WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES TAKEN FROM THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN CLASSICAL AUTHORS AND A PEW EXERCISESi. *-

Teacher of English Literature at the Unnleipal College ahd the High School at Deventer.

WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES TAKEN I'KOM THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN CLASSICAL AUTHORS AND A FEW EXERCISfiS

Teacher of English literatuke at the municipal college and the high school at deventer.

During many yeai's'employment in giving instruction in English grammar, I have felt the necessity, especially for our Dutch pupils, to simplify and facilitate the study of it — or, in other words, to divest it of the difficulties with which it has been encumbered by the grammatists.

As a matter of course our pupils should not only be taught to make tolerable translations, but in the first place to express themselves clearly and elegantly in the modern languages, which constitute a part of their daily studies, and I have always looked upon grammar as an excellent means of exercising their faculties in this respect.

The English language has the great advantage of bearing the stamp of the practical turn of the nation by whom it is spoken, but the greatest difficulties of it are innate to English pupils and are therefore generally either passed over in silence in English grammars, or treated so very superficially that our pupils never understand them snfficiently. If therefore it will be found that I have been rather explicit on the use of the auxiliary verhs and more especially of will and shall, that I have consecrated a long chapter to the use of the different conjunctions, I hope to have rendered this little volume the more acceptable by treating those subjects less superfioially than is generally the case. Another observation which experience proved to me to be well founded is that an abstract rule is often easily committed to memory by a well chosen example. I

have therefore tried to illustrate every important rule by as many examples as I could gather among the most eminent authors, both ancient and modern and many of which have not hitherto appeared in any grammar.

The book is particularly intended for the upper classes of colleges and middle-class schools, where but little time can be given to practical exercises; I have on that account added a scries of such exercises as may serve as a practical repetition of any part of the book.

More advanced pupils and such as have to prepare for any examination in the English language will find many subjects treated in it for which they will in vain look into other grammars of this size, and throughout the compilation of the book in which Mr. Sullivan's Grammar (57th Edition) has been a much valued assistance to me, I have exerted myself to make the study of English grammar as entertaining as the subject would allow.

May experience prove that I have not spent many years in preparing an ungrateful task!

Observations on the conjugation of the auxiliary verbs . . . 130 Conjugation of an English verb according to the usual method-. Mood 122

Table of the simple and compound tenses of the verb io le ,129 The simple and compound tenses of the verb to lime . . . 130 Observations on the preceding tables, and suggestions for parsing the compound tenses............131

Examples of nouns formed from the past participles of verbs . 183 Examples formed by contraction from the obsolete third person

Alphabetical list of Familiar Proverbs, Maxims, Quotations and family Mottoes, frequently occurring in English and

2. Language is either oral or written. It is said to be oral when only spoken, as among barbarous nations; and written, when it is expressed by letters or artificial signs; as the llehrew, Greek, Latin, English, Butch etc.

3. The elements of spoken language are articulate sounds. The elements of written language are characters or letters representing articulate sounds.

4. • Letters are formed into syllables, syllables into words, and words into sentences.

1. Grammar is the science of language and the art of speaking and writing with propriety.

2. English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety.

3. Grammar is usually divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

4. Orthography teaches the forms and sounds of letters; and the correct method of spelling words.

Spelling is ilie art of expressing words by their proper letters, and of rightly dividing them into syllables.

6. Syntax treats of the proper arrangement and combination of words in Sentences.

7. Prosody treats of the accents and the pronunciation of words; and the laws of versification,

3. Formerly 1 and j were considered different forms of the same letter; and this was also the case with regard to Q and V; and hence the English alphabet was said to consist of twenty-four letters ¹).

4. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u; and w and y when they do not begin a word or syllable. All'the other letters are consonants.

5. Except in the beginning of a word or syllable, w is another form of u, and y of i; and consequently W and y are in such positions vowels. Compare ^roW and ^roU, uieW and vieVi, try and tri, fly and/les etc.

6. The vowels are so called because they can be fully and perfectly sounded by themselves, or without the aid of any other letters.

7. The consonants are so called because they cannot be distinctly sounded without the aid of a vowel.

8. The consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels. The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel. They are b, p; d, t; k, q and C, hard. The semivowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are f, j, 1, m, n, r, s,

Hence the forms Troja and Troia, iota and iota, halleluja and halleluiah, major and mayor; and we have only to open any old book to find instances of the interchanges of u and v, The double v (formerly printed VV separately) is still called double u; and in the words lieutenant and lieutenancy, the u is generally considered to have acquired the sound of V.

I, m, n, r, are called liquids from their easily uniting with other consonants in the syllable,

9. Consonants are also divided (from the organs of speech chiefly employed in giving them utterance) into labials, dentals, nasals, palatials and gutturals. The labials are b, p, f, v; the dentals are t, d, s, Z; the nasals are m, n and ng; the palatials are J and soft q; and the gutturals are k, q and c and g hard.

10. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels into one tound or syllable; as ou in sound.

11. A Proper diphthong is one in which hoth the vowels are sounded; as ou in sound.

12. The only diphthongs in the English language in which each vowel is distinctly heard, forming together one sound or syllable are eu„ oi, ou; as in feud, soil, ground. The only proper diphthongs therefore are eu, oi and ou.

13. An Improper diphthong is one in which only one of the two vowels is sounded; as ao in gaol, oa in hoat.

Words should begin with capital letters in the following -situations: — 1. The first word of every sentence. 2. The first word of every line in poetry. 3. The first word of a formal or direct quotation. 4. The terms applied to the Supreme Being. 5. All proper names and adjectives derived from proper names, as 'England, BnglisTt. 0. Common names personified ; that is, used as proper names; as O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave where is thy victory! 7. The names of the months, as June; and of the days of the week, as Thursday. 8. Any important word as the Revolution. 9. The pronoun 1 and the interjection 0. 10. The titles of books and the heads of their principal divisions; as Young 's Night Thoughts. Spalding, 11 istory of English Titerature. Chapter

1. A. Syllable is a distinct sound, produced by a single impulse of the voice; as a, «», ant, aunt. In every syllable there must be at least one vowel.

5. A. Polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables; as pM-lo-so-phy, ac-ti-vi-ty, dis-in-ter-est-ed-ness.

1. Words are articulate sounds, used a3 signs to convey our ideas. Words are either primitive or derivative, simple or compound.

2. A. Primitive word cannot be reduced or traced to any simpler word in the language; as tree, hoolc, sound, content.

3. A. Derivative word can be reduced or traced in the language to another of greater simplicity; as manly, goodness, contentment.

4. A. Simple word is not compounded or combined with any other word; as child, slate, horse, ink.

5. A. Compound word is formed of two or more simple words joined together; as horsewhip, walking stick, dancing-master.

0. In many instances the two simple words have become completely incorporated, particularly when monosyllahic; as always, therein, utmost, gmpoioder, childhood; in others they are usually connected by a hyphen; as rail-way, walch-ribion, piano-forte. In all newly-formed compounds the hyphen is used; as steam-engine, gun-cotton.

1. The best general rule for dividing words into syllables is, to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs of speech accurately pronouncing them.

2. When the pronunciation is either not known or not to be relied on, the following rules should be observed. Two vowels not forming a diphthong belong to separate syllables; as (jru-el, li-a-hle. A diphthong preceding a vowel follows the same rule; as roy-al, sew-er.

3. A single consonant between two vowels should be joined to the latter; as hri-dal, fa-vour, e-lo-quence, de-light, de-cide. But in many derivative words, the intervening consonant must be joined to the former vowel; as ah-use, up-on. The letter x also between two vowels must be joined to the former; as ox-en, prax-in, ex-id, vex-a-üon.

Olservation. The mute e not forming a syllable in English can never be separated from the preceding consonant, nor can it ever constitute a syllable; peace, grace-ful, some-time». If any letter be added to this mute e, a new syllable is formed, place, pla-ces; time, ti-mes,

4. Two consonants between two vowels should be separated; as c.an-dor, con-curd, car-nal, el-low, mul-ti-form, ab-bey, pep-per, dag-ger; except in cases in which it would be obviously improper to divide them, as ta-hle, tri-jle, a-lle, ea-gle, response, de-prive, bro-ther, gra-plnc, instruction.

5. Compound and derivative words should be divided into the simple words of which they are composed; as what-ever, un-even, dis-order, pen-knife, mis-lead.

6. Grammatical endings or terminations are generally separated; as hroad-er , great-est, teach-ing, defend-ed, satisfy-ing. Exceptions on this rule form such words in the composition of which enters a mute 6; as shi-ning, ha-ted, fi-nest, (shine, hate, fine).

2. Etymology teaches the derivation or deduction of one word from another, and the various modifications by which the meaning of the same word is diversified. Etymology therefore, treats of the several kinds or classes of words and the inflections or changes which they undergo; as the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives and the conjugation of verbs.

3. There are nine sorts of words or Parts of Speech viz. Article, Nona, or Substantive, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection.

1. An Article is a word placed before a noun to show whether it is used in a particular or general sense.

Thus when we say — „TFheat is good for man and grass for sheepwe speak generally; but when we say: The wheat looks well, hut the grass looks thinquot; we mean some particular field or portion of wheat and grass. Nouns, therefore, which express the whole of any species do not in general take the definite article: and hence, as it is said, a noun used without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense; as „man is mortaV^, that is all mankind. And it is for a similar reason that Proper nouns are used without articles. As there is only one city called „Rotterdamquot; for instance, we never say a Kotterdam or the Rotterdam. In fact if every thing in nature had a name for itself — that is a proper name — there would be no necessity for articles.

6. There are two articles, namely The and A or An. A becomes an before a vowel or an h mute; as a \)ird, an üld bird-, a history, aa (Ji)\storical account.

7. Strictly speaking the n has been retained in such cases, for the original form is a«, which modern usage has abbreviated to as. The n is inserted in such cases to prevent what is called a hiatus, or the disagreeable sound produced by the meeting of two vowels. Hence when a word begins with an aspirated vowel, there is no necessity to insert the n; as a University, a Wphony, a 6we, many a One, a One-pound note.

8. An is generally used before a word beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second syllable; as an heroic action, an historical event, an hereditary claim.

9. The words beginning with silent k are (h)eir, (h)erb, {h)onest, {h)onor, (h)ospital, (h)ostler, {h)our, (Ji)umour, {li)umUe and their derivatives.

10. The is called the definite article, because it defines or particularizes the noun to which it is prefixed. Thus when I say ushow me the pen,quot; I mean some particular pen, and not any pen, which would have been my meaning if I had said, ,,show me a pen.quot;

11. A or An is called the indefinite article because it is used in an indefinite or general sense; as in the latter example,

13. In its original sense a is definite, because it signifies one; as in the proverb, //A hird in the hand is worth two in the hush;quot; and also in the old Scottish saying, „Better to have nae child than ae (one) child. But, in its usual sense, it is indefinite, because it does not denote one in contradistinction to two or more, but rather the species of the noun to which it is prefixed. _nA child should obey its parentsquot;, does not mean one child, nor does a in the sentence, ,,ƒ am a man and feel for all mankindquot;, mean one man. It is the species that is meant, as is still more evident in the following sentence. It is a horse, and not a man, you should get to carry this load.

14. As the proper signification of an is one it cannot be prefixed to nouns which are in the plural number, that is,

which express more than one. But in such phrases as the following, which have evidently a collective signification, it may be used; as, Only a few persons came, though a great many were expected.

15. The is closely allied to the demonstrative that. „Thou art the man,quot; and „Thou art that manquot; are nearly equivalent in meaning. So also _;/The done which the builders rejectedquot; and „that stone which the builders rejected.quot; There is however an essential difference between the and that; the former cannot be used without having the noun to which it refers expressed, but the latter can stand alone, and in fact, supply the place of its noun. We can say either „Bo that thing and you will oblige mequot; or „do that and you will oblige me.quot; But though we could substitute the for that in the first example, we could not do so in the second.

16. The is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative degree; as, The more I know of him, the better I like him.

17. When an article is prefixed to a proper name, either the noun to which it really belongs is understood, as in the sentence, «The Britannia entered the Thames yesterdayquot; (in which ship is understood before Britanma and river before Thames) — or the proper name is used in the sense of a common noun, that is, to denote a class or family; as the Stuarts, the Howards; or when eminence or distinction is implied; as, He is a Nelson; he is the Bacon of his age.

18. Substantives expressing weight, measure, number, or time require the indefinite article before them; as, Two shillings a pound. Four pence a bottle. So much a man, a head. Four times a week and twenty times a month.

19. The word many is sometimes followed by the indefinite article and a singular noun; as, many an hour; many a soldier. Many a one is a child at seventy, and many a man, full grown in intellect and old in experience, has not a grey hair on his head. (James), He heaves up many a sigh, (Cowper).

20. A is sometimes placed between an adjective in the comparative degree preceded by no, and a substantive denoting a thing which is susceptible of addition; as, No less a 'personage than the king himself.

31. What used in expressions of sudden emotion or surprise is followed by the indefinite article; as. The neigh-louring villagers long remembered with what a clatter of horse-hoofs and what a storm of curses the lohirlwind of cavalry swept ly. (Macaulay). What a strange thing imagination is! [James).

23. Before the words little and few the article a is sometimes omitted which diminishes the number or quantity. Mark the difference between. He has got a little fortune and, He has got little fortune. He was so dull that he had hut few clear moments and, His dulness did not prevent him from having a few friends; a few meaning of course some.

23. Nouns denoting professions, dignities and titles have the indefinite article prefixed to them; as, She is a countess, he is a lawyer, he is a Protestant, his wife a Roman Catholic; unless the title be not applicable to more than one person at a time; as, He was made Dnke of Monmouth; He was chosen Pope, orunless professions, dignities or titles are only mentioned as such; as. He got the title of marquess.

24. The use of the article in the following and similar sentences requires particular attention.

objects, it can never be used before substantives in a general sense; as, I seemed to myself to have made a leap in life when 1 returned to school. (Bulwer). Christianity teaches and commands us to moderate our passions. (Temple). lanocence and independence make a brave spirit. (Puller). Reason and discretion are the singular eminences of man. (Barrow). Glory is nothing else hut the shadow of virtue. (Steele). I endured the change of circumstances. (Warren). Boh I we fight that he may roll in riches? (Thackeray). The giving of thanks is displeasing to him. (Spectator).

26. The names of persons do not require any article before them; besides the exceptions mentioned under No. 17, the following rules require particular attention:

б. The names of countries, provinces, islands, peninsulas, cities and villages have no article before them; as Germany, South-Brabant, Anglesea, Alaska, Bristol, Lesser-Asia, Modern Greece, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Ethiopia.

Exceptions: The Brazils, The Deccan, The Botcns, The 11a-vannah. The Mauritius, The Morea, The Texel, The Tyrol.

c. The names of ridges of mountains require the definite article; before those of single mountains it is omitted; as, The Pyrenees, The Alps. The Ilimalags, {Mount) Etna, {Mount) Vesuvius, Stromholi, Chimboraqo, Lebanon.

d. Geographical names, besides those already mentioned, names of hotels and vessels take the before them; as, The South Sea, The Atlantic, The Mediterranean, The Cape of Good Hope, The Persian Gulf, The Kurile islands, The Antartic Continent, The Great-Eastern, The Sir John Russell, The Elephant and Castle, The Four P's.

e. Geographical denominations such as: empire, kingdom, duchy, province, island, town, etc. require the before and of after them ; as, The empire of Russia, The kingdom of Italy, The duchy of Limburg, The province of Utrecht, The Bay of Bengal The isle of Wight, The City of Rome, The Peak of Teneriffe Exceptions: The River Nile, Mount Rossi, Lake Ontario, Cape

37. Substantives representing a whole class take the definite article before the singular number but not before the plural; as, The lion who formerly inhahited three quarters of the ancient world, is now confined to Africa and some neighbouring parts of Asia, as are also the panther and (the) leopard. Hyenas are almost exclusively peculiar to Africa. The monkey is a funny animal. Monkeys are funny animals. Fairies use flowers for their characlery. (Shak.). Lions make leopards tame. (Shak.). Man and Woman make an exception to this rule: Man is mortal. Woman is the pearl of creation.

88. Substantives expressing things which are single in their kind ' require the definite article before them ; as , The moon, the sun, the sky, the stars, the universe, the Almighty.

Exceptions: Heaven, hell, paradise, Elysium, Tartarus, Providence, purgatory, as, God in heaven forbid! (Shak.). I'll send them all to hell in an instant. (Smollet). Poets have of course a license to violate this and many other grammatical rules.

■29. Words that are sufficiently determinate in their signification require no article; as, He utterly disregarded popular pursuits at college. (Warren). Some Catholic divines were sent to him from court. (Macaulay). Here on Earth God hath dispensed Ms bounties as in Heaven. (Milton). The pomp of death is more terrifying than death itself. (Blair).

30. Titles, dignities, professions etc. prevalent in England, do not require the article, when they are followed by proper names; as, King James, General Grant, Farmer T?lamhorough, Attorney-general Bacon, Seamstress Ann; but The Czar Nicholas, The Elector William, The Archduke Alexander, The Emperor Napoleon, The Empress Eugenia, The Chevalier Bayard.

Exceptions: The word Princess is always preceded by the definite article, as are also titles ox geographical names followed by of; The Earl of Rochester, The Cape of Good Hope.

Observations, a. The words Couut, Viscountess, Lady are often preceded by the definite article; as, The lady Russell.

use of; as, The Right Honorable the Earl of Ës°ez, The Hono-raik Mrs. Richard Cohden.

c. The definite article is also used before the names otpeoples, sects, societies etc.; as, The English, The Proteslants, The Cavaliers etc.

d. We write or read at least in English: William (the) Third. Charles (the) Second. Book (the) Ninth, Chapter (the) Fifth.

e. Adjectives used as substantives always denote the whole class, and require the definite article; as, The poor are often less miserable than the rich imagine. I felt 1 could have adored him, and made him my husband, had he been the poorest of the poor. (Warren).

/. In comparative degrees the definite article is used as follows. Who is the worse for the loss of a few things like these? (Dickens).

They said they liked the book the better, the more it made them cry. (Goldsmith).

g. The words next and last are commonly used without the definite article; as, Next year the war will be carried on. Fruit was very cheap last summer.

31. Particular attention should be paid to expressions, as the following: And now, what say you, my lads, to a game at cards? (Bulwer). The life of a fellow-creature night really be at stake. (Warren). At sight of that stupendous bridge his joy increas'd. (Milton). I went down sSairs immediately. (Warren). A light broke upon my unhappy comrade iü arms. (Bulwer). / took my pen in hand to write to him. (Warren). The king's forces came in sight. (Macaulay). He had been seen on foot, pike in hand encouraging his infantry by force and by example. (Macaulay). He came to London on purpose to see and to thank us. (Bulwer). It was determined to send a boat

on shore. (Dickens). The sons of stony are gone to rest. (Mac-pherson). Book in hand, he would, on fine days, pace to and fro. (Bulwer). How does young master? (Sheridan). Groom fought like noble, squire like knight. (Scott). Never was husband so watchful, and so little jealous. (Bulwer). The clown with whom Monmouth had changed clothes was discovered. (Macaulay).

33. The difference should be observed too between the expressions: To go to school, (in order to receive instruction) and: He is at the school, (at a particular one). He is in the school, (a carpenter, f. i. being at work in the building). To go to church. To go to the church. To walk about the church. To go to market. To stand on the market. To le at table. To go to table. To put on table. To rise from table. To sit down to table.

33, The article is not repeated in ordinary cases; as, The greatest pain I can suffer is the being talked to, and being stared at. (Spectator). The bride and bridegroom rose from the chairs in which they had leen sealed. (James). They were a boy and girl. (Dickens). He was frequently flogged hy the captain mid mate. (Warren). When a master and mistress are at strife in a house, the subordinates in the family take the one side or the other. (Thackeray), The melody ascended to the roof, and filled the choir and nave. (Dickens). The thunder and lightning were more appalling than I ever recollect witnessing. (Warren),

a. When emphasis is intended; as, let us to our fresh employments rise, Among the groves, the fountains, and the flowers. (Milton). Even in our time the plough and the spade have not seldom turned up ghastly memorials of the slaughter. (Macaulay). Jo« will see those who, in the Law, the Church, the State or the still cloisters of Learning are destined to lecome the eminent leaders of your age, (Bulwer).

I. When different persons or things are denoted by two or more nouns; as. The secretary and the treasurer have been invited, (two separate persons). The secretary and treasurer to the company has heen knighted (one single person). The old and the New Testament.

c. In denoting comparison or contrast when two or more persons are intended; as, He is a letter sailor than an invalid, means that he is a better sailor than an invalid would be; but, He is a better novelist than painter, signifies that he is both novelist and painter, but that he is greater in the former capacity than in the latter.

35. The usual place of the article is before the adjective qualifying a substantive. In the following cases however it has a different position.

a. The definite article is placed after the words all, double {twice), treble, triple, quadruple, quintuple, but the indefinite article is placed before them; as. He could have walked unti-red double the distance (James) but, a double distance.

h. Both the definite and the indefinite article are placed after the words both, half and quite; as. Half the delight is in the pursuit. (James). Before half an hour, I'll sic ear that we are out of their sight. (Marryat). But when denoting a thing not susceptible of division a and the are placed before half; as, The emoluments icere good, interposed Randal with a half smile. (Bulwer); which is also the case when the word lidlf forms a part of a compound noun; as. The limited half-hour soon passed. (James). She gave her grandson a half-sovereign.

c. When a noun is preceded by the words as, how, however, so, too connected with adjectives, and by the word such the definite article is placed between them and the noun; as, The Caxtons were as good a family as the Trevanions. (Bulwer). Who have gifts to carry on so great a work, but toe alone. (Butler). Such a book must not be lost to the world. (Bulwer).

She's muck too good a wife to lehave so. (Bulwer). Sometimes however a is placed lef ore too; as, she gave a too ready answer.

d. Between such and an abstract noun the indefinite article is frequently omitted; as, such affectation, such cowardice.

1. A noun or substantive is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any idea or notion; as man, pen, sweetness, justice.

2. The word thing is applicable, not only to every object that comes within the sphere of our senses, but also to every idea or conception which we can form in our minds. In fact, it properly means whatever we can think about, or form an idea of. It is, therefore, of universal application, and consequently the most general term in the language.

3. A noun is either proper or common. A proper noun can be applied to but one person or thing in the same sense j as John, Dublin, the Thames, Lebanon. A common noun can be applied to several persons or things in the same sense; as man, city, river, mountain.

4. Proper nouns are the names given to individual persons or things, to distinguish them from the rest of the same class or species, as the examples in the preceding paragraph. Common nouns are the names which belong in common to whole classes of persons or things. Thus the word man is a common noun, because it is not the name of any one man in particular, but belongs to, or is equally applicable to, every man.

(gt;. Proper nouns become common when they are applied to more individuals than jane; as „the Ccesars,quot; „the Howards;quot; „a Cicero,'' „a Catiline.quot;

6. In the preceding examples, it is evident that nthe Ccesarsquot; and „the Howardsquot; are put for a class; and that „0 Ciceroquot; and „a Catiline,quot; are equivalent to the common terms (a great) orator, and (a daring) conspirator.

7. A common or general term may be made to represent an individual person or thing, by placing before it the defi-

nite article the, or the demonstrative pronoun this or that; as „Thou art the man?'' that river is deep; this pen is bad. In this way a general term may be made to serve as a substitute for a proper name.

8. Real nouns are the names of things existing in nature; as man , horse, table, city.

9. Abstract nouns are the names of qualities considered abstractedly, or without reference to the substances to which they belong: as sweetness, wisdom , strength, purity,

10. Abstract nouns are formed in this way. We observe that several of the things around us possess in common a certain property or quality. Thus, we see that snow, milk, and chalk, are distinguished by a certain quality which we call white, from which, by abstraction, we form the idea of whiteness and we call the name of that quality an abstract noun.

11. Most abstract nouns are formed from adjectives by adding «ess; as from sweet, «wetness, from good, yoorfness, etc. Several are also found with other terminations; as ity, ety, th, ence, dom, etc.; as parity, uan'ety, lieal\h, strength., twsoZence, yyeedom.

12. Diminutive nouns are formed from other nouns by the addition of certain terminations, which express some diminu■ Hon of the original meaning; as gosling, sate^el, jnoc/cet, /«7/OCk. Some of them express endearment, as darling; and some of them contempt, as /«Veling.

13. Participial or verbal nouns imply action, or the doing of something; as teeing, /s/ang, »atting, mwfing, tmflng.

14. Participal nouns must be carefully distinguished from participal adjectives, and also from participles. They are easily known by their taking a preposition before them, likewcmws, and by their governing an objective case after them, like verbs, that is, when they are transitive. (In the sentence just written, „takingquot; and „governingquot; are participal nouns.) They have also the meaning, and may easily be converted into the form of nouns. I could say, for example, I spent half an hour in preparing this lesson—or in the preparation of this lesson,

1. A noun which expresses a single person or thing is said to be in the singular number; as hoy, look, virtue.

2. Nouns which express more than one person or thing are said to be in the plural number; as boys, books, virtues.

3. The plural number is generally formed by adding s to the singular; as in the preceding examples.

4. To nouns ending in s, x, sh, ss, or ch soft ,') es must be added, otherwise the s could not be sounded, and the plural could not be distinguished in conversation from the singular; as, gas, gases; ass, asses; box, boxes; brush, brushes; church, churches. Ex: All classes of religious thinkers receive toleration from, the British government. (Chambers). There is no union of the sexes. (Dickens), He used to place twenty waiters upon the table, and a hundred more attended on the ground, some with dishes of meat and some with wine. (Swift). Their governesses never entertain them with the stories of witches and hobgoblins. (Swift). Fifteen hundred strong horses, about four inches and a half high were yoked to the machine. (Swift).

5. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by changing y into ies; as study, studies. But y preceded by a vozoel, follows the general rule, as attorney, attorneys. Proper names when pluralized follow the general rule, as Henry, the_iHenrys. Ex; This fellow's civilities begin to grow troublesome; but who can be angry with those assiduities which are meant to please him? (Goldsmith), The dancing wowkeys are in one place; the puppet show in another. (Spectator.) Thy valleys float with golden waves. (Thomson). The Marys wo bring ointment for our feet get but little thanks. (Thackeray).

6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, generally take es to form their plural; as calico, calicoes; tobacco, tobaccoes; potato, potatoes; stiletto, stilettoes; manifesto.

') Nouns ending in ch hard form tlieir plurals in the regular way, (because ch wlicn hard is equivalent to i) as, monarch, monarchs.

nite article the, or the demonstrative pronoun this or that; as „Thou art the man-quot; that river is deep; this pen is bad. In this way a general term may be made to serve as a substitute for a proper name.

8. Real nouns are the names of things existing in nature; as rnan , horse, talle, city.

9. Abstract nouns are the names of qualities considered abstractedly, or without reference to the substances to which they belong: as sweetness, wisdom, strength, purity.

10. Abstract nouns are formed in this way. We observe that several of the things around us possess in common a certain property or quality. Thus, we see that snow, milk, and chalk, are distinguished by a certain quality which we call Khite, from which, by abstraction, we form the idea of whiteness and we call the name of that quality an abstract noun.

11. Most abstract nouns are formed from adjectives by adding ness; as from sweet, sweetness, from (jood, yoorfness, etc. Several are also found with other terminations; as ity, ety, th, ence, dom, etc.; as purity, variety, health, strenffth, motence, //eedom.

12. Diminutive nouns are formed from other nouns by the addition of certain terminations, which express some diminution of the original meaning; as gosling, satch%\, ^oc^et, /«'Wock. Some of them express endearment, as (failing; and some of them contempt, as /lireling.

13. Participial or verbal nouns imply action, or the doing of something; as faring, ƒs/ang, ecctóing, readi^, wrimZ-

14. Participal nouns must be carefully distinguished from participal adjectives, and also from participles. They are easily known by their taking a preposition before them, Wke nouns, and by their governing an objective case after them, like verbs, that is, w hen they are transitive. (In the sentence just written, „takingquot; and „governingquot; are participal nouns.) They have also the meaning, and may easily be converted into the form of nouns. I could say, for example, I spent half an hour in preparing this lesson—or in the preparation of this lesson.

1. A noun which expresses a single person or thing is said to be in the singular number; as hoy, hook, virtue.

2. Nouns which express more than one person or thing are said to be in the plural number; as boys, books, virtues,

3. The plural number is generally formed by adding s to the singular; as in the preceding examples.

4. To nouns ending in s, x, sh, ss, or ch soft,'¹) es must be added, otherwise the s could not be sounded, and the plural could not be distinguished in conversation from the singular; as, gas, gases; ass, asses; box, boxes; brush, brushes; church, churches. Ex: All classes of religious thinkers receive toleration from the British government. (Chambers). There is no union of the sexes. (Dickens). He used to place twenty waiters upon the table, and a hundred more attended on the ground, some with dishes of meat and some with wine. (Swift). Their governesses never entertain them with the stories of witches and hobgoblins. (Swift). Fifteen hundred strong horses, about four inches and a half high were yoked to the machine. (Swift).

5. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by changing y into ies; as study, studies. But y preceded by a vowel, follows the general rule, as attorney, attorneys. Proper names when pluralized follow the general rule, as Henry, Henrys. Ex: This fellow's civilities begin to groio troublesome; but who can be angry with those assiduities which are meant to please him? (Goldsmith), The dancing worakeys are in one place; the puppet-show in another. (Spectator.) Thy valleys float with golden waves. (Thomson). The Marys wo bring ointment for our feet get but little thanks. (Thackeray).

6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, generally take es to form their plural; as calico, calicoes; tobacco, tobaccoes; potato, potatoes; stiletto, stilettoes; manifesto.

) Nouns ending; in ch hard form, their plurals in the regular way, (because ch when hard is equivalent to as, monarchgt; monarch^.

niauil'estoes. Ex: Every negro's hand is armed against Ms fellow ««i/j-oes, (Pitt.) A dirty Joot-bcy was camfuKj a yellow-ware dish of potatoti into the hack-room. (Bulwer).

7. The following nouns ending in o, though preceded by a consonant, follow the general rule: canto, grotto, junto, solo, portico, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, rotundo, tyro. Ex: The rocks about her are shaped into artificial grottos. (Spectator).

8. The following nouns change f or fe into ves to form their plural: — Beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, tvolf, life, wife, knife-, as, Leaves have their time to fall. (Heraans). He took three of the loaves, lohich were as thick as a mushetlall, at a time. (Swift). Staff has staves in the plural, but it is now beginning to follow the general rule; as, Twice every day the leaves efface Of staves and sandalVd feet the trace (Scott). AH its compounds are regular, as tipstaffs, flag-staffs, the former sometimes tipstaves: The roorthy and exemplary tipstaff, — this prince of (^staves, 1 say, placed his charge in a place oj security. (James).

Ü. The following nouns are quite irregular in the plural: — Man Men') Foot Eeet

1) The remains of an Anglo-Saxon plural in- an. Hencc, also, hosen, now written hose; sowen now swine; eowen , now Hue; slioon, now shoes; eyen, now eyes; housen , now houses.

11, Some nouns have the singular and plural alike; as deer, swine, sheep, salmon, apparatus, species. The singular of such words is generally denoted by the article a or an ; as a deer, an apparatus.

13. Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they express, have no plural; and others, no singular.

13. Nouns that have no plural are:—1. Proper names, unless when used in the sense of common nouns: as 'the Cces ars,' Hhe Howards',' as, Her leautiful Jason was gone, as beautiful Jasons will go. (Thackeray). Down with the Capulets! down with the Montagues! (Shak). Where Desdemonas are so scarce, if you could hut guess how green-eyed their Othellos generally are! (Bulwer). 2. Nouns which denote things measured or weighed; as tea , sugar, wheat, oil, wine, unless when they express varieties or different sorts. 3. The names of metals, as gold, silver, lead. 4. The names of abstract and moral qualities; as hardness, softness, -prudence, charity. Some of these nouns, also take a plural when varieties or different kinds are spoken of; as teas, sugars, wines, affinities, gravities, charities.

14. Nouns that have no singular are those which are plural either in form or meaning. The following are of this class : —

') Alms, from the old French ahnesse, is strictly in the singular , and was so used ' y old authors , as quot;an almsquot;vinch almsquot; ^s) Arms, meani.ig weapons or armorial bearings.

„The gallows is thirty feet high.quot; News is generally singular; as „This is good news.quot; Means is also to be considered as singular, unless when the instrumentality of more than one thing is implied; as in the following sentence: „He was careful to observe vj/iat means were employed hy his adversaries to counteract his schemes.quot; A similar rule may be applied to amends. Examples: 1 prophesied, if a galiows were on land, Thisjellow could not drown. (Shak.) The news is very fair and good (Shak). Evil news rides post, while good news hails. (Milton). By this means our liberty becomes a noble freedom. (Burke). Every means was lawful. (Gibbon).

'•gt;) Thanks. This word occurs iu the singular form, in old writers, as, quot;What lhank have ye?quot; also in the compounds thankless, thank-lessness , thankful, amp;c.

) Fains, iu the sense of care, is now used only with a plural verb. It occurs, however, in good authors, with a singular verb.

) Riches, from the French richesse, is strictly singular. It is always, however, used in the plural.

matics, mechanics, opties, physics, pneumatics, politics, statistics , tactics, he., generally take a plural verb, but are sometimes found in good authors with a singular one.

17. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, are singular in form and plural in signification; as people, folk, parliament.

Ex. The Aristocracy, they say, is strenuously opposed to it. (Brougham). It was round this left hand door that the crowd took its densest aspect. (James). The whole nation took arms against their sovereign. (Robertson). A considerable number of prisoners were immediately selected for execution. (Macaulay). The greater part of my slaves are much attached to me. (Dickens). The peasantry were accustomed to serve in the militia. (Macaulay). The police, replied the intendant, are the persons best fitted by habit, as well as entitled by law, to carry on such an inquiry. (James). Mankind begin hy wonder, and conclude by worship. (Grattan). The court has made up its mind. (James). The number of independant chiefs and commanders were apt to introduce discords in their councils. (Scott).

18. The compounds of full have the regular plural; as spoonful, spoonfuls; mouthful, mouthfuls. „Two spadefuls were cast out.quot; (James.) But compound words formed of a noun and an adjective, or of hco nouns connected by amp; preposition , have, in general, the s annexed to the first word; as wirt-martial, cowfe-martial; .so«-in-law , io«.s-in-law,

19. Nouns adopted, without alteration, from foreign languages, generally retain their original plural; as in the following—

^,) The words followed by an asterisk have also the ordinary English plural (by adding s or es to the singular form).

1. Gender is the distinction of sex. There are three genders, the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter.

4. The Neuter means neither masculine nor feminine; as a hook, a chair. The neuter is, properly speaking, no gender, but merely denotes the absence of gender.

5. Such nouns as can be applied either to males or females are said to be of the Cosimon gender; as parent, child, friend, hird.

6. Some nouns, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, called Personification, regarded as belonging either to the masculine or the feminine gender: as when we say of the sun. „He is settingquot; or of the moon, „She is risingof a ship, „She is sailing.quot; In general, things, that convey an idea of strength, boldness, firmness, or energy, are in such cases reckoned to be of the masculine gender; as the Sun, Time, Death, Love, Winter, Sic , while those things which convey an idea of weakness or timidity, or which are more of a passive than of an active nature, are considered feminine; as the Moon, Earth, Nature, Spring, Virtue, Sickness, etc. Ex;

Death withdrew his shades from the days. (Campbell). Love hreatli d his infant sighs. (Thomson). The sun sheds his kindest rays for you. (Thomson). Time rolls his ceaseless course. (Scott). The winter keen poured out his waste of snows, and summer shot his pestilential heats. (Thomson).

The moon wears a wan circle round her Hunted horns. (Thomson). It is not by nature, nor by her liberality, that ice are printed with the seal of God's image. (Ealeigh). Earth's mountains are levelled and her seas filled up in our passage. (Carlyle). Reviving sickness lifts her languid head. (Thomson). From his ardent look the turning spring averts her blushful face. (Thomson).

7. Insects, small quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, arc usually spoken of as neuter.

1. The case²) of a noun means the state it³) is in, or the relation it bears to another word in the same sentence.

^!) The ancient grammarians called the nominative case the upright case {casus rectus), and likened the noun iu this state to a perpendicular line. The variations of the word from the nominative, they compared to other lines inclined to it at certain angles, so that the forms, of the genitive, dative, amp;c., seem to be falling, as it were, with diiferent degrees of obliquity, from the original word. Hence these forms were called the ObliqUG cases; and a regular enumeration of them was called, for a similar reason, deeiension. The word caje is from the Latin cado (casus) to /all.

3. A noun is said to be in the uoraiaative case or state when it is the name of the agent, or of the person or thing that acts; as, John reads; the wind blows.

4. When a noun¹) does any thing it is called the agent; and when something is done to it, it is called the object. In the sentence, „John strikes the table,quot; John is the agent, and table is the object.

5. A noun nominative can enter grammatically into a sentence only in five ways, viz :

a. As the nominative to the verb, the verb agreeing with it in number and person; as „1 speakquot; „Henry spealcs.quot;

b. As a nominative in immediate apposition; which means, in position close to another noun nominative that stands for the same person or thing; as „The boy, Henry, speaks.quot; Here., boy is nominative to the verb, and Henry a nominative in apposition with hoy.

c. As a nominative in apposition by means of a verb neuter; as „It is I;quot; „It was Henry;quot; „He became a great man.quot; Or infinitively with the verb; as, „To be a great man.quot;

d. As a nominative in direct address, and therefore in the second person; as „Lord, remember David;' „0 Charles;quot; it You are to blame, Henry.quot; This is what in Latin grammar, is called the vocative case.

e. As a nominative absolute; as, „Henry being gone, we gave over the game nl began reading, there being a book at handquot;

6. The possessive represents the noun') in the case or state of possessing something; as John's look.

For this reason this form of the possessive case is only applied to persons and not to things, unless the latter be represented as personified. Ex; The eye of tóe fisherman's wife strained over the waters. (James). A frund should bear his friend's infirmities (Shak). The example of Sod's universal

providence is seen in Ms creatures. (Kaleigh). The House of Commons rejected the advice of his Majesty's Ministers (Peel). It formed the delight of Newmanstreet, Gerardstreet and the artists' quarter. (Thackeray). He divided all the lands of England into knights' fees. (Erskine).

May I my lest thoughts employ To le my parents' hope and joy. (Coleridge). Mercy has , could Mercj's self be seen ,

You are in the crisis of a whole nation's hopes and fears. (Brougham). I hold amliiion of so airy and light a quality, that it is lid a shadow's shadow (Shak). I have leen gathering wolves' hairs. (B. Jonson). Four years' experience has confirmed rather than altered my opinion. (Canning). You are not alove six or seven hours' journey from Paris. (James).

7. The possessive case is formed by adding s, with a comma prefixed; as John's horse.

8. A comma in such a position is called an apostrophe, because it denotes that a letter has been turned away from its place, or omitted. The omitted letter in such cases, is either e or i').

9. Plural nouns ending in s form their possessive by adding the apostrophe only; as „angels' visits.quot; When the plural does not end in s, the possessive is formed by adding s with the apostrophe, as in the general rule. Thus, the possessive plural of man is ?«en's; of children, children's. Ex: It is impossible for any person to form a right judgment of his neighbours' sufferings. (Addison). Long live the Commons' King, King James! (Scott). You know the haste of magistrates and of magistrates' men. (James). Six spears,' lengths from the entrance halted that deep array. (Macaulay).

') The 's is an abbreviation or contraction of the old Saxon genitive or possessive; as quot;Godes grace,quot; «the kingis crown.quot; It was formerly thought to be an ahbrcviation of his; but though 'the king's crown', conld he resolved into 'the king his crown,' yet 'the queen's crown,' and similar instances, conld not be so resolved.

You gentlemen's gentlemen are so hasty. (Sheridan). If we desire to live 'peaceably with all men, we are to be equal in censuring men's actions. (Barrow). They were dressed in seamen's clothes. (Marryat).

10. When singular nouns end in es') ss, ce or any other letter or^ syllable which will not combine in sound with s, the possessive is usually formed by merely adding the apostrophe ; as .loses' rod'; ,for iightecasness' ²) sakef J or conscience' sake.'' Ex: Bacchiis' blessings are a treasure. (Dryden). His highness' pleasure is to talk with him. (Shak.) Bid not great Julius bleed for justice' sake 1 (Shak.) Fitz-Eastace' heart felt closely pent. (Scott).

11. The possessive case may, in general, be resolved into the objective preceded by the preposition of. Thus ,my father's house may be changed into ,the house o/my father? and ,the mountain's brow' into ,the brow of the mountain ,' without changing the meaning.

a. In subservience to another noun which comes after it, and is commonly said to govern it; as „Henry's hatquot; ,.St. Paul's church quot; Virtue's reward.'quot; But when the former noun is a pronoun, it is usual to explain its connection with the other by calling it an adjective pronoun possessive; as //My hat;quot; „Our church.quot;

b. Instead of an adjective pronoun possessive and the substantive with which it makes sense; as „Mine is herequot; for, ,/ffly hat is here,quot; „Oars is built of stone,quot; for „Our church is built of stone.quot; Entering into construction in this manner, a noun possessive is so in name only, its case being nominative or objective.

13. The following examples offer particularities connected with the use of the Saxon genitive case, which the pupil either knows already from the exercises in the first volume

') ïlie e, in such cases, is souudcil; for though we may say Moms' rod, we should uot say James' book, but James's book.

') This chiefly occurs before the word sake; for we say, the duchess's robes, the princess's Carriage.

or which it will be very instructive for him to bring under rules: 1 was yesterday at Count Sclionbran, the vice-chancelor s garden. (Montague). From my father and grandfather's time, at least, the apartment which was assigned to you last night, had teen shut. (Scott.) Ever since Henry the Seventh's time have the houses of St. Quintin and Glenmorris heen allied. (Buhver.) Miss Sharp's father was an artist, and in that quality had given lessons of drawing at Miss Pinkerton's school. (Thackeray). Frank Tfoodville had heen Richard Browne's fag at Eton. (Scott). Can you tell vjhether he has heen informed of Sir Anthonj's and Miss Melville's arrival? (Sheridan.) Sir Pitt Crawley's family was in want of a governess. (Thackeray.)

The devastations of one dreadful hour The Great Creator's sis days' worh devour. (Young.) The lieutenant's last day's march is over. (Sterne.)

That is madam Lucy — my master's mistress's maid. (Sheridan.) These Continental patriots, when they take up the sword with one hand, generally contrive to thrust the other deep ■into their neighbours' breeches' pockets. (Buhver,)

I hade him sit still, and caused Friday to rub his ancles , and bathe them with rum, as he had rfonc his father's. (Defoe. The good-natured schoolmaster's wife said justly that she ought to Tceep Mr. Goldsmith''s money as well as the yoaag gent'o-mea's. (Thackeray.) Here are some fine villas, particularly the late Prince of Lichteastein's, (Montague.) Lear thought to himself, how small the fault of Cordelia [if it was a fault) now appeared, in comparison with her sister's and he wepf. (Lamb.) Love is always more selfish in a mans hosom than in a woman's. (James.)

A female relation of Bolt's had settled in Spain. (Buhver.) lie was rather a feudal chieftain than a monarch, and had no poicer to carry this law of Edward's into execution. (Ers-kine.) The fortune of my poo? sister's is old Radford's object. (James.)

The merchant trudges through the mire from his warehouse to his banker's. (Mudie.) I'll send it to Bob Cratcliit's (Dickens.) I don't think I shall venture to look in her face till 1 see my father's again. (Goldsmith.) When I was at my father's, did not the men give up their gayest balls and parties in order to pass the evening with me? (Thackeray.) Bo you know the Poulterer's, in the next street lut one, at the corner 1 (Dickens.) lie is as well acquainted with St. Paul's as if he had built it. (Hazlitt.)

My last thought is England's. (Scott.) His purse and his heart were everybody's, and his friend's as much as his own. (Thackeray.) Old England is his, and he is Old England's. (Mudie.) Earth is the Lord's, and therefore ours. (Thomson.) Let all thy ends, thou aimst at, be thy country's, Thy God's, and truth's. (Shak.)

One lady's maid {my lady's) ivas a mere bundle on the floor. (Dickens.) Let us suppose him to be a liwysy's clerk. (Hazlitt.) He listens like a three years' child. (Coleridge.)

14. The objective case represents the noun in the case or state of Deing the object of an action, or as being acted upon; as „Brutus killed Caesar.quot;

a. As the objective of an active verb , which is said to govern it; as ul teach Ileary„She teaches me.quot;

b. As the objective of a preposition, which is said to govern it; as _uThis is for Henry;quot; „She gave this to me.quot;

c. In apposition immediate, or by means of a verb, with some other noun objective; as „1 teach the hoy, Henry;quot; „She teaches one pupil , — me;quot; „I Icnoiv him to be a friend quot;

16. The nominative and objective are the same in form, and can only be distinguished by their position and meaning in the sentence. In their natural order, the nominative comes before the verb, and the objective after it. Hoys (n) get pigs (o) all the year, and bitches (n) dogs (o). (Butler). The eagle (n) rode the rising blast (o). The garden (n) fears no

blight (o) , and needs no fence (o). (Cowper). The spirit (n) raised a triyhtful cry (o), (Dickens). A land hreeze (n) shook the shrouds (o). (Cowper). As he stood there awaiting his arrival (o) , the knocker (n) caught his eye (o). (Dickens).

1. An adjective is a word added to , or put along with a noun to express its quality , or some distinguishing circumstance respecting it; as a good man, a long journey. They are not changed on account of the gender and number , or ease of the nouns the distinguishing circumstance of which they express. We say as well a good man as a good dog.

2. As the word adjective (from the Latin adjectus) signifies added to something else, it cannot, as has been said , stand alone, but must refer to a substantive expressed or understood.

3. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, namely, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

4. The positive degree is the simple form of the adjective, expressing the quality of a noun without any increase or diminution; as small, great, wise. Equality of quality is expressed by as — as in affirmative and interrogative and by so — as in negative sentences; as, 1 spoke of my own estates and property as if 1 was as rich as a duke. (Thackeray). Let your courage be as keen, hut at the same time as polished as your sword. (Sheridan).

Is not your uncle as old as mine? Has not your brother deserved a reward as ivell as his cousin? They are not so stupid as to try to make us believe that black is white? They do not study or practise so much as we should like them to do.

') The possessive case is sometimes called the genitive, and the objective, the accusative.

5. Though the positive degree seems merely to lay down or state the quality of an object without instituting any comparison between it and other individuals of the same species , yet there is , in point of fact, such a comparison made. When I say , for instance , ,tliat is a tall manI really , though tacitly , and perhaps unconsciously , make a comparison, with regard to stature, between him and the generality of men.

6. The comparative expresses an increase or diminution of the quality; as nearer, smallest, wiser, less wise. Ex. The fair land through which they went never 'perhaps looked fairer. (James). V'hatever Irings ns nearer to our happiness. (Tillotson). The philosopher who contemplates from the rock is a less nolle image than the sailor who struggles with the storm. (Bulwer), The disorder in nature and the inanimate world will he no less, nor less strange and unaccountable, than those in mankind. (Burnet).

The comparative degree is followed by the conjunction than; as, He was older than most of his seniors. (Thackeray). The girl's sense of ridicule was far stronger than her gratitude. (Thackeray). Her face seemed whiter than the white dress she wore. (Warren).

7. The superlative expresses the greatest increase or diminution of the quality; as nearest, smallest, wisest, leastwise. Ex: He could not conceive, he said, which was the nearest way from one given point to another. (Warren). Relellion was the smallest part of Monmouth's crime. (Macaulay). They with speed their course through thickest constellations held. (Milton). Was I not in all loorldly pretensions thelmsi WO'dhj of her suitors, and might I not seem therefore the most mercenary? (Bulwer).

S. Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by adding io the positive es' for the comparative, as small, smaller■, and est for the superlative, as small, smallest. If the adjective ends in e, only r or st is added; as wise, wiser, wisest-, free, freet, freest. If the adjective in the positive degree ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the consonant is doubled as well in the comparative as in the superlative degree; as, mad, madiet, «widest; lig.

bigget, %gest; thin, toner, lt;/«'«nest; as, Have I not An urm as My as thine ? a heart as lig ? Thy words, I grant, are bigger. (Shak.) The air was sad; but sadder still. It fell on Marmions ear. (Scott.) 0 hark, 0 hear! how thin and clear. And thinner, clearer, further going! (Tennyson.) They are the fittest timber to make great politics of. (Bacon). These things cannot come to pass without the greatest disorders imaginable, both in the minds of men and in external nature, and the saddest spectacles that eye can behold. (Burnet).

Adjectives ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into 1 before er and est; as cleanly, cleanl\(X, cleanlitit; ugly, «(/Zier, ngliesX-, as. Now with pleasant pace a cleanlier road I mean to tread. (Cowper.) The more fair and crystal is the sky. The uglier seem the clouds that in il fly. (Shak.) Our most important are our earliest years. (Cowper.) Thou dost drink, and dance, and sing. Happier than the happiest king! (Cowley.)

9. Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most; as more valiant, must valiant. But if diminution of quality is to be expressed, less and least are prefixed; as less valiant, least valiant. See the examples under 6 an 7.

10. Some adjectives of two syllabes are compared either by adding er for the comparative, and est for the superlative; or by prefixing more and most; as happy, happier, happiest, or more happy, most happy. The adjectives compared in this way either end in y, as happy, or e, as noble. The ear, however, or euphony, is the best judge in such cases. Ex.; lie that acts sincerely, hath the easiest task in the world. (Tillotson). Bad meats will scarce breed good nourishment in the iiealtiiiest eon-stitution. (Milton). They punished with the severest tortures, whoever dared to secrete any part of the consecrated offeriny. (Hume). Complaint is the 'argest tribale heaven receives, and the sincerest part of our devotion. (Swift).

The grave is more easy for me than this dungeon. (Bunyan). This most ummiable part of her character has been more strongly developed during the past year. (Dickens). 1 love to

5. Though the positive degree seems merely to lay down or state the quality of an object without instituting any comparison between it and other individuals of the same species , yet there is, in point of fact, such a comparison made. When I say, for instance, .that is a tall man,' I really, though tacitly, and perhaps unconsciously , make a comparison, with regard to stature, between him and the generality of men.

6. The comparative expresses an increase or diminution of the quality; as nearer, smallest, wiser, less wise. Ex. The fair land through which they went never 'perhaps looked fairer. (James). Whatever brings us nearer to our happiness. (Tillotson). The philosopher who contemplates from the rock is a less noble image than the sailor who struggles with the storm. (Bnlwer). The disorder in nature and the inanimate world 20ill be no less, nor less strange and unaccountable, than those in mankind. (Burnet).

7. The superlative expresses the greatest increase or diminution of the quality; as nearest, smallest, wisest, leastwise. Ex: He could not conceive, he said, which was the nearest way from one given point to another. (Warren). Rebellion was the smallest part of Monmouth's crime. (Macaulay). They with speed their course through thickest constellations held. (Milton). Was I not in all worldly pretensions the Isast worthy of her suitors, and might I not seem therefore the most mercenary'? (Hulwer).

8. Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by adding to Hie positive er for the comparative, as small, smallw, and est for the superlative, as small, smallest. If the adjective ends in e, only r or st is added; as wise, wiser, wisest; free, freer, freest. If the adjective in the positive degree ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the consonant is doubled as well in the comparative as in the superlative degree; as, mad, Madder, Maddest; big.

bigger, ingest; thin, thinWX, lt;/««nest; as, Have I not An arm as lig as thine? a heart as big? Thy words, I grant, are bigger. (Shak.) The air was sad; but sadder still, It fell on Marmion's ear. (Scott.) 0 hark, 0 hear! how thin and clear. And thinner, clearer, further going! (Tennyson.) They are the fittest timber to make great politics of. (Bacon). These things cannot come to pass without the greatest disorders imaginable, both in the minds of men and in external nature, and the saddest spectacles that eye can behold. (Burnet).

Adjectives ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i before er and est; as cleanly, cleanlier, cleanliest; ugly, uglier, ugliest; as. Now with pleasant pace a cleanlier road 1 mean to tread. (Cowper.) The more fair and crystal is the sky. The Uglier seem the clouds that in it fly. (Shak.) Our most important are our earliest years. (Cowper,} Thou dost drink, and dance, and sing, Happier than the happiest king! (Cowley.)

9. Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most; as more valiant, most valiant. But if diminution of quality is to be expressed, less and least are prefixed; as less valiant, least valiant. See the examples under 6 an 7.

10. Some adjectives of two syllabes are compared either by adding er for the comparative, and est for the superlative; or by prefixing more and most; as happy, happier, happiest, or more happy, most happy. The adjectives compared in this way either end in y, as happy, or e, as noble. The ear, however, or euphony, is the best judge in such cases. Ex.; He that acts sincerely, hath the easiest task in the world. (Tillotson). Bad meats will scarce breed good nourishment in the aealtMest constitution. (Milton). They punished with the severest tortures, whoever dared to secrete any part of the consecrated offering. (Hume). Complaint is the largest tribute heaven receives, and the sincerest part of our devotion. (Swift).

The grave is more easy for me than this dungeon. (Bunyan). This most unamiable part of her character has leen more strongly developed during the past year. (Dickens). 1 love to

converse only with the more grave and sensible part of the sex. (Goldsmith). Here and there, among the thick graves of unquiet and aspiring statesmen lie more delicate sufferers. (Ma-caulay). Whoever refused to submit to their decree was exposed to the most severe penalties. (Hume).

11. Though the ear is the best guide to determine whether the comparison should be expressed by changing the termination, or by prefixing more and most the following rules will be found to be generally prevalent.

b. Adjectives of two syllables ending in y; as SksJ, busiex, busiest-, dirtj, dirtier, dirtiest.

c. Adjectives of two sylables in le; as noble, nobler, noblest; simple, simpler, simplest.

d. Adjectives of two syllables with the accent on the second syllable; as genteel, genteelvc, genteelest\ forlorn, forlornex, forlomest.

Adjectives which are not to be brought under any of these rules have more and most prefixed to them in the degrees of comparison,

13. The degrees of comparison are irregularly formed iu the following adjectives:

Elder and eldest are used in speaking of persons and generally only in comparing the age of members of the same family.

Examples: My uncle Toby proceeded no farther. (Sterne). They now travelled far and farther than I can tell. (Goldsmith). That time for thee Were better farthest off. (Milton.) He seldom goes far abroad, and his credit siretcheth further than his travel. (Puller). 1 told my companion, I had been at the further end of the city. (Fielding). I was permitted now to continue my journey without any further molestation. (Smollet). Travel you far on, or are you at the furthest! (Shak.). The knight waved his hand, and looked so expressively upon the baron, that the latter restrained his resentment, and passed on. (Eadcliffej. 1 must excuse myself upon ihe principle of reserving the best to the last. (Marryat). Tou shall now receive, my dear wife, my last words in these my last lines. (Ealeigh). Is the crime much less to hill ourselves by a slovi poison than by a sudden wound? (Temple). Many tyrants rose; The least the proudest. (Thomson), Those who have most virtue in their mouths, have least of it in their bosoms. (Goldsmith). Reckless and profuse expense distinguished the courts of the lesser nobles as well as of the superior princes. (W. Scott). They cannot dispatch so much business in so short a time. (Addisonj. It has been observed by many writers, that Socrates was little moved at this sort of buffoonery. (Addison). He cotdd not conceive, he said, which was the nearest way from one given point to another. (Warren). It would be an easy matter to overtake the coach, if not the next day, at farthest the day after the next. (Smollet). At sunrise the next morning the search was recommenced, and Buyse was found. (Macaulay). The elder ⁰f the two micjliL have attained the age of thirty. (Bulwer).

I asked fiim, whether he had yet married his eldest daughter? (Addison). My eldest son teas ired at Oxford. (Goldsmith). The kiny of Portuyal determined to settle the sovereignty of Brazil upon his eldest son. (Canning).

13. Some adjectives form their superlative by adding most fo the comparative form; as nether, loiver, Zoiuerinost: under, «Wermost, Others, by adding most either to the positive or comparative; as hind, /«wrfmost, or /«Wermost; up¹), M^most. or H^permost; in, iremcst, or zwnermost; out, ou/most or ?/«most_] owrtrmost or «/termost; top, /almost. Ex.: The giant, for the first time, was foremost now. (Goldsmith). When the Brigg of Turk was won. The headmost horseman rode alone. (Scott). 'Tis not his wont to he the hindmost man. (Shak.). Oft in glimmering hoioers and glades He met her, and in secret shades Of woody Ida's inmcst grove. (Milton). The midmost battles Vastning up behind. (Dryden). All through the passage there he vjas, first at the braces, outermost on the yards. (Dickens). The nightiiujale may claim the topmost bough. (Cowper). He seems to know and respond to what was uppermost at our hearts when he was born. (Buhver). In all the public establishments of America., the utmost courtesy prevails. (Dickens). I will be free Even to the uttermost, in words. (Shak.).

14. The words prm, e.rterior, mterior, Merior, ««perior, interior etc., though compatatives in Latin, are not to be considered as such in English for: 1. They have not the form of English comparatives. 2, They are not followed by than, as all English comparatives are. 3. Several of them have a truly positive meaning; as interior, which simply means inside in contradistinction to exterior, outside. Besides, it does not follow that every adjective which implies comparison is, therefore, in the comparative degree. ' If this were so, preferable (better than), previous (prior to), and several others, would rank as comparatives.

Up and out are properly adverbs; in is a preposition; and top a substantive. They may however be used as adjectives, as here.

or excess of a quality; as rather sweet. I had come in toith an idea of distinguishing myself rather, conceiving that I was very well prepared. (Dickens).

He sought through the world, but sought in vain. And nowhere finding, rather fear'd her slain. (Dryden).

16. Words as square, round; gold. Silk, Arabian, snow-white, chief, extreme, perfect, uuiversal and others which common reason tells us not to admit extension or diminution cannot be compared. Sometimes however the word very or any word of similar import, is placed before an adjective in the positive degree and converts it into what is called the superlative of eminence; as, He was most violentiy attached to the contrary opinion. (Goldsmith). The cold was most severe. (Dickens). The pictures of our grandmothers in queen Elizabeth's time are clothed down to the very wtisis and up to their very chin. (Addison). Those who had drunk of Circe's cup, were turned into very beasts. (Da-vies). Is not this medium exceedingly more rare and subtile than the air, and exceedingly more elastic and active? (Newton).

17. A gradual increase of the quality expressed by the adjective is denoted by a repetition of the comparative degree; as.

The more the kindled combat rises higher The more with fury burns the blazing fire. (Dryden). The more God has blessed any man with estate or quality, the more he should take care of his children s education. (Swift). The heavier the storm the shorter its duration (Bulwer).' The more the self-interest is enlightened, the less toe are influenced by it. (Bulwer).

18. When three or more persons or things are to be compared, we make of course use of the comparative and superlative degree, but when only two are compared the comparative is used contrary to the practice in Dutch.» Suppose a father have several sons, in speaking of them he will mention Charles as the eldamp;sX and William as oWer than either John or Stephen; but if he have but two children, he will say uT made the excursion with my eldamp;i daughter, the youngVX preferring to keep her mother company.quot;

19. It is as correct to say Charles is older than William by two years, as Charles is two years older than William.

vO, In some cases the superlative may be converted into the comparative, and the comparative into the superlative, without changing the meaning. Thus, instead of saying «John is the tallest boy in the school,quot; we might convey the same meaning by saying, _/;John is taller than any other in the school.quot;

21. The adjectives like and worth govern the objective case; as. Be strong and quit yourselves lite men. (Transl. of the Bible). The castle appeared a place worth the keeping, and capable to be made secure against a good army. (Clarendon).

32. If the complement of an adjective is a verb, the complement can be expressed by an infinitive mood or by a present participle, as; / am fearful of harting your feelings or I am fearful to hurt your feelings, but if the complement of an adjective consists of a noun or a pronoun it is joined to it by means of a preposition.

Callous to Favourable to Odious to Contrary to Inadequate to Open to Deaf to Liable to Pernicious to

Absent from Different from Far from Clear from Estranged from Free from Distant from Evident from Eeraotc from

Ex.: I was apprehensive of interrupting you. (Sheridan). The valetudinarians who are conscious of their weak part, avoid the least breath of air. (Ibid.). I should detest myself if I thought my heart was capable of ingratitude. (Fielding). This young gentleman was not insensible of the charms of Sophia. (Ibid.) He has leen absolutely guilty of one or the other of these crimes. (Ibid.). As ice are diffident of our own abilities let us here invite a superior poiver to our assistance, (ibid). This circumstance is highly descriptive both of his own character and of that of the age in which he lived. (Gillies). Love must catefully keep GÏear üf those vicious weeds which are too apt to surround it. (Fielding). Thoughtless of beauty she ivas beauty's self. (Thomson). Patieat of thirst and toil, son of the desert! even the camel feels, shot through his withered heart, the fiery blast. (Thomson). Ye, Masters! then be mindful of the

rough laborious hand that sinks you soft in elegance and ease. (ibid.). His consciousness of strength made him negligent of the laws of property. (W. Scott). They are remarkably tenacious of reputation. (Sheridan). He was bound by a necessity which rendered him unsusceptible of all remorse. (Bulwer). A bank profuse of flowers. (Milton).

The nature of that good man made him averse to any baseness or treachery. (Fielding). The least attempt of such a kind would make the guilty person for ever odious, to his eyes. (ibid.). We are sensible that our highest abilities are very inadequate to the task. (ibid.). He was already obnoxious to Mr. Western. (ibid.). It renders him liable to the charge of stupidity, (ibid.). ƒ was deaf to every thin/j but the suggestions of my love. (Sraollet). The useful quality of courage tvas peculiarly acceptable to the stern God of war. (Gillies). This rendered him, callous to every obstacle. (Bulwer).

His behaviour was very different from that of the other persons (Fielding). It is evident from his writings that every important event appeared to the Greeks the reward of their religion, or the punishment of their irreligion. (Gillies).

This may seem, inconsistent with that character which he has hitherto maintained. (Fielding). The orchard big with bend-ing fruit. (Thomson). The pure Dorsetian downs — yonder shaggd with wood, here rich with harvest, and there ¥ itt with flocks. (Thomson).

This institution had been equally useful ia promoting don ^stic concord. (Gillies). The philosopher knew very well what virtue was, though he was not always perhaps steady in its pursuits. (Fielding).

24. Substantives are often used as adjectives; as a gold ring, a silver spoon, a corn field. Such words, when incorporated , as bookseller, or connected by a hyphen , as steam-engine, are considered as forming one compound word, and

that consists of two or more words connected by a hyphen; as well-known , milk-white , ivy-mantled, eigldeen-lmndred-and-forty-seven ').

quot;25. An adjective can only be used as a substantive in the plural number and with the definite article. In such cases a whole class of persons is expressed by it; as, Learn from the creature dearest to your heart, how had the Bad are lorn. (Dickens). Beep is the sleep of the dead; loio their pillow of dust. (Macpherson). The Music of the French is indeed very properly adapted to their pronunciation and accent. (Spectator). His lenity to the bad teas cruelty to the good. (Pinker-ton). The happy only are the truly great. (Young). We appeal to every one who has the least knowledge or observation of life, whether the busy, or the idle, have the most agreeable enjoyment of themselves. (Blair). Fearless there the lowly sleep. (Hemans). The suspicious are generally dissembling and revengeful. (Lingard).

26. Some adjectives indeed, have been considered as real substantives, by their frequent occurrence as such, on which account the plural form is not denied to them ; such are f. i. the words: ancients, betters, blacks, catholics, dears, domestics, elders, exotics, indifferents, moderns, morals, natives, necessaries, particulars, relatives, savages, spirituals, temporals, whites, as may be seen from the following quotations : The rules of the ancients were yet known to few. (Johnson). Our betters have hit upon the expedient of electing each other. (Goldsmith). Having first allowed the catholic churches to go to ruin, they then turn round on the catholics, and by act of parliament make us rebuild them. (O'Connell). A men-y Christmas to us all, my dears. (Dickens). Tie was recognised with a shriek by some of the female domestics. (Warren). She has the assistance of a council of elders. (Uickens). Some from the greenhouse

') The hyphen is not always used in such cases. By adding th to the last word we have a compound ordinal numeral; as quot;In the eighteen hundred and forty-seven^ year of our Lord.quot;

ranged exotics round. (Bloomfield). The indifferents might be counted on to cry King George or King James, accordingly as either should prrmil. (Thackeray). The great contention of criticism is to find the faults of the moderns, and the leauties of the ancients. (Johnson). We have not the best schools of morals here. (James). A sylvan life till then the natives led. (Thomson). Many thousands are in want of common necessaries. (Dickens). 1 had the whole particulars of the conversation from her ladyships companion. (Thackeray). It was in vain I pressed him to fell me ivho his relatives were. (Warren). The Spaniard spoke the language of the samp;iamp;zes pretty well. (Ocfoe). Their infallible master has a right over Icings, not only in spirituals hut temporals. (Dryden). Some of the drivers are blacks, some whites. (Dickens).

37. When adjectives are used in the possessive case, as one's, they are also to be considered as real substantives; as in the sentences: One ought to know one's own mind. I will not destroy it for twenty's sake. The cause of his inveteracy against the deceased, was the deceased's having won considerably. (Warren).

28. The following sentences will show that even in the singular, chiefly for expressing abstract ideas adjectives are sometimes considered as substantives: She was answered in the affirmative. (Warren). 7 doubt, Mr. Fag, you Jia'n't changed for the better. (Sheridan). Dark needs no candles noiu, for dark is light. (Shak,). Night deceived me on the deep. (Macpherson), He soon learnt to speal gagiish perfectly, and to forget some of his French. (Thackcray). The good which is in them shall outweigh the bad. (Dryden). Only two of our battalions tcere shaken in the least. (Thackeray). How can the less the greater comprehend. (Dryden). The moral follows the materia! in accelerated speed. (James). Will you do the aeedfui for mel (Warren). No passion unfolds itself sooner than the love of the ornamental. (Canning).

To the first good, first perfect, and first fair. (Pope). No longer Autumn s glowing red Upon our forest hills w shed. (Scott),

I bloomed for two years in the bine and silver of a fellow commoner of Trinity. (Buhver). The extraordinary, if it be not ludicrous, is always easily convertible into the awful; and where, as in the present instance, it becomes intimately interwoven with all the doubtful, the raysterions, and the fearful in our state of being, it reaches that point of the sublime to which the heart of every man is most sensible. (James). Shak* speare approximates the remote, and familiarizes the wonderful. (Johnson), IVe do not know the worst. (Chatham). Touve done your worst. (B. amp; P.).

'29. Besides the common or general class of adjectives, there are four others, namely, Proper, Numeral, Pronominal, and Verbal or Participial.

30. Proper adjectives are formed from proper names; as Socratic, Johnsonian , British.

31. Numeral adjectives are of two kinds: cardinal, which express a number absolutely, as one, two, three; and ordinal, which denote the order or succession in which any number of persons or things is mentioned, first, second, third. The rules about the Numeral adjectives have been sufficiently explained in the first volume. A few sentences in which this part of speech is used in a rather remarkable and peculiar way may find their place here.

All was delusion, nougilt was truth. (Scott). I must be fed, if I malce one. (Dickens). An ell or two of prospect we command. (Cowper). They came in two by two. (Spectator). Jn apple, cleft in two, is not more twin Than these two creatures. (Shak.). The utterance of a brace of tongues Must needs want pleading for a pair of eyes. (Shak.), Can you lie three in a bed? (Goldsmith). Do they ever wonder lohy their masters walk upright in lieu of going on ai'-fours. (Dickens). 1 met a travelling carriage-aud-foar thundering down the road. (Warren). A couple of sentinels icere posted at the gate — a half-dozen more walked towards the stable. (Thackeray). Each one a sis-foot bow could bend. (Scott). We breakfast commonly

betwee» eight and niae. (Cowper). My travelling carrlage-and-four will be at your door lo-morrow mornimj between nine and ten o'clock. (Warren). The same medicine should suit the old weather-beaten uncle, and the nephew in his teens. (Bulwer).

seamen frequent these haunts, there are maritime pictures by the dozen. (Dickens). The famous Mr. Gongreve I saw a dozen of times at Button's. (Thackeray), These fifteen years you have been in a dream. (Shak.). Twenty to one then he is shipji'd already. (Shak.). Five and six are eleven, and four are fifteau, and six are twenty-one. (James). She was apparently about four or five-and-twenty. (Warren). She was then about twenty-six or seven years of age. (Warren). For threescore years in penance spent. My knees those flinty stones have worn. (Scott). Sometimes they consisted of thousands, sometimes of simple tens. (James). In July 1841 no fewer than niae hundred and seventy-eight of these girls were depositors in the Lowell Savings Hank: the amount of whose joint savings was estimated at one hundred thousand dollars, or twenty thousand English pounds. (Dickens). Many a merchant who never made a hundred pounds by fair trade, makes thousands and hundreds of thousands by cheating the Customs. (James).

Mortals, whose pleasures are their only care. First wish to be imposed on, and then are. (Cowper). The old saying is, the third pays for all. (Shak.). Leaving Boston on the afternoon of Saturday the fifth of February, we proceeded by another railroad to IVorcester. (Dickens). Externally it had a strong i/a^vy-rte-Eighth look about it. (James). We left it with no little regret on the evening of Friday the 11^. (Dickens). From Nature's chain whatever link you strike, Tenth or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike. (Pope).

The causes of one-half of our actions are unknown to us. (James). After two hours and a half of this odd travelling .. . toe reached Hartford. (Dickens). I should think it must have

heen of about half a pony power. (Dickens). Every hdXi-league of the road made a change in the scenery. (James). 11 did not appear a third part so hie/ as it ivas he/ore. (Addison). I sum up half mankind, And add two thirds of the remaining half. (Cowper). He had committed to memory nearly three-fourths of the whole play. (Warren). A man of fashion of that time often passed a quarter of his day at cards, and another quarter at drink. (Thackeray). Nine-tenths of it existed hut in rumour. (Tbaokeray). 'T is a wonderful thing for him to know even a fiftieth part of what he does. (Warren).

Be could only produce a single witness in a point ivhere the law required the testimony of two persons. (Addison). Every cell has doable doors. (Dickens). This is my twofold olject. (Buhver). The kniejht ivmdd never have hesitated to attack a hody of double j or perhaps treble his own number. (James). This triple realm adores thee. (Cowper). Even that power, which gave me first my oath, Provokes rue to this threefold perjuri)■ (Shak), What I had heard during his absence, made me now look on him with tenfold interest. (Warren).

IVhat can be done once can be done twice, (Buhver). He is twice her age. (Bulwer). My uncle walked, or rather stumped, three times up and dawn the room. (Bulwer). Three times Arose the well-known martial chimes, And thrice their high heroic pride In melancholy murmurs died. (Scott). If you offered him ten times the sum, he wouldn't take it. (James). In the keen evening air, every sharp outline looked a hundred times sharper than ever. (Dickens). The sun is several thousand times bigger than the earlh., (Swift).

32, Pronominal adjectives comprise all the pronouns that can be used as adjectives. Of these there are four classes,

namely, the Possessive. Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. The Pronominal adjectives are usually called Adjective Pronouns. See under the head „Pronoun.quot;

'ó'ó. Verbal or Participial adjectives are the participles of verbs used as adjectives; 'an interesting story,' 'a charming prospect,' a finished scholar,' 'a broken reed.quot; The strong-curling monsters from his side His full-extended fury cannot tear. (Thomson). Bid not the one deserve to have an heir? Is not his heir a well-deserving son? (Shak.) He was a handsome , fine-looking man. (Marryat). The suburbs are, if possible, even more unsubstantial-looking than the city. (Dickens).

/ hate such old-fashioned trumpery (Goldsmith). Hast thou left thy blue course in heaven, golden-haired son of the sky! (Macpherson). He is broken-hearted already. (Sterne). We are all short-sighted, and very often see but one side of a matter. (Locke). He is the pleasantest-spoken gentleman you ever heard. (Dickens).

I have known a man's career in life blasted, by ignorance on this important, this all-important subject. (Thackeray) Whatever befell her was by the will of One all-wise and all-good, as well as all-powerful. (James). There is a bomb-proof fort here of great strength. (Uickens). His hair, naturally black as jet, was now of sad iron-gray colour. (Warren). Outdoor costume seemed as if it did not become one so long an invalid. (Warren). Their shoes were far from being water-proof. (Dickens). Truly, truly, we would-be practical men are fools! (Bulwer).

34. Adjectives need not be repeated when qualifying nouns of the same number; as, a beautiful and accomplished girl, a generous and amiable conduct.

The repetition of the adjective is required when the nouns are of different number; as, a beautiful house and beautiful gardens, a handsome man and handsome women.

35. To avoid the repetition of a noun after a singular substantive, the pronoun one is used, which in the same case becomes ones after a substantive in the plural number.

Except when a branch road joins ike main one, there is seldom more than one track of rails. (Dickens). Directly the acrimony of the last election is over, the acrimony of the next one begins. (Dickens). 'Many of these rooms had doors which led into the one adjacent. (James). '

An idle reason lessens the weight of the good ones you gave before. (Swift). When there were only a few books , at least they ivere good ones. (Bulvver) Blindly adopting nominal pleasures 1 lost real ones. (Chesterfield), My svj'eet ones, all come forth and play. (Cunningham).

36. The usual place of the adjective is before the substantive it qualifies. Among the many instances of its being placed after the substantive the following are the most important:

a. The words adry, adrift, afeard, afloat, afraid, aghast, aground, akin, alike, alive, aloft, alone, alost, ashamed, ashore, aside, askew, asleep, athirst, awake, aware, behindhand, elect, pursuant, worth.

We may say. „/lt; is not good that man should le alone,quot; but we cannot say „an alone man.quot; u'The poor boy was very much ashamedquot; is perfectly right, but it would not do to say „an ashamed boy.quot;

b. When the adjective is qualified by some word or words forming with the adjective itself what is called a complex adjective; as, a prince fit for government. To cherish the dawn of merit, and hasten its maturity ivas a work worthy a noble Roman, (Addison). Thouqh the young Lady cannot be rich, she has still a competence sufficient to give content. (Goldsmith).

c. When the adjective is used as a title; as, Peter the Great. Charles the Bold; when it is used emphatically, as, Glaucus looked back on the melancholy city of Harmodins the Free and Pericles the Magnificent. (Bulwer). 1 felt a confusion unspeakable at again seeing him. (Surney). Cleomera dances with all the elegance of motion imaginable. (Addison). Or when it may be considered as connected to the substantive by an omitted relative pronoun and the verb to he; as. In times long past (i. e. that are long past) they established there a colony. (Washington-Irving). His ruminations were of a nature peculiarly agitating. (W. Scott).

d. Often when an adjective is attended by the word SO; as, Her youth, health and innocence were still heightened by a complexion so transparent and such a sensibility of look as even age could not gaze on with indifference. (Goldsmith). Much does it grieve me, it is the monarch of a people, so civilized and courteous, and so renowned for sentiment and fine feelings, that I have to reason with. (Sterne). An interposition so wonderfully circumstanced can never be recollected imthout benefit. (Burney).

Observations. Such expressions as: ««iassarfor-eztraordinary, (;asete-extraordinary, knight-wtztX, wajoi'-general, attorney-general, cowri-martial, the ^n'wce-regent, a noun substantive a verb active , the participle present [ambassador-, minister-), plenipotentiary , blood-{chapel, prince , princess) royal are only to be considered as the consequence of a tendency to omit the adjective; in general we should not be too anxious to bring all these exceptions under particular rules , for we may as well find in the best authors expressions as the following: an impossible attempt; a mome-itary visit; an inconsiderable trouble; the next morning; the last evening; the present conversation , all Imaginable haste, every possible endeavour. Poets too on account of the rhyme often put the adjectives after their substantives; as, The duchess and her daughters fair, and every gentle lady there. (W, Scott). The patient search and vigil long of him who treasures up a wrong. (Byron). The same may be observed of expressions containing a super-

lative degree; Ex.: As this explanation will require that I should divulge secrets of a nature the most delicate, I must entreat you to regard them as sacred. (Frances Burney). My disposition was as free from meanness as his own and I made a determination most solemn, never to lessen its dignity hy submitting to pecuniary alligations. (Burney). Upon the accusations the most absurd and groundless, their persons and property were exposed to every turn of popular fury. (W. Scott). 87. An adjective enters into construction in four ways: 1°. In immediate agreement with a noun-substantive, with which logic requires that it should make one sense; as, „Fine cloth;quot; „Good reasoning;quot; „Conduct fair and noble.quot; And note, that an article, which is a sort of adjective, enters into construction in the same way; as „A house;quot; „The houses,quot; 3°. In agreement with a noun-substantive by means of a verb neuter; as „This cloth is fine; //The reasoning appeared yood.quot; x 3°. Having an infinitive sense with a verb infinitive or a participle; as „To be fine is no proof of gentility, but to be amiable and polite;quot; or „Being fine is no proof, etc., but being amiable and polile.quot;

4°. As a substantive, or taken substantively; as „The amiable and polite, and not the fine in garb, are properly esteemed genteel.quot;

1. A pronoun is a word used for, or instead of, a noun to prevent a too frequent repetition of the same word; as in the following sentence; —

,/John gave his pen to James, and he lent it to Jane to write her copy with it.quot; The words in italics are pronouns, and if no such words were known the nouns which they represent would have to be repeated in every instance; as John gave Johns pen to James, and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen. Such a repetition of the same word would not only be disagreeable to the ear, but would tend to clog and embarrass our discourse.

c. When the adjective is used as a title; as, Peter the Great. Charles the BoM; when it is used emphatically; as, Glaums looked back on the melancholy city of Hanuodins the Free and Pericles the Magnificent, (Buhver). 1 felt a confusion unspeakable at again seeing him. (Barney). Cleomera dances with all the elegance of motion imaginablp. (Addison). Or when it may be considered as connected to the substantive by an omitted relative pronoun and the verb to he; as. In times long past (i. e. that are long past) they established there a colony. (Washington-Irving). Eis ruminations were of a nature peculiarly agitating. (VV. Scott).

d. Often when an adjective is attended by the word SO; as. Her youth, health and innocence were still heightened by a complexion so transparent and such a sensibility of looh as even age could not gaze on with indifference. (Goldsmith). Much does it grieve me, it is the monarch of a people, so civilized ana courteous, and so renowned for sentiment and fine feelings, that I have to reason with. (Sterne). An interposition so wonderfully circumstanced can never be recollected without benefit. (Burney).

Observations. Such expressions as: emiassacfor-estraordinary, gazette- extraordinary, J:night-amp;ïamp;vX, wq/oc-general, attorney-general, coui'i-martial, the ^race-regent, a noun substantive a verb active, the participle present [ambassador-, minister-), plenipotentiary , blood-{chapel, prince , princess) royal are only to be considered as the consequence of a tendency to omit the adjective; in general we should not be too anxious to bring all these exceptions under particular rules , for we may as well find in the best authors expressions as the following: an impossible attempt; a momsntary visit; an inconsiderable trouble; the next morning; the last evening; the present conversation, all imaginable haste, every possible endeavour. Poets too on account of the rhyme often put the adjectives after their substantives; as, The duchess and her daughters fair, a7id every gentle lady there. (W. Scott), The patient search and vigil long of him who treasures up a wrong. (Byron). The same may be observed of expressions containing a super-

lative degree; Ex.: As this explanation will require that I should divulge secrets of a nature the most delicate, I must entreat you to regard them as sacred. (Frances Burney). My disposition was as free from meanness as his own and I made a determination most solemn, never to lessen its dignity hy submitting to pecuniary obligations. (Burney). Upon the accusations the most absurd and groundless, their persons and property were exposed to every turn of popular fury. (W. Scott). 37. An adjective enters into construction in four ways: 1°. In immediate agreement with a noun-substantive, with which logic requires that it should make one sensej as, „Fine cloth;quot; „Good reasoning;quot; „Conduct fair and noble.quot; And note, that an article, which is a sort of adjective, enters into construction in the same way; as _nA house;quot; „The houses.quot;

3°. In agreement with a noun-substantive by means of a verb neuter; as „This cloth is fine; „The reasoning appeared good.quot; i 3°. Having an infinitive sense with a verb infinitive or a participle; as „To be fine is no proof of gentility, but to be amiable and polite;quot; or „Being/we is no proof, etc., but being amiable and poliieT

4°. As a substantive, or taken substantively; as „The amiable and polite, and not the fine in garb, are properly esteemed genteel.quot;

1. A pronoun is a word used for, or instead of, a noun to prevent a too frequent repetition of the same word; as in the following sentence; —

„John gave his pen to James, and he lent it to Jane to write her copy with UT The words in italics are pronouns, and if no such words were known the nouns which they represent would have to be repeated in every instance; as John gave John's pen to James, and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen. Such a repetition of the same word would not only be disagreeable to the ear, but would tend to clog and embarrass our discourse.

3. Personal pronouns are so called because they stand for or represent persons. There are five personal pronouns—namely, I, thou, he, she, it, with their plurals, we, ye or you, they.

4. As the proper use of it is to represent an inanimate thing, or an irrational animal, it is, properly speaking, an impersonal pronoun. In certain cases, however, it is applicable to each of the three persons in both numbers; as 'It is

'It was you f 'Was it theyT ¹) It was in vain that I hit my under lip, almost till it brought blood. (Warren). It is I that am pleased with beholding his gaiety. (Taylor). It was some time bejore I could conjecture what was the matter. (Warren). I see how it is. (Warren). I saio what o'clock it was. (Warren). Is it thou, 0 King? (Byron). How far is it, my lord, to Berkley now? (Shak.). It is an ancient Mariner. (Coleridge). 'T is for a poor gentleman. (Sterne).

5. As personal pronouns are substitutes for nouns, they possess their properties, as gender, number, and case.

6. It is only in the third person singular that the genders are distinguished—namely, he, she, it. As the first and second persons (I, thou, we, ye, or you) are present, the gender in each case is obvious.

7. There are three persons, ²) first, second, and third. The first person is the person that speaks; the second is the person spoken to; and the third is the person or thing spoken of.

8. A familiar idea of the grammatical meaning of person may be communicated to the learner in this way. Speaking implies two persons — the person from whom the voice pro-

') In such cases, it represents the subject of a proposition or sentence, and not the neuter pronoun.

) This term is derived from the Latin word persona, a theatrical mask, covering the entire head and facc, with the exception of an aperture opposite to, and corresponding with the mouth, through which the voice of the speaker {sounded) proceeded. Trom the mask, the terra was naturally transferred to the actor; next to the ch.ar£ict0r or individual represented; and Anally, to any individual or person.

ceeds, and the person to whom it is addressed. The former is called the first person, because the voice or speech proceeds from, or commences with him; and the latter is called the second person, because it goes or is addressed to him. The term for the person speaking is 7, and for the person addressed. Thou. When the person speaking includes another, or others, with himself, he uses the term JFe; and when he addresses more than one person, he says Ye or You, instead of Thou. Hence, IFe is called the first person plural, and Ye or You, the second person plural. (Strictly speaking. You is now generally used for Thou, that is, when only one person is addressed.) The other pronouns {He, She, It), and all nouns are said to be of the third person, because they are spoken of, that is, they are neither the person speaking, nor the person spoken to.

') The Personal Pronouns have the nature of Substantives, and, as such, stand by themselves; the rest have the nature of Adjectives, and, as such, arc joiucd to Substantives, and may be called Pronominal Adjectives.

for they alone are used as substitutes for nouns. All the other pronouns refer to nouns, and are, therefore, strictly speaking, adjectives,

1. A relative pronoun is so called, because it relates to some noun or phrase going bejore, which is thence called the antecedent; as 'The person who told me.'

2. The relatives are who, which, and that. Who is applied to persons, and which to animals and inanimate things; as „Happy is the man who jindeth wisdom'This is the horse Which I bought;' 'This is the pen which I sent him,: They deceive you. Sir, who tell you that you have many friends, Whose affectations are founded upon a principle of personal attachment. (Junius). Religion, which made a greater feature in the Vendéen ioar, was not among the motives which instigated the army of Montrose. (Scott).

3. Who is applied to inferior animals when, as in fables, they are represented as acting and speaking like rational beings. Which is applied to infants, or very young children, and was fomerly applied to persons, like who; as in the Lord's Prayer. Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. (Bible).

4. That, as a relative, is used to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which; as, „Happy is the man who find-eth wisdom, and the man that gelteth understanding.quot;

5. That may be substituted for either who or which, and is consequently applicable both to persons and things. When that is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pronoun, it is a conjunction. The cases in which that is preferable to toho and which are the following.

a. After the words all, any, same and ordinal numbers; as. All the shell fishes that produce pearl, produce them not for him. (Taylor). What warmth is there in your affection towards any of these princely suitors, that are already come. (Shak.) Pain is often produced by the same objects and ideas that produce pleasure in us. (Locke). Are not his subjects' fields bedewed with the same showers that water his pleasure

c. After the antecedent who,- as, Who that had ever known ye, could haw wished you other than ye were. (Eulwer). The man and his donkey that pass our house daily.

d. If the words to which it relates require partly who and partly which; as, The woman and the estate that became his portion. (Murray). The man and the horse that we mentioned yesterday.

It is a relative, when it can be turned into who or which without altering the meaning; and a demonstrative, when it is placed immediately before a noun expressed or understood — or when its place can be supplied by the definite article the.

6. The relative pronoun may sometimes be omitted as subject; as, There was a remarkahle incident ( ) attended this tavern play. (Fielding). There was never law, or sect, or opinion, ( did so magnify goodness as the Christian Religion doth. (Bacon).

However it occurs much more frequently that the relative pronoun is omitted in the objective case, sometimes even the relative pronoun and the preposition by which it is governed are both omitted, as will be seen from the following sentences: The bridge ( ) thou seest, said he, is human life. (Addison). There is no spectacle ( ) we so eagerly pursue, as that of some uncommon and grievous calamity. (Burke). The strength ( ) he gains is from embrace he gives. (Pope). Censure is the tax ( ) a man payeth to the public for being eminent. (Swift). Tell me if thou seest any thing ( ) thou dost not comprehend. (Addison). Shooting is an amusement ( ) / was never particularly partial to. (Bulwer). We shall enjoy together that great blessedness ( ) you told me of. (B. amp; F.) A great flood swept away the rest, and left the bridge in the ruinous condition ( )

1 now beheld it. (Addison). The moment ( ) she. hears I have shut myself up in my room, she is sure that it is for sorrow. (Bulwer). This is the last time ( ) we meet. (Bulwer). When roe are obliged to utter our thoughts, we do it in the shortest way {) we are able. (Addison).

7. What is a kind of compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative; and is generally equivalent to that which; as, I have found what I wanted] that is, that which, or the thing which 1 wanted.

9. Who, which, and what, are sometimes, by the addition of ever or soever, formed into a kind of compound relatives; as:

Whoever desires the character oj a proud man, ought to conceal his vanity. (Swift). This Poesy must le used by whosoever will follow St. Paul's counsel. (Sidney). Ash of him, or ask of whomsoever he has taught. (Cowper).

10. Whoever is equivalent to any person who; and so which the rest. The last three are now seldom used. Whoso (an abbreviation of whosoever) is obsolete; as, Whoso eats thereof, forthwith attains Wisdom without their leave (Milton).

11. Which and what are sometimes used as adjectives; as, „Por which reason, he will do it,quot; „By what means shall I succeedf They may follow which part they please. (Dryden). I knew him when he was nineteen: since which time he has risen by sloic degrees to be the most brilliant and accomplished debater that the world ever saw. (Buvke). Make what alterations you please. (Goldsmith). What blessings thy free bounty gives, Let me not cast away. (Pope).

questions, are called interrogative pronouns; as 'Who told youT Which is the house? 'What did he say?' ')

13. Who, as an interrogative, is applied to persons only; which and what, to both persons and things. Who asks the name of a person; what, his character and occupation; as „Who is he?quot; „What is he?quot; Which inquires what one of a knoion class or number; as „Which of the hoys?quot; „Which of the books?quot; Tell me at least, who you are, and who assisted to secrete you in this chamber. (Radcliffe). Whose turn may it he to-morrow? (Thackeray). Tell me whom you live with, and 1 will tell you who you are. (Chesterfield). Compare the busy and the idle in the societies with which they mingle; and remark, which of them discover most cheerfulness and gaiety, which possess the most /acjular flow of spirits; whose good humour is most unclouded. (Blair). Which was which he coud not tell. (Butler). To what, and to whom, and what are we to surrender? (Marryat), Who but the greatest fool would be a knave? (VVolcott). He knew what's what. (Butler).

14. Whether was formerly used when the inquiry related to two persons or things; as „Whether of the twain did the will of his father!quot; Its place as a pronoun is now supplied by which. ¹)

15. As is, in some grammars, added to the relative pronouns, but it is always either a conjunction, or a comparative adverb. When it appears to be a relative there is an ellipsis, and such as stands for that which or those who; as, „ Only such punishment is inflicted as {that tohich) serves the end of government •quot; _nIIe welcomed such as {those who) came.quot;

) Whether is now employed as a conjunction, but it is really a pronoun, having, like either and neither, a reference to the dual number. It corresponds to the T.atin vter, which of the tioo.

1. Adjective pronouns *) are so called because they partake of the properties of both adjectives and pronouns.

2. There are four sorts of adjective pronouns, namely, Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite.

3. The possessive pronouns relate to possession or property. They are my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.²)

4. In most grammars the possessive adjective pronouns, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are classed with the possessive cases of the personal pronouns, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs; but there is an essential difference between them.³) The former cannot be used without nouns, and are, consequently, of the nature of adjectives; but the latter stand for or represent nouns, and are, therefore, genuine pronouns. It is true that mine and thine were formerly, for the sake of euphony, used before nouns beginning with a vowel; as „Blot out mine iniquities;' „If thine eye offend thee.quot; In these instances, mine and thine are equivalent to my and thy; but in general, they are essentially different. For example, to the question „Whose hook is that,quot; we might answer, ^lIt is mine'—or It is thine;' but we could not say, 'It is my'—or 'It is thy,' without adding the noun, book.

5. The possessive case of the personal pronoun he, and the possessive adjective pronoun derived from it, have the

^a) Thy, my, her, our, your, their, are pronominal adjectives; but his, (tliat is, he's) hers, our's, your's, theirs, have evidently the form of the possessive case; and by analogy, mine, thine, may be esteemed of the same rank. All these arc used when the noun to which they belong is understood: the two latter sometimes also instead of my, thy, when the noun following them begins with a vowel.—

') That is, with regard to the classification, for in meaning they are perfectly equivalent; as in the phrases 'it is my look'—and 'itis mine which denote, in each case, it is a book of (or belonging to) me.

same form, namely his, but the distinction between them is obvious. The former stands alone, the latter is always followed by a noun, as in the following example, „ Whose hook is that ?quot; 'It is bisor, 'It is his book.' The same observations apply to its. ')

6. Some recent writers on grammar class the possessive cases of the personal pronouns, mine, thine, ours, yours, and hers, under the head of possessive pronouns; and assert that they are always either in the nominative or objective cases; as, „These pens are ours;quot; „I will give you my pens for yours.quot; ⁵)

7. The noun self and its plural selves, are added to pronouns to mark the person with emphasis or opposition. Thus, „you did it yourself quot; means emphatically you and no other. Pronouns formed in this way are called the emphatic pronouns. They are also called the compound pronouns:

They stand either (a) as subject, {b) as opposition, (c) as predicate, {d) as object, (e) as the Latin Dative, (/) connected with a preposition, {g) as compliment to an adjective. Examples':

a. It was night as Vivian and myself rode slowly home. (Bulwer). Beneath her father's roof, alone She seemed to live; her thoughts her own.; Herself her own delight; Pleased with

) The possessive pronouns mj, thy, his, etc., wore formerly disjoined from the noun self; as my self, our selves, etc. Himself is a confirmed corruption of AisseU, itself of zVsself, and Wmselves of iheiraehres. Meself and tmelf are, strictly speaking, not greater grammatical errors than himself and themselves. The latter forms have however been established by usage.

herself. (Wordsworth). Tell me yourself, — is it reasonable that I should trust myself alone with a stranger, at this hour, in a solitary forest ? (Radcliffe).

h. Thou art an excellent nurse thyself, Trim. (Sterne). Phoehus is himself % sire (Cowley). The reflection that strikes the heart is not, that the evils before us are real evils, hut that they are evils to which we ourselves may be exposed. (Johnson).

c. I shall not he myself till we are reconciled. (Sheridan). What there thou seest, fair Creature, is thyself. (Milton).

d. 1 regard myself as one placed by the hand of God in the midst of an ample theatre. (Swift). Fancy began again to bestir herself. (Addison). By persuading others, we convince ourselves. (Junius). I had a notion that it had been one of the best ways of securing one's self from the infection, to have retired into a ship. (Defoe).

e. By grief we make ourselves troubles most properly out of the dust. (Temple). Fortune, fame, power, life, have named themselves a star. (Byron).

f. She punished in herself another s fault. (Sidney) Bach state was divided into factions within itself. (Hume). Every blow you strike in America is against yourselves. (Pox). They have many fashions peculiar to themselves. (Montague).

g. Now shew sou like yourselves, In your own natural shapes. (Massinger). It is a matter of great consolation to an envious person, when a man of known honour does a thing unworthy himself. (Steele).

8. Own is frequently added to possessive pronouns for the purpose of marking more strongly the relation of property or possession; as, mtj own house. You can judge for your own selves. (Dickens). I did it my own selS (Perry).

9. Compound pronouns are called reflective ') when they denote that the action is, as it were, reflected or thrown back upon the agent—or, in other words, when they denote that

') In some grammars, the reflective pronouns are erroneously called reeiproeal pronouns.

the agent and the object of the action are identical; as Hhey injured themselves;' 'she hurt herself;' _nHe who hath bent him o'er the dead,''' (that is himself). He addressed himself to the audience. (Robertson). He determined to avail himself of his father's prejudices in order to effect his purpose. (Bulwer). Strap and I betook ourselves to rest. (Smollet). The other inhabitants of the island still maintained themselves by pasture. (Hume). JVorms wind themselves into our sweetest Jiow'rs. (Cowper).

10. Each other and one another are called reciprocal pronouns, because they denote the mutual action of different agents upon each other; as 'they struck each other;'' 'love one another.'' Each other is properly used of two, and one another of more. Ex.: Did they perfectly understand each other? Did they perfectly understand themselves? (James). We could not see each other's face. (Byron). / could not help smiling at the reciprocal anxiety for each other's health simultaneously manifested by this worthy couple. (Warren). Ev'ry creature was decreed To aid each other's mutual need. (Gay). The company beheld one another with great surprise and mirth. (Smollet). The word by which the insurgents were to recognise one another in the darkness was Soho. (Macaulay). We saw and heard little or nothing of one another for several years, (Warren). I think no persons are more hypocritical, and have a more affected behaviour to one another, than the young. They deceive themselves and each other. (Thackeray).

11. Each other and one another are regarded as if forming one compound: and are declined like nouns; as:

13. The distributive pronouns are so called, because they denote the persons or things that make np a number, as taken separately and singly. They are each both, every, either neither.

rately, and is, therefore, singular; as „Each of you loth is worthyquot; It is, however, often used for every, and applies to more than two; as „The four beasts had each of them six wingsy You found a range of low thatched houses on each side of the road. (Carleton). Behold a ghastly hand, Each a torch in his hand. (Dryden). This balustrade was divided ly low piers, on each of which was placed a round hall. (Bulwer). Each was to each a dearer self. (Thomson).

Both is used for two persons or things taken collectively; as, Both opinions hy. this distinction may be well reconciled. (Ealtigh). lie brought them both safe into our creek. (Defoe). Christian and Hopeful both came out. (Bunyan). The young heir of Castleioood was spoiled hy father and mother both. (Thackeray). Buy both of us. (Edgeworth).

14. Every is applied to more than two persons or things taken individually or separately, and is therefore singular; as „Every boy in the school is constantly employed,quot; His gentle manners won every heart. (Pinkerton). He taJces nearly half an ounce of laudanum every niyht, at bed time. (Warren). Gods they had tried of every shape and size. (Dryden).

15. Either denotes one of two persons or things, and is therefore singular; as 'either of them is sufficient.'' It is sometimes used for each Neither means not either; as 'neither of them is in fault.' Without ansvjering either of these inquiries, the stranger said, that he could not then explain himself. (Eadcliffe). So match'd they stood; For never but once more was either like To meet so great a foe. (Milton). I would enjoy the pleasures of the table and of wine, hut stop short of the pains annexed to an excess in either. (Chesterfield), sis she occasionally smiled on one or the other of the rivals, I saw the countenance of either alternately clouded with displeasure. (Warren).

16. The demonstrative pronouns point out the subjects to which they relate. They are this and that, with their plurals, these and those.

17. This refers to the nearer person or thing, and that to the more distant. Hence, this is used to denote the latter, or last mentioned, and that, the former, or first mentioned. The same distinction is to be made between their plurals these and those. They are used both adjectively and substantively as will be seen from the following examples: Girls like these often seek an object in their walk, and visit this poor person or that. (James). This must my comfort he. That sum that warms you here, shall shine on me; And those his golden beams, to you here lent, Shall point on me, and gild my banishment. (Shak.). No one should think it unneccessary to learn those arts, by which friendship may be gained. (Johnson). This, this is she To whom our vows and wishes bend. (Milton). Meet me in the evening, and. Til give you an answer to this. (Sheridan). People may say this and that of being in jail, (Goldsmith). Kiss me — that's a dear girl — and go up to bed. (Warren). These are the points of difference, but those of resemblance are more general and more strongly marked, (Scott). The Squires had bracelets of silver upon their arms and legs, of which the former were naked from the elbow, and the latter from mid-leg to ancle. (W. Scoft). The Romans called Marcellus their sword, and Fabius their buckler; the former's vigour, mixed with the latter's steadiness made a happy compound, very salutiferous to Rome (Story).

18. Yon and its comparative yonder ¹) should be added to the demonstrative pronouns.

lm. floivery arbours, yonder alleys green. (Milton). Fountain of light! from whom yon rising sun First drew his splendour! (Milton). In yonder grave a Druid lies. (Collins),

19. The indefinite pronouns are so called, because they are used in an indefinite or general manner. The following are of this class; any, all, few, some, several, one, other, another, none, etc.

20. Strictly speaking, all the indefinite pronouns are adjectives with their nouns understood; except one, other and its compound another., when they stand for, and are declined like nouns, as in the following sentences; „One¹) ought to 'know one's own mind;'''' „Do unto others, as you would wish that they should do unto youquot; „Teach me to feel another's woequot;

21. Any is the diminutive of an or ane, and like it, it originally meant one. Like an, too, it came to signify one of a species, and hence indefinitely, any one whatever of a class or number. Any differs from an in its being applicable to plural nouns. It also differs from an in this, that it can be used either with or without the noun which it qualifies; as. There's many a holder lad 'ill woo me any summer day. (Tennyson). We were benvjhted at a good distance from any inn. (Smollet). She could jovern any horse that any man could ride. (Dickens). South of Thames he found not any that could read English. (Fuller).

Combined with the words body and thing it forms the words anybody and anything used to ask questions or to express negative sentences; as, The mistress of the house takes no particular notice of any body, nor returns any body's visit. (Montague). Nobody says anything, at any meal, to anybody. (Dickens). When he describes anything, you more than see it — you feel ■it too. (Dryden). Oratory such as that could persuade me to anything. (Warren).

22. All is applied to the whole of a quantity or number taken together; as, 'all the corn' 'all the men' It is sometimes equivalent to every; as „I will give you all the apples—or every apple—on that tree for a guinea.quot; But in the following examples the difference between all and every is strikingly exhibited; „All the apples on that tree rcould fill a bushel,quot; „Every apple on that tree would fill a bushel.quot; She had read all the historical romances of the day. (Buhver).

') In such cases one is not the numeral adjective one, but the representative of the French word on (as in quot;On ditquot;), which, according to the etymologists, is a contraction of homme [omme, om, on). The root is the Latin homo, a man, a person, and hence, people in general.

God forgive all those who have thirsted, without cause, for my blood. (Eobertson). Goldsmith!s father was no doubt the good Doctor Primrose, whom we all of us know. (Thackeray). How many fox-hunters and rural squires are to be found all over Great Britain, who are ignorant that they have lived all this time in a planet! (Swift).

23. Few ') is opposed to many; as „Many are called, but few are chosen.quot; Few without the article a has a different meaning from the same word preceded by a. When we say few we almost deny that there are any; but when we say a few, we wish to assert that there are some; as, At the time to which this tale refers, these few dwellings were still fewer. (James). Very few people are good economists of their fortune, and still fewer of their time. (Chesterfield). There are a few children employed in these factories, hut not many. (Dickens). He had been raised to the peerage by the decease of his father a few months before. (Scott). He had consulted almost every surgeon of eminence in England, and a few on the Continent. (Warren).

'24. Several originally denoted one thing severed or separated from another; as in the law phrase, joint and several estate.quot; It now means more than two, but not a great many. He had a wife and several children. (Addison). 7 met him several times in private society. (Warren;. The guests began to retire to their several apartments. (Scott). 'Emperors and Kings Are but obey'd in their several provinces. (Marlowe).

25. Some denotes a larger number than several. It is applied to both number and quantity; as 'some men'some corn.' That he may secure some liberty, he makes a surrender in trust of the whole of it. (Burke). Every rich man has usually some sly way of jesting. (Spectator). The worlc some praise Jnd some the architect. (Milton),

') A few of the sailors were saved is an affirmative proposition; few of the sailors xoere saved is properly a negative; for it would be understood that you were speaking of «most of the sailors,quot; and denying that they were saved.

how, times and where in which case it forms the expressions some one, somebody, something, somewhat, somehow, sometimes somewhere the meaning of which will be easily understood from the following examples. You want some one, in the difficult circumstances in which you are placed, to guide and counsel you. (James). Before then, ht had ahuays imagined that he was somebody. (Bulwer). Something was said of the death of the just. (Mackenzie). Let me not think that I discovered something of coldness in your first salutation. (Sheridan). Here's a little something to buy you a riband. (Sheridan). His hair, once somewhat sandy, was now rather grayish. (Bulwer). The expression of his face was somewhat impudent and reckless. (Bulwer). The day passes in more or less of pain, and the night wears away somehow. (Thackeray). Somehow or another I attracted his attention in passing. (Warren). Sometimes she would laugh, and sometimes cry. (Thomson).* I was somewhere about sixteen. (Bulwer).

26. One, when it denotes number, is no more a pronoun than two, three or any other of the numeral adjectives. But when it denotes the person speaking, or people in general, it is a noun; and in fact, quite a different word, (See note (p. 62). My boat is small, the boatman cried, 'Twill bear bui one atvay. (Southey). Will you allow me, Madam, to make one of your partyquot;! (Bulwer). My secret then was one That earth refused to keep. (Hood). I hope, cousin, one may speak to one's own relations, and not he to blame. (Goldsmith). Come, sweet ones, come to the fields with me. (Cunningham). The man whom a woman admires the most is not unfrequently the one of all others for rchom she could feel least tenderness. (James).

what you call a fine gentleman. (Addison). This lady was of that species of women whom you rather commend for goad qualities than beauty. (Fielding). As you approach the Hudson, the rugged aspect increases, until you at length meet with the formidable barrier of the Highland. (Cooper). Second thoughts, they say, are best. (Fielding). You hear men every

day in conversation profess that all the honour, power and riches which they propose to themselves, cannot give satisfaction enough to reward them for half the anxiety they undergo in the pursuit, or possession of them. (Addison). It is not enough that your designs, nay that your actions, are intrinsically good; you must take care they shall appear so. (Fielding).

3°. by a man, men, people, and, when the speaker includes himself in the assertion, also by we; the latter being also the case in proverbial sentences; as, A man would think they were searching after an apt classical term. (Addison). People were wonderfully surprised to hear generals singing the word of command. (Addison).

3°. Very frequently also by making use of the passive voice; as, It is said to have leen totally demolished on that occasion. (Scolt). Even human sacrifices are said to have leen offeied in this island. (Pitt). They were forbidden to leave their oton parishes. (Hallam). A clock was heard to strike seven. (Mackenzie). I was early taught to weep. (Landon). The king from the earliest period of his reign, was denied the personal enjoyments of a nolleman. (Disraeli). I have been offered already seven times the sum which I gave for the land. (Bulwer). No heg gar was to be refused his dinner. (Thackeray). He was refused the protection of law. (Hume). He had been taught a great many things. (James). The authority of Mr. Fox had been alluded to. (Grattan). Some parts are provided for with great exactness. (Burke). The judges were sent for. (Clarendon), Look again hotv that same Holland is spoken of to-day. (Pox). He ivas admired, talked of, listened to (Bulwer).

4°. By one in an indeterminate sense, when some unknown or indefinite person is meant; as. These officers are always in one's ivay. (Sheridan). One must vent one's passion on something. (Bulwer). One must dress a little particular or one may escape in the crowd. (Goldsmith).

28. Other denotes the second of two classes of persons or things, and is often contrasted with one: as nThe one consented, the o^t'^,3r refused.quot; „The other day,quot; means a day or two ago. lgt;r. Juluisou restricts it to ythe third day past.quot;

how, times and where in which case it forms the expressions some one, somebody, something, somewhat, somehow, sometimes somewhere the meaning of which will be easily understood from the following examples. You want some one, in the difficult circumstances in which you are placed, to guide and counsel you. (James). Before then, ht had always imagined that he was somebody. (Buhver). Something was said of the death of the just. (Mackenzie). Let me not think that I discovered something of coldness in your first salutation. (Sheridan). Here's a little something to buy you a riband. (Sheridan). His hair, once somewhat sandy, was now rather grayish. (Bulwer). The expression of his face was somewhat impudent and reckless. (Bulwer). The day passes in more or less of pain, and the night wears away somehow. (Thackeray). Somehow or another I attracted his attention in passing. (Warren). Sometimes she would laugh, and sometimes cry. (Thomson).' I tvas somewhere about sixteen. (Bulwer).

26. One, when it denotes number, is no more a pronoun than two, three or any other of the numeral adjectives. But when it denotes the person speaking, or people in general, it is a noun; and in fact, quite a different word. (See note (p. 62). My boat is small, the boatman cried, 'Twill bear but one away. (Southey). Will you allow me, Madam, to make one of your party?' (Bulwer). My secret then ivas one That earth refused to keep. (Hood). I hope, cousin, one may speak to one's own relations, and not be to blame. (Goldsmith). Come, sweet ones, come to the fields with me. (Cunningham). The man whom a woman admires the most is not unfrequently the one of all others for whom she could feel least tenderness. (James).

what you call a fine gentleman. (Addison). This lady was of that species of ivomen whom you rather commend for good qualities than beauty. (Fielding). As you approach the Hudson, the rugged aspect increases, until you at length meet with the formidable barrier of the Highland. (Cooper). Second thoughts, they say, are best. (Fielding). You hear men every

3°. Very frequently also by making use of the passive voice; as, It is said to have heen totally demolished on that occasion. (Scott). Even human sacrifices are said to have been offered in this island. (Pitt). They were forbidden to leave their own parishes. (Hallam). A clock was heard to strike seven, (Mackenzie). I was early taught to weep. (Landon). The king from the earliest period of his reign, was denied the personal enjoyments of a nohleman. (Disraeli). I have been offered already seven times the sum which I gave for the land. (Bulwer). No beggar was to be refused his dinner. (Thackeray). He was refused the protection of lato. (Hume). He had been taught a great many things. (James). The authority of Mr. Fox had been alluded to. (Grattan). Some parts are provided for with great exactness. (Burke). The judges were sent for. (Clarendon), Look again how that same Holland is spoken of to-day. (Pox). He loas admired, talked of, listened to (Bulwer).

28. Other denotes the second of two classes of persons or things, and is often contrasted with one: as „2'Ae one consented, the o^t''3r refused.quot; „The other day,quot; means a day or two ago, Dr. Johnson restricts it to uthe third day past.quot;

He prejers porter to any Other liquor. (Marryat). The English delight in silence more than any other European nation. (Addison). Tou told me yourself, the other evening, that you had never had a brief in your life. (Marryat). Most of our young fellows, here, display some character or other by their dress. (Chesterfield). He observed many signs of threatening, and others of promises, pity, and kindness. (Swift). Let others brave the flood in quest of gain. (Thomson). He was at her bedside almost every other day. (Warren).

29. Another is compounded of an and other, and consequently means, one other. It can only be used in the singular number; as, Vll fill another pipe. (Sterne). Thais led the way, To light him to his prey. And, like another Helen, fir d, another Troy. (Dryden). She nurote a short letter to the King of France, and another to the duke of Guise. (Robertson). It is one thing to write and another to publish. (Buhver).

30. None, though a contraction of no one, is used in both numbers, like any. In the singular, it means nobody or nothing; in the plural no persons or no things. His face is none the longest. (Steele). Will none of you speak in pity? (Macpherson). None are so busy as the fool and knave. (Uryden).

31. A pronoun which is a sort of noun, enters into construction under conditions already mentioned: and the learner must carefully remember, that though a pronoun must represent its noun in person, number, and gender, it takes the case which its grammatical position requires, without any regard to the case of the noun it stands for. When we say. „I saw George, and he told me,quot; the pronoun he agrees with the noun George in the third person singular, and the masculine gender; but George is objective in one part of the construction, and he is nominative in another. Again, in saying „George came, and I told him,quot; the pronoun agrees with the noun as before; but George is now a noun nominative, and the pronoun is objective. If the two words happen to be in the same case, as in saying „I saw George, and told him,quot; the reason is, that each is separately governed, not that they agree in case by any rule. All this will perhaps

appear plain enough when the pronoun is a personal pronoun; but a relative pronoun, though a very useful, is a mongrel part of speech; and being a conjunction as well as a pronoun, we often fail to perceive that it has the very same duties to fulfil as another pronoun. Thus, for instance, in saying. „I saw George, who told me,quot; the relative is in the nominative case for the same reason that he is nominative in the correspondent example above, while George is still objective in another part of the construction. Again, in saying „George came, whom, I told,quot; the relative is in the objective for the same reason that him is objective in the_ correspondent example; but the relative does not come after the verb that governs it, as him does, because it has also to act as a conjunction, and must therefore take its place at the beginning of the sentence which it has to join to the other. So also in saying „I saw George whom I told,quot; the two objectives are separately governed, as in the correspondent example; but whom comes first in its sentence for the reason just given. — The relative which is liable to the same difference of grammatical position, though it has no change of form to imply when it is objective. It is nominative in the following example; „The bird is dead which sung sweetly:quot; it is objective in the following; //The bird is dead which you loved.quot;

3. When the action which a verb signifies passes over to an object, the verb is said to be transitive; as, 'I love him 'He learns his lesson;' 'John strikes the table?

In these examples, the objects represented by the words 'him? 'lesson,' and 'table,' receive or are affected by the action which the verbs 'love,' 'learns,' and 'strikes' signify.

3. The object of a transitive verb is sometimes understood; as, 'Virtue leads to happiness,' that is, iis followers, or those who practise it; 'he bowed to me as he passed, that is, his head; 'the ivy turines round the oak,' that is, itself.

4. When the action which a verb signifies does not pass over to an object, the verb is said to be intransitive; as 'I walk;' 'The horse gallops'

5. Several intransitive verbs may be used in a transitive, or rather, a causative sense; as, to gallop a horse, that is, to make, or cause him to gallop. Some verbs have two forms to express these two senses, as, rise ') and raise, fall and fell, lie and lay, sit and set. „To raise the window,quot; for example, is to cause it to rise; and so of the others.

6. Some intransitive verbs are used transitively when followed by a corresponding or kindred noun; as „May we live the life, and die the death of the righteous.quot;

7. And sometimes, by the addition of a preposition, an intransitive verb becomes what is termed a compound transitive. Thus, 'to smile' is intransitive; but ^lto smile on' is transitive; as, ,fortune smiled on him in all his undertakings,quot;

8. A verb signifies action, and as every action implies an agent, that is, something which performs or directs it, every verb must have an agent. The agent of a verb is either a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case; and hence the agent is usually called the nominative of the verb.

9. Verbs, like their nominatives, have two numbers, the singular and the plural; and in each number, three persons; as;

In these examples, '7 love' is the first person singular of the verl, because its nominative '1' is a pronoun of the first

',) The uueducated Irish usually say rise wheu they should say raise; as ullise the window,quot; The English often say lay when they should say lie; as, quot;He lays in bed too long in the morning.quot;

person and singular number; ¹Thou lovesf is the second person singular of the verb, because its nominaiicc tLou is a pronoun of the second person and singular number; and so on with the other persons and numbers. And for a similar reason, 'loves' in the sentences 'John loves his book,' is the third person singular of the verb, because its nominative t/oA» is a noun of the third person and singular number.

The place of Thou is now generally supplied by the plural form You—except in solemn or poetical language—or when addressing a person contemptuously. But in all such cases, yon, though applied to but one person, must have a plural verb; as 'you were? 'were youT (not „you was,quot; „was youquot;). It also requires the plural form of the possessive pronoun; as, u You are a good boy, and therefore I shall grant you your request:quot; (not thy). The custom of addressing a person in the plural form originated in courtesy or obsequiousness. The religious body called „Quakersquot; or „the Society of Friends,quot; consider it a deviation from truth to say you to one person, and, therefore, in all such cases, say thou or thee. But they often say thee when they should say thou; as, „Thee said it,quot; which should be, thou saidsi it.

The plural form We is used for the singular „1quot; by kings, editors of newspapers, and generally by authors. In the first case, 'we' includes the counsellors by whose advice kings are supposed to act; and with regard to editois and authors, the'we' implies that they are expressing opinions not exclusively their own.

10. Number and person properly belong to the nominative, which is either a noun or a pronoun, and not to the verb, which simply signifies action.

11. English verbs have no variations in their terminations or endings to express number and person, except in three cases, namely, the second and third persons singular of the present tense, and the second person singular of the past.

12. The second person singular of a verb ends in est or st, and the third person in s or eth. *) In all the other cases.

Uie form of the verb remains unchanged, and its number and person can only be known by its nominative. Thus, in the present tense of the verb to love, the first person singular and the three persons plural are alike; as I love, we love, ye or you love, they love; and in the past tense, all the persons, in both numbers, are alike, except the second person singular (thou lovedsf); as I loved, he loved, we loved, ye or you loved, they loved.

1. English verbs have but two distinctions of tense, the present and the past; as I walk; I walked. In the first of these examples, the action is represented as going on in the present time; in the other, the action is past or completed.

3. • The present tense is often used colloquially for the future; as 'He leaves town next week f 'Next Monday is the first of May. It is also used when preceded by such words as when, as soon as, to point out the relative time of a future action; as 'When he arrives, we shall hear the news;' 'I shall go, when he comes.' While he is on earth, I'll pursue him. (Goldsmith). I'll scamper aivay to mount Vesuvius; from thence to Joppe and from Joppe to the world's end, where, if he follows me, I pray God he may break his neck. (Sterne). When the knight of Ivanhoe comes within the four seas of Britain, he underlies the challenge of Brian de Bois-Guilbert, which if he answer not, I will proclaim him as a coward on the walls of everv Temple Court in Europe. (Scott).

3. In vivid descriptions or narrations, the present tense is used for the past; as— „Casar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy at the head of five thousand men'' He pursues his way and swims or sinks or wades or creeps or flies. (Milton). The rising oar disperses loide the foamy spray. (Leyden). It also applies to authors whose works are extant; as 'Homer tells us, in the Iliad-,' 'Shakspeare delights

and instructs as.' „Althoughquot; says Erskine, „his principle is to he applauded, the error cannot, in this enlightened age happily need not, he defended. In such cases the authors are regarded as if existing in their works.

4. The present tense is used to express general and permanent truths; as, 'Man is mortal, 'birds fly, the earth moves round the sun' Philosophy instructs, hut it perforins its v'orl' by precept, (Dryden). Fat gets fcit, riches get riches, (James). The wakeful mother, ly the glimmering pale. Trims her sick infant's couch, and soothes his feeble wail, (Scott). It is also used to express habits, or acquirements; as, 'she snuffs,' 'he drinks,' 'John writes a good hand,' 'Jane sings and plays well' He keeps his hands clean, wears rings, and sports a gold snnffhox. (Marryat). He reads much, he is a great observer, he loves no plays, he hears no music, seldom he smiles. (Shak.). This form of the present tense is usually called the indefinite present.

5. There are two other forms to express present time, namely, the progressive and emphatic. The progressive form expresses present time, and progressive or continued action; as '1 am writing.' They say he's dying all for love, but that can never be: They say his heart is breaking, mother what is that to me? (Tennyson). If you're waking call me early, call me early, mother dear. (Tennyson). Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. (Johnson). One of the chief pleasures of my life is to know what changes of public measures are approaching, who is climbing to the top of power, and who is tottering on the precipice of disgrace. (Addison). He's writing a look. (Moore). The emphatic form is used when emphasis or strong negation is to be expressed; as, '/ do forgive you' 'I do not believe it' 1 do believe he considered it sinful to smile. (Dickens). Government is not made in virtue of natural rights, which may and do exist in total independence of it. (Burke). Man doth the most degenerate from kind. (Drayton). It is true that he does boast of being an Englishman. (Mudie). 'Well, Frida]!,' said I, 'do not he frightened,'

do the people practically enjoy greater rational liberty of speech or action, and in none is the press more free. (Chambers).

6. The past tense has also three forms: — 1. The indefinite, which represents the action as past or finished, but without reference to the precise time; as, „He died, and no one knew him.quot; Serooge shivered and wiped the perspiration from his brow. (Dickens). To this my girl replied that she should have no objection, if she could do it with honour. (Goldsmith). / suspected that her affections were placed upon a different object. (ibid). She observed that several very prudent men of our acquaintance were freethinkers and made very good husbands. (ibid.). This tense becomes definite if a word or phrase is used in connexion with it specifying the time; „He died in September last.quot; He resigned her up to the chaplain, adding that he was to go that night five miles, being invited to a harvest supper, (ibid.). When Leo X reigned Fope of Rome, his holiness of all things affected fools, buffoons, humorists and coxcombs. (Addison). When I pronounced these words, my father's resentment glowed in his visage. (Smollet). He owed 2000 £ when he died. (Thackeray). quot;Early in the morning she retired to her closet, and employed a considerable time in devotion. (Robertson). 3. The progressive, which expresses past time and progressive action; as, „1 was writing, tchen he arrivedquot; Every thing was going on remarkably well. (Mar-ryat). By it there were waters flowing And on it there were young flowers growing. (Byron). Rebecca could witness part of what was passing without the castle, and report to Ivanhoe the preparations rohich the assailants were making. (Scott). The chimes were ringing the three quarters past eleven at that moment. (Dickens). 3. The emphatic; as, „I wnïe to you, I assure you.quot; One Christmas time, when yonder solitary child was left here all alone , he did come, for the first time, just like that. (Dickens). The wind did blow, the cloak did fly. (Cowper). He did a little too much romanise our tongue, (Dryden). Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield. (Gray). She struggled — she did struggle very hard — to answer,

7. The future time of a verb is expressed by using shall or will immediately before it; as I shall or will love. ') Before this time to-morrow I shall have gained a peerage, or Westminster-Abbey. (Southey), Then cometh the end when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God, even the father, when he shall have put down all rule. (Bible). The date is expired; this is the time, and he will fetch me. (Marlowe). One drop of blood will save me, (Marlowe). Be your own monitor, now that you will have no other. (Chesterfield). Post you to London, and you'W find it so. (Shak.). In such cases shall and mil are called auxiliary or helping verbs.

1. The mood of a verb is the mode or manner in which the action is represented ¹). When a verb indicates or declares, or asks a question in order to obtain a declaration, it is in the indicative mood; as, '/ love him' 'lovest thou me f Nature gives us many friends and children to take them away, but takes none away to give them to us again. (Temple). What seeks he—or at least professes to seek—but truth 1 (Warren). How comest thou hither Where no man ever comes? (Shak.) Wealth brings much woe. (Herrick).

2. When a verb is used for commanding or entreating, it is said to be in the imperative mood; as, 'depart thouforgive me.'²) Blow on, sweet breeze, blow on! (Crabbe). Softly

shall explain this on some following page, when speaking of the compound tenses.

) What is called the imperative mood is really the infinitive governed by some verb understood. 'Love thou' for example, may be resolved into, 'I desire that thou shouldst love? By supplying the ellipsis in this way, we get the verb for 'thou,' which, by the first rule of syntax,

blow, thou western breeze, Softly rustle through the sail! Soothe to rest the furrowy seas, Before my love, sweet western gale! (Leyden). Step after him, said my uncle Toly, — do Trim — and ask him if he knows his name. (Sterne). Begone you slaves, you idle vermin go. Fly from the scourges, and your master know. (Roscommon). Arise, winds of autumn, arise; blow along the heath! streams of the mountains roar! roar tempests, in the groves of my oaks! walk through broken clouds,

0 moon! show thy pale face at intervals! bring to my mind the night when all my children fell, (Macpherson).

3. The command ov entreaty is always in the present time, and addressed from the first to the second person. Hence the imperative mood has only the second person singular and the second person plural; as 'love thou,' 'love ye or you.'

4. When a verb is used in an indefinite or general way, it is said to be in the infinitive mood; as, „to read, to write to love.quot; To be vain is rather a mark of humility than pride. (Swrift). He who knows not what it is to labour, knows not what it is to enjoy. (Blair). Tou have but a fortune to make,

1 have a name to redeem; you look calmly on to the future, 1 have a dark blot to erase from the past. (Bulwer). The yard was so dark that even Scrooge, who knew its every stone, wais fain to grope with his hands. (Dickens).

5. In the preceding examples it is not asserted that I or you, or any person, or persons, read, or write, or love or do anything else. The abstract or simple idea of the action which

must end in St. If the imperative mood were resolved in this way, the absurdity of describing one and the same mood as used for commanding and entreating would he got rid of. When the 'imperative' mood is said to entreat, some verb implying an entreaty is understood; as pray or leseech. Tor example, 'give' in the Lord's Prayer is said to be in the imperative mood! — but it is really in the infinitive, governed by .'we pray,' or 'we entreat Thee to give,' etc. — or, it is our prayer that Ihou shouldst 'give.' When the imperative mood is used in its proper sense, some word implying a command is understood; as, 'go,' that is, I wish, or, I order you to 'go'—or, It is my desire that thou sJiozddst 'go.' 'Let him go,' that is, I wish or desire you to let (or permit) him to 'go.'

the verbs in cach case imply, is expressed without any reference to au agent or nominative; and hence this indefinite or general way of using a verb has been called the infinitive mood.

6. Except in a few cases in which it is understood, the infinitive mood is always preceded by the preposition io; and hence it is called its sign.

7. The infinitive mood partakes of the nature of a noun, and in many cases it is equivalent in all respects, not only to a participial, but also to a common noun; as, in the following examples:

John likes to play, hut he does not like to work: John likes playing, hut he does not like working; John likes play, lut he does not like work.

In the same way, 'To err is human, to forgive divine' may be resolved into 'Erring in human, forgiving is divine'—or into the common noun, 'Error is human, forgiveness is divine. Compare also, 'To see is to believe,' Seeing is believing,' Sight is belief.'

8. Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, ending in ing, as Zowing; and the past or perfect, generally-ending in ed or d, as loved., heard.

9. Participles are so called because they participate in the nature both of a veri and an adjective. As verbs they imply action, and as adjectives they are put along with nouns to express quality; as, 'The bird is singing; is it a singing hirdT 'Her heart teas broken;' 'She died of a broken heart.'

10. Participles may be regarded as adjectives — 1. When they denote something customary or habitual, rather than a transient act; as, a lying rogue; as, Rocks the bellowing voice of boiling seas rebound. (Dryden). Canst thou, without pity, hear a child's expiring cry? (Southey). Roaring waves climb the distant rock. (Macpherson). Over the rolling waters go. (Tennyson). The only standing force should be the militia. (Macaulay). 2. When they are compared; as, a more learned man; as, Its cottage-homes and hamlets are considered more

neat and engaging than those of any other nation. (Chambers). The favorite and most coveted seats were invariably those nearest to the door. (Dickens). We exchanged the most dignified salutations with profound gravity and respect. (Dickens). 3. When they are compounded with a prefix which the verb does not admit; as, unbecoming, unknown, unsoughtquot;, as, No apparition could have been more unexpected (Bulwer). Poor boy that I was, why should I seem more disinterested than others (Bulwer).

11. The present participle represents the verbal action as proceeding;, and, therefore, not finished or complete. Hence it has been called the Imperfect participle. The past participle represents the verbal action as finished or complete, and hence, it has been called the Perfect participle. But strictly speaking, the participles do not in themselves contain any notification of the time to which they refer; as is evident from the following examples: 'He is writing' 'he was writing,' 'he will be writing;' 'he is elected,' 'he was elected? 'he will be elected.' The time is indicated either by the verb with which they are connected (as in the examples just given) or by some word or phrase in the context.

13. The participial form is often used for the infinitive mood, particularly after verbs which signify, to see, to hear, to feel, to begin, to prefer, to think and a few others; as, I saw him go or going; I heard him speak or speaking; I began to speak, or I began speaking; as. She saw her master standing (or stand) by the bedside. (Fielding). From the turret toe discern some troops approaching (or approach). (Thomson). I perceived the procession marching (or march) slowly forward towards the church. (Goldsmith). Now does he feel his secret murder sticking (or siick) on his hand. (Shak,). ƒ found my eldest son sitting (or sit) by my bedside. (Goldsmith).

13. As words ending in ing are frequently used both as noum and adjectives, the learner should take care not to call such words participles unless they are really so. The meaning and application of the word will in each ease enable him to decide its class.

1. The conjugation of a verb means the joining together or arrangement of its principal parts.

2. The principal parts of a verb are the Present tense, the Past tense, and the Perfect participle.

3. Prom the present tense are formed the past tense and the perfect participle by adding ed, or d only when the verb ends in e, as:

4. Verbs are said to be regular when they form their past tense and perfect participle according to the preceding rule; and irregular, when they vary from the rule in either, or in both cases. Defective verbs are both irregular and deficient in some of their parts.

5, Impersonal verbs are such as are used only in the third person singular, with it as the nominative, as, 'It rains;' 'It raised.'

7. All regular verbs ending in e are conjugated like the verb love; and all regular verbs not ending in e, as to learn, to fear, to look, differ from this model only by adding est instead of st, and ed instead of d.

8. It appears from this that, including the simple form of the verb, there are only six variations in the terminations or endings of a regular verb in the English language.

9. And in the irregular verbs, the variations never exceed seven; except in the verb to be, in which they amount to eleven. It will be easy, therefore, for the pupils to make themselves acquainted with these terminations, and the parts of the verbs to which they belong.

1. Such as have the present, and past tense, and pegt;fect participle the same; as,

Note, — That some of the participles marked as obsolete, are not obsolete when used purely as adjectives: for instance beholden, drunken, stricken, sunken.

In committing the forms to memory, those in italics should be omitted, as not fit for modern or common use.

Gild,

Gird,

Give, Go,

Grave,

Grind, Grow, Have,

Hang,

Hear, Hew,

Hide,

Hit,

Hold,

Hurt, Keep,

Knit,

Know, Lade, Lay, Lead,

Lean,

PERFECT PART.

got.

gotten. ²)

gilt.

gilded. ^S!)

girt.

ded. ^a)

given.

went, [see Wend.) gone.

i graven. graven.

graved.

ground.

grown.

had.

(hung.

{as a I hanged, (as a criminal.) criminal?)

heard.

hewn.

i hewed.

. hid.

! hidden. ²)

hit.

held.

i holden. ²)

hurt.

kept.

i knit.

I knitted.

known.

_ laden.

laid.(active; compare Lie.) led,

j leant. ³)

Ï leaned.

²) Grave style, or not colloquial.

quot;) Obsolete, or very little used. ^!) Grave style, or not colloquial. ⁵) Colloquial only.

') Obsolete, or very little used. •) Grave style, or not colloquial. ⁵) Colloquial only.

It would have occupied too much space to have given more obsolete forms than are here furnished: the attentive student will have occasion to remark many in the course of his reading, — such for instance as clomb, holp, strook, old preterits of climb , help , and strike.

1) Obsolete, or very little used. •) Grave style, or not colloquial. ³) Colloquial only.

PAST TENSE.

SINFU1AK. PLTJBAIi.

1. I was 1. We were

2. Thou wast 3. Ye or you were

3. He was 3. They were Imperative, Be Infinitive, To be

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect, Being Perfect, Been.

2. The verb to be assumes a different form when doubt or contingency is to be expressed '); as,

PBESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR.

PAST TENSE.

SINGULAR.

If I were 1.

If thou wert 3.

If he were 3.

This form of the verb is usually called the conditional or subjunctive mood.

3. TO HAVE.

PKESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

1. I have 1. We have

3. Thou hast *) 3. Ye or you have

3. He has or hath 3. They have

') This is a modem restriction of this form of the verh; for in old authors be is used in an indicative sense; as quot;We ie twelve brethrenquot; —Bible. We also find 'le-esf in Shakspeare and Milton; as »If thou le'si death;quot; quot;If thou beest he.quot;,,,

•) If the pupils be made to conjugate to have like the model verb to love, they will sec that it owes its irregularities to contraction. Thus, I have, thou {havest contracted into) Ziasl, he {limes or hmetli, into) has or hath; I {haved, into) had, thou fmvedst, into) hadst. The v is dropped in havcst, etc., as in e'er for ever, e'en for even, ill for evil.

') Dost is contracted from doest, doth from doeth, and did itaxa. doed, By contraction also, shalles! has tecome shall; wiliest, wilt; and teer est, wert.

past tense. Ought varies only in the second person singular (thou oughtes^) anrl must has no variations ').

10. The preceding ' verbs, namely, lie, have, do, shaii, will, can, may, ought, and must are called auxiliary verbs, because it is by their help, as it is said, the English verbs are principally conjugated.

The verbs be, have, do, are. used both as Principal and Auxiliary, verbs. But shall, will, caa, may, ought, must, are now used only as Auxiliary verbs. Will is, when regular, a principal verb; as, 'He wills' 'he willed.' Ex: Say — is there aught that you would will within Tko little sway novj left the BuJce? (Byron). 1 am always willing to obey your commands, hut you must upon this occasion tahe the will for the deed. (Montague). We do no otheneise than we are will'd. Who willed youl or icJiose will stands hit mine? (Shak.). Every star stands out so bright and 'particular, as if fresh from the time when the Maker willed it. (Bulwer).

1. Such tenses as are formed by the aid of the Auxiliary verbs are called compound teases.

3. Thus, if the imperfect participle of any verb is put after the several persons of the verb to he, the Progressive form of conjugation is made up; thus:

3. Thou art dancing 3. Ye or you are dancing 8. He is dancing 3. They are dancing

') Quoth, wis, wit or wot, are usually classed Tfith the defective verbs;, but they are now obsolete; except wit, in the phrase, «to wit.quot;

²) Verbs expressing au affection of the mind, as, love, hate, know, do not admit of the Progressive form.

PLURAL.

1. We are loved

2. Ye or you are loved

3. They are loved PAST TENSE.

PLURAL.

1. We were loved

2. Ye or you were loved

3. They were loved

IMPEKATIVE MOOD.

Be thou loved Be ye or you loved

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present, To be loved Perfect, To have been loved

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Being loved Perfect, Loved

Compound Perfect, Having been loved 4. The Emphatic form of conjugating a verb consists in putting its infinitive or root after the several persons of the verb to do ; as;

PLURAl.

]. We were dancing

2. Ye or you were dancing

3. They were dancing

3. And if the perfect participle of any verb is put after the several persons of the verb to be, the Fasaive voice '), as it is called , is formed; thus:

Passive form of Conjugation.

BBESENT TENSE.

SINOULAE.

I am loved Thou art loved

5. When this form of the verb is not used to express emphasis or strong assertion, it is called the Expletive form.

6. The Present-Perfect tense is formed by putting the perfect participle of any verb after the several persons of the present tense of the verb have; as:

7. This tense is much in use; and is frequently confounded with the Past tense, from which it should be carefully distinguished.

) By regarding this tense as the present tense ol the verb to havo prefixed to the past or perfect participle of another verb, we shall have no difficulty in determining when it, and not the 'Imperfect' or 'Past tense,' should be used, as in cases like the following; 'ƒ havo received your letteror 1 received your letter.' The 'Perfect tense' implies the having or possessing of a finished or completed action; and therefore it refers both to present and past time. For example, '/loved hint {formerly but not now)-. 'I have loved him' (since I first knew him, and I continue to love him). 'I received your letter' (yesterday, but could not answer it till to-day). Or, '/ received your letter

in its signification completed action and present time—or, in other words, it brings a past action into connexion with the present time. Thus, 'Z have written the letter,' implies that I have just written it. The Past tense includes in its signification completed action and past time; that is, it represents an action as having occurred at some period of time prior to, and disjoined from, the present. Thus, ' ƒ wrote the letter implies that I wrote it at some time previous to, and disconnected with, the present.

9. The Present-Perfect is also used to express an action done in a certain period of time, (such as a day, a year, a century 1) part of which is yet to elapse; as, 'I have taüed nothing to-day;' 'I have not seen him this year;' 'Strange events have occurred this century.'

10. This tense is also used to express a past action whose consequences extend to the present; as, ¹l have neglected my duty and am, therefore, unhappy. In this way it is applied to authors whose works are in existence, though they themselves may be long since dead; as, 'Cscero has written

But we could not say, with propriety, 'Cicero has written poems,'' because his poems are no longer extant. In this case we should say, 'Cicero wrote poems.'

12. The Passive of the Present-Perfect tense is formed by putting heen after have. through all the persons in both numbers; as:

this morning, but could not answer it till now' (the evening or mid-day). 'I have received your letter' (this moment, and hasten to answer it). 'Homer has described the Trojan war in the Iliad' (that is, Homer, who may be regarded as existing in his works, has the Trojan war described in the tliad). 'It has rained all i'ay' (and it is still raining). 'It rained very heavily this morning' (but it is fair now).

Thou hast been loved Ye or you have been loved He has been loved They have been loved. 13. Prior-Perfect. ')

14. This tense represents an action as perfected or completed before some other action or event mentioned in connexion with it took place; as, 'I had writtett the letter before the news arrived.' It is compounded of the past tense of the verb have and the perfect participle of another verb.

Thou hadst been dancing Ye or you had been dancing He had been dancing They had been dancing. 16. The Passive of the Prior-Perfect tense is formed by putting been after had; as:

Thou hadst been loved Ye or you had been loved He had been loved They had been loved,

1 shall or will love We shall or will love Thou shalt or wilt love Ye or you shall or will love He shall or will love They shall or will love. 18. The First Future tense simply indicates that an action or event is yet to take place; as, 'J shall write the letter' It is formed by putting the infinitive of any verb, without

the sign to, after the several persons of the present tense of the verb Shall or Will; as in the preceding examples *).

I shall or will be dancing We shall or will be dancing Thou shalt or wilt be dancing Ye o;¹ you shall or will be dancing He shall or will de dancing They shall or will be dancing

Thou shalt or wilt be loved Ye or you shall will be loved He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved

I shall or will have loved We shall or wil have loved Thou shalt or wilt have loved Ye o;-you shall er will have loved He shall or will have loved They shall or will have loved

32. The Second Future tense indicates that a future action or event will take place at or before another future action or event; as, 'I shaii have written the letter before the post arrives.'' It is compounded of the present tense of Shall or Will, the infinitive of Have (without the sign), and the perfect participle of any other verb,

23. The Passive of the Second Future is formed by putting heen after have; as, '7 shall or will have been loved;' and so on through the other persons in both numbers.

24. Verbs are conjugated interrogatively either by simply putting the verb before its nominative; as, Love Lovest thou? — or by putting the corresponding part of the verb Bo before the nominative; as, Bo I love? Bost thou love? and so on through the two tenses. The first mode is seldom used, except in poetry or solemn language.

25. Verbs are conjugated negatively, either by putting not after the verb, as, 'I love notthou lovest not' — or by using the emphatic ') form with not between the auxiliary and the verb; as, 'I do not love,' 'thou dost not love, etc. The latter is the usual mode.

Didst not thou love? Did not ye or you love? Did not he love? Did not they love?

Present Perfect, . I have moved. I have been moved. Pres. Parf. Frog, I have been moving. {Wanting.)

the sign to, after the several persons of the present tense of the verb Shall or Will; as in the preceding examples 'j.

I shall or will be dancing We shall or will be dancing Thou shalt or wilt be dancing Ye or you shall or will be dancing He shall or will de dancing They shall or will be dancing

Thou shalt or wilt be loved Ye or you shall or will be loved He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved

I shall or will have loved We shall or wil have loved Thou shalt or wilt have loved Ye or you shall or will have loved He shall or will have loved They shall or will have loved

22. The Second Future tense indicates that a future action or event will take place at or before another future action or event; as, '7 shali have written the letter before the post arrives.'' It is compounded of the present tense of Shall or Will, the infinitive of Have (without the sign), and the perfect participle of any other verb.

23. The Passive of the Second Future is formed by putting heen after have; as, '/ shall or will have been loved; and so on through the other persons in both numbers.

24. Verbs are conjugated interrogatively either by simply putting the verb before its nominative; as. Love 11 Lovest thoul — or by putting the corresponding part of the verb Do before the nominative; as. Bo I love? JJost thou love? and so on through the two tenses. The first mode is seldom used, except in poetry or solemn language.

25. Verbs are conjugated negatively, either by putting not after the verb, as, 'I love not,' thou loved not' — or by using the emphatic ') form with not between the auxiliary and the verb; as, 'I do not love,' 'thou doü not love, etc. The latter is the usual mode.

Didst not thou love? Did not ye or you love? Did not he love? Did not they love?

Present Perfect, . I have moved. I have been moved. Pres. Perf. Prog, I have been moving. (Wanting.)

Prior Perfect, . . I had moved. I had been moved. Prior-Perf. Prog. I had been moving. ( Wanting.)

Fir»t Future, . . I shall or will move. I shall or will be moved. Progressive,. ... I shall or will be [Wanting.)

Second Person,. . Move, or move thou, Be thou moved, or do or do thou move. thou be moved.

I. Be. — The variety in the form of this verb is a proof that it is derived from different sources.')

1. Are seems to be from the French être, the t having been dropped; as in ^««r from ^ra,- friar from frater; larceny hom latroc'miuM, etc. ²)

') The similarity between tlie form and meaning of the Greek word bios, life, and be, to exist or live, justifies tlie derivation of the latter from the former: and the forms am, is, and was may also be traced to the Greek, eimi, I nm, etc.

^a) Art Is from the Anglo-Saxon eart, and wast and inert probably from the Franco-Teutonic, warst.

3. Art seems formed by contraction from are-st; as, shult from shallest; wilt from wiliest; and wert from were-si.

3. Were is from are by prefixing to, which in many cases is merely a Ireatlang; as in the word one, in which w is audibly present. In the words weather, whole, and work, the w has no more business (phonetically speaking) than in the word one.

a. Connected with an infinitive mood to be is used to indicate that something is to take place, the reason of which may either be a resolution, or a consequence of circumstances. Sometimes it even implies possibility. Ex. They fixed a time in which they were all to assist at repairing my former dwelling. (Goldsmith), Those excellencies which are to be regarded but in the second place, should not precede more weighty considerations (Addison). 1 was to do many small things, (Goldsmith). He was to lie that night at a neighbour's. — 7 am to be married to a squire. — 7 am to have a lord. Is that all you are to have for your two shillings'? (Goldsmith). They thought it impossible for any man to read through all the books, though he was to live as long as Methuselah. (Coventry).

b. The verb to be placed between two nouns of different number, generally agrees with the substantive used as subject of the sentence; as, Perjury is but scandalous words. (Fielding). Frequent disappointments are the only physic for ambition. (Fielding). The wages of sin is death. (Bible). In Arabia I saiv a nation at once pastoral and loarlike, whose only wealth is their flocks and herds. (Johnson).

c. Connected with the objective case the infinitive mood, especially of the verb to he, often serves to compose such sentences as are expressed in the Dutch language by the conjunction that. This conjunction is omitted in English, the subject is changed into the objective case and the verb is put in the infinitive mood; as, Allowing his sentiments to be wrong.

In many words t before r lias been dropped; as in ph-e from pater, mere from mater, frère from frater — and why not are from etre? And having deduced are, we have art, by contraction, from are-st, and were by prefixing The root ió llxu Latin stare, whence (estre) étre.

yet as lie is purely passive iu his assent, he is not to be blamed. (Goldsmith). At last she demonstrated her affection to him to be much stronger than what she bore her own son. (Fielding). He knew the uature of that good man to he averse to any baseness or treachery. (Fielding). He soon observed him to be so wrapped in his own thoughts as to take little heed of external objects. (W. Irving). Whits turbans and the oriental form of their garments shewed them to be natives of some distant eastern country. (W. Scott). Travellers often proclaim that to be a difference in the several characters of nations which is but a difference in their manners. (Bulwer).

II. Have. — This verb bas the same origin as the Latin habeo, to have or possess. Its present tense have, and its past tense had, if prefixed to the perfect participle of any verb, make up what is called the Perfect and Pluperfect tenses; as, I have loved; I had loved; and in the Passive form, I have been loved; I bad been loved.

Generally speaking to have is used to form with the past participle the compound tenses of an active verb, but only when this participle is followed by its objective case; when on the contrary the latter is placed before the past participle a particular construction is used, as will be seen from the following examples: She tad more moaey left than the keeper intended she should carry out of prison with her. (Goldsmith), Her dress was in such disorder that 1 was quite sorry to have her figure exposed to the servants. (Burney). When Tom attended the reverend Mr. Thivackim, he had the same questions put to him by that yentleman which he had been asked the evening before. (Fielding). I would not have it quot;ihougM that these instructions were directed chiefly to their personal accom-plishmenls. (W. Irving). Astyanax ivas the son of Hector and Andromache. When Troy was, taken, this young prince had his head cut ojf, and his body thrown to swine. (Swift).

III. Do. — All verbs imply action, or the doing of something, but this verb emphatically means to do or act. Hence it is

prefixed to otlie verbs to make up what is called the Emphatic form of conjugation; as, 1 do love, etc. It is also

used for the purpose of negation and inter»ogation; as, 1 do not love. Thou dost not love, etc.; Do I love ? doH thou love? It is also often used as an expletive; as:

TV. Shall and Will. The English language has two future tenses in the indicative mood, ïhe, future simple, future-

perfect; the first formed by the present tense of the verb shall, and the infinitive mood of the principal verb, the second by the future of to have, and the perfect participle of the principal verb. And note that shall is the proper sign of the future tense in this language, and that it yields its office to wi'H only to prevent an effect which will be pointed out presently; in all the following examples, it forms an indicative future: I shall go; I shall have gone ; We shall speak; We shall have spoken ; Shall you go ? _;/Ifquot; he shall go; „I am determined thatquot; he shall go. The whole sentence in which the last example is included, may be said to be a potential sentence; but the potential meaning is given by the introductory part, and he shall go expresses a simple future. Suppose, however, we use the latter phrase, namely, „He shall go,quot; without the introductory part, the potential effect remains: we do not understand _uhe shall go,quot; simply as a future event, but as an event to take place by the icill of the speaker, or of some external will controlling the will of the person of the verb: the following phrases, therefore, are in the potential mood when nothing occurs in the context to reduce them to the expression of simple futurity; — Thou shalt go; he shall go; you shall go; they shall go. But if shall in the second and third persons is liable to be thus understood, that is to say, as an indication of some external will, and not as a sign of simple futurity, — how is the simple future in these persons to be implied? Let us use will for shall, and consider the effect: thou wilt go; he will go; you will go; theij will go, are phrases which may also be understood potentially; but so understood, the power is the will of the person of the verb, and clearly not the will

of the speaker. And this is no doubt the sole original meaning of these and similarly formed phrases, and is still the meaning when we lay some degree of stress on the auxiliary verb; in which case the examples all belong to the potential mood. But with a slighter pronunciation of the auxiliary, such as, in colloquial use, often sinks into the contraction '11, and the lax interpretation of custom, these phrases have the meaning of the simple future; and the future tenses affirmative in the indicative mood, are therefore conjugated thus: 1 shall teach, thou wilt teach, he will teach; we shall teach, you will teach, they will teach; — I shall have taught, thou wilt have taught, he will have taught; We shall have taught, you will have taught, they will have taught,

1. Shall originally signified to owe, as in Chaucer, „By the faith I shall to Godquot; and it still means that which one owes or ought; particularly in its past tense should; as, „Children should obey their parents.quot;

'TThat shall I do? properly means what owe I, or ought 1 to do? What am I bound by duty or obligation to do? And, Tom should do so and so,' properly means, it is due from you — or it is your duty to do so and so. Hence shall, and particularly should, imply duty and obligation. And as that which one owes to do is yet to be done, shall has come to be used as a sign of the future tense or time of other verbs, under the name of an Auxiliary.

2. Will. — The verb will is also used to express the future tense of other verbs, and for a similar reason, for that which one wills or intends to do refers to the future; as, I will go, that is, I intend to go.

But though shall and will are both used in connexion with other verbs to express a future time, they are by no means synonymous; and their proper application, in every case, constitutes one of the idiomatic difficulties of the English language. In a certain English work thirty-five rules have been given on the use of shall and will; and, in fact, an entire treatise has been published on the same subject. The following short rule is clear and comprehensive:

In other words, when the future is to be expressed simply or without emphasis, shall should be used after the first per- „ son, and will after the other two. But when the future is to be expressed with determination and authority, will should te used after the first person, and shall after the other two; that is, the cases are precisely reversed¹).

3. Shall has originally the meaning of the German sollen and wiU of wollen, Properly shall serves to express to command, to promise and to threaten whilst will indicates the intention, the will and the resolution of its subject. If the speaker wishes to inform the person spoken to, of his will or intention, his purpose or resolution, if he wants to threaten him or to make him a promise, he should make use of the two expressions in the following way.

thou shalt, you shall, thou wouldst, you would, he shall, they shall. he would, they would, as: I will (jo this moment and inform the company of my circumstances. (Goldsmith). Though thou hast my forgiveness thou shalt ever have my contempt, (ibid). If I am to be a

'') If two distinct forms were used to express what is called the First Euturc, the difference between shall and 'will would bo more easily understood by the learner. The one form might be called the Simple, and the other the Emphatic Future. For example-.

leyrjar, it shall never make me a rascal, (ibid). Now, my friend, w: will once more set forward with our history. (Fielding). You sliall feel the effect of this insolence. (Goldsmith). The many adventures that befell them on their journey shall he left to the reader's imagination. (Coventry). I had devoutly sent her word that I would assuredly wait upon her. (Sterne). I was determined that he should write to the squire offering a settle-ment which he should have no reason to reject. (Smollet). Wi must confess we would gratify our reader in every thing thct is reasonable. (Addison).

4. If on the contrary the speaker inquires into the will, Ihe resolution of the person spoken to, this is done for the different persons in the following way

wilt thou? will you? wouldst thou? would you? shall he? shall they? should he? should they?

as: And the Lord said, shall I hide from Abraham the thing which I do. (Bible). How, replied his master, wilt thou not obey my commands? (W. Scott). Shall then my recovery, shall my presence cast her at once down into misery and despair? (Fielding). And shall we never part again ? (Smollet). Vhy will you thus attempt to persuade me? (Goldsmith). Will you not call loith me at your mother's ? (Bulwer). Shall he that hateth right govern? and wilt thou condemn him that is most just? (Bible). Should 1 lie against my right? (ibid). Wilt thou play with him as with a birdquot;! (ibid),

5. The case is quite different however if shall and will are used to form the future tense and should and would constitute the Dutch conditional mood, which do not only express depending but even only supposed circumstances.

6. If the speaker wishes to communicate his own opinion about any thing, he makes use of the following forms.

I shall we shall I should we should thou wilt you will thou wouldst you would he will they will he would they would, as: 1 shall conclude this paper with an epigram. (Addison). Reader, it is impossible to know which sort of person thou wilt

he. (Fielding). The time will certainly come when we shall cease from our toil. (Goldsmith). Go and get gold for this; you will do it at neighbour Jackson's (ibid). They will raise our compassion rather than our abhorrence. (Addison). Would they have suffered me to listen, 1 should have forgot every thing unpleasant. (Burney). A circumstance that would certainly retard my success. (Smollet). According to what yau may observe on our stage, you would be apt to pronounce us a nation of savages. (Mdison). They would rather tend to promote a cheerful serenity in the mind than any of those dangerous effects lohich we have mentioned. (Fielding).

7. If iue speaker on the contrary inquires into another's intention and opinion, the verbs will and shall are used in the following manner;

will he? will they? would he? would they? as: Shall 1 ever be restored to health ? What will all this end in? Shall you never leave off quarrelling'? JVhy should you anticipate such consequences from a union lohere birth is equal and fortune favourable? (W. Scott). Would the enthusiastic loyalty stirvive the success or the failtire of the present political machinationsl (W. Scott).

8. Such questions where the speaker is convinced that the matter inquired into cannot take place, should be expressed in the third person by shall-, as. Who shall declare his way to his face' and who shall repay him what he has done? Where shall wisdom be found! (Bible). Who shall ascend unto the hill of the Lord? or who shall stand in his holy placequot;! (Ps. 24tli). Who shall say that there is no wisdom in inculcating external address ? — Who shall say that the writer ivho above all has contributed to this end, is only the preacher of dissimulation and deceit? (Bulwer).

9. With regard to futurity shall is however also used in the second and third person after the conjunctions as, according as, as soon as, as often as, if, till, until, unless, when, whenever, whether, after and after the relative pronouns, whoa

only the clrcmnstantial part of the action is pointed out; as, The time will cerlalnly and shortly come, when the luxurious great ones of the world shaii no more tread us to the earth;

our bliss shall be unutterable, and still, to crown all, unending. (Goldsmith). It is thou, o Liberty, whom all in public or in private worship, whose taste is grateful and ever will be so, till nature,her self shall change. (Sterne). We shall if rightly understood, afford a very useful lesson to those well disposed youths, who shall hereafter be our readers. (Fielding). And sure if fate some future bard shall join in sad similitude of griefs to mine. (Pope). Yon will not turn this daughter out of doors, before yuu know, whether you shall approve her choice. (Fielding). lie that shall walk with vigour three hours a day will pass in seven years a space equal to the circumference of the e/lohe. (Johnson). After she shall have completed her business. (Webster).

10. In subordinate sentences shall is also used after the conjunction that (which is however often omitted), when the words or orders of some one else are expressed or a duty is represented as the consequence of the foregoing principal sentence; as, He has given orders that the table shall be served up. (Addison). Can any one on his entrance into the world, be fully secure that he shall not be deceived^ -(Murray). It has been a custom long established that a husband shall never enter into his wife's apartment without first knocking at the door. (Fielding).

11. In the second and third person shall also expresses a thing as a necessary consequence of circumstances, as something which is not to be avoided, and therefore is equally used in a prophetic tone; as. Fear not, Macbeth; no man that's born of loot'ian, shall e'er have power on thee. (Shak), Our high placed Macbeth shall live the lease of nature, (ibid). Blessed is the man whose heart has not condemned him: if he have a good heart, he shall at all times rejoice in a cheerful countenance etc. (Sterne).

12. The use of shall also applies to questions of the same nature, and this accounts for expressions as; Shall not con'

science rise up and sting him on such occasiomf — No, thank God, there is no occasion. (Sterne).

Shall is also used in the sense of suppose; as, A man shall he vicious and utterly delauched in his principles; — shall live shameless in the open commission of a sin which no reason or pretence can justify: — surely, you will think conscience must lead such a man a troublesome life; he can have no test night or day from its reproaches. (Sterne).

13. In the second and third person should is also used as well after the conjunctions mentioned in Nr. 9 as after lest, that, provided {that), though and when the words and the opinion of somebody else are mentioned, without regard to his will and if the person spoken of would not himself have made use of shall and should; as , He introduced a discourse on the fatal consequences, if Mr Allworthy should discover that he still carried on this commerce. (Fielding). There was reason to apprehend, lest the system of lycurgus should evaporate. (Gillies). He himself was quite uncertain, whether or not he should he engaged that winter. (Smollet). 1 asked leave to stay till the wind should hecome favorable, (ibid). My father permitted me to ride across the country to her brothers house, while he should hire a post chaise for London, where he would wait for me. (ibid), ƒ obtained her consent to complete my happiness as soon as my father should judge it proper, (ibid). The author of a weekly paper, he doubted not, would employ me in that way, provided he should find me duly qualified, (ibid). He assured me that he not be long in my debt. (ibid). It

cannot be ivondered at, that the unexpected sight of Jones should so strongly operate on the mind of Molly. (Fielding). The prior expressed his astonishment, that their guide should be so perfectly acquainted with the passes of the forest. (W. Scott).

Observations, a. „Such a discovery, he said, his enemies gave him reason to think, would be unavoidablequot;. In this sentence Fielding makes use of would, because the person referred to, employed the word will. ^Figure yourself a family the master of which should dispose of the several econo-

mical offices hi the following manner, says miss Burney, because it is as if there was: if a master of a family should dispose.quot; — „He promised to inform himself that ■eery day, at which time it would he proper for me to wait upon himquot; we find in Smollet, the question being supposed: at what time will it he proper for me to wait upon him ? In saying He hoped he should recover, the auxiliary form should refers to the person who hopes. In He hoped he would recover the word would indicates that it is said of another person.

b. In stead of he or should be the word were is sometimes used, in the same way as had may be used for should have and sometimes even for icouid have, as: An intermediate verse being evidently lost, it were idle to attempt a union that never ivas intended. (Steevens). It ivere unworthy to murmur for a nights lodging or a night's food. (W. Scott). Lord if thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. (Bible).

c. Very frequent is also the use of would in the meaning of the Dutch expression placht, which may be rendered into English by he iised to, and the frequent repetition of the same action or situation is often expressed by the present tense will; as, Sometimes farmer Flamborough, our talkative neighbour, and often the blind piper would pay us a visit. (Goldsmith). She would bid the girls hold up their heads, (ibid). As the heedless insects hovered round the gaudy network. Mr Bumble would heave a deep sigh. (Dickens). I forgot to mention that he (Mr Mell) would talk to himself sometimes, and grin, and clench his fist, and grind his teeth, and pull his hair in an unaccountable manner. (Dickens). My pretty little Bora's face would fall, and she would make her month into a bud again, as if she would very much prefer to shut mine with a Iciss. (Dickens). Bora would think a little, and then reply, „perhapsquot;, toith great triumph. (Dickens).

Infected m'mds to their deaf pillows will discharge their secrets. (Shak), These are the men, my sons, the squire will continue, that show to what our national character may be exalted. (W. Irving).

sentences as the following: 1 would nut he thought to undervalue reputation. (Fielding). Who Icnoius lut this man's situation is letter than my father would represent it. (Goldsmith). I would indeed, that nature were more visibly Tcnit with our individual existence. (Bulwer).

I hope by all this to have suffieiently explained the use of shall and vnll which are not only rather difficult in their various applications but which even Irishmen and Scotchmen often misplace, though an Englishman scarcely ever does. I think therefore, it may answer the purpose of some juvenile students to know what Dr Henry Alford, the learned Dean of Canterbury, mentions in such a popular way in his „Plea for the queen's Englishquot; of which the second edition appeared in 1864.

_;/In attempting to give an explanation of our English usage,quot; he says, ,,1 may premise that it is exceedingly difficult to do so. We seem to proceed rather on instinct, than by any fixed rule. Yet instinct, in rational beings, must be founded on some inherent fitness of things; and examination ought to be able to detect that fitness. Let us try to do this, though it may be difficult, in the case before us.

The simplest example that can be given is „I will.quot; Now this can have but one meaning. It can only be used as expressing determination: only, where the will of the person speaking is concerned. „Wilt thou have this woman to they wedded wife?quot; Answer, _;/7 willquot; {in the Latin, „voloquot;). We cannot use „i will,quot; where a mere contingent future event is concerned. We cannot use „1 willquot; of anything uncertain, anything about which we hope or fear. „Help me, Til fall,quot; if strictly interpreted, would be an entreaty to be saved from, an act of wilful precipitation. „7 fear I ivoritquot; is an impossible and unmeaning junction of terms. If it meant anything, it could only be, fear that, when the time comes, my poxoer of volition will he found too weak for its worlc.quot; But this is obviously not what it is intended to mean. The account then of ,,1 will'' see^is very simple.

takes those cases of things future, where _nI tcillquot; cannot be said: those eases where the things spoken of are independent of our own will. „Next Tuesday 1 shall he twenty-onequot;—an event quite out of my own power. So far, all is plain. But there is a case of „1 shallquot; which somewhat complicates the matter. We are in the habit, when announcing something which we positively mean to do, to speak of it as if it were taken, so to say, out of the region of our own will, and placed among things absolutely certain; and in such cases we turn „milquot; into „shall.quot; The traveller meets with incivility, or he cannot find his luggage, at the station. He breaks forth, in angry mood, ui shall write to the 'Times' about this,quot;—and he means the station-master to conclude that his writing is as certain as if it were already done. The ushallquot; is intended to elevate the „icillquot; into the category of things indisputable.

person. But how when used in the second? Let us take _;/You will.quot; „You willquot; is used when speaking to another person of a matter entirely out of the speaker's power and jurisdiction. „You will he twenty-one next Tuesday.quot; „If you climh that ladder you will fall.^,, This is the ordinary use. Here again there is an exception, which I cannot well treat till I have spoken of „You shall.quot;

„You shallquot; or „You shall notquot; is said to another, when the will of the speaker compels that which is spoken of. „Thou shalt love the Lord thy Godquot; „Thou shalt not steal.quot;

The exceptions to both these usages may be stated thus, and they 'are nearly related to that of which I spoke when on the first person. A master writes to his servant, nOn the receipt of this you will yo ,quot; or „you will please to goquot; „to such a place.quot; This is treating the obedience of the servant as a matter of certainty, sure to follow of course on his lord's command. The exception in the use of „shallquot; is when we say, for instance, „If you look through History, you shall find that it has always leen so,quot; and the account of it seems to be, that the speaker feels as perfect a certainty of the

result, as if it were not contingent, but depended only on his absolute command.

It remains that we consider the words _nwiüquot; and „shallquot; as applied in the third person; said of persons and things spoken about. And here, what has already been said will be a sufBcient guide in ordinary cases. Por all announcements of common events foreseen in the future, „willquot; is the word to be used. „1 think it will rain before night.quot; „To-morrow will be old May-day.quot; We may sometimes use „sJiali,quot; but it can only be in cases where our own will, or choice, or power, exercises some influence over the events spoken of: as for instance, „The sun shall not set to-night before I find out this matter.quot; „Next Tuesday shall be the day.quot; Notice, you would not say, „Next Tuesday shall be my birthdayquot; because that is a matter over which you have no control: but a King might say, „Next Tuesday shall be my birthday quot; because he would mean, „shall be kept as my birthdayquot; a matter over which he has control.

There are some very delicate and curious cases of the almost indifferent usage of the two auxiliary verbs. Take this one, „If he will look, he will find it to be so.quot; Here we use the first „icillquot; in the sense of „choose toquot; „If he please to look,¹' But the second has its mere future use: „he will ƒthat it is so.quot; Here however we might use, though 'it would be somewhat pedantic English, the word „shallquot; in both members of the sentence: „If he shall look, he shall find it to hs so,quot; and then the former „shallquot; would be in the sense of a mere future, and the second in that sense of absolute certainty, „I will undertake that he shall find quot; of which I spoke just now. This sentence might in fact be correctly said in four different ways: «

I may mention that the almost uniform use of „shallquot; as applied to future events and to persons concerned in them.

is reserved for the prophetic language of the Bible, as spoken by One whose will is supreme and who has all under his control.

There are certain other cases in which we may say either uWilV or ushall.quot; In reporting what another said, or what one said one's self, we may say, „He told me he should go up to town to-morrow and settle it;quot; or we may say, „He told me he would go up to townquot; amp;c. This arises from the possibility, already noticed, of using either word in speaking in the first person.

Sometimes an ambiguity arises from the fact that „willquot; and uwouldquot; either may convey the idea of inclination of the will, or may point to a mere future event. We have two notable instances in the English version of the New Testament. Our Lord says to the Jews (John. v. 40), „Te will not come to me that ye might have life.quot; Is He merely announcing a fact, or is He speaking of. the bent and inclination of their minds? We consult the original, and the question is at once answered. What our Lord says, is this: „Ye are not willing quot; „ye have no mind,quot; „io come to me that ye might have life.quot;

Again (Matt. xi. 27). „No man hwioeth the Father save the Sou, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal Him.quot; Is this „will'quot; a mere auxiliary for the future meaning, or does it convey the idea of exercise of will? Here again the original sets us right in a moment. It is, „he to whom the Son is minded to reveal Him.quot;

Let us lake a still more remarkable case. The Pharisees said to our Lord (Luke xiii. ol), „Get thee hence, for Herod will kill thee!' This seems a mere future, and I have no doubt English readers universally regard it as such: but the original is „Herod ivtshes,quot; „is minded,quot; „to Jcill thee.quot;

The sense of duty conveyed by „shouldquot; sometimes causes ambiguity. Thus we have (Matt. xxvi. 35), „Though 7 Should die with thee, yet will 1 not detaj thee.quot; This, to the mere English reader, only conveys the sense, „Even if it should happen that I should die with thee.quot; But on consulting the original we find we should be wrong in thus understanding

it. It is „Even if it he necessary for me to die with thee''' —•' and would have been better rendered, „Even if I must die with thee.quot; But in another clause (John xxi. 19), „ This spake He, signifying hy what death he should glorify God,quot; the „shouldquot; does not represent any necessity, but the mere future.

Which is right, „it icoidd seemquot; or „it should seem'''! I believe both are right, but with slightly differing meanings. Both, be it observed, are expressions of very slight and qualified assent. The former, „it would seem,quot; implies, „we are told that if we were to weigh all Llial is to he said, we should come to such or such a conclusion.quot; The latter, „it shoidd seem,quot; conveys the meaning, with perhaps a slightly ironical tinge, that we are required to believe so and so. The Germans use their „soil,quot; in reporting the conclusions or belief of others, in nearly the same sense.

An amusing instance of the confusion of shall and will was repeated to me by a Scottish friend. A young men's „Institute for Discussion and Self improvementquot; is reported in a Scottish provincial paper to have met, and discussed the question, „Shall the material universe he destroyed?quot; My friend supposes that the decision was in the negative; or that, if it was in the affirmative, the society cannot have proceeded to carry its resolution into effect.

I believe Dr. Latham, in his „History of the English Language,quot; was the first to observe that the confusion in such cases is more apparent than real. The Englishman and the Scotchman mean the same, but express it differently. We may say either, „the material universe will he destroyed,quot; expressing merely something which will happen some day in the future: or we may say „ the material universe shall he destroyed,quot; in which case we put more solemnity and emphasis into our announcement, and treat it as something inevitable, pronouncing almost as if we were exercising our own will in the matter. When we turn the assertion into a question, we say, „WÜ1 the material universe he destroyed?quot; the Scotchman says, „Shall the material universe be destroyedV He means

to put, as a question, what we meant, when we used shall in the assertion. But be it observed, that in turning the proposition into a question, the shall assumes a ludicrous form, because of the deliberative aspect given to the sentence; and it looks as if the person putting the question had the option whether he would destroy the universe or not.

Five years ago I was visiting Loch Maree, in Koss-shire, with my family. We took a _;;trapquot; from the comfortable inn at Kinloch-Ewe, and lunched and sketched on the cliffs, about twelve miles down the lake. When our time was nearly up, our Highland driver appeared in the distance, shouting, „Will I yauk him?quot; which, being interpreted, meant to say, „Shall I harness the pony?quot; I hardly see how even Dr. Latham's explanation will account for the usage here

') 1 venture to insert the iollowing remarks of a very intelligent Irish correspondent: —

.Your rules for the use of ,shall' and ,vjilV seem to me, as far as they go, the most simple and satisfactory I have ever read. But I observe; —

quot;I. No rule is laid down for the use of these words in interrogation. In Ireland the tendency is to make use of .will' in every case. I have collected several examples from English writers which seem to me to suggest the following rules: —

„ ,Shall I?' has two meanings: 1st, it asks the simple question as to the future event, e.g., .shall I be of age next month?' 2nd. it asks, .do you wish that I shall?' e.g., .shall I call you friend?'

»11. You say nothing of the use of these words in the secondary clauses of such sentences as the following:

„Phrases of this kind occur very frequently, and, I think, almost all mv countrymen would he found to use toill and would instead ol shall and should. I may add that, as it seems to me nothing to he found in your hook would set them right on this point, I would propose the following principle for such cases: — If we report in our own w ords

Sball being the. proper sign of futurity, must never be used for a potential meaning, except for that which arises by implication, when a will is suggested that controls the will of the verb. And this effect always follows from its use in the second and third persons, unless the context or a direct interrogation, to the first person, should prevent the effect. Thus, for instance, the following forms in italics are potential: thou s/ialt die; he shall die; you shall know; they shall see. But in the first person shall implies mere futurity; as, I shall die; and in the other persons also, when the effect above described, is presented: as in such instances as these: shall you know? Do you think that you shall fail? Unless he shall see. If you shall he invited.

We shall only add, that if the pupil keeps in mind the original meaning of shall and will, he will make few gross errors in applying them. If, for instance, he means to express his will or determination with regard to future action, he should use wili and not shall. But if he merely foretells a future or contingent event without reference to his will or determination, shall will be the proper word. A few examples will make this clear — „I wiil be drowned, and nohody shall

what another has said, or thought, or known, or felt, we must use that verb which he would have used if, speaking in the first person, he had himself related the circumstance.

„111. There is to be found almost every day in the Times (second column) a curious illustration of the distinction between 'shall' and .will.' quot;When a person advertises for a lost article we sometimes read , 'If any person brings, amp;c., he shall be rewarded-' sometimes we find, ja reward will he given.' Now here your rules seem to he at fault. The future event, namely, the giving of the reward, is dependent upon the will of the speaker in the latter case as well as in the former. If the rule hold good, therefore, we must say, 'A reward shall he given.' Yet it is never said.quot;

[This seems to fall under the list of exceptions mentioned at page 110; where the result is so spoken of as not contingent hut certain. „A reward shall he given,quot; is the subjective dictum of him who has so determined: „a i: vard will he given,quot; is the objective future certainty, the determination beijig lost sijjat of.]

save me,quot; is evidently wrong, unless the person who makes the exclamation wishes or determines to be drowned in spite of any efforts that may be made to save him. 'I fear that I will die of this disease.' If I go out in the rain I will catch cold, for my feet shall (jet wet, as my loots are thin' If you shall not assist me 1 will not be able to finish it in time.' I will be sixteen years old next May.' 1 hope I will soon be better.' 'I will not be there so early.' , We will not see his like again' .Will 1 go with the letter to the post-office? Shall you wait until I return?' 'I will have some friends to dine with me to-day, shall you join us?' ,Come, now! say positively whether you shall or not.' ,Would we be blamed if we did it?' We would all be sober if we should but resist temptation.

Can which means to be able, is another form of the old len, to knoio^) and such was its original; as, „1 can rhymes of Robin Hoode. That which one knows how to do, one is generalij, able to do; and hence, on the principle that 'Knowledge is power 1 can came to signify to be able. I can go, therefore, means I am able to go. Can you lift this weight, means, are you able to lift this weight. I don't make merry myself at Christmas, and I can't afford to make idle people merry. (Dickens). Since I cannot find a man in my regiment to attend a sick soldier, I must do it (Sterne). I cer

tainly shan't hold my hand, when I can get anything in it by reaching it out (Dickens). If the fountain itself is polluted or infected, how can the streams he clear or wholesome ? (Barrow). Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lunt/s receive our air, that moment they are free. (Cowper). The servants can't miss the way? (Goldsmith).

The old form of the past tense (could) was cond and couth (d being aspirated as in pató from pad); as, „Well couth hee tune his pipe.quot; The I in could does not belong to it. It

') Con is another form of the same word; whence, also cunning that is skilful, knowing, artful.

must have crept in by mistake, in imitation, perhaps, of the I in the words should and would. 1 could not avoid smiling at this speech. (Edgeworth). Couldn't I contrive to have a little right on my side? (Sheridan). Could I draw my pedigree from a general, a statesman, or a celebrated author, I should study their lives with the diligence of filial love. (Gibbon).

May') which means to he allowed, permitted implies permission ox possibility; as, '7 may go,' that is, I am at liberty to go. What a fool am ƒ thus to lie in a stinking dungeon, when I may as well walk at liberty. (Bunyan). / feel that I may trust you. (Marryat). May I die by an anodyne necklace. (Goldsmith). Many new years, indeed, you may see, hut happy ones you cannot see without deserving them. (Chesterfield). If the time shall ever come, when you s'uaii wish to enjoy the tranquillity of private life, may you have a son endowed with such qualities, that you can resign your sceptre to him with as much satisfaction as 1 give up mine to you. (Robertson). The affections of your subjects may still be recovered. (Junius). Place the shield of Caithbat near, that they may behold me amidst the arms of my fathers! (Macpherson). Gentlemen, as they mayn't be good enough company for you, step down for a moment. (Goldsmith). He would prevent my girls from going to town, that he may have the pileasure of my youngest daughter's company here at home. (Goldsmith). Now heaven send she may he. too sullen to look round! (Sheridan). Whatsoever his former conduct may have been, papa, his circumstances

') When I say of a man forcibly carried oiF by enemies, quot;he must go wherever they conduct himquot; I mean quot;he cannot avoid going:quot; when I say that on his release quot;he rnr.st eagerly return to his homequot; I mean that quot;I cannot avoid drawing that conclusion.quot; So also, if 1 say of a man in health and at liberty, quot;he may go out or stay within.quot; I mean that neither going nor staying is unavoidable to him: but when X say of a man who is sick, that quot;he may recoverquot; I do not mean (as in the former case) that this depends on his choice, bnt that quot;I am not led unavoidably to the conclusion, that he will recover, or that he will not recover.quot;

should exempt him ft on censure now (Goldsmith). Let the course of our employments he ordered in such a manner, that in carrying them on, we may he also promoting our eternal interest. (Blair). Its past tense, might, is contracted, from mayed, as fright from frayed; tight from tied; weight from weighed. She entreated with particular earnestness, that now in her last moment, her almoner might he suffered to attend her, and that she might enjoy the consolation of those pious institutions prescribed by her religion. (Robertson). Poor queen! so that thy state might be no worse, I would my skill were subject to thy curse. (Shak.). He might forgive his personal adversaries, he nay lawfully hate the enemies of God. (Gibbon). Her knowledge of what his intentions were, if she might not reveal them might he important, as perhaps, she migiii. dissuade him. (Marryat). After such a year of trial, I might have flattered myself that I should not have been insulted with a new probation of my sincerity, as cruel as unnecessary. (Sheridan).

Ought which means to be obliged is contracted from owed, the past tense of the verb to owe; as bought from buyed; sought from seeked; wrought from worked. It was formerly used in the sense of owed: as, „The love and duty I long have ought you. (Spelman). It is now nearly synonymous in metining with should. The time approached when 1 ought to speak. (Bulwer). Ought I to take the money 1 (Bulwer). A number there are who think they caanot admire as they ought the power and authority of the word of God, if in things divine they should attribute any force to man's reason. (Hooker). The characters which should move our pity ought to have virtuous inclinations. (Dryden). He should remember that he ought to accommodate himself to an English audience. (Addison). A parent ought te be consulted on this occasion. (Fielding). He thinks this an innovation on the dignity of a park which ought to be devoted to deer only. (W. Irving). We ought never to forget, that entire idleness always borders, either on misery or on guilt. (Blair). It was now determined

that something ought to he done, for her without delay. (W. Irving). 1 ought to he mortified at your disappointment. (Montague). See Shall.

Must which means to he forced implies necessity or constraint; as, i must go, that is, I am constrained to go. Now must I venture, as I may, To sing his favourite roundelay. (Scott). I must have made a mistake. (Marryat). You are but just listed in the world, and must he active, diligent, and indefatigable. (Chesterfield). You must have heen delighted with the view from the saluting battery. (Marryat). If we could flatter ourselves that this would not happen, we must he the weakest of men; we must he the worst, if wc were indifferent whether it happened or not. (Burke).

The Dutch verb laten requires parliouiar attenlion because the translation of it into English offers some difficulties. It signifies: a. letting or allowing; h. causing; c. commanding; d. leaving.

a. The signification of letting is rendered by the verb to let; as: Let a lady sacrifice but a single ribbon to_ her morning studies, u.nd it will he sufficient; let a family burn but a candle a tiight less than their usual number, and they may take in the Spectator without detriment to their private affairs. (Addison). We had better let the postboy take the portmanteau. (Sheridan). And innocence. ... It will not let itself be driven away. (Coleridge). Let me see the use of the dress of thy English ancestry (W. Scott). Let the chamber be clear¹ d. (Byron). Besides let the synonymous verbs to allow, to suffer, to permit are often used in such cases, as: The physician allowed hxm to take a little exercise and suffered him to walk from his house to the garden twice a day. (Anon). I shall not allow business to absorb me. (Marryat). Ttco minutes were allowed to elapse. (Rob. Maenish), A fact lohich the divines did not suffer to sink, into oblivion. (Macaulay). He did not suffer me to remain long in this delusion. (Fielding). Shall ive thus permit a blasting breath to fall on him ? (Shak.).

h. To cause and to get stand connected with a gerundial infinitive; -is: cause Ms face to saiae upon us. (Ps. 67; 1).

The king having caused himself to he guided. (Shak.). Get him to say his prayers. (Shak.). He gets that worthy to pay. (Brown).

When the object is represented as undergoing the action, the passive voice is made use of after to cause and the past participle after get; as, He caused him to igt;e flogged twice. (Anon). The family had lately got their pictures drawn. (Goldsmith).

c. The idea of command is expressed by to lid, to tell, to command, to order etc.; as, Bid the captains look to't. (Shak.). Tell your hrother not to come and bother us any more. (Anon). ComaiasS the citizens make bonfires, (Shak.). Command the grave restore her taken prey? (Young). He ordered his brother out of the room. (Anon). They ordered him to return towards the boat. (Bulvver).

d. The idea of leaving is generally expressed by the verb to leave-, as, Fll leave you to fix your own time. (Sheridan). This poor right hand of mine Is left to tyrannize upon my breast. (Shak.). Four oj the sufferers were left to rot in irons. (Mac-aulay).

Let is often also rendered by to have and make with the infinitive construction; as, What would 1 have you do ? (B. Johnson). What would you have me do? (Shak.). I'll have them Jly to India for gold. (Marryat). Gerard had the guilty parties put under arrest. (Macnish). She made him to be laid. (Spenser). The Egyptians made the children of Israel to serve. (Bible). Fan do not make appear.. .. (Milton). It makes one's heart smile. (Bulwer). I was made believe. (Montague).

When one verbs follows or depends upon another, it is put in the infinitive mood. But after the verbs called auxiliary, or others in frequent use, as bid, see, hear, etc., to, the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted. The Auxiliary Verbs,

therefore, are really separate and independent verbs; and the verbs which follow them are in the infinitive mood, the sign to having been suppressed in the hurry of speech. I ought to go, and I should go, are equivalent expressions; and if 'to (jrf in the former, is in the infinitive mood governed by ought, surely 'go' in the latter, is also in the infinitive mood governed by should. The only difference is, that the sign to is expressed in the one case, and suppressed in the other. The expressions, ,1 ought (jo¹ and 'I should to goquot; would sound strangely to the ear; but this is because it has not been accustomed to the omission of the word 'lt;o' in the one case, or to the insertion of it in the other.

Hence it is that the inflections for number and person are made in the auxiliary and not in the priucipal verb; because the latter verb is in the infinitive mood, which admits of no changes to express number or person; as, do (to) love; thou dost (to) love; he does (to) love; I did (to) love; thou didst (to) love. 1 shall (to) love; thou shalt (to) love; I should (to) love; thou shouldst (to) love. I will (to) love; thou wilt (to) love; I would (to) love; thou wouldst (to) love. I may (to) love; thou mayest (to) love; I might (to) love; thou mightst (to) love. I can (to) love; thou canst (to) love; I could (to) love; thou couldst (to) love.

This mode of conjugation appears strange and harsh because our eyes and ears have not been accustomed to it; nor do we recommend its revival. It will be sufficient to show the pupils that the auxiliary verbs were originally separate and independent verbs, and that they may still be resolved into such. This will appear still more evident if they are resolved in this way—1 can love, that is, 1 am able to love; I may love, that is, I am at liberty to love; I will love, that is, I intend to love, etc. The following examples laken from the earliest authors will clearly illustrate this assertion. „The Mayster lette X men and mo To wende.quot; — Octavian 381.

„And though he owe the fall of Troy requite Yet let revenge thereof from gods to light.quot; —

„His felow taught him homeward prively Pro day to day til he cov.de it by rote.quot; —

Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb , showing the manner in which the being, actiOB, or passion, is repie-sented.

There arc five moods of verbs; tae Indicative, the Imperative^ the Potential, the Subjunctive, -) and the infinitive-

The Indicative simply indicates or declares a thing; as, 'I see; they Tenouo: or it is used in asking questions; as, 'Seest thou? do they Icnowf My uneasiness in the country where I am, arises rather from the society than the solitude of

-) We have already shown (page 73, note⁰) how the Imperative mood in English may he resolved into the Infinitive; and in all eases, it may he shown that what arc called the Potential and Subjunctive moods may be similarly resolved.

it. (Addison). My patience was now qnile exhausted, I was willing to cast nnjself away, and only wanted the gulph to receive me. (Goldsmith). Why standcst thou afar off, o Lordquot;! why Mdest thou thyself in times of trouhle? (Bible).

The Imperative is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, ,Depart thou; mind ye; go in peace.' .Mind your own business,' is an old adage. (Marryat). Read to live, not live to read. (Bulwer). That mercy I to others show, That mercy show to me. (Pope). Remember, He, who said, 'repent,' Said also, 'sin no more.' (Landon). Show me where they stood; read the inscription; tell me the victor s name. (Burnet). ^T!rf!!t for the time, and accept the manner of the dissolution. (Taylor). Come, come! walk on, or I must walk' you off. (Bulwer). Arise, winds of autumn, arise; blow along the heath! streams of the mountains roar! roar, tempests, in the groves of my oaks! wais through broken clouds, O moon ! show thy pale face at intervals! bring to my mind the night when all my children fell. (Macpherson). Weave the warp, and weave the woof. (Gray).

The Potential implies possibility or liberty, power, will, or obligation; and may be used in asking questions; as, 'He may go or stay; I can ride; he ivould walk; may I stay?' You caJTJOt study too much in the academy; but you may study usefully there, if you are an economist of your time. (Chesterfield).

The Subjunctive represents an action under a condition, motive, wish, or supposition; and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by another verb; as; 'I w⁷ill respect him, though he chide me' Were he good, he would be happy.' It is necessary that the hero of the play be not a villain. (Hryden). Our country, our God — 0, my Sire! Demand that thy Daughter expire. (Byron). Take heed, the queen come not within his sight. (Shak). His reign will offer little worthy of praise, unless it be the severity with which he punished offences. (Lingard). Come he sloiv, or come he fast, It is but Death who conies at last. (Scott). Although all this be true, there are certain defects, which are of such a nature and extent as comple tell/

to justify a total chamje in the Representative system, (Peel). However that bo, the goodwife had declared that the duck was good for nothing. (Buhver), Whatever te Ids rank , and whether he commands or oheys, he never can he mistaken. (Mudie). To morrow ere fresh morning streak the east With first approach of light, we must he risen. (Milton). Don't let Effie come to see me till my grave be growing green. (Tennyson). These ashes too , this little dust, Our Father's care shall keep , Till the last angel rise, and break The long and dreary sleep. (White).

O that I were a glove upon that hand. That I might touch that cheek. (Shak). Tou know that you are Brutus that speak this, Or, by the godn, this speech were else yovr last. (Shak). Suppose it were to come to pass that I should be hanged. (Warren). If I were to say all that I could say in praise of yachts, I should never advance with my narrative. (Marryat). In the coach with the Duke was an officer whose orders were to stab the prisoner if a rescue were attempted. (Macaulay). Some other and greater evil would be incurred were it removed. (Pitt). Even those who had often seen him were at first in doubt whether this were truly the brilliant and graceful Monmouth. (Macaulay). For a moment she doubted whether the past were not all a dream. (James). The praetor told him, that where the law required two witnesses he would not accept cf one, tho' it were Cato himself. (Addison). Were he twenty times my son I vjould impeach him. (Shak).

The Infinitive expresses an action in a general manner, without any distinction of number or person; as, '•To act; to speak; to be feared.' '■To judge by the newspapers' said I, 'the same delusions are renewed again'. (Buhver). To say the truth, I was tired of being always wise. (Goldsmith). To think of your turning bookhunter, Guy! (Buhver). Scrooge sat down upon a form , and wept to see his poor forgotten self as he had used to he. (Dickens). Plots true or false are necessary things To raise up commonwealths, and ruia kings. (Dryden). From Nature too, I take my rule. To shun contempt and ridicule. (Gay). Had you never a son, to ease you of this labour? (Sraollet), I thought, Jack, you and I had

Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to admit only of the present, past, and future.

But, to mark it more accurately, it is made to consist of six variations; namely, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses.

The Present represents an action as passing at the time in which it is mentioned; as, 'I rule; I am ruled; I think; I fear? Behold how they toss their torches on high, How they point to the Persian abodes. (Dryden). The felicity of human life, depends on the reyular prosecution of some laudable purpose or object, which keeps awake and enlivens all our poioers. (Blair), He looks at it, and lets it stand. (Marryat). His country does not pine for him as much as he pines for his country. (Macaulay). This hold floweret climbs the hill, Hides in the forest, haunts the c/len. Plays on the margin of the rill. Peeps round the fox's den. (Montgomery). The present tense however is also used to mark continual, habitual actions, things which frequently occur, and to express constant truths; as. Rich men look sad, arid ruffians dance and leap. (Shak). They drink and dance hy their own light; They drink and revel all the night. (Cowley). The chief and most considerable sort of men manage all their concernments merely hy words; hy them princes rule their subjects, generals command their armies, senators deliberate and dstate about the great matters of state; by them advocates plead causes, and judges Aeclie them; divines perform their offices, and nsinister their instructions; merchants lt; strike up their bargains, and drive on all their traffic. (Barrow). The mourners weep, because it is civil, or hecmtse they need thee, or because they fear. (Taylor). Many people lose a great deal of their time by laziness; they loll and yawn in a great chair, tell themselves that they have no time to begin any thing then and that it vjill do as ivell another time. (Chesterfield),

The Imperfect represents the action either as past or finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past; as, 'I wrote

yesterday, or last year:' 'They were travelling post when he met them.' Ex: I became ^er/lt;?c% easy, and very readily gave him a yuinea, bid Mm pay himself, and acquiesced in the unjust charge which had been laid on my memorj. (Fielding). I soon fell sick, and so got leave to return home again. (Goldsmith). The severity oj this rebuke I bore patiently, because I knew it was just. (Goldsmith). What next befell me then and there I know not well — I never knew. (Byron). I became involved in debts, from which I saw no hopes of ever extricating myself. (Fielding). Though I had applied myself with much industry to books, in which I took great delight, there ivere other pleasures in which I was capable of taking much greater. (Fielding). The old man coped, as he expressed it in his letter, to join their hands, and see them happy before he died, (Mackenzie). quot; Mary not only retaiaed perfect composure of mind herself, but endeavoured to moderate their excessive grief. (Robertson). He touched the spring of his repeater. (Dickens). Each turned his face with a ghastly pang, And cursed me with his eye. (Coleridge),

The Perfect not only refers indefinitely to what is past, but also conveys an allusion.to the present time; as, 'I have seen the person that was recommended to me:' that is, '1 have seen him by this time,' Ex; Otviay has followed Nature in the language of his Tragedy. (Spectator). The cook has capsized the kettle — but he has put more on. (Marryat). Tit eg have rummaged all the portmanteaus and dressed themselves in the gentlemen's best clothes. (Marryat). Each place, each province have T tried. And sung danced hit/samte^. (White).

The Pluperfect represents the action not only as past, but also as prior to some other point of time mentioned in the sentence; as, 'I had finished my letter before he arrived.' Ex: Another great event completed what the revolution had begun, (Eobertson). When he had entered the room three paces, he stood still. (Sterne). Pickersgill had, of course, observed the motions on the yacht. (Marryat), Had 1 met it in the plains of Hindostan, I had reverenced it. (Sterne). Barimoulh replied that the King had spoken the truth. (Macaulay).

The irst Future represents the action as yet to come; either with or without respect to the precise time; as 'The sun will rise to-morrow'I shall see him again.' Ex; When a special Providence shall distinguish them, they shall die with easy circumstances. (Taylor). ' What Shall ive do', said Cor-bett, — 'get the boat out?'' (Marryat). Shall ive call buck Northumberland, and send Defiance to the traitor, and so die. (Shak,). How shall Z praise or curse to thy desert^. O?-separate thy sound from thy corrupted parti (Dryden). They shall feast and sing, rejoice and worship, for ever and ever. (Taylor). We will all drink that toast, my lads, and then on board. (Marryat), Fair warrior, wilt thou dwell with me, And leave the maid of Colonsay! (Leyden). ^Vilt thou not listen, son of the rock, to the song of Ossian? (Macpherson). /'I! cut off Whatever is exorbitant in you, Or in your daughters; and reduce you to Your natural forms and habits. (Mas-singer). I will ride with you a few miles. (Bulwer).

The Second Future intimates that the action will be fully accomplished at or before the time of another future action or event; as, T shull have dined at (or before) one o'clock;' 'The two houses will have finished their businfess when (or before) the king comes to prorogue them.' I fear the broadswords will be drawn. (Scott), That shout shall ne'er be heard again. (Scott). In a tew days you will be restored to your friends. (Marryat), She will be discovered and slain by the murderers of her father. (James).

The Participle is a certain form of the verb , and derives its name from its partaking, not only of the properties of a verb, but also those of an adjective; as, T am writing the letter;' 'Admired and applauded, she became vain;' '■Having finished his work, he submitted it to my inspection.'

There are three participles; the Present or J dive, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect; as, 'loving, loved, having loved.'

The following Table has been arranged in such a manner that the pupils can have all the forms before them at one view. In this way, they can avail themselves of the principle of comparison which is so useful to the learner. The omitted persons, in both numbers, can be added by the pupils, themselves.]

Present, . . . . I am, thou art, he is; we are, etc. Imperfect, ... I was, thou wast, he was; we were, etc. Perfect, . . , .1 have been, thou hast been, he has been;

thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, etc. Perfect, .... I may or can have been, thou mayst or canst, etc.

Imperfect^ . . . If I were, if thou wert, if he were; if we were, if ye or you were¹), etc.

I have, thou hast, he has; we have, etc. I had, thou hadst, he had; we had, etc. I have have had, thou hast had , he has had, etc. I had had, thou hadst had, he had had, etc. I shall or will have, thou shalt or wilt have,

have, he may or can have, etc. I might, could , would, or should have, etc. I may or can have had, thou mayst, etc. I might, could, would, or should have had, thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, etc.

') ïlie remaining tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are the same as the Indicative, with the addition of a conjunction expressed or understood, denoting a condition, motive, wish, supposition, etc.—See page 133,

Present, ... If I have, if thou have, if he have, etc. Imperfect, . . If I had, if thou had, if he had¹), etc.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PRECEDING TABLES; AND SUGGESTIONS FOR PARSING THE COMPOUND TENSES.

Perfect Tense. — This is what we have called the Present-Perfect Tense; but it is more generally, and perhaps more correctly, ranged under the Past tense, and called the Perfect or Past-Definite. The name „Present-Perfect tensequot; however indicates its connexion with the present time, and prevents the learner from confounding it with the Past or Imperfect tense. The name has been objected to; but there are few technical terms to which objections might not be made. A Conjunction Copulative, for example, is a tautology; and a „Conjunction Disjunctive,quot; a contradiction in terms. These terms are, however, found very intelligible, and very useful in practice. — See page 93.

I have loved. — To parse,' properly means to give the part of speech of each word in a sentence. Hence, in parsing the compound tenses , the pupils should be required to give the part of speech of each word separately. For example, '7 have loved' may be parsed thus: — 7' is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, and nominative case to the verb 'have;' 'have' is the present tense of the verb to have, and first person singular to agree with its nominative

and 'loved' is the past or perfect participle of the verb to love, used adjectively.

Pluperfect Tense. — This is what we have called the Prior-Perfect. — See page 95. This tense may be parsed as the preceding one, with the exception of calling 'had' the past tense of the verb to have. When an objective case follows a •past participle in such cases it may be considered as governed by the verb have taken transitively. Por example, 'I have loved him' may be resolved into, 'I have him loved;' I have written the letter,' into 'I have the letter written;' 'he had his forces assembled.' In such cases, the past participle agrees with the noun or pronoun, like an adjective, instead of governing it like a verb '),

First Future Tense. — In this tense 'love is in the infinitive mood, the sign 'lt;o' being understood. — See pages 93, 101—116.

Second Future Tense. — Sec page 96 for the composition of this tense, and also, pages 98, 101.

Potential Mood, — This mood is made up of the present or past tenses of the verbs may or can, etc., followed by an infinitive with the sign Hoquot; suppressed.

Subjunctive Mood. — This is really the Infinitive Mood governed by some verb understood, which agrees with the nominative in number and person. For example, in such expressions as, 'If thou love,' 'if he love,' the ellipsis, in the one case, is shall or shouldst, and in the other, shall or should. See page 128. Such expressions as, 'If thou loved ' 'if thou camel are really nnyrammatical. The conjunctions which usually precede what is called the Subjunctive Mood are, if, though, although, unless, except, whether, lest, etc. See note, p. 130.

1. An adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some

') In Latin, we meet with similar modes of construction; as. 'Ea res me falsum liabuit,' that matter had me deceived, that is, deceived me. 'Copias quas hahehat paratasthe forces which he had (possessed) prepared—or, which he had prepared.

quality or circumstance respecting it; as 'He rides well;' John is a very good lay'He acted ïery wisely. 'Let me have no riddles. Sir, said the Intendant dryly. (James). Marlet/ s Ghost hothered him exceedingly. (Dickens). Speak gravely of grave things. (Thackeray). The noise — the voices — the tramping feet — the rolling toheels became loudly audible. (Bulwer). Her mind was evidently cultivated with great care, hut she was perfectly void of pedantry. (Bulwer). The chapel is extremely neat, and richly adorned. (Montague). I now began to argue very seriously with him. (Fielding). The air breathes upon us here most sweetly. (Shak.). Such a fellow is trouble-somely active, frivolonsly busy, foolishly lively. (Chesterfield).

2. As substantives have various qualities which render adjectives necessary, so verbs require adverbs to describe their different modes or manner of action. The adverb, then, may be said to be to the verb what the adjective is to the substantive. An adjective is put along with a substantive to express some quality or circumstance respecting it, and an adverb is joined to a verb to describe the manner of the action, or some circumstance respecting it¹), as, time, place, affirmation, negation, interrogation, etc.

3. Adverbs of manner are generally formed from adjectives by adding the termination ly; as wise, wisébj, patient, patiently; or by changing le into iy; as able, ablj. Adverbs of this kind are the most numerous. The unhappy lady had fainted,

') This was the primary nsn of the adverb, and hence it derived its name. 'Adverb,'' that is, {ad) to a verb. It is used, however, for many other purposes—for so many, indeed that it is rather difficult to understand the nature of this part of speech well. There are adverts of time , past, present, and to come, defluite and indefinite, relative and absolute; as, formerly, now, hereafter, thrice, often, early, always—of place, answering to the questions ivhere, whither, and whence; as, here, thither, thence—of quantity and quality in all their varieties; as, much, little, enough; well, ill, i'-avely—and adverbial phrases without number. There are also adverbs of order, number, affirmation, negation, and interrogation. Iu short, the adverb may be called quot;the common sinkquot; of the grammarians. When they do not know what to make of a word, they class it as au adverb.

and lay unconsciously in her more unconscious husband's arms. (Warren). He had dipped ungenerously into a generous mother's purse; basely and recklessly spilt her little cruse. (Thackeray). Thousands of them were inhumanly, wantonly butchered. (Pox). Tou have spoken so admirably that you give me courage to confess my weakness. (Bulwer). lie had done even a better work than the noble one he so nobly performed. (James). The dinner of that day was undeniably perfect. (Dickens).

4. Most adverbs ending in ly may be compared by prefixing more and mostas, wisely, more wisely, most wisely. A few adverbs are compared by adding er and est; as, soon, sooner, sooïiCSt; often, ojtenamp;c, ojtennsx. This I cannot do more effectually, than by the following letter. (Addison). Rather than fail they will defy That which they love most tenderly. (Butler). I am told that even in this very room a debtor of his, no later than last year, died for want. (Goldsmith). Me keeps youth longest ivho lives longest. (Bulwer)..

5. Some words are used both, as adjectives and adverbs; as, little, less, least; better, best; much, more, most; only, ill, etc. If such words qualify nouns, they are adjectives; but if they refer to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, they are adverbs. The disorder in nature and the inanimate world will be no less nor iess strange and unaccountable than those in mankind. (Burnet). How shall we breathe in other air Less pure, accustomed to immortal fruits? (Milton). Was I not in all worldly pretensions the least worthy of her suitors? (Bulwer). Many tyrants rose; The least the proudest. (Thomson). There I remained until 1 got better. (Dickens).. Winter is an excellent invigorator no doubt, but ice all love summer better. (Bulwer). He is not a Christian, hut he is the best of unbelievers. (Mackenzie). All things are best fulfilVd in their due time. (Milfon). Wealth brings much woe. (Herrick). I cannot write much. (Ealeigh). His mother was a woman of some talent and more ambition. (Bulwer]. They ask no more than simple Nature gives. (Thomson). Most men admire Virtue, who follow not her lore. (Milton). Those of the army, who knew him best and had suffered most from him, admired him

most of all. (Thackeray). In the female nurseries the young girls of quality are educated much like the males, only they are dressed hy orderly servants of their own sex. (SwifL), The only danger I desire. (B. and P.).

6. Adverbs often express in one word, what would otherwise require two or more; as, here, is equivalent to, in this place; there in that place; where, in what place; hither, to this place; thither, to that place; whither, from what place; hence, from this place; thence, from that place; whence, from what place. ,He acted prudently, that is, in a prudent manner. 'Don't stay long,' that is, for a long time.

7. An adverbial phrase consists of two or more words joined or taken together; as, at least, at once , at present, hj and hy, ever and anon, now and then, of course, the ivhiles, to and fro , to-morrow , to night, etc. Show your good breeding, at least, though you have forgot your duty. (Sheridan). 'Tis too much at once to show Excess of Love and Temper too. (Butler). With these words Hopeful at present did moderate the mind of his brother. (Bunyan). We will talk of it by-and-by, (James), On we go, all night, and bye and bye the day begins to break. (Dickens). Ever and anon between Lay velvet tufts of loveliest green. (Scott). A wolf eats sheep but now and then. (Gay). I assented of course. (Warren). The whiles a Northern harper rude Chanted a rhyme of deadly feud. (Scott). There was a bustle in the street, and many people moving to and fro. (Thackeray). Well see to that to-morrow. (Marryat), You sail to-night? (Marryat).

8. The following are the principal classes into which adverbs are' usually divided:

In addition to the adverbs already mentioned there are several others which are formed by a combination of prepositions with the adverbs of place, here, there, and where; as, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto; hereby, thereby; whereby; herewith, therewith; herein, therein, wherein, etc. These expressions however are now considered as obsolete and, as the following examples will show, are generally speaking only to be met with in old writers; the moderns prefer of this, of which, ly this to thereof, whereof, thereby etc. Ex.: Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof. (Bible). Now great deeds Had been achieved, whereof all hell had rung. (Milton). Therewith came a noble remorse that he had hitherto done so Utile for his species. (Bulwer). Many poesies and writings {in mailing whereof that nation hath evermore delighted) are yet extant in my time, whereby some difference between the ancient and present language may easily be discerned. (Harrison). The fair tree whereon the eagle builds, Poor sheep from tempests, and their shepherds shields. (Waller).

10. There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the preposition a used instead of at or on; as, aside, asleep , astir, astray , ado , awake , aware , afresh , alive, a-year etc., as. The guests stood all aside. (Scott). My comrade and I fell asleep. (Smollet). He was up and watching long before the house was astir. (Thackeray). I see that all are wand'revs, gone astray Each in his own delusions. (Cowper). He had much ado to keep himself awake. (Thackeray). There is more philosophy in it than you are aware of. (Bulwer). My wounds bled afresh as I came away. (Bulwer). There are those aiive to whom, in return for their love to me, I often fondly said I would give my life away. (Thackeray).

1. Prepositions serve to connect words , and to show the relation between the objects which the words express; as, my hand is on the table; my head is above the table; my feet are under the table.

and pronouns; and hence the derivation of the. term from the Latin words prtz, before, and positus, placed.

3. The primary use of prepositions was to denote the relations of place; as, above, below; before, behind; but in the progress of language, they have , like other words, been extended by analogy to other relations; as, 'a colonel is above a captain;' '■John is behind James in his studies'

4. The principal use of prepositions in English²) is, to express those relations which , in some languages ³), are chiefly denoted by cases or inflexional forms of the noun.

5. Combinations of words like the following, may be called prepositional phrases; as, according to, ahead to, along-side of, apart from, as to, because of, by dint of, by means of, for the sake of, in behalf of, in order to, in place of, in spite of, on account of, on board, opposite to, out of, through and through, up to, upwards of, wilh regard to. Examples: The count had arranged the party according to his taste. (James). The wall of the park ran along-side of the

') Prepositions are often placed before clauses of sentences; as, 'He will, before lie dies, sway the sceptre' In such cases, the clause is equivalent to a sulstantive.

) Prepositions are pleteed before nouns or pronouns to connect them with the action of intransitive verbs; as, 'Hz came to Huhlin yesterday ' 'He arrived in Dublin yesterday' In these examples the prepositions 'to' and 'in' connect the noun 'Dublin,' with the verbs 'came' and 'arrived-' hut if we use a transitive verb, as, 'He visited Dublin yesterday j there will be no occasion for a preposition to connect the verb and the noun. In each of these sentences ,Dullin' is in the objective case; in the latter, because the action of the verb passes over to it; and in the two former, because the prepositions to and in connect it with the verbs 'came' and 'arrived.' Heuce prepositions are said to govern the objective case. Compare the following expressions: — '7/e admired their courage? and 'He wondered at their courage? 'He expected a reward,' and 'He hoped for « reward,' A preposition prefixed to a verb has a similar effect; as, 'He withstood him to his face;' Who shall gainsay me?'

highway for two or three hundred yards. (Scott). 1 was obliged to have this room constructed on purpose apart from the rest of my establishment. (Warren). I aquainted him, that he had heen misinformed as to the sum taken. (Fielding). How they cringe and how to that Creole, because of her hundred thousand pounds. (Thackeray). At lust, by dint of whipping the four horses were compelled to set off in lame gallop. (Ed-geworth). He thanked heaven he had succeeded so far as to find me out by means of an accident which 'had like to have proved fatal to him. (Fielding). To serve King William for interest's sake would have heen a monstrous hypocrisy and treason. (Thackeray). For Lis sake, for God's sake, try if there he any room for mercy. (Macaulay). The King will reward you handsomely, never fear, for -all you have done in his behalf. (Thackeray). I am displeased with myself, for having designed to leave the World in order to he virtuous. (Spectator). In houses where, in place of that sacred, inmost flame of love, there is discord at the centre, the whole household becomes hypocritical. (Thackeray). Windy weather, in spite Of its using him so roughly, was, after all, a sort of holiday for Tohy. (Dickens). Yon left the army on account Of weakness of the loins (Thackeray). There were two constat hies on board the steamboat, in pursuit of runaway slaves. (Dickens). The canary saw me standing opposite to its cage. (Bulvver). Bold inquiry, diving out of sight, Brings many a precious pearl of truth to light. (Cowper). The duke, out of regard to the family, persisted in charging Magny with only robbery. (Thackeray). The slander hath gone through and through her heart. (Shak.). The conduct of Pickersgill had heen such, up to the present, as to inspire confidence. (Marryat). There was a sailor who had been there upwards of eleven years. (Dickens). She resolutely kept the oath which she had made with regard to her sister-in-law. (Thackeray). What ariange-ments have you made with respect to the children'? (Warren),

7, Inseparable prepositions are those which are found only in composition with other words; as a in ashore; con in conjoin; fore in foresee; o in omit.

construction of English sentences , as indeed the whole sense very often depends on the meaning which this part of speech imparts to it, we add a list of the prepositions mentioned with examples of the use made of them by the best authors.

I attended my miserable 'patient ttcice and sometimes even thrice amp;-day. (Warren).

I a few years' time he was raised to the head of their large establishment, and received a salary of 500 I. amp;-year. (Warren).

Doubtless, he is perfectly competent to talk as much nonsense to you as any other young man about town. (James).

Endeavour as much as you can. fo keep company with people above you. (Chesterfield).

A journey of seventy miles to a family that had hitherto never heen above ten from home, filled us with apprehension, (Goldsmith).

He has a large whip in his hand, and a gun slung across his shoulders. (Bulwer).

After dinner, we ivent down to the railroad again. (Dickens). He made no inqairies after her. (Warren).

Look after her; Remove from her the means of all annoyance, And still keep eyes upon her. (Shak.).

You will piae after the liberty you once enjoyed. (Thackeray). Blessed are they which do hmgetand thirst after righteousness .(Bible). Our second child, a girl, I intended to call after her aunt Gris-sel. (Goldsmith).

The small waves, thrown up by the tide more than the wind, came rippling along the beach like a flood of diamonds. (James).

Timotheus, plao'd on high Aiaid the tuneftd quire, With flying fingers touch'd the lyre. (Dryden).

They decided all controversies among states as well as among private persons. (Hume),

A gallant sight she was, when, we, fast gaining on her in a steamboat, saw her in the distance riding at anchor. (Dickens). I fell sick at heart for her. (Warren).

At length, he and his lady returned to England. (Edgewortli). He was quite ready with tears at a moment's warning. (Thackeray). He seems to sneer at everything. (Thackeray).

He threw himself doxvn at full length upon the sofa. (Warren). No second visit could be paid to the Queen on that day at any rate. (Thackeray).

1 somelimes shrink at evils recollected, and sometimes start at evils anticipated. (Johnson).

Sundry recollections of Gü Blus and the Vicar of Wakefield came athwart me. (Bulwer).

After me cometh a man which is preferred before me; for he was before me. (Bible).

She is a cutler, and a good sea-boat, and sails icell before the wind. (Marryat).

Flocks of birds through the glad air did flee, joyful and safe before man's luxury. (Cowley).

This couch is rather behind its time to-day. (Dickens). Her father left nothing behind him but his daughter — and his debts. (Warren).

There is a conversation above grossness and below refinement, where 'propriety resides. (Johnson).

Between them and the enemy lay three broad rhines filled with water and soft mud. (Macaulay).

There is no likelihood between pure light and darkness, between beauty and deformity, or'beivieem ighteousness and rep/obation. (Raleigh).

Well, faith, my dear Charles, between ourselves, I think we have made an excellent day's work of it. (Goldsmith).

What between love and wine and field sports, you'll have a miserable time of it! (James).

The necessary intercourse between the lords of the soil, and those oppressed inferior beings by whom that soil was cultivated, occasioned the gradual formation of a dialect, compounded betwixt the French and the Anglo-Saxon, in which they could render themselves mutually intelligible to each other. (Scott).

Re passes out of our life, and goes to render his account beyond it. (Thackeray).

These thoughts are apt to draw me beyond the usual length of this paper. (Steele).

He described her features as wearing an expression of all but sublimity. (Warren).

Our tranquillity was soon disturbed by the report of a gun just by us. (Goldsmith).

Here was a doctor, who never had a patient, cheek by jowl with an attorney, who never had a client. (Thackeray).

From their palace he hastened to his own, which stood by itself in the middle of a large court. (Robertson).

Hasy, siceet, And as a purling stream, thou, son of niaht, Pass by his troubled senses. (B. amp; P.).

It had been my intention to proceed by James River and Chesapeake Bay to Baltimore. (Dickeiss).

The journey from Neto York to Philadelphia is by railroad, and two ferries. (Dickens).

Mr. Esmond said, 'No doubt he should come by his name, if even greater people came by theirs. (Thackeray).

The citizens now gained ground upon the soldiers, winning it inch by inch. (Southey).

The men drank beer by the gallon, and eat cheese by the hundred weight. (Bulwer).

My orchard was often robbed by schoolboys, and my wife's custards plundered by the cats or the children. (Goldsmith)-

Uabittial indolence, a silent and secret process, undermines every virtue in the soul. (Blair).

The mason waited faithfully, amusing himself by weighing the gold pieces in his hand, and clinking them against each other. (Irving).

By that time his host had learned the name and character of his guest. (Mackenzie).

By eight o'clock next morning, the traveller is at the end of his journey. (Dickens),

On his retiring to his tent, many who had lingered in the lists, to to look upon him and form conjectures concerning liim, alio dispersed.

What I desire the reader should know concerning me he mil find in the body of the Foem. (Dryden).

AU down the long table, there is scarcely a mm who is in anything different from his neighbour. (Dickens).

/ have too much respect for you, from your conduct during our short meeting, to compromise you. (Marryat).

All the buildings except the keep, were utterly neglected. (James). Everybody uses the comb and brush, except myself. (Dickens).

^Mr^lmhony Absolute is below, inquiring for the captain. (Sheridan). I sent for liadcliffe. (Prior).

Olivia wished for many lovers, Sophia to secure one. (Ofoldsmitli). He sat down upon a stone and cried for vexation. (Thackeray). Blood atoned for blood. (Pope).

My uncle did not leave his room for three days. (Bulwer). I made acquaintance with an American railroad, on this occasion, for the first time. (Dickens).

But for that motion, we should have thought him dead. (Warren). Methinks she is too low for a high praise, too brown for a fair praise, and too Utile for a great praise. (Shak).

I saw the great towns of Passau and LiaU, famous for the retreat of the imperial court, when Vienna was besieged. (Montague). I had an uncommon natural genius for many things. (Thackeray), Cook, what have you got for dinner? (Marryat).

Do you long as ardently for peace as your sister? (Cooper). Are you sorry for that lady and gentleman? (Warren).

He was exhorted to abstain from intoxicating drinks. (Dickens.) From this defect, I think, no man is free.quot; (Goldsmith).

Olivia was often affected, from too great a desire Jo please; Sophia even repressed excellence, from her fears to offend.quot; (Goldsmith).

The temper of a woman is generally formed from the turn of her features. (Goldsmith).

I would only accept medicines from her hand. (Thackeray). My only dislihe arose from an attachment he discovered to my daughter. (Goldsmith).

The fortitude of Monmouth was not that highest sort of fortitude which is derived from reflection and from self-respect. (Macaulay).

Nothing was concealed or hidden from my view. (Dickens). Had I not come up too late afier the robbery to prevent the high' wayman from carrying off her money and pearls? (Thackeray). Stand from the hearse, stand from the body. (Shak).

Let me whisper in your ear that yozi have fallen into very bad hands. (Thackeray).

That which in mean men we entitle patience Is pale cold cowardice in noble breasts. (Shak).

I know that it is not the custom of lovers to confide in fathers and uncles. (Bulwer).

The. year was spent in moral or rural amusements, in visiting our rich neighbours, and relieving such as were poor. (Goldsmith).

These negroes held their knives in their hands, ready to dip thevi into the boiol of poison. (Eclgeworlh).

It calls the blush into my old cheeks to think I teas ever forced to keep such company. (Thackeray).

Ris eyes appear like' flames in his dark face; his voice is like distant thunder. (Macpherson).

Mr, Thornhill, notwithstanding his real ignorance, talked with ease. (Goldsmith).

They were a merrier people here, and had musical inslrumenls playing to them o' nights. (Dickens).

1 will give you the host of dinners, and can promise to satisfy both of you. (Thackeray).

Ee produced a decanter Of curiously light wine, and a block of curiously heavy cake. (Dickens).

Of all knavish trafficking, there is none like your political trafficking ; Of all swindlers, your political swindler is the vilest. (Warren).

I never saw such a picture of forlorn affliction and distress of mind. (Dickens),

There is an air of GOïïimaat!, a feeling of conscious superiority about Jack. (Marryat).

The first knocking at the door had the effect of bringing a speedy answer. (Thackeray).

I confess it teas but a small place, but, indeed, we made the most of it. (Thackeray),

Finding him !^Tind of one eye, he would have nothing to say to him. (Goldsmiili),

As for stories about my regiment, of these, of course, 1 had no lack. (Thackeray).

Take beed of the pretences of men, and their affections. (Raleigh). There was no lack of company for a person travelling towards Dublin. (Thackeray).

My companion begged I would enter his house, which we now neared, and partake of a glass of beer. (Thackeray).

He was not more possessed of knowledge than he was communicative Of it. (Congreve).

If... she was proud of her beauty, to do her justice she was still more proud of her son. (Thackeray).

Isabella repented of her unkindness towards Rachel, (Thackeray). ' Give me a sum of moneysaid the girl, 'and get rid Of me.' (Thackeray).

I asked him to dine , with two counts, off gold plate, at the little room in the casino. (Thackeray).

What say you to a friend that would take this bitter bargain off your hands? (Goldsmith).

Although he goes on shore in France off the English coast, he never quits the vessel. (Marryat).

You know the little inn, three miles tfL the trout stream? (Bulwer). The whole of this matter is but a lure to take us off the right scent. (James).

Spare me the pain of a personal interview on the matter. (Warren). If you succeed, depend on it, your reward loill be secure. (Thackeray). Thou hast relied on the king of Syria, and not relied on the Lord thy God. (Bible).

All his friends congratulated him on his triumph. (Warren). She doated on her husband more fondly than ever. (Warren). Do your duly, he a gentleman, and no serious harm can fall On you. (Thackeray).

We are not so particular in Ireland on the score of neatness as people are in this precise country. (Thackeray).

/ first began seriously to reflect on the miscarriages of my former life. (Fielding).

The sins of the fathers are visited on the children. (Marryat). The two gentlemen alone waited on him. (Thackeray).

Miss Herbert gently opened her eyes; and seeing me sitting opposite her uncle, by her side, gave me her hand. (Warren).

The Utile page was outside the coach on the step. (Thackeray). I carried my little reports to him at the Garden-house outside the town. (Thackeray).

A glow of delight came over me at this discovery. (Dickens). The fame of great players is known all over Bur ope. (Thackeray). He had been over the whole fair, and could not get change. (Goldsmith).

They arose from causes over which he had no control. (Lingard). We got drunk over the wine. (Thackeray).

Knowledge will always predominate over ignorance, (Johnson). We sat over our dessert. (Thackeray).

I mint these slumbering passengers, and get forty. (Dickens). No lady begins now to put on jewels till she's yamp;sX forty. (Goldsmith). He is past relenting. (Dickens).

Pending this ceremony, I walked into the village. (Dickens). The bequest is invoked in legal disputes, and pending them the work has stopped. (Dickens).

Often and often has she talked to me and the neighbours regarding her own humility and piety. (.Thackeray).

He kept an open table; round which sale flatterers and poor friends. (Thackeray).

They left behind no fruits of their success, save the glory \hey had icon. (8cott).

't Is prohable that I should have rim through the little properly as he did in my place. (Thackeray).

Though not a member of the society, I gained admission through a friend. (Warren).

There was no small excitement, or rather agitation, diffused throughout the country, especially London. (Warren).

I extolled her prudence, economy, and obedience tiii death. (Goldsmith). Little was known of the natives till the voyages of Captain Cook. (Chambers).

She said she had a headache and 7oould go to bed. (Thackeray). Once or twice he condescended to talk to me about my prospects in life. (Thackeray).

We had the whole coach to ourselves in our journey. (Bulwer). What say'st thou to this? (Shak).

The girl has a gieat deal to say upon every subject, and to my knowledge is very well skilled in controversy. (Goldsmith).

The busiest man of the mart and counter will fnd some acquisition to his practical knowledge. (Bulwer).

He had a violent animosity to the old Baron. (Thackeray). I appealed to my minister. (Thackeray).

The estate to which I was heir was in the hands of 'rapacious creditors. (Thackeray).

The hereditary princess was already indebted to Vie favourite for help on various occasions. (Thackeray).

He was not altogether insensible to music. (Mackenzie). She introducted him to her company. (Thackeray).

I was kept a prisoner to my room the next day. (Thackeray), Be had an irresistible propensity to get drunk. (Dickens). All things seemed for awhile qidte prosperous to my wishes. (Thackeray).

There are some points touching which... we shall guestion you our self. (J ames).

Answer touching the charges you have brought against one Sir Osborne Maurice. (James).

The Queen, especially hi her latter days, inclined towards her own family. (Thackeray).

Towards the end oj the week, we received a card from the town ladies, (Goldsmith).

We were quite unaware of the mine under our feet. (Thackeray). I fell at last under the censure of the vice-chancellor. (Fielding). 1 am under no positive engagement with Mr. Acres. (Sheridan). They were all evidently labouring ysAw great excitement. (Warren). Underneath.

I heard the mighty rush of water, and felt the ground tremble underneath my feet. (Dickens).

Though I did not rise until noon, yet had 1 not heen tip at play until long past midnight? (Thackeray).

They run up the lank , and go down again on the other side at a fearful pace. (Dickens).

My uncle and I were, meanwhile, swimming upon Hie high tide of fortune. (Thackeray).

Nay, madam, there shall he no constraint upon your inclinations. I promise you. (Sheridan).

He had once been prevailed upon to fill a hüjh diplomatic situation abroad. (Bulwer).

Upon these grounds, gentlemen, I have the honour to solicit your votes. (Bulwer),

He has talked upon religious matters with the gentleman who visits him. (Dickens),

What with exhaustion, and the effect of the medicines which had been administered, he fell into profound sleep. (Warren).

She kindly offered to accommodate ne with lodgings in her own house. (Thackeray).

No man can he heartily aagry with him who pleases him against his will. (Dryden).

Had I known his origin, of course I would have died rather than have associated with him. (Thackeray).

He knew not how the new owner would deal with him. (Thackeray). He entertained us with a long account of Hs achievements. (Dickens). The horses that carried us down are now fatigued with the journey. (Goldsmith).

Newfashioned folks, with their large theories of education, may find fault with thee. (Buiwer).

The magistrates seemed struck with what he had said, and much, more with his manner of saying it. (Warren).

He was taken with a violent fit of trembling. (Dickens). The world teems with spirits; the very air is thick with them. (James).

Post-horses, my good friend! what can you possibly want with them, when you promised to stay with me quietly for at least a week? (cott).

Time is very long, gentlemen, within these four walls. (Dickens). My heart melted within me. (Addison).

He resolved within himself, after mature inquiry, that it was all a dream. (Dickens).

The first day's journey brought us in safety within thirty miles of our future retreat. (Goldsmith).

Guards were placed within and without her doors. (Tiiackeray). Mr. Squills and I performed our journey without adventure. (Buiwer). 'Well there 's room enough,' replies the coachman, without getting down or even looking at him. (Dickens).

I waited, for upwards of an hour. (Warren). Its little white walls peeped from amid honey-suckle and jessamine. (Ibid). Rise, moon, from behind thy clouds! (Macpherson). Hard ly,

a cottage cldmney smokes, From betwixt two aged oaks. (Milton). See every hud and leaf plucked one by one from off the fairest stem. (Dickens). What voices spoke from out the thundering water! (Dickens). Why did not Fate join me to thee, instead of to the odious man who holds me under his sway. (Thackeray). My wife's fortune came not tiii after marriage. (Bulwcr). They tvere within about a mile of the house, (James). Beaz up against the desappoondments of life.

We find as many instances in English writers of the prepositions being repeated as of the contrary. It is however difficult to give any fixed rules for it; the following examples of both cases have been selected from the best authors:

By sea, by land, thy matchless worth was known. (Dryden). 1 shall cut short the account of my travels in Europe, and of my success at the Continental courts. (Thackeray). In camp, in castle, or in lower, Each warrior sought repose. (Scott), Teach me to love and to forgive. (Gray). The prophets sons, hy such example led. To learning and to loyalty were hred. (Dryden).

Those heap¹d affronts that haughty subjects bring Are burdens for a camel, not a king. (Dryden). Bid you ever hear of such doctors and such a disciple^ '(Thackeray). With gentle hand and soothing tongue She bore the leecli s part. (Scott). Vainly he feeds his hopes With dinner of roast chicken, savoury pie. Or tart or pudding. (Barbauld). lie often comes over to dine and sleep, returning the next morning. (Bulwer). ,

1. A conjunction') is that part of speech -which joins words, clauses, or sentences together; as '■John and James were there; but they did not remain long.'

2. Conjunctions cave usnallj' divided into Copulative and Disjunctive conjunctions.

3. Copulative conjunctions are so called, because they connect tilings which are to be considered jointly; as, and, also, both. The clock struck eleven; and the Dulce with his body guard rode out of the castle. (Macaulay). The French on the shore could now lehold him also. (James). This drew the attention of both lady and gentleman to me. (Bulwer).

4. Disjunctive conjunctions are so called, because they imply diversity, negation, doubt, or opposition; as;

Examples: You lose thus the confidence of your friends without having rendered them either better or more skilful (Chesterfield). Whosoever is delighted in solitude, is either a wild beast or a god. (Bacon). You can neither do wrong without ruin, nor right without affliction. (Junius). He neither loves. Nor either cares for him. (Shak.). So, thrice fair lady, stand I, even so; As doubtful whether ivhat I see be true. Until confirmed, sigrïd, ratified by you. (Shak.). Whether they properly he Poets, or bo , let Grammarians dispute. (Sidney). We have only one thing that distresses us, a fear lest the Colonel may be ordered to join his regiment and go abroad. (Warren). Gentlemen, away, lest you perish with me. (Marlowe). He never played a game bui he lost it, or engaged in a conspiracy but 'lt; vias certain to end in defeat. (Thackeray). It cannot be but they will do you justice. (Byron). It is anybody's business but his. (Dickens). A fourth did nothing but whistle. (lUckcns). The fellow, but for his unaccountable bash-fulness, is pretty well. (Goldsmith). But that the stories con-necied with that same establishment are not the most profitable tales in the world, I could tell tales of scores of queer doings there. (Thackeray). You are the cause of this young mans

wound, madam, and, but that the instrument of your savage cruelty relented, would have heen the author of his murder. (Thackeray). Tsot a day, indeed, passed but what he held long conversations with my father. (Bulwer). I shall see nothing ■more of you, unless it he hy letter, till the evening. (Sheridan). Real friendship is a slow flower, and never thrives unless ingrafted upon a stock of known and reciprocal merit. (Chesterfield). Both may he lost, yet each in his own way, (Cowper). His doublet was of sturdy huff. And though not words, yet cudgelproof. (Butler). However unexpected our company might he to them, theirs, I am sure, was still more so to us. (Goldsmith). However this he, Roland and I were not long in detecting each other. (Bulwer). They who honour the law as an image of the wisdom of God himself, are notwithstanding to know that the same had an end in Christ. (Hooker). Hot though it had heen yesterday, it was quite cold to-day. (Dickens). Though a Whig, or, perhaps, because a Whig, the marquess was one of the haughtiest men breathing. (Thackeray). He, tho' had. is follow''d by a worse. (Ih'yden). What is better than wisdom? (Chaucer). There's no nobler blood in 'Europe than mine. (Thackeray). Fletcher kept his temper better taan any who knew him expected. (Macaulay).

5. Conjunctions are also subdivided into 1. Adversative; as, but j however. They look for some to have pity on them, but there is no man. (Taylor), The world talked and blustered, but what cared I? (Thackeray). He insults not on the ruins of a decayed gentleman, but pities and relieves him. (Fuller). 2. Causal; as, because, for, since, that. The mourners weep, because it is civil, or because they need three, or because they fear. (Taylor). You took me, because 1 was useful. (Thackeray). Let the tomb open to Ossian, for his strength has failed. (Macpherson). Some two or three prisoner nurses were with them for they were very sick. (Dickens). You have done right to leave the house, for the temptation might he too strong. (Bulwer). Since thou dost seek to kill my name in me, I mock my name, great hing, to flatter thee. (Shak,). Kent bade farewell to the king, and said, that since he chose to show himself

in such fashion, it ivas but banishment to stay there. (Lamb). Teach your son also to love and fear God, while he is yet young, that that the fear of God may grow up with him. (Raleigh). Speak, that I may see you. (Barrow). 3. Comparative; as, than. An indiscreet Man is more hurtful than an ill-natur'd one. (Spectator). You are forty years youm/nr than I am in experience. (Thackeray). 4 Concessive; as, though, although, albeit, yet. No argument in favour of the system, can reasonably be deduced from this circumstance, although it is very often urged. (Dickens). Although he defied the laws, he appeared to regard the courtesies of life. (Marryat). A worthy fellow , Albeit he comes on angry purpose now; But that's no fault of his. (Shak). Turn professed himself, albeit a high churchman, a strong King William's-man. (Thackeray). 5. Conditional; as, if, except, provided. If you were convinced that Julia viere well and in spirits, you would he entirely content. (Sheridan). If he were guilty at all, he was unquestionably guilty of murder in its broadest and worst signification. (Dickens). I never could find out that he did anything except sit there. (Dickens). I know little about newspapers, except that I have to subscribe to one in my county. (Bulwer), We are never again to buy cannons, provided only ree can exchange cotton for corn. (Bulwer). Of course I meant that I would do so, provided nothing more suitable presented itself. (Thackeray). 6. Equality; as, so, as, as well as. The sun, the moon, the stars, the fruits also, and vegetables of the earth , perpetually changing their positions, or their aspects, exhibit an elegant entertainment to the understanding as wel! as to the eye. (Swift). There is a holy mistaken zeal in politics, as well as in religion. (Junius). 7. Exceptive; as, unless. I shall see nothing more of you, unless it he by letter, till the evening. (Sheridan). Beat friendship is a slow grower, and never thrives unless ingrafted upon a stock of known and reciprocal merit. (Chesterfield). 8. Exclusive; as, neither, nor. Neither had 1 so soon learned the gratitude of courtiers to persuade myself that his majesty's present severities acquitted me of all past obligations. (Swift). Nor can 1 here pass over an ominous circumstance that hap-

pened the last time we played together. (Goldsmith). 9. Illative; as, therefore, wherefore, then. I therefore went to theyouny-gentleman s house, and wherefore I was denied to see him has of course not been told me, but he breathed, then he lived and this was all I wanted to know.

6 Conjunctional phrases, or compouai? conjunctions, are formed of two or more words; as, as if, as thouyh, as well, and also, forasmuch as , etc.

7. Sometimes the same words are used as conjunctions in' one place and as adverbs or prepositions in another. In such cases it will be easy to distinguish the preposition , because it always governs the objective case of a noun or pronoun expressed or understood; as, 'Go you before, and I will go after.' that is, 'Go you before nie, and I tvill rjo after yon.' In the sentence, 'He went dowa the street, down is an adverb, and street is governed by a preposition understood as, 'along.'' It is not so easy, in some cases , to distinguish adverbs from conjunctions; nor is it of any great importance.

1. Some conjunctions require to be followed by another conjunction in the second member of the sentence. They are the following;

a. Though is sometimes connected with still; as, Though 1 should never have possession of thy charming person, still shalt thou alone have possession of my love, my soul. (Fielding).

b. In some cases however this yet is omitted; as, The riches, which by the aid of wisdom, we heap up in the storehouses oj wisdom, we heap up in the storehouses of our mind, are, though not the only, the most customary coin by ivhich external prosperity is bought. (BulwerJ.

c. Though is sometimes placed at the end of a sentence, mostly elliptic and in relation to a preceding or omitted expression; as, d good cause ivould do well, though. (Dryden). Well, he must be soon at my house, though. (Sheridan). He has a superb head, though, ƒ replied. (Bulwer).

2. Whether — or often imply the same uncertainty that is expressed in other languages by an auxiliary verb; as, whether it was that his majesty's ministers were insensible of his merits, or could find no place suited to his abilities, the unhappy knight profited very little by his court-attendance. (Coventry). Whether he be rich, or whether he be poor, if he have a good heart, he shall at all times rejoice in a cheerful countenance. (Sterne).

.'J. Either — or is used in stead of neither — nor after a negative sentence; as, There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so. (Shak.). To tell you a truth, Mr. Thornhill, I ae?er either loved you, or liked you. (Goldsmith). I am accountable to myself for my actions, and I shall nor render an account either to you or that gentleman. (Fielding).

4. Neither and nor (each taken separately) are also used to connect sentences; in which case neither indicates a slighter connexion with the foregoing part of the phrase than nor; as, I soon regretted that project with horror by remembering the oath I had made to the emperor. Neither had I so soon learned the gratitude of courtiers to persuade myself that hh majesty's present severities acquitted me of all past obligations. (Swift). The dangers of fire oracles and the horrid practice of human sacrifice were unknown to the good sense

and purity of the heroic ages; nor is there to he discovered the smallest vestige of these wild and wicked inventions in the writings of Homer. (Gillies). Nor can I here pass over an ominous circumstance that happened the last time we played together. (Goldsmith).

5. In some cases or and nor may be used indifferently; as, Mrs. Partridge became by time means more formidable in the school than her husband; for, to conJess the truth, he was never master there, or any where else, in her presence. (Fielding). The Icing whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure. (Robertson).

fi. Neither is sometimes put at the end of a sentence to fortify a foregoing negation; as: 7 protested I could see for it no reason neither, nor why Mr. SimpJcius got the ten thou-sond pound prize in the lottery, and we sat down with a blank. (Goldsmith). Men come not to the knowledge of those ideas which are thought innate, till they come to the rise of reason; nor then neither. (Locke).

7. As — as are used in comparisons of equality, as well in relation to two predicates with one subject as to one predicate with two subjects, or to two subjects with two different predicates; as, I shall and must introduce a digression of true wisdom, of which Mr, Allworthy was in reality as (jieat a pattern as he was goodness. (Fielding). Mankind are as ignorant of such divine goodness, as they are unworthy of it. (ibid.). The age at which Miss Bridget was arrived, seems to me as proper a period as any to he fixed on for this purpose (ibid.). He had the character of as bold a man as any in the army. (ibid.). The contrast of the various dresses of the spectators rendered the view as gay as it was rich. (W. Scott). His countenance bore as little the marks of self-denial , as his habit indicated contempt of wordly splendour. (Ibid.).

8. In comparisons of inequality the comparative degree is either followed by than, or after a negative expression by the corresponding conjunctions so — as. Ex.: The lieutenant had not conceived quite SO favorable an opinion of the Doctor's physical abilities, as the good woman. (Fielding). None is so

unworthy of his goodness as myself, (ibid), lie found no times, in all the long research so glorious, or so base, as he proved. (Thomson).

Expressions of doubt require also so — as. Ex. I don 't know if this poor man s situation he SO had as my father ivould represent it. (Goldsmith).

9. So — as are used to express the degree of a quality, when the two sentences, which are to be connected, have a common subject. In such cases as is followed by the infinitive mood. Ex : / will never be so mgratiful as ever to think he has done an act of unjustice by me. (Fielding). She felt an agreeable tickling in a certain little passion, which though it bears no immediate affinity either to religion or virtue, is often so kind as to lend great assistance in executing the purposes of both. (ibid). He was so full of thought as not to notice any one about him. (W. Irving). The oaks were intermingled with beeches and hollies so closely as totally to intercept the level beams of the sinking sun. (W. Scott). He was something startled by the abrupt appearance of a. horseman, whose steed leaped the hedge so close to our hero as almost to endanger his ' safety. (Bulwer).

10. When the two sentences have a different subject so-that must be used. Mere outside is so very trifling a circumstance with me, that I should scarce have remembered to mention it, had it not been a general topic of conversation. (Goldsmith). IIer conversation was so pure, and her whole deportment so grave and solemn, that she seemed to deserve the name of saint equally with her name-sake. (Fielding).

The same conjunctions are used when the verb in the second member of the phrase (shall, will, etc.) cannot be used in the infinitive mood; as, I teas so ill a judge of things, that I could not discover the lenity and favour of this sentence. (Swift). There was not any secret place SO lonely, that it might claim exemption from those inroads. (Cooper).

11. Such — as and snch — that indicate a cause and effect but as is made use of as well when both sentences have a common subjecl , as when the word connected by swe/i requires

to be pointed out; as, She placed her chair in such a posture as to occupy almost the whole fire. (Fielding), The dthenians made such considerahle alterations in their writings and pronunciation as remarkabl!/ destinguished them from their Ionian brethren. (Gillies). My daughter rejected farmer William's addresses in such a manner as totally repressed his further solli-citations. (Goldsmith). Such ivas the insecurity of property, as to render it probable that the delay would he explained by some depredations of the outlaw. (W. Scott), My reasons for not keeping my pledge are such as fairly to satisfy Sir 'Reginald Pelham. (Bulwer),

1. In the works of the best authors mistakes may be found against the rules explained above.

2. As is often omitted after so, where it should be expressed , as , The youth of both sexes are too apt to be deficient in their gratitude for that regard with tohich persons more advanced in years are sometimes so kind (as) to honour them. (Fielding), If thy sagacity discovers meanings that were never meant, be so good (as) to impute it to thy own ill nature. (Coventry).

3. After such and so we often find as that used; as, Is there such a depravity in man, as that he should injure another without benefit to himself? (Johnson). The expression is however not to be recommended.

13. As — so relating to each other are used to unite two sentences, that may be compared on account of some equality or analogy. They then come in the place of the Dutch even als of terwijl — zoo; Examples; As the captain had increased in the eagerness of his desires, so the lady, with the same propriety, decreased in the violence of her refusal. (Fielding). As some men gaze with admiration at the colours of a tulip or the vxng of a butterfly, so 1 was by nature an admirer of happy human faces. (Goldsmith). As Mr. Winston had written upon his toife's tomb, that she was the only wife of

lü. After such the conjunctions as takes the place of a relative pronoun; as, / passed among such of the French as ■were poor enough to he very merry. (Goldsmith). The peace is now drawing to such a conclusion, as all Europe is, or must be, satisfied with. (Pope). The finest writers among the modern Italians fill their writings with such poor imaginations and conceits, as your youths are ashamed of lef ore they have heen two years at the university. (Addison).

14. As is sometimes confounded with when and while or whilst. The difference between as and when may be explained as follow. As implies the simultaneousness of two actions^; when expresses a less direct and is only used for epeated succession. For the latter reason when can be made use of with a pluperfect tense and as not. Ex: Turnus trembled as she (Dido) spoke. (Dryden). The one entertained me with her vivacity when (whenever) I was serious. (Goldsmith). When a servant had given me notice; my custom was to go immediately to the door. (Swift). While and whilst imply longer duration and correspond to the Dutch terwijl. Ex: Many viomen abused her, while they envied her lover and her finery. (Fielding). Whilst he was looking at the window the curtain was partially withdrawn. (W. Irving).

15. As may sometimes be used for like, which means: in such a manner as, or such a kind as, and is only used in comparing two objects which are quite different in every other respect. As on the contrary, to which the word being may generally be supposed, marks that the two ideas compared must also be considered as connected. When Smollet says: Every one shunned me like a person infected the sense is: „Every person shunned me as people use to shun an infected person. By changing like into as the sense would be that the speaker was considered as infected. Examples: Who that has such a house to return to, as your honour, would travel thus about the country like a vagabond. (Fielding). The propertj of Poly chares, like that of the most opulent of his countrymen, consisted in numerous

herds of cattle. (Gillies). I dislike greatly to see a man hung up like a dog. (Cooper). From despondency she passed to something like gaiety. (Cooper). She voted for sending the child, as a kind of noxious animal, immediately out of the home. (Fielding). He was restrained ly the fear of being detained as (being) a deserter. (Smollet). Tell not as (being) new what every body knows. (Cowper). The Caxtons were an eccentric family, and never did any thing like other people. (Bulwer). They are curs'd As (being) rigid and inexorable. (Massinger). Bvery one of them wore chains like Marley's

16. As is not only connected with if but also with though to express the Dutch' „ah of Ex-. She continued to lean upon her deliverer's arm as if still vnlling to receive assistance. (Goldsmith). He would pass whole days in the library, consulting a multiplicity of authors, as though he were pursuing some interesting subject. (W. Irving). His head was turned aside, as though he listened to some distant and distrusted sounds. (Cooper). It seemed as if the Genius of the Weather sat in mournful meditation on the threshold. (Dickens). It is as though the fiends prevailed Against the seraphs they assailed. (Byron).

17. The Dutch expression naangaande — ivat betreftquot; (with respect to) is commonly translated by as to or as for Ex. She was not very inquisitive as to that point. (Fielding). As to myself, I must confess. I was so ill a judge of things, that I could not discover the lenity of this sentence. (Swift). The remainder were lost in doubt as to what was required of them. (Cooper). As for breeding there were few country ladies who could show more. (Goldsmith).

18. But has sometimes the signification of a causal conjunction; as, Jones had not such implicit faith in his guide, hut that on their arrival at a village he inquired whether they were on the road to Bristol. (Fielding). Books and men I have not so neglected but that 1 have gleaned at intervals some little knowledge from both. (Bulwer).

expressions as; I do not douht, I question not, I do not deny, it is not impossible and more such negations the word but has the same meaning as that; as, By these means we doubt not but our reader may he rendered desirous to read on for ever. (Fielding). They made no doubt but that the navy should he ahsolutely master of the seas. (Bacon). There was no doubt in my mind but that Gerard and Montreuil were engaged in some intrigue for the exiled family. (Bulwer). Nor can I deny but I have some interest in being first to deliver this message. (Goldsmith).

20. But is also used for the Dutch dan, behalve after negative eKpressions and after questions, which often stand for emphatic negations; as, He took nothing but what was his own. (Fielding). They could not he supposed to have held none but wrong principles, and to have uttered nothing but absurdities. (Ibid). The Athenians declared, none but Jupiter shmdd thenceforth reign in Athens. (Gillies). 1 desire no other reward but the pleasure of having served my friend. (Goldsmith). Savages seldom shed blood but to retaliate former cruelties, (Ibid). Who should enter the room but our two great acquaint ances from town? (Ibid). And what is Jriendship but a name, a charm that lulls to sleep¹? (Ibid). Some obstinate unbelievers insisted that it ivas nothing but the howling of a watchdog. (W. Irving).

21. A particular use of hut is made in sentences such as the following expressions, which may be considered as idioms; There were none of the Grog rams but could sing a song, or of the Marjorams but could tell a story. (Goldsmith). There is scarce any man but will condescend in the meanest manner to flatter himself. (Fielding). There is not a ho2isemaid but dreams of wedding-favours. (W. Irving). There is seldom one of them but has her love-cares and love-secrets. (Ibid). IfHio but would deem their bosoms burnt anew with thy unquenched beam, lost Liberty? (L Byron). And who that recollects young years and loves but would much rather sigh like his son, than cough like his grandfather, (ibid). There is scarce any matter of duty but it concerns them both alike. (W. Irving).

I must heartily pity him and cannot but wish it were in my power to afford him some relief. (Burney). Sir Clement approached me with an air so interested in my distress that I could not but feel myself obliged to him. (Ibid). I could not but think they would make a tolerable group for a modern picture. (W. Irving).

Thus we lived several years in a state of much happiness, not but that we sometimes had those little rubs which Providence sends to enhance the value of her favours. (Goldsmith).

I would tell your Ladyship something but that I am afraid it would offend you. (Fielding). Some of the debtors would have literally perished for to ant but that they were delivered by the generosity of the criminals themselves. (Buhver).

Who knows but all that matter which he told us might be intended as a warning to us. (Fielding). She knew not but some new treachery was menacing her. (W. Irving).

This task would have been more difficult but for (without) our recent calamity. (Goldsmith). She might have succeeded but for (if it had not been for) the interposition of Sir Clement. (Burney). The room was so very much crowded, that, but for the uncommon assiduity of Sir Clement, we should not have been able to procure a box. (ibid). But for a strange mishap, my sword had revenged all our injuries. (W. Scott). The corporal had beheld the commencement of the hill at the extremity of the town, where but for him they had not dined. (Bulwer).

'23. There is some analogy between the conjunctions but and yet; the latter however is only used in the sence of though; as , I have heard Sir William Thornhill represented as one of the most generous yet whimsical men in the kimjdom. (Goldsmith). In bidding this last adieu, my heart is filled with fond, yet melancholy emotions, (W. Irving). With a fierce, yet hesitating motion, he laid his hand on the haft of his knife. (W. Scott). The distant, yet distinct report of heavy cannon, fired at intervals, apprized Waverley that the work of destruction was going forward, (ibid). As the shout of laughter and of happy hearts came upon his ear, he turned enviously, yet not malignantly

away. (Bulwer). Caesar was good-natured, yet not weak. But on the contrary cannot be turned into though in any of the following examples; All that is very true, but not what I would he aL (Goldsmith). Their features were rough but remarkably intelligent, grave, but the very reverse of stupid. (W. Scott). They entered the narrow, but fragrant lawn. (Cooper). Heaven bless you, my son, exclaimed the astonished but delighted parent. (Ibid). He drew Jrom nature a singular combination of shrewd, but false conclusions. (Bulwer).

33. Lest has generally the signification of the Dutch „opdat niet.quot; After words expressing fear or concern it has also the meaning of that; as, There was reason to apprehend lest the system of Lycurgus should evaporate with the enthusiasm which produced it. (Gillies), ƒ/ you please. Sir, answered I, quite terrified lest this Mrs. Mirvan should attend to him. (Burney). I was at first under some concern lest he should recollcct my features. (Smollet). He dreaded lest the world should be deprived of the promising talents of so aspiring an alchymist. (W. Irving).

24. That stands often connected with but as has already been explained, but the following examples will show that it can also be used with many other conjunctions: Turn thou the mouth of thy artillery against these saucy walls; and when that we have dash'd them to ground, why, then defy each other. (Shak). Though that my death were adjunct to my act, by heaven, I'd do it. (Ibid). The philosopy of Square taught that the end was immaterial, so that (provided) the means were fair. (Fielding). lie acquainted them, that he brought sad news; for that his mother was dead at Salisbury. (Ibid). These days were ages to him notwithstanding that he was baslang in the smiles of the pretty Mary. (VV. Irving). Whether or not that it arises from this sentiment, there is one very peculiar characteristic in all genius of the highest order. (Bulwer).

35. The Dutch „dat' and „wanneerquot; are sometimes expressed in English by for followed by the accusative and. the verb in the infinitive mood; as, Tour wisdom should show itself more richer, for, for me to put him to his purgation,

would perhaps plunge him in more dialer. (Shak). The time draws on for experience and observation to take place of instruction. (Burney). The good man gave immediate orders for all his family to be summoned round Mm. (Fielding). There is not a more dangerous thing in the world than for a beauty to be a Deist. (Sterne). There is nothing so rare as for a man to ride his hobhy without molestation. (W. Irving). They all returned the salutation of their host, though each waited for him to speak. (Cooper). The clio,ste Diana had leen too spoiled hy the prosperity of many years, for the sickness of a single month to effect much good in her disposition. (Bulwer).

26. In indirect questions and other dependent sentences if is often used for the Dutch „O/quot;; as, Answer me on your honour, M you have, not intended to do Idin'jvrong. (Fielding). I asked if he did know the story of that unfortunate young gentleman. (Smollet). 'With them I would search if natures boundless frame was call'd, late rising from the void of night, or sprung eternal from tKeternal mind. (Thomson). The lady hastily inquired !if he would have any assistance. (Cooper). They asked concerning the Triponers, and if they had taken his counsel. (Bunyan).

27. Conjunctions generally; have their place at the beginning of the sentence or the part of a sentence which they connect with the foregoing. However, then and therefore may precede, whilst also, too, likewise, must follow eitherneither and both must precede words in the sentence to which they belong.

28. When the words connected by hoth — and, either —or, neither — nor are governed by a preposition the latter sometimes precedes and sometimes follows the conjunction; as, Religion gives to both rich and poor the same happiness hereafter. (Goldsmith). This is inconsistent with both honour and honesty. (Fielding). What signifies that I have rank and honour in reality, if I am to live an obscure prisoner, without either society or observance. (W. Scott). Either from an apprehension

of treading on dangeroun ground, or an unwillingness to intrude upon the taciturnity of Ms guest, he several times hesitated lef ore he could venture to make any remark. (Cooper).

Observations, a. When the prepositions are repeated before every word the conjunctions should be placed before them; as, Our squire was by no means a match either for his host, or for parson Supple, at his cups that evening. (Fielding).

b. Both can also be placed after the words connected by and; as, If we lose our noble lord, I bid adieu to the court and to the camp both. (W. Scott).

29. Whether followed by or not does not suffer any other word to come between; as, It now struck me that he was resolved to try, whether or not I was capable of talking upon any subject. (Burney). He inquired of me whether or no his wife went out alone. (Smollet). She left Wayland under the disagreeable uncertainty whether or no she had formed any plan for her own future proceedings. (W.Scott). I wonder, thought I, whether or not lady Roseville is enamoured with her new correspondent. (Bulwer).

30. Some conjunctions are frequently omitted in English. Those that are most generally omitted are as, that, if and but-, sometimes this is also the case with and, though and when. They may however not be omitted in all cases though no fixed rules can be given for it.

The ellipsis of as is allowed when it has the meaning of the Dutch „zoo alsquot; and when, as a comparative conjunction, it implies a comparison before expressions such as: I perceived, it seems, I recollected, etc. Ex. I could turn my suspicion only on Mr. Bur-chell, who, (as) / recollected, had of late had several conferences with my daughter. (Goldsmith). The village, (as) it seems had heen apprized of our approach. (Ibid). This was received with great approbation by all, excepting my wife, who, (as) I could perceive, was not perfectly satisfied. (Ibid). Predominant vanity is, (as) I am afraid, too much concerned here. (Fielding).

He was now all impatience to secure the treasure, which, (as) he did not doubt lay at the lotlom of the well. (W. Irving). Your idea of love may le as absurd as that which (as) we are told a blind man once entertained of the colour Red. (Ibid). He again resumed a discourse that, (as) all felt, was most peculiarly Ms own. (Cooper).

31. That may only be omitted when it expresses the object of the preceding verb by another verb, or when it stands at the head of a sentence of which the preceding declares something: as, I suppose (that) there will be no business done here to-day. (Goldsmith). It is impossible (that) we should hiow what sort of person thou wilt be. (Fielding). Tom had brought them all back into Allworthy s hall, where they now awaited his final resolution, which, upon his knees he besought him might be in favour of the girl (ibid); instead of: and he besought him upon his knees that it might be.

In this edifice it was agreed (that) Mr. Gulliver should lodge. (Swift). We may be confident, (that) whatever he does is intended for good. (Temple). I saw (that) the poor fellow was most terribly scared. (Defoe). I suspect (that) this is a bad business. (Bulwer). I thought (that) you knew Sir Anthony better. (Sheridan). She bounded by, and tripped so light, (that) They had not time to take a steady sight. (Dryden). Is it for thee (that) the lark ascends and sings ? (Pope). Tell him (that) the mighty are not here; and (that) my arm is young. (Mac-pherson). They told him (that) they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. (Bunyan).

33. Ellipsis of if is found in the following sentences: Wars a game which, were their subjects wise. Kings would not play at. (Cowper). Had I boldly broke open his escritoire, I had, perhaps, escaped even his suspicion. (Fielding). She has got a treasure in her husband, which she couldn't have, had she taken a duke to marry her. (Thackeray). 1 could weep, Madam, would it do you good. (Shak). What will be the fame of my sword shouldst thou fall'? (Macpherson). Him should he meet the bellowing war begins. (Thomson),

where you find a maid, that, ere she sleep, has thrice her prayors said, raise up the organs of her fantasy, sleep she as sound as careless infancy. (Shak).

34. But is wanting in the following sentence. You left me but poor, and poor I find you are come hack; and yet I make no doubt (but) you have seen a great deal of the world. (Goldsmith).

35. When can be omitted at the head of a sentence which serves more precisely to point out a before indicated point of time; as, She was terribly frightened every time (when) they went out together. (Fielding). Jones recollected Mr. Blifd's loss the moment (when) it was mentioned. (Ibid). He unfortunately arrived on the very evening (when) an unknown or rather suspicious guest was an inmate of the house that seldom contained any others than its regular inhabitants. (Cooper).

1. Interjections ') are words or exclamations thrown in to express some sudden emotion of the mind, as, Ah! For! shame! 0! Alas!

as! 3. Of wonder; as, ha! strange! 4. Of wishing or earnestness ; 0'. 5. Of pain; oh! ah! C. Of contempt; fudge! pooh! pish! pshaw! tush! 7. Of aversion; foh ! fie! fy ! oh! begone! avaant! 8, Of calling aloud; ho! holla! hollo! soho! •quot;) 9. Of

') The brutish, inarticulate interjection, that has nothing to do with speech, and is only the miserable refuge of the speechless, is reckoned amongst the parts of it. The neighing of a horse, the lowing of a cow, the barking of a dog, the purring of a cat; sneezing, coughing, groaning, shrieking, and every other involuntary convulsion with oral sound, have almost as good a title to be called parts of speech, as interjections have.

The term interjection is derived from the Latin interjectus, cast or thrown between.

³) Holla or Jiollo (from the Trench hola! ho there!) calls tat a greater distance than soho! Halloo, a cry to excite dogs in hunting, is a different word from holla.

exultation; aha! huzza! hurra! 10. Of laughter; ha! ha! ha\ 11. Of salutation; welcome! hail! all hail! 12. Of calling attention to; lo! behold! hold see! hark! 13. Of commanding silence; hush! hist! mum! li. Of surprise; oh! ah! hah! what! indeed! 15. Of languor; heigh»! 16. Of approbation; Iravo! well done!

3. Any part of speech , when uttered as an exclamation, is considered as an interjection; as mercu! strange! what!

Derivation is that part of Etymology which treats of the origin and primary signification of words.

Words are either Primitive or Derivative. A primitive word cannot be reduced or traced to any simpler word in the language; man, good, obey. A derivative') word can be reduced or traced to another word in the language of greater simplicity; as manly, goodness, disohey. Primitive words from which derivatives are formed , are called roots. Many words considered as primitives or roots in English, are derivatives from the Latin. Greek, and other languages. For example, the word animadvert is a primitive in English, but a derivative in Latin.

The primitive words in any language are very few when compared with the whole amount of its vocabulary. The shortest and easiest way, therefore, of learning a language, is to make one'sself acquainted with its comparatively few primitives, and the processes by which derivatives are formed from them.

Derivative words are formed from their primitives in three ways : — 1. By the addition of letters or syllables. 3. By the omission of letters or by contractions. ¹) 3. By the interchange of equivalent or kindred letters.

^s) The first process includes the figures of Orthography called by Grammarians Prosthesis, Epenthesis, and Parag age; and the second, the figures called Aphaeresis, Syncope, and Apocope, See under the head «Figures of speechquot; for examples.

All words having prefixes or affixes, or both , are examples of the first process.

A prefix is a significant particle, generally an inseparable preposition prefixed to a word to vary or modify its meaning; as mis in mistake, ab in absolve, and para in paragraph.

An affix or termination is a significant particle or syllable added to a word to vary or modify its meaning; as en in lenyllien, fy in purify, and ize in dogmatize.

The meaning of a word is either primary or secondary. The primary meaning of a word is that in which it was first or originally applied.

A word can have but one primary, but it may have several secondary meanings. Though in many instances, the primary meaning of a word has been lost, or is no longer felt, yet, in general, it will be found to pervade all its secondary or figurative applications.

Be has usually an intensive signification, as bewail, iespread, Jehold, besprinkle. In because, before, beside, and a few other words, it is another form of by.

ewable, enlarge, embark, empower. Compare im or in. For. negative or privative; as /orbid , to bid not or prohibit;

!m for in, to make-, as mbitter, impair {to make worse), impoverish, improve (to make proof of), to make better. Compare en, as in enable.

') quot;How jocund did they drive their team afield.quot; — Gray's Elegy. ⁱ) En. — In some words en is used both as a prefix and an affix ; as in enlighten, e»live«, and emholieii.

On, not, like the Latin in; as ««speakable, mefl'able; un-willing, iBvoluntary. Prefixed to verbs it signifies to undo\ as in wwlock, «(«tie, unbind.

Op, motion upwards; as upon, upstartj also, subversion; as in w^set (to overthrow).

A, ab,') abs, from or away; as avert, to turn from; absolve, to free from; abstain, to hold or keep from.

Note. — ïor the sake of euphony, the final letter of a preposition in composition usually assumes the form of the initial letter of the word to which it is prefixed. Thus ad. becomes ac, as in accede; af, as in a/fix; ag, as in aggression; al, as in «/lude; an, as in «JMiounce; ap, as in «^ply; ar, as in arrogate; as, as in assent; and at, as in attract.

Amb or Ambi, aloxd or around; as lt;mSient, going round or about. Compare the Greek prefix Amphi.

Bis, bi, two; as ie'sect, to cut or divide into two; èiped , a too-footed animal.

Circum, circu, aboiti or around; as «VcMmjacent, lying around; circulate , to carry round.

Con, with or together; as cowdole, to grieve with; concourse, a running together.

Note, — For the sake of euphony, con becomes CO, as in coheir; cog, as in connate; col, as in collect; com, as in co/wpress; and COr, as in correspond. See note under Ad.

^J) Ab is the original form—from the Greek prefix Apo {Ap'). ⁸) Ante, In Aniiciynte the e has been corrupted into i.

Contra, against; as contradict, to speak, against, or to the contrary. Contra sometimes takes the form of counter, as

De, down, from, of, or concerning; as, descend, to come down-, deduct, to take from', depart, to part from; describe, to write of or concerning.

Dis, di, asunder, apart, or separated from, (and hence its negative force) not; as, (amp;join. rfwmember, camp;plcase. E, ') ex, out of, heyond; as emit, to send out; eject, to cast out of; extend, to stretch out; «Eclude, to shut out of; eaceed, tc go beyond.

Note. — In composition, ex is changed into ec, as in eccentric; ef, as in e/face; and el, as in e/lipse. See note under ad.

Extra, ²) out, beyond; as eaifraordinary, beyond ordinary. In, when prefixed to verbs, signifies in or into, on or upon, against; as «'«ject, to cast in or into; iwcident, falling on or upon; incite, to stir up against. But when In is prefixed to noims, adjectives, or adverbs, it means not or contrary to; as ««justice, ««firm, ««gloriously. Compare the English prefix Un.

Note. — For the sake of euphony, in. in composition usually assumes the form of the initial letter of the word to which it is prefixed; as in i^norancc, iflegal, ifluminate, iwmortal imprison, if regular, irradiate. Compare the changes of the Prefixes Ad and Con.

Ob, in the ivay of, against; as oivious, obstacle, object (to cast or urge against).

Note. — In composition, ob w changed into OC , as in occur; of, as in o/fer; and op, as in oppress. See noife under Ad.

') E. The original form is Ex—ham the Greek prefix Etc or Ex. ^s) Extra is derived from ex , and the termination {iera) tra, as Intra, jrom in. Compare , also, the formation of /gt;ifra and Supra.

Per, through , thoroughly , or completely; as pervade , to go through, thoroughly, or completely; perfect, thoroughly made, or complete.

Pro, forth of forward-, also, for, or instead of; as protrude, to thrust forward, pronoun, /or or instead of a noun. See the Greek prefix P70.

Re, lack or again-, as revert, to turn hack; reform, to form again, to remodel, to improve.

Sub, under; as subscribe, to write under; saèterranean, under ground; ««Jlunary, under the moon.

Note. — In composition, sub becoraee sue, as in «cceed; suf, as in suffex-, SUg, as in suggest; Slip, as in impress; and SU3. as in SMpend. See note under Ad, Con , and Ob.

Super,¹) above or over; as sw^ernumerary, above the number, superscribe, to write above.

Trans, tra,²) beyond-, as transport, to carry beyond-, tramontane, beyond the mountains (the opposite side of the Alps from Italy).

') Super. — Hence sur (through the French); as in iwrbase, above the base, ««quot;tout, over all; ««rmonnt, .s«gt;-pass , amp;c.

) Trans, — Hence ires (through the French); as in trespass. Compare transgress (trans, beyond, and gressus, a step).

Note. — Before a vowel a becomes an; as, anmehy, without governnient; «Monyraous, without a name.

Amphi afitpi), about, on hath sides; as /«'theatre, a theatre with seats all round or in a circle; amphWnows,, living in loth, that is, bothon land or in the water.

Ana (awe), again or lack; as a?/abaptism, that is, baptism ayain or a second time; analyse, to resolve (into the component parts) again ; awachronism, (dated back or earlier than the occurrence), an error in chronology.

Anti (avTÏ), opposite to, in opposition to, against; as, ant-arctic , opposite to the arctic (circle) ; aw/agonist, one who contends against another; antidoie, something given against, or to counteract.

Apo (a.irb), from or away ; as apostle, (sent from), a mission-ary; apostate, one who stands Jrom or abandons his profession or party ; apology, a word or discourse, jrom, an excuse or justification. Before an aspirated vowel, apo becomes aph; as in aphéWow and a/j/iaeresis.

Auto iaLritr), self; as apograph, ^/-written (as „an auto-grap/i letter from thekingquot;); autobiography, a biography or history of one's self.

Dia (Sw), through; as rfj'ameter, a line passing through the middle; ^agonal, a line passing through a parallelogram from one angle to the opposite; analogue, a discourse (passing from one side to the other) between two.

Ee, ex (In, iQ, from or out of, as eclèetic, selected/rom, ècstacy (standing out of), transport or rapture.

En (em) (kv), in or on; as «/demic, in or among the people; emphasis, force or stress laid on a word or words in pronunciation.

Epi (stti) , upon, on, over, to, as épidémie, upon the people or generally prevalent; epilogue,, a word or speeeh upon, or immediately after, the play; episWe, a writing sent to, a letter.

conceals his real sentiments; hyphen, a mark used to bring two words or syllabes under or into one.

Meta {fxira), beyond; as {«etophor, a carrying of, or applying, a word beyond its proper meaning.

Para {Trapa.), beside, from, as paragraph, a writing beside-, parallel, beside one another; ^a?asol, keeping the sunyj-oni; paradox, from or contrary to the general opinion; a seeming contradiction, but really true.

Peri {irs.pi), round about; as ^mphery. Compare the derivation of circumference.

Syn (o-w/), wiih or together with; as in synthesis, a placing together ; sywod , a going together, a convention.

Note. ■— In composition, syn beconxes sy, as in system; syi, as iu salable; and sym, as in sym\gt;aX\\y (compassion).

[It is impossible iu every case to ascertain the exact force, or even the general import, of an affix or termination. Several of them seem to have diflerent, and even contradictory meanings, and in some cases they appear to be merely parayogic, that is, they lengthen the word, without adding to the meaning. Pupils cannot be required to assign a meaning to every affix that occurs.]

Aey, implies doing, or the thing done; also, state or condition; as conspiracy, legacy, celibaty. prelacy.

Age, ion, denote the act of doing; the thing done; state or condition ; as carriage, passage, marriage, bondage; immersttw, derivatiwi, cohcsio», subordinatio».

Ana, denotes sayings or anecdotes of; as Walpoliawa, John-sonia«a, that is, sayings or anecdotes of Waljjole of Johnson.

Ard, state or character; as dolard, one in a slate of dotage; sluggard, one who slugs or indulges in sloth; wizard, a wise man or sage.

Ary, ery or ory, implies a set or collection of; as library, aviary, nursery, rookery, knavm/, cookc-ry,- repository, dormito?'^. Ary, also implies one who is what the word to which it is attached signifies; as adversary, secretary.

Dom, implies domimow or possession, state or condition; as kingdom, Christendom, martyrc/oM, freedom, -w'^dom.

Er ') or cr, denotes the agent or person acting; as doer, writer , actor , professor.

Ee, usually denotes the person in a passive state, or as the object of the action; as (lessor, the person who lets or gives a lease) lessee, the person to whom a lease is made; patentee, trustee, committee (a number of persons to whom some inquiry or charge is committed).

Escence, denotes the state of (?roMn«^ or becoming; as, putrès-cence, effervèscewce.

Kood or head, implies stale or degree; as man/ioorf, maiden-Iwod or head, priest/ioamp;rf.'

Ism, denotes sect, party, peculiarity, or idiom; as Calvinism, Jacobih'sm, Grseci'sm, vulgan'sm.

1st, denotes skilled in or professing; as botanist, florist, artisj, naturalist, linguist.

Ling, cle, el, et, ock, express diminution, endearment, contempt ; as goamp;lini/ (little goose), foundii?^ (a little child or infant found or abandoned), darZiwy {little deur), under ling, world/zH^; partic/e, satcheZ, pocket, hillock.

Tude, ity, or ty, implies being or state of being; as gratówrfe, ravMitude, foriilude; abil«7y, adversely; novels, anxie^j/, hones^, liberty.

Ore. implies doing or being; state or condition; as manu-factwe, capture. Scriptwre, exposure, displeas2(re.

Able, ible, ble, or ile, implies having a5«7% or power to undergo what the word to which it is attached signifies; as port a We, ' fit or able to be carried, defonsiile, that which can, or is able to be defended; doci/e,³) able or fit to be taught; duciile, that which may be led, or drawn out.

AI, an, ary, cry, ic, id, ine, ile, denote belonging or pertaining to ; as nature/, dweal, Europe®?, collegia»», Christian-military, missionary, epistolary; prefatory, introductory, pubhc, theoretic, finurf, lucid; alkaliwe, feminine,-infanUYe, mèrcanti/e.

) Ship properly means the shape or lorm (as in landscape for land-sJiape) j and hence, the prominent^or distinguishing quality.

⁵) Docile. — In such cases ile is a contraction of il/le, and must be distinguished from the adjective termination ile, which denotes similitude; as pueri/e, like a hoy; infants, like an infant.

) Esque. The root of esqtie (and of isc, isch, ish, amp;c.) is the Greek termination mm;, as in basiUVt.

Ish,- implies belonging to; like or resembling; having a tendency to; as Britii/i, Irish, boywA, greenish, thievw/j.

Ive, has usually an active signification; as motive, defensive, offensive, persuasive, adhesive.

Like or ly, denotes likeness or similitude; as goAlike or godly, genllemanliie or gentleman^. ■

Y, implies having or abounding in; as (stone) stony, (wealth) wealthy, (wood) woody.

En, denotes to make; as sweete», moiste«, blackew, brighten. Compare Fy and Ize.

Ize, or ise, denotes to make; as barbame, systematiae, fertil-ize, civilise; analyse, criticise, advertise.

Ly, an abbreviation of like implies way or manner; as wiseZy, nob?y, rapidZj/, skilfully.

Ward, wards, means turned to or in the direction of; as ioward or iowards {turned, to), forward (/«reward), amp;c.

cesses of deducing derivative words from their roots, they will have little or no difficulty in English derivation properly so called. But to deduce English primitives from their originals in other languages, as from the Latin and Greek, they would require to be taught, in addition to the Prefixes and Affixes, a large number of what are called Latin and Greek roots; and also the forms which they assume in English words, which of course cannot find a place here.

Verbs formed in this manner are called frequeatatives, because they imply a frequency or iteration ot actions.

Nouns formed in this manner are called diniinutiïss, because they imply diminution; as

Koot.	Derivative.	Root.	Derivative.
Bind	Bundle	Seat	Saddle
Gird	Girdle	Shoot	Shuttle
Hand	Handle	Spin	Spindle
Lade	Ladle	Steep	Steeple
Nib	Nipple	Stop	Stopple
Round	Bundle	Thumb	Thimble
Ruff	Ruffle	Tread	Treadle
Some	frequentaiive verbs are formed by		adding er to the
primitive word; as
Beat	Batter	Gleam	Glimmer
Spit	Sputter	Wend	Wander
Spit	Spatter	Long	Linger
Pest	Pester	Hang	Hanker
Climb	Clamber	Whine	Whimper

Prom the natural tendency in all languages to abbreviations, long sounds in simple or primitive words usually become short in compounds and derivatives. The following are examples :

1. Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of the proper construction of sentences.

3. A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a definite se7tse or meaning.

B. In every sentence there must be at least one verb, and a noun or nominative. The nominative of a verb is called its subject, because it represents the subject of the assertion ') or affirmation made by the verb. Thus, in the sentence „Time fliesquot; — in which an assertion is made about the nominative

„time,quot; namely, that it „fliesquot; — 'Timequot; is the subject, and 'flies' is the verb.

4. Sentences are either simple or ooaipouad. A simple sentence contains but one subject, and one verb or assertion about it; as, 'Time flies,'

5. A compound sentence consists of two, or more simple sentences so connected as to form, when taken together, one complete proposition; as, „Time flies, and, death approaches

') In every ease the verb affirms or denies something a'jout its nominative, and hence some grammarians place the essence of the verb in asserting.

The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel doth not hnow, my people do not considerquot; A simple sentence forming part of a compound sentence is called a clause.

6. The principal parts of a sentence are the nominative or subject the verb and the object, that is, the word or phrase upon which the verb is said to act, when it is transitive,

7. The nominative of a verb is known by putting the question, Who ? or What, ? as, 'I love him;' Who loves him? Answ: I. ' Time flies;' What flies? Answ: Time,

8. The Object of the verb answers to the question, Whom? or What ? as, 'I love himWhom do you love? Answ : Him. ■He struck the table;' What did lie strike? Answ : The table.

9. A phrase is an expression consisting of two or more words, and forming, in general, part of a sentence. A phrase, also, means an idiom or peculiarity of expression.

11. Concord is the agreement of one word with another, in case, gender, number, or person.

12. Bovernment is the power wich one word has over another in determining its case or mood.

Rcle I. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, I am, Thou art. He is, We are.

In each of these examples the verb evidently agrees with its nominative in number and person. Thus, in 'I am,' the nominative '7' is the first person and singular number, and so is the verb 'am;' in 'Thou art,' thou is the second person singular, and so is the verb 'art;' and so on with the other examples.

In each of the preceding examples there is a distinct form for the person of the verb, namely, am, art, is, and are; but this is the only verb in the English language that varies its form or termination in the different persons. All other verbs remain unchanged, except for the second and third person singular of the present tense, and the second person singular of the past. Is it only in these three cases, therefore, that this rule can he violated; and the pupil has only to keep in mind that when thou is the

nominative, St ') must be added to the termination of the verb; as, Thou Zovest; ihou lovedamp;t, and when he, she, it, or any substantive in the singular number is the nominative, s must be added to the verb; He loves- she loves-, John loves-, the boy lorei.

Observe, that s added to a verb makes it singular, while the reverse is the case with nouns or substantives.

1. When the nominative is a collective noun, the verb may be either in the singular or plural number, according as vniiij or plurality of idea is intended to be expressed, as: The Aristocracy, they say, Is strenuously opposed to ^.(Brougham). The court has made up its mind. (James). Go and complain thy family is young. (Pope). The Scottish foe has fired his tent. (Scott). The number of independant chiefs and commanders was apt to introduce discords into their councils. (Scott). The train has left the hills of Braid. (Scott).

The Aristocracy set them?elves in a mass against the people. (Brougham). The body of foot wsxe drawn up in array. (James). The established clergy of the three Icingdoms are supported by public funds, chiefly arising from the fruits of the earth. (Chambers). The commonalty in the streets view wild, unshorn, and in rags. (Thackeray). By talent, indeed, his family had risen, and were strikingly characterised. (Bulwer). On the opposite side of the ditch the King's foot were hastily forming in order of battle. (Macaulay). The Mouse of Commons undoubtedly .consider their duty to the Crown, as paramount to all other obligations. (Junius). How jeeble are the two-legg'd kind! (Gay). Mankind begin by wonder, and conclude by worship. (Grattan). A fairer pair were never seen To meet beneath the hawthorn green. (Scott). Our party consist, in a neat Calais job, Of Papa and vtyself, Mr. Coner and Bob. (Moore). His people were loud in their grief. (Mackenzie). Will you not trust the people of England? l)ou you charge them with dissaffection to the Monarch and to the Constitution under which they live'! (Peel). The tow'rs of Heavn are fil'd

With armed watch, thai render all access impregnable. (Milton). Does good company Care to have a man reeling drunk among them? (Chesterfield). One half of the world are ignorant how the other half lives. (Goldsmith). England's host has gaind the plain; Wheeling their march, and circling still, Around the base of Floddcn hill. (Scott). Can parliamaat be so dead to its dignity and duty, as to give their support to measures thus obtruded and forced npon them ? (Chattam). The stork assembly meets, for many a day Consulting deep and various ere they take Their arduous voyage thro' ihe liquid sky. (Thomson).

3. Two or more singular nouns, connected by the conjunction and, are equivalent to a plural, and must therefore have the verb in the plural number; as , The tailor and the painter often contribute to the success of a iracjedy more than the poet. (Addison). Frince Barry and Falstaff, in Shakespeare, have carried the ridicule upon fat and lean as far us it will go. (Ibid).

8. Two or move singular nouns joined by or or aor, require the verb in the singular number, because the assertion is made only about one of them; as; When a wife, a child, a relation or a friend, performs iciud we desire with grumbling and reluctance, the manifest difficulty, which iley undergo, must greatly enhance the obligation. (Fielding.) Any new accident or object, which comes into such a gentleman's way, cjives Ms wife new pleasure and satisfaction. (Addison). It is seldom that either popular condemnation or applause foiloiss where it is merited. (Cooper). They succeeded so far in concealing their apprehensions that neither Miss Peyton, nor Frances was aware of their extent. (Cooper).

4. When the infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence is the nominative, the verb should be in the singular; as: To chase is one thing — to capture, another. (Marryat) To see him and not to spare him was an outrage on humanity and decency. (Macaulay). Customs to steal is szich a trivial thing. (Dryden).

5. When a subject or nominative is joined to a participle, without being connected with any other verb in ihe sentence, it is said to be in the nominative absolute; as: One of the

executioners rudely endeavouring to assist, she gently checked, him. (Kobertson). They walked along the road; Scrooge recognising every gate, and post, and tree. (Dickens). Morrison running for Cherlovrg, and Pickersgill steering the yacht along shore to the westward. (Marryat). Fear being an apprehension of pain or death, it operates in a manner that resemlies actual pain. (Burke).

Eule II. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for wich they stand, or to which they relate, in number, gender, and person; as:

1. When It stands for the subject of a proposition, it is applicable to each ol the three persons, in both numbers; as, It is 1; it is you; it is she; it is he; it is ice; it is they. Is it the king? (refer to page 50:4).

Eule III. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person; as:

'I vho am your teacher.' ^lThou who art my pupil.' 'lie that is good is happy.' You who are my friends.' 'The book which you read.' Here am I left to underprop this land', who, weak with aye. cannot support myself. (Shak.) Few hear, and they will not regard thee, who seemest like a person void of understanding and of a departed interest. (Taylor). Thou art he who shalt by right The nation all possess. (Milton). Behold, you Who dare, that charming virgin. (Spectator). Te, therefore who love mercy, teach your sons To love it too. (Cowper). These children, whom you have taught and loved, will not forget to love you. (Thackeray). Can he be fair, that withers at a blast? (Quarles.) These accidents arc common to all that die. (Taylor), He had two sons, of which I was the younger. (Fielding).

1. The relative is nominative to the verb if no uomi-natite comes between it and the verb; as „Solomon who

was the son of David, built the temple at Jerusalem.quot; Religion, which made a great feature in the Vend e'en war, was not among the motives which instigated the army of Montrose. (Scott). All the shell fishes that produce pearl, produce them not for him, (Taylor). The Cock implord the Pigeon s flight, Whose wings were rapid, strong, and light, (Gay.) Tall are the oaks whose acorns Drop in dark Ausers rill. (Macaulay).

2. But if a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the preposition going before, or the verb or noun following; as , „He whom we worship, ly whose gift we live, and by whom all things were made, is the Lord.quot; This calm of which we are speaking was soon to come to an end. (Thackeray.) The character which most young men first aim at, is that of a man of pleasure. (Chesterfield). I Jound, What weak credulity could have no faith in, 2L treasure far exceeding these. (Massinger).

3. The relative is often omitted, particularly in colloquial language; as, 'The person you visited yesterday called this morningquot;' '/ received the letter you sent yesterday.'' In these examples whom is understood before 'yoM visited; and lohich before 'you sent.' There's something tells me, (hut it is not love,) I would not lose you. (Shak.) Sir, there is a gentleman below desires to see you, (Sheridan). There was never law, or sect, or opinion, did so magnify goodness as the Christian Religion doth. (Bacon). Our friendship lusted all the time he stayed at Eton. (Bulwer). (compare page 53:6).

4. The relative which lias sometimes a clause or a sentence for its antecedent, as, ^lJohn is improving in grammar every day, which gives me great pleasure.'

5. Who and whom are used with reference to inferior animals , and inanimate objects when they are represented as acting and speaking like rational beings, or, in other words, when they are personified.

6. The relative which is generally used with reference to collective nouns, even though they represent persons; as, '■The committee which met to-day were divided in their opinions'

Rule IV. Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun,quot; belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood; as:

'Few are happy;' that is, few persons are happy (persons). 'This is a fine daythat is, this day is a fine day. 'That was a bold assertion;' that is, that assertion was a bold assertion. None but the brave deserves the fair (Dryden), Cruel, dost thou forsake us! (Bulwer). With the death of her betrothed, Fanny was free. (Ibid). The poor nurse was infinitely the more distressed of the two. (Warren). These are the tears of thankfulness for that. (Sheridan). There points the Muse to stranger's eye The graves of those that cannot die. (Byron). His conversation was a thousand times more agreeable to her than the talk of such of her own sex as she now encountered. (Thackeray). Their pleasure and their tasks had been the same. (W. Scott).

Rule V. The distributive pronouns, each, every, either, neither, agree with nouns, pronouns, and verbs in the singular number only; as, 'TAe two kings sat each on his throne;' 'Every tree is known by its fruit.' New beauties rise with each revolving day. (Thomson). They stood as signals to the land, Each one a lovely light. (Coleridge). Another guest there was, of sense refin'd, IFlw felt each worth, for every worth he had. (Thomson). We vjere every one on deck. (Uickens). He prospered beyond every one's expectations. (Warren). She drank to every one of her servants. (Eobertson). She was cheer d , But silently a gentle tear let fall From either eye, and wip d them with her hair. (Milton), One little stone in your own shoe or your horse's, suffices to put either to torture. (Thackeray). The croto doth sing as sweetly as the lark, When ftQXihw is attended. (Shak). Things terrestrial wear a diff'rent hue. As youth or age persuades; and neither true. (Cowper). Few competitions but engender spite; And those the most, where neither has a right. (Cowper). Neither could understand the other. (Bulwer).

In such cases as, 'every ten years',' 'every hundred men;' the plural lias a collective or singular meaning. Either means one of the two. but not hoth-, and neither means not either.

was the son of David, built the temple at Jerusalem.quot; Religion, which made a great feature in the Vende'en war, was not among the motives which instigated the army of Montrose. (Scott). All the shell fishes that produce pearl, produce them not for him, (Taylor). The Cock implor d the Pigeons flight, Whose wings were rapid, strong, and light. (Gay.) Tall are the oaks whose acorns Drop in dark Ausers rill. (Macaulay).

2. But if a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the preposition going before, or the verb or noun following: as, „lie whom we worship, ly whose gift we live, and hy whom all things were made, is the Lord.quot; This calm of which we are speaking teas soon to come to an end. (Thackeray.) The character which most young men first aim at, is that of a man of pleasure. (Chesterfield). I jound, What weak credulity could have no faith in, 'A treasure far exceeding these. (Massinger).

3. The relative is often omitted, particularly in colloquial language; as, 'The person you visited yesterday called this morning-,' 'I received the letter you sent yesterday' In these examples whom is understood before 'quot;you visited; and which before -you sent.' There's something tells me, {but it is not love,) I would not lose you. (Shak.) Sir, there is a gentleman below desires to see you. (Sheridan). There ivas never law, or sect, or opinion , did so magnify goodness as the Christian Religion doth. (Bacon). Our friendship lusted all the time he stayed at Eton. (Bulwer). (compare page 53:6).

4. The relative which has sometimes a clause or a sentence for its antecedent, as, '■John is improving in grammar every day, which gives me great pleasure.'

6. The relative which is generally used with reference to collective nouns, even though they represent persons; as, '2%« committee which met to-day were divided in their opinions'

Rule IV. Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun,quot; belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood; as:

'Few are happy;' that is, few persons are happy {persons). 'This is a fine day ' that is, this day is a fine day. 'That was a hold assertion;' that is, that assertion was a bold assertion. None but the brave deserves the fair (Dryden). Cruel, dost thou forsake us! (Bulwer). With the death of her betrothed, 'Fanny was free. (Ibid). The poor nurse was infinitely the more distressed of the two. (Warren). These are the tears of thankfulness for that. (Sheridan). There points the Muse to stranger's eye The graves of those that cannot die. (Byron). His conversation was a thousand times more agreeable to her than the talk of such of her own sex as she now encountered, (Thackeray). Their pleasure and their tasks had been the same. (W. Scott).

Eule V. The distributive pronouns, each, every, either, neither, agree with nouns, pronouns, and verbs in the singular number only; as, ^lThe two kings sat each on his throne;' 'Every tree is known by its fruit.' New beauties rise with each revolving day. (Thomson). They stood as signals to the land, Each one a lovely light. (Coleridge). Another guest there was, of sense refold, IVho felt each worth, for every worth he had. (Thomson). We were every one on deck. (Dickens). Be: prospered beyond every one's expectations. (Warren). She drank to every one of her servants. (Robertson). She was cheer'd , But silently a gentle tear let fall From either eye, and wip'd them with her hair. (Milton). One little stone in your own shoe or your horse's, suffices to put either to torture, (Thackeray). The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark, When neither is attended. (Shak). Things terrestrial -wear a different hue, As youth or age persuades; and neither true. (Cowper). Few competitions but engender spite; And those the most, where neither has a right. (Cowper). Neither could understand the other. (Bulwer).

In such cases as, 'every ten years-,' ^levery hundred men;' the plural has a collective or singular meaning, Either means one of the iwu. but not both; and neither means not either.

Eule VI. Transitive verbs and Transitive participles govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case; as :

'1 love John, and John loves me.' 'He struck us.' 'This is the man whom I love' ¹ Seeing him pass, I called himquot;.' News, which every day arrived from England, of the fury expressed by the Commons against all papists, struck fresh terror into the Irish nation. (Hume). He thinks the strangest things (that) you ever heard. (Dickens). As he stood there, waiting his arrival, the knocker caught his eye. (Dickens). Two men who watched the light had made a fire. (Dickens).

quot; i. Participial nouns formed from transitive verbs follow the same rule; as. 'He injured himself in injuring them. (Refer to page 16). I heard a voice on a sudden hailing me with great familiarity by my christian name. (Fielding). Albert and Marguerite concealing themselves as best they could, beheld the fierce and bloodthirsty Prêvot with his companions seeking them through the castle. (James).

2. Transitive verbs are sometimes used for intransitive verbs which are analogous in meaning; as, 'JToa can return the hook when you return,' that is, come back. 'The earth turns upon its axis, that is, revolves. Sir, you do me infinite honour! (Sheridan). Mr. Smith, do me the favour to ring the bell. (Marryat). Where is the national spirit that ever did honour to this country 1. (Fox). Light reading does not do when the heart is really heavy. (Bulwer). The Continent only does for us English people to see — not to inhabit. (Bulwer), Now the devil, that told me I did well, Says that this deed is chronicled in hell. (Shak).

3. A verb in the infinitive mood, a sentence or part of a sentence, may be the object of a transitive verb; as, 'John loves to study;' '1 know how you, have served me.' '/ could not avoid seeing him.' His comrades had plotted an orchard to rob, And ask'd him to go and assist in the job. (Cowper). 1 presently promised to obey his commauds. (Fielding). I have heard that you struck him three or four times, (Macaulay).

4. Some verbs in the passive voice, particularly in colloquial language, are followed by an objective case, as:

'He was promised a school;' 'John was offered a fine situation;' ^lHe was promised her in marriage;' '/ was asked a question. The King, from the earliest period oj his reign, was denied the personal enjoyments of a nobleman. (D'Israeli). He was forbidden access to the sacrifices or public worship; he was debarred all intercourse with his fellow citizens. (Hume). He was permitted a liberty in his hours of leisure, of which he availed himself with all the zest of his early habits and adventurous temper. (Bulvver). The King had been taught the Viol di Gamba, (D'Israeli).

Kule VII, Prepositions govern the objective ease of nouns and pronouns; as: (See notes, p. 137). He informed me to whom the different houses belonged that lay in our view. (Goldsmith). He brought my little ones a pennyworth of gingerbread each, which my wife undertook to keep for them. (Ibid). Iran quot;back as far as I could in one breath without looking behind me. (Addison).

1. Prepositions are frequently omitted before the words which they govern; as, 'Give (to) him that book'He taught (to) me geography; 'Jane is like (tO) herf 'It is very near (to) us; 'I asked (of) hint a question;'' 'Saddle (for) me the ass;' 'They were banished (from) the realm ' 'You must not pass (through or beyond) this place! Mr. Allworthy answered, in the morning he would provide (for) it a nurse. (Fielding). When Mr. Burchell bought (for) each of the girls a set of ribands, Sophia's ivas the finest. (Goldsmith). After these visits supper succeeded to find (for) him fresh employments. (Coventry). Yet what thou canst attain which best may serve to glorify thy Maker shall not be withheld (from) thy hearing). (Milton). Who shall find out his uncouth way o'er the vast abrupt, ere he arrive (at) the happy isle. (Ibid). Banished (from) France and excluded (from) Italy, he was desirous of obtaining an asylum m England. (Bulwer). He mourn'd (for) no recreant friend, no mistress coy. (Beattie).

•I am he.' 'It was she.' 'It is I.quot; 'It is they.' '7 supposed Mm to he the person.' 'He proved himself (to he) my friend on the occasion.' 'Tou believed it to he her.'

1. The positions of the nominatives before and after the verb to be, may be reversed without changing the sense. In fact, it is an assertion that they are identical; and hence they are put in the same case; a?, 'I supposed him to he the person' is equivalent to, 'ƒ supposed the person to be him.' 'The captain of the ship is my brother is equivalent to. 'My brother is the captain of ike ship. With other verbs it is quite different; as, 'Brutus killed Caesar, cannot, without violating the truth, be changed into, 'Ccssar killed Brutus'

3. Verbs of calling, naming, appointing, making, considering, seeming, becoming, and some others, have the same case after them that they have before them, when both words refer to the same thing. In such cases there is generally an ellipsis ; as, 'they appointed him (to be) a great man; 'they made him (to be) king^lthey called Mm (by the name of) ^John'he died (as or like) a rebel •' 'Tom struts (as or like) a soldier.'

Eüle IX. One verb governs another that follows it or depends upon it, in the infinitive mood; as, „Cease to do evil; learn to do well.quot;

1. When the infinitive mood implies purpose or motive it is, strictly speaking, not governed by the preceding verb, but by some word or phrase understood before it, such as for or in order; as, 'ƒ read [for or in order] to learn.' ,There was none [for] to help.' ' What loent ye out for [or in order] to see?' There is a similar ellipsis before infinitives which are said to be governed by nouns and adjectives; as, 'Tour desire [for] to improve is very laudable.' 'I am anxious [for] to serve you.'

3. The infinitive is sometimes used absolutely; as: •To speak the truth, we are all liable to error.' 'To be candid with you, I think you are in the wrong.' To be sincere, I

had strong suspicions that some absurd proposal was preparing. (Goldsmith). To be sure she could not help being uneasy. (Fielding). To confess the truth, he was never master there, (Fielding). I too was there, and, sooth to tell, Bedeafen'd with the jangling knell. Was watching where the sunbeams fell. Through the stain'd casements gleaming. (Scott). To think what a victory over herself the proud woman must have obtained! (Bulwer).

3. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the verbs, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let (and others in frequent use, as the auxiliary verbs'). But when these verbs are used in the passive voice, the infinitive following them has generally the sign to expressed; as:

'I bade him do it.' '1 saw him go.' 'Make them sit down.' '1 heard him say it' 'lie dares not do it.' 'Wt are bidden to rest.' They were seen to go.' 'He was heard to say' When shall it he morn in the grave, to bid the slumberer awake? (Macpherson). Jove bids disperse the murm'ring crowd. (Gay). He bade them dwell in peace. (Cowper). Bid him make haste, and meet me at the north gate. (Shak). The King sent one to bid him withdraw from his Majesty's presence. (Clarendon).

Ah! dared I speak my feelings ! (Byron). He dared not in more honourable days have risk 'd it. (Ibid). They for God's cause their monarchs dare dethrone. (Dryden). The steward was summoned up, and he dared not disobey. (Mar-ryat). Did they dare obey my phrensy's jealous raving ? (Byron). Woe to the vassal, who durst pry Into Lord Marmionsprivacy ! (Scott). If I dare eat, or drink, or breathe, or live, I dare meet Surrey in a wilderness. And spit upon him, whilst 1 say, he lies. (Shak). Her kindness and her worth to spy, Ton need but gaze on Ellens eye. (Scott). I need not muse. Nor gape, nor ponder;, which to choose. (Woicott). You need not read it again, sir. (Sheridan). O need 1 tell that passion'i 9iame ! (Scott). I'll make her behave as becomes a young woman. (Sheridan). Shall I make Spirits fetch me what I please? Resolve me of all ambiguities ? Perform tchat desperate enterprises 1 willi (Marlowe). That contagious ambition made my own

veins run more warmly, and my own heart beat with a louder tumult. (Bulwer). It made him shudder, and feel very cold. (Dickens). I made Mm take the two fowling-pieces, which we always carried, and load them. (Defoe). See the juries arise. (Dryden). I saw him beat the surges under him. (Shak). I saw him come haclc again. (Defoe). Do exactly as you see me do. (Defoe). I have seen thee fight. (Shak). The master saw the madness rise. (Dryden). When shall you see me write a thing in rhyme? (Shak). I heard a step come heavily forward. (Goldsmith). We heard it ripple night and day. (Byron). I-heard him shriek, and call alcnd for help. (Marlowe). She cannot endure, to hear tell of a husband. (Shak). We could hear her waken Rifle. (Smollet). They felt a filial heart Beat high within them at a mother's wrongs. (Cowper). I felt my hairs individually bristle. (Scott). Now does he feel his title Hang loose about him (Shak). I feel this pin prick. (Shak). Let us exercise a little more patience. (Bunyau). Let them find that out. (Goldsmith). 'Let us get our boat out, Steward,' said his lordship, 'and help them' (Marryat). Let us arise from the bed of slothquot;, distribute our time with attention and care; and improve to advantage the opportunities which Providence has bestowed. (Blair). Lord marshal, let me kiss my sovereign's hand. And bow my knee before his majesty. (Shak). First let me rise and take my sword. (Butler).

4. Dare, when it signifies to challenge or defy, or when the imperfect tense and the past participle are conjugated regularly, is followed by to; as: '/ dare thee hut to breathe upon my love.' Though the Colonel was a brave man and dared to fight yet he was altogether as willing to let it alone. (Fielding). Woods whose gloomy horrors yet no desperate foot has dared to pierce. (Thomson). Re resolved to make an example of the wretch that had dared to lay her iniqu ides at his door. (Coventry).

Rule X. When two substantives come together signifying the same thing, they agree in case; as. The veteran Robles, Seigneur de Belly, a Portuguese officer of eminent Service and high military rank, was also destroyed. (Motley). His most illustrious antagonist, the great Gondé, remarked after the

bloody day of Seneff, that the Prince of Oranje, had in all things home himself like an old general, except in exposing himself like a young soldier. (Macaulay).

1. In such cases the latter substantive is said to be in apposition to the former; but all such expressions are elliptical. Thus, 'Paul, the apostlemeans Paul who was an apostle—or Paul, I mean the apostle.

Etjle XI. When an article precedes a participial noun, the preposition of should follow it; as, '■Much depends on the observing of this rule; 'This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him? I hear the beating of nature's heart. (Nicoll). Behold the contending of kings. (Macpherson). Commissions mere issued for the levying of new regiments. (Macaulay). There is nothing, says Plato, so delightful, as the hearing or the speaking of Truth. (Addison). (Refer to pages 7 6, N. 13 and rule vi., note 1. page 194).

1. An adjective before a participial noun has the same effect; as, 'This was no unnecessary exciting of the feelings? In all such cases, participial nouns are used purely as nouns; and as such, they cannot take an objective case after them , without the intervention of a preposition. In the preceding examples , for instance, 'the observing' is equivalent to the observance; 'abetrayingio a betrayal; and 'exciting? to excitement.

3. A possessive pronoun, or a substantive in the possessive case, before a participial noun, should have the same effect; as, 'Much depends on their observing of this rule;' ,Much depends on John's observing of this rule.' In such cases, however , the Of is often omitted, even by correct writers.

Rule XII. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; nor adverbs as adjectives; as:

'Indifferent honest;' 'exceeding careful;' 'remarkable well;' 'she dresses very neat'he acted conformable to his instructions;' 'such a tall man.' 'Thine often infirmities;' 'the soonest time; 'she looks very neatly;' 'the study of syntax should be previously to that of punctuation.'

1. In poetry, adjectives are frequently used instead of adverbs, and often with propriety and beauty; as, „We'll teach you to drink deep ere you depart;quot; „Slow rises worth by

poverty oppressed;quot; „A field where weeds and/lowers promiscuous shoot;quot; I,How jocund did they drive their team afield.quot;

2. In cases like the following, the idiom of the English language requires that adjectives and not adverbs should be used: '1 feel sick;' '■She looks pale;' 'It tastes sour;' 'boil the eggs hard;' 'John came late;' ,He painted the «'oo?'black'Her smiles amid the blushes lovelier show;' ,Glows not her cheek the fairer?' — See in the Idioms for additional illustrations.

3. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper; as, •more wiseri¹ 'the worser part;' 'the lesser angle;' 'the most ttrictest sect.'

Eule XIII. Adverbs are, generally speaking, placed after verbs, before adjectives and other adverbs; and in compound tenses, between the auxiliary and the participle; as:

'John reads well, hut he writes badly;' ,Jane is a very good girl;' 'The copy which he has just finished, is very carelessly written.''

Eule XIV. Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns; as in the following examples:

'To do good and to distribute forget not.' ,He comes and goes as he pleases.' ,He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all.'¹ 'He and she arrived y ester day.'■ 'I saw him and her yesterday.

1. Conjunctions do not always connect the same tenses; as, 'It is, and nas, and shall be.'

3. The conjunction than is said to govern the relative in the objective case; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater Ung never reigned.' This arose from mistake, (from supposing than to be a preposition,) and should not be imitated.

3. „Some conjunctions,quot; it is said, „require the indicative, some the subjunctive mood;'' but as the conjunctions which usually precede the subjunctive mood, may be used before the indicative also, when the sense requires it, the meaning intended to be conveyed should, in every case, determine the form of the expression; as in the following examples:

Justice rules the hall.'' 'Though he fall, he shall not utterly he cast down.' 'Though our outward man perishes, the inward man is renewed day hy day.' 'Though he does submit, he is not convinced.' 'Unless he act prudently he will not accomplish his purpose' 'Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless.'

Rule XV. — The form called the Subjunctive mood should be used only when doubt or contingency regarding a future action or event is implied—or, in other words, when an ellipsis, such as shall or should cannot be supplied, the Indicative, and not the Subjunctive form should be used; as:

'/ƒ it rains (that is, is raining) I will not go;' 'If it rain (should rain) I will not go.' — See pages 123 and 133.

Eule XVI. Interjections have no government; but in phrases, they are followed by the objective case of the pronoun of the first person ; and by the nominative case of the pronoun of the second; as, Ah me! Ah! thou unfortunate man! Oye hypocrites!

1. An objective case after an interjection is governed by a preposition understood; as, 'Ah me,' that is, alas for me; 'Wo is me,' that is, wo is to me.

2. The nominative after O expressed or understood is called the nominative of address. 01 is used for wishing, exclaiming, or addressing: Oh! expresses pain, sorrow, or surprise.

Etile XVII. Two Negatives in the English language destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative; as:

'Nor did they not perceive himthat is, they did perceive him. 'Nor have I no money which 1 can spare.' 'I cannot drink no more.' 'He will never be no taller.'

Eule XVIII. Never use the past tense for the past participle; nor the past participle for the past tense; as :

He is came,' instead of he is come; 'the river is froze,' instead of frozen; 'the window is broke,' instead of broken; '/ had wrote,' instead of written; 'I have chose,' instead of chosen; 'I have sang,' instead of sung.

'1 seen,' instead of 1 saw; '1 done,' instead of / did; '1 begun,' instead of 1 began; '1 sung,' instead of I sang.

1. In compound tenses the verb to be is used both before the present and the past participle of other verbs; but the

verb to have is used only before past participles; as, '1 am moving,^, '1 am moved? 'I have moved,'' kc. See pages 91, 92, 93.

2. The other auxiliary verbs, shall, will, do, may, can,') must, are used only before the infinitives of other verbs. See page 121.

Kdle XIX. In the use of words or phrases which in point of time relate to each other, the order and consistency of time should be observed.

Thus, instead of saying, 'I know the family more than twenty yearsit should be, 1 have known. 'The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away.' It should be gave. , What wilt thou, that I should do unto thee ? The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my sight! It should be may.

1. In such cases, as Dr. Lowth ²) has said, the best rule is, 'to observe what the sense necessarily requires.'

1) And their past tenses should, would, did, might, could, «) quot; 'ƒ thought to have written last week? is a very common phrase, the infinitive being in the past tense, as well as the verb which it follows. Bat it is certainly vicious: for how long soever it is now since I thought, to write was then present to me; and must still be considered as present when I bring back that time, and the thought of it. It ought to be, therefore, 'I thought to Write last week: '1 cannot eateuse tJie remissness of those whose business it Should hfive been, as it certainly was iheir interest, to have interposed their good o-fjices.' — (Swift). 'There were two circumstances which would have made it necessary for them to have lost no time.' — (Swift). 'History painters would have found U difficult to have invented such a species of beings! — (Addison). It ougnt to be to interpose, to lose, to invent.quot; — Lowth.

quot;Consider well what you mean, what yon roish to say, and you will never make a mistake as to the tenses of verbs. 'I thought to have heard the noble lord produce something like proof.' No! My dear James will never fall into the use of such senseless gabble! You would think of hearing something; you would think of to hear, not to have heard; yon would he waiting to /war, and not like these men, be waiting to have heard.quot; — Cobbett.

Hence, except when the sense requires it otherwise, the present infinitive and not the perfect should follow the past tense of another verb; as, 'Be intended to go last week,' not, ^LHe intended to have gone.' In this case the first form is correct; because it is meant that his intention, which was present at the time specified, was to go, not to have gone.

Ellipsis in grammar is the omission of some word or words in a sentence for the sake of brevity and terseness. The omitted word or words must be understood by the reader, otherwise he can neither understand the sentence fully, nor parse it grammatically. In cases, therefore, of difficulty or ambiguity the elliptical words should be supplied.

Thus instead of saying, 'He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man,' we make use of the ellipsis, and say, 'He was a learned, wise, and good man.'

'John is as tall as James' [is], 'John is taller than 1' (am], 'John reads better than James' [reads]. 'John reads as well as James' [reads]. 'I. like him better than her;' that is, than I like her. 'I like him letter than she;' that is, than she likes him. 'During our long and costly wars much more was spent each year than could be raised by taxes;' that is, much more money was spent in eacA the money would amount

to, which could be raised by taxes. 'I knew him well, and every truant knew that is, knew him. See. „Figures of Syntaxquot; for additional illustrations.

1. The simple meaning of the word to parse is, to give or name the part of speech of each word in a sentence. This ought to be the first step; and it might be called Simple Parsing.

2. In Simple Parsing the pupils should be required merely to state what nart of speech each word is, without saying

any thing more about it, except giving, when called upon, their reasons for so classing it. As the classification of words is the foundation of Grammar, and as the importance of laying a good foundation is proverbial, too much attention cannot be paid to Simple Parsing.

H. The next step in Parsing should be to what is called Etymological Parsing. In this exercise the learner should be required to give, not only the part of speech of each word in a sentence, but also to tell every thing that he knows about it—or, in technical language, he should state its individual accidents¹). For example, if it be a noun, he should state its number and case; if a verb, its mood, tense, number, and person; and if an adjective, its degree of comparison, amp;c.

4. The third or highest kind of Parsing is what is called Syntactical Parsing. In this exercise the learner should be required to give not merely the part Of speech of each word, and its individual accidents, but also, to point out the relation it bears, or the connexion it has, with other words in the sentence. For example, he is to give the Concord and Government of words, and when required, the appropriate Rule of Syntax. It is obvious that both Simple and Etymological Parsing are indued in Syntactical Parsing.

5. The best way of arriving at the meaning of a sentence is to analyse it logically, that is, to resolve it into the subject , the predicate , and the copula. This will be easily done, for, generally speaking, a sentence in grammar, and the principal parts into which it is divided, correspond to a logical proposition and its divisions. The subject and predicate of a proposition may be found by asking what is spoken of, and what is said of it; and in this way, the drift or general meaning of a sentence may be at once ascertained.

6. As it is of great importance to save time in a school, the pupils should be accustomed to parse in as succinct a

!) An accident in logic is the name of a non-essential quality; that is, a quality which a thing may or may not have, without ceasing to be what it is; as whiteness in a man.

form as possible. Some form, such as the followiug, should be fixed upon, and rigidly adhered to. But should the sentence to be parsed contain any difficulty or peculiarity, the teacher will of course question the pupils upon it, and fully explain it to them,

Proper Noun—is a proper noun, and nominative ') case to the verb—[or, in the possessive—or objective case governed

Common Noun—is a common noun; singular [or plural] number and nominative case to the verb—[or in the possessive—or objective case governed by—]

Pronoun—is a pronoun, first [second, or third] person, singular [or plural] number; and nominative¹) case to the verb—[or in the possessive—or objective case governed by—]

Adjective—is an adjective in the—degree; qualifying or referring to the noun—

Verb—is a verb [regular or irregular]; transitive [or intransitive] ; present [or past] tense; first [second, or third] person; and singular [or plural] number to agree with its nominative—. [If the verb is in the infinitive mood the pupil should add governed by—J ²)

Adverb—is an adverb modifying the verb—[adjective or adverb—[or, used for the purposes of abbreviation, amp;c].

Preposition—is a preposition, governing the noun [or pronoun]—in the objective case.

) In the case of a compound tense, the pupil should say 'a con*pound teuse, expressing present [or past] time; and if necessary he should be required to resolve it into its constituent parts. See page 91.

The following sentence, which contains all the parts of speech, is parsed as an example.

„I now see the old man coming; but alas! he has walked with much difficulty.quot;

see is an irregular, transitive verb, present tense, and first person singular, to agree with its nominative I; and governing the noun man in the objective case.

old is an adjective in the positive degree, qualifying the noun man. man is a common noun, singular number, and objective case,

he is a pronoun, third person, masculine gender,') and nominative case to the verb has walked.

has walked is a compound tense, expressing past time, and agreeing with its nominative he. (It is compounded of the third person, present tense of the verb to have, and the past or perfect participle of the verb to tval/e).

¹) Except when the noun or pronoun lias a form to express the gender, it is unnecessary to speak of it.

difficulty is a common noun, singular number, and objective case, governed by the preposition with.

Even in this simple sentence the teacher will observe some peculiarities on which he should question the pupils—such as the distinction between older and elder, oldest and eldest; much and many, amp;c.

[As a practical proof of the applicability of the simple and easy method of parsing, recommended in this work, even to what may be considered the highest or most difficult kind of English, we shall parse, verhatim, a passage from Paradise Lost; which, to avoid the appearance of selection, we shall take from the beginning of the First Book.]

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe.

With loss of Eden , till one greater man Eestore us, and regain the blissful seat,

(0) heavenly muse , sing (thou) of man's first disobedience, and (sing thou of) the fruit, amp;c. amp;c.

and governing 'disobedience.'' (Rule VII). man's . . . Noun, com., sing, (but used here in its widest sense, having no article to limit it¹); poss. case, gov. by '■disobedience.'' ('Man's' what? 'Disobedience).'

first . . . Adjective in the superlative degree,' contracted from the old form fore, forer, forest, jor'st (first). 'First' what¹? ,Disobedience.' It therefore refers to or qualifies the noun disobedience. disobedience. Noun, abstract, sing, (not used in the plural);

(Composed of dis ¹), which has here its negative force, and obedience], and . . . Conjunction, copulative, connecting 'the fruit,' to the preceding clause. ('And' what? ,The fruit;' that is, 'Sing of man's first disobedience,' and sing, also, of 'the fruit,'' amp;c.) the .... Definite, article, particularizing 'fruit,' namely,

fruit . . . Noun, com., sing., obj. case, gov. by.the prep, 'of:,' understood. (And sing of Hhe fruit.')

. Of . . . Prep, gov. 'tree.' ('Of what? 'Of that forbidden ') tree.' Kule VII).

used adjectively, and qualifying 'tree' ('Forbidden' what? 'Tree.') Composed of the negative prefix jor and the verb to bid.

. . Pronoun, relative, sing, (because its antecedent, 'fruit,' is sing.); and poss. case gov. by 'taste.' ('Whose' what? 'Taste.' Eule III., Note 3.) . Adjective, nut admitting of comparison; qualifying 'taste.' Mortal' what? 'Taste. Mortal signifies here causing death ; in the sentence , 'man is mortal ' it means subject to death). . . Noun , common , sing., nominative case to the verb 'brought.' (Refer to pp. 55 and 120). 8. Brought . Verb, trans., irreg., past tense, and third person, sing., to agree with its nora. 'taste.' (Give all the parts of this, verb, namely, the present and past tenses; the participles; and the imperative, and infinitive mood).

death . . . Noun, com., sing., and obj. case, gov. by the trans, verb 'brought.' ('Brought' what? 'Death.') into . . . Prep., governing 'world.' (Eule VII.) the . . . Def. article, referring to 'world.'

by the preposition 'into.' and . . . Conjunction, connecting, 'all our woe' with

'death,' that is, 'and' brought ,all our woe.' all . . . . Adj. not admitting of comparison; qualifying

'woe.' ('All' what? 'Our woe.') our . . . Adj. pronoun of the poss. kind, referring to or

woe . . . Noun, common, sing, num. and obj. case, gov. by 'brought,' understood.

clause, aud governing 'loss.' (Eule VII.) loss . . . Noun, com., sing. num. and obj. case, gov.

Eden . . . Noun, proper; obj. case gov. by the prep, 'of.' till . . . Conjunction. (Eefer to page 96.) one . . . Numeral adj., referring to or qualifying 'man.'

('Greater' than who? 'The first man Adam, who was of the earth, earthy.') man . . . Noun, sing.; and nom. case to some verb understood, as 'came.'

1) Restore. Acconliug to the usual method of parsing, 'restore,' would be in the subjunctive mood governed by the conjunction 'till;' but it is really in the infinitive, governed by a verb understood. In such cases, shall or should is usually the verb understood; but in this instance, the sense requires a verb in the past tense, such as came, as it was after the Christian era that the poet wrote.

The following lines from 'Paradise Regained,' illustrate the meaning of this passage;—

by some verb understood; as 'came to restore.' us, ... Pron., 1st per., plur. num., and obj. case gov. by the trans, verb 'restore,' (or rather by the prep, 'to' understood, that is, came to restore Eden to us, and came to regain/or us the blissful seat.') and'regain . Conj. and verb. (See the preceding sentence.) the blissful . Def. art.; and adj., qualifying 'seat.'

6. Sing,') . Verb, imper. mood, second person singular, having 'thou' understood , for its nominative, heavenly . . Adjective, qualifying 'Muse.'

Muse! . . Noun, sing.: nominative of address; O being .understood. (Rule XVI. Note 2.)

!) Sing. In accordance with established usage, we have said that'sing' is in the imperative mood; but it is really in the infinitive, governed by some verb understood, such as 'I invoice* or '7 entreat' thee to sing,'—or it is my wish that thou shouldst 'sing.' See page 73. Note 3,

1. A proposition in logic is a sentence in which something is predicated, that is, affirmed or denied of some other thing. It consists of three parts, the subject, the predicate, and the copula. That which is spoken of, is called the subject of the proposition; that which is said of it is called the predicate; and that which affirms or denies the predicate of the subject is called the copula. Thus, in the propositions, 'Sugar is sweet,' ■John is not lullthe words sugar and John are the

by some verb understood; as 'came to restore.' Pron., 1st per,, plur. num., and obj. case gov. by the trans, verb 'restore,' (or rather by the prep, 'to' understood, that is, came to restore Udm to us, and came to regain for us the blissful seat.') Conj. and verb. (See the preceding sentence.) Def. art.; and adj., qualifying 'seat.'

Verb, imper. mood, second person singular, having 'thou' understood , for its nominative. Adjective, qualifying 'Muse.'

¹) Sing. In accordance with established usage, we have said that'sing' is in the imperative mood; but it is really in the infinitive, governed by some verb understood, such as 'I invoke' or '/ enireat' thee to sing,'—or it is my wish that thou shouldst 'sing,' See page 73. NoteS.

1. A proposition in logic is a sentence in which something is predicated, that is, affirmed or denied of some other thing. It consists of three parts, the subject, the predicate, and the copula. That which is spoken of, is called the subject of the proposition; thai which is said of it is called the predicate; and that which affirms or denies the predicate of the subject is called the copula. Thus, in the propositions, 'Suijar is sweet,' '■John is not tall,' the words sugar and John are the

//subjectsquot;; sweet and tall are the „predicatesquot; and is and is not are the copulas.

2. And when the substantive verb is not expressed, as in the propositions,' The sun shines,' ,Tke sun does not shine,' the copula is or is not is included in the signification of the verb used. Thus, 'shines' in the first proposition is equivalent to is shining; and 'does not shine' la the second, is equivalent to is not shining.

3. The subject and predicate of a proposition are called the terms of it. A term is a word expressing a notion or idea. And as an idea may be expressed by a single word, or by a combination of words, the terms of a proposition, that is, the subject and predicate of it, may consist each of a single word; as, 'Man is mortal;'*) ,To err is human,'—Or they' may each consist of several words; as, 'A variety of pleasing objects is grateful to the eye;' 'To fear God is the beginning of wisdom.' But in every case, no matter how many words are used, the subject of a proposition may be found by asking ourselves, of what are we speaking? and the predicate, by what do we say of it?

4. As in every proposition the predicate must be either affirmed or denied of the subject, every proposition must, consequently, be either affirmative or negative. When the predicate is affirmed of the subject, the proposition is said to be affirmative; as, 'dinner is ready;' Hhe sun shines;' and when the predicate is denied of the subject, the proposition is said to be negative; as the 'dinner is not ready;' 'the sun does not shine'

5. When the predicate is affirmed or denied of the whole of the subject, the proposition is said to be universal; as, 'all men are mortal; 'but when the predicate is said only of a part of the subject, the proposition is said to be particular; as, 'some men are deceitful' In some propositions it is not expressed whether the

') In such cases the predicate, strictly speaking, consists of iwo words^ for every adjective must refer to a substantive expressed or understood. In those examples the full propositions would he, 'Men are mortal beings;' ,To err is a human failing or character Is tie.'

predicate agrees or disagrees with the whole of the subject, or with only a part of it; as, 'men are mortal-? 'men are deceitful.' Such propositions are said to be indefinite; but in reasoning, they must all be considered either as universal or particular, because the predicate must, in every case, agree or disagree, either with the whole subject, or only with a part of it; that is, in other words, every proposition must really be either universal or particular.

Hence every indefinite proposition is reducible either to the class universal or particular; and every singular ¹) proposition must be considered as a universal one, because the predicate either agrees or disagrees with the whole subject; as, 'that mountain is high; 'John is not a good boy.'

[In each of the following examples, the pupils should be required to point out the subject, copula, and predicate; and also, to state whether the proposition is affirmative or negative, universal or particular, indefinite or singular. And in the case of an indefinite proposition, they should also state whether it is really universal or particular.

All trees are vegetables. Horses are quadrupeds. No human being is perfect. Some coins are made of silver. Food is necessary to life. Virtue alone is happiness below. Not a drum was heard. Debt is the worst kind of poverty. Dublin is the capital of Ireland. Fools are wise in their own estimation. Stockings are made of cotton. To see the sun is pleasant. One year's seeding is nine years' weeding. To deprive any one of his due is contrary to justice. Well begun is half done. From Dover to Calais is eighteen miles. ²) The moon is up. The storm is over. Boys like to play. Seeing is

') That is, a proposition wliose subject is a singular term or a proper name, as in the examples given above, ('that mountairi and 'John.')

²) That is , the distance from Dover to Calais is eighteen miles—or it (put for the distance) is eighteen miles, amp;c. See note 1, p. 50.

believing. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. The good taste of the present age has not allowed us to neglect the study of the English language. The roan of piety and virtue secures for himself the approbation, both of God and of his fellow man.

1. Generally speaking, a sentence in grammar, and the principal parts into which it is divided, correspond to a logical proposition and its divisions. In every simple sentence , however short, the three essential parts of a proposition will be found; and in every compound sentence, however long, all the parts or clauses of which it is composed will be found to range naturally under one of these three heads. For every sentence, as well as every proposition, is resolvable into something of which we are speaking, and something which we say about it.

3. When the terras of a proposition consist of a single word each, it is obvious that simple propositions and simple sentences are identical; as, 'Man is mortal; 'To err is human; 'Time flies' (—is flying). But when the terras of a proposition contain several words or adjuncts, the grammatical subject or nominative, and the verb which refers to it, form only parts of the logical subject and predicate: for in a logical proposition, which implies reasoning, the idea expressed by all the words or adjuncts is regarded; but in a grammatical sentence there is always a special reference to the agreement and government of the principal words in it; as the nominative, the verb, and the object.

.'5. In the following proposition, for example, both of the terms consist of several words or adjuncts, and consequently, its division into subject and predicate will not coincide with its division as a sentence: „Men ivlto are prudent avoid dangers which are obviousquot; Here we are speaking, not of men generally, but of men who are prudent, and consequently the whole of these words must be regarded as the logical subject; whereas the word men of itself constitutes the gram-

matical subject or nominative (to the verb uavoidquot;). And what do we say of men who are prudent? Not merely that they avoid dangers, but that they avoid dangers which are obvious. Hence the logical predicate comprehends the whole of these words; whereas the two words avoid dangers form of themselves the grammatical predicate and object.

Hence it appears that when the terms of a proposition are simple, the logical and grammatical subjects and predicates are the same; but when the terras are complex, the logical subject and predicate include the grammatical subject and predicate with their adjuncts. It should also be noted that though the terms of a proposition may be complex, the proposition itself may be simple, as in the example just given; for though there are several words used, there is but one thing spoken of, and one thing said of it. The same example also shows that a simple proposition may be a compound sentence; for every sentence is compound which consists of more than one finite verb. See p. 187.

[The pupils should be required to point out the distinction between the logical and grammatical subjects and predicates in the following propositions or sentences.]

A great book is a great evil. The first Eoman emperor was killed in the senate house. Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. He that runs may read. Who steals my purse steals trash. The school of experience is the only school for fools. A very little attention will often prevent very great errors. The man who is faithfully attached to his religion may be relied on with confidence. Full many a gem of purest ray serene, the dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. To know that which before us lies in daily life, is the prime wisdom.

Almost every object that attracts our notice has its bright and its dark side. Me who habituates himself to look at the

dark side will sour his disposition, and consequently impair his happiness; while he who constantly beholds it on the bright side, insensibly ameliorates his temper, and in consequence of it, improves his own happiness and the happiness of all around him.

The analysis of a sentence consists in resolving it into its constituent parts, and pointing out their several relations, connexions, and dependencies.

In analysing a sentence grammatically we should, in the first place, resolve it into its principal or essential parts; and then point out the adjuncts, if any, which belong to each part. The principal parts of a sentence are, the nominative, the verb, and the object, that is, the word or phrase on which the verb is said to act if it is transitive. The nominative is found by asking the question Who or What with the verb; as in the sentence, ¹ Alexander conquered Darius; Who conquered Darius? Alexander. And the object is found by asking the question Whom or What; as, in the same sentenee: Whom did A lexander conquer ? Darius. Should there be any other words or clauses in a sentence, they will be found to range naturally as adjuncts under one of these three heads. For example, the nominative and object (which are either nouns, or words or phrases equivalent to nouns) ') may have adjectives qualifying

') Words or phrases equivalent to nouns arc—1. Personal pronouns. 2. Verbs in the infinitive mood. 3. Participial or substantive phrases. 4. Clauses of sentences. For example, 'My brother cannot attend today.' 'He will come to-morrow.' 'To rise early conduces to health.'' 'Heading frivolous books is a misapplication of time.' 'Th.at llO has always succeeded, does not prove that he always deserved to succeed.' In the preceding examples, the words or phrases printed in big letters are, in each case, the subject of the sentence; and in the examples which follow, the words similarly printed are the object. 'ƒ saw your brother yesterday.' '/ saw him au hour ago.' 'Learn to do well, and practise how to thrive.' '1 like living in the Country.' 'That he has always deserved to succeed does not prove that he always succeeded.' See note 4, under Kule 1., p. 190.

them, and relative or explanatory clauses following them; and the verb may have an adverb or adverbs modifying it, and also other words or phrases denoting circumstances connected with it; as the time ') when the action which it signifies, was done; the place²) where it occurred; the cause³) motive, or purpose for doing it, the instrument *) or means by which it was effected; and the manner⁴) or mode of accomplishing it. These are the principal adjuncts³) by which sentences are enlarged; and as they are all obviously introduced by the speaker or writer for the purpose of extending, limiting, or modifying in some way, the meaning of the principal parts, it will be easy to point them out, and to arrange them under their respective heads.

') Adjuncts of Time answer to the questions. When? HOW long? How often? See the different classes of Adverhs, p. 135.

^s) The principal adjuncts of the nominative or subject of a sentence are—1. Adjectives, or words, phrases, or clauses equivalent to adjectives, as 'Prudent men avoid dangers' In this sentence ^m.denf is an adjunct of the subject; and if we substitute for it «men of prudence,quot; or quot;men having prudence,quot; or quot;men who are prudent,quot; the meaning will be the same. 2. Nouns in apposition, as. Hector, the Trojan hero, was killed by Achilles' 3. Nouns in the possessive case, as, 'The nightingale's tong is jidl of melody.' Or the noun preceded by of, which is equivalent to a possessive, as 'The song of the nightingale is full of melody.'

And as the object in a sentence is either a nounor a word, phrase, or clause equivalent to a noun , its adjuncts are similar to those of the subject or nominative, as, 'Be employed Jor the2gt;urpose ■pvü.ÖLQ'at men,' or quot;men of prudence,quot; or quot;men having prudence,quot; or quot;men who were prudent.quot; 'Achilles slew Hector, the Trojan hero.' '1 admire the nightingale's song, or the song of the nightingale.'

The adjuncts of the verb or predicate in a sentence are either adverbs, or phrases, or clauses of sentences equivalent to adverbs. See page 215.

This is the true basis; both of grammatical and logical analysis. In the former all the words or clauses introduced as adjuncts are connected either with the nominative, the verb, or the object; and in the latter, every adjunct not belonging to the subject, is to be considered as forming a part of the predicate. In illustration of what we have said, we shall enlarge, by the introduction of adjuncts, the simple sentence, //Alexander conquered Darius;quot; and then show how it may be analysed ;

„Alexander ihe Great, the son of Philip, king ofMacedon, in the 330th year before the Christian era, with a small army, completely conquered Darius, Ihe king of Persia, in his own dominions, though he was at the head of almost innumerable forces.quot;

Now looking over this sentence we perceive that 'conquered' is the verb, and by asking who conquered? we find that 'Alexander' is the nominative. We have then 'Alexander conquered,' and as the verb is transitive, we ask whom or what did Alexander conquer? and the answer will be -Darius.' The word 'Darius' is therefore the object. Having thus found the three principal or fundamental parts of the sentence, the adjuncts which belong to each part may be ascertained by asking. What Alexander? 'Alexander the Great.' Who was he? 'The son of Philip, king of Macedon.' When did he conquer Darius? 'In the 330th year before the Christian era.' Did he conquer him completely or only partially? 'Completely.' By what means did he conquer Darius ? Was it with a small or a large army? 'With a small army.' Who was Darius? 'The king of Persia.' Where did Alexander conquer Darius? 'In his own dominions.' Notwithstanding what did he conquer Darius? 'Though he was at the head of almost innumerable forces.'

And even without putting such questions formally, it, will be easy, in most sentences, to point out the adjuncts, and to account for their introduction. In the sentence under consideration, it is obvious that the nominative is followed by three adjuncts, and the object by one, which explain or

determine precisely the „Alexanderquot; who is spoken about, the „Dariusquot; that is meant; and it is equally obvious that all the other words and clauses in it, are adjuncts denoting circumstances connected with the verb; as the completeness of the action, the time when , and the place where it occurred , and the means or instrument by which it was effected.

It is true that we often meet with sentences in which it is difficult to determine to which of the parts certain adjuncts belong; but in all such cases, the difficulty arises from a confusion of ideas in the construction of the sentence. It should be observed, however, that in constructing a sentence, we never think of the parts of which it is composed: nor is it at all necessary. Illiterate persons, and even children, construct sentences—and often very correct sentences—without having any technical knowledge of a sentence, or of the parts into which it is divided. But in all such cases, they know what they are speaking about, and what they say of it; and this is the true basis of the proper construction of sentences as well as of propositions.

When in compound sentences, the subject, or predicate, or object of two or more of the clauses is the same, it is unnecessary to repeat it in each case. Such sentences are called Contracted sentences. A contracted sentence may have, 1. Two or more subjects, and one verb or predicate. 2. Two or more predicates, and one subject'). 3. Two or more objects, and one predicate. Examples of each will be found in the following sentences:

I) It should be noted that a sentence is not necessarily compound because it contains two subjects or two objects, connected by the conjunction and. For example , 'Tvjo and three make five canuot be resolved into two sentences; nor 'He left his house, to Ins wife and daughter.'' In such cases, the two subjects or two objects form a compound subject or object.

Europe, Asia, and North America are in the north latitude. John and James prepare their lessons at home. Asia is in the north latitude and east longitude. John loves and obeys his parents. John loves his brothers, sisters, and school-fellows.

In analysing sentences, the great object is to point out the connexion and meaning of the several parts; and when this is done, the object is fully attained. And in fact, it is only in this general way, that the analysis of sentences is either useful or practicable. In putting sentences together, we da not proceed technically or by rule, and therefore we cannot expect to be able to make every sentence that we meet with the subject of an exact analysis. We might, it is true, select sentences in abundance which could be shown to be in exact accordance with almost any form of analysis; but no form of analysis, however perfect it may appear, is worthy of adoption, unless it applies to all sentences; and such a form , it is almost unnecessary to be observe, must be very simple and very general. Such is the form we have just described; and as it applies generally to every sentence, it is unnecessary to select examples.

The neuter pronoum It is often used at the beginning of a sentence to introduce the subject or nominative. In such cases, It has au emphatic effect; for, by introducing the subject, it bespeaks, as it were, attention to it. ^lIt was John who broke the window' is much stronger than the simple assertion, 'John broke the window; in fact, it implies that it was John, and not any other person, who broke the window.

In such cases, It represents any word or words that can be the subject of a sentence; and hence it is applicable to each of the three persons in both numbers; as, 'It is I who am to blame.¹ 'It v:as they who did it?

Like the pronoun It, the adverb There is often used at the beginning of a sentence , lo introduce the subject or nominative.

Like It, too, in a similar position, There lias an emphatic effect, but in a much less degree. Though it is commonly-used in connexion with the verb to be, yet there are many other verbs before which it can be used in the same way. In such cases. There is idiomatic, and it may be called an Introductory adverb. The following are examples;

There is a tide in the affairs of men. There was much water there. There were twenty persons present. There will be a day of reckoning. There lives and works a soul in all things. There needs no argument to prove it. There wanted not persons to stand up. There ran a report.

This phrase has been used by some of the best English best writers in the sense of I'd or I would; as;

This phraseology is however incorrect , and should properly not be imitated, I'd is considered a colloquial contraction for I had, as well as for I would; and hence the mistake arose.

The first form of expression. The Miss Thomsons, is much to be preferred, and is, in fact, established by general usage. Analogy too is in favour of it, for when two or more substantives form together one complex name, the possesive case singular, and the nominative plural are formed by adding 3 to the last word; as, 'Beaumont and Fletcher's Flays;' 'The two Doctor Thomsons.' Besides the second form, 'The Misses Thomson,' savours of affectation, and should therefore be avoided.

Some critics object to the first form of expression, because, as they observe, there cannot be three first. There can only be one first. The expression is however sufficiently accurate, and usage is decidedly in favour of it. But if things are spoken of with reference to their divisions into threes, fours, etc., the second form should be employed.

The latter is an affected form of expression , for which no respectable authority can be quoted'). It should, therefore, be diseouutenaneed.

In such phrases as 'the house is building'the work is printing,' 'building'' and 'printing' are generally regarded as present participles used passively; but they are really participial nouns or gerunds, governed by a preposition understood ; as, a building, a printing. that is, at or in process-of building. This form of expression, though genuine English , has fallen into disuse of late years. The following are examples: 'While the ark was a preparing.' While the flesh was in seething,' Forty and six years was this temple in building,'

'He was the wretched'st thing, when he was young. So long a growing,' - Shah. Rich. 111.

And when he thinks, good, easy man, full surely His greatness is a ripening, nips his shoot.'— Hen. VIII. 'There is some ill a brewing towards my rest ,

For I did dream of money bags to-night.' — Merch. Venice. 'He that goes a borrowing, goes a sorrowing-' — Old Proverb.

') Every language has its idioms, which pedants only would attempt to change. For some time past, 'The bridge is being built * 'The tunnel is being excavated* and other expressions of a like kind, have pained the eye and stunned the ear. Instead of 'the stone is falling' and 'the man is dying,' we shall next be taught to say, 'The stone is being fallen,'' and 'The man is being dead' This incongruous conjunction of a present with a perfect participle, as if for the purpose of producing a confusion of tenses, is an absurdity of very modern origin, and has scarcely yet appeared in any respectable composition. Johnson writes to Boswell, 'My lives are reprintingBolingbroke says, 'The nation had cried out loudly against the crime while it loas commuting;' and Milton has, 'While the Temple of the Lord was building,'' — Booth's Grammar.

The words 'pass' in this phrase is obviously a verb in the inftnitive mood. Dr. Johnson, however, thinks that it maybe a noun with the article understood; and that it may be explained in this way: ^lIt came to (the) pass (that).' The primary meaning of 'to pass' is to step; and hence it came to signify, to move progressively; to arrive or come to, to happen. 'It came to pass,' that is, the event or thing referred to came or happened in the order of time.

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows this phrase, the sign to is suppressed; as, 'He does nothing but complain; that is, 'He does nothimj but to complain—or except complaining.' 'Those who do nothing hut drink, and dance, and sing in the summer, must expect to starve in the winter. See p. 75, Nos. ö and 7.

When dimension, number, or time, is specified, the adjective is placed last; as, 'A tvall ten feet high;' 'A child six years old;' 'An army 30,000 strong.' In such phrases, the construction is, 'd wall high by ten feet'—or, as it is said colloquially, 'A wall of ten feet high;' 'A child of six years old;' 'An army of 30,000 strong.

The first form is more in accordance with analogy and even with authority '). Those who regard ,as' in such a position as a relative'²), explain the phrase in this way: The arguments were (those) as [=which] follow;' The argument was (that) as [=wMch] follows.' But we should prefer to explain it in this way: 'The arguments were (such) as (those which) follow'—ox, (the same) as (those which) follow; quot;The argument was (such) as (that which) follows'—or (the same) as (that which) follows. See p, 53, Nr. (i.

^J) The most eminent of the kennel are blood-hounds, which lead the van, and are as follow.' 'The words were as follow' — Steele, (Tatler.) 'The words are as follow' — Addison. {Spectator.)

Some authorities') regard the verb as follows as impersonal with it uncfiSrstood as its nominative. Thus, ^lThe arguments were as (it) follows.'

In such cases .worth' is put for worthy of, or the worth of; the meaning being, that it is deserving of—or the value of.

In this colloquial expression, you seems to be the nomina-, tive to please, but it is really the objective after it; the ellipsis being 'If it should please you' And in such sentences as, 'He can go if he please,' the meaning evidently is if it should please himself; and hence the correct form would be, 'He can go if it should please him.'

The preposition with is sometimes used for the conjunction and; as in the following sentences:

'The captain with his men were taken prisoners' 'The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.' 'The king with the lords and commons, constitute an excellent form of government.' 'His purse, with its contents, were abstracted from his pocket' 'Prosperity with humility render their possessor truly amiable.'

In each of these sentences, the sense obviously requires the verb to be in the plural form; but this—unless the preposition with can be regarded as a conjunction—involves a violation of the first rule of Syntax. Some authorities, among whom is Lindley Murray, content that the verb in such cases should be singular; as, 'The side A, with the sides B and C, composes the triangle.' This is good grammar, it is true, but very bad sense—or rather no sense at all—as a triangle is not composed of one side but of three. If such constructions were avoided-—and they ought to be avoided—no such difficulties could occur.

') Among whom are Campbell (the author of the Philosophy of Rhetoric and Lindley Murray.

„There is a mistake very prevalent in common parlance at present, which may here be noticed; namely, the making the adverbs of time, directly and immediately, do duty as conjunctions. It has been seen by quotations from good writers, that immediately cannot take its place at the beginning of a sentence, unless it stand absolutely, and be followed by a preposition, as immediately upon, immediately after; and without some such arrangement it cannot take its place before the nominative; yet we commonly hear and even read such phrases, as immediately he heard it; directly he arrived, the horses were brought. In all such cases it stands in the room of the conjunction wben or the phrase as soon as, and is particularly offensive to an ear trained to anything like grammatical accuracy.quot; — Pickering's Small Booh on Great Subjects. (Gram., p. 110.)

Some authorities regard sentences such as the following as grammatically correct:

In such cases, they argue, that as the two nouns are different names for one and the same thing, the verb referring to them should be singular.

In such sentences as the following, it has been doubted whether the verb should be in the singular or plural number.

Dr. Crombie says: 'There seems to be more ease, as well as more precision, in this than in the other mode of expression.' It is unquestionably, however, more agreeable to analogy to say, 'are gentlemen.

When there are two antecedents of different persons, the sense intended to be conveyed must determine with which of them the relative is to agree. Such constructions therefore as the following, are by no means optional:

Some authorities') regard the verb as follows as impersonal with it uncTSrstood as its nominative. Thus, ^LThe arguments were as (it) follows?

In such cases .worth' is put for worthy of, or the worth of; the meaning being, that it is deserving of—or the value of.

In this colloquial expression, you seems to be the nominar tive to please, but it is really the objective after it; the ellipsis being 'If it should please you? And in such sentences as, 'He can yo if be please,' the meaning evidently is if it should please himself; and hence the correct form would be, 'He can go if it should please him.'

The preposition with is sometimes used for the conjunction and; as in the following sentences:

'The captain with his men were taken prisoners? 'The side A. with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.' 'The king with the lords and commons, constitute an excellent form of government? 'His purse, with its contents, were abstracted from his pocket? 'Prosperity with humility render their possessor truly amiable?

In each of these sentences, the sense obviously requires the verb to be in the plural form; but this—unless the preposition with can be regarded as a conjunction—involves a violation of the first rule of Syntax. Some authorities, among whom is Lindley Murray, content that the verb in such cases should be singular; as, 'The side A, with the sides B and C, composes the triangle? This is good grammar, it is true, but very bad sense—or rather no sense at all—as a triangle is not composed of one side but of three. If such constructions were avoided-—and they ought to be avoided—no such difficulties could occur.

') Among whom are Campbell (the author of the Philosophy of Ehe torie and Lindley Murray.

„There is a mistake very prevalent in common parlance at present, which may here be noticed; namely, the making the adverbs of time, directly and immediately, do duty as conjunctions. It has been seen by quotations from good writers, that immediately cannot take its place at the beginning of a sentence, unless it stand absolutely, and be followed by a preposition, as immediately upon, immediately after; and without some such arrangement it cannot take its place before the nominative; yet we commonly hear and even read such phrases, as immediately he heard it; directly he arrived, the horses were brought. In all such cases it stands in the room of the conjunction when or the phrase as soon as, and is particularly offensive to an ear trained to anything like grammatical accuracy.quot; — Pickering's Small Books on Great Subjects. (Gram., p. 110.)

Some authorities regard sentences such as the following as grammatically correct:

In such cases, they argue, that as the two nouns are different names for one and the same thing, the verb referring to them should be singular.

In such sentences as the following, it has been doubted whether the verb should be in the singular or plural number.

Dr. Crombie says: 'There seems to be more ease, as well as more precision, ill this than in the other mode of expression.' It is unquestionably, however, more agreeable to analogy to say, 'are gentlemen.

In the first sentence, 'I' is the subject, and 'the man who commands' the predicate; and the sense intended to be conveyed is, 'I am your commander.' In the second sentence 'I who command' is the subject, and 'the man' is the predicate; and the meaning is, I 'your commander am the man.

In the following and similar sentences it may be doubled whether the words sick, good, hard etc., should be classed as adjectives or adverbs ')■

') quot;When it is intended to predicate something of the subject, beside the attribute of the verb, the adjective should be employed; but when it is intended to express merely some modification of the attribute of the verb, we should then use the adverb. The difference may be illustrated by the following examples; -— quot;When Gustavus says to his troops, 'Your limbs tread vigorous and your breasts beat high,' he predicates with the act of treading their physical strength; but had he said, 'Your limbs tread vigorously,' it would merely modify their treading, and express an act, not a constitutional habit. The same distinction may be made between saying with Arnoldus in the same play : 'The tear rolls graceful down his visage,' and; «The tear rolls gracefully.' The former predicates grace of the tear itself, the latter merely of its rolling. quot;When we say, 'He looks sly,' we mean that he has the look or the appearance of being a sly man; when it is said, 'He looks slyly,' we signify that he assumes a sly look. quot;When we say, '«It tastes good,' we aflirm that the subject is of a good quality, whether the taste be pleasant or unpleasant; if we say, 'It tastes well,' we affirm the taste of it to be pleasant.quot; — Dr. Crombie.

On this idiomatic use of the adjecti\e, quot;Webster lays down the following rule: — «Adjectives are used to modify the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the action by which they are produced. For example, in the sentence, 'Open thy haud wide,' we observe that wide, the attribute of hand, has a connexion with the word open; for it is not open thy wide hand, but the attribute is supposed to be the effect of the act of opening. 'Nor can the modifier widely be used; for it is not simply the manner of the act which is intended, but the effect.quot;

'7 feel sick,' Ht tastes good,' 'it feels hard,' 'it smells sweet,' it boils soft,' it is pronounced short.' 'The West Indian fieet arrived safe.' '■The grass it cut close, and the gravel is rolled smooth.' 'The judge held the scales of justice even.' 'Our provisions ran short.''

In all such cases the adjective form is correctly used , because the reference is to the nominative or subject of the sentence, and not to the verb. When the manner of the verb is to be indicated, the adverbial form should be used. For example, in the sentence, 'She always dresses neat,' 'neat' should be neatly; while in 'She always appears neat,' the adjective form is properly used , because it refers to the subject or nominative. See Eule XII., p. 199.

Ajectives modifying each other should be considered as forming one compound adjective; as 'a red hot poker? a dark yellow colour -,' 'a narrow necked hoitle.' It is obvious that there is but one idea 'expressed. 'A red hot poker' does not mean a red and a hot poker.

As '), — When as has a strictly connective meaning in a sentence it is a conjunction; as, 'As the rain has ceased, I will take a walk.' But when it modifies the words or phrases which it connects, it is an adverb. In some cases it seems to be equivalent to a relative; but this is in consequence of an ellipsis. See page 55.

Above, below, before, after, and several other words of the same class, are often used adverbially, and classed accordingly; bui if the words which are understood after them be supplied, it will be seen that they are, even in such cases, prepositions. For example, in the sentence, 'Go you before

') In some cases it is not easy to decide whether as should be classed as a conjunction or as an adverb; nor is it of any great importance. Dr. Johnson classes it as a conjucction in all cases, and Webster as adverb. Sec the observations under adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions, in the preceding part of this work, (pages 133, 137 , 158, etc.)

and I will go after, before,' and 'after' are used adverhially; but if we supply the words that are understood , the prepositional character will appear; as, 'Go you before mej and I will go after you.

Both. —Both is, strictly speaking, an adjective prononn; but when it is followed by and, as in the following example, it is called a conjunction: '1 hoth sent and ivroie.'

But'). — When but means except, and governs an objective case it is a preposition. When it is equivalent to only, merely, or no more than, it is an adverb. In all other cases it is a conjunction.

For. — When for is equivalent to because, it is a conjunction. In all other cases it is a preposition.

Either, Neither. — These words are really adjective pronouns; as, 'Take either of them you like.' '/ will take neither of them' They are, however, often used and classed as conjunctions; as, 'It is either summer or winter' 'It is neither summer nor winter. It is spring,' In such cases, that is, when they are used as conjunctions, or corresponds to either and nor to neither.

However'). -— This word is generally classed as an adverb; but it has sometimes a strictly connective meaning, and is, consequently, in such cases, to be regarded as a conjunction.

Much, more, most. — These words are, strictly speaking, adjectives; but when they are employed to modify verbs; adjectives, or adverbs, they are called adverbs; as in tjje following examples :

'/ like yours much, I like his more; bul I like Jojm's most.' 'John is more diligent than James. In fact, he is the most

') But strictly means be out, and except means take Out. In laet, as Home Tooke lias shown, the words now classed as conjunctions, were originally verbs in the imperative mood. In Scotland, the word but is still used in its primitive sense. The but of a house, for example, means the be out or outer apartment; as the ben means the be in or inner one.

⁵) However. This word is classed as an advert) by Dr. Johnson and Webster. See the note upon 'As.' page 337.

diligent loy in the school.' 'He reads more correctly than you. In fact, he reads most correctly.

Mach, more, and most, are also used as nouns, but if we supply the words that are understood, it will be seen that they are adjectives'). For example:

'Much of it' is equivalent to a large or great part of it; •more of it,' to a larger part of it; and 'most of it] to the largest part of it. And the sentence, „ Where much is given , much is required,quot; may be resolved in this way, „Where much advantage or grace has been given, much gratitude is required or expected.'

No. — No is an adjective when it refers to a noun; as 'no money, 'uo friends' When it refers to a verb, or, in other words, when it has the force of not, it is an adverb; as, 'Were you there?'' 'Ho.' (That is, I was not there.)

Only. — When only qualifies or refers to a noun it is an adjective; as, '•an only son,' 'the only reason.' When it modifies a verb, it is an adverb; as, 'He was not killed; he was only wounded.'

Save. — Save is properly a verb in the imperative mood: but it is often used as a preposition; as, 'God save all here, save this wicked wretch.' See the note on But. Page 228.

Since. — When since has a strictly connective meaning in a sentence, it is a conjunction; as, 'Since we part, let us part in 'peace' When it governs an objective case it is a preposition; as, 'Since that time I have seen him but once.' In all other cases it is an adverb; as, 'A short time since.' (That is, ago.)

That. — This word, according to its meaning in a sentence , may be a demonstrative pronoun, a relative pronoun, or a conjunction. See page 52.

¹) These words may be similarly explained when they are used as adverbs. Thus, 'He loved him more — or, most' may be resolved into, 'He loved him in a greater — or, in the greatest degree,'

of therefore; as, '7 am then? to conclude that you are determined to do it.' In all other cases it is an adverb.

Therefore. — When therefore follows such words as and, itj since, and conveys only the sense of for that reason, it is an adverb; but when it expresses that sense and also connects, it is a conjunction; as, 'He is good therefore (cow/.) fee is happy.' 'He is good, and therefore (adv.) he is happy.'

What with. — What followed by with in the sense of partly may be classed as an adverb; as 'What with the roquelaure, and what with the weather, it will he enough to give your honour your death.'

I'll tell you what. — In the colloquial phrase 'Til tell you what,' the ellipsis is the thing which I shall tell you is so and so. '/ tell you what, Corporal, I could tear her;' that is '/ could tear her,' this is what (or the thing which) I tell you.

Yet. — Yet is a conjunction when it corresponds to though; as, „Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor.quot; In all other cases it is an adverb.

Certain words and phrases in English require particular or appropriate prepositions after them; as:

') Abide. In is the usual preposition after abide, but others may be used; as 'to abide in the land' — at a place — witll a person — by an opinion. To abide in a transitive sense, or without a preposition, means to bear or endure; as, 'I cannot abide his impertinence?

²) Accept. As, quot;Feradventure he will accept of mequot; — Gen. xxxii. 20. It is now however usually without the preposition; as, '1 accept the offer.'

^J) Accommodate to' means to fit or adapt to; as, ' We ought to accommodate ourselves to our circumstances.' 'Accommodate with means to supply or furnish with; as, 'to accommodate a person witix apartments.'

*) 'Accompanied by' his friends: 'accompanied with' the following conditions (that is, in connexion with.)

i) 'Attend to' nieans to listen to; ,to attend upon,' to wait upon. ^%) 'Compare with' in respect to quality; 'compare to, by way of illustration; as, quot;He compared reason to the sun, and fancy to a meteorquot;

) We are 'disappointed of a thing when we fail in getting it, after having expected it; and we are often 'disappointed in' a thing when we obtain it, and lind that it does uot come up to our expectations.

The figures of speech are divided into three classes: 1. The figures of Orthography, which are deviations from the usual

^!) Between should be used when the division is between two; when there are more than two, among.

form or spelling of words. 2. The figures of syntax, which are deviations from the syntactical or regular construction of words. 3. The figures of Rhetoric, which are deviations from the literal or usual meaning of words.

The figures of Orthography are, Aphaer'esis, Pros'thesia, Syn'cope Apoc'ope, Parago'ge, Diaer'esis, Synaer'esis, and Tmesis. _v

Aphaeresls takes away a letter or syllable from the beginning a word; as, 'gins for begins, 'gainst for against. 'The glow-worm shows the matin to be near And 'gins to pale his uneffectual fire.' — Shakspeare.

Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word; as disannul for annul, un/oose for loose, ame for rise.

Syncope cuts out a letter or syllable from the middle of a word; as, lov'd for loved, se'nnight for sevennight, lass for ladess.

Apocope cuts ofi' a letter or syllable from the end of a word; as, th' for the, morn for morning, mob') for mobile.

Diaeresis places two dots over the latter of two vowels, in order that they may be pronounced in two distinct syllables; as, zoology, cooperate, aërial.

Synjeresis is the contraction of two vowels or of two syllables into one; as ae in Israel.

Tmesis separates compound words by putting a word between; as, 'To God ward,' that is, 'toward God.'

The following contractions are chiefly colloquial: — Can't for cannot, won't for will not, shan't for shall not, prithee for

') Mob. — //I dare not answer that mob, rep., pos., incog., and the like, will not in time be looked upon as part of our tongue.quot; — Addison. (Spectator, No. 13».)

/ pray thee, I'd for I would or I had, t'other for the other, o'clock for of the clock, etc.

The figures of Syntax are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enallagé, Hyperbaton. Of these figures the Ellipsis is by far the most important. See page 203.

There is scarcely a sentence, however simple, in which, there is not an ellipsis of some one or more of the parts of speech; as may be seen by the following examples:

1. Ellipsis of the Article. — 'A man, [a] woman, and [a] child came to the door' 'A house and [a] garden to be let! ^lTlie sun and [the] moon.' 'The day and [the] hour! — But if the expression is intended to be emphatical, the article should be repeated; as, I have told you the day and the hour! that is, 'not only the day but the hour! The indefinite article should also be repeated when one of the words begins with with a vowel, and the other with a consonant; as, 'A garden and an orchard! An apple and a pear!

2. Of the Noun. — 'The laws of God and [the laws o/] man! '■One sun by day, by night ten thousand [suns] shine 'He lived near St. PauVs,' that is, St. Paul's church.

3. Of the Adjective. — When the same epithet is applicable to two nouns joined together , the adjective and article may be omitted before the second. Thus, 'A little man and woman! denotes that they are both little. But 'A little man and a woman' implies that the man only is little. The following is incorrect; 'These nations are separated by mutual fears and mountains! The adjective 'mutual' is not applicable to mountains. The same adjective should not be applied to nouns of different numbers; as, A magnificent house and gardens ').

') In some cases, the omission or insertion of the article causes the sense to be different. Thus,'A learned and good man! denotes one man; but 'A learned, ani a good man' may mean two. 'The green and yellow dresses' meaus only one kind of dresses; bat ' The green and the

4. Of the PronuüD. — '1 love and [I] fear him ' 'He watched and [he] wept, he prayed and [he] felt for uil.' 'My house and [my] garden.' 'His father and [his] mother.' 'Who steals my purse, steals trashf that is, he teho etc. 'She loved me for the dangers I had passed;' that is, through which I had passed.' 'The property I possess is but small;'' that is, which I possess. The omission of the relative occurs chiefly in the objective case. It should never be omitted in the nominative case except when , in the same sentence, and under the same general construction, it has been previously expressed in that case. We may say, 'The man who spoke and [who] afterwards wrote:' but not, 'I had several men [who] died in my ship.' Nor, 'He is the man whom you saw and [who] afterwards spoke to you.' In the two latter sentences who should be expressed.

5. Of the Verb. — 'JVho did it?' I [did it]. Jf he come;' that is, if he [shall or should] come. '1 went to see and hear him; that is, [/ went to] hear him. 'She is young and [she is] handsome.' 'I have studied my lesson, but you have not; that is, but you have not [studied yours].

6. Of the Participle. — 'Men loving virtue, [loving] learning and [loving] hospitality.' This [being] done, proceed.

7. Of the Adverb. — 'He spoke and acted wisely;' that is, 'He spoke wisely and acted wisely.' 'Thrice I went and [thrice I] offered my services'

8. Of the Preposition. — 'He left [on] this morning, and he will return [in] next month' 'He departed [from] this life.' 'He was banished [from] the kingdom' 'He went into the churches and \]ie went into the\ public buildings.'' 'I went through the lanes and [/ went through the] alleys. nThe Lord do that, which seemeth him good;quot; that is, 'which

yeltow dresses' implies two kinds, the one green, and the other yellow. 'He is a better soldier than scholarmeans he is more warlike than learned. But 'Re is a letter soldier than a scholar¹ implies , «he is a better soldier than a scholar would prove to be.quot;

seemeth to him good'') 'It is more elegantly expressed ly Solomon than him;'' that is, than it is by him. Wo is me;' that is, to me.' 'To walk a mile; that is, through — or for the space of — a mile. 'Like [to] him. 'Near [to] him.' A boy [ofI six years old.' 'A wall [of] ten feet high'.

9. Of the Conjunction. — ' Were I [if I were] Alexander I would do it.' 'So would I, were I [if I were] Farmenio.' 'If we go and [if] we miss him.' 'As it were;' that is , as If it were. 'I came, [and] I saw, [and] I conquered.' 'He said [that] he would do it.' -Though I love him, [yet] I do not flatter him! ³)

10. Of the interjection. — 'Oh the villany, [Oh] the shame, [Oh] the perverseness of men!' The ellipsis of the interjunc-tion is not common.

Pleonasm is the use of superfluous or unnecessary words; as, 'I went home full of a great many serious reflections.' In this sentence, the words 'a great many' are superfluous, anil should therefore be omitted.

This figure is allowable only when it adds force and perspicuity to a sentence, as '1 have seen it with my eyes.'

') In the following and similar cases it would be better to supply the ellipsis: 'The horse [on wllich I rode fell down,' 'In the posture I lay;' better, 'The posture in which I lay.' 'We speak that \whic}i\ we do know, and testify that we have seen.' 'There is nothing

men are more deficient in than knowing themselves.' It ought to be, 'There is nothing in which men are more deficient than in knowing themselves.' 'I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy \whicK\ would yield more variety and use.'

^s) In the following, and similar cases, the ellipsis is improper. If he had read further, he would have found [ihaf] several of his objections might have been spared.quot;

'pretty strong,' 'fall toell;' in which cases adjectives are employed as adverbs. In poetry only this figure is allowable; as, 'Slow rises worth by poverty depressed'

Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, 'Silver and gold have 1 none.' 'Stands Scotland where it did?' 'Bied he not in his bed?' 'Great is Diana of the Ephesians'

This figure, when judiciously employed, imparts variety, harmony, and energy to a sentence.

The principal figures of Ehethoric are Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Hyperbole, Irony, Metonymy, Syneo'doche, Antithesis, Apos'trophe, Prosopopoea, and Climax.')

A Simile illustrates one object by comparing it with another, to which it bears some point or points of resemblance, however unlike it may be in other respects. Thus , „The eloquence oj Demosthenes was like a rapid torrent; that of Cicero, like a large stream that glides smoothly along with majestic tranquillity.

The word simile denotes similitude or likeness; and, it is always known by the sign like or as. Thus, „He is like a tree planted by a riverquot; — or, „He is as a tree planted by a river.quot;

Metaphor. If in a simile the sign of comparison (like or as) is dropped, the figure becomes a metaphor. Thus, „He is a tree planted by a riverquot; is a metaphor. Again, „His soldiers are like lionsquot; is a simile; but, „His soldiers are

A figure is called a trope when it regards a single word. The principal tropes are Metafhor, Metonymy, SynecJtdoche. and Irony.

lionf is a metaphor. In fact, a metaphor, instead of saying that one thing is like the other, asserts that it is the other. It is therefore a bolder and more energetic figure than the smile. The following are correct metaphors : „Thou art my rock and fortress.quot; „Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a. light to my path.quot; ill will he unto her a wall of fire round about.quot;

The following are examples of incongruous and improper metaphors; as, 'One of my hands was shot through the nose.'') 'ƒ bridle in my struggling muse with pain.

To bridle a goddess, as Dr. Johnson observes, is not a very delicate idea. But why must she be bridled ? Because she longs to launch — an act not usually prevented by a bridle. And whither will she launch? Into a nobler strain. In the first line she is a horse; in the second, a ship or a boat; and the care of the poet is, to keep his horse or his ship from singing.

Allegory. An allegory is a continuation of metaphors or metaphorical language through several sentences. Parables and fables are allegories. There is a beautiful allegory in the 80th Psalm, in which under the symbol of a vine the Jewish nation is represented. It begins thus, „Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt quot;

The Hyper'bole is an excess of figurative or metaphorical language; as „Rivers of blood and hills of slain.quot;

Irony. By irony we express ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our assertions; as, when we say 'Well done,' and

I) So wrote the captain of a ship when giving au account of an engagement, — Fitzosborne's Leiters.

mean the reverse. Thus also, a foolish person is often called a Solomon; a scolding woman a lamb.

Metonymy is a figure which changes or puts the name of one thing for that of another allied to it, or dependent upon it; thus:

1. The cause lor the effect; as, They have Moses and the Prophets;quot; that is, their works. 2. The effect for the cause; as, „Cray hairs should le respectedquot; that is. Old age. 3. The contained for the thing contained; as, 'The kettle boils;' that is, the water. 'They smote the city;'quot; that is, the inhabitants of it. 4. The sign for the thing signified; as, 'He assumed the sceptrethat is , the sovereignty.

Synecdoche puts the whole for a part or a part for the whole; as, when we use the waves for the sea —: or, a sail for a ship. It also puts the general for the special, and the special for the general; as, '■Preach the Gospel to every creature;' that is, only to every human being. „Give us our daily bread;' that is, all the necessaries of life.

Prosopopoeia or Personification is that figure by which Ave address inanimate objects or irrational beings, as if they were persons; as, 'The. sea saw that and fled.' 'What aileth thee, O thou sea, thai thou jleddest.' uThe mountains saw thee, 0 Lord, and they trembled.quot;

An Apostrophe is a sudden turning off from the subject of the discourse to address some other person or thing; as, „Death is swallowed up in victory; O Death, where is thy sting!quot;

The Antithesis is a contrast ol words which serve like shades to set off opposite qualities; as,

Hast so much wit, and mirth , and spleen about thee, There is no living with thee, nor without thee'

Climax or Amplification rises by regular steps from one circumstance to another, till the thoughts cannot be carried to a greater elevation ; as, „ What a piece of work is man ! how nohle in reason! how transcendent iu faculties! in form and moving, how express and admirable! in action, how like an angel! in apprehension , how like a god /quot; (Shak.).

The Anticlimax diminishes great objects, and renders even such as are diminutive, still more so; as,

•And thou, Dalhousie , the great god of war, Lieutenant-general to the 'Earl of Mar'

In addition to the preceding figures there are li'totes, which affirms more strongly by denying the contrary; Antimonasia, which puts a proper for a common name, and vice versa-, Gatachresis, or abuse of words (that is, words too far wrested from their proper meaning); Anadiplosis or reduplication, and a few others of less importance.

1. Synonyms are words which have nearly the same meaning, sometimes the same general meaning; as, for example , mix and blend. Both these words denote a similar general meaning of putting things liquid or resembling liquids together; but when we speak of mixing two colours together, and of the colours of the rainbow blinding with one another, the particular meaning is very different. Mixing makes two colours one; blending is their gradual, almost imperceptible running into one another.

2. Words which express nearly the same general notion, have often come to express it by very different, sometimes almost opposite roads; as, unite and combine. These two words are in many uses convertible; they may be exchanged the one for the other. They express, generally, the same act; but they express, particularly, two different sides of it. Unite means to make one; and combine, to bring two together We use unite where the notion of the oneness resulting from the action is prominent; as the union of England and Scotland

(forming one kingdom).. But we say that two men combined to annoy another, because there the notion of their joining is prominent. Combination regards more the coming together of two parties; anion regards more their oneness when come together. Connect, again, is of more extensive meaning; two houses may be connected by a passage but not combined or united.

3. There are more words which are nearly synonymous (in the strict sense) in English than in other languages, because the English language has often two sets of derivatives, one from the Latin and the other from the Anglo-Saxon, running, so to say, parallel with each other; as, boyish, puerile; kingly, regal, or royal; laugh at, ridicule, or deride; etc. But even in these cases it will be found, generally speaking, that the Saxon expression is the stronger of the two, — the plainer, and therefore the stronger. If we speak of deriding a measure, it is not so plain what this deriding means, for we do not speak of riding in the sense of laughing; but if we speak of laughing at a measure, each part of the phrase explains itself, and so is stronger: it says what it does say more forcibly. So, amicable and friendly: the latter is much more forcible. It implies a more positive feeling: hence we speak of an amicable arrangement as opposed to a hostile one, but we speak of a friendly call without any reference to or thought of an unfriendly one.

4. Sometimes the Latin adjective is used to strengthen or explain the Saxon noun, or the converse. Thus Bulwer (Student): It was here that Byron was in the ripest maturity of his genius.

5. Ripe (the Saxon word) is a much stronger word than mature (the Latin word), and hence ripe is generally applied literally, to fruit, corn, etc.; and mature metaphorically, — to the judgment or the genius, for example.

6. We proceed to give a few illustrations of the distinctions between some words reputed synonymous.

7. The following pairs of words are reputed nearly synonymous: but their difference will be seen from a few passages in which they occur.

Climax or Amplification rises by regular steps from one circumstance to another, till the thoughts cannot be carried to a greater elevation ; as, ,, What a piece oj work is man ! how nohle in reason! how transcendent iu faculties! in form and moving, how express and admirable! in action, how like an angel! in apprehension , how like a god Jquot; (Shak.).

The Anticlimax diminishes great objects, and renders even such as are diminutive, still more so; as,

•And thou, Dalhousie , the great god of war, Lieutenant-general to the Earl of Mar.'

In addition to the preceding figures there are Li'totes, which affirms more strongly by denying the contrary; Antimonasia, which puts a proper for a common name, and vice versa; Catachresis, or abuse of words (that is, words too far wrested from their proper meaning); Anadiplosis or reduplication, and a few others of less importance.

1. Synonyms are words which have nearly the same meaning, sometimes the same general meaning; as, for example , mix and blend. Both these words denote a similar general meaning of putting things liquid or resembling liquids together; but when we speak of mixing two colours together, and of the colours of the rainbow blinding with one another, the particular meaning is very different. Mixing makes (wo colours one; blending is their gradual, almost imperceptible running into one another.

2. Words which express nearly the same general notion, have often come to express it by very different, sometimes almost opposite roads; as, unite and combine. These two words are in many uses convertible; they may be exchanged the one for the other. They express, generally, (he same act; but they express, padieularly . (wo different sides of it. Unite means to make one; and combine, to bring two together We use unite where the notion of (he oneness resulting from the action is prominent; as the union of England and Scotland

(forming one kingdom).. But we say that two men combined to annoy another, because there the notion of their joining is prominent. Combination regards more the coming together of two parties; union regards more their oneness when come together. Connect, again, is of more extensive meaning: two houses may be connected by a passage but not combined or united.

4. Sometimes the Latin adjective is used to strengthen or explain the Saxon noun, or the converse. Thus Bulwer (Student): It was here that Byron teas in the ripest maturity of his genius.

6. We proceed to give a few illustrations of the distinctions between some words reputed synonymous.

7. The following pairs of words are reputed nearly synonymous: but their difference will be seen from a few passages in which they occur.

8. (1) Gustom is that which produces habit. The hahil of doing a thing is the result of the custom of doing it.

.„The habit of doing well is only acquired hy the custom of well-doing.quot; — Hooker.

Accordingly, we do not speak of acquiring a custom. In Chatham's Letters these words occur, —quot; Do you rise early? I hope you have already acquired to yourself the habit of doing it; if not, let me conjure you to acquire it.quot; Custom would not have done here. The habit of early rising, we may say, is got only by the custom of rising early.

9. (2) Silence seems more applicable to persons. Stillness to animals or things. We say, for example, He was remark-ally silent, but, The air teas 'perfectly still. When silent is used in reference to things, — any object in nature, for example, it seems to personify the object. So, in Dryden,

„And just before the confines of the ivood The gliding Lethe leads her silent flood.quot;

In the following passage of South, the two words are used with singular beauty: —

_nHow great is the difference helween the thinkimj and the eating man! Truly as great as between the silence of an Archimedes in the study of a problem. and the stillness of a soiv at her wash.quot;

10. (3) Remember is a general term for simply retaining in the memory. It is the verb answering to the noun memory. It is applicable when we say that we know a thing very well, but cannot think of it now. At such, times we remember the thing, though we cannot recollect it. Eecolleeting is the thinking of, the gathering together and calling up what we have stored away, and so must have in our memory or remember. So it is used by Dr. Johnson: „Memory,quot; he says, umay be assisted by method, and the decays of knowledge repaired by stated times of recollection.''

So, we use remember in reference to general matters, and recollect in reference to details of those matters. Thus, Charles Lamb says, _UI remember L, at school; and can well recollect that he had some peculiar advantages which I and others of his schoolfellows had not.quot;

11. (4) The words die and expire are used with great propriety by South, in the following passages: —

„This was generally accompanied with a speech from the expiring consul.quot; — (Middleton).

Punctuation is the art of dividing written language into sentences, or parts of sentences , by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense intended to be conveyed requires,

1. We must include in orthography all the marks which are used in presenting language to the eye, although the rules for rightly using them cannot all be given here; nothing-more is intended here than to state what they are.

2. The grammatical stops are the full stop, (.), or that which marks the end of a sentence; and the stops subordinate to it, namely, the colon, (:), the semicolon, (;), and the comma, (,). In a long sentence, these are often seen, as strict theory leads us to expect, respectively subordinate, — the colon to the full stop, the semicolon to the colon, and the comma to the semicolon. In a short sentence, supposing no such subordination, but only divisions below the principal stop, and that these divisions are marked by commas, strict theory would prescribe that the principal stop should be the next above the comma, namely the semicolon; or if the principal stop is indicated by the highest of the four points, strict theory would prescribe that those which are the only

divisions below it, should be indicated bij colons. Such however is not the practice of punctuation, the full stop being used at the end of all sentences, whether capable of divison, and subdivison, and still lower division; or capable only of primary, but of no subdivision other than single words. And in this case, the divisions below the full stop are marked bij commas; so that many sentences of tolerable length are often seen, with no other stops than commas during their progress, and the full stop at the end.

3. The dash (—), and the marks of parenthesis, (), may be used by choice, or of necessity. If by choice, — that is to say, when it would be easy to turn the sentence, or to complete it, so as to give the bare meaning, but not to give the meaning with lively, or with passionate effect, then we may deem these to be rhetorical characters: but if they are employed simply to make the construction of the sentence clear to the eye, and thence to the understanding, we may

is sometimes used instead of the clash, generally when there is a suppression as well as an interruption. When much is omitted, or a passage is lost, asterisks are commonly used.

4. As to the interrogation point, (?), and the exclamation point, (!), they are rhetorical points whenever properly used; because an interrogative or exclamative sentence, is a figurative method of saying that which, plainly or without passion, would be expressed declarativeiy. Thus, „Are you well?quot; is a method of saying, — „Z wish you to tell me whether or not you are wellquot; — and, nlloiv delighted I am!quot; is a method of saying, „/ am very much delighted.quot;'

the occasional makks in writing, ot1iek than the hyphen and the grammatical and rhetorical stops.

5. The following marks, not yet noticed occur occasionally in the language presented to the eye: the accent ('); the long quantity, ( - ); the short quantity ( —-); the diaeresis, (*•); the apostrophe, ('), the caret, (a); the marks of quo-

6. The accent, and the two quantities, denote affections of certain syllables as compared with others; which affections are to be treated of in prosody: where, however, the marks of long and short will be applied, as the genius of the English language requires. The diaresis marks the separation of two vowel letters into two syllables; as in saying Beelzebub in four syllables; and the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable; as in saying hallow''d in two syllables: or else the apostrophe is a sign of the genitive case; as, in king's, kings'.

7. The caret occurs in manuscript to mark the place where a word inadvertently omitted, is to be placed; as, Thou shall \ steal: [not.] The marks of quotation mark the insertion of borrowed words into the writer's text.

8. The asterisk, dagger, double dagger, and some other similar marks, are used in referring to notes in the margin, or at the foot of the page. The brackets include a note inserted among the words of the text,

9. The paragraph and section mark divisions of discourse, in which some distinct point, or part, of the whole subject, is treated. The marks themselves are seldom used in modern writings: but such divisions as they formerly indicated, are made evident to the eye in modern orthography , by leaving off in any part of a line when a division ends, and by beginning the next division at a little distance from the left hand margin, so that, as compared with the following lines, it may appear indented.

Versification is that part of Prosody which treats of metrical or poetical composition.

A Verse in poetry consists, strictly speaking, of a single line. A Stanza consists of two or more verses. Poetry without Rhyme is called Blank verse.

A Foot is a portion of a verse consisting generally of two, and sometimes of three syllables, one of which is always accented. Hence the number of accented syllables in a line determines the number of measures or feet'),

Pyrrhic, ^ as on a (bank). Tribrach, o o v»; as (tern) porary. The feet which are principally used are Iambics, Trochees, and Aaapests; and hence they are called the principal feet. The other feet are called secondary, their chief use being to diversify the numbers and improve the verse.

Verse are called Trocheic, iambic, or Anapastic, according to the feet that prevail in them.

If a verse consists of seven feet or measures, it is called Heptameter; if of six, Hexameter; if of five, Pentameter; if of four. Tetrameter; if of three. Trimeter; and if of two. Dimeter. In dissyllabic measures the number of syllables in a line is double the number of the feet; and in trisyllabic, treble, But in English, as in classical poetry, there is often a syllable over the regular measure; this is called Hypermeter.

l) They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice steps along, as it were, through the verse in a measured pace. This distinction was made by the ancient poets by dividing their syllables into long and short, and ascertaining their quantity, by an exact proportion of time in sounding them; the long being to the short as two to one; and the long syllables, being thus the more important, marked the movement. In English verse this measured movement is marked by the recurrence of aceeuted and unaceented syllables at equal or regular intervals.

In all Iambic measures the accents are to be placed on the even syllables; as the second, the fourth, tha sixth, etc. It may consist of any number of feet from one to seven; but the shorter measures can only be used in connexion with longer measures, as in odes and lyrical pieces.

The brow'sing cam'els' bells' were tink'lling; His mother looked from her lattice hiqh ,

Tetrameter Iambic is the measure chiefly used in songs, sonnets, tales, fables, and other light compositions. It is applicable, however, to almost every subject, „from grave to to gay, from lively to severe.quot; In the delightful poetry of Sir \\ alter Scott, and in most of the beautiful poems of Lord Byron, it is the principal measure; and in it, also, the humorous doggerel of Butler is composed, though with many ludicrous irregularities.

Achil'les' wrath', to Greece' the di'reful spring', {a) With an additional Syllable, or Hypermeter.

Is that' a dag'ger which' I see' hejo'rejme 1 Worth makes' the man', the want' of it' the fel'/low.

Pentameter Iambic is the most common, and at the same time, the most dignified species of verse in the English language. It is equally applicable to the most familiar, and the most exalted subjects; and it is, perhaps, the only measure that can sustain its dignity without the adventitious ornament of rhyme. It is the measure which is always employed in Heroic and Tragic poetry; and hence it is usually called the Heroic measure. Almost all the great poems in the language are composed in this measure; as Milton's „Paradise Lost;quot; Dryden's „Virgil;quot; Pope's „Homer,quot; „Essay on Manquot; and „Epistles;quot; Thomson's „Seasons;quot; Young's „Night Thoughts'. Goldsmith's „Deserted Villagequot; and „Traveller;quot; Campbell's „Pleasures of Hope; etc.quot;

The Elegiac Stanza is a variety of this measure. It consists of four heroic lines rhyming alternately; as in Gray's „Elegyquot;

The Spenserian Stanza is also a variety of this measure. It consists of eight heroic lines and an Alexandrine; as in „The Faerie Queene „Childe Haroldquot; etc.

Which like' a wound'ed snake' drags its' slow leng'th along'. This is the measure of Drayton's „Polyolbionand also of French heroic poetry, but is seldom used in the English language, except to diversify heroics, particularly at the close of a period or stanza.

Heptameter, or Fourteen Syllables. And thrice' he routed all' his foes', and thrice' he slew' the slain' In this measure there is naturally a pause at the end of the fourth foot, and hence it is usually divided into two lines , one of four feet, and the other of three. Thus: And thrice' he rout'ed all' his foes'.

It is of two lines of this measure, so divided , that the old English Ballad Stanza is composed; as in „Chevy Chase,quot; and Goldsmith's „Edwin and Angelina.'quot; It is also what is called Common Measure in Psalmody. The second and fourth verses of this measure must rhyme; the first and third may or may not.

In all Trochaic measures the accents are to be placed on the odd syllables; as the first, the third, the fifth, etc. It is well adapted to cheerful and lively subjects; and may consist of any number of feet from one to six. But the shorter measures can only be used to diversify other measures; as in odes and lyrical pieces.

(a) With an additional Syllable, or Hypermeter. Come', and trip' it, as' you /go,

This is the Trochaic measure most generally employed. Tetrameter, or Eight Syllables.

(a) With an additional Syllable, or Hypermeter. I'die , aft'er din'tier , in' hisj chair ,

Hexameter, or Twelve Syllables. On' a mount'ain stretch'd' beneath' a Uoar'y wil'low , Lay' a shep'herd swain', and vieiv'd' the roll'ing bil]low. This measure is also very rare.

In all Anapestic measures the accent is to be placed on every third syllable, as in the following specimens; —

'Tis the voice' of the slug'gard, 1 heard' him complain'. You have wak'd' me too soon', I must slumb'er again'. It should be noted that Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapestic feet admit occasionally of intermixture with each other, and also with the Secondary feet, which produces a pleasing variety in the English versification. The preceding are, however , the principal measures.

1. The state of his affairs are very prosperous. 2. The mechanism of clocks and watches were then totally unknown. 3. The days of man is but as grass. 4. There is two or three apples on the table. 5. Is your brother and sister at home ? 6. There is, in fact, no servants in the house. 7. A variety of circumstances are to be taken into account.

10. Has the goods been sold and delivered? 11. There's two or thee of them here. 13. Frequent commission of crimes harden the heart. 13. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some people. 14. What avails the highest professions if the conduct is not in accordance with them? 15. In unity consists the welfare and security of every society. 16. There are, indeed, a great number in attendance. 17. The committee was divided in its opinions. 18. The people has no opinion of their own. 19. Send the multitude away that it may go and buy itself bread. 20. The flock and not the fleece are or ought to be the object of the shepherd's care. 21. The shoal of herrings were immense. 22. Ignorance and idleness leads to vice. 23. John and James reads better than you. 24 Time and tide waits for no man. 25. Patience and perseverance overcomes the greatest difliculties. 26. Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. 27. Either John or James were present. 28. Neither precept nor example are so forcible as habit. 29. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands. 30 Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are moved. 31. He dare not act otherwise. 32. He need not be in such haste. 33. The Cape of Good Hope, as well as many islands in the West Indies, are famous for hurricanes. 34. The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort wears wooden shoes.

1. They which seek wisdom will certainly lind her. 2. Virtue forces her way through obscurity, and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. 3. These are the men which make long speeches. 4. Thou who has heard the matter can give an account of it. 5. Can any person, on their entrance into life, be sure that they will not be deceived? 6. The fruit

tree bearing fruit after his kind. 7. These kind of people are not to be trusted. 8. Those sort of goods is not to my taste. 9. Each of the soldiers had their allowance. 10. On either side of the river there were high banks. 11. You may send either of these six pieces. 13. I have no interests but that of truth and virtue. 13. Solomon was the wisest man whom the world ever saw. 14. The lady and the lapdog which we saw in the carriage. 15. The horse aud the man whom I pointed out to you. 16. He is one of the boys that was kept in at school for bad behaviour.

1. He invited my brother and I to spend a week with him. 2. Let thou and I the battle try. 3. He and they we know, but whom are you? 4. Whatever others do, let you and I perform our part. 5. Who do I love so mnch? G. Ye only have 1 known. 7. Your brother sent them and we. 8. They who worth and rank has exalted deserves our respect. 9. He who committed the oifence thou should correct, and not I who am innocent. 10. Esteeming theirselves wise they became fools. 11. Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I kept away. 12. Who is he married to? 13. Who are you looking for? 14. Who did John go with? 15. Do you know who you speak to? 16. Who does he live with? 17. Who does he serve under? 18. Who did you hear it from? 19. That is a book 1 am much pleased with. 20. He told it to John and I. 21. Thy brother is like thou. 22. Go before I. 23. Be not afraid; it is me. 24. I am certain that it was neither him nor her who did it. 25. Well I am sure it was not us. 26. Perhaps it was them that did it. 27. Who is there? It is me. 28. Well it might have been her. 29. I believed it to be she. 30. If 1 were him I would not act so. 31. It was either his brother or him that went. 32. It might have been me or thee. 33. I don't know who it is unless it be him. 34. Whom do you think it is? 35. Who dö men say that I am? 36. let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of him. 37. Who do you take him to be? 38. Is it me that yon mean? 39. He supported them whom he thought were true to his party. 40. He supported those who he thought true to his party.

1. But you will please observe, amp; c. 2. We shall find the practice accord with the theory. 3. I hope I need not to advise you farther. 4. I dare not to proceed so hastily in the matter. 5. I like to see young persons to conduct themselves with modesty. 6. We heard the thunder to roll over our heads. 7. I bid my servant to do this, and he doeth

it. 8. Make him to sit down. 9. Let mo to do that. 10. I perceived him to go. 11. I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me. 12. I desired him call in the evening. 13. He was made suffer many hardships. 14. Ho was heard say worse things.

1. Pompeys pillar. 2. Virtues reward. 3. The birds wing. 4. My ancestors virtue is not mine. 5. A man's manner's often make his fortune. 6. Longinus his Treatise on the sublime. 7. Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 8. Helen her beauty was the cause of Troy its destruction. 9. Wisdoms precepts ate the good man's delights. 10. He asked his father, as well as his mother's advice. 11. Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 12. For conscience's sake hear me. 13. For pity sake hear me. 14. He is the only son of my uncle's. 15. She is a wife of my cousin's. 16. Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes, they are them. 17. Who is there? It is me. 18. Although I knew it to be he. 19. It appears to be him. 20. learning oi grammar is considered difficult. 21. The learning any thing requires attention and perseverance. 22. By the exercising our faculties they are improved.

24. By observing of this rule you will avoid mistakes. 25. This was a betraying the trust reposed in him. 26. By the observing and the practising truth you will command and deserve esteem. 27. The adjusting the parts required time. 28. Making of hay is a pleasant employment. 29. It is a training minds iu the mass. 30. The deserting his friends, instead of supporting of them, was disgraceful to him.

2. It is a remarkable good likeness. 2. I am exceeding well. 3. He did it very reluctant. 4. He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near exhausted. 5. She always appears amiably. 6. He conducted himself suitable to the occasion. 7. They acted very violent. 8. They lived conformable to the rules of prudence. 9. She dresses very neat. 10. He came agreeable to his promise. 11. He is like to be an exceeding useful member of society. 12. Twelve o'clock is the soonest time I can go. 13. He says express that he saw the transaction. 14. Thine often infirmities. 15. 'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. 16. The tongue is like a race-horse; which runs the faster the lesser weight it carries. 17. The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of the imagination. 18. He is the chiefest among ten thousand. 19. He stood at the extremest verge. 20. Virtue confcrs the most supreme dignity on man.

1. He gave some to John and I. 3. Her father and her were present. 3. You and us enjoy many privileges. 4. Between him and I there exists the test ieelings. 5. My brother and him are good grammarians. 6. It is neither cold or warm. 7- He must go himself, or send his servant. 8. Neither dcspice the poor or envy the rich. 9. The dog in the manger would not eat the hay himself, nor suffer the hungry ox to eat it. 10. Professing regard, and to act differently mark a base mind. 11. Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive him. 13. As far as I can judge the book is well written. 1Ü, So is the schoolmaster so is the school. 14. I must be so plain to tell you that you do not understand it. 15. The house is not as commodious as we expected it would be.

1. He will not be pardoned unless he repents. 3. If the house was burnt down, the ease would be precisely the same. 3. Though a liar speaks the truth, he will hardly be believed. 4 If the words understood are supplied the true meaning becomes evident. 5. If one went unto them from the dead, they will not repent. 6. Saxony was left defenceless, and if it was conquered, it might be plundered. 7. Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely a fool. 8. Suppose I was to say, «Light is a body.quot; 9. A certain lady whom I could name, if it was necessary. 10. I cannot say that I admire this construction, though it be much used. 11. If art become apparent it disgusts the reader. 13. Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered. 13. If a man have built a house, the house is his. 14.-Whether nature or art contribute most to form an orator, is a trifling inquiry.

1. He will never be no better. 3. I cannot walk no farther. 3. Covet neither riches nor honour, nor no such perishing things. 4. Nothing never affected her so much. 5. I cannot by no means permit you to do it. G. He says he cannot give no more. 7. I have received no information on the subject, neither from him, nor from his friend. 8. I am resolved not to comply with the proposal, neither at present, nor at any other time.

1. I have wrote my copy. 3. French is spoke in almost every country in Europe. 3. After the horse was stole, he locked the stable door. 4. He run a great risk of being killed. 5. He has mistook his true interest, 6. The bread that has been eat is soon forgot. 7. The river

was froze over. 8. He begun to be tired doing nothing. 9. He lias began in good earnest. 10. John has broke the window. 11. T though it was James that done it. 12. No, I seen John doing it. 13. He was very thirsty, and he drunk with avidity. 14. You who have forsook your friends are entitled to no confidence.

1. They continue with me now three day. 2. Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct. 3. He appeared to me to have been a man of letters. 4. I expected to have received an answer to my letter. 5. You appear to me to have been fatigued. 6. His sickness was so great that I often feared he would have died before our arrival. 7. It was a pleasure to have received his approbation. 8. It would have afforded me still greater pleasure to receive his approbation at an earlier period; but to receive it at all, is a gratification to me. 9. He would have assisted one of his friends if he could do it without injuring the other; but as that could not have been done, he avoided all interference.

Selected from the best poets and standard prose writers, 1. Ambition is one of those passions that is never satisfied. 2. He stands on one foot, now on another. 3. Each in their turn like Ban-quo's heroes stalk. 4. A few year's preparations will be necessary. 5, Thus, besides what was sunk, the Athenians took above two hundred ships. 6. Give not me counsel, nor let no comforter delight mine ear. 7. These kind of knaves I know, who in this plainness harbour more craft and more corrupter ends. 8. She cannot love, nor take no shape nor project of affection. 9. This was the most unkindest cut of all. 10. A father or a mother's sister is an aunt. 11. Nought, save ihe gurglings of the rill were heard. 12. All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute. !3. For who love I so much. 14. Art thou proud yet? Ay, that 1 am not thee.

13. A prowling wolf whom hunger drives. 16. Wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. 17. The fairest¹) of her daughters. Eve. 18. He trusted to have equalled the Most High. 19. As when the sun new risen. 20. I gained a son; and such a sou as all men hailed me happy. 21. Him destroyed, or won to what may work his utter loss. 22. You ought not walk upon a labouring day. 23. Words interwove with sighs found out their way.

24. He then marched to attack the enemy, whom he saw were crossing the river. 25. To confound things that differ, and to make a distinction where there is no difference, is equally unphilosophical. 26. He was made believe that neither the king's death nor imprisonment could help him. 27. Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works.

39. 'Tis hard to say if greater want of skill Appear in writing, or in judging ill.

51. Laying the suspicion on somebody, I know not who, in the country. 52. A person whom all the world allows to be so much your betters. 53. Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits, on sand: these are apt to be requited; those forgot. 54. I think it very masterly written. 55. He accused the ministry for betraying the Dutch. 56. Many are the works of the human understanding, which to begin and finish are hardly granted to the same man.

57. Attend to what a lesser muse indites. 58. In proportion as either of these two qualities are wanting, the language is imperfect. 59. O Liberty, thou Goddess heavenly bright. 60. It is not me you are in love with. 61. A man may see a metaphor, or an allegory, in a picture, as well as read them in a description. 62. When laws were written on brazen tablets enforced by the sword. 93. To spread suspicion, to invent calumnies, to propagate scaudal, require neither labour nor courage. 64. Cicero maintained that whatever was useful was good. 65. The arrows of calumny fell harmlessly at his feet. 66. There is no neglecting it without falling into a dangerous error. 67. The number of the names together, were about a hundred and twenty. 68. And so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, which were partners with Simon. 69. Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray. 70. The king of Israel and the king of Juda sat either of them on his throne. 71. On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof he was accused. 72. Their ungodly deeds which they have ungodly committed. 73. But to forget or to remember at pleasure are equally beyond the power of man. 74. For my part I love him not, nor hate him not. 75. He recommended to them, however, the immediate release of the whole community together. 76. It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come.

77. God has given reason to a man to be a guide unto him. 78. He behaved himself conformable to that blessed example. 79. To see so many to make so little conscience of so great a sin. 80. The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no stronger. 81. If there be but one body of legislators it is no better than a tyranny; if there are only two these will want a casting voice. 82. 1 found him better than I cxpectcd to have found him. 83. Such seeds and principles as we judge most likely to take soonest and deepest root. 84. We are still

much at a loss to know who civil power belongs to. 85. If you were here, you would find three or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably. 86. Mr. Prince has a genins would prompt him to better things. 87. I seldom or ever see him now. 88. Tell the cardinal, that I understand poetry better than him. 89. The philosopher, who he saw to be a man of profound knowledge. 90. The Nile marks on either side the extent of fertility by the measure of its inundations. 91. It is very probable, that neither of them are the meaning of the text. 93. The river had overflown its banks. 93. The House of Commons were of small weight. 94. He was interrogated relative to that circumstance. 95. Avoid rude sports: au eye is soon lost or bone broken. 96. While wheat has no plural, oats have seldom any singular. 97. And thou their nature know'st, and gave them names. 98. And dashest him again to earth; there let him lay. 09. Which nobody is so sanguine to hope. 100. Solomon made as wise proverbs as any body has done. Him only excepted, who was a much wiser man than Solomon.

101. If reasons were as plenty as blackberries I would give no man a reason on compulsion. 103. Not less than three books were written on the subject. 103. Almost the whole inhabitants were present. 104. He is a Nero, who is another name for cruelty. 105. Charity vaunteth not itself, doth not behave itself unseemly. 106. Great numbers were killed on either side. 107. A prophet mightier than him. 108. Neither the good or the bad are free from misfortune. 109. What dost thou mean by shaking of thy head. 110 Much depends on the tyro observing this rule. 111. There are torrents that swell to-day, and have spent themselves by to-morrow. 113. From the progress he has made, he appears to study Homer for some time. 113. I intended to have written to you ere now. 114. It appeared to be her who opened the letter. 115. In the cool of the evening he lay himself down to sleep on the grass. 110. The book laid a long time in my library. 117. My banks they are furnished with bees. 118. The whole obligation of that law was now ceased. 119. Men generally hate him who they fear. 130. These are the men whom you thought were there. 121. Whom do you think she is. 133. They seem to take the sun out of the world, which take friendship out of it. 123. The conditions of the sale are as follows. 134. The account which ho gave is as follow. 135. Are the boy and the parcel arrived which were coming from the country? 130. Observe them three men walking. 137. I do not say as some have done. 128, Which of them persons were present. 129. The Anglo-Saxons howeve soon quarrelled between themselves for precedence. 130. Lackington's Allen's and Company's library is very extensive. 131. The books which you now see are John as well as William's. 183. Augustus the Roman Emperor, him who succeeded Julius C;csar, is variously described. 133. Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear: this is the anticipation

of good, that of evil. 134. You will find the remark in the second or third pages. 135. Neither of these men seem to think their opinions objectionable. 136. Stephen's party were entirely broken up by the captivity of the leader. 137. An army of 20,000 men were assembled. 138. Cajsar, as well as Cicero, were remarkable for eloquence. 139. Their religion as well as their manners were ridiculed. 140. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 141. There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change 142. Though he be high, he has respect to the lowly. 143. In the reign of Henry II, all foreign commodities were plenty in England. 144. The climate of England is not so pleasant as those of France, Spain, or Italy. 145. Even a rugged rock or a barren heath, though in themselves disagreeable, contribute, by contrast, to the beauty of the whole. 140. Steady application, as w^pell as genius and abilities, are necessary to produce eminence. 147. A good and well cultivated mind is far more preferable than rank or riches. )4S. Who, who has either sense or civility, does not perceive the vileness of profanity. 149. AVhen a string of such sentences occur, the effect is disagreeable.

It has been thought desirable to give at the conclusion of this practical grammar some dictation exercises—first, on words apt to be confounded; and secondly, miscellaneous exercises comprising different styles of writing.

He went forth from the king's presence in the fourth year of his reign. The rain was falling; but he leaped on to his horse, seized the reins, and rode along the road to the town at full speed.

Before Tom sailed on the sea, he went to see his grandfather, and sang a hymn to him.

First the clergyman prays, and then he calls on us to sing a psalm of praise. He read out of a book with a red cover.

It is quite right of Tom to try and write better than he does now. Mary stares in surprise to see how fast Joe runs up stairs.

What ails the brewer? He not only brews strong ales, he drinks them too. Last night he fell down stairs, and got a terrible bruise.

If you do not bow your head as you pass under the tree, yon will he caught by that low bough.

The higher you climb up the mountains, the colder is the clime you reach, but you can hire a guide to shew you the road. My guide rod» beside me.

He led his horse by the bridle, aud so weut on foot to the bridal of his sister. When we stood by the altar, I wished I could alter my position, and go on the other side.

The privy-council said they knew nothing about it, and could give no counsel in the matter.

The miller's coat was white, but covered with flour, and he had a flower in his button-hole.

The principal man on the island said it was contrary to his principles to do such a thing.

He tied his boat to a stake, that the tide might not carry it off, and then went to the shop and bought a beef-steak.

Might I give counsel to any young hearer, 1 would say to him, try to frequent the company of your betters. In books and life, that is the most wholesome society. Learn to admire rightly; the great pleasure of life is that. Note what the great men admired; they admired great things; narrow spirits admire basely, and worship meanly.

Perseverance is a prime quality in every pursuit. Youth is, too, the time of life to acquire this inestimable habit. Men fail much oftener from want of perseverance than from want of talent and good disposition. As the race was not to the hare but to the tortoise, so the meed of success is not to him who is in haste, but to him who proceeds with a steady and even step. William Cobbett.

There is no art or science that is too dillicnlt for industry to attain to; it is the gift of tongues, and makes a man understood and valued in all countries and by all nations: it is the philosopher's stone that turns all metals, and even stones, into gold, and sailers not want to break into its dwelling: it is the north-west passage that brings the met-

chant's ship as soon to him as he can desire. In a word, it conquers all enemies, and makes fortune itself pay contribution. Clarendon.

Cotton consists of the fine long hairs which grow from the seeds ol several varieties of GossypUim. These hairs are so long and numerous, that they completely fill the pod or seed-vessel. They are very delicate, of the same size throughout, but seldom jointed, and they are each separate from the other. The cottonplant is chiefly cultivated in the Southern States of North America and in India. It is produced in great abundance, and is exported to England, where it is manufactured into cloth. The cotton-factories are chiefly in Lancashire.

The colonel being wounded. Champion took he command of the regiment. He was a man of great gentleness and piety; and if he was not highly endowed with intellectual gifts, he was able to express the feelings of his heart with something of a poetic force. His mind was accustomed to dwell very much on the world that lies beyond the grave; and in the midst of this scene of carnage he gained, as it were, a seeming glimpse of the happy state; for when the younger Eddington fell at his side. Champion paused to see what ailed him, and looking upon his young friend's pale face, ho saw it suddenly clothed with a 'most sweet expression.' It was because death was on him that the blissful look had come. In the mind of Champion the sight had a deep import; for he was of the faith that God's providence is special, and to him the beautiful smile on the features of the dead was the smile of an immortal man gently carried away from earth by the very hand of his Maker.

Yet this piety of his was of no unwarlike cast. Nay, he was of so noble a sort that, though he had willingly chosen the profession of arms, yet, when he prayed, he was accustomed to render thanks to his Creator for vouchsafing to make him a hardy soldier; and being, very strong in the belief that he could die as piously on the battlefield as in a downy bed, he pressed on content, with his soldiers, to the face of the great redoubt. Kinglake's Crimea.

If the termination of the American war is already possible, the cautious and conciliatory proposal of the Trench government may facilitate the commencement of negotiations. The offer of mediation which was

formerly discountenanced by England and Russia, involved an armistice by sea which would have established the independence of the Confederacy by putting an end to the blockade. The I'rench emperor is now careful to profess his friendchip for the government of Washington, and to explain -that negotiation between the belligerents would not be inconsistent with the continuance of hostilities.

The longer I live, the more I am certain that the great difference between men, between the feeble and the powerful, the great and the insignificant, is energy—invincible determination—a purpose once fixed, and then death or victory. That quality will do anything that can be done in this world; and no talents, no circumstances, no opportunities, will make a two-legged animal a man without it. Burton.

Gutta percha is a substance possessing many useful and valuable properties. It was unknown in Europe until a very recent date, though it is said to have been in common use for a long period previous to our discovery of its utility amongst the natives of the Indian Archipelago. It is the concrete juice of a large tree, and is brought to Europe in irregular masses of^a brown colour, containing various impurities, which are easily got rid of by working it in hot water. It possesses the desirable properties of being solid, slightly elastic, and very tough. It is used for very many industrial puTposes.

Caoutchouc, or India rubber, which, till recently, was used only for rubbing out pencil-marks, is now made serviceable for almost innumerable perposes. It is the solidified juice of several trees, such as the Siphonia, the Jatropha clastic a, and the Ficus elasiica. It is got by making incisions in the trunk of these trees during winter, and collecting the juice, which is a compound of caoutchouc and water. The water evaporates, and the caoutchouc remains.

Apply the microscope to any of the most minute of God's works, nothing is to be found but beauty and perfection. If we examine the numberless species of insects that swim, creep, or fly around us, what proportion, exactness, conformity, and symmetry shall we perceive in all their organs! what a profusion of colouring—azure, green, and vermilion ! On their wings, head, and every other part we discern delicate fringe and rich embroidery. How high the finishing! how inimitable

the polish we everywhere behold! The most perfect works of man betray a meanness, a poverty, an inability in the workman; but the works of nature plainly prove that the hand which formed them was Divine. Piatt.

Dr. Radcliffe, the celebrated physician, and Sir Godfrey Kneller, the no less celebrated painter, lived next door to each other in Bow Street, Covent Garden. As Sir Godfrey had a very fine garden, he allowed a door to be broken out in the wall which divided the two grounds, in order that the doctor might have free access thereto whenever he thought proper. The servants of the latter, however, did so much mischief to the rare plants and flowers, that Sir Godfrey was obliged to remonstrate. But the evil still continuing, he sent a message by one of his servants to Radcliffe, to tell him that he should be under the necessity of bricking up the doorway. To this Radcliffe merely sent the rude answer that Sir Godfrey might do anything he would with the wall except paint it. The message having been delivered to Kneller, he asked whether his very good friend. Dr. Radcliffe, had said so; and then desired his servant to go back, and after presenting his service to him, to tell him that he could take anything from him but physic.

At that moment affairs were going ill with the French. The appearance of our head-quarters on the knoll had been marked by our allies as well as by the enemy; for now a French aid-de-camp, in great haste, came climbing up the knoll to seek Lord Raglan. He seemed to be in a state of grievous excitement; but perhaps it was the violence of his bodily exertion which gave him this appearance, for he had quitted his horse in order the better to mount the steep, and he rushed up bareheaded to Lord Raglan, to ask that he would give some support to the French were hardly pressed by the enemy. 'My lord,' he said, 'my lord, my lord, we have before us eight battalions!'.... Beading in his saddle. Lord Raglan turned kindly round towards his righi— towards the side of his maimed arm—and his expression was that of one intent to assuage another's pain, but the sunshine of the last two days had tanned him so crimson, that it masked the generous flush which used to come to his face in such moments. He did not look at all like an anxious aud vexed commander who had to listen to a desponding message in the midst of a battle..... In his comforting, cheerful way, he said: ^{I can spare you a battalion.' But it was something of more worth than the promise of a battalion that the aid-de-camp carried back with him. He carried back tidings of the spirit in which Lord Raglan was conducting the battle. At a time when the French

were cast down, it was of some moment to them to learn that the English head-quarters, strangely placed as they were in the midst of the Russian position, wore a scene of robust animation, and that Lord Raglan looked and spoke like a man who had the foe in his power. Kinglake's Crimea,

'God have mercy npon the poor fellows at sea!' Household words these in English homes, however far inland they may be, and although near them the blue sea may have no better representative than a sedge-choked river or canal along which slow barges urge a lazy way. When the storm-wrack darkens the sky, and gales are abroad, seaward fly the sympathies of English hearts, and the prayer is uttered with perhaps a special reference to some, loved and absent sailor. It is those, however, who live on the sea-coast, and watch the struggle going on in all its terrible reality—now welcoming ashore, as wrested from death, some rescued sailor, now mourning over those who have found a sudden grave almost within call of land, that learn truly to realise the tearfulness of the strife, and to find an answer to the moanings of the gale in the prayer: 'God have mercy upon the poor fellows at sea!'

There is nothing more desirable than good sense and justness of mind. All other qualities of mind are of limited use, but exactness of judgment is of general utility in every part and in all employments of life. We are too apt to employ reason merely as an instrument for acquiring the sciences, whereas we ought to avail ourselves of the sciences as an instrument for perfecting our reason; justness of mind being infinitely more important than all the speculative knowledge which we can obtain by means of sciences the most solid. Arnauld.

The existence and character of the Deity is, in every view, the most interesting of all human speculations. In none, however, it is more so than as it facilitates the belief of the fundamental articles of revelation. It is a step to have it proved that there must be something in the world more than what we see. It is a further step to know that amongst the invisible things of nature there must be an intelligent mind concerned in its production, order, and support. These points being assured to us by natural theology, we may well leave to revelation the disclosure of many particulars which our researches cannot reach respecting either the nature of this Being, as the original cause of all things, or his character and designs as a Moral Governor: and not only so.

but the mere confirmation of other particnlars of which, though they do not lie altogether beyond our reasonings and ourjprobabilities, the certainty is by no means equal to the importance. Pa ley.

Having left Rossthwaite, in Borrowdale, on a bright morning in the first week of October, we ascended from Seathwaite to the top of the ridge, called Ash-course, and thence beheld three distinct views. On one side, the continuous vale of Borrowdale, Xeswick, and Basenthwaite, — with Skiddaw, Helvellyn, Saddleback, and numerous other mountains, — and, in the distance, the Solway Frith, and the mountains of Scotland. On the other side, and below us, the Langdale Pikes, — their own vale below them; Windermere, and,far beyond Windermere, Inglcbo-rongh, in Yorkshire. But how shall 1 speak of the deliciousness of the third prospect! At this time, that was most favoured by sunshine. The green vale of Esk—deep and green, with its glittering serpent stream, was below us; and on we looked to the mountains near the sea—Blackcomb pre-emineut,—and still beyond, to the sea itself, in dazzling brightness. Turning round we saw the mountains of Wastdale in tumult; to our right. Great Gavel, the loftiest, a distinct and huge form, though the middle of the mountain was, to our eyes, as its base.

While we were gazing around, «Look,quot; I exclaimed, »at yon ship upon the glittering sealquot; quot;Is it a ship?quot; replied our shepherd guide. quot;It can be nothing else,quot; interposed my companion; »1 cannot be mistaken, I am so accustomed to the appearance of ships at sea.quot; The guide dropped the argument; but, before a minute was gone, he quietly said, «Now look at your ship; it is changed into a horse.'' So indeed it was,—a horse with a gallant neck and head. We laughed heartily; and, I hope, when again inclined to be positive, I may remember the ship and the horse upon the glittering sea; and the calm confidence, yet submissiveness, of our wise man of the mountains, who certainly had more knowledge of clouds than we, whatever might be our knowledge of ships. — Wordsworth.

Silk is by far the strongest of the textile fabrics, being nearly three times as strong as llax. It consists of the filaments spun by a silkworm. The worm, moving its head backwards and forwards, spins fine threads of silk, and so covers itself in with a balk of silk. This covering is called cocoon, and being gathered, furnishes the slender filaments which are spun and woven into the richest and most beautiful of all wearing apparel.

Flax is obtained from the stalks of the flax-p^nt: it is supposed to have heen originally brought from Egypt, where linens have been woven from its fibres from the most remote period to the present time. It is largely cultivated in many countries of Europe. It grows to two or three feet in height, and bears a blue flower. The fibres of the stalk are separated and cleaned by many processes, and then spun into yarn, and woven into linen fabrics.

quot;Write out the following extracts, selecting the suitable word or phrase of the two given in parentheses: —

Note. — If there should be a doubt which to choose, make use of the simpler expressions.

While the cities of Italy where thus (advancing, progressing) in their (career, course) of improvement, (an event happened, a circumstance occured) the most (remarkable, extraordinary) perhaps in the history of mankind, which, instead of (retarding, stopping) the (trading, commercial) progress of the Italians (rendered, made) it more rapid. The (warlike, martial) spirit of the Europeans, (increased, heightened) and enflamed by religious (fervour, zeal) (induced, prompted) them to attempt the (deliverance, rescue) of the Holy Land, from the (government, dominion) of Infidels. (Great, Vast) armies (composed, made up) of all the (nations, countries) in Europe, marched towards Asia, upon this wild (enterprise, expedition). The Genoese, the Pisaus, and Venetians (furnished, supplied) the transports which (carried, conveyed) them thither. They (supplied, furnished) them which provisions and military stores. Besides the immense sums which they (received, obtained) on this account, they (received, obtained) commercial privileges and establishments of great (consequence, importance) in the settlements which the Crusaders made in Palestine and in other provinces of Asia. Erom these (sources, causes) (prodigious, immense) wealth flowed into the cities which I have mentioned. This was (accompanied, attended) with a proportionate, corresponding) increase of power; and by the (end,

') As it will be scarcely possible for our Dutch students to work out these exercises without the assistance of a good dictionary of English Synonyms, I recommend to procure one of the following;

A selection of English synonyms by E. Jane Whately, edited by archbishop Whately. Sixth. Ed revised. Arnhem, J. Voltclen. 1869.

A selection of English Synonyms designed for Dutch Schools. Leeuwarden, A. Akkeriuga. 1869.

termination) of the Holy War, Venice, in particular, became a great maritime state, (possessing, having) an extensive (trade, commerce), and ample (possessions, territories). Italy was not the (country, state) in which the Crusades (contributed, helped) to (revive, recover) and (diffuse, spread) such a spirit as prepared Europe for future discoveries. By their (expeditions, enterprises) into Asia, the other European nations became well acquainted with (remote, distant) (countries, regions), which formerly they knew only by name, or by the (reports , account) of ignorant and credulous pilgrims. They had an opportunity of (beholding, observing) the (customs, manners), the arts, and the (accommodations, conveniences) of peoples more (civilized, polished) than themselves. This (communication, intercourse) between the east and west (lasted, subsisted) almost two centuries. The (adventurers, speculatist») who returned from Asia (communicated, imparted) to their countrymen the ideas they had (acquired, obtained), and the habits of life they had (contracted, formed) by visiting more refined nations. The Europeans began to be (sensible, aware) of wants, with which they were formerly unacquainted: new (desires, inclinations) were (excited, aroused): and such a taste for the (commodities, produce) and arts of other countries gradually spread among them, that they not only encouraged the resort of (foreigners, strangers) to their (harbours, ports), but began to (observe, perceive) the (advantage, utility) and (necessity, need) of applying to commerce themselves. — Roiertson.

But it is ol no (importance, use) to read much, (except, unless) you be (regular, uniform) in your reading. If it (be interrupted, cease) for any (considerable, great) time, it can never be (attended, accompanied) with proper (improvement, advantage). There are some who study for one day with (intense, excessive) (application, diligence), and (repose, rest) themselves for ten days after. But wisdom is a coquette, and must be (courted, wooed) with (unabating, untiring) (assiduity, perseverance). Goldsmilh.

The (decline, declension) of Venice did not, like that of Home, (proceed, arise) from the increase of luxury, or the (revolt, rebellion) of her own (armies, forces) in the distant colonies, or from civil (wars, contests) of any kind. Venice has (dwindled, diminished) in (power, strength) and (inlluence, importance) from (causes, reasons) which could not be (foreseen, anticipated;, or guarded against by human (foresight, prudence), although they had been (foreseen, anticipated). How could this (republic, commonwealth) have (hindered, prevented) the (discovery, invention) of a (passage, voyage) round the Cape of Good Hope; or (hinder, prevent) other (nations, countries) from being (inspired with, actuated by) a spirit of enterprise, industry and (commerce, trade)? — Dr. Moore.

Car'rent, a stream Cyg'net, a young swan Signet, a seal Cymtal, a drum Sym'bol, a sign Dam, a mother Damn, to condemn Dear, costly Deer, an animal Dew, moisture Due, owing .

Dyer, one who stams Dire, dreadful Do, tbe verb Doe, an animal Dough, unbaked bread Doer, a performer Door, of a house

quot;Ewe, a sheep Yew, a tree You, yourself E'xercise, labour E'xorcise, to cast

Eye, the organ of sight I, myself ïaint, weak Feint, a pretence ¥air, beautiful .

ment ïlea, an insect ïlee, to run away Tlew, did fly Tlue, soft down llower, in a garden riour, to make bread ïorth, abroad ïourth, in number ïoul, nasty yowl, a bird Gesture, carriage Jester, one who «jests Gilt, with gold

Not, a negative Know, to understand No, uot so Lain, p. P- of to ^

Bane, a narrow road Leak, to let in or out Leek, a pot herb Lease, of a house. Sc. Leash, three Less-en, to make less Bess'on, a task Biar, who tells lies Bier, in wait Byre, an instrument Bimb, a member Bimn, to draw Bo! behold!

Bow, humble Loathe, to dislike Both, unwilling Boose, to slacken Bose, to suffer loss Made, did make Maid, a virgin Mail, armour Male, the he Main, chief Mane, of a horse Mare, a female horse Mayor, of a town Mean, low Mien, aspect Meat, food Meet, fit Mete, to measure Mes'sage. an errand Mes'suage, a house Metal, gold, amp;c. Met'tle, spirit Might, power Mite, an insect More, in number Moor, a black person Mower, one who mow Naught, nothing Near, nigh

Grate, for burning coals, amp;e-Great, large Grater, for nutmeg»

Greater, larger Groan, to sign deeply Grown, increased Hail, to salute Hale, strong Ual'low, to make holy Hol'low, empty Hart, an animal Heart, a part of the

body Art, verb To Be Hear, to hearken Here, in this place Heard, did hear Herd., of cattle Hew, to cut Hue, a colour Hie, to make haste High, lofty Higher, more nign Hire, wages Him, that man Hymn, a divme song Hoar, white Whore, a lewd woman Hole, a hollow place AVhole, perfect Hoop, for a barrel Whoop, to shout Hour, a part of time Our, of us 1'dle, lazy 1'dol, an image I'll, I will Isle, an island

Aisle, of a church, Mo.

In, within Inn, for travellers Ingenious, of quick paits Ingenuous, candid

Kill, to murder Kiln, for bncKS, Sc. 1 Knave, a rascal 1 Nave, part of a wheel I Knew, did know 1 New, fresh i Knight, a title 1 Night, a part of time Knot, to make knots

^Vligt;lia«)otilt;*!il list of fainillm* ï*rovei*lïs , Maxims, Quotations and ITamlly Mottoes.

Page 4C. The examples under 34. belong to the repetitiou of the article and not to that of the adjective. It should he: One refreshing hreeze awakens me to new vigour, life and spirit (Burney). Since the decay of the heroic opinions and lelief the Velphec oracle had hecome the sovereign umpire of Greece (Gillies).

Page 53. The example: ■ The man and his donkey that pass our house daily quot; given under c, should he added to the examples under d. Instead of it we may illustrate c hy the following quotations: Who that has any sense of religion woM have argued thus? (Murray). Who that had ever known ye, could have wished you other than ye were? (Bulwer).

Calends \|	Lees	1 Nones	Shears
Customs') j	Letters ¹)	. Oats	Snuffers
Drawers ²)	Literati	j Odds	Sweepstakes
Dregs i	Lungs	j Orgies	Thanks ³)
Embers	Mallows	1 Pains⁴)	Tidings
Entrails	Manners ^s)	I Pantaloons	Tongs
Goods	Matins	1 Pincers	Trowsers
Hose	Measles	1 lliches ⁵)	Vespers
Hysterics	Minutiae	_\| Scissors	Victuals
Ides	Morals	1 Sessions⁶)	Vitals
Illuminati	Nippers	; Shambles	\| Wages.
15. The word gallows		always takes a singular verb; as

SINGCLAB.	PLÜRA1.	SINGULAR.	PLURAL.
Automatum	Automata	Macula	Maculae
Axis	Axes	Madame	Mesdames
Bandit	Banditti*	Magus	Magi
Basis	Bases	Medium	Media
Beau	Beaux	Memorandum Memoranda*
Calculus	Calculi	Metamovphos	isMetamorphoses
Cherub	Cherubim⁰	Momentum	Momenta
Criterion	Criteria	Monsieur	Messieurs
Crisis	Crises	Nebula	Nebulae
Datum	Data	Oasis	Oases
Desideratum	Desiderata	Parenthesis	Parentheses
Diseresis	Diaereses	Postulatum	Postulata
Dilettante	Dilettanti	Phasis	Phases
Dogma	Dogmata*	Phenomenon	Phenomena
Echinus	Echini	Polypus	Polypi
Effluvium	Effluvia	Radius	Radii
Ellipsis	Ellipses	Sarcophagus	Sarcophagi
Emphasis	Emphases	Seraph	Seraphim*
Erratum	Errata	Speculum	Specula
Focus	Foci	Stamen	Stamina
Formula	Formulas	Stimulus	Stimuli
Fungus	Fungi*	Stratum	Strata
Genus	Genera	Thesis	Theses
Gymnasium	Gymnasia	Tumulus	Tumuli
Hypothesis	Hypotheses	Vertex	Vertices
Lamina	Laminae	Virtuose	Virtuosi
Larva	La rv£e	Vortex	Vortices

Bridegroom	Bride	Husband	Wife
Brother	Sister	\| King	Queen
Buck	Doe	Lord	Lady
Bull	Cow	Man	Woman
Bullock	Heifer	Master	Mistress
Cock	Hen	Messieurs	Mesdames
Colt	Filly	Monk	Nun
Dog	Bitch	Milter	Spawner
Drake	Duck	Nephew	Niece
Earl	Countess	Earn	Ewe
Father	Mother	Sir	Madam
Gaffer	Gf.mmer	Sloven	Slut or slattern
Gander	Goose	Son	Daughter
Gentleman	Lady ')	Stag	Hind
Hart	Roe	Uncle	Aunt
Horse	Mare	Wizard	Witch.
3. By prefixing a word denoting the			gender; as—

Root.	Derivative.	Root. .	Derivative.
Cave	Cavity	Zeal	Zealot
Game	Gamble	Legend	Legendary
Vale	Valley	Secret	Secretary
Shade	Shadow	Deep	Depth
Insane	Insanity	Sheep	Shepherd
Nature	Natural	Spleen	Splenetic
Prate	Prattle	Crime	Criminal
Grain	Granary	Prime	Primer
Vain	Vanity	Mime	Mimic
Explain	Explanation	Line	Lineal
Villain	Villany	Vine	Vineyard
Maintain	Maintenance	Behind	Hinder
Break (a)	Breakfast (e)	Wind	Windlass
Clean	Cleanse	Wild	Wilderness
Clean	Cleanly	Wise	Wizard
Heal	Health	Wise	Wisdom
Steal	Stealth	Michael	Michaelmas
Weal	Wealth	White	Whitbread
Breathe	Breath	White	Whitsundai
Dear	Dearth	Fore	Forehead
Please	Pleasant	Know	Knowledge
Please	Pleasure	Holy	Holiday
Seam	Sempstress	Import	Important
Zeal	Zealous	Goose	Gosling
Coal	Collier	Boor	Burly
Foul	Fulsome	House	Hustings
Sour	Surly	South	Southerly
ENGLISH	DEBIVAT1VES TO BE TRACED TO		THEIR ROOTS.
Abase	Also	Appraise	Barrier
Abate	Aloof	Arrears	Batter
Acorn	Amass	Atone	Baste
After	Amount	Bacon	Batch
Alderman	Ant	Bait	Bairn
Aloft	Appal	Bandy	Bauble
Alone	Appease	Barricade	Beaver

Bedlam	Cripple	Fribble	Locket
Beetle	Crouch	Fro ward	Loiter
Behold	Crotchet	Fulsome	Luggage
Beholden	Crotchety	Gadfly	Lugger
Behalf	Crutch	Gang	Lumber
Bereave	Cud	Gangway	Mayor
Between	Curd	Garner	Meander
Bewilder	Curdle	Gosling	Mote
Billet	Dawn	Grocer	Mould
Board	Deed	Gunnel	Moulder
Bloat	Dismay	Grotesque	Mound
Boggle	Doff	Haft	Naught
Bond	Doom	1 lammercloth	Neighbour
Booth	Draught	Hanger	Neither
Bower	Drawingroom	Harrier	Ness
Bow	Drawl	Heed	Net
Bowsprit	Dray	Higgle	Niggard
Bout	Droop	Holster	Nosegay
Brace	Elder	Hood	Nostril
Bread	Elbow	Hound	None
Brinded	Embark	Huswife	Nought
Brood	Embroider	Husband	Nozzle
Burly	Engross	111	Offal
Casement	Enlist	Imagine	Offspring
Cashier	Fancy	Indenture	Only
Cavalierly	Farthing	Inform	Ought
Chandler	Fetlock	Jest	Orrery
Chilblain	Fetter	Jovial	Ostler
Clamber	Fifteen	Kidnap	Padlock
Closet	First	Kine	Barboil
Clumsy	Flea	Landscape	Parcel
Comely	Fodder	Lass	Parse
Cooper	Foible	Last	Pattern
Counter	Forestal	Laggard	Pelt
Craven	Forsake	Launch	Perform
Critnple	Fortnight	Launch	Perry
Crumple	Forward	Left	Peruse

8. The	following are the principal prepositions		in English :
A	Behind	In	Round
Aboard	Below	Like	Save
About	Beneath	Near	Since
Above	Beside	Nigh	Through
According	to Besides	Notwithstanding	Throughout
Across	Between	0	Till
Afore	Betwixt	Of	To
After	Beyond	Off	Touching
Against	But	On	Towards
Along	By	Opposite	U pwards
Amid	Concerning	Outside	Under
Amidst	Despite	Out of	Underneath
Among	Down	Over	Unto
Amongst	During	Past	Up
Around	Ere	Pending	Upon
At	Except	Per	With
Athwart	For	Regarding	Within
Before	From	Respecting	Without.
The prepositions playing		a very conspicuous past in the

Philippic	Salver	Soak	Trice
Pike	Salvage	Sorrel	Trifle
Pipkin	Sample	Staple	Upholsterer
Pocket	Saw	Starch	Utter
Pucker	Scrap	Stud	Veneer
Quagmire	Sharper	Tadpole	Waddle
Quick	Sheen	Tamper	Waver
Eally	Sheriff	Tap	Wild
Keel	Shuttle	Tendril	Warn
Remnant	Skipper	Tight	Whisk
Eiddle	Sloven	Twilight	Whisker
Koost	Sneer	Twin	Wizard
Satchel	Snuff	Twist	Wrong

	231
Accord mt/i, to^])	Averse to	Connive at
Accuse o/^s)	Avert from	Consonant to, with
Acquiesce in	Bear with	Contend with, against
Adapted to	Beg of	Conversant with
Adept in, at	Bestow upon	Convince of
Adequate to	Blame for	Correspond with, to
Adhere to	Blush at	Couple with
Adjourned at¹)	Boast of	Debar of, from
Admonish o/⁴)	Call on, upon, at, for	Deficient in
Advantage of⁵)	Capable of	Demanded of
Affection for	Care for	Depend upon , on
Affinity behoeen, to	Catch at	Derogate from
Agree with, to, upon²) Coincide with		Derogatory to
Agreeable to	Compare with, to ³)	Descant on
Alienate from	Compatible with	Destitute of
Alliance with	Comply with	Devolve on, upon
Amazed at	Confide to, in	Differ with, from
Ambitious of	Conformable to	Difference between
Approve of	Congenial to	Disappointed in, of⁴)
Ascendant over	Connect with	Discouragement to
Attend to, upon¹)	Connexion between	Dispense with

Depart from	Healed of	Profit by
Divide between ') ,	Hinder from	Put up with
among	Hold of	Questioned on, upon
Domineer over	Ignorant of	Reconcile to, with
Doubt of	Impose upon	Reckon on, upon
Easy about	Independent of	Reduce to, under
Embraced in, by	Indulgent to	Reflect upon, on
Embarrassed in, by	Initiate in, into	Regard to, for
Emerge from	Inseparable from	Rejoice at
Encouragement to	Insinuate into	Rely upon, on
Endeared to	Insist upon	Repine at
Endued with	Interfere with	Replete with
Engaged to	Inured to	Sensible of
Enjoin upon	Involve in	Similar to
Estimated at	Join with, to	Solicited to, for
Except from	Justification of	Sport with
Exception to	Land at	Sympathise with
Exclusive from -	Long for, after	Take upon
Expel, from	Martyr for, to	Taken up with
Expert in	Militate against	Taste for, of
Exposed to	Mistrustful of	Thirst after, for
Fall under, from, on.	Mitigation of	Triumph over
upon	Murmur at, against	Uneasy about
Eawn on, upon	Necessary to	Versed in
Fit for	Need of	Void of
Foreign to, from.	Observance of	Wait upon, on, for
Free from	Opposite to	Want of
Glad of	Overwhelmed with	Weep at, for
Good for	Perceptible to	Witness of
Grieve at, for	Prejudice against	Worthy of
Guard against	Prevail over	Yield to
	FIGURES OF SPEECH.