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A.�EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE. For full description of Model, see p. 131.

	B.�THE SKELETON OF THE HORSE See p. 137.

	C�THE SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES. See p. 145.

		IX �THE DEEP MUSCLES. Seo p. 148.

			�. v�tmi]FiCKLN SC:

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A�EXTERNAL ANATOMY OP HORSE. For full description of Model, see p. 131.

		B.-IHE SKELETON OP THE HORSE See p. 137.

	C�THE SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES. See p. 145.

			D�THE DEEP MUSCLES. Seo p. 148

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A.�EXTERNAL ANATOMY OP HOBSE. For full description of Modei, see p. 131.

	B.�THE SKELETON OP THE HOBSE See p. 137.

		C� THE SUPERFICIAL, MUSCLES. Se p. 145.

			D. �THE DEEI' MUSCLES. Seo p. 148

				*>sfCe<mvns*

					*E.V&FWQRCKEH.SC*

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A.�EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE. For full description of Model, see p. 131.

	B.�THE SKELETON OF THE HORSE See p. 137.

		C�THE SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES. See p. 145.

			B. � THE DEEP MUSCLES. Seo p. 148.

				*.^VLr^ncnS*

					� VtFMOP.Ct.lK -

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		THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

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		Head of Hackney Pony Mare, " Lady Wilford " Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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THE MODERN
VETERINARY ADVISER

AN AUTHORITATIVE AND POPULAR GUIDE TO THE
ATTAINMENT AND PRESERVATION OF HEALTH
THE CURE OF DISEASE, AND THE TREAT-
MENT OF AILMENTS AND ACCIDENTS IN

THE HORSE

WITH SECTIONS DEALING WITH DOGS, COWS, SHEEP
POULTRY, PIGS, CAGE-BIRDS, Etc.

EDITED BY

PROFESSOR GERALD LEIGHTON, M.D., F.R.S.E.

PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY, ROYAL (DICK)
VETERINARY COLLEGE, EDINBURGH

WITH SECTIONS BY OTHER SPECIALISTS
IN FIVE VOLS. VOL. I

'^V ^>

FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH MODELS, DIAGRAMS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS
IN COLOUR AND BLACK AND WHITE

LONDON

CAXTON PUBLISHING COMPANY, LTD.

CLUN HOUSE, SURREY STREET, W.C.

1910

2326 385 2

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		THE CONTRIBUTORS GERALD LEIGHTON, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Pathology and Bacteriology in the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edinburgh. J. H. D. SARJEANT, M.R.C.V.S., Professor of Hygiene, Dietetics, and Stable Management in the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edinburgh. D. A. FARQUHARSON, M.B., CM., F.F.P., and S.G., Professor of Physiology in the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edin- burgh. WILLIAM BROWN, M.R.C.V.S., Aberdeenshire. SAMUEL WHARAM, M.R.C.V.S., Leeds, Yorkshire. WILLIAM ROBB, F.R.C.V.S., Glasgow. PERCIVAL WESTELL, M.B.O.U., F.L.S., and Claude St. John. REV. R. McLELLAND, Lecturer in the West of Scotland Agri- cultural College. LOUDON M. DOUGLAS, Cantor Lecturer, Royal Society of Arts, London; Lecturer on the Meat Industry, College of Agriculture, Edinburgh. WILLIAM COLEBATCH, M.R.C.V.S., Assistant Chief Veterinary Officer, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne, Australia.

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			PREFACE

		There are pessimists who tell us that the world�in spite of all its accumulated knowledge�shows no signs of getting any better ; that it is as hard, as selfish, and as cruel to-day as it ever was. The statement might be disproved from many points of view, of which we are concerned only with one. In that one direction, at least, the world to-day presents a very striking change of mental attitude from that which obtained three or four centuries ago. But for that change this book would never have been written. For the first time in the history of the world we see to-day an ever-increasing effort being made to prevent and control the suffering from disease which the animals share with man. Three or four hundred years ago the attitude of mankind at large to the problem of suffering was one of amazing callousness. Even to the varied forms of human suffering there was little but indifference displayed. From that time onward there has been steadily growing in modern Europe a greater and greater regard for human pain until at the dawn of the twentieth century, the efforts made to prevent suffering and cure disease are almost the most potent motives which actuate mankind. Precisely how this has come about is not our concern here, but the humanitarian attitude has gradually extended its influ- ence to the sphere of the lower animals, towards the sufferings of which men and women to-day extend a most ready sympathy. The desire to prevent and cure disease in animals�for the sake of the animals as well as for the sake of their owners�has led to the establishment of veterinary science on its present footing. That science is no longer left to the crude and ignorant hands of the village farrier, but is made the subject of a course of study and practice on all fours with that of human medicine. The modern veterinary surgeon has an equipment of which his imme-

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		PREFACE
	viii	PREFACE
	viii

diate predecessors little dreamed, and which even yet is hardly realised by many of those who own domesticated animals. Our object, then, in these volumes is to endeavour to assist the owner of animals in his desire to keep those animals free from disease, and to indicate how they can be brought back to health should illness or accident occur. Thousands of animal lovers and owners are placed in circumstances which prevent their obtaining ready expert assistance; in many other cases the ailments are trifling, and such as a modern educated parent knows how to deal with in the case of a child. Most important is it to recog- nise that the general principles of domestic hygiene�which are universally taught in their application to man�apply with equal force to his animals. In all these matters it is hoped that this work will be found a useful and reliable guide to knowledge. But�and this is no less important�very many animal diseases are so dangerous to the animals themselves, as well as from the human aspect, that they should be placed in the care of the veterinary surgeon at once. It is too often the case in veterinary as in human medicine that the professional expert is sent for too late. It is therefore of the first importance that owners of animals should know what they can safely and wisely do for themselves and what others can do for them. That knowledge it is our special object to impart. The dangerous person in these matters�as in others�is the ignorant person. He is helpless himself and cannot appreciate the knowledge of the expert. But a careful perusal of these volumes will, it is hoped, be a real help to those who wish to know how to care for their animals, and how to render to those animals that immediate treatment which is necessary, and will also tell them of those more serious diseases their animals are liable to in which science can bring them assistance. Such is the general idea which the writers of these volumes have had in mind. Naturally, the horse stands out most prominently in such a scheme, because�in spite of mechanical means of locomotion and traction�the horse is still our most valuable domestic animal, and is likely to be. But equal care has been taken in those sections which deal with man's faithful friend�the dog�an animal which never stood so high in public

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			PREFACE ix

		favour as it does to-day. Cattle, especially in relation to dairies and milk supply, claim attention; and special sections are devoted to sheep, pigs, cats, poultry, cage-birds, and bees. The section dealing with the special subjects peculiar to Australia is dealt with by an expert who has personal experience in that country. Finally, every one who owns animals incurs thereby certain legal obligations in certain circumstances, and thus we have included a section which defines the relationship of the animal owner to the law. No pains have been spared to make the information supplied m these volumes thoroughly reliable, and the editor would express here his obligations particularly to the following sources from which many facts have been derived: " Mammals Living ^and Extinct," Flower and Lydekker; " Mostly Mammals," Lydekker; " Mammalia," by F. E. Beddard; " Farm Live Stock °f Great Britain," by Professor Robert Wallace; and "The Twentieth Century Dog," by Herbert Compton. With such a large scope of subjects calling for attention it was obviously necessary that various topics should be dealt with by various writers who had special acquaintance with those subjects, and the editor would take this opportunity of expressing his cordial thanks to all those who have so willingly and ably assisted him in the preparation of these volumes. Thus the following special subjects have been contributed by the writers named: Hygiene of the Domestic Animals, by J. D. H. Sarjeant, M.R.C.V.S.; Mammalian Digestion, by Professor D. A. ■Farquharson; Anatomy of Horse and Cow, by William Brown, M.R.C.V.S.; Warranty and Unsoundness and The Animal Owner and the Law, by William Robb, M.R.C.V.S.; Care of the Mare and Foal, by Samuel Wharam, M.R.C.V.S.; Dairy Produce and The Preservation of Eggs, Loudon M. Douglas; Bees and their Culture, by Rev. R. McClelland; Cage-Birds and Poultry, by Percival Westell, M.B.O.U. and Claude St. John ; and others. The proofs of the whole work have been read and revised by Professor Sarjeant. Thanks are due to the following firms who have supplied illustrations of the most modern fittings for stables, kennels, and other animal necessaries: Messrs. Musgrave & Co., Belfast;

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		PREFACE
	X	PREFACE
	X

The St. Pancras Iron Work Co., London; Messrs. Spratt, London; and others whose names appear under the illustrations referred to. It has been the aim of the editor and his colleagues to make this work an eminently practical one. It is their firm conviction that the more widely diffused is an accurate knowledge of the nature of the diseases from which our animals suffer and the means which can be adopted to relieve these conditions, the more will the animal owner realise how much can be done for his animals both by himself in the cases which are amenable to home treatment and by the qualified veterinary surgeon in the more serious complications which arise. It is perfectly certain that if this knowledge were far more general than it is to-day our animals would be saved an immense amount of unnecessary suffering, and the high standard and immense value of modern veterinary know- ledge would be far better appreciated. THE EDITOR.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME I

CHAPTER I

Introductory�Animals in Health and Disease

CHAPTER II
Hygiene ......

CHAPTER III

Stable Management

� *

CHAPTER IV
How to Select a Horse .

CHAPTER V

Warranty and Unsoundness

CHAPTER VI
■Faults and Vices and their Management

CHAPTER VII

■t he Anatomy of the Horse

CHAPTER VIII

Dentition�The Teeth in the Horse

CHAPTER IX

Ihe Process of Digestion in Animals

CHAPTER X
The Circulation of the Blood

■ r

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LIST OF PLATES�VOLUME I

COLOURED PLATES
Anatomical Model of Horse . .

^The Respiratory System .

Digestive System.....

^the Circulatory System . . .

PAGB

Front Board

148
152
156

BLACK AND WHITE PLATES
Head of Hackney Pony Mare, " Lady Wilford "
^P°^NY ^Stallion, " Bantam King

Hunter Gelding, " Biscuit ".....
Stall Stable
Stall Stables

atent Ventilating Window, with Lower Half Fixed

Stable Yard Gully Trap.....

Special Deep Interceptor Trap .... M

^H1RE ^mare, " Lawford Ruby," Owned by J. B. Brooks, Esq
Shire Stallion, " Redlynch Forest King " .
Clydesdale Stallion, " Prince of Wales "
Clydesdale Mare, "Moss Rose-
Hackney Stallion, "Flash Cadet" .
Hackney Mare, " Ophelia's Daughter Grace "
Hackney Pony Mare, " Catch of the Season "
Riding Cob, "Fisherman".....

Frontispiece
8

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		xiv LIST OF PLATES PAGE Polo and Riding Pony Stallion, " Mahmud " . . . .96 Hackney Brood Mare, " Dashing Dunham " . . . 96 Famous Hackney Stallion, " His Majesty," Sire of Many Winners . 112 Shire Mare, " Lockington Beauty," and Foal, " Merveille " . 128 Highland Garron Stallion, " Bonnie Laddie "... 144 The Nervous System.......... 160 A Typical Hunter's Head, " The Joker "...... 164 Thoroughbred Mare, " Queen's Favour "...... 164 H.M. The King's Derby Winner, " Persimmon "..... 176 Champion Welsh Mountain Pony Stallion, " Greylight," Winner at all Leading Shows, 1905-6-7-8 . . . . . 192

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		THE modern veterinary adviser CHAPTER I Introductory�Animals in Health and Disease ^ITH the exception of Cage Birds and Poultry, all the animals ch we shall treat of in these volumes are members of the ^s of " mammals," or, what are usually termed in popular ⁿguage, "quadrupeds," and still more popularly referred to simply as " animals " or " beasts." As they all belong to the e class, it follows that they have a certain number of char- enstics common to them all, and it will help us to a clear erstanding of all the domestic animals if we briefly note these common characteristics are. >, ,» °* ^an"> what is meant by a " mammal" ? The word has been given to these creatures as a name because it ibes the most marked feature which they possess�namely, Possession of teats, which, in its turn, points to the universal hat the young of all mammals are nourished in their earliest y upon milk. This is true of all except a very lowly group Mammals, with which, however, we have nothing to do. b l- ^mammals are unquestionably the highest class of the boned ^animals or vertebrates. The vertebrates, it will be membered, are from the lowest to the highest�the fishes, _In^e ^amPhibians, the reptiles, the birds, and the mammals. of¹°tK^ded ^m ^the ^laSt ^gr°^Up ^is ^man ^himself� ^Now ^a11 ^the members his mammalian class agree in the possession of an external ovenng of hair, though in some of them this may be very scanty nd restncted to certain parts of the body. It is further modified vnⁿ°^US ^degrees ^of ^texture, and may be short, long, straight,

			A

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		curly, bristly, woolly, and so forth ; but whatever type it may represent, no animal possesses any hairs unless it is a mammal. In the second place, all mammals are warm-blooded animals, their blood not being as hot as that of birds, but nevertheless distinctly warm. In all except the very lowest the young are born alive, and, as we have said, receive their earliest nourish- ment from the secretion of the mammae or milk glands. Now if the mammals are unquestionably the highest animals in the vertebrate kingdom, it is in the sense only that highest means a general con- dition of perfection� not a special condition. There are many animals which exhibit some par- ticular organ or function which has been evolved f for some special pur- pose, and which may represent an extremely high degree of perfec- tion in its own particu- lar way, for example, Fig. i�Fore-limb of Man (A) ; Horse (B) ; Bird (C) ; the poison fang of the Whale (D); Fish (E); and Bat (F); showing same yenomOUS Serpent. But general type, a, The Humerus ; b, Radius ; c, Ulna ; , , . ,� d, Wrist ; e, Palm ; / Fingers ; g, Thumb. ^SUCn extreme Specialisa- tion is not what is meant by the highest form of life. Taken all round, and �especially when we consider the tremendous advance which is exhibited by the brain of mammals and its capacities in the -direction of mental acquirement, the mammals stand easily first. They are essentially the animals which can be educated, and hence, of course, we find that they are the animals which man has found it to his greatest advantage to train for his own purposes and to make domesticated. In fact, the term " domestic animals " includes hardly anything else except members of the group of mammals. The fact that they are warm-blooded, and that the temperature of their blood is automatically regulated, enables them to live in all parts of the world and to adapt them-

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		INTRODUCTORY 3 selves to its varying climates. And it is only because mammals nave not the power of flight possessed by birds that their dis- tribution is somewhat less limited than theirs. io sum up our definition of a mammal it may run as follows : warm-blooded vertebrate, with a covering of hairs, the young ^bemg born alive and nourished upon milk. Origin of Domestic Animals.�It will be interesting to look a moment at the origin of the animals whose ailments and reatment we are about to consider, but, at the same time, we ave to confess that very little is known about their earliest s ory. When and where man first began to attach domestic animals to his homesteads, and to make them useful to himself, ^e shall probably never know. Neither do we know what the animals were which were first domesticated. Probably the animals of the Old World were first domesticated in Asia, which ^r ^of ^tne world has also been regarded as the cradle of mankind. omestic animals may be regarded as belonging to one of groups. First, there are those which never breed in P vity, and which man therefore has to replenish, when ,, ^>* ^by continually capturing fresh individuals, for example, �wh" h ⁿ ^^leP^nant- ^In ^tne second class are those animals ch still exist in their ancestral wild state, or which did so ^c°mparatively recently, amongst which we have the horse, Th ^a?^J ^the ^ox'^the ^goat' ^and P^robably ^the ^cat ^and ^the ^d°g- ira group are those domesticated animals whose ancestors ^re ^not ^onlY extinct but even unknown. ngin of Sheep.�It is curious that nothing is known of the es_Lry of the sheep, in spite of the fact that there are numbers Wild species, the latter having hair more like that of deer than al^tih °°^lly ^fleeces ^witn which we are familiar. Still more curiously, sh t ^Wild ^Sheep' ^With ^the ^exceP^tion ^of ^the Barbary Sheep, have ^l°r tails, while the domesticated sheep have long tails. littl ^nSm °^f ^Goats-~^In ^tne ^case ^0I g°ats there is probably but /e doubt that nearly all the goats of Europe and Western sia are derived originally from the wild goat of Persia. This imal was most likely domesticated first in Western Asia and _ana^6rWards ⁱⁿ ^Africa- Mr. Lydekker, in his interesting book on ^Llnmals, states that the superstition prevails in countries as

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		4 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER wide apart as Scotland and Cashmir to the effect that goats are the deadly enemies of snakes ; and the same idea is found in a good many other parts of the world. Origin of Cattle.�All the domesticated cattle of Europe are traced back to the great extinct wild ox, and as cattle have been in domestication for a very long time, it is not to be wondered at that they have become extremely varied in response to their different environments, as well as from the result of artificial breeding. Origin of Horses.�Opinions differ as to whether any really wild horses have survived in modern times. " It was at one time considered that the horse was first domesticated in the East, but later authorities are more inclined to think that the wild horse was also subjugated by the stone-implement makers of Western Europe. This race is considered to have given rise to the ordinary European breeds; but thoroughbred horses are probably of Eastern origin. We naturally look to Arabia as the ancestral home of the Eastern breed; but this is a mistake, as the horse is known to be a comparatively late intro- duction into that country, the Arabs, even as late as the time of Strabo, having neither horses nor asses, and going to battle mounted on camels. In the early days of Egypt the horse was unknown in the Nile Valley, the animal not making its appearance in the frescoes till about the year 1800 B.C. . . . Although the evidence is not decisive, the probability is that the horse was first introduced into Assyria from Persia" (Lydekker). With this brief introduction to the mammals in general and the domesticated animals in particular, we may, without further delay, direct our attention to the subject of health and disease as we find it in them. What is Health?�Health may be defined as that condi- tion in which all the functions of the animal body are painlessly performed. A more accurate scientific definition would be that condition of an individual which, on examining a sufficient number of examples, we find to be the most common. In other words, it is the normal condition of a living creature. With such a definition of health it is easy to define disease, which may briefly

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		INTRODUCTORY 5 be stated to be a departure from a state of health. Disease !s the abnormal. The Nature of Disease.�It is only within modern times hat the causes of disease have been at all thoroughly under- °od, and its real nature appreciated. We see disease all round us in animals and plants, and its presence must have been ° vious to man from the very earliest times. But of what does disease really consist ? All the early ideas of disease failed to nd the real solution to this question because they simply reflected prevailing mode of philosophical thought of their respective rnes. The solution was not searched for by dissection or ⁰ servation ; and it was not until man began to look at the Patients themselves instead of at the stars in the heavens, at the iseased organs instead of philosophy, that the modern science °± disease was laid upon a firm foundation. At last, as the result a careful study of physiology, we have come to see that the eai causes of disease are agencies of various kinds which inter- ere with the normal processes of the body, and which cause hose processes to deviate from their usual methods of working. n other words, there is always some kind of injury or irritant "which makes some process get out of gear, and it is this abnormal "Working of an otherwise healthy process which gives rise to what ^we know as symptoms. For example, we speak of a disease such ^as jaundice, in which the symptom is a yellow staining of the skin Produced by the pigments in the bile which is secreted by the iver. Now, in a state of health that bile assists in the processes of digestion, and is not obvious at all. But should something Prevent that bile following its proper duty, it then goes into the blood vessels, is carried over the body and stains the tissues, making itself obvious. The disease, therefore, is not a new process, not something introduced from outside, not an evil spirit or anything of that kind, simply a normal healthy process gone wrong. If it were not normal for the liver to secret bile there could be no such disease as jaundice. The real nature of disease, therefore, is the deviation of a natural process into some abnormal channel as the result of some interference or disturbing element. The Causes of Disease.�The causes of disease, or the dis-

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		6 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER turbing elements which interfere with the natural processes, are of two kinds. They are either predisposing or indirect causes ; or secondly, they are exciting or direct causes. The former group render the individual liable to be acted upon by the latter. These predisposing causes are frequently inherited, as is seen in those animals which inherit a susceptibility to rickets or tuber- culosis. Such animals, should they come in contact with the direct causes of those diseases, fall ready victims to them. The actual factors which act as predisposing causes of disease are the following : the species of animal concerned, the age, the sex, heredity, occupation, previous disease, climate and temperature. None of these things are the actual causes of disease. They merely act in such a way as to render the animal more liable to disease than it otherwise would be. It will be interesting and of importance to note an example of each. Most sheep are susceptible to the disease of anthrax, but Algerian sheep are practically immune. Young animals are far more liable to suffer from rickets and many other conditions than are old ones. Obviously the diseases of female animals will differ from those of males, not only on account of their difference in anatomical structure, but also frequently because their occu- pations are not the same. Some breeds of cattle, and more especially some individuals, are much more susceptible to tuber- culosis than others, that susceptibility being inherited. Such cattle should not be used for breeding purposes, but the breeder should select the most highly resistant. Occupation and environ- ment play a large part in predisposing animals to various accidents- and ailments. Thus we find that horses which spend most of their time in the stable are more susceptible to chills and colds than those which live in the fields. Similarly, horses drinking water from ponds are much more liable to be infected with parasites than are those which are watered from taps. Those horses whose daily work causes them to be many hours on hard stone pavements will be more liable to complaints of the foot than the horses whose work is on pasture land. The race-horse will be liable to strains of muscles which will differ from the strain of the waggon horse, hunters and carriage-horses will all have their own special complaints, and where horses are gathered

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			INTRODUCTORY 7

		together in numbers as, for instance, in a cavalry regiment, there, as one would expect, infectious diseases, such as glanders, will he liable to affect a large number at one time. In the case of cattle the disease of those which are kept for Purposes of milk supply will not be the same as those which are bred for beef; and in the same way sheep will vary somewhat according to their length of wool. In the case of dogs, those which are kept as pets in the house are usually overfed, and this ^aPpHes specially to the fancy varieties and ladies' pets. Those ^th-at roam about at large eating all sorts of offal, and drinking contaminated water, will be very susceptible to the infection °f parasites ; and in packs of hounds again infectious diseases ^wiH readily spread. Dogs in some country districts where adders ^are common, may die from snake-bite, many such cases being erroneously attributed to malicious poisoning. Similar con- siderations apply to cats. Most of those pets suffer from over- feeding. Exciting Causes of Disease.�Turning our attention now to the second group of causes of disease�the actual or exciting causes�we find that there are in all three distinct kinds. We have first of all mechanical causes. Under this heading come all those factors which produce mainly surgical injuries or acci- dents, and naturally these factors operate mainly in the direction of various forms of violence. Thus we have blows, kicks, crushes, falls, and pressure of any kind and every kind which is sufficiently severe to injure the part to which it is applied. Sometimes that injury is so serious as to cause the complete severance of a limb,, °^r it may be that it produces contusion or abrasion ; so that it will be seen at once that the exciting causes of disease, in so far as they are mechanical, produce results of a surgical kind. Secondly, there is the group of chemical exciting causes, and these are found principally in the actions of poisons, or strong acids or alkalies. Such agents are phosphorus, arsenic, strychnine, carbolic and other acids, and so forth; some of which cause injuries by wrong application, and others of which are found in certain commercial compositions. More important than either of these former two is the third group of exciting causes, namely, living things. These vital

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		8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER exciting causes are either animal, vegetable, or bacteria. Amongst the animals which cause disease in other animals are a large number of parasites such as tape-worms. In addition there are a large number of creatures such as fleas, lice, ticks, and so forth, some of which act themselves as irritants, and others simply as carriers of more minute creatures still. Thus we have a tick which acts as a host for the parasite of Texas Cattle Fever, and which, when feeding on the blood of cattle, injects the actual cause of that disease into the blood of the animal in question. In the vegetable group are some of the lower fungi which, however, are not of any great importance as disease producers when compared with the other exciting causes. By far the most important of these exciting living causes are bacteria or microbes or germs, all of which names are given to those innumer- able minute cells, the study of which, in recent years, has done so much to clear up our knowledge of infectious and contagious disease. Their study is a science in itself�the science of Bac- teriology. It is unnecessary at this stage to enter into details in connection with the various germs which produce disease in animals. The most important facts in that connection will be mentioned as we deal with each disease in turn, but it will be well to note in this general description that all bacteria produce their effects in one of two ways, or by a combination of those two ways. Thus some germs, having gained an entrance into the body, proceed to multiply in the blood circulation at an enormous rate, producing within a few hours many millions. When that happens, as in the case of anthrax, the disease is termed a Septicemia. In other cases few or no germs may be found in the blood stream, the microbes remaining restricted to the point at which they gained entrance to the body, and, using that point as a manufactory, they there proceed to multiply locally, and produce substances of an extremely poisonous nature which are absorbed from that point by a lymphatic and thence into the circulation. These highly poisonous substances pro- duced by microbes are termed toxins, and a disease which is caused by their absorption�as is tetanus in horses, for example�is called a toxcemia. Many infections are combinations of both

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		Pony Stallion, "Bantam King' Photo by Brown & Co., Lanark

			Hunter Gelding, "Biscuit" Photo by Brown & Co., Lanark

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		INTRODUCTORY 9 these ; organisms themselves being found in the blood, where they multiply and also produce their poisons. Internal and External Causes.�Finally, as regards the causes of disease, it will help to a clear understanding of the subject if it be remembered that all these various factors, whether pre- disposing or exciting, act upon the animal either from the outside ^0r the inside. Their point of action is either external or internal. t-ooked at in this way they may be rearranged in the following ^WaY- The external causes are occupation ; temperature ; climate ; Physical causes; chemical, electrical, and thermal causes; mechanical factors ; and parasites�whether animal, vegetable, ^or bacterial. The internal causes include such factors as race, ^age, sex, heredity, and congenital defects. The external causes ^ay produce disease directly, or they may do so by rendering ^he animal susceptible to attack. The second or the internal causes, it will be observed, are all of the nature of predispositions. Effect of Previous Disease.�It is important to remember that previous disease leaves an animal sometimes immune for life� ^or for a long period�to the condition from which it has suffered. Thus horses which have suffered from strangles very rarely, if ^ever, do so again. But, on the other hand, there are diseases, °ne attack of which leaves the patient more liable to that con- dition than before�of which class influenza is a case in point. A third result which sometimes follows is that after recovery from one disease the patient has acquired an additional suscepti- bility to another disease�thus some forms of pneumonia leave the lung less resistant to the infection of tuberculosis. The Effect of Climate.�Many conditions, of course, have a restricted geographical distribution, though unfortunately one °f the results of the increased facility of communication between different countries has been the introduction into this country of diseases not natural to Great Britain. But, apart from climatic influences, there are certain living causes of disease, such as bacteria, and insects, and parasites, which are only found in certain parts of the world. In so far as these affect the domestic animals they will be considered in a later section of this work. The influence of the seasons may be mentioned here as having a marked effect upon the outbreaks of various kinds of disease.

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		io THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER The actual time of the year during which the different conditions may be looked for will be mentioned under each condition. How is Disease Manifested?�What are the evidences of the presence of disease, and what makes it possible to say that disease is present ? There are two reasons�and two reasons only�which enable this question to be answered. In the case we already considered of the individual suffering from jaundice, what had happened ? Obviously in the first place there was some alteration and disturbance in the function of the liver; so that the first thing which enables one to know that disease is present is some alteration of function. The second reason is to be found on examination of the organs affected ; upon which examination it will be discovered that there is some alteration in structure. In the great majority of diseases changes in both function and structure are present. The latter may not be very obvious. Indeed they may be microscopical, but they are usually present in some degree. There are, however, some few diseases in which no definite structural changes have been discovered to account for the alteration in function, and such diseases are termed functional. Where a change in the tissue or organ is known to occur the disease is said to be organic. A good example of functional disease is frequently to be found in a disordered action of the heart, due, perhaps, to some nervous cause, or to indigestion, or to some cause which cannot be discovered, but leading to very marked changes in the manner and rate of beating of the heart, but not associated with any actual change in its substance. Acute and Chronic Disease.�Diseases are also regarded from the point of view of their duration as being acute or chronic. An acute disease is one which has an abrupt or sudden onset, is characterised by active, definite symptoms, which shortly ter- minate either in death or recovery. A chronic disease, on the other hand, is one in which the onset as a rule is much more insidious, the symptoms being less aggravated, and the symptoms run a far more protracted course. There can be no hard and fast line drawn between these two types of disease, though as a rule they are clearly distinct; but when a disease which has been acute subsides partially but not entirely, and still subsists for a

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	INTRODUCTORY
		ii


time, it is then termed sub-acute. Such a condition may become truly chronic. The Diagnosis of Disease.�By diagnosis is meant the observa- tion of the symptoms of a disease with the view of coming to a conclusion as to the nature of the condition present. It is made up chiefly by closely observing the symptoms present. It is the first essential for a successful treatment, and is a matter of Prolonged practice and experience. Certain symptoms, however, ^can be observed by any educated person who is a careful observer, quite apart from the technical knowledge of the expert, and of these symptoms there are two in particular which are always to be watched with the very greatest care, because they give more information in animals than can be obtained from any other source. These symptoms are the pulse and the temperature. !n human beings a great deal of reliance in diagnoses is placed upon the symptom of pain, but human beings have the faculty °t language, and the medical man can question his patient and elicit a great deal of information about the nature and the Position and the degree and kind of any given pain, while the veterinary surgeon or the owner of an animal is in a much more difficult position in reference to this symptom. True, the animal may undoubtedly evince pain by its attitude, or other unmis- takable signs, but the symptom cannot be made to give so much information as in the case of human beings. Pulse and tem- perature, on the other hand, are open to full investigation, the only requisite being an accurate knowledge of what the rate of the pulse should be in the various animals in a state of health, and the normal temperature in health for these same animals. The Pulse in Health.�Professor James Law gives the following figures with regard to the normal pulse rate in the domestic animals : " The pulse in full grown animals at rest may be set down as follows, per minute : horse, 36 to 46 ; ox, 38 to 42 ; sheep, goat, and pig, 70 to 80 ; dog, 80 to 100 ; cat, 120 to 140 ; chicken, 140 ; oxen in a hot building or with a full paunch, 70. In old age it may be 5 less in large quadrupeds, and 20 or 30 in small ones. Youth and small size imply a greater rapidity. The new-born foal has a pulse three times as frequent as the

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		horse, the six-months colt double, and the two-year old one and a quarter. It is increased by hot buildings, exertion, fear, a nervous temperament, and pregnancy. In large quadrupeds there is a monthly increase of four or five beats per minute after the sixth month. The force of the pulse varies in the different species in health, thus it is full and moderately tense in the horse; smaller and harder in the ass and mule ; full, soft, and rolling in the ox ; small and quick in sheep ; firm and hard in swine ; and firm, with a sharp, quick beat in dogs and cats." The Pulse in Disease.�From the above normal numbers great deviations are met with in disease. Thus, the actual rate may be changed in the direction of increased frequency or diminished frequency. It may become more rapid or more slow. But not only does the actual rate vary. No less important is it to observe the alteration in the character of the beat, though this requires considerable training, and can only be fully appreci- ated by the expert. Where to feel the Pulse in Animals.�The pulse is caused by the expanding and contracting of an artery in response to the force of the heart which propels the blood through the vessels. The pulse can therefore be felt in any artery which is large enough to give considerable expansion, and which lies near enough to the surface of the skin to be felt. The easiest positions in which to feel this pulse beat are those in which an artery passes over a bone, the latter lying just underneath the skin, so that the observer can compress the artery between his own finger and the surface of the bone, and thus feel the beat. Such positions are found at the border of the lower jaw, just in front of the part which curves, and also underneath the bony ridge which extends upwards from the eye. In horses the pulse is conveniently felt inside the elbow; in cattle the positions selected are over the middle of the first rib, or underneath the tail; in dogs the pulse can be easily ascertained by compressing an artery which runs down a groove in the inner side of the thigh against the thigh bone. The pulse, however, is not the only indication of alterations in the beating of the heart. The observer, by applying the palm

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INTRODUCTORY

of his hand over the chest of an animal, just behind the left elbow,
will be able to detect any exaggerated beating of the heart, or
any irregularity in its beat by the impulse transmitted to the
hand from the chest wall. Such a method of examination is
termed palpation. Further, the observer may actually listen to
the beating of the heart either by apply-
ing his own ear to that part of the body
under which the heart lies, or by using an
instrument specially devised for this pur-
pose which is called a stethoscope. This
process is termed auscultation. The ordinary
observer will find that his observations upon
"the heart of animals will be practically limited
to the rate of the pulse, and to the presence
of any very obvious palpitation or thumping.
This latter symptom is often exhibited by
excitable horses and dogs, which .��
are alarmed from any cause, and Vfr

^Js a symptom of many diseases |§

which are associated with Fever.
Animal Temperature in Health.
The temperature of the vari-
ous species of domesticated ani-
mals varies very considerably,
the same authority as above
quoted giving the following
figures: " The natural tempera-
ture is�for the fowl, 107⁰ F. to

Ho⁰ F.

goat

; swine, 104

Fig. 3.�Binaural Stetho-
scope (for two ears).

^and sheep, 102⁰ F. to 103⁰ F. ; Fig. 2.-Sim_Ple

cow, 101⁰ F. to 102⁰ F.; dog,
99° F. to ioo° F.; horse, 99° F. to 99.6⁰ F." Bearing in mind
these figures as the average for adults, it must be remembered
that in all cases of domestic animals which are engaged in heavy
^work the temperature may be a degree or so higher than these
figures which refer to the condition at rest. Moreover it may
be noted that female animals which are "in heat " may show
a temperature as much as two or three degrees higher than the

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			14 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER normal, and a similar elevation may be observed in the latter periods of pregnancy and during parturition. Taking the Temperature.�The only reliable method of taking a temperature is by using the special instrument devised for that purpose, namely, a clinical thermometer (Fig. 4). Ther- mometers nowadays are made in such a manner that on with- drawing them from the part of the body to which they have been applied the column of mercury within the glass tube remains stationary opposite the figure to which it reached, and thus indicates the actual height of the temperature, no matter how long afterwards it be looked at. Such thermometers are termed self-registering. In order to use such a thermometer again the portion of mercury�termed the index�which points to the figure reached, must be first shaken down so that its upper limit falls below that point on the scale which marks the normal temperature. In order to read the thermometer we have simply to note that

		Fig. 4.�Clinical Thermometer. The black mass represents the index, and the arrow the normal temperature. each degree of temperature is marked by a prominent line drawn across the column, and that the space between each of these prominent lines�that is, between each degree�is further divided into five smaller lines. We are thus able to read a temperature in fifths of a degree. Every fifth of a degree being equal to two-tenths, the temperature is always written in the decimal system ; thus a temperature of ninety-eight and two-fifths is written and spoken of as 98.4. Now for the actual procedure in taking the temperature. Having carefully shaken down the index until it is below the normal, the bulb of the thermometer is placed in contact with one or other part of the body of the patient to be examined. The situations chosen for this purpose are usually either the mouth, the rectum or lower bowel, or the vagina in the female. The actual position chosen will have to depend upon the circumstances of each individual case and the animal to be

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			INTRODUCTORY 15

		examined. If placed in the mouth, care must be taken to see that the lips are closed, and the bulb of the thermometer should reach underneath the tongue. The best kind of thermometers require only to be kept in position for not longer than three minutes.

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			CHAPTER II

		Hygiene The General Principles of Hygiene.�Hygiene is the science which aims at rendering growth more perfect, decay less rapid, life more vigorous, and death more remote. From this science we study the means taken to guard animals from diseases, and to preserve them in health, also the means to insure the produc- tion of healthy stock, the raising of such stock to maturity, enabling them to fulfil their destiny, and attain their highest utility with the least discomfort to themselves and for the greatest profit to their owners. Disease among our domestic animals is one of the most costly scourges, while nothing may be so remunerative as the outlay that augments health. Signs of Health.�An animal that is in good health should be well nourished, its coat must be in good condition, the skin clean, and the flesh firm and elastic. The eyes should be bright and clear, the lining membrane of the nostrils should also show a pink colour and must be moist without discharge. The respira- tion should be easy and regular, and on no account should any offensive smell taint the breath. The nose of the ox and pig should be covered with a slight moisture or dew, while in the dog and cat it should be cool when tested with the back of the hand. Such animals should stand squarely and easily, and their countenance should be free from any expression of pain. The pulse should be regular and firm. Taken from the angle of the lower jaw in the horse it should give on an average thirty- five to forty beats a minute ; in the cow, when taken from the same position, there should be fifty beats a minute. The sheep and pig give seventy to eighty beats, and the dog and cat eighty to one hundred beats in the same time when taken in each case from inside the thigh. The normal respirations of the horse average eight to twelve per minute, and in the cow twelve to is

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		iiijiiii fiiiiiu m

				Stall Stable (by Musgrave)

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			HYGIENE 17

		sixteen, while the sheep, pig, and dog are somewhat uncertain in this respect, but range from fifteen to twenty. The temperature may be registered at the rectum or vagina with a Fahrenheit thermometer, and in health should read in the horse, 99⁰ to ioo°; cow, 101⁰ to 102⁰; sheep, 103°; pig, 101⁰; dog and cat, 101⁰ to 102⁰. The rectal reading will give a slightly higher reading of .2° to 4⁰. Housing.__For the comfort and health of our animals it is essential that they should be properly housed, and the first point one must consider as regards this is the site. In doing so we must bear in mind that building in the country and in the town are two vastly different matters. In the first instance one has ample scope to chose a good site, and when doing so it must be borne in mind that the stable should be built on a gravel or chalk soil where obtainable, and should be moderately elevated, because if erected in a hollow or on low-lying ground it will probably "be damp in spite of good drainage, and such dampness is always productive of disease. If a good water supply is not in evidence, it would be a wise precaution and money saved to assure oneself of a good supply by sinking a well before building operations are started. The site should be well sheltered from the cold winds and the buildings erected to face south-east or south-west, and thus avoid the cold winds from blowing directly into the building. When building in the town or city a point of consider- able importance is sunlight, as dark stalls are never very healthy ;. but where one is not restricted as regards the site, and wherever possible, one should build in single rows to obtain as much sun as possible. The size and area greatly depend on the number of horses to be kept, and whether the buildings are to be erected in singh or double rows. If in double rows there should be a space equal to twice the height of the building between each row. Foundations.�The foundations should be of concrete, and four times the thickness of the wall, and to prevent any dampness a damp-proof course should be made as the wall rises above the ground. This may consist of slate laid in cement, a layer of glazed bricks, or a layer of asphalt poured over the wall. The walls are built of bricks laid in mortar, which should be placed between the layers and also between the vertical ends; no two VOL. I. B

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	HYGIENE
	HYGIENE		19
			19

made about 1 foot higher than the outside ground level in order to facilitate drainage. The best material for such a flooring is com- posed of paving bricks made in several patterns, either being divided into two by a groove or into eight by grooves. The size of brick is 9 inches by 3 inches by 2\ inches, and the cost about 7s. 6d. Per square yard. It is neces- sary to have a slope in the floor for the purpose of carry- ^lng off any fluid excreta, but this slope should not be ^enough to interfere with the ^easy standing of the horses. W the back of the stall is I ^lnch lower than the front it ^illbe sufficient for the pur- Pose, and quite enough to carry off any water. Doors.�These, depending °ⁿ the size of the stable, may be either hinged or sliding. ^Hinged doors should allow of Plenty of room for a horse to §° in and out of his stable ^Wlthout any fear of his hurt- ^lng his hips on the side posts, °^r his poll by throwing up
		Fig. 5.�Loose Box Door (Musgrave).
�s head and knocking him- self on the top of the frame. To allow this room, it is well to ^nave the door 8 feet high and 4 feet wide. They should Z^^ays be made to open outwards, especially for a loose box ^ ,�■ 5), for if made to open inwards straw will often interfere ^Wlth them, and also, as is sometimes the case, a horse may get cast against the door, making it very awkward to enter his stable. *his form of door should be made in two parts, so that the top half may be left open for ventilation, and in this case they should ^e P^r°vided with iron bars to fit across the top in order to Prevent a young horse from trying to jump out. When they are made of the sliding pattern they should be divided down the

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THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

centre, and each half should measure 4 feet across, allowing
an opening of 8 feet when thrown wide open.

Latches and Handles.�Where these fastenings are not care-
fully made it is a common mishap for a horse to injure himself

with them, and to prevent this they should
be so fixed as to do away
with all sharp projections, or,
if this is absolutely impossible,
it is well to have all projec-
tions rounded off. The St.
Pancras Iron Work Company

For outside.

of Old St. Pancras Road,

London, and Messrs. Mus-
grave of London and Belfast,
have some of the best fittings.
The latter firm provide a very
useful, harmless latch, which

may be opened from the inside

FIG. 7 (Musgrave).

by means of counter-sunk
holes, and when opened the bolt is hidden,

Fig. 6.

thus preventing any means of injury
(Figs. 6, 7). For sliding doors it is well to have a handle that
is flush with the door ; other patterns often afford a plaything
for an idle horse, and if by accident they become broken, the sharp
part left may be the cause of serious injury to an animal.

Stall Divisions.�It is usual to have these made of wood and
placed the whole length of a stall; measured from the manger
they should be 9 feet in length, and placed at intervals of
6 feet apart. The wood-work should be 4 feet 6 inches
high, and may be continued by trellis work to 7 feet at the
head and 5 feet at the rear (Fig. 8). The better class divisions
are provided with a double sliding barrier running the length of
the division which, when drawn out of its socket, may be fixed
to the wall behind. By this means, when a horse gets loose,
he is confined to his partition and does not wander about with
the chance of getting kicked. The height in front of the parti-
tion prevents a horse getting his head over the partition and
biting his neighbour. These divisions should not quite reach the

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		�(3ABi3sniM) uoisiaiq iibis�'8 '9IJ

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			Fig. 9.�Swing Bales, Single (St. Pancras).

		Fig. 10.�Swing Bales, Double (St. Pancras).

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HYGIENE

floor, but should have a space to allow of washing and ventilation,
but not large enough for a horse to get his foot under. Two
°r three inches would be quite sufficient. The foot of the
Partition should end in a post or pillar which should be free of
^any projections, round in shape, and only supplied with rings
for the use of pillar-reins. The practice of sometimes attaching to
them a bracket for the purpose of holding a saddle is not advisable,
^as it is a very common source of danger to a horse's eyes when
standing on the pillar-rein. The practice of making divisions
Movable by swinging bales, which are beams or planks hung from
he roof at the rear and hinged to the manger in front, is not to
^e recommended. When hung high enough to prevent a horse

his

tmg across them, and low enough to prevent a horse kicking

neighbours, they make a very imperfect division between

^0rses, although it is claimed for them that they allow of good
entilation and permit any one to see all the horses when entering

^xne stable, thus giving an attendant every opportunity of seeing
ⁿy accident quickly (such as a horse being cast in his stall,

°^r fixed in the halter shank).

Fig. 11.�Manger Set (Hill & Smith).

Mangers.�These are one of the most important fittings in
stable, and too great care cannot be taken in their selection,
^0r a manger that does not conform to the best of hygienic
principles, although it may be cheap in its construction, will
Prove a source of great danger to the health of the horse. They
^s ould be constructed of non-absorbent and easily cleaned
material. Wooden mangers, on account of their absorbent
Properties, are objectionable, and although sometimes lined with

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		zinc a further danger is thus provided, for the lining becomes worn away and small pieces of the zinc break off. These are

	Fig 12�Hay rack, with Sliding Grid and Roller in Manger (Hill & Smith). eaten with the corn, and may cause intestinal trouble. Mangers are made in many varieties of patterns, and differ according as to

				Fig. 13.�Extra Strong Manger Fitting (Musgrave).

whether they are for a stall stable, or for a loose box (Figs. 11 to 17). For the former they should run the whole width of the stall, and

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		Stall Stables (by Musgrave)

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		HYGIENE
		HYGIENE	25
			25

	thus are 6 feet in length, and are divided into three portions, one for the corn, another for hay, and in many cases one for water (Figs. 11,12,13). Care should be taken to have the manger made large enough to hold the ration of grain. If it is made too small the grain will be easily thrown out by the horse and wasted.

Fig. 14.�Superior Angular Wrought Iron Hay Rack (Musgrave). To prevent this there is sometimes provided a small guard-rail at each end of the manger. The most desirable manger is made of enamelled ironware (Fig. 15), but the practice of making the top to curve inwards is objectionable, as this part is often neglected by the attendant when he is cleaning the manger out, and dirt

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	26 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER of all sorts may accumulate which is harmful to the animal. The hay-rack should preferably be on a level with the manger, and covered with a guard, as there is not so much waste of hay under this order of things as in the old and unnatural style of having the hay-rack above the horse's head, from whence he pulled his hay in large quantities, dropping half of it on the ground and trampling it under foot. The division for water that is often inserted into the manger

		Fig. 15.�Superior Harmless Manger Fitting (Musgrave).

has advantages and some objections. On the one hand it ensures a horse always having fresh water before him, if it is provided with an invisible tap from the main water supply, and an outlet, which should be continued to the waste-pipe outside the stable. The great objection to it is that it is apt to encourage laziness on the part of the attendant, who neglects to keep it properly cleaned out, and a collection of food may accumulate at the bottom of the trough, rendering the water distasteful to the horse, who would rather go without his supply than drink

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				HYGIENE 27

	such stale water. Boarding in of the mangers is not to be com- mended, for this plan greatly harbours dirt which it is not easy to clean away. The better plan is to allow the front of the manger to slope away backwards in order to prevent a horse bumping his knees. The front of the manger should be made wide enough to prevent the horse from grasping it in his mouth and thus encouraging crib-biting.

			siiiiiiiiiii!i'ⁱM 1

		Fig. 16.�Manger of Extra Depth, for Chopped Food (Musgrave). Fastenings.�The points to be borne in mind when choosing


e arc that they should be of a noiseless pattern (of which &Td^ral ^are °ⁿ ^the ^market)> ^and ^that ^they should be securely tlT ^t0f ^the ^man�^er> ^as ^a ^nervous horse may put great strain on ^^em if startled, by running back in his stall. The firms of _k usgrave and St. Pancras have several useful patterns (Fig. 18), m choosing one, simplicity of construction is to be recom-

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	28 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER mended, for the complicated patterns are all more or less liable to get out of order, and become useless for safely securing a horse. If the simple ring and staple fastened to the front of the

		Fig. 17.�Superior Manger Fitting (Musgrave).

manger is chosen, the point arises how long a chain or halter rope should be allowed a horse, so that he can comfortably lie down and yet not have too long a fastening. Under the latter conditions accidents may soon arise from his standing too far back in his stall and kicking his neighbours, or getting his leg over the chain and seriously damaging himself. If the horse is drawn up to his manger with his head in its natural position, and when standing at ease, the halter shank is allowed to touch

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			HYGIENE
			HYGIENE	29
				29

the ground with about 6 inches to spare, the length allowed will be safe. Loose-boxes.�Having spoken of a stall stable, as to its

		Fig. 19.�Loose Box, Extra Strong- (Musgrave). buildings and fittings, now let us proceed to consider the loose °^Xes with which every stable should be provided, even if on

	IG. 20.�Plan showing Two Stalls and One Loose Box (Musgrave). account of expense and scarcity of space more than one cannot - arrowed (Figs. 19, 20). It is very useful to have at least one

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	30 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER box in a stable, so that in the case of sudden illness among the horses this may be used. We shall refer at a later period to isolation and breeding boxes. When possible, if one is building a six-stalled stable, the loose box should be provided at one end of the stable and should be built of stronger material as regards the pillars and wood-work, as it is often subject to the kicks of a delirious patient put into it suffering from severe pain. Care should be taken to have them sufficiently large, say 14 feet

		Fig. 21.�Plan showing Five Loose Boxes, one of them convertible into Two Stalls, Curved Safety Divisions (Musgrave).

square, so as to provide room for an animal to lie down and roll without any fear of his getting cast. The sides of the box should be from 7 to 7^ feet in height, and the door, which should in all cases open outwards, should be 4 feet wide, which will lessen the danger of a nervous horse, who is apt to rush through the doorway, damaging himself. The manger and hay-rack should be placed in the two opposite

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				31
			HYGIENE	31
			HYGIENE

	corners from the door of the box, and at the same height from the ground as in the stall (Figs. 16, 17). When building stables in large towns where space is very valuable, it is a common practice to

I



		build the stable two and sometimes three stories high, when care should be taken to provide sufficient light and ventilation. The horses should be placed with their heads to the outside wall,

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		THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

	a passage should run down the centre, and each horse should be allowed a window over his head. Where accommodation is required for a large number the block system of building may be adopted, but these blocks should never be built in a square or circles, as this method does not allow of proper ventilation. The parallel system is one of the best for this style of building.

			Fig. 23.�Extra Strong Superior Loose Box (Musgrave).

Windows.�The important point of windows next demands our attention, and as they are so closely related to the ventilation of buildings they will again be referred to under the head of ventilation. Where possible a horse should have a window of the Sheringham valve pattern placed over its head, but where economy has to be studied a window between two horses placed over the stall division will be found sufficient. In order that a stable should be rendered hygienic it is most important that

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		Fig. 29.�Stable Yard Gully Trap (Musgrave)
Fig. 24.�Patent Ventilating Window, with lower half fixed (Musgrave)		Fig. 29.�Stable Yard Gully Trap (Musgrave)


	Fig. 28.�Special Deep Interceptor Trap (Musgrave)

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		HYGIENE ? they are allowed to be ^' ina """"^ ^WiU ^not thrive impure by bad drainage. ^an atmosphere rendered Drainage.�The solid excreta fm� u , ^eds is removed by the at _ndant aT, ^ ^StaWeS �* cow- Piaced on the manure heap conl ₊? ^aS ^tt ^is ^voided, and carefully have to consider ^ the H f^i^ P°^int ^ most ^e forms of drainage used are _eithei < ^Hquid «^ former system is much to bT»_rT f�^* °^r ^Subs°il. The of the very highest class o] ^ f it' "'* "** ^the ^excePtion ^ eyes is not toler- ^aWe> ^whe� anything offensive to ated, surface drainage should be employed, "s advantages are that one can see the whole sys em ₀f _drai qte easily; there a5 no^rain-pipes to J out of order, or deffc! ^Ti* Ct_w^ng ^a ^FIG~²⁵- -- <* -_cras,** P^es which are aS- f ^u ^back to the stable � and nn a ■ ^ShouId be conn ,° ^Carry ^the ^fluid excreta aW U * ^m Surfoce dL ^UGd °^Utside the building for 7^" * ^gUtter ^into the m ?' "^ ^thGn ^Sh0uld empty I _se1f -nto at ⁴ * ^&S ^aand dee_n ^SGWer ^or tank. The Lt_ter \hJ ^ ^ ^then ^very C* t^de ^and ³ ^to 4 ^ts dL^_h^tler_tt?^uld^t0 ^ «S. -S"^(or ^the -^tter ^to �& �SX'SK**

			c

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34 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

As many of our stables are not provided with this surface
drainage, it will be necessary for us to understand something
of the underground or subsoil system, and as drain-pipes are used

it will be well to know some-
thing about them. These pipes
should be made of glazed stone-
ware to make them impervious.
They are made in different

Sections.

sizes, and usually measure on

Side Outlet.

section from 2 to 36 inches wide,

FlG. 26�Paving and Drainage (St. Pancras). _and _their _length _is _usuaUy

2 feet. At one end of each pipe is a socket or collar, into which
the end of the adjusting pipe is fixed. The socket end of the
drain should be laid against the flow pointing towards the head
of the drain. The joints of these pipes should be carefully made
with cement, and care should be taken that none of the cement
is left on the inside so as to cause any obstruction. When building
on new ground these pipes should be laid in concrete or cement
to prevent them becoming fractured by settlement of the ground,
but when laid in old ground it is usually sufficient to dig a place
for the head of the pipe. When possible they should always
be laid in a straight line, for any angles or curves in the direction
of the pipes tend to obstruc-
tion. In no case should con-
nections or branches be at
right angles. All joints or
branches should be in the form
of a "Y" so that the flow
may always be kept in the
direction of the main current.

For small stables a 4-inch pipe
will be sufficient, but for larger

:.2.,":~-vr.y'Ji^.>-
FlG. 27.�Patent Paving and Drainage
Bricks (St. Pancras).

buildings a 6-inch pipe will
be required. If larger pipes than these are used, the difficulty
of flushing out the drains is much increased. It is necessary
to have the drain-pipes laid in such a manner that the flow
should be at a certain rate, and that rate not so slow as to allow
any solid material to be deposited and in time choke the pipe.

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		The rate aimed at should be between 3 to 4 feet per second, and for the pipes mostly in use this would be gained in a 4-inch pipe by allowing a fall of 1 in 40. A 6-inch pipe would require a fall of 1 in 60. Drain-pipes within the stable empty themselves into the sewer-pipes outside the building, which, in its turn, discharges into the sewer, which should be on section egg-shaped, with the narrow end towards the bottom. These should be made of glazed neks laid in cement to render them impervious to moisture. . ^ese ^sewers somet mes empty themselves into the rivers, but ^m°st cases their contents are treated by various means and punned before being allowed to enter the river. The sewers ould be well ventilated at intervals and provided with inspection P P^es ^and man-holes, so that the flow may be periodically inspected. Ventilation of Drains.�It is absolutely necessary to provide 5 oa ventilation, and any chance of the sewer gas returning into ^e ^able must be made impossible. This is done by an opening ^u side the building, which should be of the same diameter as the P P � The water conductor from the roof should never be used fill , .P^urP^osej because during a heavy rain this pipe, being thus with water, may compress the air in the sewer pipe, raps.�These should be placed where the interior of a drain ^ommunicates with the interior of a stable. The best trap is the syphon trap. It may, however, become of little use if it th °+t? ^^ ^ ^tne suction action of a larger pipe at the outlet _ey^an ^tne_°ne entering it. If the traps are not used for some time If fc-¹⁰ⁿ ^may ^occur ^m the syphon, leaving the trap useless, bee °^lent ^Wat6r ^is ^not ^used ^to ^flush ^lt ^out ^at ^intervals ^il ^may stabl ⁶ ^^ed> ^and fo^ gases arising from it will pass into the Feat!⁶" ?^ther ^f°^rms ^of ^traP^s ^used ^are ^the ^GulIey ^TraP> ^Midis nott h^P' ^Fkp ^Tra.^P' ^and ^the ^Bel1 ^Trap' ^The ^last ^namedbecome°b ^advised' ^as ^lt ^is ^not ^easy to clean; the bell is apt to when '^G ^r°^ken' ^and ^tnus ^the trap becomes useless. All traps, hose-pi¹¹ ^a ^Stable' ^should be flushed out daily by means of the time sh⁶ ^&J^d ^Water > ^and y^ard traps, especially in the summer watPr k occasionally flushed to make good any loss of Wh ^evaporation- tested I?/¹¹⁶ ^drainS ^are ^laid'^{t ^is ^imP°^rtant ^that they should be ore they are finally covered up to see that they are

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		36 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER impervious. This may be done by closing the outlet and filling the drain with water from the inlet, watching the rise or fall of the water at the disconnecting syphon. Another method is the smoke test, performed either by burning some pungent material in the pipes, or by pumping smoke into the drain by some special generating apparatus. There are some disadvantages to subsoil drainage. One can never be quite sure of the efficiency of the trap to prevent the return of gas. This may occur by the seal becoming unstopped through the evaporation of water in it, or as the result of its being emptied by suction. The drains are liable to become blocked by solid excreta getting in, and then the floor has to be pulled up in order to put them right. Grooms and attendants are liable to neglect the flushing out, and thus allow them to get out of proper order. Ventilation.�Before going into any detail in this section it will be wise to study something of the composition of air, also to know something of the impurities with which it may become charged, and thus made detrimental to the health and well-being of those animals which are called upon to spend their fives in a somewhat artificial manner while housed in stables, cow-sheds, &c. The three chief gases which compose the air are Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Carbonic Acid, with traces of other gases and some organic matter with some proportions of mineral salts. There is also a certain amount of watery vapour which varies accord- ing to the temperature. The carbonic acid, aqueous vapour, ammonia, organic matter, &c, are due to the escape of the pro- ducts of combustion and respiration, and to the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter. It has recently been demonstrated that 10 per cent, of what was supposed to be nitrogen is a simple gas known as Argon. The composition of air is roughly :� Oxygen . . . � � � 20.96 per cent. Nitrogen (including Argon) . . 79.00 � Carbonic Acid..... .04 � Total.....1 100 per cent. Air, then, is a mechanical mixture, and of practically uniform composition. Through the influence of rain and winds, which

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		HYGIENE
		HYGIENE	37
			37

purify it, there is no great difference between the air of the town and that of the country and sea. Free carbonic acid may fluctuate to some degree in enclosed places and near decomposing

	Sewer pf~ ^FlG" 3°-�Section through Stable and Hay Chamber, showing System of Ventilating and Draining (Musgrave).

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		38 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER substances. The uniformity is greatly maintained by varying temperature produced, by the power of the leafy portions of plants of absorbing and storing carbonic acid and giving off oxygen under the influence of sunlight, and by their exact opposite behaviour during the night. Oxygen is the active agent, and constitutes one-fifth of the atmosphere. It is the gas which sup- ports the animal life and promotes the combustion of bodies. Any slight reduction in the amount present produces the most disastrous effects. The reduction of oxygen is found in all enclosed spaces and badly ventilated buildings. Respiration, which goes on in buildings which are inhabited, renders the quantity of oxygen less than that found in the atmosphere outside, for the simple reason that it is being inhaled and is not being replaced in quantity sufficient to maintain the normal quantity. About four-fifths of the atmosphere is composed of the gas nitrogen, which is commonly supposed to be a diluent of the oxygen. The carbonic acid is found in amounts varying from .02 to .05 per cent. It is partly produced by the respirations of animals. It is found in a greater proportion near the ground, and lessens in the atmosphere in higher altitudes. From decomposition nitro- gen is also produced in the atmosphere; and it is found in larger quantities in the vicinity of large manufacturing towns, but is cleared away to a large extent during rainy weather, which purifies the atmosphere. Impurities of the Atmosphere.�These may consist of vapours and gases and particles from organic and inorganic matter; among these particles of dust may be found, as well as dried particles of refuse from the roads and middens. Carbon, manure, and the various forms of gases are added from industrial buildings. Besides these, various forms of microbes are found which do not develop without a certain amount of warmth and moisture and nutritive material. These may also vary according to the season of the year, and are more numerous in closed in or badly ventilated buildings. The average amount of carbonic acid in the air is .04 per cent., therefore any excess of that amount constitutes an impurity. To the normal percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere we may allow .02 per cent, for organic impurities which may be present, and the resulting .06 per cent.

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			HYGIENE ₃

		thins.o2 ti°V ^m? ^ ^therG ^Sh0Uld ^be ⁱⁿ ^buildin§^s- Any- Pr sfnt and h ST** * * ^ ^ *" ^ °^r^^nic ^lmP-ities the amo_Unf of^ ^^ °^f ^^ ^add ^there ^may ^be ^reck<�d acidSach1 ^thf^Se °^r§^anic ^purities. If the amount of carbonic foul _aZr%* ^g ^aS * ^Per ^C6nt- ^then ^the ^atoosphere is very decoml^r ^t0 ^ ^SmdL ^Amm°^nia ^is P^roduced ^ ** organic^? °^rgamC ^matter' ^andlS ^acco�Panied by poisonous is alwavsf T�' ^ ^thuS ^beC°^meS ^Very ^dangerous. This gas ings dTh ,i^m ^any ^badly ^ventilated and badly drained build- are othe ^Y ^thC ^decomP°^sition of faeces and urine. There cientlv t_rr^Se!,^anf^ng ^fr°^m ^S6WerS ^0wing ^t0 ^drains being insuffi- cesspook to^P I ??� ^S6WerS ^bdng ^broken> ^or ^the P^ximity of our atw ^a ^bmldmS- Another poisonous gas that demands arising fna^ii ^T ^ ^TWs ^is ^a �Y P^oisono^ gas which LI ₊t ^^hlCh ^may ^be ^lighted ^by^the ^means of gas, and from 6 ST ^gh ^S°^me ^fault' ^be ^escaPⁱⁿg' ^This gas forms � o to 7 _per _cent _of _ordinary _coal _gag> in bSnL^Pr°^dUCed ^by ^ImpUre ^Air�Animals that are housed look well � +i, ^COntaimng ^a ^f°ul and impure atmosphere never ^ats are^unhJil^⁵ ^SUfer ^fr°^m ^a ^lack °^f ^ener^> ^and ^theirhable to colri ^Y ^m ^aPP^earance; such animals are especially ships _ww >^COU%^hs> and lung troubles. On badly ventilated they Verv off¹¹� ^ ^Crowded together with poor ventilation, badly ventil Tⁿd ** ^fC°^m * ^SGVere ^f°^rm °^f P^neumonia. In a it is always^a f ^stable> ^when an infectious disease breaks out, ⁱⁿ a stable th° t* ^bad ^typ6' ^and ^sP^reads ^far ^more rapidly than of fresh air p ^1S ^W<? ^ventilated and contains an ample supply and an animal h ^ "" ^ ^antag°^nistic to some germs of disease, vigorous cond't ^d ⁱⁿ ^a ^badly ^ventilated building is in a less ammonia i_s fo^J .^to ^withstand the attacks of disease. When ^eyes of horses°^Un a ^Stable ⁱⁿ ^a ^large ^amount ** acts on the hydrogen should^ ^mg ^ophthalmia> ^and ^if ^the gas sulphuretted prove fatal to h ^present ⁱⁿ ^the amount of 4 per cent., it may with extreme nrT^⁷ P^roducing an acute form of diarrhoea diseases such _as t ?"' ^The ^germS °^f ^many ^of ^the infectious enza, &c mav 1 ^b⁶¹"�¹⁰⁵¹⁵; Glanders, Anthrax, and Influ- It has h 1° P^resent in air that is impure. oeen demonstrated that the larger animals require

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		₄o THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER 15,000 cubic feet of fresh air per hour. This amount, of course, is only exceeded in the case of sick animals whose supply of fresh air should be unlimited. The cubic space for each animal in a town is somewhat difficult to determine, for in some large cities land is of such high value that the ordinary horse owner cannot command all the space he may desire for his stable. The army allows horses 1605 cubic feet per head, but the ordinary stables vary very much from this. The best method of arriving at the proper cubic space is to ascertain how many times per hour the air in the stable can be changed without causing a draught. We shall deal with this question again when referring to cow-sheds and milk supply. We now look at some of the various methods by which fresh air may be supplied to a stable. There are two kinds of ventila- tion, namely, natural ventilation and artificial, and in dealing with ventilation for the domestic animals we shall find that it is the natural method which most concerns the stock owner. The two chief factors in ventilation are (1) the wind, and (2) the differences in weight between masses of air of different tempe- rature. There is another factor, but it is of less importance, viz., the power of diffusion of gases, which means that if gases are in contact one with another they mix with each other, and they do this by a fixed law called "The law of diffusion." The lighter the gas the more it diffuses. This means that if there is no breeze blowing at all the air outside a stable will diffuse with the contained air if there is any communication between the external and internal air. This may go on very slowly, even through a brick wall, provided the internal side of the wall is not covered with plaster. The wind is the chief factor and may act in two ways, either by a direct current of air entering the building from the outside through windows, doors, and venti- lators ; or also by blowing across the means of communication and so causing then a partial vacuum which is filled by the foul air rushing out of the stable, and its place being taken by pure air finding its way in through other openings. This power of the wind is taken advantage of by the various extraction pipes which, in some cases, it is necessary to use. When dealing with the wind as a means of ventilation it is most essential that one

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Shire Mare, "Lawford Ruby," owned by J. B. Brooks, Photo by Parsons, Cheshire
		Esq.


	Shire Stallion, "Redlynch Forest King" Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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			HYGIENE 41

should be able to regulate the velocity with which it enters a building. The external air in this country is very seldom without movement, and naturally the more quickly the movement of the air the sooner the quantity required for ventilation will pass through any opening into the building. Consequently a smaller opening is necessary to supply the amount required. We know that a horse should be supplied with 15,000 cubic feet of fresh air per hour, and we must now look to the means by ^which this may be supplied, and the method by which the foul ^and exhaled air may be liberated. Both inlets and outlets to the building must be provided. The inlets must be so placed that the air entering the stable does not heat straight on to the animals, hut matters should be so arranged that the air gets broken up on its entrance, and its pace checked. The air current should be directed upwards so that before it falls ^again to the level of the animal's head it has become split up. It is hound to fall, because it is cooler

		than the air contained in the build- ⁱⁿg and so is heavier. If the air		Fig. 31.�Quadrangle Movable Venti- lator fitted with Self-acting Fastener (St. Pancras Co.).

	°n entering the building is directed straight in and an outlet is placed just opposite, the air would be driven straight through the building, and consequently no proper fixture with the external air would take place. The main inlets should be placed 7 to 8 feet from the ground, so as to be well above the animals' heads, and the outlets should be made in the ^roof of the building. The inlets may be of various kinds, but the chief ones should be the windows on the side of the building on which the wind is blowing. A window should be placed over each horse's head, or at least one over each stall division, providing one window between two horses. The best pattern for these windows is known as the Sherringham Valve Window, which opens inwards, and the sides of which are protected, thus preventing the air coming directly down on the animals' heads (Fig. 31).

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		42 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Veterinary Colonel Smith, in his book on Hygiene, recommends for industrial stables a pattern of the ventilating iron-framed window similar to Army pattern. This window is built 3 feet 3 inches high, and 2 feet 6f inches wide, the upper part of which, when opened inwards, is fully 19 inches open, and affords a ventilating area of a little more than 4 square feet. The outlets should be openings on the leeward side of the building, when animals are standing in double rows, and there should also be a ridge ventilation, by means of Louvre boards, in the roof. But any openings in the roof act in the same way as windows, according to the direction of the wind ; so they act on the one side as inlets and on the other as outlets. When all the windows are closed and the doors are left open, the ridge will be found to be a very fair outlet. Other inlets are used in the form of air bricks, which may be placed under the eaves. The best pattern of these bricks is the Ellison Air Brick, which is made in two sizes. These are per- forated by cones, the apex of which is placed on the outside of the building and the base on the inside. This allows the air to spread on entering the building, and it is thus more easily diffused. One or two of these bricks should be allowed for each horse, and one may be placed near the ground in the wall, close to the floor level. This assists in keeping the air close to the floor sweet. Sometimes a simple plan of making inlets and outlets is resorted to by knocking a brick out of the walls. If this is done the opening should be protected by a grid on the outside of the wall in order to break the current. This method is not to be recommended, as the spaces in the wall are apt to become clogged by the accumulation of dust and debris. These are the most common ways of letting in air to the building, but in addition there are many and varied tubes which run from the building through the roof fitted with cowls, which, according to their make and the action of the wind, act either as inlets or outlets of air. The best known of these are Parke's (of which there are the inlet tube and extraction tube), Boyle's air-pump extractor, M'Kinnell's tube, and Tobin's tube. When Louvre boards are used along the ridge they should have the height and width of the opening of the same dimensions, and should run the whole length of the building. The boards of which

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		HYGIENE 43 they are made should be 9 inches in width, and placed at an angle of 60°, with 3 inches of space between them, which prevents the rain from entering. These are the chief and commonest ways °f stable ventilation, and, if put into practice, should keep the air of a stable quite fresh. The best temperature to maintain in a stable is about 6o° F., and if on entering the stable first thing m the morning after the animals have been housed for the night, the air inside smells fresh and does not sensibly differ from the atmosphere outside, one may consider that the ventilation is satisfactory. Water.�We will now consider one of the most important ¹tems connected with the well-being of our domestic animals, ^and that is the water supply. From whatever source it is obtained ^0ur water supply depends for its replenishment on the rainfall, oome quantity of this rainfall runs off the surface of the earth ^Until it meets an impervious stratum. This water is known as subsoil water, and is the water tapped by surface wells. The depths of these wells, of course, varies in accordance with the depth of the impervious stratum below the ground surface, beneath this stratum are found the porous strata, and in them are supplies of water which have drained down from distant points where these strata reach the surface. This is known as deep-well ^water, and is the water supply of many large towns. The following summary of waters (from the report of The Rivers Pollution Commissioners) is a useful guide in judging the purity of waters:� ( Surface Water from Cultivated Lands "j Dangerous \ River Water to which sewage gains access >■ Palatable. 1 Shallow Well Water J Mountain streams and rivers, to which no sewage can gain access, are good, but where they pass through towns and culti- vated lands they are unsafe, partly owing to the manure which !s applied to the land, and partly owing to sewage contamination and pollution. This statement also applies to the surface springs. Water which is obtained from gravel districts is usually of a good

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		quality, whereas in limestone and chalk neighbourhoods it contains a large amount of minerals which makes it very hard. When obtained from clay soils it is of usually an impure nature. The collected rain water in towns is generally dirty and impure on account of the dust and soot in the atmosphere, and from the roofs of buildings over which it washes, and, on standing, this water is found to be very flat and insipid. Water which is obtained from marshes, field ponds, and ditches usually contains much organic impurity. Water may be hard or soft, and the hardness may be either temporary or permanent, according to the nature of the salts the water contains. Animals are supposed to prefer soft water to hard. Impurities.�The worst form of impurity is that due to organic matter from contamination from sewers, cesspools, middens, &c, or decaying vegetable matter. This organic con- tamination may be present in suspension or solution. If it is present in suspension the water is usually discoloured and of brownish yellow tinge. If in solution the water may appear to be very clear and wholesome. The reason why this form of contamination is so dangerous is that it may contain the poisonous germs of disease which have gained access by the excreta of the body to the sewers and cesspools. This water often also contains putrefactive organisms. Any water may become contaminated by disease germs if the affected material is carelessly disposed of, e.g., carcases of diseased animals may be buried near a stream of supply. The horse trough of towns is a fruitful source of infection when once a specific disease finds its way into a town. When this organically impure water is drunk by any of our animals which are pregnant it is a constant cause of abortion. A useful general test for this organic matter in water is to add a weak solution of potassium permanganate to a little of the water in order to colour it, and if this colour pro- duced soon disappears it signifies organic impurity. Purification of Water.�Temporary hardness may be got rid of by boiling the water, and suspended matter may be treated with alum. The filtering of water is not much practised for the use of our lower animals, but it may be done by causing the water to filter through beds of sand or broken coke. Filtering acts by

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			HYGIENE 45

		detaining the suspended matter and exposing the water in a fine state of division to the action of the atmosphere. When water contains an excess of mineral salts it is a frequent cause of in- testinal trouble, unthriftiness, and sometimes intestinal calculi, especially in sheep. Distribution of Water.�This should be carried out by means of iron pipes. Leaden pipes should on no account be used, because of the lead being dissolved by soft water and water containing organic matter, and thus becoming a cause of lead poisoning. Hard waters form an insoluble coating on the inside of the pipes. Galvanised iron pipes are not so liable to be coated in this way as the ordinary iron pipe. Where cisterns and tanks are necessary for storing water they should be constructed of slate or galvanised iron, and should be covered in and placed in such a position that they may constantly be reached for the purpose of inspection and cleaning. Leaden or wooded tanks and cisterns should never be used. Quantity of Water Required.�A horse requires for drinking pur- poses six to ten gallons of water a day; a cow when in milk rather more�about twelve gallons; while a barren cow or ox requires about six gallons. As sheep generally feed on foods which are very rich in water they do not require much water to be supplied. Even when they are fed on dry food about half a gallon will be found enough. This also, in a measure, applies to the other animals when they are fed on green fodder ; while animals doing hard work require rather more. For all purposes such as washing, flushing down drains, &c, sixteen gallons per day per horse should be allowed. Times of Watering (especially applicable to the horse).�When there is not a constant supply always before them, horses should be watered before they are fed; because if fed first the water will wash the food which is undigested out of the stomach into the bowels, and may cause serious trouble. Water should be allowed three times a day. The horse should not be watered immediately before work, and if coming in to his stable warm off a journey it is customary to take the chill off the water. Cold water is most refreshing to a horse coming in tired and fatigued, but if he is allowed a drink of cold water while in this condition

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		46 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER he should be kept walking about until he is cool, and then be vigorously dried and groomed in order to prevent catching cold. On no account should he have cold water allowed at this period if he is likely to be allowed to stand and get cold. If a horse has not been watered before feeding he should not get much for two hours after he has had his meal. A useful plan, if he has by mistake been fed first is to allow him several swallows of water frequently, about a quart every half-hour, until he has had sufficient, and until he has had enough time to digest his meat. Cows do not require much water out of a bucket, while animals at pasture require a constant supply always available. It is most important that all pails and utensils used for the purpose of watering should be kept scrupulously clean, while in the event of a contagious disease breaking out in a town carters should be made to carry their own pail with them for the purpose of watering their horses while on a journey, and no strange horse should be allowed to enter a yard. All the public watering troughs should be closed in such a case. Cow-sheds.�Having considered the stable and its fittings, we must now pay some attention to the building of cow-sheds. These should be constructed on much the same principles as stables. Cow-sheds should be built with the great aim to cleanli- ness, and should be provided with plenty of light. The ventilation should be so regulated that there may be no draughts, and also to keep the cow-shed as near as possible to the uniform temperature of 6o° F. Sherringham valve windows should be used, and also Louvre ventilation boards running the whole length of the open roof-ridge. It may be found necessary in the winter time to heat the cow-shed by means of artificial heat means. Air space, according to Henderson, should be provided as follows: The walls should be built 8 feet in height inside measurement, and should be 12 feet 9 inches apart; from the spring of the roof to the ridge 6� feet should be allowed, allowing that the roofing boards are 15 feet apart at the top of the wall. This, when worked out, would allow 445 to 446 cubic feet of air for each animal. This is rather a small allowance, but by carrying the walls another foot in height and another foot to the breadth, and raising the roof slightly in proportion,

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	HYGIENE 47 the total cubic space would be brought up to 500 cubic feet air space for each cow.

	The byre which is best adaptable to suburban districts and towns is recommended by Henderson to be constructed in the following manner: This byre is constructed for a double row of cows facing the centre of the building with a passage of 4 feet " inches between the heads of the animals, for feeding purposes.

		Fig. 32.�Cow-house Fittings (Hill & Smith).

The walls are 8 feet in height and 27 feet apart (inside measure- ment) ; the passage between the cows and the outside wall should be 2 feet 9 inches, the stalls should measure 7 feet in length, and there should be an 18-inch gutter behind the cows with the per- pendicular of the roof angle. These measurements would allow a cubic space of 578 cubic feet for every cow. The walls of the byre may be built of brick or stone, according to the district in which they are to be erected, but if the space where a byre is to be erected is limited, it will be well to remember that a stone wall takes up more space than a brick wall. The roofing may be either of slate or tiles ; perhaps because slates are now available nearly everywhere they are generally used.

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		48 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER The floor of the cow-shed should be non-absorbent and imper- vious ; the material to meet these requirements will be found in concrete. The stalls in which the cows are confined for many months during the year should be so constructed that as much of the solid and liquid manure may be saved as is possible. According to the regulations laid down by the London County Council, each stall should be 8 feet in length and 4 feet in width for single stalls, and for double stalls the measurement should be 7 feet in width. A slight variation in these measurements may be made where space obtainable is very limited. The stall divisions should be made of iron. The manger should be placed slightly above the level of the floor; about 6 inches will be a good height, and should be made of enamelled iron, and have at one side a partition for water. Cows should be fastened up by a strap attached round the neck fixed to a rope which runs through a ring in front of the manger, and of such a length as to allow the animals to lie down and rise freely. As all hay that is given to cows should be cut short�in other words, chaffed� no special hay-rack is necessary, as they should have it supplied to them in the manger. Arranging the cows in two rows with their heads towards the centre of the building will greatly facilitate the feeding, as the food may be run along the central passage-way on a trolly ; this will save time that would otherwise be taken in going all round the building if they were placed with their heads towards the outside walls. The entrance to the byre is obtained by a sliding door at each end. Drainage in the byre should be surface drainage, which may be carried out by pro- viding a gutter behind the cows 18 inches in width, placed directly behind the animals. This gutter should be 6 inches in depth and should be of cement, and carried outside the building, so that it may empty itself into a cemented tank or into a drain which is trapped. It is then dealt with in the same method as that referred to in the paragraph on drainage. The surface drainage method is the only, one that is at all permissible for cow-sheds. In fact no drainage trap should be allowed inside the building. The regulations as laid down by the London County Council should in a measure be a guide in the matter of cleanliness, &c, in the byre or cow-shed ; for that reason they are appended:�

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		Clydesdale Stallion, "Prince of Wales" Photo by Reid, Wishaw

			Clydesdale Mare, "Moss Rose' Photo by Reid, Wish»"-

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		Fig. 33.�Interior View of large Cow-House on one of the Government Model Farms (Musgrave).

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		50 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER I. Ventilation is best provided by Louvre boards at the sides and roof. II. The stall space for each cow shall be 8 feet by 4 feet, or if the cows are placed in double rows, 8 feet by 7 feet. The minimum air space 600 cubic feet. If the ventilation is not perfect, 800 cubic feet should be provided. In the height of the shed that over 16 feet not to be reckoned in estimating cubic air space. III. The water supply must be adequate, and where not constant there must be a slate or metallic lined tank, the bottom of which should be not less than 6 feet from the floor and with no communication with any closet or drain, and cleaned as often as is necessary. The water, where possible, shall be obtained from a public water supply company. IV. Each animal shall be provided with a water trough and lined with some impervious material, and each trough shall be supplied with water by means of a pipe communicating with a tank or a company's pipe. V. The inner doors, walls, and woodwork, except partitions between the cows, shall be covered with a hard, smooth, imper- vious material to a height of at least 5 feet from the floor, and this must not be covered with lime-wash or other material. VI. A proper receptacle must be provided for brewers' grains, and also for the dung and soiled litter. These receptacles must be properly lined and drained, and must be so placed that no smell from them can enter the byre. VII. The upper parts of the inner walls must be cleansed and lime-washed every March and September, and at other times within seven days of the Board giving notice in writing. VIII. The floor and all drinking and food materials to be cleaned at least twice a day, all dung and soiled litter to be removed at least twice a day, and as frequently as is necessary to prevent a nuisance. IX. Precaution must be taken to keep all cows in a clean and wholesome condition. We must now consider the other buildings in connection with the dairy buildings. These as a general rule consist of scullery, butter-making room, and milk-room, which may be

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		HYGIENE 51 placed at one extreme end of the byre, while at the other end should be built stores for the food stuffs and a cooking shed, and at a distance from these the manure shed may be erected. At the end of the byre where the scullery is placed the com- munication between the two buildings should be by means ot a covered passage, in order to protect those persons in wet Weather who are constantly going from one building to the other. The Scullery.�The first of the out-houses would be the scullery, where the dairy utensils are washed and sterilised. If °utter and cheese were to be made this building could be placed ^next at the far end of the room for keeping the milk. These premises may either be made to communicate with each other, ^or access to them may be gained by a covered passage going along the sides, and access obtained to each place by a doorway; latter method provides perhaps better isolation. In order o have better control over the milk-house temperature a ceiling should be provided. If butter-making is to be carried on, the machinery for this may be placed in the middle portion. The milk-house may either be built of stone or brick as in the case of the byre, and should be so placed that it may not suffer from the rays of the mid-day sun. It should be well lighted by means of the windows, which would be better if so made as to let air m from either the north or east, and placed in such a position hat the building may have currents of fresh air allowed to pass through at the will of the dairyman. If the walls are built of ney should be made impervious to damp, and this may If%h°^ne ^by ^havinS ^them lathed and plastered on the inside. about⁷ ^ ^n0t °^f ^bri°^k ^the ^Walls ^sh°^uld ^be ^built ^double> ^with2 inches between held together by iron bands, and it o have the inside wall covered with some smooth t +vf ^ma1:er^a ^to prevent any dampness, and also to guard against the collection of dust accumulation. Glazed bricks for tne internal wall may be used. Beyond ventilation being carried on Dy means of the windows, it is well to have a ventilating shaft which communicates between the open air at the ridge of the building and the interior of the milk-house. This is essential in order to keep the air at the top of the building sweet. Venti- lating bricks may be placed at intervals just above the floor

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		52 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER level to keep the air fresh about the floor. This will prevent any stagnation of the air, which is so detrimental to milk which is stored. The windows are best to be made on the ordinary sash pattern, as they can then be opened either top or bottom for ventilation at the discretion of the dairyman, and if there are any on which the direct rays of the sun play, these may be provided with a linen roller blind inside, or, in some cases, a Louvre board blind on the outside, which can be regulated also. For the purpose of keeping out flies and dust in the summer time, when the windows have to be opened, a wire gauze should be fitted into the window-frame. The floor of the building should be impervious, and is best to be made of cement. All shelves in the dairy should so be constructed as to provide that the air may well circulate through the building, and may be constructed of open work and supports of the same material and painted. The next room we deal with may serve several purposes, depend- ing on the dairy being in a cheese or butter-producing neighbour- hood. This room should in either case be provided with a good impervious floor made either of cement or concrete. The walls should be cemented on the inside up to the height of 5 feet, and above that plastered. This building very frequently contains a great deal of steam, and an open roof, therefore, is preferable to any other. If this cannot be managed, then a ceiling lined with varnished wood is desirable. Windows may be made of the sash pattern similar to those of the milk-room, and, where the roof is open, there may be placed in the roof lights which may be made to open. The drainage should be of the surface pattern. This may be managed by providing a slight slope in the floor and an opening in the wall where the drainage may pass through into a subsoil system. The disadvantage of any subsoil system of drainage communicating directly with this building is that it may easily taint the whole premises if anything gets out of order, by returning gases. In the majority of dairies butter-making is the chief industry, and the room for the butter production may be constructed much after the same plan as the milk-room. The plastering of the inside walls may be done away with if the walls are built of glazed bricks and well pointed. The shelving should be on the same principle, as also the ventilation and lighting; and to provide coolness for

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		HYGIENE 53 this room the floor should preferably be of concrete. As there is not much water used in this room there is no necessity for a drainage system, but a sink should be provided, and the waste water from this may be carried out through the wall into a subsoil system. The cheese-room, or the room in which the cheeses are laid out for ripening, is another department to which reference must be made. This room may either be built on the ground floor, or, as !s preferred in many districts, it is placed one storey higher up. For the ripening of cheese a room that is dry and airy and not too much under the glare of the sun is required. If such rooms are built on a storey above the other buildings, care must be taken that the slates for roofing are of as light a colour as possible, as in that case they are not affected by the sun's rays so much as those of a darker hue. A layer of felt under the slates will also aid in keeping the room cool. Plenty of light is desirable, and the best niethod of obtaining it is by means of the sash windows already referred to, which are also very easily regulated for the airing of this building. Further, an air shaft running through the roof, ^which may be made to open or shut by means of a board at its lower end, is advisable ; and the walls of the building should be tree from other erections, thus allowing the windows to be placed °n opposite sides. The ceiling should be of lath and plaster, and the floor of cement, and laid in such a way as to be absolutely proof against the entrance of any vermin. The shelves in this room are one of the most important items, and should be so placed ^as to allow plenty of air being admitted to the cheese. Instead the old-fashioned method of turning each cheese over singly ^each day to allow the air to come in contact with the surface resting on the shelf a revolving shelf is now in use, which, by urnmg, allows of much time being saved in this slow work. The eating of this room requires careful consideration, and may be s accomplished by hot water or steam-pipes carried round room, as by this method a more regular heating of the whole 5?°^m ^ls ^acc°mplished than by using the old style of fireplace. oiler for the purpose of hot water or steam-heating should ^placed ^near one of the outside walls.¹ p tj , ^much °f the information regarding the dairy we are indebted to an article by R. Henderson, F.H.A.S, on « Dairy Buildings."

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		54 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Connected with milk production the delivery in its purest state to the consumer is one of the most important items. So many diseases detrimental to the health of the general public have to be closely guarded against, diseases which are liable to be spread by a badly kept dairy. In a dairy that is most up-to- date in the matter of cleanliness we shall find that all manure produced by the cows is removed at least twice daily to the manure-pit or heap as the case may be. The whole of the in- terior of the cow-shed will be washed out with water daily, and scrubbed ; and it is better still if such water used for this purpose has mixed with it some disinfectant fluid. This will be more closely referred to in our chapter on disinfectants. Each cow in the byre should be daily groomed with a currycomb and brush, and the udder and those parts of the animal round the udder should each time before milking be washed with water and dried with a clean towel; in fact in some dairies this is carried so far that the udders and flanks are periodically clipped. The clean- liness of the milker is most important, and milkers should wear suits made of washable material, and these should be put on fresh from the laundry. In some cases this clothing is boiled after each milking, and is then placed in an air-tight sterile drying room, where it remains until it is required for use at the next milking time. Before each milking the milkers should wash their hands and faces, and clean their nails, and just before going to milk each milker should be provided with a sterilised pail and stool. Handling of the Milk.�The Danish idea as to the means of preventing contamination of the milk is very well put forth in the following three principles :� Firstly, organisms may be prevented from gaining access to the milk by cleanly habits in the dairy ; secondly, all milk should be thoroughly strained; thirdly, prevent by refrigeration the growth of any organisms which may accidentally have gained access to the milk. All utensils and churns which are used in the dairy need the most careful attention as to their cleansing. Any defective churn which, through wear, may admit the entrance of any form of dirt should be discarded. It is now a common practice for farmers to own their own churns and cans, which are

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	HYGIENE
	HYGIENE	55
		55

cleansed by heated water and are sent back to him immediately after this has been accomplished, this for the smaller farmers being done for them by the firm supplied before returning them, and the larger farmers and dairymen have a plant laid in their dairy for the purpose of steaming and sterilising their own cans. When the cans, &c, have been washed they should be in- verted and kept in pure air, and, if possible, placed in sunlight until they are required for use. If any of the cans should be worn and the tin has been displaced and shows dints in them, they should not be used, as it is under these circumstances impossible to keep them clean, and care should be taken that when a pan is full it should on no account be left in the milking-shed, but must immediately be removed to the milk-house. Many forms of pails have been invented with a view to keeping the dirt out which might get in during the process of milking. The idea is to produce a pail with a hood over it which is adjustable. Straining or Screening the Milk.�It is almost impossible to keep the milk from contamination from some particles such as dust and hairs, and these are generally covered with bacteria, and therefore require to be removed as soon as possible. The regulations of one firm require that the milk shall be immediately poured into a churn through a fine gauze metal screen which is covered with a clean white cloth. This straining only removes the larger particles, and the smaller particles of dust and all bacteria are left, hence the advantage of hooded pails to keep most of this dust out of the milk. One firm in Amsterdam cen- trifugalises the milk, and afterwards the milk and cream which has thus been separated is again mixed by means of various rollers. The residue left after centrifugalising consists of much oirt, which has not been arrested in the straining. As this sedi- ment contains many bacteria, and among them sometimes the bacteria of tuberculosis, it is usual to burn it in order to prevent the pigs becoming affected if fed upon it. Milk has to travel in the majority of cases long distances by rail, as a huge quantity of the towns' milk supply is produced in the country, so the majority of the Milk Supply Companies stipulate that it shall be placed into the churns at a certain temperature. lo arrive at this it is cooled down by means of ice and various

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		THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER
	56	THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER
	56

patterns of coolers to a temperature of 4⁰ F., and kept at that temperature until it is dispatched on its journey. In case of the company not requiring the farmer to use ice in the cooling process, it requires that the milk shall be cooled down to within 40⁰ F. of the temperature of the coldest water the farm produces. The object of this is to make sure that any bacteria the milk may contain become inactive by the cooling and do not multiply, thus losing their power of doing harm. In addition to this, when the milk is ready for transport, it is essential that the churns

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				TRAMWAY

	Fig. 34.�Plans of Cow-Houses (St. Pancras Co.). Feeding passage between two rows of stalls. should be previously cleaned by sterilisation, and that each churn should be locked and sealed before it is sent away. We do not intend to touch here upon the artificial means adopted for the purification of milk, because if the hygienic principles are closely followed in the milking and handling of milk the pure supply that thus may be obtained is what we wish to aim at. Much might be said regarding the storage of milk by the retail vendor, where it is sold in milk shops, taken round the streets and sold from carts, &c. All milk in the shops should be kept away from

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HYGIENE 57

any impure air as far as possible, and as in the summer time
flies�and at all times dust�is a common source of contamination,
the milk should be guarded from these as far as possible. When
it is essential to keep milk in counter-pans these should be covered
with a clean cloth of muslin. The smaller utensils used in the

Fig. 35.�Plans of Cow-Houses (St. Pancras Co.).
Feeding passage against the wall.

handling of milk should be daily sterilised by boiling or by the
means of steam. In many instances at the present day much
milk is delivered at the houses in sterile bottles which are stop-
pered and sealed. In many large dairies one or other of the
Patterns of the milking-machines are used, but we do not intend

Fig. 36.�Plan of Cow-Houses (St. Pancras Co.).
This plan has no feeding passage, the stalls being placed against the wall.

here to enter upon any discussion as to their efficiency over the
old method of milking, but must add that where they are in use
special care should be taken that they should be kept in a per-
fectly clean condition. One method of producing pure milk may
he mentioned, that is the " Buddeised " milk, which is produced
m the following manner, introduced into this country by Dr. C.
Budde of Copenhagen. The employment of nascent oxygen as

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		58 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER a sterilising agent is adopted. The milk is in the first instance centrifugalised in order to free it from all suspended matter. This is done at a temperature of 122 ° F. It is then placed into jacketed cans and subjected to treatment of hydrogen-peroxide of a small percentage of about 0.03 to 0.035 P^er cent. At the above temperature the milk is retained for several hours, and in the sterilised form it is conveyed to sterilised bottles. By this means the milk is rendered absolutely sterile, and its nutritive value and composition are in no way affected, the hydrogen- peroxide becoming practically decomposed, so that only the slightest trace can be found when the process is finished. These remarks on the production of pure milk must not be closed with- out reference being made to a very instructive pamphlet recently published by the United States Department of Agriculture on Medicated Milk Commissions, and the production of certified milk in the United States, by Clarence B. Lane, chief assistant of the Dairy Division. To these we would refer our readers for fuller information on details. Pigsties.�As in so many cases pigs are kept and reared in connection with a dairy it may be well to consider their relative position and construction of pigsties at this point. In the majority of cases it is customary to have the pigsty erected at the opposite end of the cow-shed or byre to the dairy premises; that is, as far away from the dairy premises as possible, yet at a convenient distance from the byre. The old-fashioned style of having the pigsty built in two portions, a small shed with an open yard, is not now much used, but a covered house has taken its place, and the pigs have been found to thrive and fatten better when they are not allowed to bask in the hot summer sun as they are wont to do when provided with an open courtyard. The same remark applies to the cold weather of the winter. When the piggeries are built under one roof they should be divided into divisions of 12 feet by 9 feet. This will allow of several pigs being allowed into each sty. The trough provided should be made of glazed fireclay, and in order that each pig may have a partition to itself the troughs are divided up by cross divisions which do not reach the end or to the bottom of the trough, so that each pig has an equal chance of getting his share of food, and

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					HYGIENE 59

	the smaller animals have the same opportunity of obtaining their share of food as the larger ones. In front of the troughs there

				Fig. 38.�Patent Iron Piggeries and Piggery Fittings (St. Pancras Co.).

		In the piggeries shown above the open yards are made with walls of iron, in such a way as to secure strength, lightness, rigidity, and portability. The feeding troughs are fitted to the fronts and are filled from outside. They are made of several patterns, shown in detail on the following pages. The doors may be either in the fronts as shown, or in the brick houses at the back.

		should be a passage of about 3 feet. The troughs are so con- structed with a sloping projection through the wall enabling the

			Fig. 39.�Patent Iron Piggeries and Piggery Fittings (St. Pancras Co.).

In these piggeries the outer yard is covered over with an iron roof, which keeps it dry while it does not prevent the freest circulation of air. The doors in this case may be either in front, or behind in the brick houses. The floors should in all cases be properly paved, so that the manure may not soak into tne ground, but pass off into a proper receptacle. attendant to empty the food into the trough without undoing the .doors. The division walls should be of brick and about 9 inches thick and the floor of Portland ^ement, the floor being usually raised on the side farthest from the troughs, enabling the

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		60 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER animal to have a dry place for lying. This practice is one to be recommended on account of the good ventilation and light afforded. If the calves are kept in the piggery it will be found best to have the division at each end communicating with the outside with a door, thus enabling the calves to be taken into their divisions without having to walk along the inside passage. It would save time and labour if the back wall of the piggery should communicate with the outside by means of a small opening, closed by means of a door, so that the dung may be thrown direct into the midden. As to the roof, much depends on the space available. It may either be built on the ridge pattern or half ridge slanting from the wall. The ventilation should be by means of hinged skylights and air bricks placed on the floor level. A door placed near the shed for preparing the food should be enough. Another form of piggery may be constructed on three sides of a square with a southerly opening, and have a yard in the centre of the building which is open and one that is covered. Around the inside walls are built sties for the farrowing of sows, and for young pigs, a shed and yard for sows in pig, and a yard which is paved for feeding and exercising. The farrowing styes should be provided with a rail so that the young pigs may escape underneath it and save themselves being overlaid by their clumsy mother. Some breeders prefer that no trough be placed in the sties, but that a yard for feeding purposes should be provided and each lot of pigs should be brought into this yard for feeding and exercise at regular intervals. Manure.�The place for keeping the manure of a dairy farm should be contained in four walls, which will ensure tidiness; and as the manure of these animals is from its nature always moist, it may be roofed over. A large tank may be provided into which the liquid manure may be directed by means of drains. A span roof at the angle of 40 ° and supported by brick piers with rounded corners should be provided. Bedding.�It will be well at this point to consider the subject of bedding, especially as regards the horse, viewing the reasons why it should be used, also the different varieties, and comparing their respective values. Bedding induces the horse to lie down and take his rest after a day's work ; horses that are kept without

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			HYGIENE 61

		bedding, or which have it supplied only in small quantities, suffer from injuries to their elbows and hocks and sore places on the hips and thighs. A good clean bed promotes the cleanliness of the animal and prevents him lying in his faeces ; it also absorbs the urine and fluid part of the faeces, and many of the gases arising from their decomposition. If an animal is left to lie on a cold damp floor it is very liable to contract a chill which will be prevented to a large degree by a good warm bed. All materials that are used for bedding should be dry, soft, and elastic ; capable of absorbing fluids and some of the gases, and should be cheap. After the soiling of bedding by faeces and urine it is converted into manure, so the substance used should be of such a nature that it will make good manure, which product is of some considerable market value. The different varieties of materials used for bedding are straw, peat moss, sawdust, wood shavings, tan, sand (in some localities), and also dried ferns. The absorbent power of the different fluids of bedding, supposing it to be dry when first laid down, is as follows :� One part of Peat Moss will absorb 6 parts its own weight of water One part of Tan ,, 5 » » " One part of Sawdust � 4 >> » » One part of Barley Straw � 2.8 � � � One part of Oat Straw � 2.3 � � � One part of Wheat Straw � 2.2 � � � One part of Ferns � 2.1 � � � One part of Sand � -25 ,, � » The Straws form one of the most comfortable beds one can provide for horses, and will also be found to be the warmest. To provide a good bed for a horse it must be well laid down, and one should bed well up the sides of the stall. This prevents some injuries which might otherwise occur to a horse in rising. In a good and well-regulated stable one may reckon the allowance to be from thirty to forty pounds of straw for the first bedding down of a stall, and sixty pounds for a loose box ; and from six to seven pounds of clean straw allowed daily to take the place of that which has been removed as soiled litter. A good practice in the ordinary stables where economy must be considered is to remove the whole of the bedding each day to a shed for the purpose outside

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		62 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the stable where it may be shaken and turned over and exposed to the sunlight to dry. This will allow the stable floor to be well swept and aired. It is customary in many stables to place the fresh litter underneath the soiled, especially where animals are inclined to eat their bedding. The foul and wet litter should be taken straight to the manure heap. More bedding should be allowed in the winter time, for the sake of warmth, than in the summer. It will be found that horses soil more litter than mares, because the urine of the latter falls at the back of the stall and more quickly drains away. Wheat straw is very tough and elastic, and is the most durable of the straws, having a better appearance than the other varieties. Oat straw is softer and less elastic, while barley straw is bad as bedding for horses, being more easily broken ; and if eaten is very indigestible on account of the awns it contains. On this account it often causes intestinal trouble. When the straw becomes broken and bruised it lessens its elasticity, but it also at the same time increases in power as a water-absorbing material. When bedding lame horses with straw in a box the straw should be cut short to prevent its twisting itself round the animals' legs. Peat Moss, which is now very extensively used as a bedding in a number of the larger establishments, makes a useful bed under careful supervision. It is the result of the first process in the formation of coal, and is formed from the decomposition of ~bog plants. Good peat moss should be light and spongy to the touch, of a pale brown colour, and when burnt there should be very little ash left which indicates its comparative freedom from earthy salts; and its fibres should be fine in texture. The chief recommendations for peat are its great powers of absorption of both fluids and gases, and also its cheapness. It takes compara- tively little space for storage room; it is easy for bedding down and cleaning out, and horses will not eat it. On an uneven floor it gives a good lever surface, and is not easily set fire to. The manure produced by its use is very valuable, of a 20 per cent, higher agricultural value than straw manure. Owing to its great power of absorption the wet portions are not always removed by the attendants so frequently and thoroughly as they ought to be,

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			HYGIENE 63

		and these portions, which contain ammonia, are conducive to the frogs of the horses' feet becoming soft, resulting in thrush, but if proper care is paid to the cleaning out of the wet portions and the picking out of the horses' feet this fault may in a great measure be avoided. Where subsoil drainage is to be found peat is bad on account of its liability to block up the drains. It is always more or less dusty, which occasions extra grooming of the horse, as it is more difficult to get a good polish on the coat than when the horse is kept on straw. Also on account of its so easily becoming damp it more readily soils the clothing. To bed down a stall with moss takes from one to one and a half hundredweight, and it should be laid to the depth of about 8 inches. Six to seven pounds of fresh moss litter should be allowed daily to take the place of the soiled litter. Tan is very easily decomposed, and when it is used requires the greatest care in cleaning out, and it is very liable to injure the horses' feet. On the other hand it makes a very good manure with faeces and urine although it takes a very long time to rot. Sawdust, where it can be produced in good condition, makes a very fair bedding, and has many of the advantages and disad- vantages of peat moss litter, although it is not so absorbent or so easily stored as peat moss. When used it should be laid from 4 to 6 inches deep. In some cases it causes trouble by getting into the eyes of horses when lying down upon it. Pine Shavings make a good bedding, but are not extensively used, owing to the difficulty experienced in procuring them. Sand is occasionally used and makes a cool summer bedding, but owing to its salt taste some horses have been known to eat it, with the result that it has accumulated in the large bowel with fatal results. When expense is not studied to any great extent a good bed may be made in stables which are surface drained by making a bedding of 4 to 5 inches of moss litter or sawdust as a ground layer and straw on top, but this, of course, entails extra trouble and additional expense. Removal of Soiled Litter.�It is important that all dung and soiled litter should be removed as speedily as possible to the manure heap, firstly, on account of its injurious effects as regards

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		64 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the horses, and, secondly, because by the escape of the ammonia so much nitrogenous matter is lost which would otherwise go to the formation of nitrates and become valuable as manure. While working the greater part of a horse's manure (i.e. faeces and urine) is lost on the road, but when in the stalls it is estimated that a horse produces about two and a half to three hundredweight of manure a week, this containing the excretions and the litter soiled. The manure heap should be at least 13 yards away from the stable, and care should be taken that it is not placed anywhere near the source of the water supply. A good plan is to spread a layer of earth over straw manure, as it lessens the loss of ammonia and nitrogenous matter. The fermentation going on in the heaps which rots, causes the volume to decrease very much without any loss of the valuable substances, many of which become more soluble. For moss litter manure it is recommended that the heaps be saturated with water or liquid excreta and then covered up with ashes or earth. Under these conditions it will be found that in two months it has become black and rotten and fit to go on the land. Straw manure is recommended for light sandy soils, while peat moss manure is good for heavy clay lands, and is found to be especially good for the production of roots and potatoes. During the fermentation process, many of the harmful bacteria which may be present are destroyed by the heat and chemical agents which are produced. Before manure can be used by plants it undergoes decomposition by the aid of certain bacteria which are present and which change its con- stituents. Disinfection.�It has been observed that infection can be spread by the air and by water, and also by actual contact of one animal with another ; or by an animal coming into contact with places, skins, carcases, or offal affected by other animals ; and also may be transmitted by insects and parasites. The measures which are taken to prevent the spread of infectious diseases come under the heads of (1) Isolation, (2) Quarantine, and (3) Disinfection. Isolation.�With the exception of those cases of infectious disease where immediate slaughter is ordered by the Board of

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			Hackney Stallion, "Flash Cadet" Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

		Hackney Mare, "Ophelia's Daughter Grace" Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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	HYGIENE	65
		65

Agriculture, any animal that may be suffering from an infectious, disease should be isolated as far away from any of his other species which may be susceptible to that disease as possible. In any large stud it is customary to build two or three isolation boxes into which the infected animals may be removed. These boxes should be built as far away from the other buildings as possible;. they should have no communication by means of drains or venti- lating shafts; no attendant working among any of the patients isolated should be allowed near the other animals, and as dogs and cats may in some diseases be a means of infection, they should not be allowed to roam from one place to the other. The animals Placed in the isolation boxes should be kept in them until they are well over the convalescent stage of the disease, and in some cases one may go as far as to hang sheets, which have been saturated with carbolic acid and wrung out, over the doorways. This form of isolation is particularly applicable to such diseases as influenza, strangles, and, among dogs, distemper (of which more will be written under the subject of dogs and their management),, and, to some extent, acariasis. Quarantine.�All animals that have been or may have been, exposed to infection should, before being placed among other animals, be kept in quarantine or isolated for a period covering; the incubative period of such a disease. The length of this period will naturally differ according to the disease, and this procedure should apply to all infectious diseases. Disinfection.�This is one of the most important means over which we have control for the stamping out of infectious diseases. � disinfection we mean the destruction of disease germs. The agents ^vhich are used may be of three classes. First, physical nieans, such as heat, applied dry or in the form of steam, also the. ruction °^ the carcases by fire. Second, chemical agents,, " ^as Squids, gases, and solids. Third, sunlight and fresh air.. ese three agents employed may act in three ways. Disinfectants, icn are agents destructive to the germs of disease and their pecinc poisons ; Antiseptics are agents capable of arresting the e opment of germs; and Deodorisers are agents which are apable of destroying the odours of foul gases by acting chemi- y upon them. The essential condition of true disinfecting vol. 1. ^b

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		66 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER is that the disinfectant shall be capable of killing the germs of disease and their spores ; that it be applied to every part when used, and that it shall be used in sufficient strength and also for a sufficient length of time. Heat is the best disinfectant where it is possible to use it, either moist or dry. By boiling all clothing and small stable utensils for ten or fifteen minutes practically all germs and their spores are destroyed. Sometimes, where applicable, super- heated steam may be used. Dry heat does not act so well as moist; the latter has a greater penetrating power. Solid dis- infectants may be used in the form of chloride of lime, which should always be used fresh, and is chiefly applied to the floors of build- ings. Lime in the solid form is used for spreading over the ground which may have become infected by the passage over it of an infected carcase. It is also spread over a carcase in some cases when burying it, and is applied to an infected field sometimes by spreading on some hundredweights to the acre. If it is possible, such a field that has become infected should be ploughed and not grazed for some time. Salt as a solid disinfectant is sometimes used. There are many forms of liquid disinfectants, but one of the most reliable is a solution of perchloride of mercury used in the strength of i part to iooo parts of water. This solution will destroy all bacilli and spores, but has the disadvantage of being very poisonous. When applied to metal work it acts chemically upon it, with sometimes disastrous results. It has also a coagulative effect on albumen, forming a protective surface on sputum which may be infected with tubercle bacilli, so that even a solution of I in 500 has in this instance been found ineffective, therefore care should be taken when using this disinfectant for such a purpose to mix it well with the discharge and to leave it for some hours. If this solution is put up in bulk for the purpose of disinfecting, it is customary to colour it slightly with a dye, as in its natural state it is colourless. Carbolic Acid�another of the liquid disinfectants�is used in large quantities, but care should be taken to see that the solution is of the proper strength. It should be noted that only a certain proportion of the crude carbolic acid is soluble in water. This form of the acid contains a quantity of the tar oils which have no disinfectant properties, and a saturated form of this preparation

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		HYGIENE 67 is not strong enough for disinfection when dealing with cases of anthrax, &c. The solution should not be used weaker than 5 per cent., and it is also necessary to apply it for a considerable time in order to destroy the spores of the bacilli. It has been proved that the spores of anthrax will resist the disinfectant power of a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid for forty-eight hours, hence the necessity for a prolonged application. Other Disinfectants.�A solution of chloride of lime for apply- ing to walls, woodwork, and fittings is used. Lime wash made °f slaked lime is sometimes used, but should always be applied hot, and should be mixed with 5 per cent, carbolic acid. When Jay's Fluid is used it should be applied in the strength of about half a pint to the gallon of water. Formalin, used in the strength °f a 2 per cent, solution, will destroy most germs, but is somewhat expensive. Lysol is another disinfectant largely in use, and it has been claimed that a 2 per cent, solution of this preparation ¹³ equal to a solution of 5 per cent, carbolic acid. Izal is a pro- prietary preparation, said to be non-poisonous, and it is also claimed for it that an exposure of a 15 to a 10 per cent, solu- tion will be found sufficient for all cases of infectious diseases. Gas Tar is a useful application for walls and woodwork, provided they have been first washed and scraped. Application of Disinfectants.�The best method of applying these disinfectant solutions is by means of a spray, as by means °i the pump behind the spray the solution may be made to pene- trate more deeply than when using a brush. Also on account of the larger area covered it is a quicker method than the brush work. Again, the spray will penetrate such corners and crevices ¹¹¹ the building that might easily be missed by a brush. There ^are many forms of spraying appliances, which may either be fitted to the ordinary bucket or constructed for larger areas. Some are ^r ufit in the form of a tub on wheels, and some of the best of these are put on to the market by " The Deeming Company." They may also in turn be used for the skin-dressing of animals. Gases as disinfectants are not now much used on account of ur present knowledge that the pathogenic organisms of disease ° ^not> unless in the dry condition, float in the atmosphere, but adhere to the structures of a building. The reason of these

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		68 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER gaseous disinfectants being of little use is that they cannot be kept at the desired strength to be used for a prolonged period, because while using every precaution, such as closing all windows, ventilators, and doors, and even papering these up, there will always be found some leakage through which the gas will escape. Sulphurous acid is sometimes used, although it is not a good dis- infectant, and when resorted to it should be in the proportion of 2 lbs. to every iooo cubic feet of space. The method is to put the sulphur in a metal dish, then add a little spirit, and light. This gas should be generated in several different parts of the build- ing at once. Chlorine gas is sometimes used, and because it is a heavy gas it should be generated at several parts of the building at some distance from the ground. It is prepared by acting on bleaching powder with sulphuric acid in the proportions of 6 ozs. of acid to 2 lbs. of the powder for every iooo cubic feet. It is preferable when using this gas to thoroughly wet the inside of the building with water. In the case of an infectious disease breaking out in a stable or other building inhabited by our domestic animals, it is necessary that all discharges from the animals and all bedding should be burnt, or deeply buried after being mixed with lime. If resorting to the latter method, care must be taken that the excreta are not buried near any source of water supply. The walls of the infected building should be scraped; any parts which have been painted should first be treated with a painter's lamp and the scrapings burnt. The floors, including all drains, should be thoroughly washed out with dis- infectants and then sprinkled with lime. All clothing, including that of the attendants, should either be boiled or destroyed. The same treatment is applicable to grooming tools and other stable utensils. In the case of harness it should be thoroughly washed with strong disinfectants, the lining and stuffing first being stripped off and destroyed by burning. If the building has a thatched roof (especially if the case is an outbreak of glanders), it is best to have it removed and burned and the build- ing left open after internal disinfection to the atmosphere for some weeks. Disposal of Infected Carcases.�We must now consider the best method of disposing of the carcases of animals which have

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		HYGIENE 69 died from the effects of some of the infectious diseases, such as Glanders, Foot and Mouth Disease, Anthrax, Pleuro-pneumonia, Swine Fever, &c. The best method is cremation. Colonel F. Smith recommends that a trench should be dug in the place chosen in the shape of a cross. Each trench should be 7 feet in length and about 15 inches in width; 18 inches depth should be allowed in the centre, becoming narrower towards the ends; the earth thrown up should be placed in the angles formed by the cross, and on the earth mounds iron rods_,should be laid to support the body. In the majority of cases the bodies may be burned whole, but this takes about twelve hours. The best method, as recommended by Colonel F. Smith, is, except in the case of anthrax,¹to disembowel and take the limbs off the body. First, a layer of wood is placed on the trench, and on this is laid the trunk; on this more wood is placed, and then the limbs, and, after another layer of wood, the viscera are placed on top. The fire is started with straw lighted in the trench, the ashes being now and again raked out and thrown on top so as to keep a continuous draught in Play. By this latter method of cremation it is said that in six hours the body will be quite destroyed. In the case of burial, a ^S1te should be chosen as far removed from any watercourse as possible, avoiding situations where the ground drains into any pond or well. A grave of 9 feet in depth should be dug, as the carcase must have a layer of not less than 6 feet of earth above it. Either quicklime to the depth of 1 foot below the animal and I foot above may be employed, or else strong sulphuric acid may be poured over the carcase when in the grave. All soil and earth on which the animal has stood, or over which it may have been dragged, should be well covered with quicklime, then dug up to a depth of 6 inches and turned. Very frequently the good plan is followed of lighting a bonfire over the grave. In all cases of bunal, a stout fence should be erected around the grave, in order to keep off any animals which may be turned into the field to graze. Cleanliness as Regards the Horse.�The grooming of the horse, be he hunter or racer, will give one a good idea of how a horse should be cleaned, and should be carried out on those of other breeds in a more or less rigorous degree. The first dressing down ¹ An anthrax carcase must on no account be opened.

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		₇o THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER in the morning consists of getting rid of any wet or dirt with which his coat has been stained during his lying down at night, and smoothing over the whole coat with a wisp and the rubbers after- wards. When he returns from a journey or exercise, the matter is very different, for here we have to contend with any dirt which has accumulated from external sources, as well as that which is incidental to the sweat of the animal. The sweat may have dried on him, and this tends to close up the pores of the skin. Take a horse, for example, coming in from exercise. He should be brought into the stable, any clothing he may have been wear- ing should be removed, also the bridle. The saddle, after the girths have been loosened and the saddle lifted for a moment, should be replaced and allowed to remain in position for a while. The horse should be turned with his head away from the manger, and the whole of his fore-quarters well dressed over, starting with his head, which is first brushed over and then well wisped and finally laid with a rubber. The mane and forelock should then be combed and brushed with a damp water brush. When the fore part of the animal is finished by having his eyes and nostrils sponged with a damp sponge, he should be turned round with his head to the manger and have his head stall put on and racked up. The next process must be to pick out the feet and wash them with the legs ; then a flannel bandage should be loosely applied to all the legs, which should remain on until this grooming is finished. This prevents them becoming chilled from the wet, and also prevents them from blows during the process of dressing his hind-quarters. Next the saddle may be removed, and the horse's back and quarters should be brushed and wisped over, then smoothed with the rubber. In well thoroughbred horses the brush is not used when the coat is being shed, and a curry-comb never used. The body brush is used but for cleaning. The sheet is now put on the horse, and should be thrown well forward over the withers and then pulled straight back over the loins and quarters to prevent the coat being ruffled. The roller is now put on from the near side of the animal, by doubling the long part over the pad and throwing this long part carefully down on the off- side to avoid a crease, and then buckled up fairly tightly. The tail should now be combed and brushed out, and, starting from the

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		HYGIENE 71 near foreleg, the bandages should be removed one by one, and each leg should in its turn be well rubbed with the hands before the next bandage is removed. The groom, for this purpose, should go down on his knees, first well drying the leg with a rubber and then rubbing the leg with his hands from above downwards, getting the points of the fingers into the grooves between the tendons. After the dressing is finished the bed should be shaken up with a fork and the horse fed. In an establishment where carriage-horses are kept the groom- ing ought also to start early, but much depends on what time the horses were home from their last journey on the previous night. For instance, if kept out, say, until twelve, they ought not to be disturbed in the morning before seven or eight o'clock. In these private stables the usual hour for starting the day's work is 6 a.m. in the summer, and 7 a.m. in the winter. The first thing to do (provided the horse has not a constant supply of water before him) is to water him. Give him a feed of corn, and while he is taking this the groom may turn back his bedding, and then remove all the soiled litter. When the horse has finished his feed he may either be at once taken out for exercise or dressed over. If taken out he may be well watered on returning and thoroughly dressed over in the way that has been described, after which he is left until eleven or twelve o'clock and is again fed, and if not going out on a journey he should again be fed and Watered about four. At six or an hour later he should be wisped over, his bed turned down and a night rug put on, and his allowance of hay given about 8 p.m. If he comes in from a journey the dressing much depends on the work done and the state of the roads. In many cases the legs and feet are washed, and if he is very dirty with mud his belly may also be washed. If he comes hi sweating he should be walked about to cool, and scraped with the scraper. When washed he should have a rug thrown over him and his legs bandaged loosely in flannel bandages, then he is fed, and, while feeding, he should be thoroughly dried and dressed over all but the legs, turning him round as usual in his stall and starting with his head. When this is finished he should have the bandages removed from his legs, which should be well rubbed down and dried one by one. Finally he may be clothed and left as usual.

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		Clipping.�In the autumn when the coat of the horse becomes long and he is inclined to sweat freely, colds are very frequently the result of a horse standing about in a wet coat, and to prevent this in many of the lighter breeds clipping is resorted to. This is generally performed twice, or occasionally thrice, the first clipping generally being done about the latter part of September or early in October. In the hunter the whole of the body should be clipped with the exception of the legs and the portion of the back covered by the saddle. The hair is left on the legs for warmth and as a protection against whins, &c, and that on the back as a prevention against saddle-galling. In tradesmen's horses it is a custom in many parts to clip the abdomen and leave the long hair on the back, loins, and quarters. Harness, saddles, <&c, should all be carefully dried when coming in wet from a horse that is sweating, and, when dry, should have the linings, &c, "carefully brushed and cleaned. This precaution will prevent the sores often caused by a horse wearing harness soiled by sweat. In the case of a collar galling a horse's shoulders the collar should be " chambered," that is, have the stuffing taking out of that part which is causing the damage. A riding-saddle which is doing damage to the back should be placed over a numnah which is made of felt or some soft substance of the same kind. The Treatment of a Mare during Gestation.�Mares of the lighter breed may have gentle work until half the gestation period is over, after that they should not be driven or ridden, and if not turned out to pasture they should be allowed plenty of exercise and supplied with good nutritious food, taking precautions that they do not become too fat. The heavier breeds of draught- mares may be worked in chains to within a week of their foaling time, but for fear of causing trouble they should not be put into shafts after half the gestation period has gone. In some of the large racing stables it is customary to give the mare a small dose of physic a week or two before she is expected to foal, on the ground that the foals after this are less liable to the troubles often caused by the mother's milk. As the time of foaling draws near the mare should be placed in a good roomy loose box with all the corners built up or filled with straw, so that she cannot, while

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		HYGIENE 73 foaling, get into a corner and suffocate her foal. In many instances this foaling box (as it is called) is built near the saddle-room, or where the attendant can watch the mare through a shutter with- out disturbing her. The mare should always be left to herself until parturition actually begins, when perhaps a little assistance may be necessary. The approach of foaling is shown by the relaxation and slackening of the muscles at the root of the tail, and a few days before a waxy exudation may be seen from the teats of the mare. As soon as the foal is born its mouth should be cleansed and the navel string tied i� inches from the body. It is far the best method to allow the mare to dry her foal with her tongue, but in some cases, as with a very nervous excitable mare with her first foal, she refuses to do this. Then the foal must be carefully dried by the attendant. The foal will usually be on its feet within an hour or two of birth, then it should be shown by the attendant the way to the mare's udder and allowed to have its food. The mare should not be turned out for a few days after foaling if the weather is at all wet and cold, and in the case of mares which have to work they should be brought in several times a day for the sake of their foal, but if returning to the stable warm they should be allowed to cool before the foal is given access to its mother. In the event of the mare having been some time away it is advisable to draw off by hand, a little of the milk before allowing the foal to suckle. Should the mare die and the foal have to be brought up by hand on cow's milk, a little sugar should be added, of which mare's milk contains a considerable percentage. Before the time of weaning the foal (at about six months), it should be taught to eat a little corn, so that the loss of the mother's milk will not be felt. During its first winter, the foal should be allowed a few crushed oats, and if turned out to graze it should be provided with a shelter in the shape of a good-sized box. It is a most important matter that the colt or filly should be well fed during the first and second winters of his life, or else the growth will be greatly retarded. The best lands on which to breed horses are those rich in carbonate and phosphate of lime; the subsoil should be dry and not too light, and those lands of heavy clay should not be used for breed- ing purposes.

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		74 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Calves.�The treatment of the young calf is similar to that, of the foal. Some calves in the dairy farming districts are taken from the mother at birth and put to other cows, or reared by hand from the pail on cow's milk or skimmed milk mixed with some of the patent calf foods. Cows are not at their full milking period until they have had their third or fourth calf. Some cows produce fifteen or sixteen calves, but their average production is eight to ten. Their milking power decreases after their eighth or ninth year. The lactation period, or the time between calving and becoming dry, averages three hundred and twenty days. The cow becomes dry six or eight weeks before her time for calving. The yield of milk is greatest in the first and second months after calving. Sheep.�If the ewes do not come into season at the desired period they should be given a little heating food such as barley, as this aids them under these conditions, if, as is very often the case, they may be turned on to a field of stubble. After the ewes have been mated they should be well kept, but should have plenty of exercise; and during the latter part of gestation they should be provided with some dry food such as hay or a little decorticated cotton cake, with a few pease and malt culms. No hurry should be made to assist the ewe during parturition. Cleanliness and the use of plenty of disinfectants will tend to greatly lessen the mortality from inflammation among lambing ewes. The suckling ewes should be well and generously fed, allowed such foods as oats, pease, decorticated cotton cake and linseed cake, and dried grains with grass and roots. Each ewe should have from \ lb. to i lb. of corn and cake a day, mixed, and one ewe should not be allowed to suckle more than two lambs. If any of the ewes have three lambs one of them should be taken away and placed with a ewe that has only one lamb, or with a ewe that has just lost her only lamb. Transport of Horses by Sea.�The chief object is first of all to select a good sea-faring boat which is steady. A ship for the transport of horses should be fitted with a bilge keel; these keels counteract the tendency a ship has to roll and help to keep a boat steady. In a ship chosen for this cargo, one has chiefly to rely on the upper and between decks for the accommodation of horses.

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			HYGIENE 75

		Our attention must consequently be given to their state of fitness for the purpose desired. The upper deck should be one of good breadth and afford plenty of room. Giving allowance for a stall of 8 feet, with the feed-box in position, there should be sufficient room for a man or horse to walk round the deck comfortably. A ship having a breadth of beam of 50 feet will be found to meet these requirements. This deck should be provided with a planked wooden casing, for the framework of most of the modern boats is of iron. The objection to an iron deck without any wooden casing is that the temperature of the between decks is raised several degrees in hot weather. The ventilation of the between decks is a matter of utmost importance, and is effected by means of Hatchways, Ventilating Shafts, and Wind Sails. The hatch- ways should be large for the purpose of ventilation. When made of good size they will allow the gangways used for the purpose of walking horses from the upper deck to between decks, or vice versa, to be erected without any extreme slope. Portholes are a useful means of ventilation, their drawback for this purpose being that in a rough sea they have to be closed. Ventilating shafts should be cylindrical in shape and of a diameter of 1 to 2 feet. They run from the upper part of the hold to the upper deck, and are fitted with cowl heads. The cylinder that passes through the between decks should be so constructed that it may be taken away, thus leaving a large ventilating shaft which communicates with the air above. Shafts of this description should be provided in good numbers. In fair ordinary weather, when the hatchways are open and windsails set, the ventilating shafts then act chiefly as exhaust pipes, and when this purpose is desired their cowl heads should be turned in the opposite way to the breeze. This is a means of providing a suction action on the heated and impure air of the between decks. When stormy and very bad weather is encountered, the hatchway will have to be battened down, then the between decks will have to depend entirely on their ventilating shafts for a supply of fresh air, as well as for the means of getting rid of the foul air. Consequently some of the cowl heads must be turned in the direction of the wind. Most of the modern boats are fitted with an electric plant, so there should be no difficulty in having some electric fans placed in the parts where

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			76 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		the atmosphere has a tendency to become foul, as in such positions their presence will be found most beneficial. An important matter is the height of the between decks, and these are measured in two ways from the lower deck to the upper deck, and from the lower deck to the lowest part of the iron beams which support the upper deck. The height measured according to the first method should be at least 8 feet, and according to the latter way 7J- feet. In a low between deck the cubic capacity is lessened, and free ventilation becomes impaired; horses are then very liable to injure their heads by striking them against the beams and fittings. The between decks should be provided with storm valves for the purpose of drainage, so that this deck can be con- stantly hosed out, allowing all the urine to pass out right into the sea. In some vessels it will be found that all the compartments between decks are separate; others, again, have a communication by means of water-tight doors. These doors in ordinary weather are always kept open. This arrangement will be found best on account of the extra labour which is saved in going from one com- partment to another, and horses in this way may be exercised during the voyage. Another advantage is that, when these communi- cating doors are allowed to remain open, a current of air will circulate through this portion of the ship, thus greatly assisting in the ventilation. In those vessels which carry horses in the hold the animals will be found to do well there, on account of their being cool from being placed below the water line ; but on the other hand the ventilation is never very good, and much incon- venience is caused in the between decks. The stalls for horses on these boats should be built athwart the vessel, thus allowing the horses to stand at right angles to the direction which the ship is taking, because the angle of rolling is greater than the angle of pitching, and a horse will be found to keep his legs better when standing in the line of the greatest motion. These stalls should be erected round the sides of the ship, and in between decks, they are sometimes placed along the middle line. These stalls should be of such a size as to allow a horse plenty of room and provide him with a good foothold. It will then be found that, as a rule, a horse can keep his feet in the roughest of seas. The danger of having the stalls too small is that, during the motion of

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	HYGIENE
	HYGIENE	77
		77

the ship, which will sway the horse to and fro, he will chap or injure himself when he touches the front and back of the stall,, and in a heavy sea, when he is flung to and fro with considerable force, he may badly bruise himself. If a horse of about sixteen hands is put in a stall of 8 feet he will be found to have nearly a. foot of space in front and behind, and will be able to sway back- wards and forwards without fear of injury. Allow a width of 2 feet 4 inches inside measurement, with the length already men- tioned, and there will be ample room. The height of the stalls on the upper deck should have an inside measurement of 8 feet, which is not often obtainable between decks. The upright corner posts of these stalls should be strong and round, provided with a ring or staple fixed in each post 5 feet from the ground for the fixing of pillar chains. The front bars should be i\| inch thick, and about 8 inches in breadth. In case of emergency, when a horse requires to be taken out of his stall at the shortest notice, the lower boards should be placed 3 feet from the foot-board and should be made movable. The side bars should be of the same thickness and size, and placed at the same height. The best method of fixing them is by a closed cleat in the post at the rear and an open cleat on the front post. By this method a horse will not be able to kick the post out of position, and in the event of his getting his leg over the post he will be able to be released at once by lifting the bar out of the open cleat in front. For additional safety a second bar may be placed below the one mentioned at a distance of 1 foot. This will act as a preventative against a horse kicking his neighbour. The back bar, or, as it is sometimes called, the haunch rail, should be made of thicker and stronger material than the front and side bars, and should be fixed, not movable, at a height of 2 feet 6 inches from the foot- board. The foot-boards themselves are fitted with transverse battens placed on the top of longitudinal battens on the deck surface. The object of the latter is to allow of drainage, and for the same purpose -J an inch should be left between the planks of W^Thich the foot-board is made. The transverse battens on top, four or five of them being used, are to provide foothold. The first should be placed 6 inches from the front of the stall, and the farthest away one should be 6 inches from the back of the stalk

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		78 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Spaces of i foot 9 inches at the back of the front batten and in front of the hindmost batten are left to accommodate the horses' feet, and the middle three battens are then fixed at regular inter- vals between these spaces. The deck stalls must be provided with a roof, and the back of the stall should be boarded or a canvas screen should be hung; the latter provision is the better, for it can be rolled up and free ventilation allowed in hot weather, and also prevents an animal from chafing his tail against canvas during a rough voyage. A canvas screen may be hung in front of the stall as well as at the back, as this can be let down in wet or stormy weather, and so act as a prevention against cold and wet. Pads are used for the front and back bars and for the bar at the top of the stall just over the horse's head. Pads for the side bars are not useful, as they diminish the space; they also get wet from the sweat of the animal, and, when dried in this state, they chafe the sides of the horse. These pads should be made of stuffed canvas and kept in position by being lashed to the bar with thick cords. The poll pads may be nailed in position. Slings are not of much use, and may even become dangerous in rough weather; a few may be carried for emergency. Feeding-boxes made of galvanised iron should be fixed to the front surface of the front bars. The hay-nets are suspended from the front of the stall. The water-tanks are placed at convenient and accessible places, and care should be taken that each compartment of the between decks should have a supply of water in it. Feeding of Animals.�Before we study the feeding of the domestic animals in particular, it will be well to know something of the food-stuffs themselves. It is advisable also to know some- thing of the different grasses for hay, and the various grains and cakes. First we will consider the different varieties of hay, the quality and value of which greatly depends on the grasses and herbage which it contains, the soil on which it is grown, the time at which it is cut, and the manner in which it is stored. Upland Hay.�The grasses forming this variety of hay should be short and fine in texture, the odour and taste should be pleasant, the stems of the grasses hard and crisp, and the colour of the hay may vary somewhat according to its preparation and age, but is generally of a greenish hue. There should be no

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		HYGIENE 79 weeds in a good sample of this hay, and it should possess a number of the flowering heads of the various herbs, such as clovers, vetches, and trefoils. The presence of the flowers in it such as the butter- cup, daisy, and sweet vernal grass which have not lost their colour during the process of making and saving the hay, shows that the grass has been cut at the right time before they had gone to seed, in which case they would have lost their nutriment. Meadow Hay.�This is larger and coarser in the stem than the upland hay, possessing a considerable proportion of coarse herbage and many weeds. The colour of this hay is darker, the smell is stronger and not so pleasant, the fibres of the grasses are more woolly in appearance, lacking the firm, crisp, and clean, fresh appearance of good upland hay. Water meadow hay is altogether of an inferior quality, being very coarse, tasteless, possessing little or no odour, and is found to be mixed with rushes, sedges, and water plants. It does not feed animals at all well. Hay is known as new hay until it is about a year old, and if this new hay be given to horses in any quantity it is a very fre- quent cause of intestinal trouble. New hay weighs about 60 lbs. to the truss, while old hay should weigh 56 lbs. to the truss. Good hay is at its best at about a year old, and does not improve by being kept in the stack three or four years. When the grass is cut it should be converted into hay as soon as possible. If allowed to lie in the sun for any length of time it loses its colour and flavour, becoming dried up too quickly. On the other hand, if it is exposed to much rain for any length of time, its nutritive properties become washed out. A good average yield of upland hay is not so heavy as the meadow hay. Old hay is darker in the colour, and does not possess the fresh sweet odour of the new hay. It is much drier, especially at the nodes of the grasses where the moisture of the grass juices are the longest retained. When hay is placed in the stack a heating process sets in, and the fermentation which goes on converts part of the starches it con- tains into sugar. If the hay has been damped by rain or insuffi- ciently dried (that is, badly saved), the fermentation goes on to a larger extent, and an acid is formed. The over-heating in the stack produces a sour forage. In Scotland hay is chiefly made from rye grass, and is left for some time on the ground before it is

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		80 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER stacked. Irish hay is left out for a considerable time before it is stacked, with the result that much of the aroma and nutriment is lost, and very little fermentation goes on in the rick. Canadian hay is chiefly composed of Timothy grass. Defects of Hay.�The chief defects in hay are when it becomes dusty, musty, and mow-burnt; the mustiness may arise from the hay having got damp or from the sun playing on it too much before it is stacked; the dust arises from the breaking up of the outer coats of the stem and leaves which decay and break off. When too damp and stacked it may also become mouldy, and such hay should never be used for feeding. It is only fit for bedding. Sometimes when stacking badly saved hay it is the custom to add a layer of salt between each load on the stack, which makes it more palatable, and causes it to be eaten with more relish. Mow-burnt hay is that which has been heated in the stack, either from being stacked too soon, before the juices of the grasses have become sufficiently dried, or from being stacked wet from the rain and dew. It is dark in colour with a high strong smell, and has a very dry pungent taste. If it is only slightly mow-burnt it is not harmful, and is enjoyed by animals on account of its containing sugar ; but if this is badly burnt the sugar, by the longer fermentation, is further converted into acid, and then causes derangement of the digestive organs. This heat- ing in the stack may go on to the extent of reducing the hay to cinders. Hay is generally given to horses in quantities varying from 8 to 12 lbs. daily, the amount depending on the other food given. Heavy horses may have as much as 16 lbs. per day. It is generally given in two portions, one in the morning and the other at night, the large proportion given at night. Clover is eaten more by ruminants than by horses, and if given to horses it should be given sparingly, as it is liable to cause digestive troubles from its fibrous nature. Care should be taken when turning cattle and sheep on to a luxuriant crop, especially when the dew is on it, as they feed on it greedily. It is a frequent cause of " hoven " on account of its fermenting. It is better for flesh formation and fattening cattle and sheep than for milk production. The clover hay is much relished by horses, but is a better food for horses doing slow work. It is very often grown

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		Hackney Pony Mare, "Catch of the Season" Photo by Reid, Wishaw

			Biding Cob, "Fisherman" Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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	HYGIENE
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with rye grass, and it is very nourishing; two crops are very often taken, the first of which is generally the better. If it has been badly saved it is very dark in colour, the leaves falling off the clover when in the stack. Vetches and sheep's parsley are other food-stuffs, grown for feeding when green. Some of the straws are given to animals in the form of chop mixed with hay and grain. They give bulk to the food and ensure mastication of the grain; especially are they given to cattle in the long state or chopped and mixed with pulped roots. Grains, Oats.�Good oats should be a year old, short, plump, and hard in the grain, sweet to the taste and clean, quite free from dust. When pressed by the finger-nail they should not show the impression. They should rattle something like shot, be thin in the husk, and the grains should be equal in size. When bitten the kernel should snap, taste slightly bitter, and when weighed should turn the scale at not less than 40 lbs. to the bushel. A lighter oat than this means more husk and less kernel. Very good samples may reach 44 lbs. to the bushel, and poor samples as low as 32 lbs. per bushel. Before oats are a year old they are known as new. At this time they smell somewhat fresh and earthy, appear milky when squeezed between the nails, and are sweet to the taste. The husks are bright and shiny, and these oats are soft in texture. The old oats have lost the earthy smell, do not shine so much on the husk, the end of which and the kernel is a little darkened in colour. New oats, when given to horses, are somewhat laxative, and indigestible, and mak ng the horse somewhat soft in condition. If they must be used in the new condition they can be improved by kiln drying, but kiln-dried oats must always be regarded with suspicion. This drying process is often performed on foreign oats which have been damped in transit, or before they were loaded, to prevent them heating. These oats have a peculiar smell and taste, the husks are wrinkled at the ends, and the colour is often reddish, unless they have been bleached. Another name given to damaged oats is that of foxy oats. These are oats which have been heated in bulk owing to dampness, and have been fermenting. They have a reddish colour, are bitter in taste, and when eaten by horses produce diabetes. Fumigated oats are those that have vol. 1. F

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		82 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER been bleached with a preparation of sulphur gas, which is done in order to improve their colour and to take away the colour of kiln drying. They are very pale in colour, and if heated slightly between the hands a smell of sulphur will be given off. Musty and mouldy oats are produced by dampness and are recognised by the smell, and are injurious when eaten by animals. Oats are considered the most suitable food for horses, their constituents being well proportioned. They may be given either whole or crushed. When crushed they are more easily digested by young and old animals. If given whole they should be given mixed with chaff or bran, which ensures their better mastication. The quantities allowed vary a good deal, farm-horses having up to 25 lbs. daily, light-worked harness horses from 10 lbs. to 12 lbs., hunters up to 16 lbs., and racers about as much as they can eat. They are also given to cattle, sheep, and dogs in the form of a meal. Cattle may get 2 lbs. to 6 lbs. daily with other food, and sheep \ lb. to 1 lb. with other food. Oatmeal gruel is made by putting the meal into cold water, and then adding boiling water in the proportion of 1 lb. of meal to 1 gallon of water. This is very good for sick animals, and is often given after hard work. Barley.�The grains of a good sample of barley should have thin clear wrinkled husks; they must be of a bright gold colour, plump in condition, and short. A good sample weighs from 52 lbs. to 56 lbs. to the bushel. This grain is not used much for horses, being laxative and often apt to produce colic. It is given in India a good deal, and is given parched, steamed, or boiled. Barley is often given to stallions, and it is also provided for sick horses when low in condition. It should not be given whole, but must be dry and cracked. It is a good food for cattle and sheep given as a mixture with other food-stuffs. When ground into meal it is given to pigs, making a good fattening food. If barley grains have undergone germination malt is produced, and this forms a first-rate appetising food for sick horses, being sweet and very nutritious. After it has been germinated for beer the malt is kiln dried; it is then mashed for the extraction of sugar, &c, the residue being known as draff. Malt is greatly used as a food for milch cows, given in the quantities of 70 or 80 lbs. daily. It should be given with great care to horses. If they are allowed to feed on

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it in quantity constantly it is productive of digestive troubles. When given to sick horses and delicate feeders in small quantities it may be the means of bringing them back again to their appetite. Malt combs or malt combings are the germinating portion of the grain which separates from the barley when it has been kiln dried. This is used as a food for cattle and sheep, but should be given in small quantities. Wheat.�This grain is not much used for horses, although, if they gain access to it, they eat it in large quantities, causing themselves severe illness, and, in many cases, death. Provided it can be purchased at a cheap price it forms a good food for sheep given in the proportion of f lb. a day with other food. Sometimes the grain, when boiled and mixed with chaff and well salted, is often relished by a sick horse, but it should not be given in large quantity. Bran.�This is the husk of wheat which is removed while grinding this grain for flour. There are two varieties, a coarse and a fine. " Sharps " or " midlings " is a finely ground inter- mediate product between bran and flour, and is used for pig- feeding. Although the analysis of bran is good, it is of no use as a food if given alone, but makes a very useful addition to a mixed diet both for horses and cattle, ensuring mastication when given with other foods, and as it is rich in salt it is good for young animals. It must not be given in large quantities to the horse, but may be given in two ways, either dry or moist in the form of a mash. When using it as a mash it is soon apt to turn sour if it is not eaten, and for this reason particular attention should be paid to the cleanliness of the manger. Bran is often given to milch cows in the form of mashes, and is said to increase the yield of milk. Maize.�Of this grain there are two varieties, one round and the other flat. The flat is as a rule given to horses, and is a food °f good value, especially for the heavier breeds. It is not found to be suitable for animals doing fast work, and, owing to its poor- ness in salts, it should not be given to young animals. In this country maize is generally combined with pease and beans. Care should be taken when feeding maize that it is first crushed or split; but it must not be given in the form of meal, as the horse would then bolt it, when it would be a source of indigestion. When

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		84 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER mixed with other foods and given as part of a diet it should be used in quantities of 8 to 12 lbs. a day. For cattle it makes a very good food given either crushed or in the form of meal mixed up with roots, cake, and chaff. Cattle which are fed on maize frequently yield a yellow fat when dressed. It is also given to sheep, but should be first crushed and given in quantities of \ lb. to 1 lb. a day mixed with cotton cake. Beans.�Good samples should be hard, sweet to the taste, and sound. They should weigh about 63 lbs. to the bushel. Many varieties are on the market, from the large, flat, thick of husk Egyptian bean to the best variety, the small, round, plump English bean. They should always be split before they are given to horses. Beans form a good addition to a diet for the older hard-worked horses of the hunter and roadster class. New beans are most indigestible, causing much abdominal trouble when eaten by horses. The quantity of old beans allowed to horses should be from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. per day in addition to oats and other grain. When given to cattle the beans should either be crushed or given with other foods in quantities of 3 lbs. to 6 lbs. of the beans. To sheep they are sometimes fed in the proportion of \ lb. to 1 lb. daily, and are found to be useful as a fattening diet. Pease are given in a similar way, and to the same animals as beans, but must always be split before given. Linseed is rich in fat-forming properties, but is not used as a food by itself. Sometimes it is given to horses that are low in condition. It is usually prepared and given in the form of a jelly in the proportion of \ lb. to 1 lb. daily mixed with their dry food. Oil Cakes.�These are prepared from the residue of various seeds after the expression of the oil. The seeds are first crushed and ground, and then subjected to very great pressure. The chief varieties in common use are linseed, cotton, and rape, and some other varieties known as compound cakes. These cakes are chiefly given to the ruminants, and are found to be very useful for both fat and milk production. They are sometimes adulterated with various injurious matter; and care should be taken that they are only procured from well-known and reliable firms; Such substances as the refuse and sweepings from mill floors

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are added to them, as is also rice meal, indian meal, flax, mustard, hemp seed, beech nuts, and injured and damaged corn of all descriptions. The compound cakes should always be bought with a guaranteed analysis. Linseed cakes are occasionally given to the heavier slow-working horses in the quantity of 4 to 5 lbs. a day. Before cakes are given to cattle and sheep they should either be broken or crushed, allowing cattle from 3 lbs. to 12 lbs. a day, greatly depending on their age, size, and degree of fatness. Sheep receive from \ lb. to 2 lbs. a day. Cotton cakes should never be given to young animals under a year old; the husks of the seed which cotton cake contains are difficult of digestion, and for this reason the cake should be fed with care and always with roots or grass. Roots.�The different varieties of roots used for feeding pur- poses are turnips, swedes, mangel-wurzels, carrots, and potatoes. Potatoes should not be given raw to horses, as they are a cause of indigestion ; they are only used for horses doing slow work, and should be boiled or steamed before being given. Raw potatoes given in excess to cattle cause most serious consequences from fermentation in the stomach; they must be cooked before being used. They also are fed largely to pigs, and are found to be very fattening. Swedes and Turnips are occasionally given in small quantities to slow-working horses of the heavier breeds. For cattle and sheep they are extensively used, given raw either pulped or sliced, and sometimes cooked. Sheep usually have them given in the raw state, and often eat them off the ground on which the roots are grown. Mangolds are usually fed to cattle, and should be given either sliced or pulped with other food; they should not be given directly they are lifted, for they cause digestive troubles at this time, but should be stored for some months before they are used. Carrots are used as a food for horses. They are some- times given as a substitute for grass to sick horses, and when used thus they are usually given raw. In order to prevent a horse choking himself with them, they should be given sliced length- ways, after having been first well washed. They are generally allowed in quantities of from 5 to 6 lbs. daily. Ensilage is a food used in some quarters, and in preparing this

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		86 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the grass or clover, immediately it is cut, is placed in a specially prepared pit known asa" silo " and subjected to great pressure. This is then covered up with the view of excluding all the air and damp. According to the temperature to which this rises and the length of time that is allowed to elapse before it is covered, it is known as sweet or sour ensilage; the sour form is generally preferred. When given to cattle it is allowed in quantities of 40 lbs. a day, and is considered good for milk production. Chaff.�Some of the advantages and disadvantages to be met with in the cutting of hay and straw into chaff are as follows. When chaffed and mixed with corn it ensures mastication ; it also prevents an animal wasting so much of its food as he would do when fed on hay in the long condition when it may be pulled out of the rack and trampled under the feet. Horses that are suffering from bad teeth and old horses eat it better�and when hay has lost its aroma and is cut into chaff it is eaten with much more enjoyment. The disadvantages are that bad and damaged hay may be cut up and mixed with good samples. In many cases it is not all eaten up at once, and if not carefully cleaned out of the manger by the attendant it becomes soiled, and con- taminates any fresh chaff put in with it. The best length for it to be cut is from 1 to 2 inches. The latter length is better for horses that are given to bolting their food. Having shortly considered some of the different food-stuffs and the way in which they are prepared, we will now briefly consider the best method of supplying them to the various animals, both for work and fattening and dairy produce. We must know something of the value of food-stuffs as feeding materials, and to understand this it is better to compare them according to their capacity of producing animal heat; food being somewhat like fuel, having for its aim the production of heat and work. If the diet of which a certain food forms a part supplies a sufficient amount of digestible matter, then the heat generated by the combustion in the body of the digestible part of the food is a useful guide to its nutritive value. The value of a bulky diet is of greater service to the ruminants than it is to the horse and pig. Concentrated easily digested foods as corn and cake when added to a poor and bulky food as straw, chaff, or a

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			HYGIENE 87

		watery food as turnips, have an extra value and raise the value of the diet. Diets.�The maintenance diet is that which makes good the loss in the animal economy caused by internal work, that is, the muscular movements which aid circulation, respiration, and the movements of the bowels, &c. An animal doing no work is kept in condition when it suffers no loss in weight and when, on analysis, the nitrogen in the urine does not exceed that in the food. A horse of 1000 lbs. weight, doing half-an-hour's walking exercise daily, requires 25 lbs. of digestible organic matter, such as hay, in order to maintain its condition. For horses doing light work the following diets have been found to be very satisfactory, always assuming the horse has the necessary amount of water supplied him: (1) hay 12 lbs., maize 6 lbs., beans or pease 2 lbs.; (2) hay 12 lbs., oats 5 lbs., maize 3 lbs. (the above to be a daily allowance of either diet). For horses doing strong work, such as hunters and harness horses, 12 lbs. to 16 lbs. of oats, 12 lbs. of hay, with 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. of beans, a few carrots; 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. may be added. Race- horses may be allowed 14 lbs. to 16 lbs. of oats a day, or about as much as they can eat, and about 10 lbs. of hay given long. Another useful diet is as follows : maize 10 lbs., beans 5 lbs., hay 9 lbs., straw 4 lbs., the feeding value of this diet being equal to 22 lbs. of oats. The above diet would be a good one for horses doing such work as running in 'buses; and to bring them into condition the daily feed should be oats 3 lbs., maize 6 lbs., beans 2 lbs., hay 10 lbs., and straw chaff 2 lbs. For a heavy cart-horse doing strong work, a daily diet should consist of the following sample ration: maize 7 lbs., oats 9 lbs., pease 3 lbs., chopped hay 16 lbs. Where barley is used in the mixture the feed should be oats 5 lbs., barley 2 lbs., maize 10 lbs., beans 2\ lbs., chopped hay 29 lbs., bran 2 lbs. A horse should be fed at least three times daily, the corn being divided into three parts, the hay into two. The size of the horse's stomach is a guide to the fact that frequent feeding is required. The oftener a horse is fed the smaller the quantity it is necessary to give at a time, and conse- quently the better the chance of digestion. The times of feeding should be regular, and the quantity given not more than the animal can consume at once. When the food reaches the stomach

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		88 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER it arranges itself into layers according to the order in which it is eaten, and begins to pass into the intestine soon after the meal is started. After the meal is finished the passage out of the stomach is not nearly so frequent, thus taking several hours before the feed has passed entirely out of this organ. Before hard work bulky food should be withheld. The concentrated foods should be given on account of their being less bulky, and conse- quently not distending the stomach, thus more room is allowed for the lungs and heart. When a horse is to be subjected to fast work he should be fed two hours before he is required, and after severe work food should not be given in large quantities on account of the horse in his hunger bolting his food and causing indigestion. Sudden changes from one form of diet to another should be avoided. Horses coming up from grass must not immediately be put on to hard food, but care should be taken that their stomach is gradually accustomed to the change; and when horses are to be turned out they should gradually have their corn diminished and grass given to take its place. Again, if a horse's work is lessened or stopped for any reason, his allowance of corn should be lessened and bran mash substituted. Horses with narrow chests, lightly ribbed, and horses of a light bay or chestnut colour are usually bad "doers," and must receive more careful feeding. Fattening of Animals.�For an animal to lay on fat and to increase in weight the food supplied must be in excess of the quantity required for the production of heat and work. The production of fat is aided and the wasting of food prevented by keeping the external temperature, that is, the temperature of the building, up. The best temperature for the building to be kept at is about 6o° F. If this temperature is much exceeded, loss of body temperature takes place by perspiration, and hence waste of food. Quietness of the surroundings, freedom from any excite- ment, and a moderate temperature are the essentials for an animal to put on flesh, and also it is advisable that there should not be too strong a light in the building where the animals are fed. It has been found that on a average in the whole fattening period an ox will produce loo lbs. live weight from the consumption of 259 lbs. of oil cake, 600 lbs. of clover and hay, and 3500 lbs. of

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		HYGIENE 89 roots ; and sheep will make the same increase by 259 lbs. of cake, 300 lbs. of hay, and 400 lbs. of roots ; whereas pigs must receive about 500 lbs. of barley meal with other food to put on 100 lbs. increase in weight. The pig eats more food in proportion to his weight, and puts on weight more rapidly than the ox and sheep, and shows a greater proportion of weight to the food supplied, thus spending a small proportion on heat and work, leaving a large proportion to lay up as fat. According to the increase in size of the fattening animal it consumes a large quantity of food, but when very fat it eats less. The daily rate of increase in live weight becomes gradually smaller as fattening proceeds. It has been found that grain diet is productive of a flesh which is firmer and better to handle than that from cakes, and consequently grain is much used for the fattening of show stock. For example, a young bullock or heifer is fed on crushed oats 3 lbs., Indian corn 3 lbs., decorticated cotton cake 2 lbs., linseed cake 2 lbs., with a liberal supply of roots, chaffed hay, and straw. Another animal is fed on decorticated cotton cake 4 lbs., linseed cake 2 lbs., hay 5 lbs., barley meal 4 lbs., and a liberal supply of straw chaff and pulped roots. If another animal has substituted in its diet 4 lbs. of maize meal for the barley meal, the animal fed on maize meal is found by experiment to be cheapest fed and killed in the best condition. In another ex- periment some bullocks were fed on a mixture of decorticated cotton cake at �y a ton, and maize meal at �5 a ton, being given equal parts of the mixture. The amount allowed of the mixture was 8 lbs. a day or \ cwt. in the week, costing 3s., in addition to 4 cwts. of roots and 1 cwt. of hay and straw chop, the total cost of feeding per week being 6s. Some other diets might be mixed in the following way: For two-year-old bullocks equal parts of maize meal, crushed oats, and decorticated cotton cake, allowing 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. of the mixture a day ; for a winter feed for bullocks one might use equal parts decorticated cotton cake, cotton-seed meal, and maize meal 12J lbs. a day, the mixture made up to about 50 lbs., with chaff, treacle, water, and salt; or 1 lb. decorti- cated cotton cake, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 8� lbs. maize meal, ij lb. treacle, and 30 lbs. straw chaff. When wheat is cheap and good it makes a very good feeding grain, and may be used

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		as follows : wheat 2 lbs., oats 2 lbs., linseed cake i lb., pea meal ^ lb., with straw and roots. Fattening Sheep.�Decorticated cotton cake, crushed maize or maize meal mixed in equal parts, and \ lb. to I lb. of the mix- ture given twice a day with roots is a good food for fattening sheep. The quantity of concentrated foods allowed to a sheep per day varies from \ lb. to 2 lbs. Experiments have shown that maize is far superior to oats for fattening sheep, and also that dried grains are a very successful food for sheep. Pigs.�When a young pig is intended to be fed for fattening it should be forced from the time it is weaned. The young growing pig will be found to utilise the whole of the nutritive qualities of the food, whereas a pig kept as a store until eight or nine months old mainly extracts from the food ingested those constituents which go to form flesh, the remainder passing through the system as waste. For a young pig which is growing the best food has been found to be " sharps" or " midlings," which is the inner husk of the wheat, and for fattening pigs about the best food has been found in barley meal. The best proportion to mix the meal with (skim milk supplied) has been shown to be from 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. of the milk to 1 lb. of the corn meal. Calves.�As a very good mixture for calves from five to six weeks old, as a substitute for milk, the following diet is recom- mended: 2 lbs. barley meal, 2 lbs. wheat meal, n\ lb. linseed, and 1 oz. of carbonate of soda to every 14 lbs. of the mixture; this should be mixed with warm water to the consistency of thick cream. Feeding for Milk Production.�To yield a large quantity of milk of good quality a cow must be fed in such a way as to keep her in good condition. The milk produced is closely connected with the character and breed of the animal, for a bad milking cow cannot by the best possible feeding be converted into a good milker, but a good milker can have her yield increased by good and judicious feeding. Young grass is a very good food for pro- ducing a good quality of milk, but hay, roots, and straw would, in themselves, prove to be quite insufficient to ensure a good supply of milk without the addition of more concentrated foods. While foods very rich in fat will not maintain a large increase B

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		HYGIENE 91 in the fatty contents of the milk, some foods will increase the quantity in the yield. The character of the foods supplied have a large influence on the quality of the butter, some foods pro- ducing a hard, and some a soft, butter. In Denmark rape, cake, oats, and bran are considered to be a first-class butter food. Such foods as turnips and cabbages give a strong flavour to the milk, and for these should be substituted carrots or mangolds. A mixture of beans, oats, and bran is strongly recommended as a good food for milk production. These should be made up to bulk with roots and straw chaff. A diet for a dairy cow might be 2 lbs. of decorticated cotton cake given at 5 A.M., a warm mash at 7 a.m. (composed of 6 lbs. chop, 2 lbs. bean and oatmeal, mixed with 2 lbs. bran and 20 lbs. water); at 9 a.m. 4 lbs. oat straw, and at 12 o'clock 8 lbs. hay ; at 3 P.M. warm mash same as at 7 A.M., at 6 p.m. 8 lbs. oat straw. In dairies in the south of England the following is a diet very frequently given: 5 a.m. 30 lbs. grains ; 7 A.M. 4J lbs. hay ; 9 A.M. 30 lbs. sliced or pulped roots with hay or straw chaff; 3 P.M. 30 lbs. grains and 4J lbs. hay ; 5 p.m. cows are watered ; 6 P.M. 4J lbs. hay ; and to this may be added 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. of oil cake. In summer 1 cwt. of grass may be substituted for grains and turnips. Linseed meal (and cake as it tends to make butter soft and oily in this climate) should not be given for butter making. Treacle in about 2 lbs. quantity is a good addition for a cow's diet, and salt is exten- sively used.

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			CHAPTER III

		Stable Management Appliances.�Every horse-owner will have to provide himself with a certain number of stable tools, and we may begin this part of our subject by giving a list of those that are absolutely necessary in the smallest stable. Pails.�The first item to be purchased will be buckets, at the rate of one per horse if several horses are kept, or two for one horse, three for two. Best oak pails cost about 3s. 6d. each ; if painted, is. more; galvanised pails about 2s. 6d. to 3s. each. The latter, if of good quality and consequently strong, answer their purpose as well as the more expensive oak, but will not last so long. If economy is the order of the day, carefully selected lard buckets, which are to be obtained at any grocers, will be found as useful in the stable as they are for many other purposes. We say " carefully selected," because the buckets vary slightly in the quality and thickness of the wood from which they are made. They have a copper-wire handle, which is perhaps their weakest point; the handle from a worn-out zinc bucket can, however, be fastened on as a substitute when the original handle has suc- cumbed to the strain. These buckets cost from 2jd. to 6d. each, according to the value set upon them in the locality. From a sanitary point of view zinc pails are preferable to wooden ones, as the inevitable deposit from the water is more easily and thoroughly removed. Brushes, &c.�Two brushes and a comb are the least that can be done with. A " dandy" brush is indespensable in every stable, and a body brush is required to supplement the dandy if the horses are to be even moderately well turned out. A dandy brush costs is., and will generally last a year for a couple of horses, after which its remaining fibres may be cut down, and the brush will be useful for a variety of purposes. The back of a

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dandy brush should never be dipped in water if it is expected to last, nor should the fibres be wetted except when the brush is occasionally washed. The flat body brush, with its strap across the back under which to put the hand, is a more expensive affair to buy, but as it will, with ordinary care, last several years, its cost will in the end be less than that of the dandy. A strong mane comb, a small " pick " wherewith to clean the hoofs, and a curry-comb, are the only other really necessary items of the toilet, with two or three rubbers or dusters with which to give the final polish. We have purposely omitted to mention a water- brush, as modern stable management condemns the practice of washing the feet of horses. Other Accessories.�The coach-house and harness-room ac- cessories depend on the style in which the vehicles are turned out. The least that can be done with in a gentleman's stable is as follows : wheel jack, spoke brush, cushion brush, sponge, and chamois leather for the carriages. Globe polish, saddle soap, silver sand, harness blacking and brushes, and burnisher are required for the harness-room, as well as sundry rubbers and dusters or rags. Of course a chaff-cutter and a root-puller are excellent and useful additions to the stable, and are worth getting if several horses are kept; and a sieve and quarter-peck measure will be required in a stable of the smallest dimensions. A substitute for the comparatively expensive corn-bin can be made out of paraffin oil casks. If burnt out and then thoroughly scrubbed, and a well-fitting lid added, these casks make most efficient corn-bins, as, owing to the oil in the wood, mice will never attempt to bore their way through. A 40-gallon cask holds exactly 4 bushels of corn. A pitchfork, shovel, and broom will be required for cleaning purposes ; also a wheel-barrow, if one cannot be borrowed from the garden. Cost of Keeping a Horse.�As a number of people are deterred from keeping a horse because of their uncertainty of the expense to which such a luxury will put them; and as an equal number embark upon horse-keeping and eventually find, to their sorrow, that the expenditure is greater than they anticipated ; as also a good deal

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		of ignorance is constantly displayed (and consequently taken advantage of) about the fair and proper prices of stable acces- sories, a chapter devoted to prices may be useful to the novice, and may save him from having to learn these matters in the most expensive schools. The prices we give are, of course, only ap- proximate. Prices vary in every part of the country, so that it is impossible to do more than suggest a fair average price for the best quality of article. If the prices paid by the reader are less than we name, he should be suspicious of the quality of the goods he is buying. It always pays to buy the best of everything ; and it must be remembered that, as a rule, the best costs more to produce than the inferior, therefore it is impossible to buy " best quality " at second best prices. Stable Utensils.�We will first see what amount of capital will need to be invested in the minimum number of stable utensils and appliances for one horse :� Summary and Cost� � s d i head collar ........063 1 rope with spring hook . . . . . .006 i shovel . . . . . . . ,026 1 fork . . , .. , .020 1 broom . . . . . . . .016 \ doz. dusters........020 1 pick . . . . . . . . .003 1 curry-comb . ......010 1 mane-comb ........006 2 pails (lard buckets). . . . . . .010 1 corn measure . . � . . . . .010 1 sieve.........016 i dandy brush . . . . . . . .010 1 body brush . , . . . . .050 1 4-bushel corn-bin . . . . . ..100 �* 6 o To these may be added� � s. d. 1 kersey horse-cloth.......1 10 o 1 roller . . . . . . . , . o 10 o 1 jute night-cloth with surcingle.....o 10 o 1 clipping machine . . . . . . .060 Sundry brushes and compo for cleaning harness . o 10 o �z 6 o

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If two horses are kept, the above total of �5, 12s. must be augmented by another �2, 17s. for extra rugs, &c. The great additional expense of artificially removing a horse's coat will at once be seen, and it is for the individual owner to make up his mind whether the amount of work his horse has to perform warrants this. Naturally cloths for ponies will be slightly cheaper. Of course it is not necessary to use a kersey cloth, and the jute cloth can be made to serve the double purpose ; but a change of clothing is healthier for the animal, so that the cloth not in use can get a daily airing. A slight saving in expense may be made by the purchase of a second-hand cloth. Such are always procurable at some of the shops in London in the vicinity of the great horse marts; but it may be remarked that the danger of the contraction of some skin or other disease from a second-hand cloth is a very real one, and we should strongly advise that the clothing be subjected to thorough disinfection before being used. Routine Management.�The first thing in the morning the groom should clean out the stable, removing all soiled litter, and flushing out drains if such exist. The horses should then have their morning feed of corn and chaff or hay, and a bucketful of fresh water. After their breakfast they should be cleaned, either in or out of the stable. It is always preferable that each horse should be taken outside if possible for this operation, as it is objectionable that the dust and debris should fill the stable. The most important part of the toilet is a vigorous grooming with the dandy brush. The object of brushing, which grooms are often apt to overlook, is not so much to get a gloss on the animal, though this is no doubt desirable, but to apply friction to the skin, and thus remove dead cuticle. The gloss is more a matter of general health than an indication of good grooming, and a horse in the most perfect health and condition will carry a bloom without the assistance of much grooming. When the mane and tail have been combed and brushed, and the hoofs picked out, the toilet of the horse may be considered to be completed. If the owner Las doubt as to the efficiency of his groom's work, he can get a iair idea of how the horse is cleaned by parting the hair of the "tail. Much grey dust or grease at the roots of the hairs is a sure sign that this part received but little attention from the brush,

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		96 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER and it is then fairly certain that the body of the horse is in the same condition. One should always be able to run one's hand over the body of a well-cleaned, healthy horse without getting an appreciable amount of grease thereon, and the presence of much grease suggests either that the grooming or the exercise,, or both, are neglected. These remarks apply, of course, to horses, which are constantly in stables. Horses at grass are always greasy. It is customary, as a rule, to feed horses three times a day. The mid-day feed, like the morning one, is usually chaff or hay and oats, and the same ration is supplemented in the evening by a rackful of hay. It is usual in most stables to allow the horses to stand on. straw all day. It undoubtedly looks well; furthermore it is urged by advocates of the practice that horses will be liable to slip upon the bare floor. The danger is not really great. This standing on the bedding, and the consequent continual wetness of the floor, is a most fruitful cause of thrush, and probably, indirectly, causes more broken knees than is generally realised. The bedding should always be removed in the day-time, and, if possible, put outside,, where it will be purified and dried by the air and sun. The stable floor will thus become clean and dry, and the result of these measures will be apparent in the health of the feet of the horses so treated. The half measure of thrusting the straw under the manger, where its presence is injurious to eyes and lungs, is worse on the whole than leaving it down on the floor, and every horse- owner should insist on its entire removal for a few hours during; the day-time if feasible. Washing Feet.�It is the custom in some stables to wash the feet of horses when they come in from exercise or work. The prevalence of cracked heels, grease, thrush, and other evils which more or less incapacitate a horse for the work which he has to perform, has led to the closer study of the matter, and has resulted in the discovery that the above-mentioned ills are entirely due to (or, at any rate, can be entirely prevented by abstention from)' washing the feet and legs. The evil lies, of course, in the drying rather than the actual washing. The extreme cold produced by the rapid evaporation of the half-dried hair drives the blood away

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		Polo and Riding Pony Stallion, "Mahmud' Photo by Reid, Wishaw

			Hackney Brood Mare, " Dashing- DunhamⁿPhoto by Reid, Wishaw

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from the part, and the consequent cold feet are liable to eczema and cracked heels. The clipping of the hair off the back part of the fetlock is another predisposing cause. Bandaging the legs immediately after washing may to some extent prevent the evil; but the only true and satisfactory method is to clean the legs with a wisp, and never allow water to be applied to them. Grooms object to this, as it gives them more trouble and the legs do not look so nice ; but it should be insisted upon. The slight dust and mud collected by the feet during exercise has been found to be the reverse of prejudicial if left on, and no horse- owner need fear any ill effects from departing from the old- established method of washing the feet and legs of horses. He will probably find, on the contrary, that his stable will be ab- solutely free from those complaints to which nine out of ten stabled horses are subject in the winter. Mud fever is another ailment which can, as a rule, be traced to faulty methods of management. At one time quite a large proportion of clipped hunters and harness horses in certain districts were the victims of this complaint. It has now been found that if the mud is left to dry on, the horse will never suffer from any inflammatory condition of the skin. This may seem a somewhat drastic and dirty method, and it does not recommend itself to tidy grooms, but it is the only sure preventative of the complaint. In those stables in which the owner takes an intelli- gent and active interest in his animals, the hunters are turned into their boxes with legs and belly uncleaned, and the dried mud is not removed until the following morning. This practice has been attended with the happiest results as far as the health of the horses is concerned, and it is to be recommended to all who wish to keep their animals fit and well, and free from those tire- some minor ailments which incapacitate a number of harness horses and hunters every year. The practice of washing the bodies of horses is not to be recommended under ordinary cir- cumstances, as it has a tendency to check the action of the oil glands, which, under natural conditions, secrete oil to assist the thatch of covering of hair to turn off rain ; also, unless each part is immediately and thoroughly dried, one of the above-mentioned skin diseases will be likely to appear. VOL. I. G

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		0,8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER A sweating horse should be immediately dried on its return home by vigorous rubbing with hay or straw wisps. If a heated horse is allowed to dry by evaporation it will probably contract a chill. The extremities should always be dried first, and while this is being done a rug should be thrown over the body. A fruitful source of coughs and chills is exposure of the heated back loins to the cold while the groom is drying the legs and head. The saddle or harness should always be left on while these parts are attended to, and, in addition, if the horse is very hot, a rug should be thrown across the loins. We may here also suggest the advisability of always throwing a light cloth across the loins of the clipped harness horse in winter if it has to stand about out of doors for more than two or three minutes. If for any reason it is impossible to immediately dry a per- spiring horse, the evil consequence which may result from the delay may be minimised by clothing the animal warmly and putting on bandages, or by having it led about with saddle on until it can be attended to. Clipping.�Well-bred horses kept continually stabled seldom want clipping, and if the animals have to do work which entails much standing about, it is certainly not to be recommended. Clipped horses are easier to clean and dry, and can (theoretically) do their work better, than horses carrying a long winter coat; but against this we have to put the increased liability (and con- sequent risk of total or temporary loss) of the animals catching cold, and the additional expense of providing rugs, clipping machine, &c. Singeing once a week is perhaps preferable to clipping horses which sweat much, and if begun early, and done sufficiently frequently, the coat can be kept short enough for any purpose. The method of clipping the legs and belly only, with the idea of leaving a warm covering over back and loins, is not to be recommended, as the horse is as like to contract chill if its extremities are bare as if it was entirely clipped. In rough dis- tricts the legs of hunters are often left undipped to save them from slight injuries. Some people leave the hair under the saddle of a riding horse. We fail to see what benefit results from doing so, as the long hair can only add to the heat of a part which will in

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any case become heated, and the risk of a sore back is increased thereby. One thick cloth is enough covering for the body of a clipped horse in the average stable. We are of opinion that the legs and feet of the horse which has had his hair artificially removed from them, get colder than they ought, and, for this reason, we recom- mend that the hair should be left on the legs of all horses, what- ever their work. If the hair is removed, bandaging is the only way in which the extremities can be protected, and continual bandaging is not advisable. The horse-cloth should always meet over the chest. It must always be remembered that the horse must naturally feel the artificial removal of his protective covering during the time of year when nature has provided him with it because he requires it, and that, therefore, we must endeavour to supply a fair substitute if we desire to keep him in health and condition. It is usual to supply a common night-rug to save the better day-cloth from the inevitable soiling which occurs when the horse lies down. In some stables it is the practice to keep the horses clothed practically all the year round in one kersey cloth, and to load them with two or three when clipped. The horse's hair is, no doubt, made finer and shorter by this treatment; but it must also be weakening to an animal to be so loaded with hot rugs, and the liability to chills at all times of the year is, of course, intensified. The fewer rugs the better in every stable, especially for horses such as hunters, whose work entails a lot of standing about in every class of weather. Clipping should not be commenced before the end of the first week in October, and may need to be done once again before Christmas. No horse should be clipped after Christmas, or it will be very late in getting its summer coat. If the removal of the hair is left until the coat is " set," which will be early in November, the operation will only need to be performed once. Gas is always a safer medium for singeing than the commonly used naphtha lamp, and it is almost needless to remind the reader that the horse should be removed from the stable, or, at least, all straw should be cleared away out of the stable, before singeing is begun.

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		It is generally possible to get a man in most towns and villages who understands the work to come and clip a horse, the usual charge being about 2s. 6d. for clipping, is. 6d. for singeing, and is. for washing. This varies in various districts. The washing is necessary to remove the charcoal which is formed during singeing.

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		CHAPTER IV How to Select a Horse Probably the best advice that could be given to any one about to buy a horse is to take a thoroughly good judge into your con- fidence, explaining to him exactly what you want, the purpose for which you want it, and the price you are prepared to give for the object of your desire. Then allow him to select from the animals submitted to you the one he considers most suited to your re- quirements, and having had the animal examined by a veterinary surgeon for soundness, take his advice. But as a matter of fact most people who own horses for various purposes are very unwill- ing to admit that they know nothing about them, and seem to prefer to do their own business, especially in this matter, however incompetent they may be to do it. It is not too much to say that the great majority of horse-owners�that is to say, people who own horses either for the pleasure of riding or driving, or for purposes of various commercial undertakings�can by no stretch of the imagination be called good judges of a horse. Though they may have owned and used horses for years they may be, and often are, quite ignorant of the particular points which are all-important in the purchase of a horse. To become a really good judge of an animal a certain amount of knowledge regarding equine anatomy is absolutely necessary, though at the same time years of practical experience gives many men an empirical knowledge of what is good, which serves them admirably. We have, in other parts of this work, however, described the main points in connection with the anatomy of the horse, so that those who wish to found their observations upon a scientific foundation may readily do so. We may thus pass to the consideration of the more general points to which attention should be paid in the selection of a horse, glancing chiefly at the different external portions which should be observed, *101*

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		and giving prominence to the most important defects to be avoided and qualities to be looked for. A fact which is often overlooked in connection with the pur- chase of a horse, is that an animal may be admirably suited for one class of work and quite unsuitable and incapable for another. Thus, many horses may be " rough" and uncomfortable for riding, but will be excellent in every way as trappers ; and a horse which is capable of pulling a great weight is obviously un- suited for fast galloping. Therefore the intending purchaser must first make up his mind exactly what class of work he wants his horse for, and he must then endeavour to secure an animal with conformation such as will enable it to perform this work in the best manner and with least exertion to itself. At the two ex- tremes we have the thoroughbred and the cart-horse, the former breed for speed, the latter for strength. Two greater differences could hardly be imagined in one species of animal, for the points necessary to the one are utterly condemnatory to the other ; and although perhaps these differences are peculiar to the shell or external parts of the animal rather than to the internal and vital parts, yet they are very apparent to the eye, and are the ones to which we have to pay attention in our choice of a horse. The class of animal most likely to be required by the average horse-owner is a " trapper," or harness-horse, so that in con- sidering the various points we will keep this ideal in view. In many respects the harness horse requires to have the combined points of a saddle-horse and a cart-horse, and, leaving out of the question exaggerated examples, such as that galloping machine, the racehorse, or that equine giant, the shire, we shall find that the bony conformation of the one differs very little, except in a minor degree, from that of the others. Such differences as exist are as a rule muscular; and as we go along we shall endeavour to indicate the various classes of work for which each variety of conformation is best suited. The Head.�Although the head is very much less important from a working point of view than many other parts of the horse, yet as it is usually the first point to catch the eye, and as it is the one part from which we may be able to penetrate the secret of a horse's disposition and character, we will give it priority of

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HOW TO SELECT A HORSE

103

Fig. 40.

THE PARTS OF THE HORSE.

1. Lips.

2. Nostrils.

3. Nose.

4. Forelock.

5. Ear.

6. Cheek.
7- Crest.

8. Neck.

9. Withers.

10. Throat.

11. Back.

12. Loins.

13. Haunch.

26. Flank,

27. Chest.

28. Shoulder.

29. Elbow.

30. Fore-arm.

31. Chestnut.

32. Knee.

33. Cannon.

34. Fetlock.

35. Pastern.

36. Coronet.

37. Foot.

14. Croup.

15. Tail.

16. Thigh.

17. Buttock.

18. Stifle.

19. Leg.

20. Hock.

21. Cannon.

22. Fetlock.

23. Pastern.

24. Foot.

25. Abdomen.

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		104 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER consideration. The chief faults of the head are, to be too small or too large. The reader may perhaps be surprised when we say that the head can be too small, as popular opinion is generally in favour of a small size of this part. Too small a head may indicate weak masticating muscles, and hence the owner may suffer from a bad digestion ; and it may indicate small air-passages, and hence the breathing of the horse may be impaired. If, how- ever, the small-headed horse possesses a broad, flat forehead and large open nostrils, he will not be likely to labour under either of these disadvantages, and the small head will be an advantage rather than the reverse. A large head indicates cart-horse blood, and is undesirable, because a horse is apt to carry it badly, and consequently put an undue proportion of weight on the forehand. Apart from this, however, provided the horse has plenty of bone, a big head is not particularly objectionable, and no horse need be refused because he is a little " plain." A fairly common peculiarity is a prominence between the eyes (convexity of frontals), which is very objectionable, and generally indicates a bad temper. A small or sunken " pig " eye and a wall eye (a ring of white round the iris) are also indications of a wayward temper and ungenerous disposition. A wide, flat fore- head and bold eye are signs of intelligence and good disposition. It must be mentioned, however, that the eye can be too big, and a " scarey," nervous horse will often possess a large prominent eye. In this connection the ears will also be some guide, and a continuous backwards and forwards movement, and an endeavour to see behind, &c, may confirm our suspicions that the animal is scarey. Apart from the teeth, a sunken appearance of the face, midway on a line drawn from the inner corner of the eye to the mouth, will indicate old age. The top of the head between the ears should be prominent, and the skin over the whole head in a well-bred horse should be fine and thin, showing through it the various muscles, veins, and other blood-vessels. There should be no swellings or thickness between the jaw-bones, nor should the hollows above the eyes be deep in a young horse. The Neck.�The neck of a saddle-horse cannot be too long or light, nor of a cart-horse too comparatively thick. The harness- horse should have something between the two. A well-shaped

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			HOW TO SELECT A HORSE 105

		neck, with nicely set-on head, adds much to the appearance of a horse, and the animal will be handier and pleasanter to drive than one which is clumsily or awkwardly made. As one of the most important muscles which draws the shoulder forward runs up the neck and is attached to the top of the head, length of neck and good carriage of head mean greater power of this muscle, and hence better action. A big crest is simply an accumulation of fat on the upper part of the neck, and is chiefly an indication of fatness and not of good conformation. As it makes the horse heavier in front, i.e. puts more weight on the forelegs, it is an undesirable feature. The best class of neck for a harness-horse is one of medium length, slightly arched, and with well-developed muscles. A very short thick neck, which is usually accompanied by straight shoulders, is a form of conformation which, by reason of the undue amount of weight it throws forward, makes a horse extremely likely to overbalance and fall down. A horse with a " ewe " neck is often also a " star gazer," and extremely un- pleasant either to ride or drive, as not only is he liable to get the bit off the bars and into the corners of his mouth, but his carriage of head prevents him from seeing where he is stepping. As this last is not of so much consequence in a harness-horse as it is in a hunter, the fault is not such a grave one in the class of animal we are considering. The Shoulders and Withers.�Whatever his work, every horse should have well-sloped shoulders. Among the advantages to the animal derived from this conformation are greater lightness of forehand, and consequently greater chance of recovery after a stumble ; less " jar " to the forelegs, which have to support the whole weight of the forepart of the body ; and greater freedom of movement of the shoulders and forelegs. The shoulders should be thin and free from lumber in the saddle-horse, and exactly the opposite in the cart-horse, which requires to throw a lot of weight into the collar. The two best indications of the amount of muscle carried by the shoulders are the difference in level between the root of the neck and the shoulder, and the width between the forelegs. In the hunter or racer the neck should run into the shoulder with an almost imperceptible curve ; in a cart-horse the greater development of the muscles on the shoulder-

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		106 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER blade make a very perceptible difference in the levels of the two* parts, and the animal has consequently a marked " collar place." In the trapper we require the happy medium, a& the absence of a depression wherein the collar can lie is as objectionable as is a conformation too nearly approaching that of the heavy horse. The forelegs should be moderately wide apart; but when viewed from the front there should be no unnecessary muscle either on the outside of the shoulder or between the legs. The chest should be deep, not wide and shallow, as it so often is in the front view. The withers should be high, but their leanness is not so important in the har- ness as in the saddle-horse. They should extend far back in the direction of the tail, as this will give what riders call a "long rein." It is noticeable that hackneys, which we may regard as an essentially exaggerated type of fancy harness-horse, have as a rule thick necks, somewhat loaded but long, well laid back shoulders, and not over high withers, so presumably this conformation is neces- sary to, or comes as a sequence to, exaggerated action and considerable fig. 41�Good shoulders. speed at the trot. The objection to loaded shoulders is minimised if they are long and sloping, and the serious drawback of straight shoulders is to some extent compensated for if the horse has a light head and neck and sloping pasterns. The Body.�Every variety of horse should be fairly short in back. That is to say, the distance from the posterior termination of the withers to the prominence at the anterior part of the croup (the inner angle of the pelvis) should be short if the horse is to have the greatest power of propelling his body forward, and is to be therefore speedy. The loins should be flat and broad, so as to give room for the attachment of muscles and to ensure plenty of space for the important organs which lie beneath them. All classes of horses should be well " ribbed up," by which term length and a backward direction of the back ribs is understood.

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	HOW TO SELECT A HORSE 107 Shortness of the back ribs is a worse fault in a saddle than in a harness-horse, but it is very undesirable in any animal, as it indicates inability to " stay." In horses in hard condition a badly ribbed-up conformation will be evidenced by the " tucked-up " appearance of the individual. The straighter and more parallel the lower line of the body is with the ground, the greater will be the ability of the horse to stand prolonged exertion, and a buyer should always look for a good depth of body at a line dropped vertically from the lowest part of the back (behind the withers) to

		Fig. 42.�Straight quarters. " Goose-rumped."

behind the girth place. A good spring of ribs is essential to all horses, although flatness may be sometimes compensated for in a harness-horse by extra depth. The Hind-quarters.�The most successful racehorses have usually been somewhat narrow behind ; but this point is not desirable in any other variety of horse. Obviously a horse which has to hold back a vehicle, or to jump, must have powerful muscles to enable him to do his work efficiently, and we should always look for plenty of muscular development on the croup and down the quarters. Breadth between the points of the hip bones is also desirable. It must always be remembered in this connection, however, that the hind-quarters must be in proportion to the fore-parts, and that a horse should not be unduly developed in

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	io8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER one part. Drooping hind-quarters are unobjectionable though unsightly; in fact, this conformation is valued in Irish hunters. On the score of appearance, no doubt, a tail set on high and carried in a graceful curve well away from the body is to be pre- ferred, although, as far as we know, this shape has no mechanical advantage (Fig. 44). The Fore and Hind Legs.�We now come to that most important part of equine conformation, the shape of the legs. Without

		hock to quarter. FlG. 45.�Hock too far under.

⁴¹ good " legs a horse will be quite unable to stand work, and, next to the feet, more attention should be paid to their shape and make than to any other part of the animal. The forelegs have chiefly to support weight, the hindlegs to propel the body. Naturally then we must look for powerful muscles and tendons and big bones to which they are attached. Successful modern thoroughbreds are usually leggy; that is to say, their height at the withers is greater than their length from the point of the shoulder to the buttock, and this height has been proved to be usually gained by length of leg. The cart-horse, on the contrary,

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			HOW TO SELECT A HORSE
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has short legs, consequently his length is greater than his height. As we do not want a galloping machine, but merely a well-balanced harness-horse, we are in favour of a full-grown horse being slightly longer than he is high at the withers, as such conformation indi- cates a sufficiency of strength for harness work. At the same time the greater length over height must be due to shortness of the legs, and not to either abnormally low withers or to a long, badly coupled body. The shortness of the legs should be gained by shortness of the bones below the knees and hocks, and not by shortness of the forearms and lower thighs or gaskins, on which

		FlG. 46.�Cow hock. Fig. 47.�Bandy hock. hindleg.

	the muscles which move the legs are to be found. The gaskins should be as wide and long as possible, and covered with plenty of muscle, and are important parts to look at in buying a horse. The knees should be large, flat, and bony ; also the hocks. The latter must be well let down, and when viewed from behind should be straight and turn neither in nor out when the animal is walking. "Cow" hocks (hocks in which the points turn in) are very common in hill ponies and horses with pony blood (Fig. 46), but, beyond being unsightly, they are not a serious fault, and are infinitely to be preferred to the opposite fault of hocks turned too much out. Horses which turn their hocks out give a peculiar " wrench " to the hindleg when walking (Fig. 47). The line from the back of the leg from hock to pastern should be

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no THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

straight (Fig. 49), and the front of the hock, when viewed from
the side, should run almost imperceptibly down, if the hock is
well let down and the bone below it large.

The same may be said of the leg below the knee. The straighter
the line of the back of the leg (the absence of a " tied-in " condition
below the knee), the better we may consider the leg to be (Fig. 48).
The leg should have great width when viewed from the side, and
the tendons should be plainly visible beneath
the skin in a well-bred animal. Horses some-

Fig. 5a�Pas-
tern sloping
too much.

Fig. 49. � Correct
position of hind
legs. Back view.

Fig. 51.�
Foreleg too
straight.

Fig. 52.�Lower part of leg
is placed too far behind.

times stand over at the knees, and when not temporarily due to
overwork; this formation is an indication of insufficient develop-
ment of the large muscle on the upper part of the forearm. It is
objectionable in a saddle-horse, but of less consequence in harness.
If combined with straight shoulders and with heavy forehand
(shoulders, chest, neck, and head) and a tied-in condition below
the knee, it is dangerous in any class of horse, as the animal will
always be falling down. Horses with straight shoulders and heavy
forepart are "built to fall down," and should be avoided for any
class of work. Horses with "calf knees" are very liable to strain
a back tendon when putting extra weight on the forelegs, as in
jumping, cantering, &c.

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		HOW TO SELECT A HORSE in

	Long sloping pasterns, like long sloping shoulders, are im- portant factors in the prevention of jars, and hence unsoundness. Sloping pasterns are usually an indication of speed. The dis- comfort to the rider of a horse with bad shoulders is minimised by long pasterns, so that it is a point which should never be dispensed with in a saddle-horse. As the harness-horse has to do all his work on hard roads, and consequently is subjected to considerable shaking if the " springs " (shoulders and pasterns) are not so formed as to reduce it, long sloping pasterns should be

Fig. 53.�Short straight shoulder. Fig. 54.�Legs and feet too close in front. looked for in this class also. The amount of jar caused by a horse with straight shoulders and pasterns may be verified by any one who cares to ride successively horses with both parts long and sloping, with both parts short and straight, with straight shoulders and long, sloping pasterns, and with long, sloping shoulders and short, straight pasterns. Of the last three forms we think their verdict will be in favour of the long pasterns and straight shoulders as the least uncomfortable, and as the jar is to them so it must be to the horse, and we would lay much stress on the importance of good pasterns in harness as well as saddle- horses. The hind pasterns are always more upright than the fore ; but a condition of knuckling over is due to excessive work or to overworking a colt too young. In the former case it points to weakness of tendons. When viewed from the front, the

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

pasterns should be straight, i.e. the feet should turn neither in nor out (Figs. 59, 61). Cart-horses very constantly turn their feet in, and apparently this formation, which is most obvious when going uphill, has some advantage when moving a great weight. Short, straight pasterns are of mechanical advantage to a cart-horse; and as these animals have not to travel fast,

		Fig. 55.�Leg too Fig. 56.�Normal Fig. 57.�Foreleg far under the position of fore- too far back, with shoulder. leg. weak pastern.

	there is no objection to this formation if the shoulders are long and sloping. When looking at a horse, it is advisable to note whether he has plenty of " bone," i.e. that his legs are not too small for his body, or, in another way of putting it, that he is not heavy-topped. A horse can hardly have too great a width of leg, provided it feels clean and firm to the touch. Many horses shown in ex- cessively fat condition may appear heavy-topped, particularly stallions ; but the purchaser must not allow himself to be deceived by fat, and must judge of the actual size of the body by the pro- portion between the size of the head, the shape of the chest, the width of the quarters, &c, and the legs. It may be added that it is almost impossible to fairly judge a very fat horse in some

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		Famous Hackney Stallion, "His Majesty," sire of many winners Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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	HOW TO SELECT A HORSE 113 points, such as back ribs, as the accumulation of fat may com- pletely hide the true shape. The Feet.�Without good feet a horse is useless for any pur- pose. Chestnut horses are reputed to have worse feet than horses of any other colour ; and it is notorious that our big cart- horses err in this respect to a terrible extent. The outer wall of the hoof should be hard and firm and free from ridges, and should not be unduly spread. When lifted up, the buyer should note whether the frog of the foot is well developed and free from

		FlG. 58.�Too wide FlG.59.�Knock-kneed FlG.60.�Weak Fig. 61.�Feet turned in front. and lady-toed. knee. in. Hen-toed.

offensive odour. A deep cleft in the frog, and an unpleasant, characteristic smell indicate thrush, and although in our experi- ence it is rare to come across a horse entirely free from it, yet if badly developed, and the frog shrivelled in appearance, the horse should be rejected. In a perfectly healthy foot the cleft of the frog is only a slight depression, and not the deep split so con- stantly seen. Contracted feet are less objectionable than wide- spread feet, as the former may be improved by care and attention, whereas nothing much can be done to the latter to make them permanently sound, and a horse with such feet, if put to fast road work, will be likely to develop fever in the feet, or some such complaint. Action.�Conformation makes the action. For road work VOL. I. H

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	ii4 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER exaggerated knee and hock action is out of the question, and undesirable in every respect. At the same time it is highly desirable that a horse should throw both fore and hind legs well forward, and be free from anything approaching a " niggle." A long stride is obtained by good shoulder action, but it is of little advantage if the horse drags his hindlegs. At the walk and trot the marks of the hind feet should certainly cover, and perhaps over-reach, the marks of the fore feet, and the more they do so, provided the animal also throws out his forelegs well from the shoulder, the more rapidly will he cover the ground with a

		Fig. 62.�Correct FlG. 63.�Knock- Fig. 64.�Bandy- position of fore-legs, kneed. knee.

minimum of exertion. As long as the feet are lifted high enough to clear the ground there is no advantage in knee action, and the exaggerated up-and-down knee action of some hackneys is objec- tionable in every way. Such horses have no pace, and they quickly hammer their legs to pieces on the road. In the ideal action of the trapper the fore and hind legs are flung well forward, the former being straightened before touching the ground, and the whole movement suggests to the eye freedom without effort. When viewed from behind, the legs of each side should follow exactly the same course. This condition will not be attained if a horse " dishes " or goes wide behind or in front, or crosses his legs. Dishing, or the flinging outwards of either or both fore

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HOW TO' SELECT A HORSE

ii5

feet, is very common, and although, of course, a fault, yet it is
less objectionable than some if not too marked. No horse which
goes wide in front is speedy, and it will generally be found that
of the two conformations going too wide, or going too close or
brushing, the animal which does the latter is the fastest. We
have known very fast horses which went wide behind, but the
peculiarity is unsightly.

One of the best tests of soundness, action, and conformation
is to have the horse trotted down a fairly steep hill. By this
manner of going a fair estimate of his
value can at once be made.

General Appearance.�A horse may
have every desirable point of con-
formation such as we have indicated,
and yet be an extremely ugly animal.
When looking at horses the purchaser
should endeavour to find one which
has no bad points, and if he can find
it he may buy it, knowing that it will
be useful and likely to last him for
years, however ugly it may be. Of
course, good looks in addition are very
desirable, but they have to be paid

FK). 66.�Weak
hock.

Fig. 65.�Over
at knee.

for at a rate far in excess of their

practical value. Therefore the average
individual will be fortunate if he is strong enough not to
succumb to the temptation of buying an animal with some
good or taking points in exaggerated degree, and also some bad
ones, and confines his attention to searching for a horse which is
absolutely free from any which the most critical judge could
designate " bad." Every bad point is a weakness, it must be
remembered, and, as such, liable at any time to cause the break-
down of the entire animal.

Age for Work.�A horse is probably at his very best at six
years of age. We should never recommend buying one of less
than four for moderate work, or under five for hard work. Horses
which are "out of mark," i.e. over eight years of age, if well
formed and sound, are often likely to be more useful for hard

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		n6 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER work than younger ones. At this age, if they possess weaknesses, they will, under ordinary conditions, have already broken down, so that it may be taken as a broad rule that a sound old horse is generally a good horse, and for light harness work, or work which is not too fast, there is no reason why an animal should not last until it is well into the twenties.

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			CHAPTER V

		Warranty and Unsoundness A warranty is a guarantee or undertaking given by the seller to the buyer that the animal conforms to the description given as to its qualities or soundness at the time of sale. It is seldom in Scotland that a written warranty is given, and this is greatly to be regretted, as written evidence would do away with much litigation that arises out of the loose methods used when dealing in horses. At the time of sale both parties are satisfied that they are at one as to the conditions under which the sale was made ; but later on, if some difference should arise, each puts a different interpretation on the words used, and, in the absence of written evidence, generally takes the dispute to the law courts to get the matter settled. This type of dealing and its consequent results is carried out in all honesty by both buyer and seller. There is another type of dealer, who is quite prepared to give any kind of guarantee or warranty and to put it in writing, provided the seller is prepared to deposit, say, two-thirds of the purchase price of the animal before removal from his premises. Buyers who have had dealings with this type of dealer seldom need a second lesson, as in some cases the writer has known they not only lost their money, but frequently lost the horse when they returned it into the dealer's possession, as it did not conform to warranty given. Rudyard Kipling must have had some near hand experi- ence when he wrote the following lines :� " The ways of a man with a maid are strange, but simple and tame To the ways of a man with a horse when selling or racing the same." Warranties are of various kinds� General Warranty.�This is probably the type of warranty under which the average class of horse is sold. The buyer usually asks the question, " Is this horse sound ? " and the dealer replies, " I warrant him sound," or " He is sound in every way." One

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		n8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER has frequently listened to a dealer make this statement to the buyer, " The horse is not yours if he is not sound." This last statement is, according to law, all that the buyer has to prove that the horse was unsound at date of sale. This raises another point as to who is to be the judge of the animal's unsoundness ; is it to be the buyer's veterinary surgeon, or is it to be the one nominated by the seller ? The best way to get over the diffi- culty is for the buyer to say, " I will take the horse, provided he passes my veterinary surgeon." Special Warranty.�When this kind of warranty is given it refers to a particular matter, and both parties are aware of the defect. One has known horses sold to have a certain blemish or legal defect, and the seller gave a guarantee that this unsoundness would not interfere with the animal's usefulness. There is usually a limit put on the period as to how long the guarantee runs, frequently from one month up to three. Limited Warranty.�This type of warranty is in general use at auction marts. One in general use is " warranted a good worker and sound in wind," and, according to the rules of sale, if found disconform to the above the animal must be returned by a certain date and hour, accompanied by a veterinary surgeon's certificate. Now it does not follow that because an animal is unsound in a legal sense, that he is not according to the warranty given. It must be certified that he is unable to do the type of work for which he was bought either from bodily defect or from vice. If an animal that has been patched up for the day of sale, and, on being tried, breaks down and becomes lame, it is a question for the veterinary surgeon to decide, " Is this animal so lame as to render it unfit for work ? " and to grant a certificate accordingly. An animal that is so badly affected in his wind (from roaring) as to interfere with his usefulness cannot be considered a " good worker." Distinction between Representation and Warranty.�As any one knows who has ever had anything to do with the purchase of horses, there is a great deal of superfluous talk which goes on, not only on the part of the dealer, but also from the buyer. Loose statements such as " he will grow into a great horse yet," or " he looks like taking prizes if properly brought out," are fre-

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		WARRANTY AND UNSOUNDNESS 119 quently made when the horse is pulled out for inspection, and a buyer may take or reject these boastful recommendations according 1 to his prudence or judgment. But if a sale was concluded on the strength of a dealer saying, " That is a very fast horse, he will do a mile in 2-30," and, on being tried, fails to show any such speed, then probably that statement would amount to a warranty. According to C. J. Tindall, the main distinction between a representation and a warranty is : "In the case of a repre- sentation, to render liable the party making it, the facts stated must be untrue to his knowledge ; but in the case of a warranty he is liable whether they are in his knowledge or not." In many instances it is rather hard to distinguish between a representation and a warranty. Soundness.�There are many definitions of what " sound " means, but in our opinion one of the best is that of Baron Parke, who said: "The rule as to soundness is, that if at the time of sale the horse has any disease which either actually does diminish the natural usefulness of the animal so as to make him less capable of work of any description, or which, in its ordinary progress, will diminish the natural usefulness of the animal, or if the horse has either from disease or accident undergone any alteration of struc- ture that either actually does at the time, or in its ordinary effects will, diminish the natural usefulness of the horse, such horse is unsound." The Causes of Unsoundness A. Those affecting soundness of wind� Roaring, a noise made by a horse on inspiration. Whistling, the difference between roaring and whistling is only a question of the depth of noise made. Broken Wind, an affection of the lungs, shown by a double lift at expiration. Grunting is considered by most veterinary surgeons as an unsoundness. Chronic Cough, an affection either of the larynx, or accom- panying broken wind.

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		Colds may constitute unsoundness; they may be simple and temporary, but still at the time amount to unsoundness. B. Those affecting soundness of limb� Bog Spavin and Thoroughpin, even when not causing lameness, are considered unsoundness by Scottish veterinary surgeons. Canker, a disease of the feet. Corns, unless very slight. Curbs, an affection of a ligament at the back of the hock, even if the animal is going sound, always constitutes unsoundness. Contracted Hoof, even when there is no lameness, ought to be considered an unsoundness, as in our experience it almost invariably accompanies or follows after some affection of the limb or foot. False Quarter�usually the result of an injury to the coronet �is frequently accompanied by sandcrack. Grease, an offensive smelling disease affecting the skin of the lower parts of the leg. Laminitis, shown by a flat or dropped sole, and the animal going short or landing heels. Navicular Disease, an affection of the interior of the horse's foot. Quittor, a suppurative disease of the coronet, whether the animal is trotting sound or not. Splints. In a heavy horse one never thinks of mentioning them, but in an animal for trotting or galloping they must be considered, especially if the animal is under five years of age. Situation of the splint, such as lying close into the knee-joint, would bring certain condemnation. Spavin, even when trotting sound, constitutes unsoundness. Many horses have well-marked spavins which do not produce lameness, still I question if any veterinary surgeon would pass them sound. Seedy Toe, a hole in the foot, due to an alteration in the character of the horn. Side Bone, an affection of the lateral cartilages. Many heavy horses are affected with this condition and go sound, still they must be considered unsound.

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			WARRANTY AND UNSOUNDNESS

		Ring Bone�a growth of bone on the pastern bones�is un- soundness. Sandcrack, a fissure in the wall of the hoof extending from the coronet downwards. This must not be confused with a fissure on the lower surface of the wall, which only runs a very little way upwards. Sprained Tendons or Ligaments, owing to their liability to seriously lame an animal, would always condemn one. Unnerved Horse, owing to the risk of serious structural change that frequently follows the operation of unnerving, this constitutes unsoundness. Windgalls are liable to get worse with work and may cause lameness, therefore it is safer for the veterinary surgeon to treat them as an unsound condition. C. Those conditions affecting eyesight, skin, digestion, the brain and nervous system, the glandular system, internal tumours, and constitutional diseases� Cataract, an affection of the lens within the eye. Mange and Ringworm are both unsoundnesses. Megrims, or Staggers, a temporary giddiness. Stringhalt, a quick, sharp action of the limbs, chiefly the hind ones. While in many cases this affection does not interfere with an animal's usefulness, yet veterinary surgeons, especially Scottish, will not pass an animal affected as sound. Shivering, a very serious unsoundness. V Weed, an affection of the glandular system, which generally in time causes a thickening of the affected leg. Crib-biting and Wind-sucking, while really vices, are con- sidered unsoundnesses, as they frequently interfere with an animal's health. Farcy, Glanders, Pneumonia, Strangles, Sore Throat, Tumours, and many internal diseases constitute unsoundness. The latter are frequently the cause of litigation. An animal having been purchased as sound, dies a short time after delivery, and on post mortem examination he is found to have died from a disease which may, or may not, have been in existence at date of sale.

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		122 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER A case of this type is difficult to settle without the aid of the bench, if there is much contradictory evidence. A veterinary surgeon can only be held liable to the party employing him, when it can be shown that he either acted fraudu- lently, or with gross negligence, when making his examination. He is only supposed to exercise a reasonable amount of skill and intelligence.

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			CHAPTER VI

		Faults and Vices and their Management We may now turn our attention to a brief consideration of some of the more common bad habits which are to be found amongst horses, together with a few hints as to how these may be best avoided and treated. Shying in Horses.�It must always be remembered that our domestic horses are after all wild animals which have been tamed and brought into a state of domestication. In their wild natural condition they would in various parts of the world be the prey of large carnivorous wild beasts, and they could only escape from these animals by their speed in flight and their quickness in detecting the danger. Hence it is, that, although in domestica- tion they are not subject to such dangerous attacks, yet their inherited instinct of self-preservation causes them to fear objects which they do not understand, and from which they attempt to make great efforts to avoid. Further, there is a great difference in the temperaments of different horses, some being naturally much more timid than others. In addition, a good many horses have defective eyesight, and this is undoubtedly one of the causes of the habit of shying. Lastly, not a few have this habit produced as the result of a fright or bad management in the early days of their training. Many different methods of treatment of shying horses have been advocated by various writers, one of whom, Mons. L. Lodian, a well-known sportsman of Paris, thus writes concerning this dangerous habit :� " Shying is one of the most frequent causes of carriage acci- dents, yet with a coherent knowledge of why a horse shies, and the proper use of the reins, the shying may be partially cured and accidents often averted. A horse shies from fear, and while keeping its eyes fixed on the cause of terror, moves away from it as much as he can. The common practice of drivers is to keep "3

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		124 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER pulling the rein on the side on which the horse shies on. The consequence is the animal runs you into danger he does not see, perhaps into a ditch, up a bank, or against some obstacle which overthrows the vehicle. You blame the horse, when you yourself have caused the accident by pulling his head toward the thing he shies at. A good driver always shies before his horse, that is by noticing the prick of the ears of the horse, or by some previous acquaintance about his failing. The driver gives light but con- tinuous snatches to the rein opposite to the side at which it is expected to shy, the horse feels that he is being pulled away from the source of terror, and passes without shying in most cases. Learners of driving, and those who wish to correct a bad habit with their horses, have only to try once or twice to be assured of the soundness of this advice, the result of forty years' experi- ence of town and country driving with young and restive animals." Crib-biting.�This annoying habit found in some horses is one which is extremely difficult to cure, and the purchaser should make careful inquiry in every case with the view to ascertaining the presence of this undesirable fault. It has been ascribed by some to indigestion, but inasmuch as treatment by medicine is of little or no avail it is hardly likely that this is really the cause. Others have asserted that crib-biting is caused by the teeth of a horse being too crowded, thus pressing upon each other and stimulating the animal to bite the manger or the stall or anything else within reach. It is very often associated with grunting caused by belching out wind, the animal in this case gulping down wind till the belly swells, then stretching out the neck, and after passing the wind, laying hold of the edge of the manger with the teeth. Whatever be the cause there are few more undesirable habits in a horse than crib-biting, either by itself or associated with wind-sucking. Few horses with this habit ever look well, neither do they do their work efficiently. Most of them present a somewhat thin appearance, no matter how well fed and cared for. The habit of course in time affects the teeth, and, as the animal frequently feeds and bites at the same time, there is some waste of food as well as of saliva. Mastication is imperfect from broken or worn teeth, and hence the food is not swallowed in a condition

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	FAULTS AND VICES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 125

	suitable for gastric digestion. It would thus appear not unlikely that indigestion and colic, which are often associated with the habit of crib-biting, are the result of the habit rather than the cause. Treatment.�There is no effectual way of treating a crib-biter except by making it impossible for the action to be performed ; and this can only be done by some special apparatus or mechanical application fitted on to the horse's head, and which prevents him. biting the manger. Since, as a rule, a horse will not bite any- thing which is lower than his knees, some have advocated taking- down the manger and giving all the food either from the floor or from some utensil placed on the floor. As regards the special devices which have been designed to prevent the animal carry- ing out the habit, the horse-owner should in every case consult the veterinary surgeon as to the particular appliance to be used, as well as for the administration of digestive medicines and tonics. It need only be added that crib-biting is one of the faults which constitute unsoundness.

			Fig. 67.�Teeth deformed by crib-biting.
		Wind-sucking. � Some horses suck

wind without combining this with cribbing. The habit is very difficult to remove, if, indeed, it can be cured at all, and careful inquiry should be made before purchasing any animal to ensure freedom from this fault. Hanging the Tongue out of the Mouth.�This unpleasant habit which some horses have of protruding the tongue over the bit, and allowing it to dangle out of the mouth at one corner, though not very serious in itself, still constitutes a great draw- back to the appearance of the animal. It is very seldom that the tongue is protruded under the bit, but usually over it and to one side. The treatment for this habit consists in the use of special bits which come so high in the mouth that the horse cannot get the tongue over them, or else a strap is buckled round the nose so that the tongue cannot be protruded. An expert should

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		126 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER be consulted as to the best apparatus for any particular case. Pawing.�Persistent pawing in the stall is a habit which is acquired by some horses which seem to take a delight in the noise produced by the act. In fact it is claimed by some that except for the sound the horse will paw very little. Acting on this idea it has been suggested that a piece of thick blanket or other material be secured round the foot so as to muffle the sound. If this be unsuccessful the foot may be attached to a piece of light chain, which, in its turn, is fastened to a small block, and when the horse attempts to paw the rattling of the chain against the foot so dis- concerts him that the movement is not often repeated. Getting Cast in the Stall.�This is rather an accident than a habit and is general y the result of an animal being confined in a stall that is much too small for free movement. A horse lying down upon his back requires to be able to roll himself somewhat to regain his feet, and if the stall be so small and especially so short that his head is held fast by the halter it is quite impossible for him to rise. The first point, therefore, is to see that the stall itself is of ample dimensions for the animal contained. Another simple method to prevent casting is to tie a rope to the head-piece of the halter at the back of the ears and affix this to the ceiling of the stall, the rope being just long enough to allow the horse to place his head upon the ground. This prevents him from rolling, because, unless he can put the top of his head upon the ground, he will not roll. Occasionally a horse is cast by becoming entangled in the halter strap, the fore-feet being placed over it in the act of pawing. All that is necessary to prevent this is to see that the halter is fixed sufficiently high up in the stall, though at the same time long enough to allow the horse to lie down with comfort. Kicking in the Stall.�Here again the size and construction of the stall is of great importance in the management of the horse. A narrow stall makes it both difficult and risky to get round a horse, even although the animal may not be very vicious. Such a stall is also, as we have seen, a danger from its lack of room in allowing the horse to lie down. Treatment of kicking horses in their stall depends both on the character of the horse and that

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		FAULTS AND VICES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 127 of the man. A vicious horse will very often show temper towards an attendant who is evidently afraid of him, but a firm, courageous, and at the same time kind, attendant, with a thorough knowledge of his animal, will probably be able to subdue this habit by his confidenca and common-sense. Very few horses will disobey a man of strong nerve, especially if punishment be promptly ad- ministered when the fault is committed. Close observation of the animal, especially by watching the ears, which are usually thrown back, the eyes, which are partly closed, the lips also drawn back, and the mouth sometimes partly open, will generally show the horse's intentions without any possibility of mistake. A sharp command given to the horse serves to abstract his attention, and this, followed by a quick step towards his shoulder, will generally allow the attendant to reach his head without any danger. Once in front of the hips the risk is practically over, and if the whole movement be carried out without hesitation there will seldom be any harm done. To leave the stall in the case of a kicking horse pull the horse's head round so that the hind-quarters are well drawn towards the opposite side, then at the same moment that the halter is loosed step quickly out of reach, and, at the same time, without showing any sign of fear. Pulling at the Halter.�This is one of those simple and yet very annoying habits which detract very seriously from the value of a horse, especially if it be desirable from the occupation of the animal that he should stand quietly when hitched up either at a fence, a gate, or a post. Horses who pull at the halter cannot thus be left safely, and, although they may stand perfectly quiet for a time, the slightest noise or excitement will make them run back and break halter or bridle in an attempt to get loose. The habit results partly from deficient methods in the early training of the horse, because the animal always tends to pull back upon a halter the moment any pressure is felt upon his head. In the same way when a young animal is tied up and thus restrained from movement the inclination is to pull himself through his bridle, and if, after a struggle, the bridle or halter is broken, the habit is quickly learned. The only way to cure this undesirable habit is by fixing the halter cord in some special way so that the strain when pulling comes upon some other part of the body, causing

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		128 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER him to jump ahead instead of backwards. Special devices of this kind will be suggested by the expert in special cases. Running back in the Stall.�This is another habit which can best be cured by special methods of hitching the horse up, again depending upon some arrangement which will cause him to hurt himself when he runs backwards. The horse has an excellent memory, and all methods of treatment of this kind of habit are directed to impressing upon the animal the fact that if he indulges in them he suffers pain. Whatever the special arrangements advised they should all tend towards that end. Jumping over Fences, &c.�It is sometimes necessary to apply some sort of apparatus to a horse's head to prevent him jumping out of fields or paddocks, just as a board is attached to the horns of cattle covering the front of the eyes. Horses generally can be prevented from jumping fences by the simple application of a piece of leather 4 or 5 inches wider than the head is at the eyes, this being attached to a thoroughly well-fitting halter. The horse, being unable to look straight ahead, will, as a rule, not attempt either to jump the fence or throw the fence down.

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		Shire Mare, "Locklngton Beauty," and. foal, "Merveille"' Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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			CHAPTER VII

		The Anatomy of the Horse It would be beyond the scope of the object of this work to enter into very minute detail of all the various organs and structures in the anatomy of the domestic animals. But, as far as the horse is concerned, we must at least note the more important features of its structure, particularly those of the muscular system, which, therefore, are responsible for the movements of the animal; and also such portions of the body as the teeth, and the organs of circulation and digestion, without some knowledge of which it is impossible to have an intelligent conception of even the common ailments which affect the animal. In our succeeding pages, there- fore, will be found a sufficiently detailed account of the portions of the anatomy above mentioned, which, taken together with the illustrations of these structures, will afford a careful reader such information as will be sufficient for his purpose. The Equidae or Horse Family.�The living members of this family inch;de, as well as the horse, the Zebras and the Asses, while geologists describe a large number of extinct animals which agree more or less closely with these living forms in their general structures, and some of which point very clearly indeed to the line of evolution which has been followed in order to produce the present modern horse. The great characteristic of the horse family is the fact that, as at present constituted, the members of that family possess only one toe which is functional, and, as a matter of fact, horses walk upon their middle toes and middle fingers. Two other toes or fingers are represented in the skeleton by lateral splints. The ancient pedigree of the horse family shows an almost unbroken continuity of animals which, beginning at any rate with four toes, have been gradually more and more modified by the successive disappearance of digits in the course of their descent until we arrive at the present one-toed animal. vol. i. ^I29 i

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		In fact, as Beddard says, " For purposes of classification we are compelled to draw the line at functional second and third toes, and to distinguish animals which use these from those which do not use them. In other words, speaking zoologically, directly in this series of animals the second and third toes are no longer used, that animal has to be regarded as a horse. However illogical such distinctions may appear, they are nevertheless necessary for the convenience of dividing animals into separate families." Genus Equus.�" The genus Equus contains not only the Horse, but the Asses and Zebras. The genus is to be distinguished as regards external characters by the following features: The body is thickly clothed with hair ; there is a more or less bushy tail and mane ; the colours are apt to be disposed in strips of black or blackish upon a yellowish brown ground; this is, of course, best seen in the Zebras, but the wild Asses also have some traces of it, if only in the single cross-bar of the African Wild Ass, and it is even ' reversionary ' in the domestic Horse at times. There are no horns upon the forehead or elsewhere ; the fore- limbs, or both pairs have a callous pad upon the inside, which is possibly to be looked upon as an aborted gland, possibly origin- ally of use as secreting some odorous substance calculated to enable strayed members of the herd to regain their companions. The terminal phalanx of each of the (functionally) single digits is enclosed in a large horny hoof." (Beddard.) The Modern Horse.�" The Horse, E. caballus, is to be distin- guished from its congeners by the small callosities on the hind- limbs which it possesses in addition to the larger ones on the fore-limbs. The hairy covering of the tail is more abundant, as is also the mane. The head, too, is proportionately smaller, and the general contour more graceful. Though Zebra markings are not usually upon E. caballus, there are plenty of examples of �what we may perhaps in this case term�a ' reversion ' to a striped state. The celebrated ' Lord Morton's Mare,' whose por- trait hangs in the Royal College of Surgeons, is an interesting case of this. It was, as a matter of fact, thought to be an example of that rather doubtfully-occurring phenomenon ' telegony.' Its history is briefly this. The animal was the offspring of a mare that had previously produced to a male Quagga a hybrid foal.

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	Afterwards a second foal was produced by the same mare to an Arab sire. This foal, the one in question, was striped, and hence was thought to be an example of male prepotency. But instances are known of unquestioned Horses which show the same stripes, such as a Norway pony which had not even seen a Zebra ! " " A last remnant of the naked palm of the hand and sole of the foot is left in the shape of a small bare area, smaller in the Horse than in the Asses, known technically as the ' ergot,' the term being that of the French veterinarians. As already men-

Fig. 68.�The sole of the foot of a man, a dog, and a horse � the latter answering to> the "back of the lower part of the leg" to show the pads described in the text. C, the " chestnut." P, pads. tioned, the Horse differs from the Asses and Zebras in the fact that the hind-limbs have callosities on the inner side. They are known as ' chestnuts/ and their nature has been much disputed. It has been suggested that they are the last rudiment of a vanished toe ; but in all probability they are, as already suggested, traces of glandular structure, which are common upon the limbs in many animals." (Beddard.) A. THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HORSE (See Model at Front) i. Lips.�The lips are two in number, superior and inferior, and bound the anterior opening of the mouth. They are covered externally by skin and hair of two kinds, short and downy and long and rough, while inter-

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		nally they are lined with mucous membrane. The central layer is composed of muscles which are richly supplied with nerves, rendering the part very sensitive. In the well-bred horse the lips are thin and fine, while in the coarse-bred horse they are thick and clumsy. 2. Tip of nose.�The tip of the nose is the part between the two nostrils. Generally speaking, it is somewhat prominent and forms the anterior part of the head. 3. Arch of the nose.�The arch of the nose is the part situated between the forehead and the tip of the nose. It should be somewhat long and narrow, and, in most horses, is either convex or straight, depending on the breed in question. A concavity on that part is objectionable, as it detracts from the appearance of the animal. 4. Forehead.�The forehead is the part situated between the eyes and the top of the head. Looking from the front it is the widest part of the head, and is somewhat square in shape and flattened, or at times convex. 5. Orbit.�The orbits are situated one on each side of the head and contain the eyes. In the horse they are bony ridges formed by the junction of several bones, and are circular in shape. 6. Mane.�The mane is composed of hairs which are much longer and stronger than those which cover the body generally. It extends from the forelock along the neck and stops at the withers. 7. Ears.�The ear in the horse is a long, oval-shaped, hollow organ terminating in a pointed extremity, the tip. The hairs within the ear are long and fine and guard the opening from any foreign bodies. Inter- nally the ear is supplied with glands which secrete a peculiar waxy-like material. 8. Lower jaw.�The lower jaw differs from the upper in that it is movable. It articulates with the upper jaw behind, and is supplied with powerful muscles which are used in mastication. 9. The cheeks.�The cheeks form the sides of the head. They should be moderately broad and covered with thin, fine skin, showing the blood vessels prominent. They should be flat, but the muscles below well deve- loped, as they are the muscles of mastication. 10. Nostril.�The nostril of the well-bred horse should be large and wide with the borders not too well marked, and the hairs fine and scanty. Small nostrils with thick edges and plentiful rough hairs are indications of bad breeding. 11. Nape.�The nape or pole is the anterior part of the neck, just where it joins the head, immediately behind the ears. 11'. Throat.�The throat is situated at the junction of the head and neck. There a prominence will be seen and felt, the larynx or voice box. 12. Parotid gland.�The parotid is a large gland situated in the triangular- shaped hollow at the junction of the head and neck, and extends from the base of the ear to the angle of the lower jaw.

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13. Neck.�The neck of the well-bred horse should be moderately long, and should taper gradually towards the head, and form, with the latter, a correct angle. The upper border should be somewhat convex, while the lower border should be relatively concave. In the stallion the crest is much more pronounced than in the mare. 13'. Mane.�The mane extends along the upper border of the neck, and in the well-bred animal is fine and moderately scanty. In the low- bred horse it is thick and rough. 14. Jugular groove.�A well-marked furrow can be seen running along near the lower border of the neck and disappearing in the trunk. This is the jugular groove or furrow, which contains the Jugular Vein. If the finger be pressed in this groove, the vein will be seen to stand out prominently in front of the finger. 15. Chest.�The chest forms the anterior half of the trunk. It should be deep and moderately wide in order to give ample room for the organs which it contains, the heart and lungs. Moderate breadth is necessary in front as well as behind the shoulders in order to give endurance. Exces- sive breadth, so as to produce a rounded chest, is objectionable in light horses for fast work, although it is one of the characteristics of heavy breeds. 16. Withers.�The spines of the first few vertebras in the dorsal region are more prominent than in other parts of the spinal column, and this prominence forms what is called the withers. This prominence also gives increased length to the shoulders, which is an essential character. In the horse used for saddle purposes the withers should be well pronounced and well supplied with muscle, while in breeds for heavy draught they need not be so well developed. 17. Back.�The back of horses used for light fast work should be straight and moderately long. When the back is too long it is a sign of weakness, but if too short the animal is generally deficient in speed. In the heavy horse doing heavy carting a short, hard back is looked for as a sign of strength. A hollow back is objectionable and is a sign of weakness, especi- ally in a young horse. A horse with a high roach back is generally clumsy in his gait, but he will be found to wear well. 18. Ribs.�The ribs of the horse should be deep and have a good con- vexity. They should in no case be flat. One of the essential points in the horse is that he should be well " ribbed-up," that is, the posterior rib should be close to the point of the hip. If too much space intervenes, and if the posterior ribs are short, the animal is generally an indifferent feeder and a bad doer. 19. Girth.�The girth is the circumference of the chest immediately behind the fore-limbs. This measurement should be considerable, in accordance with the size of the chest to give sufficient room for the organs within. 20. Loins.�The loins should be long and broad and well arched. In

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		the horse used for saddle purposes it is all-important that they should be well supplied with muscles, and these should be evenly distributed. 2i. Croup.�The croup should have a regular convexity from the loins to the tail. It should be broad and muscular. 22. Tail.�The tail of the well-bred animal is set well up, and is strong and muscular at the root. It should be covered with fine, straight hair, and not too plentiful. Bushy, rough hair is indicative of bad breeding. The tail should be carried well away from the body, as it adds greatly to the appearance of the animal. 23. Anus.�The anus is the posterior orifice of the bowel, opening below the tail. 24. Flanks.�A good horse should be deep and full in the flanks. Tucked up flanks are generally indicative of bad " doers." 25. Belly.�The belly is suspended mainly from the posterior ribs and from the bones. In breadth it should be about equal with the chest, and on the under surface it should taper very gradually towards the flank. Want of sufficient belly in the horse is a great drawback, while too pendulous a belly detracts from the appearance of the animal and is an encumbrance. 26. The sheath.�The sheath of the horse should be large and well formed. A small sheath is often a sign of a bad feeder. 27. Testicles.�The testicles are two in number, and oval in shape. They are suspended between the thighs, in a bag of skin called the scrotum. The scrotum is divided into two parts, one for each testicle, and the division is marked externally by a division between the two testicles in the form of a ridge. 28. The shoulder and arm.�The shoulder is formed by the shoulder blade or scapula, a bone running obliquely downwards and a little forwards and meeting the bone of the arm, the humerus, at the point of the shoulder. The shoulder of the horse should be long and wide and have an oblique direction. Upright shoulders are objectionable, as well as low shoulders, as these predispose the animal to stumble. The muscles in this region should be well developed to give requisite strength. The bone of the arm �the humerus�is relatively shorter than the scapula and runs downwards and backwards to the elbow. If this bone is too short the action of the horse is generally faulty, while if it is too long it throws the fore-limbs too far below the body. In a well-formed horse a line dropped from the point of the shoulder should land at the toe. 29. Elbow.�The elbow is the joint between the humerus and the bones of the forearm, the radius and ulna. The region about this joint should be well developed and the muscles on the outer surface prominent when the limb is bent; the olecranon process of the ulna will be seen projecting out behind, but when the limb is in the upright position this should be only slightly shown. 30. Forearm.�The forearm extends from the elbow to the knee, and

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		it should be relatively longer than the part from the knee to the ground. The bones which form the forearm are the radius and ulna. These bones cannot be over strong, nor can they be too well supplied with muscles, because strength of forearm is of extreme importance in the horse. If the forearm is short the animal is defective in speed. 31. Chestnut.�This is a horny outgrowth which appears on the inside aspect of the forearm just above the knee, the nature and origin of which is very little known. 32. Knee.�The knee is one of the most important joints in the body. It should be large, strong, well developed. The knee of the well-bred horse is broad from side to side and flattened from before to behind. The bone situated behind the knee, the trapezium, should be well developed and prominent, to give proper attachment to important muscles. Look- ing from the side, the leg at the knee should be straight. A slight bend to the front is not to be cast away with, but a backward bend at the knee is very objectionable. The condition is known as " calf" or "back-knee," and it throws too much weight on the tendons and ligaments. 33. Cannon.�The cannon reaches from the knee to the fetlock and is composed of three bones. The central bone is a large one and called the large metacarpal, while the other two are small, attached to each side of the large one, and extending from the knee to near the fetlock. These small bones are called the splint bones, and have degenerated with the evolution of the horse. As a whole the cannon should be short and strong to bear the great stress which comes to bear upon it. 34. Fetlock.�The fetlock is the joint situated between the cannon and pastern. It is a joint which has to bear a great amount of strain, and should therefore be well developed and strong. 35. Pastern.�The pastern reaches from the fetlock to the coronet and is composed of two bones, the os suffraginis and the os corona?. The pastern should be moderate in length ; if too long, then too much strain is brought to bear upon it, whereas if it is too short and upright, con- cussion is too great and the part does not wear well. 36. Coronet.�The coronet is the term given to the part where the leg joins the foot, round the top of the hoof. 37. Foot.�The foot should be medium in size, depending on the size of the animal. Horses with too large feet are objectionable, as they are clumsy in gait; the foot itself is often weak. Too small feet, on the other hand, are predisposed to disease. One must also see to it that the feet are both one size. The fore-foot should slope to the ground at an angle of 45⁰, and the hind-foot at an angle of 50⁰. If they are too upright it is indicative of contraction, while if too flat they are generally weak, and are predisposed to lameness. The horn should be tough and dark in colour. It should have an even surface and no ring formation, as this often points to disease. The soles

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		136 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER should be concave, but not too much so. Flat soles are indicative of disease. The frog should be large and well developed, as this is the organ which prevents an over amount of concussion, prevents slipping, and helps the foot to expand. It is very important that the heels should be well apart. Contracted heels are objectionable, as they predispose to contracted feet and side-bones. 38. Ergot or spur.�The ergot is placed immediately behind the fetlock. It is of the same nature as the chestnut, and is a fibrous thickening of the skin. 39. Haunch.�The haunch should be broad and well developed in order to give attachment to the powerful muscles of the hind-quarters so essen- tial in a hunting or a saddle horse ; at the same time they should not be so prominent as to be unseemly. 40. Thigh.�The thighs should be well developed, deep, and full. A horse with weak thighs, to which the name "split up" is sometimes given, is very objectionable ; he is often a bad " doer " and does not stand work well. 41. Stifle.�The stifle should appear well developed and prominent. Weak stifles are very easily damaged, and if once wrong the horse is gene- rally of little more value. 42. Buttocks.�The buttocks should be long, rounded, and well deve- loped, and this is especially so in horses, where the hind-quarters have to bear heavy stress, as in the hunting field. 43. Leg.�The leg should be long and strong, and should run obliquely backwards. Length of leg is an essential matter for speed, and the muscles should be well developed and prominent down near the hock, in order to give the requisite strength. 44. The hock.�This is perhaps the most important joint in the body. In the mature horse it should have a well-defined outline. The bones entering into its conformation should be strong and prominent to give strength to the joint. Looking from the side, the hock should be broad at all parts. It should not be too straight, as this gives rise to too much concussion. Neither should it be too much bent, as undue stress is laid on the tendons. The point of the hock must also be well developed. Looking from behind, the leg should be perfectly straight. Any inward or outward deviation of the hocks is a great objection. Any soft swellings seen about the hocks are a fault, as they indicate disease. 46, 47, 48, 49-50, 51. Cannon, Fetlock, Spur or Ergot, Pastern, Coronet, Foot.�The same remarks apply to these as to the corresponding structures on the fore-limb.

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		B. THE SKELETON OF THE HORSE The letters and figures correspond to those of the Plate of the Skeleton. (See Model at Front.) A. Head.�The head is formed by a collection of bones which in the adult animal are firmly united to one another. The head may be divided into two parts, (a) The cranium or skull, (b) Face. The cranium is chiefly concerned in protecting the all-important structure, the brain, and is formed by the occipital, interparietal, two parietals, two frontals, sphenoid, two petrous and squamous temporal, and the ethmoid. The petrous temporal bone is the hardest in the body, and it is pierced by a canal which is the opening of the internal ear. The occipital bone in the horse is much smaller than in man. Posteriorly the bone is pierced by a large hole, the foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord passes, and at each side is a condyle which articulates with the atlas, the first bone of the neck. These bones are all joined to each other by seams or sutures. In early life the bones can easily be separated, but later the union becomes bony. The skull of the horse in comparison to that of man is only about one- fourth the size, and the bones forming it are thicker and much more re- sistant. The face is formed by the union of the following bones : nasal, malar superior maxilla, lachrymal, premaxilla, pterygoid, palatine, and superior and inferior turbinals. These are all paired bones, and to these is added the single bones, vomer, inferior maxilla, and the hyoid, which is situated within and gives support to the tongue and larynx. Taken as a whole the bones of the head are very irregular in shape. B. Lower jaw.�The lower jaw differs from the upper in that it is movable while the latter is fixed, and it articulates with the temporal bone on each side. It is the largest bone in the skull. In the young animal it can easily be divided into two parts at the middle of the incisor teeth, but in the adult animal the union is bony. The bone is supplied with sockets for the support of the lower teeth. C. Atlas w first cervical vertebra.�This vertebra is in the form of a ring provided with two wings, which can easily be felt in the living animal behind the ears. Anteriorly the ring has two cavities, separated by a notch, which articulate with the occipital bone, while posteriorly it has two undulating surfaces which articulate with the axis or second cervical vertebra. Three holes or foramina pass through the ring, and through these; vessels pass. The wings are directed downwards, and a number of muscles are attached to their edges. D. Axis or second cervical vertebra.�This vertebra has a long body, with an odontoid or tooth-like projection in front about which the head rotates, hence the name axis. On the upper surface of the bone is a massive ridge

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		138 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER called the neural spine. It is bifid posteriorly and gives attachment to muscles. E. Seven cervical vertebra.�The neck is formed by the seven cervical vertebra. They are the largest in the spinal chain. Each one has a body, the anterior extremity of which is rounded and the posterior hollow to admit the anterior extremity of the next. Above the body of each is the neural ring through which the spinal cord passes. Each is provided with firm articular processes, with smooth facets to articulate with its neigh- bours. Above is the neural spine, or spinous process, which is not well developed in the neck, while the transverse process juts out from each side, and is pierced at the root by a foramen for the passage of blood- vessels. F. Backbone.�The backbone is formed by a number of irregular bones placed end on end and reaching from the skull to the tail. It is divided into five regions�the cervical just described, the dorsal or thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal. G. Dorsal and lumbar vertebra.�The dorsal vertebrae in the horse number eighteen, while the lumbar number six. The peculiarity of the dorsal vertebra is that the neural spines are very markedly developed. They increase in length up to the fourth or fifth, which form the withers of the horse, and then decreases in length as they go back. The neural spines have a backward direction to the sixteenth, which is upright, and the seventeenth and eighteenth point a little forwards. Each has a corre- sponding rib with which it articulates. The body of the dorsal vertebra is smaller and shorter than that of the cervical. The bodies of the lumbar vertebra are longer than that of the dorsal, and the transverse processes are better developed, and are flattened in shape. The third is the longest and straight est, the others are shorter and incline towards the third. There are no ribs corresponding to the lumbar vertebrse. H. Sacrum.�The sacrum is formed of five bones fused in the adult to form a single bone. Five neural spines can be made out, which slope backwards. As a whole the sacrum is triangular in shape. The anterior extremity is much wider than the posterior, and forms the base; articulating with the body and transverse processes of the last lumbar vertebra, the posterior with the first coccygeal vertebra. Here the transverse processes and neural arch are very small. The edges of the triangle afford an attachment to the ilium, one of the bones of the pelvic girdle. I. Coccyx or Tail Bones.�These number fifteen to twenty, and are very small in comparison to the other bones of the back. The body is short, and both extremities are convex. The first one or two possess a neural ring, but this soon disappears, and the last few are merely bony cylinders. J. Scapula.�The scapula or shoulder-blade is a broad triangular bone placed on the outer side of the ribs. Above it reaches as far back as the seventh, and descending in a downwards and forwards direction it ter-

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		minates between the first and the second. The inner side is hollow and smooth, while the outer is divided into two unequal parts by a well-marked ridge seen in the living animal. Broad and flat at the upper extremity, it tapers to a neck below and terminates by a bulging head hollowed out to receive the next bone, the humerus. K. Humerus.�The humerus is a short, strong bone running downwards and backwards and articulating with the radius below. The upper end is rounded to fit into the concavity in the scapula, while below it ends in two condyles or knuckle-like projections with a cavity between. L. Radius.�This is the bone of the arm, and fused to its posterior border is the ulna which forms the point of the elbow. The radius is a long bone with a very slight bend to the front, and the shaft is rounded. The upper end is flatfish, with depressions to receive the condyles of the humerus. The lower extremity has elevations and depressions to fit the small bones of the knee. M. Knee or Carpal Bones.�The knee of the horse corresponds to the wrist of the human subject, and is composed of seven bones formed in two rows : Scaphoid, Lunar, Cuneiform, Unciform, Magnum, Trapezoid, and Trapezium. These bones are small in size and of varying shape. They articulate with one another, and with the radius and ulna above and the metacarpus below. The knee-joint is a complicated one and causes great trouble when the investing capsule is cut, giving rise to the condition of open joint. N. Trapezium.�In the living animal a projection will be noticed on the posterior aspect of the knee. This is due to the presence of one of the carpal bones, the Trapezium, which gives attachment to the tendons on the posterior surface of the limb. O. Metacarpus or Cannon.�The cannon consists of one large bone running from the knee to the fetlock, and a small bone on each side, the small metacarpal or splint bones. The cannon bone is large, round, and cylindrical, with upper extremity a little expanded, and smooth depressions to articulate with the lower row of carpal bones. The lower end has two condyles to articulate with the large pastern bone, the os suffraginis. The splint bones are placed to the side and somewhat behind the cannon. Their upper end is the larger, and articulates with the carpus, while they taper to the lower extremity and terminate about two-thirds down the cannon, in the " button of the splint." They are attached to the cannon by a ligament which in later life is transformed into bone. P. First Phalanx or Pastern Bone.�This is a rounded cylindrical bone, which runs in an oblique direction, downwards and forwards, and arti- culates with the os coronas or second phalanx. It is about one-third the length of the cannon bone. Q. Sesamoids.�These are two small, triangular, prism-shaped bones placed behind the pastern joint. They are attached to the lower end of the cannon and the upper end of the first phalanx, and are kept in position

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		140 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER by the suspensory ligament and the tendons of the limb. Their use is to diminish stress on the fetlock joint. R. Second Phalanx or Os Corona.�The second phalanx is of the same shape as the first, but much shorter. It runs obliquely downwards and forwards. The upper extremity has a projection to fit into the first phalanx, behind is a roughened surface to which the perforans tendons is attached, and the lower extremity articulates with the coffin bone and the navicular bone. S. Third Phalanx or Os Pedis.�The shape of the os pedis or coffin bone is peculiar to the horse tribe. It is shaped like the hoof; which it fills. In front there is a triangular projection for the attachment of a tendon and behind is a pair of wings. The bone is porous in, appearance, this giving it lightness and providing attachment for surrounding struc- tures. Behind the os pedis and between it and the os coronae is a small boat-shaped bone, the navicular bone, of great importance in navicular disease. T. Ribs.�The ribs are eighteen in number, half-rounded narrow bones, attached to the backbone above and the breastbone below. The first eight ribs are called " true ribs," and the remainder " false ribs." All are attached to the backbone by means of a joint, while below they are attached to the breastbone by means of cartilage. The false ribs are connected to the breastbone only by being connected to each other. The first rib is almost straight, and has a joint to attach it to the breast-bone. U. Croup Bone.�The croup bones, or innominate bones, form the pelvic girdle. Each is formed by the fusion of three bones, the ilium, ischium, and pubis. These all meet in a cup called the acetabulum, which receives the head of the thigh bone. The ilium bone articulates above with the sacrum, and also forms a projection, the haunch, while below it joins with its fellow of the opposite side to form the pelvic girdle. V. Femur or Thigh-Bone.�This is the most powerful bone in the body. It runs downwards and forwards to meet the patella and tibia. The upper extremity has a well-formed neck and head which fits into the acetabulum. There are projections and hollows in the shaft for the attachment of muscles. The lower end has two large condyles to arti- culate with the tibia and in a pulley-shaped surface called a trochlea over which the patella plays. X. Patella.�The patella or " knee-cup " bone is a spongy bone which plays over the trochlea on the lower extremity of the femur, and enters into the formation of the stifle joint. Y. Tibia.�The tibia is a triangular bone running from the femur to the hock, to the outer side of which is attached a very rudimentary bone called the fibula. The upper extremity is shaped like a very low cone, and two crescent-shaped discs are interposed between the tibia and the femur. The lower extremity has two grooves into which the back-bones fit. Z. Tarsal Bones.�These are six in number and are placed in two rows. The astragalus and calcis occupy the upper, and the cuboid, magnum,

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			THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

		cuneiform magnum, and cuneiform parvum the lower. The astragalus is pulley-shaped and fits into the grooves in the lower extremity of the tibia, while the calcis has a tuberosity which forms the point of the hock. a, b, c, d, e.�Cannon, first phalanx, sessamoid, second phalanx, third phalanx, like corresponding structures in the fore-limb. f. Neck Ligament.�This is the largest ligament in the body, and is divided into a funicular and lamellar portion. The funicular is cord-like in form. Posteriorly it is attached to the third dorsal spinous process, and anteriorly it is inserted into the occipital bone. The lamellar portion is attached to the funicular and also to the second and third dorsal spines. It runs downwards and forwards to be attached to each of the last six cervical vertebrae. The action of the ligament is to aid the muscles in supporting the head, and also to help to elevate the head. 1. Zygomatic Arch.�The zygomatic arch is a prominence of bone jutting out from the squamous temporal bone, running in an almost vertical direc- tion. This is the part with which the lower jaw articulates. 2. Orbital Cavity.�The orbit in the horse is merely a bony ring, and not a complete cup as in man. Its function is to protect the eye-ball. 3. Nasal Bones.�These are two in number placed side by side and forming the arch of the nose. They are long wedge-shaped bones, with their lower extremities pointed. 4. Incisor Teeth.�The incisor teeth are six in number in each jaw. They are shaped like a curved prism. The base forms the wearing surface or table of the teeth. In the centre of the table of the young tooth will be noticed a deep notch or infundibulum, but as time goes on these get worn out and the table of the teeth is flat. In the young horse the tables are broad from side to side and narrow from front to back, but as time goes on they get more circular. We speak of the incisor teeth as central, lateral, and corner, to indicate their position. In the horse we generally find four canine teeth or tushes, separated by a small space from the incisor and by a larger space from the molars. These may sometimes be seen in the mare, but more generally they do not cut the gum in the female. 5. Molars. �The molars or cheek teeth are six or seven in number. They are divided into premolars and molars. Premolars have temporary teeth preceding them while the molars have not. The first premolar or " wolf " tooth is often absent, and if present is very rudimentary. The molar teeth are large and strong and their tables are four-sided. The tables of the upper jaw are almost square, while those of the lower are elongated from before to behind. The edges of the upper molars are deeper on the outside, while those of the lower are deeper on the in. 6. Shoulder-Joint.�This is the joint between the scapula and the humerus, and forms the point of the shoulder. Ligaments run from the ends of each bone to keep them in position, while a capsular ligament surrounds the whole joint.

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		142 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER 7. Spine of the Scapula.�This is a ridge of bone running down the outer surface of the scapula to give attachment to muscles. 8. Cavity of Head of Scapula.�The head of the scapula is provided with a smooth pear-shaped concavity which receives the head of the humerus. 9. Cartilage of the Scapula.�Attached to the upper end of the scapula is a flat piece of cartilage, which gives increased length to the scapula without undue weight. It also provides for increased elasticity to the movements of the animal. 10. Tuberosity of the Humerus.�On the anterior and external aspect of the upper end of the humerus is a massive tuberosity, for the attach- ment of the strong muscles of the shoulder region. 11. Olecranon.�This is the upper extremity of the ulnar bone, which is attached to the posterior aspect of the radius. This process forms the point of the elbow, and gives attachment to muscles and adds to the strength of the elbow joint. 12. Cartilage of ribs.�These are rounded rods of cartilage which attach the true ribs to the breast-bone with the exception of the first, which is direct inserted, into the breast-bone. The cartilages attached to the false ribs are attached at the opposite end to the same cartilage of the pre- ceding rib, and all are indirectly attached to the breast-bone. 13. Angle of the haunch.�The ilium forms a marked projection seen in the living animal and called the haunch. It gives attachment to the muscles of the region. 14. Tuber of the ischium.�The ischial bone forms a marked protuber- ance which adds strength to the floor of the pelvis. It also provides attachment for the massive muscles of the pelvis. 15. Great trochanter.�On the external and upper end of the femur is a massive protuberance of bone called the great trochanter. Its use is for the form attachment of the large muscles. 16. Small trochanter.�The continuation of the great trochanter ter- minates about one-third down the shaft of the femur in the small trochanter, which plays the same part as the great trochanter. 17. Stifle Joint.�This is a double joint, there being an articulation between the patella and the trochlea of the femur, while the femur arti- culates with the upper end of the tibia, two semilunar cartilages being interposed. The bones are held in position by.ligaments, and a capsule surrounds the whole joint. 18. Superior tuberosity of the tibia.�On the upper extremity of the tibia is also seen a bony enlargement for the attachment of muscles and to add increased strength to the joint. 19. Calcis.�This bone, which enters into the formation of the hock, has a tuberosity called the tuber calcis, which forms the point of the hock and is analogous to the heel of the human subject. It should be well developed and strong to support this very important joint. 20. Head of splint bone.�The splint bone in the hind-limb occupies

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			THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

the same position as in the fore-limb, at the side and a little behind the metatarsal bone. It is a remnant of the three-toed ancestor.

A comparison of the foot of the horse with that of the dog on the one hand, and of man on the other, will bring out yet further interesting facts.

		Fig. 69.�Skeleton of man and horse compared, to show the relative differences in the form and position of the bones; the horse represents the extreme development of quadru- pedal locomotion, that of the man the extreme development of bipedal locomotion. (After Flower.) The closely dotted bone is the shoulder-blade. The same bones are shown by the same letters.

	The horse, we have remarked, walks upon the tip of the third toe, all the other toes having vanished. The dog, however, walks upon the whole under surface of the toes, which are provided with swollen cushions, or pads of fat held in a fibrous mesh-work,

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THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

so as to reduce jarring (Fig. 68). These pads serve the purpose,
in short, of the pneumatic tyres placed on wheels. But what
answers to the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot never
touches the ground. It would seem that the ancestors of the
horse also walked upon the whole under surface of the toes, since
a careful search among the hair of the hind surface of the fetlock
will reveal a small bare surface which answers really to the foot

pad of the dog. A refer-
ence to the figures given
herewith should make this
clear. This bare surface
in the horse is known as
the "ergot."

Yet another peculi-
arity of the horse's leg
demands notice. Every
one will have noticed, on
the inner aspect of the

Fig. 70.�Bones of the foot of the horse and man
compared ; note that what answer to the bones
of the sole of the foot in man, in the horse form
the lower portion of the " leg." The third toe in
the upper figure is marked in solid black.

fore and hind legs of the
horse, a long, oval patch
of bare skin which pro-

jects from the surface of
the leg for some distance, and is of a hard, horny consistence.
These patches are known as the "chestnuts," or "callosities" of
the horse.

C. THE SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES (Sec Model at Front)

" The superficial muscles " showing the arrangement of the separate muscles
or groups of muscles which are indicated by numbers, corresponding to those
used in the text.

The scientific name " muscle " is the name used for the popular
word " flesh." It consists of bundles of small fibres connected
together by a cellular membrane. Each extremity is connected
to different bones, and one of the extremities is called the origin,
while the other is called the insertion. Muscles act by con-
tracting in response to nervous stimuli, and thereby approxi-
mating the bones to which they are attached. They vary in
shape in different parts and in size in relation to the amount of

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		Highland Garron Stallion, "Bonnie Laddie" Photo by Beid, "Wishaw

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			THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

		work they have to do. The muscles of the trunk are generally broad and flat, while those of the limbs are round and long and provided with long tendons. Tendons are white, hard, non- elastic substances, and are often the means by which a muscle is inserted. They are small in volume in comparison to the corresponding muscle, and in the extremities are calculated to preserve the shape of the limb without undue clumsiness. The body is divided into two symmetrical halves, and the muscles of one side correspond exactly to those of the other. Muscles are of three kinds :� (a) Voluntary. (b) Involuntary. (c) Cardiac. The Voluntary Muscles are most numerous, and are so named because they contract in obedience to will power, e.g. the muscles of the limbs. Involuntary Muscles act through some stimulus entirely independent of the will. They are found in all involuntary motionary organs, as the stomach, intestines. Cardiac Muscle is also involuntary and is found only in the heart. 2, 3. Auricular Muscles.�The muscles of the ear in the horse are very well defined and well developed, so that the animal can place his ears in any position at will. There are four chief muscles in connection with the ear. The first pulls the ear forward, as is seen when the horse sees anything in front of him; the second pulls the ear backwards, and is brought into action when the driver speaks to the animal from behind. This muscle is aided by a third, when the ear is pulled downwards towards the neck. A fourth muscle is called into play when the horse pulls his ears forwards, downwards, and outwards, often noticed when he hears anything by his side. 4. Masseter.�This is a thick and powerful muscle placed on the posterior and outer surface of the lower jaw. It arises from the zygoma and superior maxilla, and is inserted into the roughened outer surface of the lower jaw. Its action is to close the lower jaw, and it is an all-important muscle in mastication. 5. Orbicular.�The eyelids have three pairs of important muscles. One pair are concerned in opening the eye, while the other pair close the eyelids. They are all attached round the orbit. 11. Muscles of Li-ps and Nose.�There are five muscles in connection with the lips. Some of these enter into the formation of the cheeks. Their action is to open and close the lips and also provide them with lateral movement. They assist the animal to grasp his food. Four muscles are also concerned with opening and contracting the nasal orifice, and their VOL. I. K

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		146 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER action is well marked in a horse which has been driven hard, or in one which has an impediment in his wind. They all arise from the cheeks or below the eye and are inserted into the wing of the nostril and the upper lip. 12. Mastoido-Humeralis.�This is a long and powerful muscle arising from the head and the first four cervical vertebra. It runs down the side of the spinal column, over the shoulder-joint, and is inserted into the outer surface of the humerus. Its action is to bring forward the fore-limb, and if the horse is stationary it depresses the head or pulls it to one side. 13. Cervical Trapezius.�This is a triangular, thin, and flat muscle situated on the upper part of the neck. It arises from the ligament of the neck and is inserted into the scapula. Its action is to elevate the scapula. 14. Dorsal Trapezius.�This is part of the same muscle which arises from the dorsal spines and is inserted into the scapula. Its action is to pull the scapula backwards and upwards. 15. Latissimus Dorsi.�This is a broad muscle which passes downwards and forwards over the chest. It arises from the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae and is inserted into the inner aspect of the humerus. Its action is to flex the shoulder-joint. 18. Superficial Pectoral.�This is a double muscle arising from the sternum and inserted into the humerus. Its action is to abduct the limb. 19. Deep Pectoral.�This is also a double muscle which arises from the sternum and ribs and is inserted into the scapula and humerus. Its action is to pull back the limb, and it also aids in breathing. 20. Sterno Maxillaris.�This is a well-developed muscle which runs along the inferior surface of the neck. It originates at the breast-bone and is inserted into the angle to the lower jaw. Its action is to depress the head and if one acts alone or pulls the head to one side. 23. Scapula-Hyoid.�This arises from the surface of the scapula and is inserted into the hyoid bone. Its action is to depress the latter bone. 24, 25. Scapular Muscles.�The depression on each side of the ridge of the scapula is filled up by muscles. These originate from the scapula and are inserted into the humerus. Their action is to extend and abduct the shoulder-joint. They are concerned in the condition known as " shoulder-slip." 30-31. Extensors of Arm.�This is a powerful compound muscle arising from the humerus and inserted into the ulna. Its action gives rise to its name. It extends the fore-arm. 33. Extensor Metacarpi..�This muscle arises from the tuberosity of the humerus and is inserted into the upper end of the cannon bone. Its action is to extend the limb below the knee. 34. Short Flexor of Fore-arm.�This arises from the posterior surface of the head of the humerus and is inserted into the radius and ulna. Its action is to flex the fore-arm.

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	THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE
	THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE	147
		147

35. Extensor Pedis.�This is a very important muscle which arises both from the humerus and radius and is inserted into the os pedis. Its action is to extend the foot, and, at the same time, the cannon bone. 46. Angular 0/Scapula.�This arises from the last four cervical vertebrae and is inserted into the inner surface of the scapula near its upper and anterior angle. Its action is to pull forward the upper end of the scapula, or, if the latter is fixed, it elevates the neck. 47, 49. Serati.�The serati muscles arise from the dorsal and lumbar spines and are inserted into the scapula downwards and backwards, and, by their attachment to the ribs, they aid respiration. 50. Splenius.�This is a large fiat triangular-shaped muscle which runs downward and forward from its origin in the ligament of the neck and the second to the fourth dorsal spines to be inserted in the mastoid crest, the wing of the atlas and the second to the fifth cervical vertebrae. Its action is to elevate the head and to pull it to one side. 52. Intercostals.�The intercostals lie between the ribs, and their action is to aid respiration. 54. Fascia Lata.�This is a whitish tough investment seen over the muscles of the hip and providing them with an attachment. It arises from the sacral spines and the angle of the hip. It is spread over the hip and the leg and is inserted into the femur. 56. Gluteus.�The gluteal muscles are three in number and situated over the hip. They are very powerful, as much stress is laid upon them. They arise from the iliac and sacral spines, the ilium, the tuber ischii, the sacro-seralic ligament, and re-inserted into the femur. They abduct the thigh and are brought into play when the animal rears. 61. Semi-Tendinosus.�This is a powerful muscle arising from the sacral spines and the tuber ischii and inserted into the fascia of the leg and the tibia. Its action is to flex the stifle, and it aids in rearing. 62. Rectus Femoris.�This is a powerful muscle which arises from the shaft of the ilium and is inserted into the patella. Its action is to flex the hip and extend the stifle-joint. 63. Vastus Extemus.�Also a powerful muscle arising from the outer surface of the femur and inserted into the patella. Its action is also to extend the stifle. 64. Gastrocnemius.�This is a powerful muscle with two fleshy heads arising from the lower extremity of the femur and inserted into the summit of the calcis. It extends the hock-joint. 68. Flexor Pedis Perforans.�This muscle arises from the posterior surface of the tibia and the fibula and is inserted into the ventral surface of the os pedis. The tendon runs down the back of the limb and con- stitutes one of the " back-tendons." Its action is to flex the pastern and fetlock joints and to extend the hock. 69. Peroneus.�This is a smaller muscle arising from the stifle and

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		148 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER fibula, and its tendon joins the tendon of the extensor pedis and aids that muscle. 70. Extensor Pedis.�This is an important and powerful muscle which arises from the femur and runs down in front of the hock to be inserted into the os pedis. Its action is to extend the fetlock and pastern-joints and to extend the hock. 74. Obliquus Abdominis.�This is a flat, thin muscle which arises from the angle of the ilium and from Poupart's ligament, and it is inserted into the white line running along the centre of the belly and also to the last five ribs. Its action is to assist in respiration, defecation, micturition, and parturition. D. THE DEEP MUSCLES [See Model at Front) The deep layer of muscles showing the arrangement of the separate muscles or groups of muscles which are indicated by numbers, corresponding to those in the text. 1. Temporal.�This is a small, thick muscle originating in the temporal fossa and attached to the lower jaw. It closes the lower jaw and aids in mastication. When one muscle acts it produces lateral movement. 2. Longus Colli.�This is a powerful muscle running along below the cervical vertebrae. It arises from the first six dorsal vertebrae and is inserted into the sixth cervical. Its action is to bend the neck downwards. 3. Sterno-Hyoid.�This is a long muscle which runs along the under surface of the neck close to the windpipe. It arises from the sternum and is inserted into the larynx and hyoid bone. Its action is to depress these two structures. 5. Trachealis.�This is a small muscle placed between the rings of the trachea or windpipe. 6. Scalenus.�The scalenus arises from the transverse processes of the last four cervical vertebrae and it is inserted into the first rib. Its action is to flex the neck, and, when the latter is stationary, it aids in respiration. 8. Ligament of the Neck.�The ligament of the neck already described is shown in the diagram. n. Cartilage of Scapula.�The cartilage of the scapula is here shown with the rhomboideus muscle attached. 12. Rhomboideus.�This muscle has two portions. A cervical portion, which arises from the ligament of the neck, and a dorsal portion, which arises from the dorsal spines, are each inserted into the cartilage of the scapula. This muscle pulls the scapula upwards and forwards. 14. Longissimus Dorsi.�This is the strongest and largest muscle in the body. It arises from the ilium, the dorsal, and lumbar spines and the supra-spinous ligament, and is inserted into the ribs and the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebrae. Its action is to extend the spine, aid in respiration, and raises the neck.

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		Shire Mare, "Lockington Beauty," and t'oal, "Merveille'¹Photo by Beid, Wishaw

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		THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

18. Rectus Abdominis.�This muscle is in the form of a broad band, running from the breast-bone to the pelvis. It arises from the sternum and the eighth to the ninth rib and is inserted into the pelvis. Its action is to aid in respiration, defecation, micturition, and parturition. 20. Teres Minor.�This muscle runs from the posterior border of the scapula to the head of the humerus and acts as an abductor of the shoulder. 2i. Biceps.�This is a very powerful muscle which arises from the lower extremity of the scapula, and runs down in front of the humerus over the elbow-joint to be inserted into the upper end of the radius and the fascia of the fore-arm. Its action is chiefly to flex the elbow-joint, but it may also extend the shoulder-joint. 23. Extensor Suffraginis.�A small muscle arising from the external lateral ligament of the elbow-joint and the upper end of the radius; its tendon passes down over the outer aspect of the knee and fetlock-joints and is inserted into the upper end of the first phalanx. Its action is to extend the foot forwards. 25. Extensor Metacarpi Obliquus.�Arising from the outer surface of the radius it is inserted into the head of the inner splint bone. It extends the cannon bone. 26, 28. Deep Flexor.�This is a strong muscle which lies on the posterior surface of the radius. It arises in three parts�from the humerus, radius, and ulna, and is inserted into the os pedis. It flexes the knee, fetlock, and pastern-joints. 3i» 32, 33- Coccygeal Muscles.�The coccygeal muscles are four in number. They originate from the lumbar and sacral regions and the anterior coccygeal vertebrae, and are inserted into the coccygeal vertebras. Their separate actions is to depress and pull the tail to one side. 37. Semi-Membranosus.�This is a very large muscle arising from the lower surface of the ischium and inserted into the femur and the internal ligament of the patella. It extends the hip-joint and aids the bone in rearing. 39. Soleus.�This is a small muscle which arises from the fibula and is inserted into the tendon of the gastrocnemius (page 147, par. 64), and aids the action of that muscle. 42. Flexor Metatarsi.�This is a powerful muscle which has a super- ficial and a deep position which arises from the femur and outer surface of the tibia, and it is inserted into the metatarsus. Its action is to flex the hock.

	RESPIRATORY SYSTEM {See Plate, p. 150) I. Cranial Cavity.�This chamber occupies the most superior portion of the skull and in it the brain is lodged. It is formed by the bones of the cranium, occipital, interparietal, parietal, frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid,

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		150 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER and temporal, and these form a very strong protection for the sensitive structures within. The internal wall is comparatively smooth ; the roof is concave, and has a prominence of bone projecting down from the inter- parietal bone ; the floor is irregular in shape, while the anterior extremity has two depressions with a ridge between called the olfactory fossae, which admit the olfactory lobes of the brain. At the posterior extremity is the foramen magnum, which provides a communication with the spinal cord. 2. Guttural Pouch.�This is a curious cavity which is found only in the horse tribe. It extends from the base of the cranium to the pharynx, and lies over the hyoid bone. The two pouches are divided by a thin membrane, and each communicates with the pharynx and the middle ear through a tube called the Eustachian tube, this allowing air to fill the pouch. Considerable trouble is sometimes experienced through this cavity becoming filled with pus. 3. Nasal Cavity.�The nasal cavity, one on each side, is the first divi- sion of the respiratory tract. It extends from the nostrils back to the pharynx. Each cavity is divided from its fellow with a cartilaginous membrane called the septum nasi, which fits into a groove in the vomer bone. The cavity communicates with an air sinus in the frontal bone, and the tear duct also opens into it. It will be noticed that there is a doubling in of the skin at the nostrils, which runs almost a finger-length and produces the false nostril. This is to allow the nostrils to distend easily and prevent distortion of the face. The cavity is lined with a very fine membrane, highly vascular and very sensitive, called the pituitary membrane, and provides the animal with a very fine sense of smell. 4. Tongue.�The tongue is a long, somewhat pyramidal-shaped, fleshy body filling the cavity of the mouth. It is formed by bundles of small muscles joined together by connective tissue, with numerous glands and fatty material interposed. Its upper surface is free and studded over with numerous rough projections called papillae, and a groove will also be noticed running along the surface. The sides also have several large papillae. The faculty of taste is connected with these papillae. The lower surface of the tongue is free for some distance, then it becomes attached to the floor of the mouth by a fold of membrane called the fraenum linguae. The apex of the tongue is flattened and broadened out in the form of a spatula. The base is thick and is attached to the hyoid bone, which also gives attachment to most of the muscles which move the tongue. 5. Pharynx.�This is a short tube common to the alimentary and respiratory tracts, and will be described in next Fig. (6). 6. Larynx.�This is a short tube situated below the pharynx at the commencement of the trachea, and formed of cartilages held together by muscles. The cartilages are : the thyroid, cricoid, two arytenoids, and the epiglottis. It is also attached to the hyoid bone. The anterior ex- tremity is provided with a valve to prevent food getting down the trachea,

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		THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 151 and it is also lined by an extremely sensitive membrane, so that any particle of food which touches it is immediately coughed up into the fauces, thus preventing the serious consequences which follow the entrance of food into the respiratory tract. In the interior of the larynx are found the vocal cords, which are called into play when the horse neighs or knuckers. 7. Epiglottis.�The epiglottis is a cartilaginous structure, shaped like a bent leaf and placed at the entrance of the larynx. It acts in the capacity of a valve, and serves to close the entrance to the respiratory tract during the time the animal is swallowing, thus preventing the entrance of food material into the trachea. 8. Trachea.�The trachea or windpipe is an almost cylindrical tube extending from the larynx down the under surface of the neck to the chest, where it terminates near the base of the heart by dividing into two bronchi. In the average horse it is a little over 30 inches long and from 2 to 3 inches in diameter. It is formed by about fifty rings of cartilage placed on end. They are not complete rings, their fore-ends overlap, and they are joined to each other by means of ligaments, and a strong muscular band runs their whole length. The outer surface is covered with cellular material, while the inner surface is lined by a mucous membrane which is provided with numerous glands, the secretion of which neutralises atmospheric changes. 9. Oesophagus.�The tube which leads from the pharynx to the stomach. It is described on page 153. 10. 11. Bronchi and Branches.�The bronchial tubes are the branches of the larynx. They are two in number, right and left, and they enter corresponding lungs. The structure of the bronchi is similar to the trachea. They consist of irregular pieces of cartilage joined together by fibrous tissue, and the inner surface is lined by a mucous membrane which is often in folds. The bronchi subdivide into smaller branches called bronchioles, and these terminate in infundibuli, out of which the air cells of the lungs spring. As the tubes become smaller the cartilage slowly decreases in amount until it is finally absent, 12, 13. Lungs.�The lungs are two in number, right and left, and they fill the vacuity of the chest. In consistence they are spongy and elastic and capable of distension and contraction. They are shaped something like a half cone, and they are covered with a fine delicate membrane called the pleura, of great importance in the disease known as pleurisy. The outer side of the lung is convex and smooth and meets the wall of the chest. The inner surface is smooth in front, then comes a notch to receive the heart. About the centre of the inner wall is the root of the lung where all the vessels and nerves pass in and out of the lung substance along with the bronchi and lymphatics. The upper border is thick and round and fits in between the ribs and the dorsal vertebrae. The lower border is thin and has a notch beside the heart. The anterior extremity is somewhat

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

	pointed, while the posterior extremity or bone is concave and is in contact with the diaphragm. The left lung is divided up into lobes by means of connective tissue known as interlobular septa, and each lobule consists

		Fig. 71.�The Divisions of the Windpipe in the Lungs (Diagrammatic).

1, Thyroid cartilage; 2, cricoid cartilage ; 3, windpipe; 4, division into 5 and 6, the bronchi; 7, main branch for upper lobe of right lung; 8, for middle lobe; 9, for lower lobe; 10 and II, branches for left lung; 12, the ultimate ramifications of the bronchi before they end in the air cells; 13, 13, outline of lungs; 14, 14, the apex of each lung ; 15, .15, the bases of the lungs. of a terminal bronchus, bronchioles, infundibuli, and air cells along with blood-vessels and nerves. 14. Sternum.�The sternum or breast-bone or " keel" is placed in the middle of the body and forms the floor of the cavity of the chest. It consists of six bony segments united together by cartilage. The upper surface is triangular and slightly concave, while at each side there are eight depressions for the reception of the cartilages of the true ribs. The anterior extremity is flattened and forms the cariniform cartilage, while the posterior extremity is spread out like the tail of a fish to form the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage.

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			THE KESPIRATORY SYSTEM (see p. 149).

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	THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE
	THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE	153
		153

15. Ribs.�In this plate the ribs are observed. They have already been described on page 140. Here they are seen in relation to the struc- tures they protect. 16. Heart.�The heart is here represented in order to show its position and its relation to other structures. It is situated above the sternum and opposite the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs. It is enclosed in the heart sac or pericardium and suspended from the roof of the chest by the great vessels. Below it is fixed by means of the pericardium to the upper surface of the sternum. A detailed description of the heart will be given in connection with the circulation. 17. 18. Aorta.�Springing from the upper surface of the heart will be seen the aorta, which divides into an anterior and posterior branch. These will also be described under the circulating system. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (See Plate, p. 154) 1. Mouth.�The mouth is the anterior division of the alimentary tract. It is somewhat oval in shape, and lies between the jaws. Guarding the entrance of the mouth we have the lips, while inside the teeth and tongue are to be seen. The roof of the mouth is formed by the hard and soft palates. The hard palate is most anterior. It is thick and membranous, and it has fifteen to twenty bars or ridges running across it. The hard palate is succeeded by the soft palate, a muscular and membranous struc- ture so fully developed as to prevent a horse breathing through his mouth and to cause material which has been vomited to pass down the nose. The sides of the mouth are formed by the cheeks, which are lined with a l-iucous membrane on which the ducts of numerous glands open. The iloor is formed by the tongue. 2. Pharynx.�The pharynx is situated at the base of the skull, behind the mouth and the nose. It is a tube common to both the respiratory and alimentary tracts. It has two portions�an upper, which is concerned in respiration, and a lower, which is concerned in alimentation. Internally it is lined by a mucous membrane, and has a number of openings in con- nection with it, namely, the openings from the nose and mouth, the Eustachian tube, which leads to the ear, the larynx and oesophagus. 3. (Esophagus.�The oesophagus or gullet is a tube which extends from the pharynx to the stomach. Part of it is in the neck, part in the thorax, and, passing through the diaphragm, part is in the abdomen. It is muscular and membranous with very thick walls, and, when in a state of rest, the lumen is very small, but it is capable of great distension. It passes down the centre of the neck above the trachea, but about half-way down it bends to the left and keeps this position until it enters the thorax, which it passes through above and between the lungs, and it terminates at the entrance of the stomach. 4. Diaphragm.�The diaphragm, midriff, or skirt, as it is sometimes

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		154 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER called, is a muscular and tendinous structure which forms a partition between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. It is broad and circular in form and flattened from before to behind. It is convex in front and concave behind. On the thoracic side it is covered with pleura. It is forked above and attached to the spine, the ribs, and the breast-bone. On the outside it is muscular and in the middle it is tendinous. There are three main openings through it, one for the aorta, another for the oesophagus, and a third for the vena cava. The diaphragm is the chief muscle in respiration. 5. Spleen.�The spleen is a ductless gland; by that is meant it has no duct to lead any secretion from the gland. It is situated round the greater curvature of the stomach and weighs 2 to 4 lbs. It is a spongy, livid body of a reddish brown or purple colour, and so soft that it can be torn with the greatest ease. It is triangular in shape and is attached to the stomach ; part lies to the left of that organ, part behind and above it. It is also in contact with the liver and the left kidney. It is important in certain diseases, and is often found many times larger than normal and often ruptured. Such is frequently the case in anthrax. 6. Stomach.�The stomach of the horse, which is a remarkably small organ, is situated immediately behind the liver, towards the left side of the body. It has a capacity of holding about three gallons and weighs about 3 lbs. In shape it is somewhat flattened and crescentic, the opening being near the outlet. The inlet is known as the cardiac orifice, and the outlet into the duodenum is known as the pyloric opening. The surfaces are smooth and convex. The inferior border is the greater, and to it is attached the spleen ; it is known as the greater curvature, while the upper border is known as the lesser curvature. The stomach has three coats. The outer is the general lining of the abdomen known as the peritoneum. The central is muscular, while the internal is mucous mem- brane. The interior of the stomach is divided into two parts. The left side is pale and hard, while the right is soft and red. The left part is mainly a receptacle, while the right portion secretes gastric juice and is concerned in digestion ; the former is called the cuticular portion, while the latter is termed the villous. The mucous membrane of the cuticular portion is often studded with bots. Near the cardiac orifice the internal lining is puckered up so as to almost obliterate the opening, and in this way the horse is unable to vomit. 7. Duodenum.�This is the first portion of the small intestine. It is so called because it is about twelve finger-breadths in length. It com- mences at the pyloric orifice of the stomach and runs round the posterior surface of the liver. It curves upwards and backwards and comes in contact with the right kidney. It then crosses to the left side of the abdomen and is continued as jejunum. It has little or no attachment; it hangs loose. 8. Liver.�The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing 8 to 10 lbs. It secretes bile, which is discharged into the intestine. It

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		THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 155 occupies a position nearly in the centre of the body between the diaphragm and the stomach. It is kept in position by means of ligaments, which are double folds of peritoneum which extend to surrounding structures. Besides right and left central ligaments, the suspensory ligament runs from the middle lobe to the diaphragm. The liver is surrounded by a capsule called Glisson's capsule, and it is divided into lobes�the middle lobe, right and left lateral, Spigelian and caudate lobes. Each of these lobes is divided into small, microscopic lobules. The circulation of the liver is interesting. The numerous veins of the intestine form one trunk called the Vena Cava. This enters the liver and divides like an artery into very small branches, and the blood from these is carried from the liver by the hepatic veins. The hepatic artery carries the nutritive blood to the organ. The biliary ducts begin as small channels and join up until they form the bile-duct which discharges into the duodenum. The horse has no gall bladder. 9. Large Colon.�The large or double colon forms the anterior portion of the large intestine. It is of much larger calibre than the small intestine and about 10 feet in length. In order to occupy little space it is folded into four parts, and is puckered on its surface by the attachment of longi- tudinal bands. The colon is largely on the right side of the abdomen. The first division starts at the caecum, from which there is a very small opening, and runs downwards and forwards to the sternum. Here it turns to the left, and the second portion runs back to the pelvis. It then takes an upward bend, and the third portion runs back above the second. Nextly it turns to the right, and the fourth portion runs back above the first, and the outlet is therefore beside the inlet. The large colon is continued as the small or flating colon. 10. Ccecum.�The caecum is the first part of the large intestine, and is named so because it has only one opening. It is about 3 feet long and holds six gallons of fluid. It rests on the floor of the abdomen and is generally found on the right side. The head of the caecum, where the small bowel terminates, is generally in contact with the liver and diaphragm. This organ is also provided with muscular, longitudinal bands which pucker its surface. 11. Small Intestine.�The small intestine extends from the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the caecum and is divided into three portions� the duodenum, already described, the jejunum, and ileum. Its calibre is much less than that of the large intestine, being only 1 to 2 inches in diameter, and its length is about 72 feet. It is situated for the most part on the left side of the abdomen, and, like the stomach, has two curvatures�a greater, which is free, and a lesser, to which the mesentery is attached which suspends the intestine from the roof of the abdomen. The mesentery is a double fold of peritoneum. The posterior end possesses a ring of mucous membrane called the ileo-caecal valve, which prevents the backward passage of food from the caecum to the small intestine.

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		156 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Externally the intestines are covered with peritoneum. The middle coat is muscular, while internally there is a layer of mucous membrane, pro- vided with numerous and varied glands which secrete intestinal juice to carry on digestion. 12. Small Colon^�The small colon continues the large one from the base of the caecum to the rectum and is situated mainly in the left flank. It is about 10 feet in length, and about 2 inches in diameter. It is suspended from the abdominal wall by a mesentery, and it is also saccu- lated. Two longitudinal bands run along the wall. Its structure is the same as that of the large colon. 13. Rectum.�This is the terminal portion of the large intestine, running from the small colon to the anus. It is situated mostly in the pelvic cavity. It is about 18 inches in length, and its calibre is greater than that of the small colon. There is no puckering. It is held in position by means of a mesentery called the meso-rectum, peritoneum, and the suspensory ligament of the penis. 14. Anus.�A rounded projection below the tail. This is the posterior opening of the intestinal canal. It is opened by means of the peristaltic movements of the intestines, and is closed by a circular muscle called the sphincter ani. 15. Kidneys.�These are two in number, right and left. They are the most important glands concerned in urination, and are placed one on each side of the middle line of the body below the lumbar vertebrae. The right kidney is placed an inch or so in front of the left. They are kept in position by fibrous tissue, fat, and the upward pressure of the intestines, and each weighs about 20 lbs., the right being the heavier. The kidneys are bean-shaped, and vessels and ducts enter and leave at the central notch. The right is more rounded than the left, which is elongated. The surfaces are smooth and convex, and the free border is convex. When the kidneys are cut into they will be seen to be hollow near the central notch or hilum, and the kidney substance will be seen to consist of two different parts; the outer part, which is called the cortical layer, is dark red and granular, due to the web of terminating capillaries, while the central or medullary part is lighter in colour, with a number of radiating tubes. The kidney is covered with peritoneum on its lower face only. A fibrous, thin capsule covers the gland, and inside is the kidney substance, which is full of uriniferous tubules of different kinds. These join one another and enter their contents into the hilum. From thence it is carried by two tubes called ureters, which empty into the bladder. The renal artery enters the kidney and divides into small branches, and the renal veins convey the blood from the organ after it has been freed of effete material. Connected with each kidney is a small, irregular-shaped body called the suprarenal capsule. It is large in the young animal, but diminishes with age. Its function is little known, but life is impossible if it is removed. 16. Bladder.�The bladder is a muscular and membraneous pear-shaped

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		THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM (see p. 167).

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		THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 157 sac situated in the pelvic cavity, and, when full, it extends to the abdomen. The large end or fundus is situated in front and the neck is posterior. It is held in position by two sets of ligaments�lateral ligaments running to the side of the pelvis, and a broad ligament running to the umbilicus, and a superior attaching it to the rectum. It has a peritoneal, muscular, and mucous coat. The ureters leading from the kidney enter the bladder on the upper surface about an inch from the neck. They enter in an oblique direction, and so a sort of valve is produced by the inner coat which prevents the reflux of urine when the bladder is full. 17. Urethra.�This is a long membranous tube leading from the bladder to the apex of the penis in the male or to the vagina in the female, and it carries the urine from the bladder to the outside. It has two parts, one within the pelvis and another outside the pelvis. It is rather constricted at its commencement from the bladder, but it widens after it goes on. Several muscles are in connection with the urethra, the chief being the accelerator urinse. It is highly sensitive and full of vessels, and it secretes a mucous substance which protects it from the action of the urine.

			CIRCULATORY SYSTEM (See Plate, p. 158) 1, 2, 3. Heart.�The heart is a large, hollow, involuntary muscle situated between the lungs and enclosed in a protecting envelope called the peri- cardium. This case is membranous and consists of fibrous tissue covered on the outside with pleura and lined internally by a secreting membrane. It generally contains about an ounce of pale yellow fluid, which acts as a lubricant. The function of the pericardium is protective, and it keeps the heart in its place, being attached above to the large vessels and below to the sternum. The heart itself, the central pump of the body, is conical in shape and weighs about six pounds. Outside will be seen two grooves for the recep- tion of blood-vessels, and they are generally filled with fat. The heart has four cavities, two below called the ventricles, right and left, and two above called the auricles, right and left. Each of the ventricles has two openings, one entering in from the auricle and the other is the exit of a large vessel. The cavities are separated by a fleshy partition called the septum. Right Ventricle has within it curious fleshy pillars called columnar carnse. to which are attached the chordae tendineas or "heart strings." These are also attached to a triple or sigmoid valve situated between the right auricle and ventricle, and these prevent the regurgitation of blood from the ventricle. The pulmonary artery, which carries the blood to the lungs, leaves the right ventricle. Left Ventricle.�The left ventricle differs from the right in that it is longer and forms the apex of the heart. Its walls are much thicker, and

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		158 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the opening from the left auricle is guarded by a bicuspid or sigmoid valve, while the aorta leaves this cavity and its exit is guarded by a sigmoid valve. The right auricle is situated above the right ventricle. The vena cava, conveying impure blood from the body, generally enters it, and its walls are thin in comparison to the ventricles. The left auricle is above the left ventricle, and it has the opening of the pulmonary veins, about five in number. The auricles are also provided with fleshy tendons internally, and each of the cavities of the heart is lined by a membrane called the endocardium. Impure blood is brought to the right auricle by the vena cava. Thence it is propelled to the right ventricle. The latter drives the impure blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. There it is purified. The pure blood is brought back to the left auricle through the pulmonary veins, and it is thence expelled to the left ventricle. From there the pure blood is sent through the aorta to the body in general. Arteries are elastic tubes which carry the blood from the heart to the body generally. They are mostly deep seated under muscles for pro- tection. They dilate and contract at every heart beat and so form the pulse. Arteries divide and subdivide and end in small vessels called capillaries. Other capillaries join and collect the blood, after it has done its work, into the veins, and these carry the impure blood back to the heart, which sends it to the lungs to be purified. The large veins are provide with valves which prevent the blood flowing backwards. Veins are much thinner than arteries and they have no pulsation. 4. Pulmonary Artery.�This is a large artery which originates in the right ventricle and carries the impure blood to the lungs; entering at the root of the lung and dividing and subdividing it ends in small capillaries. 5. Pulmonary Veins.�These are about five in number, and they com- mence in small capillaries which collect the purified blood. They, leave the lung at its root and discharge their contents into the left auricle. 6. Anterior Aorta.�The anterior aorta is the anterior division of the common aorta which leaves the left ventricle. It passes upwards and forwards below the trachea and terminates by dividing into the brachial and axillary arteries. 7. Carotid Artery.�This artery arises from the brachial division of the anterior aorta and runs up the neck in company with the trachea, and, at the larynx, divides into three branches which supply the head and brain with blood. 8. The Sub-Maxillary Artery.�This is a continuation of the carotid divisions. It runs down in the sub-maxillary space between the branches of the lower jaw. It then turns round the edge of the jaw, at which point the pulse is often taken. Thence it reaches the face and supplies the muscles with blood. 9. Axillary.�The axillary artery continues the anterior aorta down

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		THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 159 the inside of the arm, and gives off a number of branches to the muscles of that part. 10. Dorsal.�The dorsal artery arises from the axillary and takes an upwards and forwards direction in the second intercostal space. It is distributed to the muscles of the scapula and the neck. 11. Superior Cervical.�This arises a little in advance of the dorsal and is distributed to the neck. 12. Vertebral.�The vertebral artery arises in front of the superior cervical, passes up the neck and runs through the vertebral foramina, and ultimately joins the occipital. 13. Humeral.�The humeral artery is a continuation of the brachial. It runs down in the region of the shoulder and supplies the adjacent muscles. 14. Radial.�The radial artery continues the humeral from the lower extremity of the humerus, and runs down behind the radius to its lower extremity. It gives off branches to the muscles of the fore-arm. 15. Metacarpal Artery.�The metacarpal artery is the continuation of the radial. It runs down the cannon internal to the flexor tendons and supplies the parts en route, terminating above the sesamoid bones by dividing into the two digital arteries. 16. Coronary Arteries.�A network of arteries is seen round the region of the coronet and distributed over the surface of the pedal bone. These are derived from the division of the digital arteries. The region of the foot is very vascular. 17. Posterior Aorta.�The posterior aorta is much larger than the anterior, as it supplies all the posterior part of the body. It arises from the common aorta, and, directing backwards.it passes through the diaphragm., then backwards under the vertebras a little to their left side, and terminates in the sacral region by dividing into external and internal iliac. It gives off a number of collateral branches en route. 18. Ccsliac Axis.�The cceliac axis is the first collateral branch given off by the posterior aorta just as it enters the abdomen. It is very short, only about an inch in length, and divides three branches. One supplies the stomach, another supplies the spleen, while a third supplies the liver and duodenum. 19. Mesenteric.�The mesenteric arteries are two in number. The anterior is the greater and is given off from the posterior aorta about 3 inches behind the cceliac axis. It divides into three branches. One part supplies the small intestine, another supplies the caecum and the first part of the large colon, while a third is also distributed to the colon. The posterior mesenteric arises about 4 inches further back, and divides into a large number of branches which supply the small colon and rectum. 20. Renal.�The renal arteries are two in number, right and left. They arise from the aorta near to the anterior mesenteric artery. They enter the kidney by the hilum, and also supply a branch to the supra-renal capsules.

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		160 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER 21. Spermatic.�These are also two in number, right and left. They arise beside the posterior mesenteric. They perforate the inferior wall of the abdomen at the inguinal ring and supply each testicle. In the female they supply the ovary and uterus. 22. Posterior Vena Cava.�This vein commences with the union of the two iliac veins in the sacral region. It runs up below the lumbar vertebrae till it reaches the liver, through which it passes. It then enters the thorax through the diaphragm, and, passing along in contact with the right lung, it enters the right auricle. It drains the greater part of the abdomen. 23. Portal Vein.�The portal vein arises in the abdomen by the union of the anterior and posterior mesenteric veins, along with the veins from the stomach and spleen. It then passes forward and enters the liver, in which organ it divides up as already described in the anatomy of the liver. The hepatic veins collect the blood from the liver and empty it into the posterior vena cava. The Portal vein drains the stomach and intestines and carries the absorbed food to the liver, which is the storehouse of the body. 24. External Iliac.�This is one of the terminal divisions of the posterior aorta. It passes down from the lumbar vertebrae to the pubis, where it is continued as the femoral artery which supplies the hind-limb. It supplies important structures in the pelvis. 25. Internal Iliac.�This is a sister artery to the external iliac, com- mencing at the same place. It is wholly spent within and about the pelvis and gives off a number of collateral branches. 26. Sacral.�A very small artery not always present, which arises between the iliacs and passes back below the sacrum. 27. Femoral.�This artery continues the external iliac from the pubis, down through the muscles surrounding the femur, and is continued from the gastrocnemius as the popliteal. It gives a number of branches to the adjacent parts. 28. Popliteal.�The femoral artery is continued as popliteal and ter- minates half down the tibia, and is continued as posterior tibial. 29. Posterior Tibial.�This continues down the limb to the hock. It is deep seated behind the tibia and below the muscles. It is continued down the cannon on the outer side of the flexor tendons as the metatarsal similar to the fore-limb. 30. Coronary Veins.�These are distributed in the same manner as the coronary arteries. They gather in the blood which has been distributed by the latter, and it is carried up the limb in vessels corresponding to the arteries. 31. Internal Saphena Vein.�This vein arises by two roots from the metatarsal vein. It ascends the inner surface of the thigh, where it can be seen in life, and empties into the popliteal vein. It is important, as it is sometimes bled from in disease. 32. Jugular Vein.�All the blood from the head is carried back by

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			THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (see p. 16l).

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		THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 161 the jugular vein. It arises at the lower jaw by the union of the temporal and maxillary veins. It runs down the neck in the jugular furrow and disappears in the chest. It is the vein where the operation of bleeding is performed.

		NERVOUS SYSTEM (See Plate, p. 162) 1. Brain.�The origin of the nervous system is a soft white mass called the brain contained in the cranial cavity. It is so soft in consistence and easily destroyed that it is provided not only with a strong bony protection, the skull, but also with three enveloping membranes. The first and outer is called the dura mater. It is closely connected with the bones of the skull. It is tendinous in nature, and it sends projections into the organ in order to give support. The second membrane is called the arachnoid. It is a very fine membrane, but it does not follow the dura into the depres- sions of the brain. The third is called the pia mater. It is extremely soft and sensitive. It dips into all the depressions and convolutions of the brain, and is the medium through which the blood vessels are distri- buted. The brain itself, when cut open, will be seen to be white internally and grey on the outside. It is commonly described as consisting of three parts. The cerebrum or great brain, which, in man, is placed above, the cerebellum or little brain, and the medulla. The cerebrum and cerebellum will be seen to be divided into two equal halves or hemispheres by a mesial depres- sion. Each half is rounded in shape, and its surface is excessively con- voluted with a very large number of depressions and elevations. The medulla joins the brain to the spinal cord. The latter passes through the foramen magnum at the base of the skull, and proceeds down the neural canal to end in the sacrum. It gives off a large number of spinal nerves on its way and is covered with the same coverings as the brain itself. The nerves in general are white fibrous cords which arise either from the brain or from the spinal cord and are distributed to the body in the same manner as the arteries. They are fibrous in structure and are bound in a sheath called the neurolemma, and, when cut, they have the power of joining again. 2. Optic Nerve.�The optic nerve supplies the eye. It leaves the cerebrum and passes through the sphenoid bone and terminates by being distributed over the retina at the back of the eye. 3. Superior Maxillary.�This is a branch of the fifth cranial nerve. It supplies the face and gives a branch which supplies all the upper teeth. 4. Inferior Maxillary.�This is also a branch of the fifth cranial nerve which supplies the lower jaw and part of the tongue. It gives a branch to the lower row of teeth. VOL. I. L

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		162 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER 5, also 12. Vagus.�This is the pneumogastric or tenth cranial nerve, one of the most important in the body. It leaves the medulla by a number of roots, and, gaining exit from the skull and passing over the guttural pouch, it passes down the neck in contact with the carotid artery. In its route it supplies the pharynx and larynx. It enters the chest and supplies branches to the heart and lungs. Its wide distribution has given it the name vagus. 6. Medulla.�This has already been described as the hind portion of the brain connecting it with the spinal cord. 7. Brachial Plexus.�This is a large bundle of nerves formed inside the forearm. It is derived from the last three cervical nerves and the first two dorsal, all of which issue from the spinal cord. These unite to form a broad band which runs down, and, at about the shoulder-joint, the band divides and gives branches to surrounding structures. 8, 9, 10, 11. Median.�The direct continuation of the brachial plexus is the median nerve. It arises by two roots which are derived from spinal nerves and which give off branches to surrounding parts. The nerve continues down in connection with the axillary artery and afterwards the posterior radial artery. It passes over the inner aspect of the shoulder- joint. At the forearm it divides to form the internal and external plantar nerves. 13, 14. Solar Plexus.�This is a bundle of nerves on the sympathetic chain near the posterior mesenteric artery. From this small plexuses are given off and they supply the stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys, and intestines. 13. Lumbar Plexus.�This is the plexus which supply the hind-limb. They are similarly constituted to the brachial plexus, being derived from the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves. Branches radiate from the plexus to supply all the structures in the posterior part of the body. 16. Femoral Nerve.�This is one of the largest branches of the plexus. It passes down and is distributed to the muscles of the thigh. 17. 19. Sciatic Nerve.�This nerve leaves the pelvis through the sciatic notch and accompanies the gluteal blood-vessels. It runs down the outer surface of the hip deeply seated below the muscles, passes behind the hip-joint, gets between the two heads of the gastricnemius and is known as the internal popliteal. 18. Internal Popliteal.�This continues the great sciatic to half way down the tibia, when it is continued as posterior tibial. It supplies the structures en route. 20. Posterior Tibial continues the internal popliteal. It passes down the back of the tibia, supplying the muscles, and, at the hock, it divides to form the internal and external plantars. 21. Plantars.�The plantars in the hind-limb are the continuation of the posterior tibial. They run down each side of the cannon just in front of the flexor tendons, and, at the sessamoids, it divides into the three digital arteries.

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		THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 163 22. Radial.�The radial nerve is the largest derived from the brachial plexus. It runs down the front of the limb and supplies the extensor muscles of the forearm. 23. Plantars.�The plantars in the fore-limb are the result of the divi- sion of the median above the knee. Their course is the same as those of the hind-limb already described. 24. Digitals.�The plantar nerves on each side divide into three branches which supply the foot, called the anterior, middle, and posterior digital arteries.

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CHAPTER VIII

Dentition�The Teeth in the Horse

The teeth of horses are of interest to the animal owner chiefly
from the point of view of the determination of the age of the
animal itself since these structures form by far the most reliable
means up to a certain point of estimating the horse's age. The
diseases to which they are liable call for but very brief notice
in a work of this kind since these conditions are

Fig. 72.�Position of teeth
of horse.

A, Central incisors.

B, Lateral incisors.

C, Corner incisors.

Fig. 73.�Incisor tooth.

a, Enamel.

b, Central enamel.

c, Dentine.

d, Crown.

FlG. 74.�Incisor tooth
to show the crown at
different ages.

quite beyond ordinary home treatment. The description, how-
ever, of the teeth themselves, their number, their arrangement,
their times of appearance in reference to the age of the animal
are matters which, by the aid of illustrations such as are
reproduced in these pages, any intelligent person can obtain the
information required.

The teeth themselves, as in other mammals, are extremely
hard structures composed of three different compounds which

differ in their degree of hardness. These substances are named

164

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			A typical Hunter's Head, "The Joker' Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

		Thoroughbred Mare, "Queen's Favour" Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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		DENTITION 165 respectively enamel, dentine, and cement. Of these the enamel is the hardest substance, indeed it is one of the hardest materials in the whole body ; the next hardest is the material called dentine, and the softest is the cement substance. These three substances together build up a structure whose function is, of course, to so act upon the food by cutting it, bruising it, or crushing it, that, when mixed with saliva from the glands of the mouth, it is made ready for further digestion. Since, however, the different parts of the teeth are of different degrees of hardness, it follows that the teeth are worn away during their period of working at different parts, and the result is that the surface of these grinding teeth particularly presents ridges and edges which are extremely useful in the process of mastication, and which, at the same time, afford reliable evidence of the age of the animal in which they are. Dental Formula.�The complete dentition, as seen in a horse, for instance, which has attained the age of five years, may be represented by a formula as follows :� 1. c. m. 33 11 66 33 « 66 Such a scheme is known as a dental formula and is used by descriptive writers on zoology, and represent the teething arrange- ments of vertebrate animals. It means that there are in such a horse three kinds of teeth�Incisors (I), Canines (C), and Molars (M), and that these are arranged in the upper and lower jaws according to the formula above depicted. From this it will be seen that the complete dentition of a male horse consists of forty teeth, made up of twelve incisors, four canines, and twenty-four molars. Or, in other words, in each half of the jaw there are above and below, extending from the middle line, three incisors, two canines, and twelve molars, making ten teeth above and ten teeth below on each side of the middle line of the mouth. It should be noted that in the mare the canine teeth or tusks are absent. The incisors, which are in the middle of the front of the jaw, are also known as nippers, and of the six molar teeth which occur on each side in the upper and lower jaws, the three in front are spoken of as pre-molars, the three posterior ones being known as true molars. In addition to all these teeth, however, there is

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166 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

sometimes seen a small rounded or conical tooth, quite familiar

to those who have to do with horses, and
by a number of people regarded as hav-
ing some special importance. This tooth,
which is situated in front of the pre-
molars on each side of the upper jaw,
is generally referred to as the eye-tooth,
and popular superstition has connected
the presence of this rudimentary tooth
with diseases of the eye, so that, in the
case of a horse becoming blind or having
some disease of the sight, it is quite a

Fig. 75.�-Canine teeth.

A, Outer aspect.

B, Inner aspect.

common thing to find people examining
the mouth in order to see whether there

is an eye-tooth present or not. The

term wolf-tooth is also given to this rudimentary tooth. Should

such a structure be found to be

present means are usually taken

by ignorant people to remove it. *

This is not a difficult performance,

since the tooth is not very firmly

fixed in the jaw, and all that need

be said about this procedure is

that it does not make the slightest

difference in the sight of the horse

whether it be present or absent.

The real significance of the presence

of this small tooth is that it indi-
cates the remnant of an extra pre-
molar which is found to have been

present in the primitive animals of

the horse tribe, in whom there were,

therefore, found four pre-molars

Fig. 76.�Incisor teeth.

A, Anterior face.

C, Internal corner.

D, External corner,

B, Posterior face.

C, Internal side.

D, External side.

E, Anterior border.

F, Posterior border.

G, Cavity.

instead of three, making a total of

seven molar teeth. This tooth has

gradually dropped out of existence

until, in the modern horse, the pre-molars have been reduced in

number to three, but, as is the case in many structures which

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	DENTITION 167 represent primitive organs, they occasionally reappear in modern times, and when they do so popular belief generally ascribed to them an entirely undue and erroneous significance. Teeth at Various Ages.�A careful study of the illustrations in these pages, together with the descriptions attached to them, will enable the reader to get a far better grasp of the number and form and arrangement of the horse's teeth at the varying ages in the animal than will any amount of description, the latter of which may therefore be brief. The nippers, or incisor teeth, are those which are of most importance in judging the age of the horse after the permanent dentition is completed, but from the birth of the horse up to the complete formation of the teeth the changes which

		Fig. 77.�Incisor teeth at Fig. 78.�Milk Fig. 79.�Incisor teeth at three one month. teeth. months.

take place from the temporary to the permanent teeth give us the most reliable means of estimating the age. Temporary Teeth.�The first teeth which are present in the foal at birth are the central incisors or nippers, known as milk teeth, of which the foal has four in the upper and lower jaws, as well as three molars on each side of the upper and lower jaws. The latter of these may be covered with the soft structures of the gums, but, by careful examination, can be made out. " For six or seven months after birth no additions are made to the number of molars or incisors. The four incisor teeth, top and bottom, gradually advance and the gum recedes, and, at the age of six months, the appearance of the front of the mouth is as shown in the drawing. " The incisors show a line of wear on their upper surfaces, and the molars also exhibit a worn surface. "At nine months preparations are being made for the teeth

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168 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

which indicate the age of one year. The corner incisors, com-
pleting the number of six, begin to protrude through the gum,
as does also the fourth molar behind the three
pre-molars, and at the age of one year the front
and back of the mouth will present the appearance
of the drawings.

" So far as the appearance of the incisor teeth
is concerned, it will be noticed that it closely
coincides with that of the mouth of the horse at
five years old. The prominent difference, however,
is that all the teeth are temporary in the one case
and permanent in the other. The presence of the
tusks, or, in their absence, the existence of six
permanent molars, in the five-year old horse, will
prevent any mistake being made as to the animal's
age. It has already been stated that, in the case
of forest ponies, an error in regard to the animal's
age is quite possible unless the difference between
nai section of an temporary and permanent teeth is recognised.

incisor tooth.

a, Enamel.

b, Dentine.

c, Pulp.

"Between one year and two years of age the
only change in the incisor teeth is that which

is naturally consequent on growth of the teeth
and the wear of the upper surfaces by attrition. At the full
age of two years the upper surfaces of all the incisor teeth
are worn flat, and the tables, which is the name given to the
worn surface, are fully formed,
which means that there is a com-
plete line of wear running round
the central cavity (infundibulum
or mark). Occasionally there is
an exception in the posterior or
inner edge of the corner tooth, the
wear of which is not quite com-

plete.

Fig. 8i.�Incisor teeth. Eruption of
corner teeth.

" Any question which may arise
as to the distinction between one and two years is settled at once
by reference to the molar teeth. Shortly before two years of age
a fifth permanent molar begins to prick through the gum, and

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		DENTITION 169

	at the completion of the second year the eruption is nearly perfect. " The colt has now a full set of temporary incisors in front of the mouth, top and bottom, all of them showing a year's wear on the surface, with three pre-molars (temporary) on each side, top and bottom, and two true molars (permanent) on each side, top and bottom. " Changes which occur in the teeth up to the age of five years will include the falling of the temporary organs and their replace- ment by permanent teeth, the cutting of the tusks in the horse, and the eruption of two molars, the third and sixth in situation." (Axe.) Appearance of the Permanent Teeth.�The principal change from temporary to permanent dentition takes place during the

Fig. 82.�Teeth at three years. FlG. 83__Teeth at four years. horse's third year, during which period four temporary incisors and eight molars are replaced by permanent teeth. But before this, in fact soon after the age of two years is reached, evidence of the appearance of the permanent teeth is present in the con- dition of the gums in the immediate neighbourhood of the central incisors in the upper jaw, which give the appearance of being somewhat depressed by the permanent teeth which are pressing them up from underneath, and this appearance is shortly after- wards manifested also in the lower jaw. At the age of two and a half years the horse has usually got its four permanent incisors, and, by the end of that year, the four incisor teeth are as a rule quite complete. During the same period similar changes have been taking place in connection with the first two pre-molars, and/ when the horse is three years old, the permanent pre-molars

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	170 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER are present to the number of eight, these being distributed two on each side of the middle line in upper and lower jaws. Their recent appearance as new teeth is indicated by the fact that they show no signs of being worn from which they differ from those which lie further back. "The next changes affect the lateral temporary incisors, top and bottom, and the third pre-molar (temporary), and include the eruption of a sixth molar at the back of the mouth, which is cut at the same time as the third pre-molar. The tusks in the horse are also frequently cut at four years, although they are not well developed until five. " Thus, during the fourth year of its life, the horse has sixteen permanent teeth advancing, and the eruption is often completed

		Fig. 84.�Teeth at five years. Fig. 85.�Teeth at six years.

by the end of the year. In short, the permanent dentition is completed, excepting the corner teeth, which are changed for permanent during the following year. " The corner tooth at this age is distinguished by a peculiar shell-like appearance. The posterior edge is considerably lower than the anterior edge, which is the only part of the tooth on which the effects of wear are apparent. The tables of the central and lateral incisors are fully formed, the central cavity being surrounded by a continuous line of worn surface. In the central incisors the central cavity is extremely shallow." (Axe.) The changes which take place in the appearance of the teeth, which after this period are due mainly to the effect of wear and friction, may be best realised from a careful study of the illustra- tions of the jaws of horses which appear in these pages and which relate to the successive periods at intervals of a year. The most

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					DENTITION 171

important of these changes are described by Professor Axe as follows :�Between five and six years the anterior edge of the grinding edge undergoes wear which extends along the whole of the front of the tooth, so that at the end of the sixth year the incisor has lost its shell-like character: the posterior edge, how-

			Fig. 86.�Teeth at seven years. Fig. 87.�Teeth at eight years.

	ever, still retains its rounded appearance. At the age of seven all the incisor teeth have become more solid and are beginning to assume a triangular shape which is the result of the wearing away of the upper part while the teeth are constantly growing. At this time�namely, seven years�the lateral outline of the central

				Fig. 88.�Teeth at nine years. Fig. 89.�Teeth at twelve years.

		incisors are longer than those of the same teeth at six years, a. change which is not so marked in the lateral and grinding teeth. At eight years old the triangular shape of the incisors is still more obvious, and in all the teeth the " mark " of the central enamel is very small when compared with that at seven years. After eight years considerable difficulty arises in determining the

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				THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		exact age until the animal reached ten years of age, the difficulty being due to variations from continued wear. But by the time the horse is ten years old the so-called " mark " has nearly dis- appeared from all the teeth, while, at the same time, the central

	enamel is still perfectly distinct on the tables of the teeth nearer the posterior than the anterior edge. A definite indication appears also at ten years of age at the upper part of the top corner tooth �namely, the presence of a distinct depression. This is really a portion of a groove which cannot be seen until the horse attains

			Fig. 92.�Teeth about twenty years of age. Fig. 93.�Teeth in old horse.

the age of ten years. From this time onwards this groove becomes more and more obvious and easily seen, and forms, according to Mr. Galvayne, an extremely reliable and useful method of esti- mating the age of horses after ten years. He calculates that a period of eleven years is necessary in order that the bottom edge of this groove will reach the cutting edge of the tooth. That is to say that the groove which appears at the age of ten at the

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DENTITION 173 base of the tooth nearest the gum gradually becomes longer and longer as the tooth becomes worn at the surface and growing from the socket, so that the age can be reliably estimated by judging the nearness to which the groove approaches to the cutting surface. If the whole period of time necessary for this to take place is eleven years, it follows that at the end of that time, the groove having appeared at ten years of age, the horse will be twenty-one. Should the groove appear to be extending

		Fig. 94.�" Bishop " mouth. Old teeth Fig. 95.�Irregular wearing of teeth, artificially marked to appear young. The corner teeth are not worn.

	but half-way down the tooth, it also therefore follows that the age of the animal will be from fifteen to sixteen years. After the age of twenty-one the estimation of the time will be based upon the processes of wear and growth as applied now to the groove which has reached the surface. That is to say that, as time goes on, this groove will become worn out; in fact the total obliteration of this groove takes place during the course of the next nine or ten years. When half worn out the horse's age will be estimated at about twenty-six years, and, when almost entirely disappeared, the conclusion may be arrived at that the animal is about thirty years of age.

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			CHAPTER IX

		The Process of Digestion in Animals Digestion is a term applied to the process by which the various types of primitive or native food materials become broken down into simpler bodies capable of passing through the lining mem- brane of the alimentary canal into the blood stream. These native food materials are generally divided into three classes� namely, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Proteins, which, as we shall see later, are in many respects the most important class, are complex substances, containing a very large number of chemical elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, &c. This protein is the essential con- stituent of the curious jelly-like material or " protoplasm " which is the structural basis of every type of cell. They are contained in almost every type of food-stuff, whether animal or vegetable in origin, though in very variable proportion. Thus protein is the primary constituent of beef and mutton, &c, on the one hand, and pease, beans, &c, on the other. In consequence of their extremely complex character and the very large size of their molecule, proteins are non-diffusible, i.e. they will not pass through a membrane, and it is largely to render these all-important food materials diffusible that the somewhat complex processes of digestion take place. For example, a solu- tion of egg-white, which may be selected as a simple type of a natural protein, will not diffuse through a membrane, but if it be acted upon for some time by an artificial gastric solution (pepsin -I-hydrochloric acid) the large molecules become split up again and again, so that we have an ultimate formation of simple bodies, such as peptones, which are capable of passing with com- parative ease through the membrane into the circulating fluids, such as the blood and the lymph. 174

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		THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 175 Carbohydrates.�This is a simpler type of food material than "the protein, as it contains only three elements, viz. Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, in comparatively simple proportions (viz. C₆H₁₂O₀). The carbohydrates can be very simply arranged into two groups, viz. the small-moleculed sugars and the non- diffusible starches. The latter (starches) are of much greater importance as food materials, as they form the essential basis of such food substances as potato, carrot, rice, bread, &c, and are very important accessory constituents in most of the other common foods. To enable the starches to be absorbed through the lining membrane of the alimentary canal they become digested by ferments contained in the salivary, pancreatic, and other secretions, the large starch molecules becoming broken down into the small-moleculed and very diffusible sugars, such as malt sugar, and more especially grape sugar. Fats.�Though less universal than either of the two pre- ceding types of food material, fat is an extremely important constituent in certain classes of food materials. Thus it forms no less than 4 per cent, of both maize and oats, and it is, of course, the primal element in such types as butter, cheese, &c. Fat consists of multitudes of oil globules of varying size enclosed within delicate capsules. Under the action of the pancreatic and biliary secretions the larger fat globules become broken up into numerous small droplets (emulsification) and, later, split up into their two primary chemical constituents, namely, fatty acid and glycerine, both of which are readily diffusible through the intes- tinal mucous membrane. Leaving out of consideration for a little the actual digestive processes which take place in the various parts of the alimentary centre, it will be desirable to realise the part ultimately played by these food materials after they have been absorbed into the blood stream and carried to the cells of the tissues, such as muscle, glands, &c. All living tissues are continually undergoing processes of dis- integration and repair. Breaking down, or, as they are techni- cally called, katabolic processes, are constantly taking place in all living tissues. The tissue cells can be compared to the furnaces which are constantly supplying the organism with the

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		176 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER heat and the energy necessary not only for the production of work, but also for the very maintenance of life. The extent of these katabolic or disintegrative processes varies necessarily with the amount of heat and energy required, hence we have a "minimal" expenditure during periods of rest and a "maximal" one during vigorous energisation. It must be clearly realised, however, that these oxidative processes go on as long as life con- tinues, and that, in consequence, there is a constant destruction taking place in the protoplasm of our cells, which must be made good if the tissues are to remain in a satisfactory working condition. This repair is effected by an absorption into the cellular proto- plasm of food materials from the circulating blood and lymphatic currents, and more especially of the protein, which, as we have already seen, is an essential constituent of the protoplasm. If the supply of food material be inadequate, then the destruc- tive or disintegrative process will exceed the repair and the animal will emaciate, while, on the other hand, if the amount of food material in the blood be excessive, the tissue cell may become overfed, and deposits, more especially in the forms of fat, will be laid down in the tissues. The demands of the tissue will necessarily vary directly with the amount of energisation required in the performance of the work of the animal. Thus, a horse in full work requires a much more generous diet (richer in oats, &c.) than one at grass or in the stable. Generally speaking, the greater the amount of work done by the animal, the greater the necessity for increasing the supply of the richer food materials. We must now consider the method in which the native and non-diffusible food materials become digested, and thus rendered capable of easy absorption. Digestion is effected through the agency of certain substances called enzymes or ferments, contained partly in the actual food stuffs, but chiefly in certain secretions which are poured into the different parts of the alimentary canal. These ferments, such as pepsin, rennin, &c, can only work under certain conditions. Of these the two most important are the presence of a suitable reaction�acid or alkaline, as the case

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		H.M. The King's Derby Winner, "Persimmon' Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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		THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 177 may be, and a temperature somewhere about that of the normal body heat. Both of these factors are essential. If, for example, we take three test-tubes and place in the first a little albumin with the ferment pepsin, into the second albumin and a little alkali, and into the third protein with pepsin and a trace of dilute acid, and then place the three tubes in a jar of water kept at a temperature of 98⁰ F. or thereabouts, it will be found that digestion only takes place in the third tube; in other words, the specific ferment pepsin is only capable of doing its characteristic work in the presence of acid. If the temperature of the water be allowed to rise too high, moreover, the ferment is immediately destroyed. Low temperatures, on the other hand, do not destroy the ferment, though they may paralyse its activity. The secretions which are poured into the various parts of the alimentary canal, and which are intimately concerned in the digestive process, are the salivary, gastric, pancreatic, and in- testinal. The Saliva is the product of the group of large glands lying in the immediate vicinity of the cavity of the mouth. These glands become excited during the movements of mastication, so that we get a rapid flow of the juice into the mouth, saturating- the food material and thereby rendering it not only more suitable for mastication and swallowing, but also allowing of the inception of the first of the digestive processes. In some animals, where the masticatory movements are bilateral, both sets of glands are called into activity, but in oxen and horses, where mastication is unilateral, only the corresponding glands become functional. The saliva also mechanically lubricates the walls of the pharynx and oesophagus, thereby assisting materially in the transmission of the masticated food, or bolus, to the stomach. The digestive action of the ferments contained in the saliva can be readily demonstrated by the following simple experiment:� A little starch paste is introduced into a test-tube along with a few drops of saliva, and the tube then placed in the warm bath. The opalescence of the starch gradually disappears, and if a few drops be removed at intervals and tested with a little iodine, it will be found that the characteristic blue reaction�struck by the reagent acting on the starch�at first very marked, gradually VOL. I. M

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		178 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER changes to violet (from the transformation of the starch to gum or dextrin) and is finally entirely lost. This is due to the meta- morphosis or digestion of the original starch into sugar, and this is exactly the process which takes place in the stomach after the mixture of food and saliva reaches that organ. The food does not remain sufficiently long in the mouth to allow of any extensive digestive change taking place in that cavity. The salivary action, however, is insufficient to deal with the enormous quantity of raw carbohydrate ingested by either a herbivorous or an omnivorous animal, and hence we have a supplementary carbohydrate digestion taking place in the cavity of the intestine under the action of the specific ferments con- tained in the pancreatic and the intestinal juices. These ferments continue the work begun by the saliva and carry it to a further stage (dextrose), which is more suitable for absorption through the lining membrane of the small intestine. SCHEME OF CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION Starch (non-diffusible) Intermediate bodies, such as gum, &c. Maltose I Grape Sugar (diffusible). Digestion of Protein.�As in the case of carbohydrate, the protein digestion takes place both in the cavities of the stomach and the small intestine. Gastric digestion is due to the action of a very interesting ferment, pepsin, which can be readily extracted for experimental purposes from the gastric wall. The ferment will only act in an acid medium, and this is produced through the activity of certain cells in the gastric glands which have the power of forming small quantities of hydrochloric acid. Under the action of these two elements (viz., the pepsin and the hydrochloric acid) the native complex proteids become broken down or digested into types suitable for absorption, such as albumoses and pep- tones. The gastric juice begins to be secreted very shortly after the food enters the stomach, but a considerable time elapses

				▲

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		THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 179 before it has accumulated sufficiently to paralyse salivary activity and to begin the digestion of the protein. SCHEME OF PROTEIN DIGESTION Albumin (non-diffusible) Intermediate bodies, such as albumoses I Peptone (diffusible) The digestion process, as in the case of the saliva, is continued in the intestine and completed there, so that all the ingested protein becomes ultimately transformed into peptone. Of this peptone the great bulk is absorbed into the blood stream, the remainder being still further broken down to form some of the more important constituents of the faeces. Digestion of Fat.�As neither the saliva nor the gastric juice act to any extent on the ingested fat, practically the whole of the digestion of the substance takes place in the cavity of the small intestine under the action of the bile and more especially the pancreatic juice, which contains a very important fat ferment called steapsin. As a result we have the cleavage of the fat into fatty acid and glycerine, both of which are absorbed into the epithelial cells covering the intestinal wall, where they again unite, forming ordinary fat. This fat is then passed primarily into the lymphatic circula- tion, but ultimately into the blood stream. It must be very definitely understood that this digestive process is only a means by which the food materials become carried from the cavity of the alimentary canal through its walls into the circulatory fluids of the body, and we will now pass on to consider one or two points which play a very important part in regulating the supply of some of the food materials to the tissue-cells. It will be apparent that, as the metabolic pro- cesses in the tissue-cells never cease, there will be a correspond- ingly constant demand for food fuel. But, as the ingestion of food is intermittent, it will be equally obvious that we must have some means of storing supplies of fuel both for the periods between the ingestions and for any sudden demand � such as

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		180 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER that involved in sharp exercise�which would necessarily lead to greatly increased katabolism. Food materials are stored princi- pally in two areas�(i) in the liver, in the form of glycogen; (2) in the tissues themselves, partly as glycogen and partly as fat. Of the two the store in the liver is the more interesting. The sugar absorbed through the intestinal wall is passed into the portal vein, a very large blood-vessel which passes directly to the liver, where it breaks up into fine capillary networks in close relation to the liver cells. From the hepatic capillaries the sugar passes out of the blood stream and becomes deposited in the liver cells in the form of an insoluble starch or glycogen. According to the demands of the tissue (e.g., during work, &c.) this glycogenous store in the liver is drawn on, the starch being converted back into sugar as required. In the preceding general scheme of digestion we have selected the process as it occurs most perfectly in the carnivorous and omnivorous animal, and we must now endeavour to consider the chief modifications developed in some of our domesticated animals, such as the ox, horse, &c. The typical process becomes modified partly by the nature of the food selected or obtained by the animal and partly by the necessity for work. Thus, in comparatively sluggish animals such as the domesticated ruminants, we have a totally different pro- cedure from that carried on in the more active and working herbivora such as the horse. Again, in animals such as the ox, which live on foods of a very indigestible character and comparatively low food value, the stomach tends to become more and more complex, so as to obtain both an increased storage capacity and also a more perfect pre- paration of the food for the subsequent digestion. Digestion in Ruminants.�In ruminants the stomach reaches its most complex development. The organ shows four chambers, but from a physiological point of view three of these must be considered as dilatations of the lower end of the oesophagus, as they do not form any true gastric secretion, and are essentially mere sacs in which the food materials are retained. The fourth stomach or abomasum is the only actual " digesting " organ, and is, therefore, analogous to the stomach of the carnivor.

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			THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 181 As the structure, &c. of these cavities is fully discussed else- where (see anatomy of cow), we will merely consider here the question of their probable functions. The ox collects its food through the agency of its long and very mobile tongue, which is covered with sharp papillae. After the fodder is gathered it is divided by the pressure of the teeth of the lower jaw against the dental pad. It is then subjected to a very rapid and imperfect mastication, after which it is passed down to the first two stomachs to be stored there (chiefly in the rumen) until rumina-

		FiG. 96.�Dissection of the stomach of an ox, to show the separate chambers of the stomach., ru, rumen or paunch; ret, reticulum or "honeycomb" ; ps, psalterium or " manyplies "; ab, abomasum, the third or digestive stomach ; py, the valve shutting off the abomasum from the intestine ; du, duodenum, the first portion of the intestine ; c, oesophagus, or gullet down which the food is passed from the mouth into the stomach. tion sets in. By this means the animal is enabled to gather very large quantities of food material during the grazing periods. The process also assists very largely in preparing the ingesta for subsequent complete digestion, because as the food substances lie in the pouches they are mixed with saliva and thus become subjected�while in the cavity of the rumen�to a preliminary digestive process. It must also be carefully remembered that most of the foods contain ferments which, in the moisture and warmth of the rumen, become active, and these are doubtless assisted greatly by. the saliva mixed with the ingesta. When the

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		182 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER animal has finished grazing rumination is immediately com- menced. In this process the muscular walls of the rumen contract, and a mass of ingesta, solid and fluid, becomes forced upwards along the oesophageal cavity into the mouth. Very little fluid, however, actually enters the mouth, as the bulk is immediately passed back to the rumen and reticulum. The solid now becomes subjected to a vigorous and perfect mastication, and after it has been reduced to a fine pulpy condition, it is again passed down the oesophagus, not, as in the former instance, into the cavities of the rumen and reticulum, but into the third stomach or omasum and the fourth or true stomach (abomasum). Several factors, however, affect very markedly the extent and the character of the rumination. Thus, if the stomach contain an insufficiency of fluid rumina- tion either does not take place at all or the process is very inefficient. As a rule the animal begins to ruminate almost immediately after taking a considerable quantity of water. The importance of this factor depends necessarily very much on the type of the food; thus, if it be of a dry character much more fluid will be required than if the ingesta had been of a succulent nature. It also depends very much on the amount of the ingesta in the organ, as both extreme distension and comparative emptiness seem to prohibit the inception of the process, so that the animal may be virtually starved though a very considerable quantity of food be stored in its rumen. Though essentially reflex in origin, rumination is largely governed or affected by external and emotional conditions; thus, an ox quietly " chewing the cud " will instantly cease to do so on the slightest noise or fright. Similarly pain, any derangement of the alimentary canal, or shock, will arrest the process. This is often a matter of very considerable importance, as it may not recommence for quite a long period, during which the ingesta stored in the rumen become dried to such an extent that the regurgitation becomes much more difficult to accomplish. Rumi- nation cannot be said, however, to be entirely due to the con- traction of the walls of the gastric cavities, as it is very largely assisted by simultaneous contractions of the diaphragm and the muscles of the abdominal wall. Thus, in paralysis of the

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		THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 183 diaphragm rumination becomes less forcible and perfect, and if the nerves supplying the abdominal wall be divided so that the muscles are rendered functionless, the process is completely arrested. The contraction of these accessory muscles is generally quite visible to the naked eye as a fine tremor passing along the flank, and if the contents of the rumen be somewhat dry, this movement becomes very exaggerated. The second mastication which the food undergoes is, compared with the first, prolonged and thorough. This is very necessary, as the passage through which the ingesta must pass into the fourth stomach is very narrow. The progress of the " cud " upwards along the oesophagus can easily be seen in certain animals, and can always be readily heard either by placing a stethoscope over the line of the gullet or by placing the ear directly over the neck. Duration of Rumination.�It is very difficult to determine the exact duration of the process. Colin and other observers have shown that, taking the normal " feed " at 12,000 grammes, not less than 520 ruminations would be necessary, and that this would roughly occupy somewhere about seven hours. Personally, I am inclined to believe that this estimate is somewhat excessive; still the time cannot be much less than from five and a half to six and a half hours. Mastication in the ox is generally unilateral, and the process of masticating the one " cud," or returned bolus, generally occu- pies about one minute. The exact duration varies very largely, however, with the age of the animal, and with the character of the food. If interrupted the process at once stops, but the bolus is merely retained in the mouth and is not swallowed until the food has been completely broken down. During the passage of the food through the third stomach (psalterium, omasum or manyplies) it becomes compressed and strained by the powerful rough muscular leaves characteristic of that organ. It is, however, only in the fourth stomach or aboma- sum that we get a true digestion of the ingested food materials. During the resting periods the reaction of the abomasum is alkaline, but after food enters the organ the ordinary gastric juice (containing pepsin and hydrochloric acid) is formed so that the

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		184 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER contents become acid. There is also a considerable amount of evidence to show the existence of carbohydrate ferment in the stomach. The intestine of the ox is simple in character, and, though rather longer than that of the horse, is much less capacious. The ordinary digestive processes take place within its cavity, and the digested food materials are absorbed through its walls in the usual way. The absorption of water through the intestinal wall is, however, much less complete in the ox than in either the horse or the sheep, so that the faeces remain in a semi-fluid condition. Digestion in the Horse.�As both the ox and the horse are purely herbivorous animals, it might be thought that the arrange- ment of the different portions of their alimentary canal would be similar. This, however, is not the case. In the ox, where the movements are sluggish and the food materials of a compara- tively low value, the gastric mechanism becomes complex, and the animal is compelled to spend long periods in rumination, &c. This would be obviously very unsuitable for such an animal as the horse, and hence we have the presence of a comparatively simple stomach and a peculiarly well-developed intestine. The stomach of the horse is a simple bag (see Plate facing p. 152), which is functionally divisible, however, into a cardiac portion lined by thick, flat, protective epithelium containing practically no glands and a secretory portion communicating with the small intestine analogous to the stomach of the carnivora. From this functional portion we get a copious secretion of gastric juice possessing all the characters of the similar secretion in the other animals. Compared with the very great bulk of the animal the stomach is very small in size. The two openings, the oesopha- geal and the intestinal (see Plate facing p. 152), are situated comparatively close together, and it will be noticed that the food passed into the organ will enter the large cardiac end, which is essentially a dilatation of the lower end of the oesophagus analo- gous to the rumen, &c, of the ox and the gizzard of the grani- vorous bird. As the horse possesses no power of rumination the food is only masticated once, and hence it is done very thoroughly immedi- ately after the food is taken into the mouth. Prehension is effected in the case of the horse by means of its extremely long,

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		THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 185 mobile, and sensitive lips, which draw the food into the mouth when it is bitten through by the sharp incisor teeth. Mastication is very slow and efficient. As in the ox, the process is unilateral, and may continue for quite a long period before the animal begins to employ the muscles of the opposite side. The horse takes generally from eight to ten minutes to masticate a pound of oats, and about twice as long for a pound of hay. After the food has been fully masticated it is passed down the oesophagus into the stomach. As the equine stomach is too small, however, to hold anything like the whole of the feed, a very large portion passes directly into the duodenum through the pyloric opening. If a composite meal be given to the animal, such as a primary feed of hay followed by oats, it will be found that the first food given (in this case the hay) will be passed on into the duodenum, while the oats are retained in the stomach. Thus in one of Colin's experiments, in which a feed of 2500 grammes of hay was given to the animal, only 1000 grammes was found in the stomach two hours later. On the other hand, as in the case of the rumen, the equine stomach is never completely emptied, a certain amount of the food material remaining until the entrance of the next meal, when it is pushed out into the small intestine. If a feed be given consisting of different types of food materials, it will also be found that they do not become mixed in the stomach to any great extent. Thus we shall find the first portion of the food either in the intestine or in the pyloric portion of the stomach, and the latter part in the cardiac pouch close to the entrance of the oesophagus. From the very small size of the secretory portion of the stomach it might be thought that its digestive powers were correspondingly slight. This is, however, not the case. Digestion occurs very markedly in the cavity, though, as we have just mentioned, it may only affect a portion of the feed. In the equine stomach we have a digestion of both the carbo- hydrate and the protein elements of the food. The carbohydrate digestion occurs first and continues until the percentage of the hydrochloric acid in the juice becomes sufficiently high to destroy the salivary ferments. There is, however, an excessive formation

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		186 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER in the horse of lactic acid; indeed, in some instances the percentage may be higher than that of the hydrochloric acid. This is of peculiar importance, as both carbohydrate and protein digestion can go on in the presence of lactic acid. As the horse has to perform severe work it will be obvious that the energisation in its tissues will be very considerable, so that the animal will require large quantities of proteins to replace the tissue waste and provide the heat, &c, required. Hence it becomes necessary during labour to greatly increase the nutritive- value of the feed without increasing (or even decreasing) the total quantity of the ingesta. This can be most readily done by adding to the hay, &c, a considerable quantity of some richer type of food-stuff such as. oats, &c. The difficulty that immediately presents itself is the order in which the foods ought to be given and the most suitable period for giving the animal water. On the whole it is, perhaps, the best to give the water prior to the solid, so that it will not interfere with the arrangement of the food in the stomach, and to give the hay before the oats. As a result the rich protein-containing oats remain in the stomach and thus undergoes gastric digestion, while the greater part of the hay passes on directly into the duodenum. A rather interesting peculiarity of gastric digestion in the horse lies in the very large percentage of lactic acid found in the stomach; not infrequently the quantity of this acid exceeds that of the hydrochloric acid, which is an essential factor in the ordinary stomachic digestion. The lactic acid is largely derived from decomposition of the carbohydrate taken in the food under the action of the salivary ferment. The percentage of lactic acid steadily increases during the earlier and middle parts of the gastric digestion, but in the latest period it becomes destroyed by the gradual accumulation of the hydrochloric acid. Though the presence of lactic acid is peculiarly well marked in the horse, it is also found in gastric digestion in other animals, such as the pig, and is not infrequent in the human subject. Intestinal Digestion in the Horse.�The intestine of the horse is both very long and extremely capacious. It also shows a curiously complex arrangement, which, as we shall see shortly,

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		THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 187 enables the animal to digest the large amount of the extremely indigestible cellulose contained in its dietary. This cellulose, which is one of the members of the large mole- culed and non-diffusible " starch " group, forms the capsules and the framework of the various " starch cells." When boiling water is added to a starch the granules swell up until the cellulose capsule ruptures, when the enclosed soluble starch or granulose is set free and becomes dissolved in the fluid. The starch elements which form the larger part of the food of the herbivorous animal necessarily contains an enormous quantity of this cellulose, which, from its peculiarly resistant character, demands special means of digestion, as neither the salivary, gastric, nor intestinal juices act on it to any great extent. The peculiar arrangement of the equine intestine allows of the prolonged storage of the food material until the digestion process has been able to break down more or less completely all the elements in the ingesta. Thus it will be noticed in the section dealing with the anatomy of the intestine (see p. 155) that following the ordinary small intestine we have the presence of a caecum of enormous capacity, and the division of the colon into double and single portions. Both the caxum and the double colon seem to be especially concerned in the digestion of the cellulose. In these cavities, under the action of enzymes or ferments, derived partly from the intestinal juice, but more especially from the cereals themselves, the cellulose becomes split up into a large number of comparatively simple bodies such as lactic and butyric acids, which unite with alkali present to form salts. These diffusible salts pass through the intestinal wall into the blood stream, and are later oxidised in the tissue and excreted in the form of carbonates in the urine. In addition to the formation of these acids there is a very marked cleavage of the cellulose into gases, of which the most important are carbon dioxide (C0₂) and marsh gas (CH₄). In the small intestine the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats of the ingested food materials are digested in the usual way. The single colon is essentially absorptive in function. The contained fluid, with its dissolved food materials and salts, becomes absorbed with extreme rapidity, so that we get a.

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		188 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER practically sudden change from contents of a completely fluid to a perfectly solid character. The peculiarly absorptive char- acter of the colon can readily be demonstrated by injecting dyes, poison, or anaesthetising agents into its cavity, when the symptoms of absorption appear within a few minutes. Digestion in the Pig.�The stomach of the hog, though somewhat more complex than that of the purely flesh-eating animal, is much simpler than that of the ruminant. It has been divided by Hofmeister into several areas, one of which is lined by the same type of mucous membrane as that of the oesophagus, while the others contain glands roughly similar to those found in the stomach of the dog. In some animals these two portions are distended to form distinct pouches. In the oesophageal " pouch " we get practically no gastric secretion; indeed it is simply a food reservoir analogous to the cardiac portion of the horse's stomach or the rumen and reticulum of the ox. The other parts of the stomach show quite a number of subdivisions, each lined by glands containing cells of different types. Digestion in the stomach is practically typical�namely, the proteins become split up into simpler forms, which are then passed on to the intestines. It has been shown, however, that one portion of the stomach secretes a starch-converting ferment which acts on the carbohydrate ingesta, converting them into sugar. As in the horse, lactic acid formation is marked, and likewise there is a very imperfect mixing of the gastric contents. Digestion, though somewhat slow, is very thorough. Absorp- tion, on the other hand, is extremely rapid, so that on examination of the intestinal contents we find very small quantities of digested food materials. Digestion in Birds.�Perhaps in no type do we see such a clear relationship between structural development and function as in the birds. In the carnivorous birds, such as the hawk, the canal is com- paratively simple, and we have merely a large oesophagus opening into a moderately-sized stomach, which is directly continuous with the small intestine. The pylorus is generally very con- stricted, so as to prevent the escape of the ingesta until the gastric digestion has been completed. Hence, in these types, any food

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			THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION IN ANIMALS 189

	which may not have been capable of digestion by the powerful gastric juice is simply expelled by vomiting. In the granivorous birds the canal becomes very considerably modified by the de- velopment of a crop, and by the subdivision of the stomach into a secretory portion or proventriculus and a muscular part or gizzard.

		Fig. 97.�The crop and gizzard of a cavity of which is shown by the deep fowl, to show their general form shading. G, gullet ; P, the region and relations. W, trachea or wind- known as the " proventriculus." The pipe; G, gullet or oesophagus; walls of this region are thick, and sup- P, proventriculus; G¹, gizzard; plied with numerous digestive glands. I, intestine ; C, crop. Mg, muscular wall of gizzard.

The crop is simply a dilatation of the lower part of the oesophagus and is essentially a food reservoir. The grains lie for a variable period (from two to twenty-four hours) in its cavity and become softened and thus rendered suitable for digestion in the true stomach beneath. The storage capacity of the crop is very considerable, and it may contain all types of food materials.

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		THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER
	190	THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER
	190

Very little, if any, true digestion seems, however, to take place in its cavity. The first or secretory part of the stomach forms a gastric fluid of a strongly acid character, which mixes with the ingesta and is then passed on to the gizzard, where contraction of the powerful muscular walls grinds down the softened grain so that the ferments become able to act on the different elements of the food. This grinding of the food is largely assisted by the presence of foreign matters, such as gravel, in the cavity of the gizzard. By this means the bird is enabled to compensate for the absence of mastication, which, as we have seen, plays such an important part in the digestive processes in the case of the herbivora, &c.

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			CHAPTER X

		The Circulation of the Blood By the word " circulation " we imply something very different from, say, the flow of water in a river. The term itself indicates that the circulating medium performs a return journey and thus arrives at the point at which we began to trace the action in question. In a river the water flows onwards to sea, or to lake, and is seen no more. In the circulation of the blood, however, whilst its individual elements are perpetually being worn out and replaced, the general flow passing outwards for the nourishment of the frame is continued backwards, so to speak, so as to arrive at any given point in the round. Uses of the Circulation.�The uses of the circulation are many. In the first place a full supply of blood is required to be sent to every organ and tissue for purposes of nourishment. To this we may add that it is by the blood circulated in the young body that growth is provided for. In the second place, the blood is the source of supply for the manufacture or secretion of all fluids or other substances necessary for the performance of bodily functions. It is from the blood supplied to the digestive organs, for example, that gastric juice, saliva, bile, and pancreatic juice are manu- factured, whilst the tears and the synovial fluid or oily matter that lubricates the joints, equally present us with manufactured products of which the blood represents the raw material. In the next place the circulation of blood undoubtedy provides for the distribution of heat in the body, and we have already seen in con- nection with the functions of the skin how the bodily heat is controlled by the skin structures. Another important duty of the circulation is that of acting as a kind of drainage system. The wear and tear of the body, which are inseparable features of the work which the body is perpetually performing, is absorbed by the vital fluid from the tissues in the shape of various waste 191

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		materials, carbonic acid gas amongst them. The blood laden with such waste materials in the course of the circulation is carried to such organs as the lungs, skin, kindeys, and liver, the waste matters being removed by each of these organs and the purification of the blood thus ensured. Finally, we have to assume that the blood is the great source of the energy which the body exhibits, seeing that it practically represents the original source of power contained in the food. Unless each organ and tissue of the body is supplied with pure blood a condition of health is impossible of maintenance, and this remark holds equally true where we have regard to the heart itself or to the vigour with which brain cells discharge their work of governing and con- trolling the frame. It has been shown in the case of human beings how, in a disease such as scurvy, an alteration in the quality of the blood may produce serious results, this disease being pro- bably due to the absence from the food of salts or compounds of potash which a proper dietary correct, and therefore tends to cure the ailment. We can also understand that in a disease such as anaemia, popularly known as " bloodlessness," the quality of the blood being altered, especially in the way of a deficiency of the natural amount of iron it should contain, represents a condition followed by the development of disease. The proper quantity of blood also forms a distinct element in connection with the pre- servation of health. It need hardly be said that the loss of any considerable quantity of blood represents another condition seriously interfering for a time, at least, with the proper nutrition of the body. The Apparatus of the Circulation.�The apparatus of the circulation may be said to consist of the heart and the system of tubes in connection with it, known as blood-vessels. It will be understood that this system of vessels is necessarily continuous, otherwise no possibility of a " circulation " being carried on could exist. It may be well, in the first instance, that the blood- vessels should be first described. Three kinds of blood-vessels exist in the body. These are respectively known as arteries, veins, and capillaries. An artery may be defined as a blood- vessel which is destined to carry pure blood from the heart to the body. In a vein, on the other hand, is found impure blood,

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		Champion Welsh Mountain Pony Stallion, "Greylight," winner at all leading shows 1905-6-7-8 Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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		THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 193 which is being carried from the body back to the heart and lungs. The capillaries are the finest and most minute blood-vessels of the body. They represent practically the last twigs resulting from the branching out of the arteries, and it is in the capillary network of the body that we find veins taking their origin. The course of the circulation, therefore, if we start at the left side of the heart with pure blood issuing therefrom, is through the arteries into the capillaries, then onwards to the veins, and back to the right side of the heart. The distribution of blood through the body may be compared, in a rough fashion, to the ordinary plan on which the supply of gas is organised. We start with large pipes issuing from the works, these passing continuously into smaller pipes for street supply, whilst the latter, in turn, exhibit still smaller branches for the supply of houses, and, finally, within the house are found smaller pipes still for the supply of the rooms. In this way we find the gas supply is naturally spread over a very wide area, and so in the body the largest blood-vessels are naturally those in nearest proximity to the heart itself ; the finest blood-vessels, or capillaries, representing the ends of the various branches into which the artery finally spreads. The obvious reason why, in all parts of the body, we should find these last twigs of the arteries dividing into a network of extremely fine vessels, is found in the need which exists for bringing the blood in contact with the various cells and tissues of the frame. It is through the walls of these capillaries that the blood-fluid itself can strain so as to come directly in contact with the parts it is intended to nourish. A perpetual leakage of blood-fluid is taking place through the delicate blood-vessels of our frame, the excess of this fluid being gathered up by the lymphatic or absorbent vessels, and ultimately conveyed back to the blood to assist in renewing and repairing that fluid. Structure of Blood-Vessels.�The word " artery " is derived from two Greek words meaning " to hold air." This term was applied by the ancients to these vessels on account of an idea that, because they were found empty after death, their function was to convey air to all parts of the body. In its structure an artery presents us with a vessel whose substance exhibits three coats or VOL. I. N

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THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

i₉4

layers. The outer coat consists of fibrous tissue, with a certain
proportion of elastic fibres. This coating undoubtedly confers

a high degree of elasticity upon the
vessel. The middle coat is composed
of layers of unstriped muscular fibres;
but in the larger arteries, in addition
to the muscular substance, we also find
elastic tissue and fibrous tissue. The
innermost coat of the artery is the
most delicate of the three. It practi-
cally consists of a layer of flattened cells
lying on a basement of elastic tissue.

With regard to the structure of veins
we also find in these vessels three coats
or coverings. These, however, do not
present us with the same elastic nature
as those found in the artery. When an
ordinary vein is slit up and examined
it is found to possess structures in the
shape of valves such as are wanting in
the arteries. These valves consist of
pockets, the mouths of which open
towards the heart. They therefore
allow the flow of blood to pass easily
in the heart direction, any backflow, on
the other hand, being arrested through
the filling of the pockets. In cases of
enlarged or varicose veins these valves

Fig. 99.�The superficial veins
of the arm (human).

I, Median vein ; 2, ulnar vein ; 3,

are liable to be destroyed. It is a curious
fact that in ordinary quadrupeds the
veins which run up and down, so to

radial vein_; 4, median cephalic _sp_eak, or lie vertically, possess valves.

vein; 5, median basilic vein; . ,.,-..

6, cephalic vein; 7, basilic On the other hand, veins which he in a
vein; s, auxiliary vein; and 9, horizontal direction do not possess these

its upper end. ■*■ ..

structures. In the trunk or body of
man, however, valves occur in the horizontal veins and are
absent from those which are vertical, so that we are face to face
here with an apparent human deficiency, seeing that those of our

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THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD

*95

veins which ought to possess valves want them. The explanation
of this anomaly would appear to consist in the
idea of evolutionists that man is descended from
a quadruped ancestor. When he assumed an
upright position the structure of the veins re-
mained unchanged, but those veins formerly
vertical became horizontal, retaining their now
useless valves, whilst those formerly horizontal
becoming vertical remained destitute of valves.
In the arms and legs the veins which are vertical
both in the quadruped and man retained their
valves. In the veins of the rectum or lower
part of the bowel no valves exist, yet the
presence of such valves would no doubt have
had a very considerable effect in preventing the
formation of haemorrhoids or piles.

The Capillaries.�The capillaries have already
been described as the finest blood-vessels of the
body, forming a dense network in all parts of the
frame as the result of the ultimate branching out
of the arteries. The finest capillaries exhibit a
diameter varying from the ^xsWth °f ^an inch. ^FlG_t"_e^i^�_s^^h� ^e_n^x"

They are, therefore, of such diameter that only
one row of blood corpuscles can pass along them

vein of the leg
and its branches
(human).

at one time. The finest capillaries practically

consist of tubes lined by cells of flattened
character, united by their edges. Each cell
contains a nucleus, or central particle. It

alvule

can readily be understood that through the
extremely thin walls of these capillary vessels
the blood-fluid can readily strain in order to
reach the tissues outside for their nourish-
ment. In certain parts of the body the

Fig. ioi.�A vein opened,

capillary network is extremely dense. The

showing its pocket-like brain and the lungs exhibit examples of such
valves, complicated networks. If we have regard

to the enormous area which is represented by the capillaries,
we find that their capacity amounts to about 500 times that

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		196 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER of the arteries of the body. We have also to consider that, as regards the flow of blood, the force with which that fluid is propelled from the heart is gradually lessened as the stream passes from the smaller branches of arteries and is finally diffused through the network of capil- laries, on the principle of the main stream of a river which may rush along with a fair amount of force, gradually losing its speed and momentum as it spreads over flat ground into many smaller channels. It is calculated that in the arteries the blood flows at the rate of about one foot per second. In the capillaries the rate is stated at about an inch per minute, Fig. 102.�A network of capillaries, showing , . , . , , , a small vein below them. and m the veins at about an inch per second. The Pulse.�The subject of the pulse has already been con- sidered with reference to its significance as a sign of symptom of disease. It is necessary, however, here to refer to the pulse from a physiological point of view. When the heart sends blood out into an artery, the vessel naturally fills with blood. Immedi- ately, however, the next stroke of the heart sends an additional amount of blood into the vessel the artery, through its elasticity, expands to receive the fluid, but in the interval before the next stroke of the heart the artery itself contracts, its walls pressing on the blood contained within it, and thus forcing the fluid onwards. Putting these facts in another way, we may see that the work of the heart consists so far in forcing the blood into the artery, and, second, in causing the artery to expand so as to receive the fluid. If we suppose this action to take place close to the heart, any recoil of blood is prevented by the valves of the heart. The elasticity and contraction of the artery now come into play and drive the blood forward. If we place our finger upon an artery, we find its contraction in the form of the " pulse," which naturally succeeds the beat of the heart. The pulse may,

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		THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 197 therefore, be regarded as the result of the expansion of the blood- vessel by the wave of blood sent from the heart, and of what may be called the recoil of its walls in virtue of their elastic nature. If the arteries were rigid tubes no such pulsation could naturally be felt, but if to a pump or syringe an elastic tube were attached, and water made to pass through the tube after the fashion of blood propelled from the heart, we should find the tube to exhibit movements comparable in one sense to those which constitute the pulse. No pulse exists in veins or in the capillaries, because by the time the blood has reached these vessels the force of the stream has been materially lessened. Physiologists have always recognised that, whilst in large arteries elasticity forms their main feature, in the smaller arteries contractility, or the power of contraction, stands forth as their leading characteristic. It is through the influence of the nervous system, exerted through the fine nerves supplying the walls of the blood-vessels, that the quantity of blood permitted to flow through the system is regu- lated. This nervous action specially controls the muscular elements in the walls of the vessel. It has already been remarked that whilst the flow in the arteries is, so to speak, of a jerky or intermittent character, that of the capillaries and of the veins is practically continuous. When the blood arrives at the capillaries it experiences a certain amount of resistance, so that whilst the heart and arteries are occupied in sending blood onwards, it is clear that the flow in the capillaries must necessarily be relatively slow. The result is brought about for the purpose of giving time and opportunity for the fluid of the blood to pass from the capillaries and to nourish the tissues, the main stream passing onwards to find itself sooner or later in the veins. Circulation in the Veins.�In the veins, as has been said, the flow of blood is also continuous, no pulse being perceptible. As the blood in the veins is passing towards the heart, it might naturally be asked how its onward flow is regulated, seeing that no propulsive force can be exerted from the body. There can be little doubt, however, that the flow in the veins�upwards from parts below the heart�is first of all aided by the continuous outward flow from the heart and arteries. In the second place;

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		198 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the presence of valves in the veins tending to prevent any back- flow will materially assist the progress of the current. A third agency in assisting the return of blood in the veins is that repre- sented by muscular movements. In the course of such move- ments the veins tend to be pressed upon, and in this way the blood prevented by the valves from returning is forced onwards. Yet another cause of the return of the blood in the venous system is that attributed to the action of the lungs in breathing. The act of inspiration or " breathing in " is believed to exert a suction action, especially on the large veins in the neighbourhood of the heart, just as the expansion of the right side of the heart itself after its contraction may favour the emptying of the big veins into the heart. With regard to the rapidity of the circulation to which reference has already been made, it has been experimentally calculated that in the case of the horse a given portion of blood will make the whole round of the circulation in that animal in about half a minute. This experiment was carried out by injecting into a vein of the neck a certain chemical substance which, conveyed the round of the circulation, appeared in the time mentioned in a similar vein in the opposite side. The Nervous Control of the Circulation.�It has already been shown that the circulation of the blood in so far as the blood- vessels are concerned, and as will be shown also as regards the heart itself, is distinctly under the control of the nervous system. To the walls of blood-vessels very fine nerves are dis- tributed. These are known as vasomotor nerves. They proceed from a controlling centre situated at the top of the spinal cord in that portion of the brain known as the medulla oblongata. This centre might be described as a kind of nervous sub-office, which exercises a perpetual control over the circulation of the blood. Each blood-vessel is thus maintained as regards the state of its walls in one of moderate contraction; that is to say, it is neither unduly expanded nor unduly contracted. If to the blood-vessels there passes through these vasomotor nerves some message or other calculated to stimulate them, the result is that the walls of the blood-vessels contract and less blood is sent through them. On the other hand, if the nervous agency keeping the vessels in tone is lessened, the blood-vessels tend to dilate or expand, so

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			THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD

		that a greater blood-supply is sent into them. These actions may either be of a transitory and passing nature, or may contrariwise exhibit a certain limited permanence. When we blush, an action is noted in which the ordinary state of the blood-vessels is exchanged for one of expansion; more blood is sent into them, and the skin reddens. Conversely, in the case of a person who faints or suffers from " shock," we find the opposite result brought about. Extreme contraction of the blood-vessels is for a time produced, limiting the blood-supply, and in this way causing pallor of the face and skin at large. The Structure and Functions of the Heart.�If we inspect the heart of a bullock, which, save for its size and an excess of fat, resembles that of man and other mammals, we find its sub- stance to consist of muscular tissue. Any heart ranging from that of an insect to that of a man may be described, therefore, as a hollow muscle. The heart is hollow to allow blood to enter it, and it is a muscle that it may contract to expel the blood from it in certain directions. We thus find that the circulation of the blood is duly carried on by muscular action, the heart acting thus as a pumping-engine. The form of energy, in other words, through whose operation we are enabled to move our limbs in walking, our lips in speaking, or our hands in grasping, is that which in another aspect of its work distributes the blood through the system. The Heart Muscle.�In dealing with the general muscular system of the body it was shown that two sets of muscles exist in the frame. One set includes those muscles we name voluntary or striped in nature. The other set includes those which are involun- tary or unstriped. The former muscles are those under the command of the will; the latter are those which operate inde- pendently of the will. The heart belongs to the latter class of muscle in that, as is well known, it carries on its work outside the rule of our voluntary nervous system, although at the same time it is liable to be more or less affected by what we may term the moods and tense's of our nervous apparatus. It is also to be noted that the heart itself is definitely governed in its movements, as we shall see by a certain portion of the nervous system set apart for its control. Involuntary muscles are of �■ unstriped "

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THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

200

character. That is to say, when their fibres are inspected under
the microscope, they are seen to be made up of elongated cells
and are unstriped, whereas in the case of voluntary muscles the
fibres present a striped appearance. The heart is, however, an
exception to this rule, for, while it is an
involuntary muscle, its fibres are found to
be constructed on the striped type. They,
however, differ from the fibres of the ordinary
muscles of the body in that they have no
sheath, whilst they also branch and are con-
nected with one another. The fibres of the
heart, in fact, are formed of quadrate or some-
what square-shaped cells, each possessing a
large nucleus or central particle of oval shape.
By some authorities the structure of the heart
muscle is regarded as indicating that it may
be considered to form a connecting link be-

FlG. 103. �Muscular
fibres of heart,
largely magnified.

tween the involuntary and voluntary muscles
in respect that probably the heart is more

directly affected by the nervous system at
large than are the other involuntary muscles of the body.

Position of the Heart.�The heart is situated in the cavity
of the thorax or chest. It lies between the lungs and is partially
covered by them. In respect of its shape the heart might be
described as somewhat conical, the base of the cone lying upwards
and being directed backwards, whilst the apex or point of the
cone lies downwards and forwards. As most persons know, the
heart lies largely on the left side. It is situated obliquely in the
chest, and, as regards its exact position, it may be said, taking the
breast-bone as a kind of centre, that it passes beyond this bone to
the extent of I inch on the right side and 2\ inches on the left.
Anatomists are accustomed to map out the position of the heart
on the chest wall in a manner readily understood. A line is
drawn across the chest to correspond with the upper border of the
cartilage of the third rib ; that is to say, of the cartilage joining
that rib with the breast-bone. A second line is drawn at the
point where the cartilage at the end of the sternum or breast-bone
is joined to the bone. Between these two lines the healthy heart

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		THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 201 may be said to exist. A vertical line is next drawn, passing 1 inch over the right side of the breast-bone, a corresponding line being drawn so as to pass 2\ inches to the left side of the breast- bone. Between the limits of these lines the space occupied by the heart is duly indicated. The point of the heart beats against the wall of the chest on the left side in the space between the fifth and sixth ribs. It is smaller in woman than in man. Its average weight is about 11 ozs. in the male and 9 ozs. in the female. As regards its dimensions, an average estimate would be 5 inches long, z\ inches thick, and about 3J or 3^ inches broad. A rough mode of estimating the size of the heart is that of comparing it to the clenched fist of the individual. The Heart Sac�We find the heart to be retained in its place by the large blood-vessels which enter and leave it. These are found at the top or base of the heart. The organ itself is enclosed in a double bag called the pericardum or " heart sac." The inner layer of the pericardum covers the surface of the heart. The outer layer is that which we should popularly term the heart sac itself. Between these two layers a fluid is secreted known as the pericardial fluid, this fluid serving to lubricate the movements of the organ. When this fluid increases abnormally in quantity, in disease that affection is popularly spoken of as " dropsy of the heart." The heart bag is found to pass upwards so as to cover the roots of the large blood-vessels at the base of the heart, the two layers of the bag joining at this point. By its lower end the pericardium is joined to the upper surface of the diaphragm or great muscle, which completely separates the chest from the abdomen or belly below. This muscle is the chief agent in inspiration. The heart substance, it need hardly be said, is duly supplied with blood-vessels, absorbent vessels and nerves. With respect to the arrangements of the mechanism of the fibres of the heart, it would appear that these, according to the re- searches of Pettigrew and others, are disposed in a series of spirals, a structure which greatly facilitates the particular work they are called upon to perform. The Build of the Heart.�In order to gain a popular, but at the same time adequate, idea of the exact build of the heart, it is only necessary to compare it to two semi-detached villas.

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		If we have regard to the conditions of life in two houses of this description, we note that there can be no communication between them through the partition or common wall which separates them. If it is desired to pass from one house to the other, that may be accomplished either by passing out of the one front door and in by the other, or making use of any similar communication which may exist a.t the back. The heart, regarded from this point of view, may therefore be seen to be divided completely into two distinct sides, between which there is no direct communication in the adult. Whilst we speak of the two sides of the heart, denominating them right and left, we may almost as legitimately speak of a " right heart " and a " left heart," seeing that the functions of the one side of the heart are entirely different from those performed by the other. All quadrupeds, and likewise all birds, agree with man in the possession of such a heart, whereas reptiles and frog-like animals possess a heart of different build, in which the characteristically two-sided structure is wanting. Almost all fishes, on the other hand, possess an extremely simple heart, which corresponds to one side (the right side) of man's organ. The meaning of this double heart arrangement is easily perceived when we reflect upon the really double character of the circulation it performs. In the first place, the heart has to distribute -pure or arterial blood throughout the body; in the second place, it has to send the impure or venous blood to the lungs. It is the left side which performs the former function, the right discharging the latter duty. Hence the left side of the heart is often called the systemic side, the right being termed the pulmonary or lung side. The importance of the complete division of the heart into two sides can now be estimated, seeing that it is only possible in this way to avoid any admixture of the pure blood passing from the left side with the impure blood in the right side, which, as we have seen, is being sent to the lungs for purification. Before birth, it may be mentioned, a communication exists between the right and the left side. This communication has reference to the peculiarities of the circulation in early life. The opening closes soon after birth, and no interchange of blood between the two sides of the heart is therefore, in the healthy body, possible afterwards.

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			THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD

		When the outside surface of the heart is inspected a groove is seen to run round its base, whilst another groove passes in an oblique fashion downwards from the base towards its apex or point, this groove existing on both front and hinder surfaces. These grooves roughly divide the heart into the four chambers or compartments which mark its interior. The groove at the base is known as the auriculo-ventricular groove. Here we find situated the blood-vessels and nerves which supply the heart walls with blood. The other oblique groove is called the inter-ventricular groove. It also contains vessels and nerves. The four cavities of the heart consist of two auricles and two ventricles, the former so-called because each of them possesses a little ear-like process at its upper part. These cavities are spoken of as the right auricle and right ventricle, and the left auricle and left ventricle respectively. Each side of the heart thus consists of an auricle above, which opens into its corresponding ventricle below. The partition already spoken of between the two sides of the heart separates the auricle and ventricle of the one side from these cavities on the other side. Auricles and Ventricles.�The auricle is the receiving com- partment of each side. It may be described as practically a reception chamber for the blood, the ventricle being the pumping or propelling chamber. The walls of the auricle are thin and of soft consistence, and in this respect contrast forcibly with the walls of the ventricles, which are extremely strong and muscular. As the left ventricle, however, has by far the greater share of the heart's work to perform, in that it has to pump blood through the whole system, whilst the right ventricle has only to transmit it to the lungs, we find the left ventricle to exhibit an extreme thickness compared with the right. Each of these four cavities of the heart is lined with a membrane of serous character called the endocardium, whilst a development of this same lining forms the beautiful valves found in the heart's interior, these latter structures being intended to direct the blood in its proper course. The nourishment of the heart, it may be mentioned, is chiefly carried out by the coronary arteries which are given off from the arch of the aorta, or main artery arising from the left ventricle itself. The blood is

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	204 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER returned from the heart by corresponding vessels known as the coronary veins. The Course of Circulation.�Before proceeding to note the exact manner in which the heart discharges its functions, we must endeavour to gain an idea of the exact course pursued by the blood in its circulation. Commencing with the pure or arterial blood coming from the lungs, we find this to be conveyed by the -pulmonary veins (Fig. 104, h) coming from each lung, which carry the blood to the left auricle. These vessels are called "veins," although they carry pure blood, because they return blood to the heart. From the left auricle (c) the blood is sent into the left ventricle (/), and by this latter cavity it is propelled all through the body. Passing into the capillaries it nourishes the body (h), as has already been described, and from

		FIG. 104.�Plan of the cir- culation. The arrows indicate the direction of the bloodflow from the lungs by the pulmon- ary veins {b) to {c) the left auricle, and (/) the left ventricle of heart, through the aorta {g) to the body {h) ; from the body by the veins {k) to (d) the right auricle, thence to right ventricle (e), and thence by (a) the pulmonary arteries, back to the lungs.	the capillaries continues its course into the veins (k). Gathered up by these latter vessels it is conveyed to the right auricle (d) of the heart, so that the blood has now arrived at the right side of the heart, but has had to make the circuit of the body in order to reach this point. From the right auricle the blood passes into the right ventricle (e). This latter cavity propels it into the lungs, where, being purified and receiving a fresh supply of oxygen, it is

converted into arterial blood, and, passing to the left auricle and left ventricle (c,/), is once more ready to begin the round of the circulation. The circulation from the left side of the heart through the body is sometimes called the greater or systemic circulation, that through the lungs being denominated the lesser or pulmonary circulation. It should be noted that each vessel which carries the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs is called pulmonary artery (a). Here, again, we should have expected a reversal of terms, seeing

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		THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 205 that it carries impure blood, but it was so named, however, from, the fact that it carries blood from the heart. The main artery which leaves the heart is called the aorta (g). This vessel springs directly from the left ventricle. For a further description of the general distribution of the arteries in the body the reader may be referred to the section of this work dealing with anatomy. The Mechanism of the Heart.�Viewing the heart as a pump- ing-engine, it is obvious that we must take into account the particular mechanism through which the blood is duly directed in its proper course. The chief interest regarding this portion of the subject centres, first, around the valves of the heart, and, second, around the subject of its nervous regulation and control. We might popularly define a " valve " of any kind as a structure intended for the purpose of regulating the flow of fluids or gases in their proper directions. In the case of the valve of an ordinary pump, we know its function to be that of preventing the return to the well of water which has just been drawn from it. Indeed the functions of most valves may be regarded as summed up in the expression that they are necessary to prevent what may be termed " back flow " or regurgitation. Two sets of valves exist on each side of the heart, the one set being practically a duplicate of the other. When the interior of the heart is examined and the auricle opened we find the right auricle receiving the venous blood from the body by means of two large vessels known as the vence cavce ; one of these, the superior, returning blood from the upper parts of the body, the other, the inferior, returning the blood from the lower parts. In the little ear-like arrangement of the auricle we find a raised appearance of its lining membrane and muscular substance resembling the teeth of a comb. To this structure the name of musculi pectinati has been given. The inside of the ventricle shows on its wall a large number of pro- jections. These consist of the muscular substance of the heart, and are covered by the lining membrane. To these projections the name of columnece carnece are given. Other projections from the wall of the ventricle are known as musculi papillares, or, in other words, " papillary muscles " The difference between these two series of projections rising from the inner wall of the ventricles is found in the fact that, whilst the columnece carnece exhibit free

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		₂o6 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER ends, the musculi papillares have attached to them certain delicate cords called ckordce tendinece. These cords are in turn attached to the flaps of certain valves to be presently described. The Valves of the Heart.�Between the auricle and ventricle of each side we find a valve dividing the one cavity from the other. On the left side the valve is known as the bicuspid (com- posed of two cusps or flaps) or mitral valve (Fig. 105, A), the latter term being derived from the resemblance of its flaps in shape to the mitre of the bishop. The corresponding valve between the

	Fig. 105.�The heart (left side), showing (in A) the valve {dd) between auricle (a) and ventricle (6) shut; in B open. At c the semilunar valves are shown open in A and shut in B ; dd are the flaps of the valve between auricle and ventricle; ee are the cords ; and ff the attachment of the cords to the ventricle wall. The arrow indicates the course of the blood.

right auricle and right ventricle is called the tricuspid valve, because it consists of three flaps. These valves may be popu- larly termed " flap valves " of the heart, seeing that they consist of flaps or folds. The remaining valves of the heart are known as semilunar valves (Fig. 105, c), this term being applied to them in reference to their somewhat half-moon shape. These latter valves are of different nature to those just mentioned. A semi- lunar valve consists of three pockets placed in a circle in the left ventricle at the entrance of the aorta or great main artery carry- ing blood to the body. The other semilunar valve of a similar nature in the right ventricle exists at the entrance to the pul-

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		\HE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 207 monary artery which, as we have seen, conveys impure blood to the lungs. How the Valves Act�The functions of these valves can now be readily understood. When each auricle contracts it sends the blood downwards into the ventricle. The succeeding contraction of each ventricle propels the blood to the body and the lungs respectively. If no valve existed between the auricle and ven- tricle, the blood would tend, on the contraction of the latter, to regurgitate, or, in plain language, to go back the way it had come. The functions of the valves between the auricles and ventricles are therefore seen to be those devoted to the prevention of any backflow into the auricle. Again, when the ventricles contract, the blood is forced out of the body and lungs respectively. As the blood-vessels receiving the blood contract, a backflow might occur into the ventricle, hence the semilunar valves (Fig. 105, c) prevent this latter result. In order to understand the manner in which the flap valves �that is, the "bicuspid" and "tricuspid" valves�act, it is necessary to remind ourselves that each of these valves consists of flaps or folds (Fig. 105) of a somewhat triangular shape, fixed by their bases round the entrance into the ventricle, and connected to the projections of the wall of the ventricle already described by the cords. When blood passes from the auricle into the ventricle the flaps press against the walls of the ventricle and allow it free ingress into that cavity (B). As, however, the blood fills the cavity, the flaps are forced up by the fluid so that the flaps meet accurately together, and the opening between the auricle and ventricle is thus closed (A). The functions of the tendinous cords and the muscular projections of the wall of the ventricle can now be understood. As the blood is attempting to force its way backwards into the auricle, the flaps are held in position by the cords, which are pulled on by the papillary muscles. A temporary but complete partition is thus formed between the auricle and ventricle (Fig. 105, A), and all risk of the flaps being floated upwards is avoided. When the ventricle has cleared itself of blood, the flaps once more assume the vertical position (B) and are pressed close to the sides of the ventricle by the next inflow from the auricle. Each semilunar valve (Fig. 105), to

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		208 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER revert to the second set of these organs, consists of three pockets placed in a circle at the entrance to the great blood-vessels leaving this ventricle. The mouths of these pockets open away from the ventricle. When the latter cavity forces blood into the vessel, the fluid stream easily rushes past the mouths of the pockets (d). If, however, any backflow took place, this would have the effect of filling the pockets, and of therefore causing their edges to approximate closely together, in which case, again, an effective barrier is formed to any regurgitation of the blood into the ventricle (c). The Heart's Action.�With reference to the action of the heart, it is found that whilst the two auricles contract together, the two ventricles also simultaneously contract, the contraction of the one following the contraction of the other. When the � ventricles are contracted to send blood out of the heart, the auricles are again expanding in order to permit of a fresh inflow of blood from body and lungs. Each ventricle expands in like manner after contraction so as to receive a fresh inflow when each auricle contracts. The Heart Sounds.�If we listen to the sounds of the heart, we note that they are of a double character, and therefore that they, so to speak, go in pairs. The first sound is long and loud, the second sound short and sharp. Between the first and second sound a short pause takes place, a longer pause existing between the second sound and the next first sound, this longer pause indicating the interval between the pairs of sounds. A know- ledge of the nature of these sounds is important from the point of view of the physician. The first sound is believed to be caused by the contraction of the ventricles and also by the closure of the flap valves. Yet another cause of the first sound is believed to consist in the contact of the heart with the chest walls. There is no doubt about the cause of the second sound. This is pro- duced by the closing of the semilunar valves. When the valves of the heart are in any way disordered, the natural sounds are more or less altered. The following diagram represents the succession of the sounds of the heart, the vertical lines representing the pauses and the straight lines the sounds, while the figures refer to the first and second

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THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD

sounds. The sounds of the heart, as heard by pressing the ear
against the wall of the chest, may be accurately enough imitated
by the word " lubb." representing the first sound, and the word

Pause

2 I

Pause
2 I

" dup," as representing the second. The contraction of the
heart cavities is called systole, and their expansion diastole. The
heart may be regarded as a rhythmic muscle; that is to say, a
muscle which has been tuned by nature to perform its work in
a regular and given manner.
If we consider that a beat
of the heart may be repre-
sented by a cycle divided
into tenths, the first sound
is estimated by physiologists
to occupy four-tenths of the
cycle, and the second sound
two-tenths. The first pause
�that is, between the two
sounds�would occupy the
one-tenth, and the second

or longer pause three-tenths.
Another mode of calculating
thj work of the heart gives
one-fifth part of a second as
the time represented by the
contraction of the auricle,

Fig. 106.�The base of the heart dissected
(from above).

Right ventricle, showing the three flaps of tri-
cuspid valve ; 2, the ring of the valve; 3, the
left ventricle and the two flaps of the mitral
valve ; 4, ring of valve ; 5, aorta and its three
semilunar valves ; 6, pulmonary artery and its
valves; 7, 8, and 9, muscular layers of heart.

two-fifths by the contrac-
tion of the ventricles, the resting period of the heart repre-
sented by the pause being calculated at two-fifths. The
beating of the heart is modified by conditions represented by
age, sex, exercise, food, and other details of life. It beats much
more quickly in early life. The recumbent posture, as in sleep,
slows the beating of the heart, and a vast amount of work is saved
during the hours devoted to rest.

vol. i. o

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		The Heart's Work and Rest.�The work of the heart or of the body at large is estimated by the foot-pound or foot-ton. The unit of work here is represented by the amount of energy or power required to raise one pound or one ton respectively one foot high. Calculated on this basis, the work of a man's heart in twenty-four hours, summed up, as it were, into one big lift, would be capable of raising 300,000 lbs. 1 foot high, or that capable of raising a man's weight (150 lbs.) 2000 feet. Another calculation gives us 120 tons as the twenty-four hours' work of the heart; that is, a force capable of lifting 120 tons weight 1 foot high. From what has been said regarding the nature of the heart beats and the pauses which occur between them, it may be said that the heart practically rests as much as it works. If we consider that the sounds represent the work of the heart, the intervals between them represent periods of rest. The heart is, therefore, in the position of a workman accustomed to take short periods of repose between spells of work. An ordinary physiological calculation is to the effect that the heart practically works for three-fifths of each cycle, and rests the remaining two-fifths. Nervous Control of the Heart.�The heart has already been shown to be controlled and governed by the nervous system. A special nervous mechanism is set apart for the purpose of govern- ing its movements. Two nervous systems exist in the human body. One of these we may call the brain system, the chief parts of which consist of the brain and spinal cord (Fig. 107, B). The other system lying in front of the spine is known as the sympa- thetic system (S), this latter system being devoted to the regulation of parts lying outside the command of the will. Embodied in the substance of the heart we find a mass of nerve cells known as cardiac ganglia (CG). These represent a small portion of the sympathetic nervous system detached, as it were, for the "home rule " of the heart. These ganglia are practically responsible for the control of the heart's ordinary work ; in other words, they exist for the purpose of stimulating its muscular fibres to contract in the discharge of its ordinary duties. A difference is generally recognised between these nervous centres of the heart itself. The vast majority are engaged in stimulating the move- ments of the heart, but one or more is devoted to what may be

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THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD

called the inhibition or restraint of the heart's action. Passing
into the heart we find the branch of a large nerve coming from
the brain system, and known as the pneumogastric or vagus (Y).
This nerve has the function of slowing the heart's action, probably
by reason of its connection with those centres of the heart
itself already mentioned as tending to inhibit its movements. A
second nerve proceeding from the sympathetic system also enters
the heart (Sy), and is connected with those ganglia which are
the cause of its ordi-
nary contractions. It is
the duty of this sympa-
thetic nerve to stimulate
or quicken the heart's

action. If the heart

be compared to a horse
which is quietly being
driven along the road
Ave might assume that

the cardiac ganglia re-
present the source of the
ordinary quiet and un-
restrained action of the
animal; whilst, on the

Fig. 107.�Diagram of nervous regulation of heart.

A, Heart; B, brain; S, sympathetic nervous system ;
BL, blood-vessel; D, depressor nerve ; Y, vagus
nerve ; Sy, sympathetic nerve; CG, cardiac ganglia;
M, centre in brain-governing blood-vessels; VM,
nerve to blood-vessels.

other hand, the vagus

nerve would represent the bit which checks its excessive speed,
and the sympathetic nerve the spur or the whip which excites it
to quicker movement.

The Depressor Nerve.�Another nerve connected with the
heart deserves attention by way of conclusion. This is known
as the depressor nerve (D), whilst it may also be spoken of popularly
as the " relief nerve " of the heart. It brings the heart intimately
into connection with the blood-vessels. Its action is of a highly
interesting character. It is brought into operation when, for
some reason or other, the heart's action is much impeded, and
when the heart shows a tendency to become exhausted over the
increased work which it is called upon to perform. In such a case
a nervous message or impression is transmitted along the depressor
nerve to the vasomotor centre (M) in the brain, the centre already

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	THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

mentioned when dealing with the regulation of the blood-vessels. The effect of this message is to restrain or inhibit the action of this centre, when, as has been already explained, the tone of the blood-vessels (BL) relaxes and, as a consequence, they dilate or expand. As it is easier for the heart to propel blood through wide and expanded channels than through narrow and contracted ones, the heart's work is in this way relieved, and any danger of collapse under ordinary circumstances avoided. The action of the depressor nerve forms an excellent example of one of those wonderful self-regulating and preservative actions so commonly met with in the study of the physiology and control of our frames.

			END OF VOL. I.

		Printed by Ha-.dl, Watson X- Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.

				Ct >?30

18 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

bricks should come in contact. The walls should be made
double if built of brick, with a space of about 2 inches between
and clamped together with iron, as bricks are very porous and
thus conducive to dampness. The inside of the walls may be
lined with coloured or white glazed bricks, but if these are found
too expensive they may be coated with cement so as to give
a smooth surface on which no filth can lodge. A method which
finds favour is to black varnish half way up the wall and white
wash above, so that the portion where the diet and excreta are
likely to collect may constantly be washed and cleaned. The
height of the wall should be 12 feet to the eaves.

Roof.�One has the choice of several materials for a roof,
each of which bears its own advantage. Galvanised iron roofs
are cheap, but give no protection as regards the changes in
temperature. Tiles and slates may be used; the former are very
durable and are not such a hot covering in summer as slates.
The thatch is the warmest roofing, and in country districts is
sometimes used, but has its disadvantages of being very inflam-
mable, and also harbours birds, rats, and vermin. The eaves
of the roof should project beyond the wall, and must be spouted
to prevent the rain-water from running, down the walls and
causing dampness. The best form of roof is the open roof, as it
allows of the entrance of fresh air and also allows the escape of
foul air through the roof. The usual plan is to provide an
opening along the ridge, protected by Louvre boards, running
either the full length of the ridge or at intervals. These Louvre
boards protect against the entrance of rain or snow. Very often
space is required over the stable for men's quarters or hay-lofts,
and it then becomes necessary to build in a ceiling, care being
taken to have no open connection with the rooms above, in the
first instance to prevent the dwelling-rooms becoming affected,
or secondly, to prevent the forage becoming tainted. It becomes
necessary in towns occasionally to have horses standing in stables
two or three stories high, in which case brick or iron should be
used to provide a fire-proof roof and floor between each stable,
thus securing an impervious partition between each compartment.

Flooring.�The two essentials for the flooring of a stable
are that it should be water-tight and not slippery. It should be