculty of remembering one's former abodes or lives, the knowledge
that transforms one's modes of life at will, the knowledge that destroys the impurities (Suzuki, page 38.$).

nessesand the ten-thousand pams, they will all be cured. And the 80 000 sicknesses that

are caused by devils, they will all be cured without exception, and one will obtain all
magic successquot;.

Page 167, c 16-20 are taken from Ts. 1214, a text devoted to Yamantaka, where
they are to be found on page 78, Ml-19. Two lines are added: through the magical
power of the Great Fierce King all gods should obey the practitioner.

Page 167, c 25-page 168, «13 are a mixture of lines taken from Ts. 1214 (page 73,
h 14-20 and a 13-16), and of fragments referring to Hayagrlva. The text runs:

«There is another method in case there should be wicked people and enemies who
plan to injure a good man. One should cast a bronze statue of the Fierce King; its size
does not matter. This statue should have four faces and eight arms. The four faces each
show sharp bare fangs. The eight hands show Vajra-weapons. The middle head wears on
its crest a green horse's head. The hair on the head is standing upright like flames.
Having an extremely fierce form he rides on a blue water-buffiilo. On the back of this
water-buffalo there is a lotus-flower, and thereon Hayagrlva is sitting with crossed legs.
His whole body is surrounded by flames, which excel the fire of Universal Destruction. The
Mysterious form of the Great Fierce King that subdues the enemies^) in the Three Worlds
is like this. In front of this image one should make a triangular altar. On the base of
this altar one should paint the body of the wicked man, or write his name thereon. The
image of the god should be turned to the north, or also in the direction of the dwelling-
place of the wicked man. Having chanted mantra's, one should put on black garments,
and sit down with one's face turned to the image. In one's heart one should then rouse
a great anger, and with a sharp voice recite mantra's, during three days and nights, each
time for three hours. After these throe days the wicked man will die, together with his
whole family. If one should wish to bring him back to life, one should rouse great mercy
in one's heart. Taking the root of a lotus-flower, one should pound it to dust. Then one
should practise the samaya of the Great Mercy. During one day and one night one
should neither eat nor drink. When one has repeated the mtr. one hundred an eight times,

1) Tlic difficult charter that indicates the kind of wood to be used (see s»p,-«, p. 08) is here replaced
hy Chun does ^ ^ mean: quot;excellent woodquot;?

the wicked man and his family will be brought back to life; they will better themselves
and adore Buddha and Dharmaquot;.

Page 168, a 14—21 correspond to Ts. 901, page 837, 6 14—20; our text, however,
begins the passage with: quot;In front of the image of Hayagrlva one should make a triangular
altar; one should chant the mtr. 100 000 times. During three days and nights etc.quot;

quot;There is another method if all kinds of calamities and disasters should arise, and
when the land would be in disorder; when resentful enemies in other countries plot an
invasion, and make several attacks; when the people are discontented, and the ministers
plan rebellion; when epidemics harass the land, when there are floods and droughts, and
the regular course of sun and moon is broken: in a period of such general disaster, the
King of this land should in all earnest ask a magician to chant mantra's in front of the
image of the Great Fierce King. He should perform the Homa-rite 100000 times with pumpkin-
stalks '), soaked in ghee, milk and honey. Then the foreign enemies will submit, and all
will declare their allegiance to the land, with a very humble heart they will turn to the
King. The ofiicials will all be loyal, and the queens and concubines will behave reverently
to the King; all dragons, devils and ghosts will protect his land; rain will come down
at the appropriate time, crops will be abundant, and the people will be happy.

There is another method if in one's household there should be a bad disease, and
when many ominous signs appear; when ghosts and devils cause disorder, and when evil
people in the house plot harm to each other by spreading calumnies. Without anyone,
old or young, in the house itself or in the precincts knowing it, one should repeat mantra's
in front of the image of Hayagrlva 100 000 times. Then all evil things will disappear
completely.

There is another method when the officials of the King withold one's salary, and
when one is thrown into jail, and put in irons. When one concentrates one's thoughts
upon the Great Fierce King, the officials will on their own account again favour one,
and set one freequot;.

Pago 168, C5-10 correspond to Ts. 901, Page 837, c 20-24 (see supra, page 73).
Then, however, a different description is given of the image of the deity (c 10—21): quot;On
this altar one should paint tho Great Fierce King. He should have four faces, all wrathful,
each face showing tho bare fangs. The hair is standing upright like flames. Each head
bears a heavenly cap, and the ears are adorned with jade-ornaments. On the heavenly
cap a Buddha of Transformation is sitting with crossed legs. On the crest of the middle
head there is a green horse's head, and the neck is adorned with beautiful ornaments.
The colour of the body is resplendent like the sun-disc. The whole body is surrounded by
a flre which excels the Fire of a Universal Destruction. He has eight arms. One left and one
right hand are folded together so as to form the Secret Basic Mudra of tho Horse-
mouth (cf. supra, p. 55). The next right hand holds a sharp sword, the next left hand
carries the Vajra-staff. The next right hand holds the Vajra-axe, and the next left hand
holds the Vajra-wheel. The next right hand makes the abhaya-mudra (see supra
page 69), the next left hand holds tho Cintamani (see supra, page 70). The god is
sitting on a flat rock, on a dais formed by a blue lotus-flower. The colour of the rock is
just like that of a mountain, viz. a mixture of red, yellow and blue. All eight arms are
adorned with wrist-rings and beautiful bracelets. The body is adorned in the same way
as indicated in other places.quot;

Page 168, c 22—page 169, a 14 correspond to Ts. 901, page 837, a 21-6 13. Our text,
however, replaces in the sentence: quot;One will be born at the feet of AvalokiteQvaraquot;, the
name AvalokiteQvara by Hayagrlva (see supra, page 70).

Page 169, a 15—6 20 contain a shortened version of the passage Ts. 901, page 838,
a 17—26. Some lines in the description of the altar are changed, so as to make the
description agree better with the man(3ala of Hayagrlva, given above (see supra, page 88).

Page 169, 6 21—c 7 are a curious mixture of various quotations, i. a. the passage of
the Ta-jih-ching-shu (see sujira, page 54).

Our text closes with detailed directions for making images of the Four Mahaku-
mara, and of the Eight Dragon Kings.

When we again look over the material concerning Hayagrlva collected in the foregoing
chapters, it strikes us how in different areas this figure is connected with different con-
ceptions. From this it is apparent that in the case under discussion as in most other cases,
it is impossible to determine the significance of a god by one single formula.

For all that, in the semantic history of Hayagrlva an obvious trend is traceable: he
is the specialized and therefore continually changing aspect of a great, essentially never
changing, organic unity: the horse-cult. On account of his suggestive name, and his typical
characteristic, the horse-head, Hayagrlva remained continually connected with this universal
background. All varying aspects of the horse-cult found in him a form of expression.

When we regard Hayagrlva in this light, we are better enabled to understand his
different significations. In countries where the horse-cult played a great part, Hayagrlva
easily fitted in, and the cult of the horse itself was transferred to him. When this
adaptation coincided with Buddhism becoming the dominating religion in one or another
territory, there Hayagrlva won for himself a place in the foreground, and syncretistically
or otherwise, incorporated local gods in his own person. We noticed that this has been
the case in Tibet and in Mongolia, and, to a certain extent, also in Japan. In China, on
tiie contrary, where in later times a special horse-cult had receded into the background,
Hayagrlva remained a more or less theoretical figure, one of the many gods of the
Mahâyânic Pantheon. But perhaps, a profound investigation, for instance in the North-west
of China, where the breeding of horses is in the hands of a great part of the population,
would bring to light the fact that here and there Hayagrlva enjoys special honour. In
Peiping, on the 23^1 day of the sixth month. Ma-wang, the Ancestor of Horses, is wor-
shipped' by the owners of horses and carts, under the name of Shui-ts'ao-ming-wang
This title appears to refer to Hayagrlva ').

The various magical conceptions with which Hayagrlva is associated, can all be
deduced from the conspicuous physical characteristics of the horse.

In the first place, the function as fecundity-symbol, which is credited to the horse
on account of phallic considerations. The identification of Hayagrlva and Visnu, and the
Agvamedha in general, belong to this category.

Secondly the neighing, the magical horse-voice. On one hand, this voice is melodious
and well-omened: it is the sweet sound of Visnu-Hayagrlva, promulgating the Sacred Word.
On the other hand, it is the terrible sound that scares away devils: the Destroyer and
Devourer, the bhairava Hayagrlva.

In the third place, its celerity: the horse is the swift charger, which carries his
rider over the immeasurable plains. To this category belongs the idea of the divine, winged
steed. In the quot;chest-nutsquot; of quot;scarsquot; on the legs of the horse, one imagined to recognize
the places where formerly the wings had been attached ').

But it would be far too simplistic to deduce the origin of horse-cult only from these
material data. The horse as symbol is deeply interwoven with the inner life of man. This
is amply testified by dream-psychology; the tracing of this aspect of the problem, however,
lies beyond the range of this study.

This paper bears only a preliminary and fragmentary character. All scientific work is
doomed to be imperfect, but in re-reading these pages it could not but strike me how
inadequate my knowledge and capacity appear in proportion to the breadth and depth of
the subject I have undertaken to discuss. Several problems have only been touched upon,
while I fain would have brought them to a satisfactory solution. I hope, however, that
some of my observations may stimulate others, better qualified for this task, to a further
research.

And in conclusion I hope that Mahabharata H, 64, 8 may induce the reader to clemency,
as it has brought solace to the writer, where it says:

1) Cf. W. CUOOKK, The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, London I89G, II, page 207.

abhaya-mudrii G9, 94
äbhiciirikäni 4
ahhidharma 60
abhijîiâ 91
Açva 13
Açvaçankhu 13
Açvaçiras 10, 13, 15
Açvaçirsa 10
Açvughosa 4G
Açvagriva 18, 15
Açvamedha 10, 96
Açvainukha 10, 47
Açvapati 13

Aerial Horse 29, 46
agaru-perfunic 75
Agni 14, 89
Agni-puräna 18
äh, the syllable, 30
Airävata 10
Ajita 56
Âkâça-sphere 90
Aksobhya 33, 34, 81
älaya-yijnäiia 86
Amitäblia 29, 31
Ainoghapâça 24, 39, 65
Amoghavajra 25—27, 34, 52,

amrtodbhava 10, 11, 55, 64
Andersson, J. G. 43
an-hsi-hsiang 68
afijali 53, 62, 68, 64
afijana 70
antara-bandhana 53
Anuruddhamoksa 59
Ao, Prince 58, 60
Arjuna 10

Aston, W. G. 76-78, 80
asura 18, 16, 17, 82, 71
Atharva-veda 4
Atïça 36, 37
Ätmaraksa 62, 69, 78
Aurva 11
Auryânala 11

Avalokiteçvara 28, 24, 28, 35,
89, 40, 46, 51, 54, 55, 62,
65, 67, 69, 70, 79, 94
Avalokiteçvara, Eight-armed
74, 75

Bacot, J. 28, 29
Badarï 10
bahir-bandhana 53
Balnha 23, 24, 29, 46
Basic Mudrâ of Hayagrlva 94
Batökannon-shindarani 84
Bdellion 98
Bhadra-kalpa 28
Bhägavata-puräna 17, 18
bhairava21,22,29,88, 39,96
Bhaktamrdri 18, 19
Bhartrraentha 20
Bhïma 18

74, 75
Bosch, F. 1). K. 17
Brahmâ,7, 11—14, 17, 18,82,
Brahmaloka 12
Brandes, 39
Buddha of Transformation 69,
73, 90, 94; v. hua-fu

Çaiva-siddhânta 3
Cakravîîda-mountain 91
Cakravartin 11, 28, 32, 54, 70
çakti 87
Çrddism 22
Çâkyamuni 23
Çambhara 13, 15, 17
Caudra 89
Çaùkara 82
Çanklia 71
Çankhapfda 74
çapharï-fisli 17
Ceka-land 27
Chakravarti, G. 22
Challaye, F. 79
Charpentier, J. 9
Chavannes, E. 28
Ch'eng-huang 47
Cheng-yiian-hsin-ting-shih-
chiao-mu-lu 26, 57, 82
chen-shui 75
chia-ma 46
chien-ku-chieh 55
ch'ih-ma 46
Chih Sheng 57

Chin-kang-ting-yu-cli'ieli-ch'ieu-
shou-ch'ien-yen kuan-tzU-tsai-
p'u-sa-lisiu-hsing i-kuei-ching
82

Chou-dynasty 41
Chou-halberds 88
Chou-li 41, 42
Ch'uang-tzii 42
Chu Hsi 45
Ch'un-ch'iu 48
Cintamani 23, 70, 94
Çitalâ 40

Dadhlca 17
Dadhikriï(Yan) 9
Daihyakkajiten 77, 78, 79
Danu 18, 15, 17
Das, S. C. 34, 88
Dattâtreya 19
Devîbhiîgavata-puriîna 18
Dharmacakra-mudriî 85
Dliarmagupta 2G
dharma-pâla 28
dharma-paryiiya 59
Djago, tjandi 39
Digambara-sect 32
Doré, n. 45—47
drag-gçed 28

dragon 41, 42
Dragon-IIorse 29, 45
Dragon-King 74, 75, 89, 94
Dumont, P. E. 10
Duryodliana 13
Dutt, K 2G

Eckardt 47
Eggeling 20
Ekajatariiksasa 88
Elixir of Immortality 32
ema 77—79
ema-do 78
Entsuji 80

Fang-su 41
Pan-i-ming-i-chi 87
Fan-yii-tzU-tien 70
fen-nu-ch'uan 53
Forest, ,T. II. de 78
Francke, A. II. 48
Fuchs, W. 59
Fujiwara, A. 78
Fuku 27

gaudhanakuli-flower 70
gaudï 87
Ganega 7, 68
Ganges 12
Garuda 29, 38
Gogïrsa 47
Goloka 12
Goloubow, V. 23
gorocanil 64
Gravely 19, 21
Grierson 19
Grube, W. 95
giiggulu-perfume 68
Giintert, 11. 9

Ilari 14, 17, 18, 32
Hatsusegawa-temple 78
Ilattori 54
Ilayagiras 14, 19
Ilayaglrsa 10, 18
Ilayagirsa-pancaratra 20
Ilayagriva-Madhava 22, 29
Hayagrlva-mahiimantra 22
Ilayagriva-sahasraksaramaha-

mantra 22
Hayagriva-stotra 20
Ilayagrlva-upanisad 20
Ilayagriva-vadha 20
Ilayasya 18

Ilemadri 20
llentze, C. 45
Iliranyakagipu 17—19
ho-chang 53, 62
homa-rite 90, 91, 93
Ilonchomonsui 78
hook-mudra of Hayagrlva 89
Hopkins, W. 5, 11
hrih, the syllable 32, 51, 88
Ilsi-t'an-tzii-chi 48
Ilsi-yu-chi 45
Ilsiian K'ai 57—59
Ilsuan Tsang 26, 27, 45
hua-fu 55, 69; v. Buddha of

Transformation
Iluber, E. 23
Ilui-jih-monastery 57—61
llui Kuo 25, 27, 79
llui Li 27

Igiinavarman 26
Ichigyo 26
iQvara 89
Ihm, II. 76, 77
I Using 25—27, 54
I-li 43

Kaçyapa 15
Kaçyapa (priest) 59
Kaitabha 11, 13, 14, 19
K'ai-yuan-shih-chiao-niu-lu 57
Kiilidasa 5
Kâlikâ-purâna 22
Kalpa (world-period) 17, 23, 88
Kalpa (ritual) 81
Kaiiisa IG

K'ang-hsi-t/Ai-tien 63
Kansôzuihitsu 77
Kanthaka 22
Kanzeonji 80
kapiça-incensc 71
karana-mudrâ 34, 35
Karandavyûlia 23
Karkotaka 74
Karlgren, B. 41, 43, 50
kiïsâya 73

Kat Angelino, de 51
Kâtantra 3
Kawamoura 51
Kayakiribazôhô 84
Kayakiribakanzeombosatsuju-

at 80
Kongochi 26
Koppers, W. 9
kotanaka 87
Krishna Sastri 20
krodha-niusti 35, 53
Krom, N, J. 36
kris 38

Laksml-devi 59
Laksminarasiriiha-temple 21
lalitaksepa-attitude 33
Lafitsha-characters 48
Laufer, B. 45
Levi, Sylvain 50, 78
Leyden Museum 36, 38, 39,
79

Li-chi 43—45
Li-ch'ii-chiao 86
lien-hua-ch'uan 53
liu-chung-ch'uan 53
Li Shih-chi 58
Lotus-section 54, 79, 90
Lung-ma 29, 45
Lung-nao 64

Macchandar Vahal 35
Macdonell 9
Madhu 11, 13, 14, 19
Mahäbalaguna 56
Mfihäbodhi-monastery 59
Mahrdcumära, Four 88, 89, 94

Mahavairocana-sütra 24, 28, 54
Mahâvidyârâja 55
!Maheçvara 67
maithuna 22
Maitreya 23, 32, 33
Mallitamma 21
Ma-mien 47
manahçila 70

Mafijuçrï 56
Mantra-pitaka 61
ma-pao 54
Mâra 85
Mârïcî 37
Maruts 14
Maspéro, G. 47
Ma-t'ou 47
!Ma-t'ou-niang 46
Matsuodera 80
Ma-wang 95
Meru-mountain 11, 88
Milloué, de 51
Ming Ch'uan 57
Mohinï 19
Müller, S. 9
Muru 15

Nâbhâdâsa 18
Nacliod, 0. 76, 77
Nâgabodhi 25—27
Nâgarâja 74
Nâgârjuna 25—27
Nâlandâ 26, 39
Nanda 74
Nanjô, B. 83
Nara 10
Nârada 10, 11
Naraka 15

Odra 25
Oe Tadahira 78
Oldenburg, S. 36, 37
oih, the syllable 12, 30, 32,
34, 51, 55, 62-64, 85, 89

Padnianarte^vara 40
padma-musti 53
Padma Tliang Yig 37
Pancaniida 15
Paficaratriigama 20, 21
Pancatantra 1, 3
ParaQU-rama 19
Pavamiigva 24
ParamaQvavajra 34
paramita 52, 86
paritta 25
Parna^aYarl 40
Parvatl 22
Patala 10

64, 67, 68, 85
phur-bu 37
Piao-chih-chi 26
Prthivi 89
Przyluski, J. 25, 29
Pu-k'ung-chuan-so-shen-pien-

Rama 16, 19
Ramacandra 19
Ramiinuja 18
Ramararaavivada 19
Rao, Gopinath 18, 19
realgar 70
Rg-veda 4, 9
rlun-rta 29, 46
Roerich, G. de 37
Rniii-nia-sect 37
Rosenberg, 0. 50
rta-mchog 28
rta-mgrin 28, 35
Rudra 37
RyOchi 26

sadhana 30, 33, 34, 38, 84
Samantabliadra 26
samaya 87, 92
saiiigiti 61
sariikaksika 73
sandal-perfume 75
sandal-wood 90
Saptagatikakalpa 29—33
sapta-ratniini 11, 23
Sarasvati 12
sarjarasa-incense 71
Satow 76, 77
Satya 14
Satyavrata 18
sayiidhi-devatii 87
Schlagintweit 5, 29
Schmidt, II. 79
Sheng-yen-nian-te-chia-wei-nu-
wang li-ch'eng ta-shen-yen
nien-sung-fa 83
She-ta-i-kuei 52
She-wu-ai-ching 55
Sliih-ching 42
Shih-erh sheng-chiang 47
Shih-i-chi 45
Shimotodachi-festival 77
Shin-ga 79

Shinto 8, 76—80
Shishimuikanzeon 80
Shokayakiribadaiinuo ryOjo
daishinken kuyonenju giki-
hobon 81 ; analysis 85
Shu-ching 45
Shui-ts'ao-ming-Avang 95
Shurhamnier 79
Siddharii-characters 48, 49,
84

Siddhiirtha 23
siddhi 61, 71, 75, 85
siniabandhana 62
Simhala 23, 24
Simhaladvipa 24
Skandha 67
Sku Ilia 36

Sudhanakuniara 39
Sukhavati 70
sumana-flowcr 63
Sumeru-mountain 30, 91
Sung-kao-seng-ch'uan 25—27,

57, 63
Sung-ti-wang 46
surabhi-flower 69
Susa-no-o 76
suvarna 10, 72
Suzuki, D. T. 86, 91
Suzuki, T. 77

mu-lu 57
Ta-jih-ching-slui 54, 94
Takada 44
Takahashi, G. 38
Taksaka 74
T'ang-shu 58
Tara 39, 54
Taraka-battle 15, 16
Tark§ya 9

Toussaint, G. C. 37
Trailoltavijaya 50
tripatilka-mudra 34
Ts'an-ming 46
Tung Cinin 42
Tz'u-en-chuan 26
Tz'u-en-monastcry 58
Tz'ii-yiian 46

Vairocana 5, 25, 27, 51, 88
Vajrabodhi 25—27, 81
Vajragekharasutra 26, 82
vajramusti 53
Vajraplini 81, 85
Vajrasattva 25—27, 81
Vajravtirahi 37
Viilaha 46

67, 96
Visnu-purâna 16, 17
Visnuvardhana 39
vitasti 69, 73
Vrndâ-wood 16
Vrtra 17

Waley, Arthur 78
Walleser 26
Wang Chia 45
Wasudev Laxman 20
Watanabe 77
Wober 79

45, 70, 73
Wish-granting Tree 32
Wogihara 48
Woodroffe, Sir John 3
Wu-liaiig-shou-ju-lai-kuan-
hsing-kung-yang-i-kuei 55

Een hyper-critische houding ten opzichte van de oude Chineesche geschiedenis, als
van G. Maspéro in „La Chine Antiquequot;, strekt op den duur de sinologie meer tot schade
dan tot nut.

Bij de bestudeering van de geschiedenis der Chineesche spreektaal wordt te weinig
rekening gehouden met de gegevens verschaft door Buddhistische bronnen.

Westersche sinologen maken een te willekeurig gebruik van het woord „Taoïstischquot;
ter kensclietsing van de levenshouding van oude Chineesche figuren.

Daar aesthetische criteria onvoldoende zijn om ouderdom of echtheid van een
Chineesch kunstwerk vast te stellen, verdient het aanbeveling dat men in stede van zicli
in algemeene beschouwingen te verdiepen, zich in de eerste plaats bozig houdt met de
studie der Chineesche bronnen, als catalogi en essays van Chineesche kunstcritici.

Te langzaam wordt beseft hoe groot de invloed is, welke de nationalistische beweging
in China, zoo spoedig volgend op het ontstaan eener nieuwe letterkundige richting, gehad
heeft op de geschreven taal.

Ten onrechte veronderstelt von Eickstedt (Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der
Menschheit, pag. 680 sq.) eenheid van ras bij de Eskimo's.

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ts	tsh	ds
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