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		THE Modern veterinary adviser

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				Clydesdale Stallion, "Baron's Pride" Photo by Brown & Co., Lanark
		Frontispiece.]

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� i/oooftZ

THE MODERN
VETERINARY ADVISER

AN AUTHORITATIVE AND POPULAR GUIDE TO THE
ATTAINMENT AND PRESERVATION OF HEALTH
THE CURE OF DISEASE, AND THE TREAT-
MENT OF AILMENTS AND ACCIDENTS IN

THE HORSE

WITH SECTIONS DEALING WITH DOGS, COWS, SHEEP
POULTRY, PIGS, CAGE-BIRDS, Etc.

EDITED BY

PROFESSOR GERALD LEIGHTON, M.D., F.R.S.E.

PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY, ROYAL (dick)
VETERINARY COLLEGE, EDINBURGH

WITH SECTIONS BY OTHER SPECIALISTS

^.-<^rr~"r in five vols. vol. ii

FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH MODELS, DIAGRAMS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS
IN COLOUR AND BLACK AND WHITE

LONDON
CAXTON PUBLISHING COMPANY, LTD.

CLUN HOUSE, SURREY STREET, W.C.

RUKSUNIVERSITEIT TE UTRECHT I o T n

limn ii nun mi iiiiii......inn............,............... 'y^iu

2326 390 2

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		CONTENTS OF VOLUME II CHAPTER I Diseases of the Circulation . . CHAPTER II Cuts, Wounds, Contusions, etc.�Their Causes and Treatment CHAPTER III The Care of the Mare and Foal .... CHAPTER IV Shoeing of Horses ....... CHAPTER V Diseases of Bones and Joints ..... CHAPTER VI Various Diseases and Ailments of Horses CHAPTER VII Bacterial Diseases of Animals ..... CHAPTER VIII Bacterial Diseases of Horses ..... CHAPTER IX Animal Parasites ....,:. CHAPTER X Poisonings ........ CHAPTER XI Vegetable Poisons ..... I I V

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	vi	CONTENTS OF VOLUME II
		CONTENTS OF VOLUME II

CHAPTER XII PAGE, Animal Poisons ....... 162 CHAPTER XIII The Animal Owner's Medicine Chest, and how to use it . . 167 CHAPTER XIV General Advice on Breaking-in, Riding, Driving, Feeding . . 187

			I

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	LIST OF PLATES�VOLUME II

Clydesdale Stallion, "Baron's Pr_IDE » Hackney Filly, * Saint Monenna » Cleveland Bay Mare, « Madame - Thorouchbred Stallion, "Diamond Jubilee" Thoroughbred Sire, " Orme » Clydesdale Mare, "Floradora" . Clydesdale Mare, " R_OSADORA � _ Clydesdale Gelding, " j_OHNny » . Clyd_esdale _StallioN; _u _Darnley � LY_DESDALE _StallioNj _<(pRiNcE _qf _Carruchan� Shire Mare, » chance » Clydesdale Stallion, " Diploma » Clyd_Esdale _Staixi0Nj � _Marmon � "^EAD °^F ^Champi°n Stallion, " Dissenter » Head of Persimmon Clyd_{ESDaleStallion1(RoyalRe}-_iew))- ^LYDESDA^ Mare," Chester Pr_INCESs » ^THOR0^HBR_EDSTALLION, "GaLLINULE- ^^PonyStaLLION, "ThOR_EAU" 7^ROUGI^- Stallion," The Tinman " °^ROUGHBRED Stallion, "Cyllene" Clyd_Esdale _Stalli0Nj _w _RuBy _Pmde _(> Celtic P_ony Dartmoor p_onies
			Frontispiece . 16 . 16 � 32 � 32 40 40 � 56 � 56 64 64 . 80 . 80 . 88 . 88 . 104 . 104 . 112 . 112 . 128 . 128 � 136 . 136 ■ 144

		vii
		vii

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viii

LIST OF PLATES


		PAGE
		� i44
		. 160
		. 160
		. 168
		. 168
	� �	. 184
	� *	. 184

Dartmoor Ponies ....

Ponies in the New Forest .

Hackney Pony Stallion, " Whitegate Swell "

Hackney Mare, " Rosadora "

Exmoor Ponies ....

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		CHAPTER I Diseases of the Circulation wounds of Arteries.�Wounds occurring in arteries, as in other �issues, may be either incised, punctured, or lacerated; but no Matter what the nature of the wound may be, the important Point for our consideration is the bleeding which ensues from it. "tinctured wounds are very rarely dangerous, because the artery Walls are very elastic and quickly close any puncture which has taken place. All wounds produce more or less bleeding according as to whether the direction of the cut is transverse or oblique, and ^ePending, of course, upon the size of the artery involved. "ow to stop Bleeding.�Every one ought to know that the Proper thing to do in any case of serious bleeding in any animal, unian or otherwise, is to immediately apply sufficient pressure ° the bleeding point to stop the flow of blood. Whatever else may ^e °-⁰ⁿe afterwards, grasp the part firmly in such a way as the ^^m° can be placed upon the point from which the blood is coming. ^nat done, a tight bandage or ligature may be applied above the °und, that is to say, between the wound and the heart in the ^ase of an artery ; the object of this being to compress the vessel gainst a=- bone and so diminish the amount of blood coming [j °ugh. This can be readily done by means of a handkerchief Placed round the limb and tied in a knot at the two ends, and then, y means of a stick, twisted so tightly as to completely arrest the circulation in that part. If the artery cut be not very large the Pressure on the bleeding part will stop the immediate loss of blood, before very long the coats of the cut artery will contract and vol. ii. ⁵ ^y _A

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		2 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the bleeding will be arrested naturally. If the vessel be of a larger size, and it is found that all efforts to stop the bleeding fail, then it will be necessary to seek skilled advice and have the artery ligatured or tied. Bleeding which is of the nature of oozing from a contused or scraped surface can be stopped by steady pressure with a pad of cotton-wool or carbolised tow dipped in an antiseptic lotion, and applied for some time. The blood gradually clots in the vessels and forms a natural plug in them. Inflammation in Arteries.�This may occur both inside the artery itself, affecting its inner coat, or outside and around the artery, affecting its outer coat. The latter is not so serious, but an inflammation within an artery oftens leads to serious conse- quences by causing a coagulation of the blood within and thus obstructing the supply of blood to that part which, in its turn, will cause a loss of power in the muscles of the part. In that way it may be the cause, for instance, of lameness. A still further danger of blood thus clotting in an artery is the separation of portions of the clot, which may be carried to different parts of the body, producing similar results consequent upon loss of blood in those parts. Should a portion of clot be thus carried to the brain, it will be at once seen that the result may be a very serious one. In all such cases the treatment to be adopted is keeping the part as quiet and restful as possible, exercise being gentle, and dietetic and medicinal means as advised by the expert until the circulation is thoroughly re-established. Dilatation of Arteries.�It sometimes happens that there arises from various causes an abnormal and persistent dilatation of an artery, the result being termed an aneurism. In the domestic animals this is most common in the horse. It is the result of some weakening of an artery wall, thereby allowing it to distend beyond its usual limit. It is caused, as a rule, either by an excessive strain which overstretches the vessel, or by some local injury to the wall from a wound or a parasite. The latter occurs in the arteries of the horse especially, due to the presence of a worm. Diseases of Veins.�If a vein be wounded so as to allow the escape of blood from it, it will be observed to flow in a steady stream of a dark colour, whereas that from an artery' spurts in

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		DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATION ₃ tow iTstffi^f/ ^r:^d-^Simple ^pressure ^with ^a p^ad °^f ^carboi^d ow is sufficient to stop venous bleeding in most cases result of"¹"¹³"⁰¹¹ °^f ^Veins-^Veins �y become inflamed as the or irrit_a/r°^US ^lnJUrieS' ^and ^esP^ecially ^as the result of poisoned tion Z,1 ^W°^UndS- " ^th0Se ^wounds ^be ^sePtio the inflamma- them J ^VemS ^becomes ^a ^seri°us matter, because the blood in and ;<n^COT^g ^d°^tted^ ^iS ^Carried ^t0 ^diferent P^arts ^of the body, TreaWn? /� ^ ^the ^lungSj ^where ^il ^mav ^set ^UP pneumonia, absorb °* "^lflamed ^veins ^must be directed to promoting the ZTsTl "' ^WhiGh ^ ^be ^assisted by warm fomenta- such aw ^aPP ^lcatlon ^of ^a lister, and securing the animal in hard wall ^CaM10t "* ** ^inflamed ^P&rt ^aS^ainst ^anv affeSn^w* l^mp°^rtant ^result ^of ^any ^kind of disease or injury ^n ^°tTf "^ ^Sort ^1S> ^as � ^bave now within ₊f feeding _vhaemorrhage) which occurs, or the clot qnantiti^ofT/^'f⁰"⁵- * * ^aSt°^mShmg ^what ^largeis of ^bl°°^d ^Can ^be ^l0St ^Wlthout ^a ^fatal result, but there that 2 n ^^ey0nd ^Which ^SUch P^rofound ^an^mia °ccurs exceptt ? ' ^d0t ^itSdf ^iS ^n0t ^thC ^S°^UrCe °^f ^d^er, consfi in ? w I" * ^PrCVentS ^circulation m the part. Its danger becoming ??* ^by ^itS ^breakinS ^UP ^into ^sma11 Pieces and ming scattered in various parts of the body the domest?/ ^thC ^H₁^eart�^Heart ^disease is far more common in know If r^im ^S ^than ^thG °^WnerS ^0f ^these ^animal« usually ^which is 17 T ^COnsiders ^the ^veiT severe physical strain ^uPon do_Pr>^UP°ⁿ ^6S ⁱⁿ P^artienlar, and to a certain extent ^relativelv * ^n0t ^SUrprising that we find heart disease to be beart lies _iQ°^mmon- ^Dlsease of the membrane, in which the ^and ven/ � ^ ^COmmon ^also ⁱⁿ ^c°ws, but from quite another ^of Peculiar ^Tf "^ ^In ^them ** ^ariseS ^fr0m ^a swallowing numbers of ?h^nCeS' ^SUCh ^aS ^nails' ^bits ^of ^wire> ^nee<nes, and wall _and ar. ^;P°^mted substances, which pierce the stomach stomach Th � ^tOWardS ^th6 ^heart ^by ^the ^movements of the ^often of _a senT ^lmtate ^and ^Set ^Up ^innammation, which is carditis nth ^ature> ^and Produces the disease known as peri-* generally _d,T+ ^^ °^f ^the ^heart ⁱⁿ ^domestic animals are ue to degeneration of the muscular substance of that

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		4 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER organ as a result of the animal being overfed. The muscle becomes fatty. This is often seen in highly bred animals, whether oxen, sheep, pigs, and even horses sometimes, and perhaps most especially in pet dogs and cats. Symptoms of Heart Disease.�There is generally palpitation in most heart diseases which are of the acute type, and this may t>e evident without any structural change in the organ itself. It is felt as a violent and thumping beating of the heart, irregular in its movements. Apart altogether from heart disease, however, it should be remembered that excitable animals, especially horses and dogs, readily show palpitation. Treatment.�The great thing is rest and quiet, with the avoid- ance of all excitement, together with such drugs as may be pre- scribed. The amount of exercise to be taken will vary with the nature of the disease present, and its degree can only be estimated "by the expert. Other Heart Diseases.�In addition to the inflammatory con- ditions of the heart and its membranes, it may be further mentioned that in various animals serious damage is done to the valves of the heart as the result of rheumatic affections. In cattle tubercular inflammation of the pericardium is more common than is usually supposed, and, finally, a considerable number of parasites pass one or other stage of their existence in the heart muscles of sheep, cattle, pigs, or dogs. These parasites will be mentioned in detail in the section dealing with parasitology.

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			CHAPTER II

		Cuts, Wounds, Contusions, Etc.�Their Causes and Treatment Classification of Wounds.�Of all forms of injury or diseases which the animal owner will be called upon to treat for himself, wounds�which frequently involve bleeding�are amongst the niost important, because they must be dealt with immediately healing is to result without further trouble. On account of ^the infinite number of ways in which wounds may be inflicted ⁿere are a correspondingly large variety of them, the most im- portant of which are described under the terms incised, punctured, ^orn, lacerated, contused, superficial, deep, simple and septic. An incised wound is simply a clean cut caused by any substance which is sharp enough to separate the skin without tearing it ^ln ^any irregular way. It is usually a superficial wound. A punctured wound, on the other hand, penetrates more deeply into ^e tissues, but very often with only a small disturbance of the uriace. Indeed, its more important results are more likely to ^e place under the skin, especially if dirt or other contamination ^ay be carried in along with the instrument which makes the Puncture. Such wounds are produced, for example, by the prongs, pitchforks or other agricultural implements, the spikes of rail- gs against which animals may hurl themselves, or by malicious ¹ ^aDDmg with knives. A contused wound is one in which there is good deal of bruising or crushing of the tissues, in addition to eparation of the edges of skin. These are generally brought ^a ^0ut ^by violent blows of one kind or another�by falls in the ? t ⁰ⁿ ^nard ^roads or pavements, or on the concrete floors of ables, or by heavy weights falling upon the animal. The swell- ing which takes place in the neighbourhood of the wound is the wh"¹ h °^f ^the ^damaS^e ^done ^t0 ^tne blood-vessels of the part, from ^lc is poured out a large quantity of exudate. Lacerated °-S are more irregular. They are in the nature of a tearing 5

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		6 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER of the skin and flesh by some ragged-edged implement, or barbed wire, or something of that sort. Such wounds are very apt to be contaminated with dirt or microbes. In addition to these, superficial wounds of the skin and underlying tissues may be caused by acids, by burns, and by scaldings. Simple and Septic Wounds.�From one point of view all wounds may be divided into simple or septic, and the process of healing which has to be gone through varies very much according as to whether the wound is the one or the other. A simple wound is one in which no foreign material has entered into the tissue, and which, therefore, is enabled to heal without external irritation. A septic wound, on the other hand, is a much more serious and tedious business. This term means that along with the cut, or tear, or bruise, as the case may be, there has been carried into the wound a varying number of microbes which find a lodgment therein and, feeding upon the tissues, proceed to multiply and do further damage. Their presence is manifested a day or two after the wound occurs by the formation of a certain quantity of matter or pus, which consists of the dead cells of the part�cells which have been killed by the microbes and, together with the fluids in a tissue, ooze out from the surface of the wound in the form of a discharge. It will therefore be readily seen that the process of healing in a simple wound will not be nearly so complicated as that in a septic wound. Healing of Wounds.�Fortunately in the great majority of domestic animals wounds heal up very readily. In fact one of the most striking things about animal diseases is the extraordinary capacity of the tissues of animals to heal in spite of the most serious wounds. We are all only too familiar with the danger of open wounds in human beings, the readiness with which a wound in man becomes septic or poisoned, and the danger of the forma- tion of internal abscesses from such a septic wound. In the majority of animals almost any kind of wound will heal fairly readily even under most primitive treatment. It is due to this fact that the old methods adopted for many animal conditions were as successful as they were�not that they were justifiable� but still the wounds made by the most clumsy methods of the village farrier did heal up, thanks to this tendency of the animal

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		CUTS, WOUNDS, CONTUSIONS, ETC. ₇ th?_s^U�₊/^he ^diffe₁^rence ^between annals and human beings in the T2^eV ^1S ^Pr°^bably ^t0 ^be ^exP^lained ^ ^the ^er degree of to development of the nervous system in man, which carries to infI^apPf^6ntly ^a ^corresP°nding susceptibility of the tissues lection from microbes, and especially to those of suppuration the tw t^Ut °^r ^mClSed ^W0Und ^heals ^by immediate adhesion of accurl^ ^CeS'. ^S° ^l0ng ^aS ^the ^edg^es ^can ^be ^brouSht together in a varv ^appositlon- ^If the wound is very large it may require and L ^ng ^number ^of ^stitches put into it for the purpose of bringing ProviH T1^S ^th6 ^edg6S ^t0gether ^so ^that it ^d°es not gape, and more Tn ^W°^Und ^bG ^dean ^t0 ^beSⁱⁿ ^with ^and ^kePt so, nothing immed^₊^many ^CaSGS ^iS ^necessary- ^This process of healing by health, ^Uni?ⁿ ^1Sj °^f °^0Urse' ^most ^likely ^to ^take P^lace in strong the anLT? ^m ^g°^0d ^condition- ^Xt ^ less likely to occur if at all A ^m ^P°°^r ^condition ^or out of health, for any reason abl_v ir, ) i °^Ut ^W°^Unds ^heal ^Up ^by ^this method almost invari- in all _n, vV§^enerally ⁱⁿ P^s, also in dogs, cattle, and sheep, excenti * fu ^anmals ^adheSi°ⁿ ^readiiy ^takes P^lace- ^The one is the h ^m ^domestic ^animals to this ready method of healing ^action nf^rSG; ^mthlS ^animal ^there ^is ^a ^far ^greater tendency to the 01 organisms to produce a purulent discharge than in others ^by imrn^ln? ^ ^Granulation--Any wound that does not heal up Process «?^ar. ^Uni°ⁿ ^d°^eS ^S° ^by ^what ^is ^termed granulating, a in which f ^1S ^S6en ⁱⁿ ^aU °^pen ^Sores ^and ^ulcers> ^or ^ ^any wound together j^^Y ^r�^S°ⁿ ^whats°ever the edges cannot be brought wounds ' ^1S ^therefore ^more common in torn or lacerated destruction¹" Tl�* °^aS6S ^where ^there ^has ^been a considerable over thp � ^aCtUal ^surface> ^and where the skin has to grow granulat^⁰¹¹^ ""� ^ThuS ^tt ^is ^Seen ⁱⁿ ^burns ^and scalds. A minute hf T ^Y ^1S ^a ^Httle ^P°^int ^of ^tissue ^which is composed of tissue of f °^d:^Vessels> together with a little supporting fibrous ^bright red +? ^ ^T° ^the ^naked ^ey^e these points look they readii u , ^SUrfaCe °^f ^the ^wound> ^and ^from their delicacy however Z T ^ ^M ^t0UChed °^r ^irritated- ^They gradually, ^mate meth V _f^er^6anS °^f P^roducing the scar which is the ulti- ^becomes cow a u^ ^m ^SUCh ^a ^WOund' ^the ^surface ^of which ^0ver the wn, 7, ^Y ^& ^gr°^wth °^f ^the epithelium gradually growing wound from its edges. The scar itself is a hard mass of

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		8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER fibrous tissue, and in it are not reproduced either hairs or secreting glands. It remains, therefore, as a permanent disfigurement, and is often a source of the depreciation in value of an animal either for the purpose of sale or exhibition, though the animal may at the same time be perfectly strong and sound, and as able for its work as it was before. A wound which is healing by granulation and the surface of which is raw and is exuding matter or discharge, is often spoken of as proud flesh. Such wounds may take a consider- able time to heal, depending upon the extent and the number and kind of organisms which have set up the process of suppuration. Treatment of Wounds, Cuts, &c.�Naturally the first thing to do to an animal which is suffering from a cut or other wound will be to stop all bleeding, if any be present (see blood- vessels, p. i). That done, the essential further treatment of the wound is directed to the ensuring of perfect cleanliness. Clean- liness in this sense means freeing the wound from any possible contamination which may hinder its healing : the contamination which usually does so being some of the various microbes which are often contained in earth or dust or hair, or other particles carried into the wound. Waste no time, therefore, in applying a plentiful stream of clean tepid water�cold water will do quite well�in order to wash away as much as possible all the above sources of irritation. Remove any blood clots which may be lying in the wound, take out with the fingers or a pair of forceps any solid particles of any kind which are not washed out, clip the hair close round the edges of the wound so that the dust contained in it does not contaminate the cut. If possible, now bring the edges of the wound closely and gradually together, and if the wound be a very small one and the edges remain opposed nothing further is required. If, on the other hand, the wound be larger and there be much apparent contamination or danger of such, it will be well in the first place to use an antiseptic lotion with which to wash the wound, the object being to destroy all living germs within it. Then, if the edges gape, it will be necessary to place one or more stitches between the edges in order to cause adhesion. Those stitches may be what are termed continuous, like the stitch of a glove, or they may be placed in separate stitches about half an

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		GUTS, WOUNDS, CONTUSIONS, ETC. 9 inch apart. Very small wounds can be made to adhere by apply- mg the substance known as collodion, or a piece of sticking-plaster niay be used. For a ready disinfectant in the larger wounds a solution of 1 in 20 of carbolic acid will answer the purpose, except m dogs, in which animals it is better to use a 5 per cent, solution of chinorol. Treatment of Open Wounds.�If the amount of tissue destroyed by the wound be so great that it cannot be stitched up, and if there is inevitably an open sore left, then the treatment will vary accordingly and will be directed towards first cleansing it as before; secondly, keeping it perfectly clean and free from germs; ^and, thirdly, if necessary, stimulating it to heal up. The cleansing will be done with the same antiseptic solutions as before, and large open wounds should be thus " dressed " night and morning, and thereafter have applied to them some antiseptic powder such as boracic acid or iodoform before being covered with some protect- ^lng wool secured by a bandage. Should the wound show a tendency to remain unhealed, various stimulating ointments, lotions, or powder may be used. Treatment of Burns and Scalds.�Open wounds, the result of a burn or a scald, rarely have to be treated if very severe, because fatal results usually follow from internal complications, or else the animal has to be destroyed to put it out of its agony, or on ^account of the contraction which would follow the formation of ^a very extensive scar. If, however, the burn or scald be only ^sught, it should be treated just as in any other open wound, the two essential points being the initial cleanliness and subsequent Protection from the air. The pain may be relieved by various °-^rugs, and the surface of the burn treated with a soothing oil� ^which may at the same time be antiseptic�and the part covered With cotton-wool. In order to complete the healing process it ^ls frequently necessary to assist nature by skin-grafting, which ^requires the skill of the expert. Acute Abscess.�It will be convenient to consider here the mode of formation and the results of abscesses, because they bear ^Very close relationship to wounds of different kinds, and, indeed, ^ne minute germs which are the exciting cause of the production an abscess very frequently gain their entrance into the body

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		through a wound. That wound may be extremely minute or even microscopic, and frequently it will elude observation. It may be caused by the bite of an insect, the prick of a thorn, or the separating of a hair, all of which small injuries create a wound quite large enough to allow the organisms of suppuration to gain entrance into the tissues. If this happens, and the organisms proceed to multiply at the spot where they gained entrance, their effect is very soon manifested on the tissue itself, which is to a greater or less extent killed. The dead cells, together with the exudate from the blood-vessels, form matter or pus, and if this matter cannot find a ready exit on to the surface and so discharge itself, it increases in amount up to a certain extent and becomes enclosed in a more or less fibrous wall or capsule, the whole thing constituting an abscess. Now once this process of the formation of pus has begun it tends to spread, and the pus itself does so naturally in the direction of the least resistance, that is to say, the direction in which the tissues can be most readily destroyed or infiltrated. Thus, in the case of a boil on the neck�which is a good example of an acute abscess on a small scale�the matter sooner or later finds its way to the surface of the skin, the abscess " points," as it is said, and eventually discharges its contents. That is the best thing that can happen for the patient. But if for some reason the contents cannot reach the surface and the matter still goes on increasing, it burrows in various directions, destroying tissues as it goes, and sometimes in this way reaches to a point at a considerable distance from the original site of formation. Thus we sometimes see an abscess discharging itself at the lower portion of the leg, in which the formation of the matter had taken place as far distant as between the muscies of the thigh. The grave danger from an acute abscess arises from its being unable to discharge its contents externally. In such cases the contents may rupture into internal organs, such as the lungs, or into the cavity of the abdomen, or even into a blood- vessel, the latter being a most serious complication. The pus is then carried by the circulation all over the body, and is deposited sooner or later in the minute capillaries in different positions, and in each of these positions there is a starting-point thus prepared for a new abscess formation. This condition is termed pycemia.

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		CUTS, WOUNDS, CONTUSIONS, ETC. n From what has been said it will therefore be readily understood that the essential point in the treatment of an acute abscess is to open it early and to allow its contents to escape. Treatment of Abscesses.�The important point being to secure the evacuation of the pus or the matter in the abscess, the means °f treatment must be directed to that end. Warm poultices or hot fomentations or blistering agents are employed in the early stages to bring the abscess to a head. They also relieve the tension m the part and hence relieve the pain. Instructions are given elsewhere as to the making of poultices and the materials they should contain, but it may be pointed out here that they should be put on warm (about ioo° F.) and replaced or removed on becoming cold or dry. Moreover, if poulticing be adopted at all, it should oe persevered with until the hard matter becomes soft or " fluc- tuating " in the centre, which indicates that it is becoming well liquefied. It should, however, be borne in mind that the quickest way to cure an abscess, once the pus is formed, is to open it surgi- cally with a lancet or a sharp knife which has been previously dipped in a solution of carbolic acid. The point of the lancet should be introduced exactly in the centre of the thinnest portion °f the skin over the abscess, and a free incision then made large enough to permit of free discharge and drainage of all the dead Matter contained within. Should the abscess be in such a situation which renders it probable that it is in close contact with the important structures or organs, it should always be placed in the hands of the expert whose knowledge of anatomy is necessary in ^or"der to avoid danger in cutting. Both blood-vessels and nerves ^are frequently involved in the area, and bleeding or paralysis will follow an ignorant incision. If there be any difficulty in securing ^a free and ready discharge of pus it will be necessary to insert a drainage tube, or some horse hair, or silk, or other means to allow °t the continued discharge of the matter. These agents should ^De thoroughly well soaked in a solution of carbolic acid (i in 40) before being placed in position. They will be gradually with- drawn day by day as the cavity of the abscess gradually heals up ^0m the bottom, care being taken that the opening made be not allowed to close up as long as there is any discharge coming from "the inside.

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			CHAPTER III

		The Care of the Mare and Foal The breeding of horses will always form an important branch of agriculture, and, apart from the many trades in which the horse is regularly employed, large numbers will, as long as there are green fields, be bred for pleasure, i.e. hunting, racing, showing, polo, &c. Owing to a shortage of cavalry horses for the army, it has been suggested by prominent politicians that the Government should have stations for breeding cavalry remounts, or adopt some scheme to increase the production of suitable horses by present breeders. The first object of any one wishing to breed horses should be to produce sound healthy stock. To attain this the parents must be free from hereditary disease. An animal may be lame from various causes, such as overwork, injury, or age, and not transmit the defects to its offspring, but horses suffering from either ringbone, sidebones, or navicular disease, or affected with such diseases as roaring, shivering, stringhalt, grease, or spavin, or badly formed feet and limbs should not be all allowed to breed. With these few remarks we will pass on and endeavour to confine ourselves to those points in common which all should know who have the care of the mare and foal. No advantage would result from a discussion of the various breeds from Shetland to Shire or Arab to thoroughbred, although each has peculiarities both of temperament and conformation, which are closely studied by the owners and breeders with the object of improving or deleting points likely to improve their particular class of animal. The health of the mare is the first consideration. It is of great importance both before and after foaling. As soon as it is found that a mare is in foal, she should be given special atten- tion, both as regards food and work. If she is not working it is

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		THE CARE OF THE MARE AND FOAL 13 only necessary to give additional food in the winter months, with a constant supply of pure water and proper shelter. In some cases the mares will foal out, and if the weather is warm will do well. In any event they need not be taken up until practi- cally on the point of foaling. Working mares should be kept regularly at gentle work right up to the time of foaling, but must not be fatigued or ill-treated in any way. Heavy shafting in the case of a draught mare is not advisable. As time draws on, the mare usually becomes more sluggish in her work and should be allowed to go at her own pace, and not unduly urged to over-exertion. In-foal mares should be fed often and in small quantities, so as not to overload the stomach, causing colic and indigestion. Some in-foal mares are subject to these attacks, which can usually be traced to indiscretions of diet. In such cases extra care should be observed in feeding, both as to the quality and quantity of the food given. A change in either should be gradual, for repeated attacks of colic may lead to complications of a serious nature. It is not advisable to give drugs or drinks for these attacks of colic, except the ordinary colic draught, unless otherwise pre- scribed by a veterinary surgeon, as unsuitable medicines may cause abortion and endanger the life of the mare. When the mare has an attack of colic do not allow her to roll or lie down, as so doing may cause injury that could have been prevented by keeping her on her legs. A note should be made of the date on which each mare is ex- pected to foal. The time is calculated from the last service. The ordinary period is forty-eight weeks. Thus a mare served on May 1st would be due to foal on April ^Jst of the following year. The period of gestation may be shorter, ^v*z. 310 days or, longer, 380 days. This is due to various circumstances, such as cross-breeding, poor condition, &c. Thoroughbred animals and Arabs carry their young longer than 'he heavier breeds. The period shortens with the age of the ^a-re, and the male foetus is usually carried longer than the female. The usual indications that the mare is near foaling are the enlargement of the udder or mammary gland and dropping of the

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		14 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER muscles of the quarters, commonly called waxing and slackening respectively. Ten days or a fortnight before the mare is due to foal, a box should be prepared by thoroughly cleansing all the floors, walls, ceiling, and drains with a suitable disinfectant fluid. The walls should afterwards be lime-washed or tar-varnished. If possible, the box should not communicate with other stables, mistals, or folds. The box should have plenty of light and fresh air, but no draughts. The most suitable bedding is good clean straw or sawdust with some straw on the top. Peat-moss is also suitable for boxes, but whatever bedding is used the box should be kept thoroughly clean and all drains clear by periodically flushing with disinfectant. The mare should be closely watched until she has foaled safely, but must not be disturbed. It is a good plan to be able to observe the mare, without entering the box, through some aperture in the door or window, for if all is right the chances are she will foal herself without assistance. If there is any difficulty and she is not able to pass the foal, a veterinary surgeon should be sent for at once, as prompt action in this respect may save both the mare and the foal. A mare, after she has commenced to foal, should not be allowed to " hang fire." Some breeders give the veterinary surgeon notice of the expected event. This prepares him for the sudden call made upon him if his services are required. After the mare has foaled the foetal membranes should come away naturally within two or three hours. If they do they should be removed from the box and the mare's thighs and legs sponged down with some warm water, mixed with a little disinfectant. If they remain they must on no account be cut or pulled away from the mare, but removed as soon as possible by an experienced veterinary surgeon. No animal goes wrong so quickly from the retention of the foetal membranes as the mare, and neglect in such cases is a fruitful cause of inflammation of the womb, resulting generally in the death of the mare. If the mare foals all right, the attendant should clear the nostrils and mouth of the foal, and tie the umbilical cord or navel

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		THE CARE OF THE MARE AND FOAL i₅ t^twl? ^inCh ^fH ^the ^b°^dy °^f ^the ^f0al> "** stable ^a* a solution ?^r'^V10US ^y ^b6en ^S°^aked ⁱⁿ ^S°^me ^^ctant, such Want's han_ds ^ _MT°T ^Sublimate " * ⁱⁿ ^00. The ktten- ^es2^T^ I⁶¹¹ ^Waf^Gd ^With ^Carb0Hc ^SOaP ^before ^h* nece_SSa_rv IT "� ^ ^tymg °^f ^the ^UmbiHcal ^Cord ^is ^not ^always opening ^Cann0t ^d° ^harm' ^and ^assists ^nature ^to heal the answersver^ M^ 'T°& ^ ^br6ederS ^tie ^ft ⁱⁿ ^a ^knot' ^whichwers very well m place of a ligature. and JrtS! ^ ⁿ°^W ^bG ^gently ^rubbed ^down ^with ^a ^wisP of hay V �W l^he ^marC ^bdng ^all0wed ^to ^finish ^the P^r°cess to mak.\ ⁶ ^fine ^Salt ^sP^rinkled on the foal's back is said ^tQo muchtrr ^take ^t0 ^{t ^betten ^In ^the ^maJ^ority ^of Stances shouldble\^fGrenCe ^at ^this ^stage ^is detrimental, and the pair oatmeal _gru_el ^maFe ^Sh°^Uld ^be ^0ffered ^a ^bucket ^of ^aired dam^l!?^ ^W^ ^S°⁰ⁿ " ^find ^itS ^feet " ^and commence to suck the do so. ^ll ^does ^not, ^ should be steadied a bit and coaxed to that if* ^marej^S ^Uneasy' ^a ^foreleg ^heinS held up is sometimes all of ma-pc?^mr, ^qmeten ^hen ^Cases ^are ^on record, however, these i�L ^ng ^6d °^r seriously injured their foals, but luckily instances are the exception, not the rule. acts as^S_a^lmPf°^rtant ^that ^the ^f°^al ^should ^get ^the ^first ^milk; ^f°r it ^and if not+r^ ^purgative- ^Xt is, however, not alwavs sufficient, ^tahlesDonnf i ^Sa ^remedy ^is ^castor-oil, of which two or three pooniuls may be given. ^year and¹⁶! °V^he ^mare ^WiH ^greatly ^deP^end ^uP^on ^the time of the Sreen fodd , ^C°^nsist °^f ^bran ^and ^linseed ^mashes> ^Cfushed oats, ^have a nW* 7 P^r°curable, and a little hay. She must always The ^SUpply °^f ^pure ^fresh ^water- ^Cold ancT^t ^and ^foal ^should ^not ^be turned out if the weather is ^is a weak Z' ^ ^n0t ^m ^any ^event ^for several days. If the foal ^bef°re Roinp ' ? 5 ^be ^better ⁱⁿ ^the ^box ^for ^at least ten days ^the time trl ' ^pr0CeSS ^should ^be g^radual ^hY* increasing ⁱⁿ ^bad weat W* "J^the ^fidd ^6aCh ^day- ^They ^should ^be taken up out altogether ** ^night ^UUtil * ^iS ^Warm ^en0Ugh ^for ^stayⁱⁿS

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		16 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER The pasture should be free from dangerous holes, broken glass, defective gates, fences and barbed wire, &c, liable to cause injury to the mare or foal. If it is necessary to work, the mare should not be kept too long away from the foal, and should always be allowed to cool down for a quarter of an hour after she comes in. Before going to the foal her udder should be sponged with a little aired water. The most serious and fatal disease young foals are liable to develop is commonly called Navel 111, Joint 111, or Foal 111. It is much too serious a complaint to be treated by anyone but a qualified veterinary surgeon, and no time must be lost in obtaining his early attendance. The symptoms may appear in a few days, but usually when the foal is about a week old. The first noticeable symptom is often lameness in one or more limbs, with swelling of the joints, and the attendant is apt to think that the mare has trodden on the foal. A further examination, however, will reveal a constant dribbling from the navel opening, particularly when the foal is passing water. The disease is due to a specific organism, and skilled veterinary assistance is necessary to check it. Constipation is a source of some trouble in young foals, and may be caused by the mare's milk if she is improperly fed upon too much hard food. This can be remedied by changing her food to green stuffs or sloppy bran and linseed mashes. When the cause can be traced, as is often the case in older foals, to dry food they have eaten, a dose of castor-oil soon puts matters right, provided the cause is removed. Diarrhoea or scour is also a source of considerable trouble and danger to the foal. It is often due to the.condition of the mare's milk ; also chills and defective drainage will cause diarrhoea. A few handfuls of ground barley given to the mare with dry food, the stoppage of all green food, and keeping the mare and foal in for a few days will improve matters. In these cases it is advisable to try and find the cause of the trouble and remove it if possible. In severe cases where the foal looks dull and refuses to suck the mare further, advice should be obtained without delay, as the disease rapidly pulls down the foal's strength and may end fatally.

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		Hackney Filly, "Saint Monenna' Photo by Reid, Wishaw

			Cleveland Bay Mare, " Madame' Photo by Reid, "Wishaw

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		THE CARE OF THE MARE AND FOAL i₇ foal^Srt^meS ^ ^m°^ther ^haS ^not ^sufficient ^milk ^t0 support the Theses sl^ f/^nd ^thG ^f0al ^haS ^to ^be ^brouS^ht ^UP ^ ^hand- water T, , ?' ^fOT ^the ^mare'^s ^milk ^is ^cow'^s ^milk> with a little mixw k .? ^Sweetened with honey. We have tried various The fo i ^had ^the ^best ^results ^with ^the ^one mentioned. the _vr i ^S°°ⁿ ^bG ^taU§ht ^t0 ^drink ^hy P^uttinS ^the ^hand ⁱⁿto fingers ^C°^ntaimnS ^the ^milk and allowing the foal to suck the shouJrT¹³ u^eC°^me ^Very ^docile ^when P^roPerly handled. They If the f 1 ⁶ ^a ^llgM ^head ^C0llar ^put ^on ^and ^tau§^nt ^to ^lead- thisre w ^t0 ^be ^Sh°^Wllj ^{t ^cannot ^have ^t0° ^much attention in and fan manners often mean the difference between success thati/^UreL ^In ^the ^showing an animal should be tractable, so i can be shown to the best advantage in all its paces, time* J? r^eJ^oal ^is ^a ^few days or up to a month old it is some- animai ? / ^t0 ^d°^Ck ' ^This §^reatly ^deP^ends ^on ^the class of certain! ^they ^are ^intended ^for ^the show-ring. Docking thev ?^VeS ^hackney ^and ^shhe foals a better appearance when it is d T?^Wn ^aS ^f°^alS' ^They ^get °^ver ^the °P^eration easily. If callv °^ne l ^an ^exP^erienced veterinary surgeon there is practi- it is a° ^nS i ^S°^me ^Pe°^ple °^b]eCt ^t0 ^docking ^on ^the ground that eriminatl ^ ^unnecessarv operation; so it is, to dock indis- _VerJ^h°^roug^hbreds, ^trotters> ^and ^many ^other breeds are never, or share ^y' ^d°^Cked ^at ^any ^a^^e- Fashion, too, takes no small* tion _t!ⁿ ,^regulatmg the length of the horse's dock. It is an opera- ownersH ^CT ^be ^performed ^at ^any ^age, and, as a rule, individual have th ⁶ ^f°^r ^themselves as to whether they will or will not reader ^ammals ^docked- ^What we wish to impress upon the p_erf ^r ^ls that, should the operation be deemed necessary, it be narv°^rmed ^ ^a ^pr°^pef ^surg^ical manner by a fully qualified veteri- prof ^SUrgeon" ^There are many men going about the country who andT >,°r^d° ^tMS ^&nd °^ther °P^erations. They place cobwebs wond ^UC abominable dressings on the animal's dock. No ^done T 11^ ^SUCCumb- ^We ^do ^not advocate docking when it is do allⁿ f*^S.^Cruel ^and disgusting manner, and we trust owners will to ih ., Power to discourage these quacks, and so put an end ° their barbarous methods. VOL. II. B

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		i8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER The feet of the foal require attention during the time it is turned out. Sometimes, if the ground is hard and the summer dry, the horn of the wall of the foot will break, or it may grow unevenly. In each case the rasp should be used to take off the rough edges or alter the shape of the hoof. The operator in this case must be guided by reason and his experience as to how much to take off. It is usual to requisition the blacksmith to do this work. It is customary to have foals shod for the show-ring, and also the mare's shoes are at the same time removed or new ones put on if required. This should be done two or three days before the show day, and even a little earlier, to allow them to get accustomed to the new condition. We have known many an anxious owner disappointed when he saw his foal groggy and stumbling or the mare stiff and lame, due to having been shod and travelled to the show ground without a sufficient rest between. The shoes should be taken off after the foal has been shown. If a foal goes lame when out at grass, and the cause not found, always examine the foot, for foals are liable to injuries in that region, and, if not detected early, the foal suffers much unnecessary pain and rapidly loses condition, as well as requiring a longer period of convalescence. Foals sometimes suffer from worms, but are more liable to become infested with these pests as they get older. The surest indication that the animal is the host of these parasites is to dis- cover the foal passing them. If a foal does not appear to thrive the dung should be carefully examined for the presence of worms. Common salt in tablespoonful doses, mixed with good sound crushed oats given every other day, will often improve the con- dition of the foal, and is a good all-round anthelmintic, but we advise taking the particular worm to a veterinary surgeon, who will prescribe the medicine and treatment suitable for its destruction. A foal is generally weaned when it is about six or eight months old. It is then able to eat and support itself without the aid of the mother. Some foals commence to eat very early, particularly if the mare is not a good milker. If an owner wishes to force a foal, plenty of cow's milk given each day in addition to the dam's, even if she is a deep milker, will improve its size and condition.

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		THE CARE OF THE MARE AND FOAL i₉ once^ °₁7^ner_J^haS ^SGVeral ^f0als ^they ^should ^a11 ^be ^weaned at shut !n 7 ^t0 ^mn °^Ut ^to§^ether- ^TheY are usually at first till thev ,ⁿ+V°r^e"^b°^X °^r ^ShGdj ^and ^given ^food ^and ^water t¹¹^⁶as possihl %u°^Wn' ^The ^mare ^or ^mares ^are ^taken ^as ^far away loses her -IV ^y ^S°⁰ⁿ ^f°^rget ^6ach °^ther' ^and ^the ^mare ^raP^idly the udd ^lt ^1S ^thC ^custom ^with ^some to smear treacle on certaini ^Gr/^S ^S°⁰ⁿ ^aS ^the ^foal ^is ^taken ^away ^from the mare, and it ' _Tjniy does seem to assist the drying process. turned⁶ T7^& ** ^thiS ^StagG ^g°^eS °ⁿ ^with ^her ^regular work, or is routine ^U\ ^Wlth °^ther ^horses> ^and ^only requires the ordinary ^0utme up to the next foaling. * oats br^f°^{alShOUldbeWellfeddurin}S^thewintermonths. Crushed ^ixed w�k ^ail^d ^chopP^ed ^hay and a small quantity of treacle straw 1 I ^f°°^d ^is ^the ^safest ^diet- ^Some §^ive hopped ^ountof¹? au ^gr°^Und ^maize, barley, &c, but a liberal as the n + should always be given during the winter months, Port the!, ^rarely ^yidd ^sufficient nutriment to properly sup- Pays so /T ^growinS ^frame ^of the young horse. No animal ^Many ₀f It ^ ^lmP^roves ^so ^rapidly for good feeding as a horse, hunger d ^End ^weakly constituted horses are produced by existence w? ^the ^winter ^months. They live, but it is a bare The expense of their constitution, but bv ^SUCCessful feeder does not attain his position by luck, Parative _n '■^6Xpenence> and attention to detail. Even a com- would _eai °^V1C(2 ^Wlth ^the ^aid ^of ^the ^advice S^iven ⁱⁿ this chapter, difficulties thT^Clent ^knowledg^e to successfully surmount many °f expert ^WOUld ^otherwise be insuperable without years f ^ence m the breeding of horses.

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		CHAPTER IV

	Shoeing of Horses

The bones concerned in the joint of the fetlock are the cannon or large metacarpal bone extending from the knee down to the fet- lock, and at the lower end this bone articulating with the long pastern bone technically known as the Os Suffraginis. Posteriorly at the lower end of the cannon bone there are two smaller bones articulating with it. These bones are held in position by liga- ments, and are all concerned in the formation of the fetlock joint. Below the fetlock joint are found three bones of various sizes and shapes. The first of these is the long pastern or os suffraginis articu- lating at its upper extremity with the cannon bone, and its lower extremity with the short pastern bone or os corona. The joint formed by this articulation is known as the pastern joint. The short pastern bone articulates below with the coffin bone or os pedis. This joint, formed by their articulation, is found within the hoof. The coffin bone is of an irregular and pyramidal Fig. i. � correct shape, the anterior and lateral surfaces are angle of fetlock _crescentic in shape, while the solar surface is somewhat domed. From its posterior edges extend the wings of the bone, giving attachment to the lateral cartilages which extend upwards and backwards. Under certain circumstances these cartilages undergo ossification and are then known as side bones. This trouble is most often met with in the heavier breeds of horses. Another small bone situated transversely on its long axis, and articulating with the os corona and the os pedis, is known as the navicular bone or os navicularis. The tendon known as the perforans plays over this bone on which it acts somewhat in the manner of a pulley. This tendon is the

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SHOEING OF HORSES 21

Se on?]!" °^f ^ ^llmb- ^The ^tendon ^is ^then ^inserted ^to the

The _i0W + ^P°^Stt^r<>interior edge of the os pedis or coffin bone.

ie joints to which we have referred-

thT & ^ ^f6tl0ck' ^the P^ast<^ and
ne co_ffin joint-only permit of exten-
di and flexion, and are known as
ⁿⁱⁿge joints.

is ^ii°^d ^and ^Nerve ^SuPPly�The foot
bran h ^SUpplled ^^ blood by small

dow 1 ^fr°^m ^an ^artery ^which P^asses_tendⁿ ^the ^back and inside of the

bone°^nST^SltUated ^behind ^the ^cannontwo ' ^large ^artery divides into

the_Sp^POrtl0nthe la^T

itera!

Fig. 2.�Exterior of hoof.
A. Coronet. E. )

_�,�■, - - B. Coronary band. _F. | Quarter.

cartilages, while these once c. Wail.

Heel.

D. Toe.

H.1

_su §^lve off minute branches to ^m^^^M

PP y the foot. A number of these small arteries enter the

coffin bone, which is particularly well
supplied with blood-vessels. These
arteries are accompanied by nerves
which, on reaching the fetlock, divide
into numerous branches, the largest
branch of which accompanies the
main artery. With the presence of
the profuse nerve supply it is an
easy matter to understand that the
foot is a very sensitive part of the
horse's anatomy, which is well seen

^IG- 3�Section of foot.

from the numerous cases of foot

G. Perforans tendon.

lameness and the intense pain from

^raginis.

� ^0s corona
' ^0s pedis.

H. Skin.
I. Pad,

an injury which causes inflammation
to set in within the hoof.

The Development of the Hoof.�-
This is formed from secreting struc-
tures^� epidermis � at the coronet.

navicular

^E- ExteZIT? J' ^H°�y wall.
--r tendon K. Frog.

L. Heel.

Perfo

"�atus tendon.

Th"

skin ^ep_A^ldermj ^is an outer layer of skin which covers the true
^ound the top of the hoof, just where the hair ceases,

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22 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

may be seen a light-coloured band, which secretes a natural
varnish, forming a thin outer crust to the wall of the hoof,
preventing the horn of the hoof becoming too dry by
evaporation. This secreting band is known as the perioplic
ring, and as it forms a natural waterproof covering, it pre-

Sole.

side. Front. Back.

Fig. 4�Four aspects of hoof.

vents the horn itself becoming soaked if a horse is exposed to
moisture for any length of time. In order to understand some
of the more deeply seated structures of the foot the horny part
should be removed. When this is done we note at the top of the
foot a projecting cornice-like structure, which extends round the

FlG. 5.�Horny wall.

A,A'. Top of wall.

B. Position of coron-

ary band.

C. Front of wall.

D. Horny lamina;.

E. Point of frog.

F. Horny sole.

Fig. 6.�Sensitive foot.

A. Coronet. D."> Sensitive

B. Coronary band. E. J sole.
C Sensitive laminas.

coffin bone from one bulb of the heel to the other, when it is in-
flected and passes forwards and inwards, extending along the side
of the sensitive frog, and becomes lost near the point of the frog.
This coronary band is about four-fifths of an inch in depth in
the front, and gradually becomes narrower as it reaches the heels.

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SHOEING OF HORSES

Its surface is closely studded with papillae from one-twelfth to
one-third of an inch in length, these being again covered by cells
which form the tabules of the horn of
the wall. Situated below the coronary
band are seen a number of leaves
placed parallel to each other. They
cover the anterior and lateral aspects
of the pedal bone and the lower portion
of the lateral cartilages. On reaching
the bulbs of the heels they turn in-
wards and forwards. Each of the
laminae is fixed by its posterior edge
to the periosteum of the bone. They

_a_ 1 ^J Fig. 7.�Sensitive sole.

�"c longest at the toe, becoming _A, _Toe. _D. _HeeK

gradually shorter as they pass towards ^B- Sensitive frog. e. outer buttress.

+]-,� i 1 �,- . .. C. Sensitive bars. F. Inner buttress.

^ll«; neei. these leaves are known as

the sensitive laminae. The sensitive sole is that part covered
^by the frog and bars. It is covered by villi, which are few and
short, and these again are covered by cells which form the horny
sole. The sensitive frog covers the lower surface
of the plantar cushion, and passes into the coronary
band at the bulbs of the heel. Its lower surface is

Fig. 8__Frog an exact mould of the upper surface of the horny

^ar>d coron-
ary band.

frog, being pointed in front, and carrying a single

ridge; while behind it is divided by a mesial cleft

which is for the reception of the frog stay of the horny sole.

the whole of the sensitive frog, with the exception of its lateral

aspects, is covered by papillae or villi, and these again by cells

which secrete the horn fibres. The horny capsule

is composed of the wall, bars, sole, and frog. The

wall is that portion of the hoof which is seen when

Fig. g.-sen-
^s'tive sole.

the foot is placed upon the ground. It covers the

anterior and lateral aspects. It extends from the

hair at the coronet to the plantar or bearing surface.

^e ^WaU may be arbitrarily divided into toe, quarters, and

-els. Externally it is smooth, covered by periople. Internally

is traversed from above to below by 500 to 600 horny

ammae, which interlock with the sensitive laminae. The

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24 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

coronet carries the cutigeral groove in which rests the coronary
band. Where the lower and larger border meets the sole there

is a distinct white line. The
thickness of the wall varies. It
is thickest at the toe, and be-
comes gradually thinner as it
passes towards the heels. The
more upright the foot the finer
is the horn, and the better bred
the animals the thinner the wall.
The wall is the same thickness
from just below the cutigeral
groove down to the plantar border.
The fore feet should form an angle

Uu.er aspect.

Inner aspect.

Fig. io.�Parts of the sole.

with the ground of 45 ° to 55°.

G,G'. Sole.

H,H'. Point of frog.

1,1'. Middle lacunae of

frog.
JJ'. Frog.

The bars are the reflected ter-
minations of the wall at the heel
or buttress. After being reflected
they run inwards and forwards

A, A'. Side of fro:
B,B\ Toe.
C,C. Quarter.
D,D'. Heel.
E,E'. Bar.
F,F'. Sole.

K.K'. Buttress of heel. , j ,1 � , <■ ,> , ,

toward the point of the frog, but
the two bars do not unite, neither do they meet. The sole, from
which all loose flakes have been removed, is about as
thick as the wall. It covers the under surface of the
foot, except that part covered by the bars and frog,
while the lower surface is concave, being more so in
the hind feet than in the fore. Fig. n.-Soie

a n 1 , i of hoof.

Growth of the Hoof.�All the parts grow down-
wards and forwards uniformly. It takes the toe eleven to
thirteen months to grow from the coronet to the plantar border,
the quarters from five to seven months, and
the heels three to four. The hind hoofs grow
faster than the fore, unshod faster than the
shod hoofs, and in mares and geldings growth

FIG. 12.�Horny wall
of hoof.

is faster than in stallions. In some young colts

that have a difficulty in getting down to graze
during their youngest days, the limb below the fetlock becomes
directed inwards. This form is known as pigeon toe (Fig. 61;
vol. i.). The external wall of the hoof in this condition becomes

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 25 s^Vh⁰o^rLT^y ^m°^re ^than ^the ^internaL ^When ^thls ^occ^ the foot srow^ _t °^CCasionally ^ssed with the rasp, and any uneven growth of horn should be removed, but not lowering the wall a litt? t 1 °^f ^the ^S°^le' ^ES ^{t ^should ^always ^be ^allowed ^to Project at +W � ^thlS* ^When ^the ^wal1 ^is ^allowed ^to §^row ^to° ^long �as +7 ^ ^1S ^V6ry ^Uable ^t0 ^break ^off ^at ^each ^side> ^and ^if ^the ^toestruct ° � ^d0es~^breaks ^off ^to° short and damages the sensitive be e ^Ure ^Xt ^produces ^lameness. To prevent this the foot should the St'¹¹¹⁶'¹ ^and ^the ^t06 ^shortened ^if necessary. But sometimes too m T^ay ^be ^neglected ^to° long, so that the hoof has become horn ^1S^^apen ^t0 ^do ^any g°^od ^by rasping away the overgrown much ^Part ^that ^iS ^bearing ^the weight has become too should I⁰�' n^Then ^a ^Spedai ^shoe ^ought ^t0 ^be ^fitted" ^The ^footis stro ^dressed and a shoe made, whose external branch is allo¹¹^ ^and ^thicker ^than ^the internal branch, and this shoe from h ^t0 ^proJ^ect shghtly on the outside branch. Any risk ma_v h J^lng ^thC ^Sh°^e ^t0m ^off ^by °^ther ^animals treading on it ^bevelled off^ened ^ ^^ ^th° ^Upper ^edgG °^f ^the °^Utside ^branch to the f^y₊₁^T°^e ^1S ^a ^deformity in which the limbs are straight down is due t +1? ^and ^bel°^W ^this ^are ^turned ^outwards- This deformity tioned °PP°site growth of horn taking place from that men- the sarn¹¹ ^Plg6°ⁿ ^toe' ^This condition must be treated much in thicker * J^ay ^aS ^that ^already mentioned, and shod with shoes tranche ^Strong^er ^on the inside branch than the outer, but the inside _a^S TiT* ^n0t ^alIowed ^to P^r°ject beyond the wall on the striking^S at ^W°^Uld ^damag^e the legs of the young animal bv ^a condif ^the ^Sh°^e ^WOuld ^be Sodden off. In the hind limbs directed ¹⁰ⁿ₊^1S ^SOmetimes ^met with, where the limbs are partially inwards °^^ards ^to ^the hock, and from that joint are directed ^this is att Th ^C°^ndltlon ^is ^known ^as how or bandy hock. If ^aPplied jT ^t0 ^While ^the ^animal ^is growing ^and a proper shoe ^recommende!TT^y T ^ ^defect ^may ^be ^lessened- ^The shoe made wide at th h 1 ^condition ^is ^one ^with the outer branch surface qnrl 1 ' ^and ^broad ^and ^strong ^with ^a wide bearing ^ediuii hetht ^PrT^ded ^With ^a ^Calkin' ^made ^thick< ^sq^uare, of The ChJ l' ^Pmg ^Slightly ⁱⁿ ^an °ntward direction. meters of a Sound Hoof.-A sound hoof may be recog-

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			26 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		nised from observing the following points. The course of the wall from the coronet to the ground should be perfectly straight in the direction of the horn fibres. A straight-edge placed against the wall in the direction of the fibres should touch at every point. Sometimes there are rings running round the hoof, and Fig. 13.�Foot with where present their course and position are rings from lami- important. In the disease known as laminitis, these rings are wider apart towards the heel than at the toes. When young animals are turned out and sub- jected to all the variations of our climate, a very bad effect may result to the animal which may be noted on the wall of the hoof by the appearance of rings running round the wall parallel to the coronet. These are known as "grass-rings." Marked ring- building in any hoof is indicative of weakness. The wall must show no signs of separation from the sole at the white line�which may be seen at the juncture of the sole with the wall�and must possess no red stain anywhere in its texture. The Movements which take place in the Hoof. � During slow paces and on level ground the hoof comes down flat on the ground, while on rising ground and in heavy draught the toe first comes to the ground. In all fast paces the heel is the first position to come into contact with the ground. The changes in form take place in the following order. The weight of the body falling on the os corona, os pedis, and navicular bone at the moment the foot is placed upon the ground is transmitted through the sensi- tive laminae to the horny wall. At this time the fetlock reaches its lowest point and the os pedis bears the greatest weight. It yields with the navicular bone and passes downwards and slightly backwards. At the same time the posterior surface of the os coronce presses the per for cms tendon upon the plantar cushion, which cannot descend through the frog, this being in contact with the ground. Therefore it bulges laterally, and becomes crowded against the lateral cartilages. They yield and push before them the hoof at the quarters and heels. The expanding frog presses upon the bars and causes an expansion of the plantar

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 27 border. The sole becomes somewhat flattened through the descent of the os pedis. The wear of the hoof upon the shoe occurs as the result of the expansion and contraction in the posterior Parts of the foot. This is most usually seen towards the end of the branches as a bright polished surface, sometimes to the extent of the formation of a groove, and more on the inner than the outer branch. This wearing away of the horn has the tendency to loosen the shoe and the nails during motion. If, during the pre- paration of the hoof for a shoe, part of the horny wall is left too- long or high, that part will first come into contact with the ground. it is well to examine a horse prior to shoeing, and, in doing this,, make the animal walk over a level surface, observing the hind nmbs as he walks away and the fore ones as he comes towards one, noting the relation of the hind limb to the body. The manner m which he lifts and puts down his feet and the line of flight of the hoofs should be observed. If there should be any doubt as to lameness a few steps at the trot will often remove this. Next examine him standing, noting the foot axis, the form and character of the hoof. Then the animal may be examined in Profile, noting the weight, height, and the character of work the animal is best suited for. See if the slope of the fetlock is the same as the wall of the hoof at the toe. Notice at the same time it there be any contraction at the quarters or not, if the heels are ow or weak, and if the shoe is made the right length. It is. necessary also to lift the foot and examine the sole, frog, bars, and nibs of the heel, noting their condition as regards health or ^lsease. In this position the wear of the shoe may be noted, ⁿ°- at the same time examine to see if it projects at any part, ^nd is thus the cause of brushing, which may be indicated by a Polished inner branch and probably a swelling of the fetlock on the opposite leg. ,. ^Removal of Old Shoes.�This may be done in two or three orfferent ways, but the most usual method is that in which all ne clinches are raised and cut by means of the buffer and driving ammer. The inner branch of the shoe should be grasped tightly the ]aws of the pincers and the handles of pincers moved in the same direction as the branch of the shoe. If the shoe is firmly ailed on, the nails may be withdrawn singly by means of the

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		28 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

	pincers. The outer branch of the shoe should be treated in a like manner. The preparation of the hoof for the shoe is known as trimming or dressing, varying with the quality of the horn and form and character of the hoof. It is usual to lower the wall of the foot every three of four weeks. If it is allowed to remain with its shoe for six or eight weeks the growth of the wall makes the toe too long, and the shoe is carried forward, the shoe becoming too short and too narrow, and, as a consequence, bruising the sole of the foot at the heels. The foot axis is altered, great strain is thrown on the flexor tendons of the limb, and from this cause the animal becomes awkward in his gait, is liable to stumble and Fro.15.�11. Search- go lame, especially if it is possessed of flat mg kmfe; 12. Pin- _s0;[_eSi T_n the preparation of the foot too much ccrs. cutting away of the horn with the draw- ing knife should not be indulged in, although its use is frequently necessary in a modified degree. Much of the trimming that is essential may be performed by the use of the rasp. The question of apply- ing the knife to the sole of the foot is best left to an experienced smith; it is necessary in a number of cases. The sole ought always to be concave; the bars should never be cut away. The union of the bars with the wall is known as the buttress, and this should never be cut, as is sometimes done in "opening up the heels." The sharp outer edge of the wall at the lower border may be removed with the

	rasp, and only the loose horn of the frog should		Fig. 16.�Hammer.
			Fig. 16.�Hammer.

be removed with the knife. The foot should be left with a perfectly level bearing surface, and on the foot coming to the ground it should be noted that it has a proper relation to the limb. The Refitting of Old Shoes.�This does not, as a rule, receive "the same care from the blacksmith as the fitting of new shoes.

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SHOEING OF HORSES

It is a common thing to find that one branch is worn slightly more
than the other, and if a calkin is worn it is a common practice to
heat the heels of the shoe and turn the calkins up afresh without
lengthening the shoe at all. The result of this is to make a shoe
already short, shorter still; and if, as is often the case, one calkin
is more worn than the other through being nearer the centre of
gravity (in this case the axis of the limb), that branch is now the
shorter of the two, and is placed more under the limb axis than
before. Often a toe-piece is welded on to the old one, and the un-
equally worn shoe is fitted on to an unequally worn hoof without
any dressing of the foot. As a result of this method of shoeing the
foot becomes much altered in shape,
and after one or two visits to the
blacksmith under these conditions
the chief harm is first lameness the

day after this removing of the shoe,
due to sprain, spavin, or side-bones.
If the shoes are worth removing, it
should be the practice to heat the
shoe and draw out the heel on the
side where the calkin is most worn,
and weld on another calkin; or heat
both heels out flat and alter the hoof

Fig. 17.�13. Stamp ; 14. Fullering-
iron ; 15. Rasp ; 16, 17. Pritchells.

accordingly.

The various materials that have
been tried for the making of shoes, such as steel, aluminium,
Phosphor bronze, specially prepared leather, compressed paper,
&C., have all more or less proved a failure, and the good iron
shoe only has stood the test of time. For fastening the shoe
to the hoof all the patent nailless shoes have proved failures
compared with the shoe fastened on with good horseshoe nails,
'which to-day are very satisfactorily made by machinery.

Forging a Shoe.�The exact length of iron for making a shoe
^ls obtained by taking the measurement from the buttress of the
heel to the middle of the toe and the widest part of the hoof,
^and adding them together. This produces the measurement of
^a flat shoe. Where heel calks are used, allowance must be made
lor them. The iron should be of such a width and thickness as

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		30 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER will require the least amount of labour. The working increases the toughness and durability. General Properties of a Shoe.�Shoes should correspond to the shape of the feet, and it ought to be an easy matter to dis- tinguish fore and hind shoes and also those of the near and off feet. All shoes should be wider in the web at the toe than at the heel, and should be made of such a thickness as to wear under �ordinary conditions about four weeks, varying from f to J inch, and the shoe should be increased or diminished according to the rapidity of the wear. The length of the shoe should be sufficient in all cases to cover the bearing surface of the hoof. Heavy horses doing slow work require a shoe somewhat longer than the hoof, especially if they are wearing heel calks and toe-pieces, while light horses which are engaged in fast work require to be shod short and close. The hoof surface of a shoe is divided into a bearing and a seated surface. The bearing surface is that part which comes into contact with the wall, the white line and the outer margin of the sole ; while the seated surface should be made deeper or shallower according to the concavity or convexity of the sole. Shoes made for hoofs with very concave soles and for the hind feet require nothing more than to have the inner upper margin rounded off, while for flat or convex soles they require to be well seated out. The ground surface in most cases should he flat. The outer lower border of the sole should have a some- what less circumference than the upper, that is, the shoe should be bevelled under. This prevents the shoe from being easily loosened and also partly helps to do away with interfering. A grove running round or partially round the ground surface of the web of the shoe is known as the fuller, and should be as deep as two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe. It should be uniform in width. In some cases it extends all round the ground surface, but more often the toe and from \ to f inch at the ends of the branches are left plain, this fullering roughens somewhat the ground surface of the shoe, and in a measure prevents slipping. The practice is not universal, and in the south of England the simple stamping of the nail-holes on a plain ground surface is preferred. The nail-holes in a shoe are important as regards their character, number, distribution, and direction, because

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 31 the direction of the nail driven into the horn depends in part on the direction of the nail-hole, and the nails have to secure the shoe to the foot without splitting the horn or injuring the sensi- tive structures. Each nail-hole tapers from the ground surface towards the hoof surface, and the fullering must correspond to the shape of the nail-head. In a fore shoe the nail-holes should not be placed farther back than about a quarter of an inch behind the anterior half of the hoof, and in the hind shoe the anterior two-thirds, and in both cases so distributed that the toe should De without nails. Their distance from the outside edge of the shoe depends on the thickness of the wall, and thus it will be evident that the nails should not all be placed at the same distance, because the wall is not of equal thickness all round. When the nail-holes are placed towards the inner edge of the web of the shoe they are said to be "coarsely punched," and in this position are often the cause of pricked and injured feet. When punched too near the outer border they are known as " fine," and fail to fasten the shoe in a proper manner, often breaking and tearing away a portion of the wall. The direction in which they should pass through the shoe depends on the obliquity of the wall; those towards the toe should be pitched slightly inwards, at the quarters less so, and towards the heels nearly straight through. A well- fitted shoe in a medium-sized horse can be held in position by six nails, while heavier breeds require seven or eight, while in a badly fitted shoe twenty nails will not keep it on the foot. Clips are half-circular projections drawn upwards from the outer border of the shoe. At their base they should be thick enough to give support to the shoe, and at their free edge they should be drawn out fine enough to lie close up on the Wall of the hoof. The practice of sometimes drawing them out to a fine point is dangerous on account of a shoe becoming loose and the sharp clip penetrating the sole of the foot, thus leaving a wound which is most dangerous, and which, in some eases, may lead to death of the animal. They should be rounded ^at their free edge, and in light shoes should be as high as the thickness of the shoe ; while in heavy shoes they may be a little longer, and always a little higher in hind than in fore feet. It the wall at the quarters is somewhat thin, the clip should be drawn

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		32 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER somewhat wide, so that it is not necessary to pare away any of the horn for its reception. According to their position toe and side-clips are distinguishable. Sometimes heel clips are used in horses that overreach. They secure a shoe from shifting its position, and aid in driving the first nail by holding the shoe in its proper position. The Shaping- and Fitting of Shoes.�There are two methods of fitting shoes�the hot and cold. The hot fitting has the ad- vantage of allowing any faults in the shoe to be easily remedied, as well as producing a perfect coaptation between the shoe and the hoof. Before the shoe is applied to the foot it should be seen that the bearing surface is quite level and that the branches, when the shoe is held sideways before the eye, should be perfectly uniform and straight. The shoe may be applied to the hoof and held in position with the handle of the drawing knife and the pritchell, applying it not longer than from ten to thirty seconds, after first heating it to a dull red heat. If it is held longer in position than this it is liable to burn the hoof, with consequent inflammation of the foot. In the case of naturally thin feet great care must be taken that the foot is not burnt. When repeated fitting is necessary the intervals should be spent in paring off what horn is necessary in order to obtain a perfect fit. In shaping a shoe must be well heated, and all defects in the surfaces of the shoe and nail-holes must now be remedied and the clips drawn. Any horn scorched during fitting must repeatedly be removed with the drawing knife. From the bearing surface of the shoe to the inner border of the web the iron must be clear of the sole all round. In the region of the nail-holes the outer border of the shoe and wall should correspond. From the last nail-hole to the ends of the branches the shoe gradually widens until it projects \ inch beyond the edge of the wall. An ex- ception to this is made in the cases of horses that go close and horses doing exceptionally fast work. In these cases the shoe should be fitted close on the inner branch to prevent any damage being done by brushing, and to prevent the animal tearing off the shoe by treading on it. The shoe should always have the form of the hoof, provided that the latter is regular, but in feet that have already undergone change the shoe should possess

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		Thoroug-hbred Stallion, "Diamond Jubilee" (Owned by H.M. the King. Derby 'Winner. Sold for �30,000) Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

			Thoroughbred Sire, " Orme' Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 33 that form as near as possible which the hoof had before it under- went change, as the hoof will in time acquire to a great extent the form of the shoe. When fitting and shaping shoes for irregular forms of feet, °ne must consider the form of hoof, the position of the limb, and the distribution of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight falls the web of the shoe should be widened. Long sloping feet require long shoes, as most of the weight falls in the posterior P^art of the feet; the toe should be bevelled somewhat under. With upright feet, the opposite of this fitting should be made, when fitting shoes to heavy draught-horses whose feet have become somewhat malformed from previous faulty shoeing. Heavy work causes a horse to turn in his toes, and consequently the parts that become most worn are the toe and outside quarter; the outer wall tends to become vertical and even turns inwards ^at the quarters�in some cases so much so that the coronet pro- jects farther than the bearing surface of the wall at the quarters. Heavy horses are always shod moderately wide and long, but when the quarter is turned in, as above mentioned, the shoe should be fitted so that a perpendicular line dropped from the coronet will touch the outer border of the shoe; the inner branch should follow the wall very closely, and the new shoe should be niade wider in the web where the old shoe has shown the greatest wear. When this plan is followed where the quarters are much nrned in the bearing surface of the quarter will not be completely covered by the shoe, and the heel will be pinched and squeezed nwards. This may be prevented by giving the shoe a broader ranch and punching the nail-holes somewhat coarsely. In cold fitting there is much more difficulty in securing a proper t- The best form of shoe to use when cold fitting is adopted is ne machine-made one, these being more accurate in shape with ^a better bearing surface. When cold fitting, the shoe should be parked with a light-coloured substance for a dark hoof and a jlark substance for a light hoof. This will point out where the noof should be further rasped down to obtain a better fit. This °rni of shoeing does not admit of the peculiarities of the hoof ^and gait being so accommodated as in hot fitting. Cold fitting is generally adopted in the field during times of war and also for VOL. 11. ^G _c

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		34 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

	pit ponies. When satisfied that the shoe fits, it may be placed in the vice and polished up, after being cooled, with the half-inch file, although in very good workmanship much of this will not be needed. Nailing.�There are various forms of hand and machine nails, but those of most common use are made from the best Swedish wrought iron. Machine-made nails are smooth, polished, and bevelled ready for use; the sizes are now judged from the length of the nail, and are those of 2,2§, 2f, 2f, 2%, 3, 3� inches. The nail must possess that form which ensures its passing through straight. At the point the bevel is so constructed that it forms a short wedge with the slanting side directed from within outwards. A short bevel is suitable for nails that are to be driven low, and a long bevel for those to be driven high. The shoe should now be placed in position and the nailing commenced. It is usual for the first nail to be driven at the toe, and then to proceed backwards alter- nately on either side. Every nail

			Fig. 18.�Various forms of nails.	should penetrate some horn, enter the
			Fig. 18.�Various forms of nails.

white line, pass straight through, and appear on the outer surface of the wall sufficiently high to grasp the horn firmly. When light shoes are used § to 1 inch nails, and for heavy shoes ij to 1J inch nails will, as a rule, be sufficient, measur- ing from the upper margin of the shoes. High and close nailing endangers the pricking of the sensitive foot, and low nailing does not give sufficient hold, and the horn is liable to be broken when clinching. When driving the nail, it should be held in the proper position between the thumb and first finger of the left hand and driven cautiously, paying attention to the sinking and sound. Nails which have been driven \| inch and still go softly, and give a dull sound, should be at once withdrawn. As soon as the sound becomes clear and resonant, when each nail has been properly driven, its point must be immediately twisted off with the claws of the driving hammer, leaving sufficient to form a clinch. The pincers are then put under the clinches, which are

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 35 farther bent down by smart blows on the head of the nail with the hammer. The foot should now be drawn forward, and any- broken fragments of horn under the clinches should be removed with the rasp, the pincers being then placed on the nail-head and the clinches knocked down until they are flush with the wall. Finally, the horn projecting over the shoe should be removed by rasping from above downwards, and the edge of the rasp should be applied round the lower surface of the wall and the upper border of the shoes in order to remove any fragments of horn. The horn above the clinches should never be rasped, and, when finished, the whole hoof should be dressed over with some sub- stance such as horse or pork fat, which prevents evaporation from the hoof. Leather and Rubber Soles.�The leather soles are usually about 3" inch thick. The shoe is laid on a piece of leather and the size marked out, and then the pad is cut to the shape of the shoe. Their object is to protect and diminish pressure of the shoe when a hoof has been excessively worn; tar and tow (unless special reasons indicate otherwise) should be placed between the leather sole and the sole of the foot. When well and evenly packed, this guards against the entrance of septic materials and dirt and gravel which would bruise the sole 01 the foot. For rubber pads on leather the leather used is similar to the former, but on to it there is cemented or sewn a piece of rubber of varying shape, which should project ■§■ inch below the heel of the shoe. When they resemble the shape of the frog they are known as frog pads, while the bar pad covers the whole posterior part of the hoof, and, when used, the shoe should be very short in its branches. The rubber used in this instance may be either solid or pneumatic. There are other various forms of pads on the market, but all more °r less answer the same purposes. Some of the advantages of leather soles are that they prevent slipping, check the dessication °f the hoof, prevent the balling of snow, diminish concussion, ^ar*d guard against the picking up of nails. Care must be taken that pads and soles are not used with very flat or convex soles. Roughing.�In order to give a horse a securer foothold during Wintry weather on the ice and snow, frost-nailing may be adopted. I his consists in removing an inner and outer nail at the toe and

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		36 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER replacing them with others with a pointed or wedge-shaped head. This method is only useful for temporary purposes and for light horses. Sometimes frost-nails are used in conjunction with cogs, the latter being inserted in the heels. Rough stubs are short nails driven through special holes in the shoe at the toe and heels, and bent over the upper and outer borders of the shoe. Sharping Heels and Toes.�This consists simply of converting the blunt heels and toes into sharp ones, or, in the case of plain flat shoes, a portion at the end of the branch must be bent over to form the heel and a toe-piece welded on ; these are afterwards sharpened. They are sharpened in the form of a wedge, and the wedge on the inner heel must be in the same direction as the branch of the shoe to prevent an animal damaging itself by treading* Some of the disadvantages of sharpening are that the shoe has to be repeatedly removed, and, in consequence, the feet are liable to get broken. The shoe becomes too short after it has been removed two or thee times ; the bearing surface consequently becomes too short and a bruised heel results. The method is somewhat slow, and as the horses waiting at the forge are often numerous, the smiths become hurried in their work, consequently the shoe is often carelessly applied and injury from bad shoeing is a common result. A further disadvantage is the time lost while the horse is waiting at the forge. The work cannot be done at night, and the process has to be repeated every two to four days. Removable Sharps, Screw Sharps.�As the winter approaches special shoes are applied which differ little from the ordinary ones, except that they are made a little thicker and broader at the toe and heels. In the heels of these shoes holes are punched, and occasionally at the inner and outer toe a drift is then intro- duced, followed by a tap to form the screw. The hole in the shoe must exactly fit the screw sharp to be inserted, which must on no account project, but scarcely reach the upper border of the shoe when inserted. The opening on the lower border should be slightly countersunk, so that when the screw is fitted the shoulder rests on the branch of the shoe. These screws are best made of the best steel of various shapes and sizes to meet all the different requirements. Of the various shapes the wedge-shape

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 37 is the best. The diamond-pointed heads wear quicker and pro- duce very frequently bad wounds on the coronets. Various modifications of the head are made with a view to durability, the ground surface taking such forms as H or X or T. Useful as they are, they possess their disadvantages. When the shoe becomes worn the screw is liable to project at the upper surface and bruise the foot. The screwing and tapping of the shoe requires a good deal of labour and is very expensive, and it is difficult to get a perfect fit. If this is not accomplished the heads niay break off and leave the shank in the shoes, which necessitates, the taking off of the shoe for the removal of the shank. If this happens while on a journey the edge of the hole is apt to become burred, and for the reinsertion of the screw cog the bar m the sole must first be removed with a tap. When a sharp screw is not required a square-headed one or blank is inserted, which to some measure prevents the holes becoming burred as the shoe wears. Cogs are much more simple and economical, and are not so hable to break and become loose when properly fitted. The holes are punched in the heels, and sometimes in the inner and outer toes and then drifted, care being taken that they are of the same shape and size and have the same taper as the cog to be inserted. The taper is about 1 in 10. The shanks are either round or square, or sometimes octagonal. The wedge-shaped head is preferable. After the cogs are made to fit properly the' shoe is applied, and the cogs are inserted by a smart blow with the hammer. The shoulder of the cog should not rest upon the Web of the shoe, as, if this is allowed, the cogs soon become loose- Blanks are used when the cogs are not required to prevent the holes from burring. These cogs are much cheaper than the screws, and are not so liable to break and become lost. To remove them a small lever is driven between the shoulder of the cog and the shoe. The disadvantage of cogs is that, unless carefully fitted, they are very liable to fall out, especially if the feet become balled with snow. Sharps should be removed at night in order to prevent injury, and blanks inserted. Shoes for Different Horses.�Hunters require to be very care- xuJy shod, owing to their various forms of work, and the

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		38 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER varieties of ground over which they have to travel and jump. The size of iron used is generally f by \ inch. The fore shoe must be very carefully fitted to the bearing surface on the foot of the wall, white line, and about J^ inch of the sole. On the inner upper border the edge may be slightly rounded off, but there should be no space whatever between the shoe and the foot, for it would in such a case be sucked off while travelling on soft heavy ground. The heels should be bevelled from above down- wards and forwards in order to diminish any possibility of the shoe being torn off by the hind shoes while galloping. The ground surface should be fullered all round to two-thirds the thickness of the shoe, and the inner border should be made concave from the fuller inwards. The hind shoes should be fitted in the same accurate manner. They should be fullered on the ground surface, but the heels need not be so short. The outer heel may carry a small calkin, and the inner branch should be shod very close with a feather edge or a knocked-up heel. No toe-clip should be used in the hind shoe, but two clips put on each side of the toe. This enables the shoe to be set a little back on the foot with the horn at the toe slightly projecting, in order to diminish the danger of the hind foot injuring the fore leg during fast work or jumping. Six nails should be sufficient to keep these shoes fixed, and the weight of the shoes should be from 15 to 18 ozs. Carriage Horses.�These are usually shod with iron 1 by \ inch, and the shoes are fitted a little longer and wider than the hoof in the posterior part. The foot surface may be seated up to the quarters, while the ground surface may be either plain, fullered, or occasionally Rodway iron may be used. It is advisable to make the shoe concave on the ground surface. In the hind shoes calkins are often used to prevent slipping, and when this is done they should be made low. They are not necessary. The inner branch may carry a wedge heel when a horse is given to going close, or has contracted the habit of resting one foot on the other while standing in the stable. One clip should be worn at the toe of the fore shoe and side clips behind, with the shoe set slightly "back. For Hacks shoes are much the same as for carriage horses, although they are made from a different size of iron, viz. \ x ^ inch

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 39 or I x f inch. Behind they should, in cases where the animal is at all inclined to go close, be fitted close on the inside and bevelled a little under the foot, with a narrow wedge heel well rounded off on the ground surface. Care must be taken that the inner heel is made a little thicker, so as to be level with the outer heel when a calkin is worn. When a horse is wearing a feather-edge shoe the fullering may be extended round the outside as far as the toe, and the nailing brought to the spot where the first nail would be on the inside, as no nails can be placed behind this. There would in this case be no chance of any clinches damaging the opposite leg. It is also very often necessary to wear an outside quarter clip in this form of shoe. Forging.�This habit arises from a defective action in which ^a horse strikes the ends of the branches, or any part of the under surface of the fore shoe, with the toe of the hind shoe. It is not only unpleasant to the person who is riding or driving the animal, but it i_s even dangerous to the animal itself. It often arises from faulty conformation of the foot/driving or riding an animal on very heavy ground, unskilful horsemanship, or fatigue on the Part of the animal. Young animals out of condition will often indulge in the habit. Bad shoeing may cause forging, and some animals will indulge in it for the pleasure of hearing the sound, ^ome of the preventive measures are most obvious. Feeding an animal which is out of condition on good nourishing food will often avoid it. Knowledge on the part of the driver of taking a horse well up the bit, and the use of good skilful light hands, will do much to lessen the evil. As regards alteration in the shoes the animal may be shod short in front with a concave fore shoe, and the fore shoe may be fitted on a foot which has been shortened ^at the toe. The hind shoe should be well set back, using side ^cnps, so that the horn may project a little in front of the shoe, the practice is sometimes adopted of inserting a piece of leather between the shoe and hoof at the toe of the hind shoe so that it Projects about \ inch. This only diminishes the sound and is ⁿ°t of much use, as this buffer soon wears out. There is a special shoe recommended by Mr. Wheatley in his book on shoeing, known as the diamond-toed shoe, in which the inner and outer toes are Well bevelled off, while the centre projects in the form of a diamond.

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		40 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER This form of shoe is useful in the prevention of noise in an animal which is given to the forging habit. "Interfering" is a defective action in which the advancing foot strikes the supporting leg, and, according to the part struck and the degree of injury, it receives several names. Brushing is when the hair of the fetlock is only ruffled; buffing when the fetlock becomes swollen by repeated injury; cutting when the skin is broken; speedy cut when the animal hits himself just below the knee. The causes are various. Faulty conformation, bad shoeing, want of shoeing, fatigue in young horses, especially after their first shoeing while they are being broken, as at this time they are generally out of condition, unequal length of the traces when harnessed to a vehicle, and enlarged fetlocks all play a part. Before these defects can be remedied it is necessary to ascertain the exact part of the foot that is inflicting the injury. This may be done by applying some substance to the part that is struck, so that the opposite foot may be marked. The cause of the above accidents may be found in faulty conformation of the limb. The clinches in some cases are not sufficiently knocked down, and a shoe may become loose and twisted. The latter of these faults may soon be corrected, but if the faulty position of the limb is to blame the part of the shoe that is striking must have its branch diminished, and the shoe should be fitted very close at that part and no nails used on the inside branch except at the toe. Either of two forms of shoe are often found very useful here, namely, a knocked-up shoe or one with a feather edge. When a horse " interferes" the application of a plain flat shoe will often entirely prevent this trouble. The inner branch of a shoe is often much narrower and thicker than the outer with a wedge heel, so that it throws the fetlock of the supporting leg out of the way of the advancing foot. Three- quarter shoes are very useful; and sometimes although of not a great deal of value, a piece of leather may be inserted between the shoe and hoof on the inside branch of the offending foot. The Bar Shoe does not vary very much from the ordinary shoe, except that it is joined at the heels by a bar for the purpose of taking the bearing of the frog; this form of shoe should be fitted somewhat full at the heels unless otherwise indicated,

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		Clydesdale Mare, "Floradora" Photo by Reid, 'Wishaw

			Clydesdale Mare, "Rosadora" Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 41 but great care should be taken that the bar does not project in the least degree behind the heels of the hoof. Its purpose is to cause frog-pressure and consequent expansion of the hoof. When using this shoe any part of the hoof may be left uncovered and to be relieved from pressure while allowing the animal to continue its work. It is a useful shoe for flat and convex soles and for horses suffering from laminitis. In this case the shoe may be thinner at the heel and toe to form a "rocker" or "cradle shoe " for weak heels which have a tendency to contract, for feet which have fissures in the wall, such as sand cracks and seedy toe, allowing the pressure to be relieved from the under surface. Sometimes such a shoe may be worn by an animal suffering from corns. This shoe should not be fitted to a horse suffering from navicular disease or side bones. It may be used in conjunction with a leather sole should this be necessary. A three-quarter bar shoe is one where one branch is considerably shorter than the other ; the bar is continued from the longer branch. Either this form or a plain three-quarter shoe, which generally has the inner branch considerably shorter than the outer, is useful for a horse that is suffering from very bad corns. Care of Hoof.�Hoofs of horses need proper care and strict attention paid to them daily by the groom. The shod hoof is prevented from coming into direct contact with the ground from which it obtains its moisture, and, as a consequence, the hoof tends to become hard and to contract. In order to counteract this tendency to become dry it is a custom to pack the sole of the foot with moist clay, and sometimes with cow dung, although the latter practice is to be condemned owing to its filthiness. The shoes should be removed every three to four weeks and the hoof shortened. Horses standing in a stall not kept well cleaned out are apt to contract " thrush," especially in the hind feet. Consequently the feet should be washed at least once daily, as this will remove all dirt and grit and supply a certain amount of moisture to the foot. It is customary to apply some greasy substance to the wall of the hoof, preferably hot oil, after shoeing. This tends to prevent evaporation and consequent dryness of the horn.

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		Defective Feet�One form of defective feet which we meet and have to shoe is flat foot. Of this deformity there may be two varieties, the one produced by bad shoeing and the other congenital, i.e. the animal may be born with flat feet. Horses possessed of this trouble are mostly those of the heavier breeds and those brought up on marshy lands. When such hoofs are found in the lighter breeds of horses intended for Fig. 19.�Fiat foot f_as{ _Work, they are generally in the fore feet. Unless they are carefully and frequently shod they are very apt to go lame. Horses with flat feet will be found to require a considerable amount of protection, and should be shod with a shoe with a wide web, and care must be taken that the inner upper border of the shoe should be seated out so as not to press upon the sole. The heels of the shoe should not be made too short and should be flat. If the flat sole is intensified it becomes what is termed a " dropped sole." These feet require shoeing with thicker and heavier Fig. 20.�High iron to enable the smith to seat them well out, ^heeL being broad in the web and considerably towards the inner border, giving protection to the sole, but allowing of no pressure. In many of these cases a bar shoe on a leather sole is advisable. Horses suffering from contracted feet should always be shod under the direction of a veterinary surgeon and according to his views, some of the mechanical shoes made for possible expansion of the hoof may be used or not. If the animal is valuable it is a good plan to turn him out to grass and allow nature to help in the putting to rights of this deformity. Injuries from Faulty Shoeing.�Injuries to the foot by careless shoeing are often met with, such as faulty nailing. From this cause the injury may be direct or indirect. In direct injury the nail has been driven into the sensitive structures of the foot. This causes sudden pain to the animal, making him flinch. When this is done the nail

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		SHOEING OF HORSES 43 should be immediately withdrawn; the hole should be dressed with a strong antiseptic, and sealed up. It is not advisable to insert another nail through the same hole during that time of shoeing. In the indirect injury the nail does not penetrate the sensitive structures, but goes so near to them that it causes a bulging of the soft horn and a consequent pressure upon the sensitive structures. This Fig. 22.�Low � � . , heel. injury is not often noticed until two or three days after shoeing, and even not until the eighth day in some cases. In this instance, when the nail is with- drawn, it is often covered with a dirty grey pus (matter). fex The treatment is to pare out the hole to the bottom in in the form of a cone, starting with a wide base and forming the apex of the cone at the seat of the injury. A strong antiseptic poultice should be applied for Fig. 23__ a day or two, and when lameness from the cause has Contracted disappeared an antiseptic plug of tow should be inserted into the hole and the animal shod with a leather sole. The causes of this trouble in some cases are a careless smith, bad nails, the failure to remove old stubs, bad pinching of nail-holes into the shoe, or letting the toe-clip too tar back, so that the nail-holes at the toe fall ,. ^ within the white line. Sometimes injuries are J\| :;\|\|\|\ caused by a clip let too deeply into the wall, and occasionally by a careless smith or a groom hammering a strong clip firmly upon the wall and so injuring the sensitive structures below. It frequently occurs that a horse while working ^HWr/ may pick up some foreign body such as a nail, ^a~/ a piece of sharp iron, or pointed wood from the Fig. 24. �Con- road, which often enters in by the side of the 22f^on<?^fth? frog about an inch from the point of the frog. It may not penetrate farther than the horny structures, but often it enters more deeply, damaging on its way such struc- tures as the sensitive sole or frog, the plantar cushion, the flexor tendons, or the pedal articulation, and may even fracture the pedal bone itself. When such a mishap as a " picked

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			44 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		up nail " is found to be the cause of a horse going lame, the shoe should first be removed, and then the smith must care- fully pare out the sole from the point of injury, tracing the direction of the puncture, and, guided by the dark-looking mark of the hole made by the foreign body, he must cut away all horn until he reaches, if possible, the bottom. As these bodies carry some amount of dirt with them, and are likely to infect a wound, the best method is to apply an antiseptic poultice to the foot for a day or two, especially in the case of a hard sole, after which the horn will have become fig. 25.�Cleft in hoof, somewhat softer, thus giving the smith better facility for the judicious use of his knife. Should the injury be so great that a certain amount of joint oil is escaping from the wound, it will be then necessary to seek veterinary advice. Other wounds of the foot are frequently caused by a horse treading on the coronet of his own foot or that of his neighbour while working in double harness, especially if wearing calkins, sharps, or studs. This injury may vary in severity from a slight bruise to a severe deep wound with the formation of matter and destruction of the coronary band with the resultant defective wall and sometimes sand crack. These wounds will best yield to antiseptic treatment and rest. Sand Crack is a fissure in the wall of the hoof in the direction of the horn fibres, and it may take place anywhere in the wall from the toe to the heel, and, according to its depth, is known as a superficial or deep crack. The usual method of treatment is to remove any pressure from below the crack, fix the edges of the crack so that there may be no movement, then the young horn from the coronary border is allowed to grow down. These fissures may be brought together by means of a special clip or by a horseshoe nail driven transversely through the horn across the crack, and then having the ends of the nail bent over. Another method is for a plate of iron to be fixed across the crack by means

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SHOEING OF HORSES

of short screws, taking care that they are too short to injure
the sensitive structures in any way. Yet another method is
to fix a piece of wood into the crack to prevent its closing on
the sensitive structures below, and in some cases even the tight
binding of the hoof with strong cord is found
to be useful.

Corns from Shoeing, &c.�Corns of the feet
are frequently due to bad and faulty shoeing,
^and this term is frequently applied to all bruises
ni the posterior part of the sole when affecting
the sensitive structures, with the exception of
the frog. The small vessels are bruised and

Fig. 27.�Cracks
in sole.

ruptured, the blood penetrates the horn tubules

and strains the horn, by which means the corn
may be recognised. The seat may be either on the fleshy leaves
of the quarter, velvety tissues of the sole, the angle between the
bar and the wall, and is particularly common on the inner side of
the foot. In variety they may be termed "dry," "suppurating,"
and " chronic." They are most often seen in the front feet and in
the inner heel, and are very frequently found in flat feet. Some
of the causes, direct and indirect, are excessive flatness of the sole,
long toes and low weak heels. In horses that have carried their
shoes too long, the shoe becomes too short for the foot, and the heel
of the shoe falling within the wall, causes pressure on the sole and
thereby produces a corn. Dry and contracted upright hoofs
become inelastic and cause undue pressure.
In dealing with this injury the cause of the
pressure should be removed, or the bruised
part removed from the pressure. Shoe the
horse with a three-quarter or bar shoe.

Fig. 28.�Ox cleft.

Frequent attention to the corn is necessary,

paring away the part as it becomes lower,
taking care in doing so that the horn is not made too thin.
In case of a horse's tendons becoming contracted, it is advis-
able, with the consent of a veterinary surgeon, to shoe with high
neels until the inflammation subsides, and then gradually lessen
the height until the normal heel is again worn. If the contraction
of the tendons is chronic, then the high heels must be continued.

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		46 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER When a horse throws a curb it is indicative of a sprain, and to relieve it the animal should be shod with a high heel behind, gradually lowering the same as the trouble subsides. For unmanageable horses which are vicious or extremely nervous while being shod, several devices are advised, such as roping the legs up in different forms by which a fore or a hind leg may be held up. All other methods failing, a set of stocks �of which there are various patterns�may be brought into use, and when put into these it becomes, with a little patience, an easy matter to deal with an animal which has the greatest disinclination to be shod. The tools required for the making and applying of shoes are the shoeing hammer, used with the buffer to raise the clinches, drive, and turn down the nails, and to twist off the points ; the buffer, used to raise the clinches and remove the shoe ; pincers, used for the removal of the shoe, to withdraw the nails and twist off the points; drawing knife, of two or three different sizes, used to prepare the hoof for the shoe, and for cutting out the places for the reception of the clips and holding the shoe while it is fitted ; rasp half file, cut and reversible, and about 15 inches long ; toeing knife for dressing hoofs that are much overgrown; sledge-hammer, with a flat and convex face, about 9 lbs. in weight; fire-tongs, used for holding shoes; half rod file for polishing the shoe ; turning hammer (3\ lbs. weight), with flat convex face, for turning the shoe and drawing the clips ; stamps for making nail-holes ; pritchell, used for cleaning out these holes ; fullering iron to form the groove or crease on the ground surface around the outer edge (this should correspond on section to the nail head's shape) ; foot-rule and compass to measure the width and length of iron; heel cutters of several sizes ; concave tools used for bevelling a shoe ; anvil weighing z\ to 3 cwts., which should stand on a block of wood high enough to raise the upper surface 27 inches from the ground, with the upper surface tilted away from the smith, and consisting of a body and beak. The upper surface of the body of the anvil has a piece of well-tempered steel welded on. In the end away from the beak are round and square holes for the reception of heel cutters and concave tools; the nail-holes are usually pritchelled out over these holes. A vice into which the shoe is fixed while being polished up completes the list. (See Figs. 15, 16, 17, 18.)

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			CHAPTER V

		Diseases of Bones and Joints In considering the diseases which affect the bones, we must always bear in mind that bone is a living tissue richly supplied with blood- vessels and nerves, and that the diseases which we meet with in it differ from those which we find in other tissues, such as, say, in muscles and skin, only in so far as they are modified by the peculiar composition of bone. We can prove that there are two kinds of substances present m bone, the one organic and the other inorganic, by the following experiments. We place a bone in a strong solution of vinegar or acetic acid, and find that after it has lain there for some time it has lost all its hardness, and can now be bent to any shape we please. What has happened is that all the inorganic or earthy matter has been dissolved out by the vinegar, leaving only the organic matter, which consists of gelatin. Again, if we take a bone and burn it in a strong fire, we find that it has been converted into a white mass resembling chalk which still retains the original shape of the bone, but is so friable that we are able to crumble it into dust between our fingers. The gelatin has been burnt out by the fire, and only the earthy matter remains. This consists mostly of phosphate of lime, with a small admixture of carbonate of lime. We see, then, that bone is com- posed of gelatin and phosphate of lime. During the very early Period of life the bones are composed entirely of gelatin, and « is only gradually, as the animal grows older, that the earthy matter is laid down in it. Thus it is that in young animals the bones are much softer than in adults ; and, as we shall see later on, if the young are improperly fed, the earthy matter is not laid down at all, and the bones remain soft, which is one of the most marked symptoms of the disease termed rickets. As has already been remarked, bone is richly supplied with lood, which reaches it from two sources, the one being the nutrient

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		48 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER artery, which perforates the bone, and, breaking up into innumer- able branches in the interior, supplies the marrow ; the other, the periosteum, which is a strong membrane that completely envelopes every bone, and the under surface of which is composed of a fine network of blood-vessels which send branches into the substance of the bone, however dense it may apparently be. The whole bone is thus continually bathed in the nutrient fluid of the blood and nourished and kept alive, the branches from the nutrient artery uniting with those from the periosteum in the substance of the bone. Were we to cut through the shaft of a long bone, such as the thigh-bone, we would find that it was tubular, the walls of the tube being formed of dense bone, whilst the cavity itself is full of a yellow substance termed the bone marrow ; but when we cut into the end of a long bone or into an irregular bone, such as one of the bones of the wrist, we find that the interior does not com- prise a single cavity, but is divided into a great many small spaces by minute plates of bone, the spaces being filled with marrow of a red colour. This form of bone is termed spongy bone, so that structurally there are two varieties of bone ; the dense, forming the shaft of long bones and the outer surface of irregular bones; and the spongy, forming the interior of the ends of long bones and of the irregular bones. Whatever the structure of the bone, however dense it may be, all bone is permeated by blood-vessels and nerves, which, together with the gelatin foundation, form the organic part of the bone, and render it liable to the same diseases as the other living tissues of the body are subject to. From this brief account of the structure of bone we pass to a description of some of the diseases which we meet in it. Inflammation of Bone.�Inflammation of a bone may be acute or chronic. It may arise suddenly from no known or dis- coverable cause, or may be the result of an injury, such as a blow or a sprain ; and, lastly, it very frequently follows a compound fracture, and is the danger most to be dreaded in such an accident. But the form of inflammation which we purpose discussing is that known as acute inflammation of the periosteum, and is often spoken of as acute necrosis, from the rapidity with which the inflammation terminates in the death or necrosis of the bone.

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DISEASES OF BONES AND JOINTS 49 This dangerous disease is almost entirely confined to the period of life during which the bone is growing. Symptoms.�On examination the affected limb is found to be swollen, the skin is red, and very tender to the touch. The temperature rises rapidly, so that it may be 104⁰ F. a few hours after the first complaint was made. The animal has shivering fits and becomes delirious, and it may have convulsions. Treatment.�As has already been remarked, pain in a bone should never be treated as a symptom of no importance, especially when

		*IG. 29�a, a.* In- FlG. 30.�Swel- Fig. 31. � Infiam- formation follow- nammation and ling of knee- mation and swel- ing after inflam- swelling, over joint. ling of tendons mation of the tendons. over joint. periosteum.**

	it has set in suddenly. The animal should be comfortably housed and kept at rest, and if. the temperature rises, and the limb be- comes swollen and red, a veterinary surgeon should be consulted at once, as the one hope of saving the limb�indeed, of saving the life�is for an incision to be made down to the bone to relieve the tension ; otherwise matter will form between the periosteum and the bone, cutting off the blood supply from the latter, and so causing its death, and in all probability the animal also dies of blood poisoning. Inflammation of Joints.�Joints and the structures, such as tendons which play over them, as well as the membranes which VOL. II. D

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		50 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER line their articulating surfaces, are all liable to be attacked by inflammation from various causes. Inflammation of a joint is spoken of as arthritis, that of the lining membrane of the joint being termed synovitis. As in other inflammatory processes, the symptoms are those of pain, swelling, tenderness, and heat in the part. The treatment will consist of giving the limb absolute rest from work, and applying soothing fomentations or cold dressings (see later). The result will frequently be a complete cure from an acute attack, but occasionally the inflammation on the -periosteum (periostitis) may be followed by the formation of a new mass of bony deposit, which may remain permanently and possibly interfere with the perfection of the part. Ulceration of Bone or Caries.�Ulceration of bone begins as a slow inflammation ; the bone, instead of being killed outright, is gradually eaten away. The ulcer may be situated on the surface of the bone, in which case it is usually associated with an open sore in the skin and soft parts lying over it; but the disease more frequently begins in the interior of spongy bones, and its favourite site is in one or other of the bodies of the verte- brae, or bones which form the spinal column, giving rise to " spine disease," or spinal caries, and here the skin and soft parts are not implicated, and there is no ulcer or sore on the surface of the body. It is essentially a tuberculous disease, and it is frequently as- sociated with signs of tuberculosis in other regions of the body, such as scrofulous glands. Spinal disease generally has its commencement in a fall on the back from some cause or other. The early symptoms are difficult to determine, but the animal is easily fatigued. This condition is very rarely met with in domestic animals, though not uncommon in human beings. Treatment.�The advice of the expert should, of course, be obtained at the earliest possible moment, and the best treatment is to keep the animal at rest. The diet should be nourishing and easily digestible, consisting largely of milk, and plenty of fat in the shape of cream and butter. Medicinally it should have cod- liver oil, plain, or combined with malt if he can digest it, and iron in some form. But rest is the most important part of the treatment.

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		DISEASES OF BONES AND JOINTS 51 Necrosis.�When, as a result of acute inflammation, a bone dies, no more blood is supplied to it, and it becomes hard and white, like a dead bone outside the body, and nature attempts to cast out the dead portion of bone and to replace it with new bone. To solve the first problem, the periosteum or membrane which surrounds the dead bone, and which supplies it with blood during its lifetime, separates itself from it, and at the same time a process of ulceration starts at the points where the dead bone is con- tinuous with living bone, and this gradually eats away a division between the living and the dead, so that the piece of dead bone lies isolated in the midst of living tissues. But the ulceration which had started in the bone gives rise to the formation of matter or pus, which burrows its way through the periosteum and finally perforates the skin to form an ulcer on the skin. By passing an instrument called a probe into this ulcer the dead bone can be felt at the bottom of it. During the time that the ulceration has °een cutting off the dead bone from the living, the periosteum, which has already separated itself from the dead bone, becomes chronically inflamed and pours out material which becomes organ- ised into new bone, and this surrounds the dead bone like a case. Under favourable circumstances nature herself now pushes out the bit of dead bone through one of the holes in the skin made by the ulceration, and, when this has been effected, the new bone formed by the periosteum increases in thickness until such time ^as it completely replaces the dead bone which has been cast out. Unfortunately it is very seldom that nature is able to effect the cure unaided, and consequently the veterinary surgeon has to step in, and, choosing the time when the bone has been com- pletely separated from its living surroundings, cuts down to it and removes it. Rickets.�This is a constitutional and chronic disease occurring in early life in many animals in which the principal results are to be found in the bones, ligaments, muscles, and some internal organs. The most prominent characteristics are the deformities and irregular enlargements of the various bones. Causes of Rickets.�The predisposing causes of rickets include a.n inherited tendency to the disease, seen especially in various breeds of dogs in which there has been continued and close in-

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		52 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER breeding; but many other conditions help to produce rickets, amongst which may be mentioned unhealthy or insanitary sur- roundings, insufficient, improper, excessive, or injurious food, artificial feeding, and anything which tends to undermine the general health and produce a weakly condition. While none of these factors will actually cause rickets, all of them play their part in various causes in determining their onset. It is not truly inherited, but there is an undoubted tendency to the con- dition. Of the actual cause of the disease but little is known. By some it is supposed to be due to the production of an excess of lactic acid as the result of a dyspeptic fermentation. By others it is supposed that there is a deficient production of hydro- chloric acid which prevents lime salts from being thoroughly dissolved and distributed, and thus leading to weakness of the bones. Most recent modern opinion tends to regard rickets as due to the absorption of toxic substances produced in the ali- mentary tract as the result of indigestion. Animals Affected.�This is one of the diseases which is shared both by human beings and the domestic animals, in the latter of which puppies, lambs, calves, pigs, and occasionally foals are chiefly affected. The disease is of special importance in dogs, which are perhaps the most susceptible of all domestic animals j and in this species those which seem to have a special tendency are pugs, bulldogs, spaniels, great Danes, and certain breeds of terriers. Symptoms of Rickets.�There is nearly always a period of indigestion with flatulence, constipation, and general restlessness. As the animal grows a little older the long bones of the legs are seen to be imperfectly developed, and especially is it obvious that these bones are not sufficiently hard and firm to support the weight of the body. Consequently these limbs become mis- shapen, curved and bent, and irregularly thickened. The most common site is the forearm, which becomes bent in a forward direction�that is to say, it assumes an exaggeration of the normal curve. Frequently, too, there is distortion of the hind limbs. The general appearance of the animal gives the impression of stunted growth. The skin is often dry and scurfy, and along with these symptoms there is commonly some bronchitis and disturbances of digestion.

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		DISEASES -OF BONES AND JOINTS 53 Whatever be the exciting cause of rickets the essence of the disease is that the process of bone formation is retarded. The microscope shows in a growing bone very active preparation for the formation of bone, but actual calcification does not take place when it ought to. The result is that the bone instead of being hard and firm becomes fragile and suffers from the great deficiency in lime salts, this leading to the bending and defor- mities. For some reason which we do not quite accurately know the growing tissue is incapable of taking up these salts which are essential to its proper growth. Treatment of Rickets.�In cases in which the disease can be traced to improper feeding the treatment will simply resolve itself into careful attention to dietetics. In these cases it will probably be found that there has been a defective supply of bone- forming material, and if that is the whole of the cause the disease will be readily cured by supplying the deficient elements. Let the diet consist of good milk, to which lime-water may be added together with one or other of the many artificial foods which contain salts of lime, such as Parrish's chemical food or syrup of phosphates. Small doses of cod-liver oil are advantageous, and these may be given twice a day, mixed with the syrup in a dose of a half to a teaspoonful of it, according to the size of the animal. Malt extract is advised as well as Fellow's syrup of hypophos- phites. As soon as the animals are old enough (if puppies) let them have bones to gnaw at, and the rest of the diet should be light, very nourishing, easily digested, a portion of it consisting of meat. The addition of bone-forming elements to the food is not advisable in the very earliest stages, but should be resorted to when the health begins to improve. Fortunately in the great majority of cases due attention to the domestic hygiene as well as to the diet results in a cure. Pups which are the offspring of a weak unhealthy mother should be reared by a foster mother °f strong health, and close inbreeding should be avoided if there ^xs any tendency to rickets. The principles of the treatment of this condition are the same in all the animals affected, only differ- ing in the details of the diet suitable to the different species. Care should be taken that while exercise is given it should not be to the extent of producing exhaustion, and if the legs be badly

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		bent it may be necessary to support them by a light form of splint which will be devised and applied by the veterinary surgeon. Fractures.�A fracture or a break in a bone may be simple, comminuted, or compound. A simple fracture is one in which the break does not involve the skin, and therefore does not open to the external air. A comminuted fracture is one in which the bone is broken into several pieces. A compound fracture is one in which not only is the bone broken, but the parts surrounding it are so torn or lacerated that there is a communication by the wound with the external air. It will be quite obvious that the two latter are far more dangerous than the first. ¹ E a A Fig. 33.�Impacted Fig. 34.�Trans- Fig. 35.�Oblique FlG. 36.�Longitu- fracture. verse fracture., fracture. dinal fracture. Simple fractures, however, differ a good deal in seriousness, especially according to the age of the animal. In young animals the fracture may only be partial (what is termed a green-stick fracture), in which case, the bones being fairly soft and actively growing, the process of repair takes place perfectly and promptly. In other simple fractures the break is directly across the bone, so that when it is set and the ends placed accurately against each other there is but little tendency for these to slip, and healing therefore rapidly occurs. If, on the other hand, the fracture is oblique so that the broken surfaces easily slide over each other when the muscles contract, the sharp ends are apt to run into the muscles around, and the repeated movement of these muscles tends to prevent union taking place between the fractured parts of the bone, and thus a simple fracture may be troublesome to repair. In the case of a compound fracture in which the air has access to the break, the chief danger is that organisms may enter

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		DISEASES OF BONES AND JOINTS 55 into the wound, rendering it septic and thus producing a much more complicated condition. Cause of Fractures.�Fractures are caused as a rule by direct violence such as a blow, a fall, or very often by an animal being run over by some vehicle. Symptoms of Fractures.�The obvious sign of a break in a bone is the immediate inability on the part of the owner to use the limb. For example, if the fracture be in a part of the body other than a limb, there will be some obvious distortion of that part, and in a fracture involving the spinal column the animal may be absolutely paralysed. The site of the fracture can usually be determined by applying the hand to the part when one or both ends of the broken bone may be felt, and, in the case of a limb, if the two broken halves be taken in the hands a feeling of grating is produced by the ends rubbing together. There is inability to move the limb, and the suddenness of the condition, which results generally in some obvious deformity, points to the occurrence of fracture. Treatment of Fractures.�In all but very young animals and the simplest cases the treatment of a fracture calls for the aid of the expert. Owing to the fact that it is very difficult to keep animals perfectly at rest, the question very often immediately arises as to whether an animal should be destroyed at once or an attempt made to cure the broken limb. The owner will be guided by the advice of the veterinary surgeon upon this point. If treatment be adopted, the first thing to do is to bring the broken ends into their correct positions and then apply artificial means of keeping them so placed. In large animals it may be necessary to employ chloroform in order to set the fracture, and in order to take the weight of the body off the limb the animal will have to be placed in slings. Simpler cases in smaller animals may be treated with one of the various forms of splints or starch bandages, which consist of a long strip of cotton three inches wide, steeped in starch and applied layer after layer so that it dries in a hard, firm case which acts as a splint. A similar bandage with plaster of Paris dusted over it and dipped in water may be used, and many other materials are suitable according to the nature of the special case. The object of all this is first to keep the broken

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56 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

ends in accurate position, and, secondly, if possible to prevent
movement of the joints above and below the fracture, so that the
broken ends may be kept perfectly at rest.

Fig. 39.�Position
of foot with con-
tracted tendons.

FIG. 37 �Short
pastern.

Fig. 38.�Long
pastern.

The time required for the healing of a fracture varies con-
siderably with the age of the animal and the species of the animal,
but it will generally be found necessary to keep the limb in the
fixed position for at least a month, and in some cases for eight

Fig. 41.�Defective hock.

Fig. 40.�Hock-joint.

or more weeks. Should the fracture be of a compound nature, or
if it becomes septic, or if in an old animal, the time may be con-
siderably longer even than this, and it will become a question of
whether the effort is worth making in view of the fact that the
result may never be very satisfactory. In the case of large

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la hi i^J^M		1
		*mi_B**
	A. ■^5 fi >Hb	♦J

Clydesdale Gelding, "Johnny'

Photo by Reid, Wishaw

Clydesdale Stallion, "Darnley"

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			DISEASES OF BONES AND JOINTS

quadrupeds with broken limbs it is absolutely necessary to place the animal in slings in order that the weight of the body may be taken off the limb. The treatment of such cases can be best carried out in a well-equipped veterinary establishment. The more common abnormalities connected with bones and joints will be dealt with and illustrated in the chapter on common ailments later.

		Fig. 42.�Normal Fig. 43.�Coarse Fig. 44.�Hock with Fig. 45.�Hock hock. hock. (A) bony enlarge- with (A) spavin. ment on the inside.

	An examination of the illustrations in this chapter will show the appearance of a normal hock-joint contrasted with the same joint when defective from various causes, such as bony enlarge- ment or spavin, or when the condition which may be termed a " coarse hock " is found present. The shape of the lower part of the leg in the case of a short pastern contrasted with a long pastern (Figs. 37, 38, 39), and that of the foot where the tendons are contracted, are also shown ; and other illustrations connected with bones or joints will be found in the chapters on shoeing and common ailments.

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			CHAPTER VI

		Various Diseases and Ailments of Horses Passing now from the special consideration of the most important aspects of the care and treatment of horses in health and disease, we may give a brief resume of a number of ailments and diseases to which they are also liable. It should be remembered that all the great general principles which have been insisted upon in various chapters of this work apply to all that is to follow, and it is unnecessary to repeat those again. The actual drugs and preparations which the animal owner will do well to provide himself with will be detailed in a later part of this book, as many of these are applicable to other animals which we have yet to consider, differing only in many cases in their dose or in some other points to be mentioned. Abscess.�An abscess or swelling on the face should always awake suspicion of a decayed tooth, and if on examination such proves to be the case, removal of the tooth is the only remedy. Catarrh.�Acute inflammation of the mucus membrane of the nose and air passages. Symptoms.�Loss of appetite, staring coat, watery discharge from the nostrils, followed by swollen glands under throat, and perhaps sore throat. Causes.�Atmospheric changes, such as when first bringing a young horse into the stable ; neglect; bad management. Treatment.�Removal to a cool box, plenty of clothing, flannel bandages, carrots or green food, and warm mashes (laxative diet). This disease, if taken in time, will not develop seriously, and no medicine is required. If, however, it is neg- lected at first, and the patient in a few days is worse instead of better, a veterinary surgeon must be called in, as there is always danger of complications, such as bronchitis, pneumonia, &c. Broken Knees.�These may vary from abrasion of the skin 58

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 59 to a deep wound penetrating to the bone. In all cases the part should be thoroughly cleansed and all particles of dirt removed. The wound should be treated with a dusting powder composed of boracic acid 1 part, oxide of zinc 1 part, and starch powdered 2 parts. This dressing may be applied two or three times daily. The animal should be allowed perfect rest and secured in a stall, so that it cannot lie down until healing has taken place. Break-down.�This is rupture of the ligament at the back of the leg. Sometimes the tendons themselves give way and there may be fracture of the sesamoid bones, usually occurring in race- horses and hunters. According to the severity of the case, it may be treated with perfect rest by putting the animal into slings, cold-water bandages constantly applied, but in most cases this accident is so serious that it calls for immediate professional attendance. Colic, or Gripes.�A spasm of the muscular coat of any portion of the intestines. Symptoms.�Apparent internal pain ; the horse looks round to his flanks, scrapes with fore-feet, walks round box, lies down and rolls, or lies down and gets up again ; belly frequently tense and swollen. When the attack is going off, the interval of time between the spasms becomes longer. Cause.�Indigestion in some form. Treatment.�The horse must be led about. Friction over the abdomen will also give relief. The patient must be pre- vented from throwing himself down. If alternate friction and walking exercise do not alleviate, a dose of a drachm and a half of camphor and an ounce of nitric ether mixed with twelve ounces of water will probably give relief. If at the end of, say, six hours the horse is no better, skilled aid must be resorted to. Corns.�Injury produced by pressure to the angle between the crust and the bars. Symptoms.�A reddened appearance in the angle of the sole, and lameness. The horse will often start lame, and go perfectly sound after a mile or two, and by this symptom may a corn be recognised from other diseases of the foot. Causes.�Bad shoeing, and particularly the cutting away of the bars and the paring out of the seat of corn, whereby dirt

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		6o THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER accumulates in the hollow so made, and causes injury. There is also a predisposition to corns in flat feet and feet with wired-in lieels, because undue pressure is liable to come to the seat of corn. Treatment.�If the cause�pressure�be removed the corn will be cured. A three-quarter shoe will do this, as a rule. Con- tinual paring out will only effect a temporary cure if the pressure is not also removed. Some horses suffer from corns only in the winter when in the stable, and become perfectly sound imme- diately they spend a portion of their time at grass. In such cases the dryness of the feet when in the stable seems to be in part the cause. In any case, the most important factor to the prevention of corns is never to allow the blacksmith to pare out the seat of corn. Lampas.�Congestion of the blood-vessels of the palate. Symptoms.�Loss of appetite, and, on examination, a swelled condition of the roof of the mouth. Causes.�In young horses, teething. In old horses, very often irregularity of the molar teeth, bit injuries, or indigestion. Treatment.�If the molars are at fault, the irregularity may be removed by a rasp. The diet must consist of wet bran and soft food for a day or two, until the inflammation subsides and the mouth is no longer tender. The cruel practice of burning the palate with a hot iron, which was in old days considered the recognised cure, is as useless as it is brutal, and is never now done except by the ignorant. Mange.�Due to a parasitical insect which burrows into the skin. Symptoms.�Minute pustules usually commencing on the withers or croup, which burst and coalesce and form patches of encrustation on the skin. The hair falls out, and the skin be- comes harsh and sore if the horse rubs himself to relieve the intolerable itching. Causes.�Bad food, by lowering an animal's condition, may predispose it to " catch " mange, but if it is well groomed the parasites cannot get a foothold. Mange is due, therefore, to neglect, and its appearance in a stable should suggest a re- primand of the responsible servant.

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 61 Treatment.�This consists of killing the parasites. The skin should be well washed with soft soap and water, and, after being carefully dried, should be dressed with a mixture of one part petroleum and six parts of oil, or with some sheep dip, or with, ha fact, almost any germicide, applied with a soft brush. Every day the spots should be washed and redressed. A change of diet is beneficial, and green food desirable. All clothing worn by the horse should be thoroughly baked or boiled before being used again, and the stables should be whitewashed, as the ailment is highly contagious. Sore Backs and Galls.�Causes.�Badly fitting saddle or collar, or awkward rider. If a horse is ridden or driven when out of condition, or put to a long day's hunting when unused to carrying a saddle, he may become tender, and if used again before the bruise is healed, will become sore. Treatment.�Entire. cessation of work. The saddle or collar should be left on a colt for a time when he comes in hot from work. If the skin beneath is bruised, swelled, and tender, the place may be bathed with a strong solution of salt or alum water, which will help to harden the skin. The only treatment for an advanced case is rest; as, if the owner continues to use the horse, the sore which will develop will take weeks to cure instead of only a few days. In any case, the padding of the saddle should be altered so as to shift the pressure. If a colt becomes tender during breaking, and it is undesirable to temporarily dis- continue his education, a breast collar maybe used for a few days. Canker.�This term as applied to the horse means a malignant inflammation of the frog or sole of the foot, or both, in which a reddish growth appears soft in consistence and characterised by a pink discharge having a most offensive smell. The usual situa- tion is one of the hind-feet especially in a heavy horse. Two or more feet may suffer. The causes of canker include all sorts of intense irritation of the feet which will set up inflammation, but, in addition, it is often preceded by thrush, and sometimes by a condition known as grease. The first indications of the onset of canker are a whitish discharge along with the soft swell- ing of the frog or sole. The tubes or the horny portion become abnormally large, so that the horny covering becomes broken up

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			62 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		into separate fibres. Finally, the disease causes a large fleshy growth involving not merely the sole but the quarters. Lame- ness may be postponed for a long period. When once the horny covering is destroyed, the disease becomes aggravated, and the horse useless. Treatment of Canker.�If the condition be taken early and treated by an expert, many cases will recover; but, on the other hand, if it be allowed to shape itself thoroughly, it is often necessary to have the horse destroyed. Contracted Feet.�This is an extremely common condition in horses, doubtless the result in most cases of the hurtful procedure of shoeing. In a state of nature, of course, the frog of the foot would meet the ground, and as a result of so doing keeps the heels widely opened. But in the operation of shoeing the horse the frog is pared away, and the further means adopted cause an unusual dryness and brittleness of the hoof and a contraction of the heels. Contraction of the feet can only be avoided by allow- ing the frog to touch the ground, disallowing the process of paring the sole and rasping the crust. Many contrivances have "been devised to counteract the defect, concerning which the advice of an expert will be necessary. Poll Evil.�This is a condition which may include two different abnormalities. First, a simple abscess caused by some local injury. Second, actual disease of the joint between the head and the first bone of the neck, or between the first two bones. As commonly seen there is a sore place just behind the ears, from which a sinus extends somewhat deeply down to the tissues, perhaps even to that bone, constituting what is known as a fistula. Any injury to the part may produce Poll Evil, one very common one being inflicted by the horse upon himself by throw- ing his head against the door or ceiling of the stable. Harness which fits badly may so irritate the neck as to create a similar condition. Symptoms.�These vary from a slight swelling, which soon disappears, to a large painful swelling in which after a few weeks there appears a soft area indicating that an abscess has formed within. This, if it be not opened artificially, will soon burst. It is extremely important for the future welfare of the case that

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 63 the pus inside this swelling be not allowed to burrow in various directions under the skin. Treatment.�In the stage of inflammation apply cold appli- cations, keeping the animal on light food with a laxative. If this is not immediately successful, it is pretty certain that an abscess is being formed, to which hot fomentations should be applied, and the abscess opened at its lowest point to allow of free drainage. In many cases neglect of these early precautions leads to much more complicated trouble as the result of the matter working its way in between the muscles, and often down to the bones. In such cases there is nothing for it but to thoroughly disinfect all these channels, which may even have to be opened up, but the case has then become a surgical one demanding the veterinary surgeon. Precaution should there- fore be taken in all cases to see that the ceiling of the stable and the door are sufficiently high to allow the horse to throw up his head without injury. Fistulous Withers.�This is a precisely similar condition to that of Poll Evil, from which it differs only in the situation in- volved. In this case the inflammation or the suppuration is found on the spines above the shoulders. The causes are similar to those of the former condition, including injuries and wounds to the part, especially ill-fitting collars and saddles, or the strap of the rug, though it may be the result of an injury from the horse when rolling, or a bite from a vicious companion. Symptoms.�There is at first a tender swelling on the top of the withers or sometimes to one side, which, if neglected, soon goes on to form matter as in the case of Poll Evil. If this matter is allowed to work its way amongst the muscles, sinuses are formed which may give rise to great trouble before they heal. Treatment.�Discover and remove the cause if possible. Use cold applications in the early stages, but if suppuration is ob- viously occurring, apply hot fomentations or a blister, and as soon as the abscess is found to be pointing, allow the pus to escape by puncturing. The surgical aspect of these cases de- mands expert treatment, many of them being exceedingly tedious and chronic. Sore Shoulders.�This is a term in common use in connection

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64 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

with horses, and it includes quite a number of conditions ranging

from simple injuries to deep-seated abscesses, commonly occur-
ring in draught horses. The symptoms will vary
from merely rubbing off of the skin to redness
and rawness of the surface varying in extent.
Occasionally there may be actually an abscess.

Treatment.�Remove the cause and see that
the collar fits properly. Treat the part locally
with antiseptic lotions, keeping the wound clean.
Should a deep-seated abscess form, call in the
expert.

Ring-bones. � The abnormal enlargement
known as a ring-bone frequently begins simply
as an inflammation of the membrane covering

Fig. 46. � a, b, c, d.
Normal shape of
bones.

the bone, and a ring-bone is especially produced
where the bone itself serves as a point of attach-

ment for a ligament. It is therefore found

especially on the sides of the small pastern bone, or at the lower

end of the large pastern bone, producing a ring-like swelling in

these situations. All kinds of horses are liable

to the formation of ring-bones, but it is said to

be most common in cart horses and well-bred

animals. The predisposing causes are the shape

of the pasterns in animals which have been

worked too severely when young, especially if

associated with faulty shoeing; but ring-bones

are also the result, in addition to these causes,

of injuries to the pastern bone or sprains of

the joint. As the disease progresses, there may

be an extensive formation of bony matter over

the whole of one or both of the bones, or

between the lower pastern and the foot bone,

or over the joint between the two pasterns.

The result is in some cases to produce lame-

Fig. 47. � Coronal
and pastern bones
growing together
at d.

ness, in others lameness may be almost absent,

the presence or absence of this symptom depending upon the

exact position of the bony deposit.

Treatment.�In order to prevent the formation of ring-bones

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		Clydesdale Stallion, "Prince of Carruchan" Photo by Reid, "Wishaw

			Shire Mare, " Chance " Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 65

it is necessary to adopt such measures as will subdue the early
inflammation of the parts in the first stages. The horse must
therefore be rested, the bowels kept relaxed,
hot fomentations applied to the inflamed area,
after which blisters and firing may have to be
resorted to, should the surgeon so advise. The
animal may have to avoid work for several
months, and in some cases the effect of the
growth of bony material will be to produce a

stiff joint. A perfect cure is often unattainable.

Fig. 48.�a. Ring-bone,

Sore Shins.�A condition of painful tender-
ness between the knee at the fetlock, occurring especially in race-
horses, is known by this term. The soreness is due
to an inflammation of the membrane over the shin-
bone which, if not tended, gives rise to a bony
thickness underneath it. The condition probably
originates from the jar of the feet when galloping,
especially on hard ground. The symptoms are pain
and thickness at the seat of the inflammation,
giving rise to some lameness and, later on, an en-
largement, first of all from the presence of fluid,

Fig. 49.�_a. Firing
lines for treatment
of ring-bone.

and later on from the formation of bony tissue.

Treatment of Sore Shins.�The horse must be

rested, a laxative administered, and the inflam-
mation subdued by cold applications, or, in severe attacks, hot
fomentations. Later the shins may be blistered,
but after much thickening has occurred, further
measures will require skilled advice.

Curb.�The condition known by this term is
a soft swelling, later becoming hard, occurring in
the middle line of the leg just below the hock-

joint behind. The swelling is the result of a
sprain of the tendon which runs over the back
of the hock, this, in its turn, causing a thickening

Fig. so.�a. Firing
marks for treat-
ment of ring-
bone.

⁰¹ the sheath of that tendon. The term curb,
however, is used somewhat loosely to refer to several other
abnormalities in the same region. The condition is common
m all kinds of horses, especially, however, in those of light
vol. 11. _E

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		66 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER breeds. From this fact it is obvious that there is a strong hereditary tendency in certain animals to be affected with curb, but there is no doubt that the shape of the limb, which, of course, is also a hereditary condition, plays a considerable part. There is usually some heat and tenderness in the region of the swelling, producing lameness, and the animal in moving exhibits an action somewhat like that in Spavin, the weight of the foot being thrown on to the forepart of the foot. Treatment of Curb.� Place the animal at rest, apply the usual remedies for acute inflammation during the period of swelling and pain. Follow this with a blister and massage over the swelling, as the result of which all but serious cases will be relieved. In other cases the operation of firing or other pro- cedures will necessitate the assistance of the veterinary expert. Curb is one of the faults which constitutes unsoundness. Side Bones.�Side bones consist of a mass of tissue which has become ossified. This tissue extends from the heels of the coffin-bone into the lateral cartilages. The condition is most common in heavy horses, and is found almost exclusively in the forefeet. As the result of the inspection, through the efforts of the Shire Horse Society, side bones are now less common than formerly. The tendency to this condition is undoubtedly heredi- tary, and hence by rejecting mares thus affected for purposes of breeding, the prevalence of side bones can be and is being much reduced. The actual causes acting upon this in- herited tendency are various forms of violence to the coronet of the foot. Some veterinarians consider that faulty shoeing plays a large part in the causation of side bones, while others are of opinion that very few cases are thus induced. Symptoms.�Lameness may be present, but is by no means invariably so. The existence of the side bone can be demon- strated by feeling the coronet where the swelling appears. It may be present on one or both sides of the foot, either at the same time or one side following the other. There may be pain or tenderness on pressure or not. The horse at rest stands with the heel somewhat raised. Treatment of Side Bones.�In the early cases subdue the in- flammation by rest, hot fomentations, allowing the horse to

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 67 stand in water several hours a day, and subsequent blistering of the part. As in other conditions of a similar nature, bad cases will call for treatment by firing or operative interference by the expert. Navicular Disease.�This is an extremely common cause of lameness in the lighter breeds of horses, especially in old animals. Professor Axe estimates that from 60 to 70 per cent, of light horses sooner or later suffer from this condition. The essence of navicular disease is an ulceration or actual destruction of a por- tion of the navicular bone which, commencing as an inflamma- tion, gradually extends until some of the bone is destroyed. This process beginning in several points at once produces in time an eroded surface of the navicular bone. This in its turn acts upon the tendon and the membrane of the joint, and this ultimately causes rupture of the tendon and a fracture of the bone. There is a hereditary predisposition to navicular disease in some horses, which is aggravated by faulty shoeing and pro- longed stabling. When, in addition, there is a severe concussion of the foot from high action or jumping, navicular disease is very apt to be set up. Symptoms.�The action of the horse is seen to be defective,_:lameness first of one foot and then the other being obvious, the horse endeavouring to relieve the pressure on the heel, in' the effort to do which he frequently stumbles. The foot itself changes its shape, the heels becoming narrow, the sole arched, and, as a rule, the foot is hot or at least warm. A characteristic attitude of an animal suffering from this condition is termed " pointing," in which the affected foot is held some distance in advance of the other one. Treatment.�Unfortunately navicular disease offers but little hope of a cure, but by judicious treatment a good deal may be done to relieve the worst results. Give the animal rest on meadow land, unless the ground be too hard ; wash the feet in cold water, and for special means of relieving the various stages of the disease consult a veterinary surgeon as soon as a condition declares itself. 1 Splints.�A splint is an outgrowth of bone which occurs in connection with the small splint bones on the inner side of a

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68 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER limb, as a rule, sometimes conspicuous from their projection, at other times less noticeable. It is estimated that almost 90 per cent, of the lighter horses in this country are affected more or less with splints. One or more such outgrowths may be present in the same animal, and the production of lameness or otherwise as a result depends upon the exact position and the extent of the splints. There is a very marked hereditary tendency to the production of splint bones, a tendency which is transmitted from generation to generation, and the result is that in very many animals which

		Fig. 51.�Normal and malformed foreleg. B. Splint. A. Ring-bone.

	axe put to work too young this malformation is found. The symptoms are the presence of the unusually bony swelling itself with or without pain and lameness, and some interference with the action of the limb. Treatment of Splints.�hi the early stages of the condition the horse must be rested, given a laxative, placed upon a light diet, with soothing applications to the inflamed part. Subsequently a blister may be applied, but in many cases operative measures will be a necessity, and these of course require the veterinary surgeon's assistance. Spavin.�This term is applied to two distinct conditions. In the first�bone-spavin�there is a disease of the small bones in the inner and lower part of the hock. In the second�bog-spavin�

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VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 69

there is an inflammation of the principal joint which becomes
distended with fluid, hence the name.

Bone-Spavin.�This generally shows itself on one hock only,
but both may be affected either at the same time or in succession,
the swelling appearing commonly towards the front and inner
aspect of the hock-joint. In some cases it extends from the
front to the back. The swelling may be attended by pain and

Fig. 52. � Both hocks
of horse, seen from
behind. a. Normal
condition, i, c show
condition in spavin.

FIG. 54.�Spavin, show-
ing the application of
drainage-tube.

Fig. 53.�Inner surface of
left joint with spavin.
a. Tibia (shin-bone), b.
Os calcis. c. Astragalus.
d. Growth of spavin
tissue, f. Metatarsal.

heat, or this may be entirely absent. There is usually some
lameness in early cases, especially a stiff movement when the
horse turns from one side to the other and the joint moves less
freely than normally. The stride of the affected limb is short,,
and all the symptoms are more obvious when the horse first
starts working.

Treatment of Bone-Spavin.�Rest from work, some laxative
medicine and hot applications to the hock while any symptoms
of inflammation are present, constitute the first measures. Later,
blisters may be resorted to, and should the animal still continue

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	70 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER lame the veterinary surgeon will have to be consulted as to the advisability of performing an operation for further treatment. Bog-Spavin.�As already stated, this consists of an inflamma- tion of the principal hock-joint�that is, the upper hock-joint�and this results from such causes as usually affect joints in this way, namely, sprains, injuries, rheumatism, fractures, &c. The joint presents the appearance of a puffy swelling on the front and inner side where usually there is a hollow. The animal shows lame- ness with a tendency to jerk the limb upwards, and should the condition run a prolonged course there may even be some inter- ference with the actual elements of the joint.

		Fi_f. 55. Fig. 56. Fig. 57.

Firing marks in treatment of spavin. Treatment of Bog-Spavin.�The horse must be given absolute rest and the usual methods adopted for subduing inflammation, followed by blistering or the application of counter irritants. In the majority of animals the condition is an obstinate one to get rid of. Quittor.�This condition is really a fistula of the coronet�that is to say, it is a wound which has several openings which join together by means of channels or sinuses. Quittor is caused by injury to the coronet, especially a bruise or tread ; but, in addi- tion, it occurs as the result of suppuration in corns, pricks, and other wounds of the sole, or any accident which results in suppu- ration under the hoof. It usually attacks the heels, extending forward to the quarters and to the front of the coronet, or re- versing the direction, and most commonly attacks heavy horses.

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 71 Since the animal is more like to tread on the inner side of the foot than the outer, that side is usually the seat of the origin of the disease. Symptoms of Quittor.�A painful swelling appears at the coro- net, followed by the formation of an abscess which discharges a whitish fluid from the skin. The channel from which this matter is discharged will be found, on passing a probe into it, to communicate with other passages in the structures over the bone of the foot. Thus an abscess may form at several points, giving rise to considerable discharge, and of course producing great lameness. On account of the hardness of the tissues in- volved, the disease runs a somewhat slow course, and treatment must therefore be extended over a considerable period. Treatment.�Preventive treatment should be directed to giving immediate attention to any injury to the coronet, and all such cases should be placed in the hands of the expert immediately. Once the abscesses have formed the surgeon will have to open up the channels in order to allow the matter to escape, the operation sometimes being a difficult and delicate one on account of possible injury to the joint. By way of general caution to the horse owner it may be stated here that, owing to the very great practical difficulty of keeping wounds in the feet thoroughly clean, too great care cannot be bestowed upon them, and in all such cases it is the best economy to secure the services of an expert at once. Laminitis, Fever of the Feet, Founder.�This condition is an inflammation of the sensitive parts of the foot, especially of the anterior portion upon which the greatest strain falls when stand- ing. Besides the cutaneous elements a foot bone itself is almost invariably somewhat affected, and may undergo marked changes of shape. Laminitis is especially common in heavy horses, though animals with small and deformed feet are frequently the subjects of it. Like other inflammations it may be caused by a variety of things, amongst which may be mentioned hereditary predisposi- tion, flat low feet, over-feeding during periods of rest, and errors ofj diet. It is also brought on in horses with high action by pro- longed driving on a hard road.

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THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

₇2

Symptoms.�As a rule the inflammation appears suddenly in
the fore-limbs. " In this disease the posture and the gait are
very diagnostic. The animal stands in a crouching position with

the fore-feet extended far in advance
of him, and the hind legs are brought
forward under the body, to sustain the
weight of which the fore ones have
been relieved. When made to move
the action is short, jerky, and painful,

Fig. 58�Wall of hoof, showing
laminitis rings.

and the weight of the body is thrown

on the heels. The feet are hot to the
touch at first, and may later become quite cool. If struck with
a hammer, however lightly, pain is induced. In severe attacks the
suffering is very intense, and constitutional disturbance is evinced
by an anxious expression of the face, hurried breathing, and quick
hard pulse, heightened temperature,restlessness, and patchy sweats.
The mucous membranes of the nose and eyes are of a deep red
hue, the mouth is hot and clammy, and the bowels are consti-
pated. In cases where the hind feet are also affected it is diffi-
cult to induce the animal to move, and he stands fixed to one spot,
or falls to the ground, where he remains unable to rise " (Axe).

Treatment.�In the early stages the inflammation may be
stopped by administering full doses of sedatives
and causing free perspiration. The feet may
have poultices applied to them, and if there be
extreme pain the animal may even be slung to
take the weight off the feet. The horse should
be encouraged to lie down by providing him
with abundant bedding of straw. It need
hardly be said that the shoes should be
removed. After the inflammation has dis-

appeared the horse may be allowed to move
about and the feet frequently washed in cold

Fig. 59. � Full or
dropped sole of
foot from laminitis.

water. The continued application of cold
water is in some cases attained by allowing the horse to stand
for some hours in a stream or pond, and where this is not
available a barrowful of wet clay may be placed in the stable
in which the fore-feet may rest. Later a blister should be

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 73 applied to the legs, and after the effects of this have passed off the animal may be turned out to grass. Some deformity of the foot almost invariably follows an attack of laminitis, especially if the inflammation persists in a chronic form, even though it be slight. In this case there is an overgrowth of soft horn causing the hoof-wall to become covered with rings, which run together at the toe, causing the latter to project, bulging out below and falling in above. Shelly Feet.�This term is applied to a condition which is very frequent in the structures of the feet which produce horn. The result of it is that the horn is impaired and becomes liable to break extremely easily, thus affording inefficient attachment for the shoe. Horses with shelly feet exhibit low heels and flat feet, and the brittleness of the foot causes it to break readily when nails are being driven in by the blacksmith. The con- dition appears to be hereditary in some families, even appearing in young animals before they have ever been in the stable. In such cases, as may be imagined, the feet become worse when the animal is broken in and shod. In addition to these predisposing causes, shelly feet are said to be the result of over-feeding in an animal which is underworked, also from too much burning in the act of fitting shoes, and the too severe paring of the frog of the feet. It also follows laminitis. Treatment.�Turn the horse out to graze in a low-lying moist pasture and apply a mixture containing tar to the hoof when in the stable. See that the instructions given in the section on shoeing are carried out, and restrict the diet somewhat. Seedy Toe.�In this condition the horn which unites the two layers of the sole of the hoof becomes decayed, and with a result that a cavity is formed filled with a powdery-looking material. The result is a depression or cavity placed superficially on the toe, which may extend upwards to a considerable extent, pro- ducing but little lameness unless the extent is considerable. Seedy toe is said to be caused by uneven pressure from the shoe, long continued standing on the feet, fitting the shoes when too hot, and blows to the coronet. Some observers have also drawn attention to the presence of parasites, either round worms or mould. The former parasites were drawn attention to in 1884

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		74 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER by Professor Axe, who pointed out that these parasites are not always to be found in seedy toe, but that when present they must contribute to the extension of the disease. Treatment of Seedy Toe.�In the cavity which is formed by the decay of the horny material it is impossible to induce immediate healing. The treatment, therefore, resolves itself into thoroughly cleaning out the cavity and removing everything until healthy tissue is reached, then allowing the downward growth of sound material to fill up the hole. This growth can be pro- moted by the application of a stimulating ointment round the coronet and the use of a special shoe, which throws the weight of the body backwards, thus relieving the pressure in front. If there be no lameness and the animal is kept at work the cavity after thorough antiseptic cleansing may be filled with tar tightly packed with tow, this dressing being repeated after each shoe- ing until the cavity is filled up. Sand Crack.�This condition is characterised by a crack, which extends from the coronet downwards in the direction of the horny fibres, causing a split in the hoof. It may also, how- ever, begin below and extend upwards. Its exact situation differs in various kinds of horses, probably depending upon the portion of the hoof to which pressure is specially applied in different kinds of work. Thus, in heavy cart horses the front of the hind feet suffer most. On the other hand, in light horses the fore-feet are generally the seat of sand cracks. The predisposing causes of cracks in the feet are peculiarities in the structure of that organ together with a high-stepping action. The actual causes are the amount of concussion applied to the feet, especially where the feet are particularly dry. In- juries to the coronet may also produce cracks. The result is a lameness, not very obvious at first, but getting more severe as the more sensitive structures become involved�that is, as the crack becomes deeper. When this happens there may be some discharge of blood, and the growth of some proud flesh from which matter exudes. Treatment of Sand Crack.�This is a matter for the advice of the veterinary surgeon, but the horse should be immediately rested pending further treatment. Various mechanical appli-

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 75 ances have been devised for keeping the edges of the crack in apposition, but the operative measures to be adopted will de- pend upon the situation and extent of the fissure, and call for an expert opinion. Swelling of the Legs.�This condition is often spoken of as " filled" legs, where the whole tissue of the leg becomes dis- tended with lymph, producing a leg which is swollen and soft, and usually painless. It is really a condition of local dropsy. The causes are, therefore, those of imperfect circulation, chiefly heart disease or disease of the kidneys, but it may also be pro- duced by overwork, especially in hunters and racers on hard frosty ground. It may also come on in the course of certain diseases and is associated too with errors of feeding. The parts which suffer most are those portions of the limbs in which the circulation is weakest, thus as we see in human beings, dropsy often appearing first in the region of the ankle- joint. In the horse, therefore, the hind legs are more liable to be affected than the forelegs. Treatment of ^<c Filled" Legs.�Where so many causes are apt to be at work to produce this condition it is quite obvious that an accurate diagnosis of these must be made in order that the treatment may be directed to the proper cause. In some cases, however, where the condition is a result chiefly of weak- ness, a generous diet with a tonic, together with gentle exercise, may suffice for a cure. Other cases associated with disease of the heart, kidneys, or liver call for the careful examination and treatment of the expert. Capped Hock.�The point of the hock is another place in which swellings may appear similar to those in connection with the knee and the elbow. These swellings may be either in the nature of an inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, or they may consist of an effusion into the membrane which lies Between the bone and the tendon which plays over it. In both cases the swelling is caused by some kind of accident, got generally in the act of lying down or rising in a stable, the floor of which is insufficiently covered with litter. It may also be caused by a kick, or by the animal knocking the hocks against the sides of the stall. When capped hocks are the result of the distension

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		76 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER of the synovial membrane the swelling makes its appearance at the sides, not over the point. Treatment of Capped Hock.�Mild cases usually yield to massage and cold water applications. Should the part be hot and inflamed, carry out the instructions given for local inflamma- tion, and if the swelling becomes more chronic a blister may be applied. Should all ordinary means prove ineffectual, consult a veterinary surgeon, who will probably remove the fluid with an aspirator. Capped Knee.�This condition is very similar to that de- scribed as capped elbow, but it runs a somewhat different course as a rule, and inasmuch as there is very seldom any abscess formed the swelling tends to become firm and hard. The swelling is caused by inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, produced as the result of injury to the part, generally from a fall. The course of events is very similar to that described in capped elbow, but it does not involve the tendons or their sheaths. Treatment of Capped Knee.�When the swelling is caused by the horse repeatedly falling or bruising himself when lying down, it will usually be sufficient to place the animal in a loose- box with plenty of bedding, so that he cannot hurt himself even should he fall. If there should be an abscess, that will require the usual treatment (see page n). If the enlargement contains fluid the absorption may be promoted by blisters and bandages, or the part may be painted with tincture of iodine; but once a capped knee has reached the hard, firm, fibrous stage no treat- ment is of any avail, except removal by a surgical operation by an expert. Inflammation of the Skin.�An inflammatory process which is restricted to the superficial skin or the tissues lying just under- neath may result from many slight injuries and will cause swell- ing and puffiness of the parts affected. The treatment will vary according to the severity of the inflammation, calling simply for hot or cold applications of blisters or liniments, as the case may be (see later). Cleansing of the skin at the inflamed part is essential in order to remove any irritating matter which may be causing or assisting the condition, and the hair may have to be

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VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 77

cut close in order to allow of the proper application of remedial
measures.

Wind Galls.�These are small circular soft swellings which
occur on one or other side of a tendon or joint which has been
strained or over-exerted. When they are the
result of effusion into the membrane of the joint
they are termed articular wind galls. In other
cases it is the sheaths of tendons which are the
seat of the swellings. These swellings contain
lymph, which gives rise to the soft somewhat
boggy feel, and in course of time this lymph
may become coagulated and the swelling firm,
or the lymph may become absorbed. The most
common situation for the occurrence of wind
galls is on the inner or outer sides of the fet- Fig. 60.�inflamed

skin of hind leg.
Side view.

locks, on the knees, or on the hocks. In number

they may be either one or two or three. In the
latter case the swellings appear in rows, one above the other.
Multiple swellings of this kind are usually in connection with
the same tendon sheath occurring at those places
where the sheath of the tendon is less tightly bound
down to the surrounding tissues.

Wind galls are caused chiefly by strains and
over-exertion, severe work in young animals, as
well as from prolonged standing in a small stable
during other illnesses. Certain kinds of horses
appear to be specially liable to wind galls by here-
ditary tendency, these being animals with thick,
heavy legs and coarse skin, but they also occur

Fig. 61. �In-
flamed skin
of hind leg.
Hind view.

in horses with small limbs and a heavy body.
They appear somewhat slowly as a rule, increasing
in size and density as they get larger, causing

but little lameness.
Treatment of Wind, Galls.� The most simple forms which
result from strain or over-exertion can be got rid of if treated
early by continued pressure with a firm bandage over the padded
limb. This should be applied for two hours at a time twice
daily at first, the time being gradually increased until the

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		78 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER bandages are kept on all the time. This treatment generally requires five or six weeks before the swelling disappears. It need hardly be remarked that absolute cessation from work is essential. In worse cases the limb may be massaged and iodine blisters applied at intervals. In still worse cases which call for the interference of the veterinary surgeon, operative treatment is necessary, either to draw off the fluid from the distended sac or to subject the animal to the procedure known as firing. Thoroughpin. � This condition consists in a rounded soft swelling, extending from behind to above the joint of the hock between the hamstrings. The name Thoroughpin is derived from the fact that the swelling extends through from one side of the limb to the other. As in the case of wind galls, the swelling consists of an accumulation of fluid within the sheaths of a tendon�the tendon which plays over the back of the hock to the inner side of the bone which forms its point. In this condition, again, there seems to be a hereditary pre- disposition in certain animals, which is often marked in special families. It is commonly seen in horses with straight, short, weak hocks. The actual cause is usually a sprain producing lameness, specially, occurring in yearlings while running in fields, and in older animals from over-exertion. In many cases the swelling appears very suddenly, coming on in a few hours, while in others the onset is more gradual. In the acute cases there is almost immediate lameness with pain over the hot, tight swelling, which is either equal on both sides of the joint or larger on one side than the other. In the sub-acute cases there is no lameness observable at first, but only after some time. Treatment of Thorough-pin.�Sudden acute thoroughpin calls for the usual treatment of local sprains and inflammation, namely, complete rest, hot fomentations, and a purgative. In the less acute cases the application of a blister over the swelling will promote absorption, and in the more obstinate cases, as in the case of chronic wind galls, firing or opening the sac of the swelling will be carried out by a veterinary surgeon. Capped Elbow.�The appearance of a capped elbow is that of a round swelling over the point of the elbow, which is either full of fluid or occasionally solid throughout. These swellings are

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VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 79

usually caused by the heel of the horse shoe when the animal lies
down with the fore-limbs bent under him. He thus inflicts the
injury upon himself, either in the act of lying down or rising,
and it will generally be found that the foot is either too long or
the heel of the shoe projects too far backwards.

The swelling over the elbow appears either suddenly or
gradually, according as to whether the blow of the shoe is vio-
lent or only slight, but often repeated. As in other swellings
of this nature the lump is at first soft, increasing in density
as it becomes larger, becoming painful only if, as sometimes
happens, inflammation or abscess formation is associated with
it. Occasionally the swelling reaches

\\\i

a very large size. If the lymph
within becomes absorbed there
remains a hard, fibrous tumour,
painless and dense. The weight of
such a growth may reach several
pounds, but it still interferes but
very little, when once it becomes
fibrous, with the animal's power to
work.

Treatment of Capped Elbow.�

Fig. 62.�a. Swelling of elbow-joint.
b. Point of opening- by surgeon.

Apply the usual hot fomentations

for local inflammation, keeping the
animal on a laxative diet. If the amount of effusion is slight
it will often be entirely relieved by painting the swelling with
tincture of iodine. In more severe cases a veterinary surgeon
will require to open the tumour and strain off the fluid, and in
more chronic cases still the whole mass may be removed by
an operation. In those animals in which the tendency to capped
elbow is known, it may be prevented by making them wear a
special elbow pad fixed round the pastern, which prevents the
heel of the shoe doing any injury. The stall must be of sufficient
width to allow the horse to lie down comfortably and get up
with ease.

Stringhalt.�This peculiar condition of the nervous system
gives rise to a well-known habit in the horse in which the animal
suddenly jerks up one or other of the hind limbs when raising the

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	So THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

	limb from the ground. Occasionally both limbs are affected, and it may attack the forelegs. The habit is induced in some cases only when the horse is in the stall when turning from one side to the other, sometimes only when starting to move. At other times it shows itself whenever the horse walks or trots. The jerks may be quite trivial or so pronounced as to cause the fetlock to touch the belly. There are cases in which the condition is due to some local injuries, in which case the treatment will be directed to the removal of these, and some- times section of some contracted structures gives relief, but in the majority of instances treatment is of no avail. Aneurism.�This condition in the horse generally affects the anterior mesenteric artery, where it is the result of disease of the vessel wall, caused by the parasite Strongylus armatus (see Parasites). Anaemia.�Many causes tend to produce bloodlessness. Amongst them

		Fig. 63.�An aneurism. E, E. Sac of aneurism. D. Aperture of com- munication with artery. A. Artery. B, C. Continuation of artery.	are dietetic conditions, ill-ventilated stables, bleeding, metallic poisoning, and parasites. Horses in stables will

suffer most from bad air, while those grazing will be more likely to be attacked by parasites. Symptoms.�Anaemia is recognised by the pale colour of the mucous membrane, and this can be best seen in the membranes of the nose, and those which line the eyelids. In severe cases the horse becomes thin and weak, the skin dry, and even dropsy may appear. The action of the heart is weak and irregular, and the horse may suffer from palpitation. Should the presence of parasites be suspected, remedies for that condition are indicated. Treatment.�The drug most required in anaemic conditions is iron, in some form or another; but the precise method of giving it must be left to the veterinarian, as this drug is not well tolerated by weak horses. In giving a generous diet it should

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			Clydesdale Stallion, "Diploma' Photo by Reid, Wishaw

		Clydesdale Stallion, "Marmion" Photo by Beid, Wiahaw

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 81 be remembered that the system of the animal is weak, and that the power of digestion is impaired, therefore a full diet should only be gradually attained. Cold and Catarrh.�What is popularly spoken of as a cold is usually characterised by a discharge from the nostrils and the eyes, which results from an inflammatory condition of the mem- branes, especially in the air passages. A cold is the result of exposure to bad weather, especially if fatigued and in the ab- sence of food, rapid changes from one temperature to another, bad ventilation, too sudden removal of coverings and so forth. In many cases there is not the slightest doubt that colds are infectious. Symptoms.�The animal appears dull, the coat staring. There may be some shivering, slight rise of temperature, a dry nose followed by a watery discharge, which becomes thicker in a few days, a poor appetite, and some cough. Treatment.�Once started a severe cold or catarrh will run a course of about a fortnight in spite of any remedies, and all that is really necessary is to pay particular attention to the hygienic conditions, and give such remedies as will relieve the symptoms. The food should be hot, and consist of mashes, whole linseed scalded, as well as firmer food, and the chill should be taken off the water. The discharge may be washed from the nostrils, a cough mixture given for the cough, and tonics to strength system. Nasal Catarrh in some cases may become chronic, in which case the discharge has a somewhat disagreeable odour. Such an animal should be kept apart from the other horses, and given plenty of good food, fresh air, and some exercise. Astringent injections may be applied to the nostrils, and this is best done with an instrument, known as an insufflator, or the nostrils may be fumigated with various antiseptic astringent solutions, of which eucalyptus oil or turpentine are as good as any. These may be applied in a nose-bag containing warm, moist sawdust.- Roaring- and Whistling-.�This well-known condition takes the form of a wheezing, whistling, or hoarse noise when the animal breathes, especially if excited. In most cases the disease is chronic and beyond treatment. An acute attack, however, may be VOL. II. F

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		82 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER brought on by any cause of obstruction to the free passage of the air, in which case roaring will be cured on the removal of the obstruction. Such cases may be caused by enlarged swelling of glands or tumours, and so forth, and call for treatment at the hands of the expert. It is worthy of note that chronic roaring is much more common in males than females, and is hardly ever seen in ponies. In other words, it is most common in animals with long necks standing over fourteen hands in height. Rheumatism.�This condition attacks horses of all ages, but as is the case in most animals, is more common in old horses. Whatever be the exciting specific cause, there is no doubt that there is a hereditary tendency to rheumatism in some horses, which is acted upon by other causes producing the particular poison of rheumatism. Amongst these causes may be mentioned indigestion, bad air, insufficient ventilation, spoilt food, cold and wet, certain winds, and sudden changes of temperature. Rheu- matism appears in two distinct forms, namely, Acute Rheumatic Fever and Chronic Rheumatism. Rheumatic Fever.�Here the symptoms are those of a severe feverish attack, especially high temperature, rapid pulse and breathing, hot dry skin, loss of appetite and constipation. One or other part of the body is specially attacked, such as a joint, some muscles or ligament, and wherever the situation may be there occurs an extremely painful swelling. Treatment of Acute Rheumatism.�Salicylate of soda in doses of from four to eight drachms is the most common drug used to reduce the temperature and relieve the pain, and this may be combined with a saline purgative, such as sulphate of magnesia. Hot fomentations or liniments applied to the painful part also assist. Chronic Rheumatism.�In this form of the disease there are no constitutional symptoms of any importance, but a joint or several joints or some muscles are the seat of continued pain, perhaps some swelling, which may give rise to lameness. The condition comes and goes, and the horse seems to become more liable to it as it becomes older, so that in time in the case of the joints these become gradually enlarged. Chronic Rheu- matism, when once established, can hardly be got rid of entirely,

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 83 and the treatment resolves itself into relieving the pain when particularly severe, together with taking such care of the horse as will prevent him being exposed to bad weather and cold winds. Pay peculiar attention to hygienic conditions of the stable. Lymphangitis.�This condition, which is sometimes known as " weed," manifests itself by an unusual thickness of the limb, usually one hind limb, but sometimes both, and occasionally the fore-limbs. It is most commonly seen in heavy draught horses and is rare in young animals, and apparently is restricted to those which are stable fed. Curiously enough, an attack of lymphangitis is very often discovered on a Monday morning, "which leads to the idea that it is brought on by lack of exercise. Symptoms.�The affected limb quickly becomes much en- larged, somewhat painful and hot, the animal being very lame, the glands in the groin exhibiting considerable swelling. Along with these local symptoms are those of feverishness. Treatment.�A purgative of aloes should be given at once, "together with bicarbonate of potash to assist the kidneys. Warm fomentations may be applied to the swelling. As this goes down short periods of exercise may be given. Green food should be administered if possible, or bran mashes and carrots. Influenza.�This condition has long been known in horses, and occurs generally in the spring of the year, and sometimes in the autumn. It is often described as pink-eye, because of the inflammation and swelling of the eye which is often present. It is undoubtedly infectious. Symptoms.�Influenza is not merely a common cold, but, as in the case of human beings, there is associated with it a most "unusual weakness in the early stages. The appetite is lost or impaired, the temperature raised, the pulse rapid, and the weak- ness progressive. The eyelids swell, and there may be some dis- charge from the nostrils. Various forms of the disease attack different organs ; thus, the digestive system may become infected, or the lungs, in which case pneumonia may supervene. Apart from its complications influenza is not very fatal, the average mortality being given as from 1 to 4 per cent. Treatment.�Medicinal treatment is not of much avail, but careful attention to the diet, ventilation, and general hygiene,

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		84 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER together with complete rest, are the points to be noted. The horse must not be worked, and on the slightest sign of any serious complications skilled assistance should be sought. Epizootic Lymphangitis.�This disease, which is extremely prevalent in various continental countries, has probably been introduced into Great Britain as the result of animals becoming infected in South Africa during the Boer War and returning to this country. It is a contagious disease, specially characterised by enlargement of the lymphatics of the skin, together with the formation of abscesses. It is caused by a micro-organism, which may gain entrance by any slight wound on the surface. Symptoms.�Any part of the body may be attacked, and, no matter what the site of inoculation, there appears some weeks afterwards a small nodule, and around this may be felt the firm enlarged lymphatic vessel. Both the nodule and the vessels con- tinue to become bigger until the former becomes soft and finally bursts, discharging pus. Treatment.�Mortality from Epizootic Lymphangitis varies from 10 to 15 per cent., but in spite of the fact that it is not very fatal, the importance of stamping out the disease, when once it appears, is so great, and the difficulty of treatment so prolonged and immense, that most authorities recommend the destruction of the animal at once, unless it be extremely valuable. The disease is at present practically limited to horses in the army, and it is compulsory on the part of the horse owner to notify any outbreak to the authorities. Eczema.�This skin condition, which is fairly common in the horse, is characterised by a vesicular inflammation of the skin which, as it breaks, gives rise to a discharge which causes the hair to stick together, finally leaving scabs covering the raw surface. The disease may be mild or very severe; in the latter form pro- ducing actual pus instead of a water discharge from the pustules. In the chronic form of eczema the superficial skin peals off in scales. Although appearing in almost any part of the body, eczema may be most often seen in the neck and in the region of the quarters. Treatment.�In the early stages a simple alkaline tonic may be applied, to which may be added a little laudanum to relieve

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 85 the irritation. In the more severe skin conditions antiseptic solutions, such as Carbolic Lotion, may be used, and later still an ointment may be applied to the skin. Saline purges should be administered at intervals, and tonics, such as iron and arsenic, are indicated in the later stages. Mallenders and Sallenders.�These terms are applied by those who have to work with horses to scurfy, scaly affections of the eczematous type, which appear in the bend of the knee, giving rise to mallenders, and at the hock, when the condition is termed sallenders. Both forms are almost entirely confined to heavy horses with thick legs and skin and coarse hair. The treatment will consist of a laxative diet, tonics internally, and the local application of an ointment. Cataract.�This condition, which may be recognised as � white speck or number of specks or a cloudiness in the eye of the horse, is really due to an opaque condition of the lens of the eye. In time the whole of the lens may become affected, a number of spots becoming one complete opaque mass. As a matter of fact treatment in the horse is not very often attempted, though it has been carried out with success in dogs. The reason is that any amelioration of the condition would probably leave the horse with defective sight, and this is a distinct drawback, as it causes the animal to be nervous and gives rise to shying. In fact, as a matter of getting the best work out of a horse, it is perhaps better that he should be absolutely blind than be the subject of defective vision. As a rule the opacity of the lens, when once it occurs, is permanent, and it is best left alone. Thrush.�This is a condition in which an ordinary inflamma- tion appears on the lips, cheeks and tongue, which takes the form of a white eruption in these situations, along with a certain amount of constitutional disturbance. It is caused by a small organism which occurs most frequently in animals which are sucking, and, on examining the mouth, a number of whitish spots are seen in the regions indicated, spots which, later on, run to- gether and form the white patches. As the disease proceeds there is dribbling from the mouth, a discharge of saliva from the kps, and an offensive breath. Indigestion along with disturbance of the bowels is frequently present. The soreness of the mouth

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		86 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER often induces the foal to cease suckling before satisfying its hunger. Treatment of Thrush.�This must be directed both to the mother and the young. The teats of the mother should be cleansed with a disinfecting solution night and morning, for which purpose 5 per cent, carbolic acid will serve. To the foal there may be given in the early stages a small dose of castor-oil, and the local treatment consists of cleaning out the mouth with a solution of alum or an application of borax and honey. It may be even necessary to feed the foal artificially should its mouth be too sore for sucking. Inflammation of the Parotid Glands.�The parotid gland, which is situated behind the ear, is liable to become inflamed, either from mechanical injury, some obstruction to its duct, or, most commonly, during an attack of strangles or influenza. The symptoms are those of a hard and painful swelling beneath the ear, which may soften later on, and an abscess form within. The head is carried stiffly with the nose extended, chewing is difficult and slow as well as swallowing, and the breathing laboured. If an abscess forms it may point either on to the external surface or within the throat, and this will be noticed by the disappear- ance of the most acute symptoms. In mild cases there is no abscess formation. Treatment.�If poultices can be thoroughly carried out, hot applications may be made over the spot of the swelling and to the throat; but unless this can be depended upon, it is better to apply a mustard poultice or stimulating liniment, such as that of turpentine. If an abscess is present, and obviously seen ready to discharge, it should be opened by an expert, and subsequently dressed with antiseptic precautions. Colic, or Gripes.�The term colic is used somewhat loosely with reference to many conditions which produce extreme pain in the belly, but the most important form is that known as spasmodic colic, which is the result of severe contraction of the muscles of the bowel. Symptoms of Colic.�The most prominent symptom is the sudden attack of the pain, as the result of which the horse paws the ground, moves very uneasily, attempts to kick the belly,

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 87 turns his head to look at the flanks, and exhibits dilated nostrils and a glaring eye. Repeatedly the animal crouches as if about to lie down without doing so, but finally may throw himself down with a groan. Then perhaps as suddenly as the pain appeared it disappears, and the horse may get up, shake himself, feed and appear perfectly normal. After an interval, varying from ten minutes to half-an-hour, the attack is repeated, though perhaps with less severity, but often getting worse. Treatment of Colic.�In all cases a purgative, such as aloes, should be at once administered, and this may be followed by a dose of laudanum to relieve the pain. It is also useful to ad- minister a stimulant, such as carbonate of ammonia. If no other stimulant be available, some whisky in warm water may be given. Rubbing the abdomen externally with straw or some liniment assists to give relief. In ordinary cases, which are not followed by actual inflammation, the spasms disappear in two or three hours. Flatulent Colic.�In this condition the large bowels are widely distended with gas, the result of improper food or errors of diges- tion or mastication. The chief symptom is the distension of the belly, the pain coming on more gradually and being more continuous than in the spasmodic form. Some horses become very violent, while others appear much depressed. The con- dition varies considerably in its course, in some disappearing suddenly after treatment, in others lasting some hours or days. Treatment of Flatulent Colic.�Treatment should be directed to causing the discharge of the gas which is distending the gut. The abdomen may be rubbed and the horse walked about, while aromatic spirits of ammonia may be given internally. A common prescription contains laudanum, spirit of nitrous ether, and linseed-oil. In severe cases the veterinary surgeon will relieve the distension by tapping the bowel by means of an operation. After relief no food should be given for some hours. Constipation.�The cause of constipation in horses is fre- quently the continued feeding upon dry food, along with too little water or water given irregularly. It is also produced by want of exercise and sudden changes of feeding, and it is specially common in young foals. In horses in stables constipation may

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		88 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER be prevented by the occasional use of a bran mash or linseed, together with a mixture of green food given with the hay or straw. A number of purgatives are available for internal ad- ministration, but, as a general rule, it may be stated that it is preferable to administer merely doses of a mild aperient, such as linseed-oil frequently repeated, than to give a large dose of a purge, such as may be contained in an aloes ball. In a foal the best treatment is the administration of a simple enema of soap and warm water, perhaps followed by a small dose of castor-oil given in milk. It need hardly be said that since constipation is usually a matter of errors of diet, particular attention should be paid to the quality and quantity of the food given. Diarrhoea.�This is characterised by a frequently repeated discharge of liquid dung without any griping or straining, and is principally caused by feeding upon soft green food which is grown quickly, irritant plants, bad turnips, impure water, imperfect mastication, worms, over-work, or too fast eating. In addition it is associated with various fevers. In young foals it is probably frequently the result of being kept too long apart from the mares, with the further result that the maternal milk has its quality impaired. Treatment of Diarrhoea.�Once more, importance must be paid to the question of the diet, the actual cause if possible being ascertained, and internal treatment will depend on what this was. In some cases, therefore, we shall require the use of a mild laxative in order to remove any irritating material in the intestines, for which purpose castor-oil or linseed may be given, followed by gruel containing either ginger or cinnamon, to relieve the abdominal pain. In foals a common remedy is a mixture of chalk or laudanum along with peppermint water. It is also advisable to add a little bicarbonate of soda to the drinking water of the mare. Astringents or opiates should not be given until all traces of the irritant have disappeared. The animal must be kept quietly at rest, and intelligent care given to the diet. Calculi, or Stones.�Most of the stones which occur in horses and ruminants are composed chiefly of carbonate of lime and magnesia, possibly due to the large amount of vegetable acids

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Head of Champion Stallion, " Dissenter *

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Head of Persimmon

Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 89 present in the plants upon which they feed. These stones or calculi are found in various positions in such organs as the bladder, the bowels, the kidney, and in the ducts of various glands. Those in the intestines are especially composed of the salts in the food, and in shape they are either round, when a single stone is present, or angular if several stones occur together pressing upon each other. If an intestinal calculus be cut across it is usually found that in the middle there is some foreign material, such as a nail or other gritty particle, which has acted as a nucleus, around which successive layers of material have been deposited. Other Concretions.�Two kinds of concretions occur in the horse, known respectively as dung balls and oat-hair concretions. The former are made of a certain amount of salts mixed up with hay, straw, dung, or oats, the whole being rounded in shape, dark in colour, having a rough surface, but much less hard and heavy than true straws. Oat-hair concretions are the result of the accumulation of the fine hairs which cover the kernel of an °at, producing a rounded soft lump, extremely light and some- what woolly on section. Treatment of Calculi and Concretions, where it can be adopted, !s a matter entirely for the skill of the veterinary expert. Diseases of the Teeth.�In the horse as in other animals it is of great importance, in order that mastication and digestion should proceed properly, that the teeth should be kept in good condition. Most of the diseases of the teeth or abnormalities "will require the attention of the veterinary surgeon, but the nature of these troubles may be briefly indicated so that the horse owner may be on the look-out for their occurrence. Not uncommonly the teeth are too numerous, causing crowding or the ^aPpearance of a tooth out of its proper place. Thus it is not very ^rare to find seven molar teeth on one side of the jaw instead of "the normal six. On the other hand, the number of teeth may be deficient. Then the molar teeth may show some disparity in length, especially in those cases in which the first and last in the ^uPPer and lower rows do not exactly cover each other. More common still, perhaps, is that condition of the molar teeth in which the outer margin of the upper molars protrudes beyond

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		the lower, in which case the inner margin of the lower molars likewise protrudes. In these conditions the edges are apt to get ragged. Then teeth may become broken either transversely or vertically. Decayed teeth are not very common, but when they do occur it is usually the neck of the tooth which is affected. A peculiar deformity in teeth of the horse is that known as parrot mouth, which is really an abnormal length of the upper jaw, causing the upper front teeth to project over the lower ones. As a result these upper teeth are not subjected to any wear, and the deformity which results renders the horse incapable of grazing. The animal nevertheless usually does quite well when fed indoors. Finally, what are called wolf teeth may be men- tioned, which are small teeth situated immediately in front of the upper grinders. They represent a reversion to the early equine condition, when there were seven molar teeth on either side of both jaws. These wolf teeth, or eye teeth as they are sometimes termed, usually disappear between two or three years of age. Lameness in Horses.�There is probably no one condition, more difficult, even for the most skilful veterinarian, to account for, than lameness; and that being the case, it is quite obvious that the horse owner, on finding any of his animals going lame, should at the earliest possible opportunity have the animal thoroughly examined by an expert. The cause may then be found on examination to be some comparatively simple and trifling matter which, on removal or with simple treatment, will restore the animal to the whole use of the limb. On the other hand, the causes of lameness are so extremely numerous and so varied that the diagnosis and the treatment in a great many cases will be quite beyond the skill of the owner. All that is necessary, therefore, here, is the consideration of the more promi- nent symptoms. In order to observe the horse properly he must be approached very quietly, and if possible when free from anything in the shape of excitement. Notice whether he be resting on all four limbs ; if so, it will be observed that the pastern of the lame limb is commonly more upright than that of the other three. If it be observed that one fore-foot is placed in advance of the other

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 91 some eight or ten inches, one may suspect either undue tenderness, in the region of the heel or in the posterior part of the lower portion of the leg. Another characteristic attitude is seen when the horse stands with the knee and fetlock bent, resting the foot en the toe, which, however, is not advanced in front of the other, and in this case the site of the trouble will often be found to be in the shoulder or the elbow. Should both fore-limbs be advanced, the weight of the body being placed on the heels, and if the hind limbs are then brought well under the body, the trouble may often be found in the front of the feet. The attention of the observer will often be drawn to the injured limb by noticing that the horse is careful to raise that foot as often and for as long a "time as possible. Should the horse actually lie down and exhibit no inclination to rise, the inference to be drawn will be that the pain is great or that there is an actual fracture which prevents the animal standing, or else that there is extreme weakness. It frequently happens that lameness is indicated most easily when the horse is made to move about, either walking, or better, perhaps, at the pace of a slow trot. Care must be taken not to be deceived by a mere drooping of the head when thus being led at a trot, and this can be avoided by the groom leading first on the one side and then on the other, when, if the head droops in a corresponding way, no notice need be taken. When, however, the trouble is in one limb only or one foot only, the horse will always rest that foot as much as possible, taking the weight off it_; whenever convenient. Moreover that foot is placed upon the ground more gingerly than the sound one, and if it be a fore- hnib the horse will raise its head when the injured limb is placed upon the ground, dropping the head when the sound foot is put down. If the lameness be in one hind-limb the horse will raise its haunch on that side on setting down the foot, and afterwards allow it to drop until the opposite foot reaches the ground. In all cases of single lameness in a hind-limb this rising and falling is well marked. Professor Law gives the following indications where two limbs ^are concerned:�When lameness is present in both fore-limbs the step is short, the stroke on the ground weak, the rest of each foot °n the ground shortened, the shoulders are carried upright and

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		92 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER stiff, the head is raised, the loins are arched, the croup droops, and the hind-limbs are brought unnaturally forward beneath the belly. Lameness in both hind-limbs is marked by the backward position of the fore-feet, the short rest and weak impulse of the hind on the ground, the extension and drooping of the head, and especially by the difficulty found in backing. Lameness which occurs in two limbs on the same side produces a peculiar gait, somewhat like an amble with the opposite limbs firmly planted. Lameness in the one fore-limb and the opposite hind-limb simply causes an exaggeration of those symptoms pro- duced by disease in one of those limbs. If the cause of the lame- ness is in more than one limb it is difficult to keep the horse at the trot. It should be remembered that in every case it is well to have the animal exercised until warm, and then kept perfectly still for half-an-hour or so until cool before the examination is finished, because in a certain number of lamenesses the symptoms disappear while the animal is warm from exercise. Causes of Lameness.�Amongst the great variety of causes of lameness the following may be noticed: Inflammation of one �or other of the bones resulting in softening or enlargement or abscess or necrosis, fracture of bones, inflammation of the joints and abscesses in joints, inflammation or rupture of muscles or their sprain, rupture of tendons, wounds of all kinds, nails, corns, lymphangitis, dropsy, rheumatics, cramp, faults in shoe- ing, and the numerous conditions which result therefrom. The bare enumeration of the above, which is by no means a com- plete list of the causes of lameness, will be sufficient to show how difficult it is in many cases to ascertain the exact cause. Ringworm.�This parasitic disease of the skin occurs in horses, cattle, cats, and dogs, as well as in man, and may be trans- mitted from the one to the other. It occurs chiefly in winter and spring, showing itself in the form of roundish spots either in the face or in other parts which are free from hair and covered with whitish scales. Surrounding the patch the hairs are broken and bristly, and small scabs appear on the skin. The patch spreads by the shedding of the broken hairs, thus forming a larger ring. The condition is due to the presence in the hairs and hair follicles ■of parasite (Trichophyton tonsurans).

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		VARIOUS DISEASES AND AILMENTS OF HORSES 93 Another form of ringworn known as favus occurs in cattle, dogs, cats, rabbits, and poultry, as well as in children. It has a somewhat similar appearance to that already described, but re- sults in a yellowish scab. The parasite in this case is A chorion Schonleini. Two other forms of baldness appear in the horse, one of which may attack any part of the body, and the other generally found affecting the heads of aged horses. Both conditions are extremely chronic, though not particularly irritating. Treatment of Ringworm.�In all these forms of ringworm the hair should be shaved or pulled out from the affected part, which may then be painted with tincture of iodine or a solution of corrosive sublimate (40 grains to one pint of water), and par- ticular care should be taken to destroy the parasites which may t>e infecting harness, brushes, or combs in the kennels or stables. These may also be washed in the solution corrosive sublimate. Horse blankets or dog blankets which have been on animals affected with ringworm should be boiled for an hour before being used for others.

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		CHAPTER VII ' Bacterial Diseases of Animals We have already seen in our discussion of the causes of disease that by far the most important group is that of living bacteria. Indeed these minute organisms play such an important part in animal diseases that it will be necessary for us, in order to under- stand the matter, to pay some little attention to the bacteria themselves in order to save much repetition when we come to deal with the individual diseases they produce. Bacteria in Nature.�It will be well to understand in the first place that bacteria have their place in the natural order of things quite apart from their action as producers of disease. They occur in myriads all around us, and are an absolute necessity for the carrying on of a great number of natural processes. For one thing they are some of the most important scavengers known. By their action they break up complex organic matter into much simpler substances, thus destroying dead and decaying animals and vegetables. This process takes place not only on the ground, but also within the alimentary tracts in animal bodies. All putrefaction processes are caused by organisms. By their action organic matter lying upon the surface of the earth or near the surface of the earth is oxidised, and by this means is made ready to act as food for plants. The plants in their turn serve as food for animals, and so the bacteria serve to keep up the balance of natural productions. Now in order to understand bacteria it will be necessary to explain the meaning of several terms used in their study. The words " germs," " microbes," " bacteria," " micro-organisms " are all used in the same sense rather loosely in reference to the whole group of these minute creatures without any special meaning. Since the science of bacteriology has be- come as extensive as it now is, these terms have passed into familiar language, and we have to use more accurate expressions 94

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		BACTERIAL DISEASES OF ANIMALS 95 to describe particular organisms. These terms are given accord- ing to the shape which the organism shows when examined under the microscope ; thus we refer to baccili or rod-shaped organisms, cocci or minute round organisms, and so forth, terms which will be better understood by a glance at our illustration of these various forms of microbes. Size of Microbes.�All the most deadly germs belong to what are termed the lower bacteria�that is to say, bacteria which are composed of single minute cells, which never branch and which contain none of the green colouring matter of plants. The actual size of most of these germs is not more than ^^^r °f ^an ^mcn ^mdiameter. How Germs Move.�It need hardly be said that such minute creatures as these cannot move about very readily from place to place by any means of their own, but are obviously de- pendent upon external circumstances, such as currents of air, water, or circulating blood for their means of transport. In addition they are, of course, carried from place to place, and naturally from country to country by all the varied commercial products which are exchanged by nations. This forms one of the sources of danger of introduction of fresh diseases; for example, a recent outbreak of foot and mouth disease in Scotland is supposed to have been due to the entrance into that country of some hay from the Continent in which the germ of the disease Was present. But microbes can move on their own account, so long as the medium in which they are placed allows of it�that is to say, individual microbes, or some of them, have a power of locomotion which is brought about by very fine hair-like structures attached to their walls. These structures are termed flagella; and by nieans of these a germ is able to move its position from place to Place, just as a boat is moved by oars. Organisms which have this power are termed " motile." Multiplication of Bacteria.�Like other lowly organisms mi- crobes reproduce themselves by a simple process of fission, as the result of which a constriction appears in the centre of an organism and gradually divides it simply into two. This process °f division takes place in many species at least once every hour,

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		₉6 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER and a very simple calculation on this basis will afford some idea of the possibility of the action of bacteria for evil. A single microbe dividing once every hour will, in twenty-four hours, produce 16,777,216. In twenty-four hours more, supposing that multiplication were to go on at the same rate, the total would be represented by a line of fifteen figures, and if the figures were to be placed in print which would represent the result of a week's multiplication, they would serve no useful purpose, because the mind could not form any adequate conception of what they re- present. Fortunately, however, there is no opportunity for such unrestricted multiplication, because enormous numbers perish for lack of suitable or sufficient food. Nevertheless, a suitable environment for some of the germs which produce disease is found in the bodies of animals, and we can thus easily understand the rapidity with which a disease like anthrax, for example, may terminate fatally. The Food of Microbes.�Under natural conditions the food supply of microbes is found in the bodies of either living or dead plants or animals, or in the excretions from these. The bacterio- logist takes advantage of this when growing germs artificially, finding that the fluids from animal tissues form the best food for bacterial growth. One of the elements of such food must be nitrogen, and various salts also are essential, as well as a certain degree of moisture. The presence of acids is usually fatal. Out- side the body in nature we find that the environment has a very powerful effect upon the growths, especially as regards moisture, oxygen, heat, cold and light. The Effect of Moisture.�No microbe can continue to grow in the absence of moisture, but at the same time various germs exhibit different power of resistance to dryness. Those organisms which are able to form what are termed spores, do so under con- ditions in which they would otherwise perish. A spore, which is in reality a concentration of the protoplasm to enable it to live under adverse conditions, can retain its vitality even though perfectly dry for a very long time. Thus it is said that the spores of anthrax exist for years on pasture land, even if dry, able to grow once more into the active bacilli if they become moist. The spore is really to be regarded as a condition of suspended anima-

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		BACTERIAL DISEASES OF ANIMALS 97 tion, the life for the time being remaining dormant but not extinct. The Effect of Oxygen.�We are very apt to regard the presence of free oxygen as an essential condition for living things, but, curiously enough, in the life-history of microbes we find a very strange exception. Most organisms, it is true, require oxygen, but there are a considerable number which can do without it, and some which cannot live in its presence. These latter obtain the oxygen necessary for their growth from the substances upon which they live. A striking example of a germ which lives without free oxygen�and is therefore termed anaerobic�is the organism of tetanus, a most fatal disease in horses. The Effect of Temperature.�Every organism has its favourite degree of heat at which it flourishes and multiplies best. For example, for the germs which induce putrefaction the best temperature is that of warm summer weather. For the germs which produce disease in animal bodies, the most favourable temperature is that of those bodies. Very few germs flourish above 44⁰ C. or below 14⁰ C. These limits of temperature are used as practical means of killing the microbes in any substance or material which is suspected to be contaminated. It therefore follows that boiling or freezing, or repeated exposure to heat of a fairly high degree for a considerable time, is a certain method of rendering it safe as a carrier of infection. This should always be borne in mind by those who have been in contact with diseased animals, and all clothes, &c, which have become stained with the blood of infected animals or their carcases, should be carefully sterilised by boiling. How Microbes Produce Disease.�Having thus realised that microbes are partly necessary agents in the scheme of nature and Partly destructive agents in the production of disease, we may look a little more closely at the latter subject in order to under- stand exactly how a microbic disease is brought about. First of ^aU it is necessary for the germs to gain access to the animal; they ^must either get on to the tissues or into them, and of course the germ itself only arises as the product of a pre-existing germ. No ftucrobes are manufactured out of nothing, nor do they arise in stagnant water, or drains, or sewage, nor under any other con- VOL. II. G

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		q8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER ditions, except in so far as they are the offspring of microbes which preceded them. The sewage, &c, merely affords a convenient environment in which the germ may flourish. It therefore follows, and this is a very important idea, that those germs which produce disease and which never live apart from disease are never found except where that disease has been. It is this fact which makes it possible to stamp out some epidemic absolutely or to rid a country entirely from some infections. It is this which makes justifiable the regulations of the Public Health Authorities in dealing with disease in cattle and pigs. The microbe, then, comes either on to or into the animal either by contact with an already infected animal or by trans- ference in some way or other from the infected to a healthy subject. That transference may be brought about in feeding water, bedding, harness, by human beings in attendance, or in a thousand accidental ways. Once on the skin all that is necessary in order that the microbe may enter the body is that it should find some slight wound through which it can penetrate, because the skin itself is a protective covering through which, as long as it is intact, the microbe cannot pass. If tins were not so it would be almost impossible to be free from microbic disease, but given a point of entrance the germ can then find its way readily into the circulation, or, remaining at the point of entrance, may produce its poison, and in either case set up its own par- ticular disease. Not only, however, is the skin a mode of entrance ; there are two other paths, both of which are commonly used. Large numbers of microbes enter the body by means of the mouth along with food and water, and, passing into the ali- mentary tract, may do no harm there, but, on the other hand, may gain an access into the circulation from this source. The organism of typhoid fever thus gains access, and many diseases arise similarly by the contamination of animal foods. A third great mode of entrance is by inhaling the germs of disease into the lungs. This is also extremely common, and is not to be wondered at when we remember the number of microbes or their spores which are continually floating about in the atmo- sphere. Two very important diseases are frequently contracted in this way, namely, tuberculosis and anthrax. The germ of

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			BACTERIAL DISEASES OF ANIMALS

		tuberculosis is coughed up by patients suffering from that disease, and the sputum drying leaves the microbe to be carried about by the air, and therefore liable to be inhaled by any animal. In the case of anthrax, the spores are found in the hairs and hides brought from the Continent to be used in the making of various articles, such as brushes, and the " wool sorters," as the people are termed who do this work, are apt to inhale these spores and contract the disease in a very deadly form. Having seen now the various ways in which the germs may gain access to the body, it only remains to consider in this con- nection that they produce symptoms characteristic of their re- spective diseases in one of two ways. First, the microbe by its extraordinary rapidity and power of multiplication may cause death as the result of that. Secondly, it may produce while multiplying, and even if it do not multiply to any great extent, such powerful poisonous substances or toxins that very serious and even fatal results may follow. Some organisms do one, some the other, some both. If we examine a drop of blood taken from a minute blood-vessel in the ear of a cow which has died from anthrax, we find that drop of blood to be teeming with germs almost beyond number. If, on the other hand, we examine a drop of blood from a horse which has died from tetanus, we find no bacilli at all, because in this latter the tetanus bacillus, being unable to live in the blood stream, produces its results by manufacturing an extremely powerful toxin in the wound in which it gained entrance, and where the organisms themselves remained. In many cases, however, organisms produce diseases by a combination of both these methods. Natural Protection from Organisms. � From what we have already seen of the power and nature of germs the question naturally suggests itself�how is it possible that so many human beings and animals escape infectious disease at all ? It would not be possible except for the fact that every living animal Possesses some degree of natural resistance to the germs of disease. All have in fact a certain amount of inborn immunity, ^and this is due partly to the protection afforded by the skin, partly to the action of various fluids and secretions in the body, still more to the capacity of many cells within the body of de-

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THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

vouring microbes with which they come in contact. Quite re-
cently, further, it has been shown that in the mammalian blood
there are substances called opsonins, whose special function it is
to act upon any germs which gain entrance to the blood as to
render these germs easily devoured by the white corpuscles in
the blood. These are the main ways in which natural immunity
from disease is secured.

Table of Infectious Diseases of the Domesticated Anhnals.
A = occurs. B=comparatively common. C=occurs rarely. ...= does not occur.


Disease.	Horse.	Cattle.	Sheep. ]	ig.	Dog.	No.- Affected.
	A	B	B	0	0	Five
Tuberculosis	A	B	A	B	A	Five
Tetanus .	B	A	A	A	A	Five
Foot-and-mouth disease	A	A	A	A	A	Five
Actinomycosis .	0	B	A	A		Four
Contagious abortion ,	A	B	A	A		Four
	B	...	C		C	Three
Quarter ill .	C	B	B			Three
	B	...				One
African horse sickness'	B	...				One
		A				One
Bovine pleuro-pneumonia		A				One
Braxy.			A			One
Louping ill.			A			One
Swine fever				A		One
Swine erysipelas				A		One
Distemper .					A	One
			...		A	One

The Proof that Bacteria cause Disease.�It may be interesting
just to note before leaving this subject what is regarded as
scientific proof that any given germ is the actual cause of the
disease in which it is found :�

1. The said microbe must be present in every case of disease.

2. The said microbe must be isolated from the body and
cultivated as a pure culture.

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		BACTERIAL DISEASES OF ANIMALS ioi 3. The said microbe, if inoculated into an animal, must pro- duce a condition similar to that from which it was separated. 4. The said microbe must be again separated and cultivated from the animal into which it was inoculated, and in which the disease was produced.

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			CHAPTER VIII

		Bacterial Diseases of Horses Tetanus, or Lock-jaw.�This deadly equine disease is one which, in its treatment, is quite beyond the scope of the animal owner, and which we need, therefore, describe only from the point of view of the symptoms and general characters. Under natural conditions it is a disease which affects generally man and the horse, though other animals are susceptible. It is a disease of the nervous system, and all its principal symptoms are due to an extreme irritation of motor cells, which produce spasmodic contraction of the muscles, setting up a series of violent spasms which, as a rule, end in death. It is caused by an organism, the bacillus tetani, which gains entrance to the animal by means of some wound, which, however, may be so small as to escape notice. At other times it is associated with an open ragged sore, which has been contaminated either by soil or manure or other impurities in which the bacillus was contained. From this wound there may be a discharge. The disease occasionally is epidemic or epizootic. It is more common in hot climates than in cold, and occurs more in military veterinary practice amongst cavalry regiments than in civil work. Symptoms.�After an incubation period which varies from four to fourteen days the first onset of spasms occurs; but before this the horse may have been noticed as being disinclined to move about, carrying the tail erect, with the ears set back and the head raised. The face muscles may be contracted, and the nostrils open, giving the horse an expression of the face which would suggest considerable suffering. In the early stages the teeth remain apart, but as the muscular spasms become more and more pronounced, the muscles of the jaw are so contracted as to close the one jaw upon the other, a symptom which has given to the disease the common name of Lock-jaw. This necessarily 108

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		BACTERIAL DISEASES OF HORSES 103 involves an inability to feed, and although the appetite remains good so far as the desire for food is concerned, the unfortunate animal, owing to the fixation of the jaws, is quite unable to masticate, he therefore is forced to undergo what practically amounts to starvation. In course of time the breathing becomes difficult, which indicates that the muscles of the chest are be- coming affected, and there may be considerable difficulty in breathing, amounting finally to an impossibility. This difficulty is one of the symptoms which points to an inevitable fatal termination. Another is the rapidity with which the different groups of muscles attacked become affected. The shorter the time which elapses between the wound and the appearance of the symptoms the more serious is the case. These exceedingly severe nervous symptoms are due entirely to an extremely powerful toxin which is manufactured by the bacillus at the site of its entrance into the body. The organism itself is never found in the blood, but remains in the wound where it produces its poison. Tetanus is, therefore, a toxcemia. This powerful toxin is absorbed into the system, and has a specialised action upon motor-nerve cells and stimulates them to great ex- citability. The exact nature of this toxin is not very definitely known, but it is one of the most powerful poisons of which we have any experience. Since the organism of tetanus is found somewhat commonly in the earth and in manure, the question that naturally arises is, why the disease of tetanus is not more common than it is, because it might be supposed that the great majority of wounds in horses� or at any rate a large number of them�will almost of necessity be contaminated from this source at the time they are inflicted. Bacteriologists believe that the reason why the disease is not more common is that some other material is necessary in order that the fatal toxin may be produced. It is possible that this bacillus requires the presence of others, especially those of sup- puration, before it can produce its worst effects, and, moreover, it is one of the organisms which does not grow in the presence of free oxygen. Treatment.�It will readily be recognised that the treatment of tetanus is a matter solely for the veterinary expert, and cases

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		which are suspected to be of this nature should be entrusted to him' immediately. The only hope of curing the disease lies in the administration of an antitoxic serum, which is now to be obtained, and is the routine treatment for the condition. In spite of this serum, however, the death rate from tetanus is very high, not because the serum is in itself defective, but simply be- cause it is impossible to recognise the presence of the disease until the spasmodic muscular contractions are prominent. By that time such a large amount of the poisonous toxin has been produced that the case is almost hopeless. There can be no doubt that if the disease could be diagnosed sufficiently early, a large number of cases would be saved by the early use of the antitoxic serum. Glanders and Farcy.�These two conditions which are caused by one and the same organism include what is perhaps the most dangerously fatal disease in the horse, and one which is at the same time easy of communication to man. Glanders may be acute or chronic, and it may affect the internal organs or be chiefly localised in the region of the nose. It should be treated at once. The acute form of glanders is such a dangerously in- fectious and fatal condition, that should there be any suspicion of its presence no time should be lost in placing the case in the hands of the veterinary surgeon. The most acute cases are in- curable and require the immediate isolation of the animal which will probably have to be destroyed. Glanders is a specific infectious disease, caused by the bacillus mallei, which affects the horse, the mole, the donkey, many carnivorous animals, and which is readily communicated to man. It occasionally breaks out in travelling shows and menageries, spreading from one animal to another by various means of con- tamination. Thus it affects lions, leopards, tigers and bears. Cats, guinea-pigs, and hedgehogs will also take it, as will field mice, which latter are very susceptible. Adult dogs show great resistance to this infection, and adult pigs are almost absolutely immune. Cattle and pigs, as well as poultry, resist glanders so long as they are healthy. Mode of Infection.�Like other bacterial conditions, this dis- ease always arises from infection from a previous case, but

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			Clydesdale Stallion, "Boyal Review" Photo by Brown & Co., Lanark

		Clydesdale Mare, "Chester Princess" Photo by Brown & Co., Lanark

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			BACTERIAL DISEASES OF HORSES

		that infection may not be direct. It is often possible to trace the condition to contact with diseased animals which show the running discharge from the nose, or to other secretions, and there is no doubt that infection of food and drink which have been in contact with diseased animals is a very common source of the condition. But many cases occur in a very indirect way, for example, the harness, rugs, and other stable fittings which have been once in contact with a case may continue to hold the in- fecting microbe for a considerable time. Should this come in contact later with a healthy horse, the organism can readily pass from the infected material to the healthy animal. Besides these methods there is no doubt that the bacilli may be inhaled and settle in the nose or lungs. Human Infection.�It cannot be too much impressed upon the minds of horse-owners that glanders is a condition which should never be tampered with. It is extremely contagious to man, and the disease is very deadly. A case is on record of a physician who infected himself with glanders during an opera- tion upon a patient suffering from the disease, and both of them died. Veterinary surgeons run considerable risk when examining glandered horses, from the nasal secretions of the animal, which may be thrown on to them in the act of expiration. Those whose occupation leads them to work with horse-hair also run consider- able risks, and some have been infected from horse-hair mattresses. Should there be any suspicious discharge from the nose in a horse, the owner should call in the veterinary surgeon immediately, and carefully disinfect his own hands and clothes if he has been in actual contact with the horse. Symptoms of Acute Glanders.�In the early stage of the disease a horse shows the usual symptoms of an infectious fever. The coat is rough and staring, the appetite is lost, and the move- ments are sluggish. In a few days a discharge appears from the nostrils, frequently from one nostril only. This discharge is clear and watery at first, becoming later thick and sticky. The glands under the jaws are enlarged and hard, especially on the side from which the discharge is coming. In the later stages this discharge becomes yellowish or greenish in colour, perhaps mixed with some blood, and having a rather offensive smell.

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		106 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER The mucous membrane of the nose is much inflamed, and shows here and there small nodules which in a few days become ulcers. The disease, which reaches its height in from six to fifteen days, manifests the crisis by the breathing becoming difficult, and finally there may be death from suffocation. Long before this stage is reached, however, the veterinary surgeon will in all pro- bability have advised the destruction of the horse. Symptoms of Farcy.�Farcy, though essentially the same dis- ease as glanders, usually affects the hind limbs, attacking the lymphatics particularly on the inside of the thigh, but also on the ankle and the shoulders and other parts. Along the lines of these lymphatic vessels there appear swellings or enlargements, which are hard to the touch and which are known commonly as Farcy Buds. These buds or enlargements frequently break out into ulcers, discharging a somewhat thick fluid, these gradually healing up in a few weeks and leaving a scar. Fresh buds, how- ever, keep forming, and thus the condition may become chronic and last for months or even years, ultimately developing into the ordinary acute glanders which proves fatal. Chronic Glanders.�Cases occur in which this disease never shows any very acute stage at the beginning, but seems to come on insidiously with the nasal discharge and some stiffness or lameness in the limbs, which may be either continuous or inter- mittent. There may be some cough and enlargements of the glands in the region of the head. Treatment.�Treatment of this disease is mainly directed to preventing the spread, and the animal must therefore be imme- diately isolated, and the symptoms treated as they appear. Once more we may urge upon the horse-owner the great importance of seeking skilled advice whenever any horse shows a discharge from the nose. It is essentially a case where the early calling in of the expert may save other horses in the stable, not to mention those in the same district. The veterinary surgeon has means of diagnosing glanders which are quite beyond the skill of the owner. Strangles.�This infectious disease, caused by a micro- organism, occurs in young horses from two to five years of age as a rule, and frequently comes on in those animals which have

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		BACTERIAL DISEASES OF HORSES 107 been out to grass, and have been suddenly transferred to stable housing and diet. It is most common in the spring of the year. Although the disease is caused by a definite organism, there is no doubt that the surroundings of the animal act as a predis- posing cause; that is to say, the lack of ventilation, a change of diet, the hot stable and any want of cleanliness�all give the affecting cause an opportunity of acting. Symptoms.�The disease assumes the form of an infective fever, the symptoms being those of catarrh of the throat, with loss of appetite and a running at the nose. Then an enlargement appears between the jaw, and this swelling feels tender to the touch, and is accompanied by some difficulty in swallowing. A discharge of thickish yellow matter comes from the nostrils, and after about a week the swelling between the jaws either bursts or ^Js opened artificially, after which the most dangerous period is past. In very severe cases this swelling may threaten suffocation from pressing upon the windpipe, and causing a difficulty of breathing. Treatment.�The horse should be provided with a roomy, well-ventilated stall, with plenty of food, isolated from any other animals, and kept thoroughly warm with clothing. Food should be given in small quantities at a time and frequently, and it must be of such a nature as will tempt the animal to eat. Bran mashes, steamed carrots, gruel made of clover or other green food, provide a suitable and laxative diet. As far as the swelling in the throat is concerned, that should be encouraged to come to a head by the application of a poultice, which should be changed as often as it becomes dry. Hot fomentations are also useful, and should there be any undue delay in the discharge from the abscess it may be opened by cutting into it through the skin. The dangers of strangles are the risk which the animal runs °f being choked by the swelling before it is opened, and secondly the risk that abscesses may form in various parts of the body by the absorption of infected material from the primary source. Hence it follows that should the horse show any signs of difficulty m breathing and swallowing, the veterinary surgeon should be called in immediately for the purpose of evacuating the abscess. The treatment afterwards should be directed to careful nursing, and due attention to light nourishing food.

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		io8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Quittor.�This is a condition the treatment of which should always be placed in the hands of the expert. It is a suppuration in the region of the foot, generally caused by faulty shoeing, or the suppuration of a corn or some injury to the coronet which has set up inflammation. From the surrounding tissues being so hard and dense the matter finds great difficulty in escaping, and hence it makes its way here and there through the tissues, causing considerable swelling and great pain in its efforts to escape. Some parts of its passage will probably be deeply seated in the foot, and as the treatment involves cutting into these passages in order to let out the discharge, it is obvious that the anatomical knowledge of the veterinary surgeon is here required. Influenza.�This disease, which often assumes the character of an epizootic, attacking a number of animals at the same time in any given district, occurs most frequently in young horses, especially in the spring months. Symptoms.�It is an infectious fever associated specially with inflammation of the respiratory tract, coming on suddenly and characterised by great weakness, a drooping head, yellowish dull eyes, feeble pulse, loss of appetite, scanty and high-coloured urine, a deep, painful cough, rough hair and shivering fits. Then a thin discharge sets in from the nostrils, with cough, and evidence of a sore throat. Now and then the legs show swellings and the horse goes lame. Treatment.�The complications of influenza are apt to be so serious, involving the lungs and other organs, that in all but the most mild cases the owner is well advised to place the case in the hands of a veterinary surgeon. The treatment is directed mainly to good nursing, to overcoming the constipation of the bowels, and by strengthening foods and medicines, together with pure air and warm clothing. Soft mashes with some green food and warm clothing will be required. An essential point is the main- taining of the strength of the animal, and for this purpose stimu- lants may be necessary. Not only, however, should artificial stimulants be used, but strengthening food given in small quantities and frequently must be relied upon. Good hay, freshly bruised oats, roots (if the animal will take them) will

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		BACTERIAL DISEASES OF HORSES 109 form most of the diet. Warm clothing is essential. Gentle exercise can be given as the animal becomes convalescent. Hydrophobia.�This terrible condition never occurs in the horse except from the bite of some rabid animal such as the dog. The symptoms are those of intense nervous excitement, the horse becoming highly dangerous, and as there is no cure it becomes a question of putting an end to the animal's life. The disease itself is described in the section devoted to dogs. Foot and Mouth Disease.�This infectious disease in the horse ^Js confined to the region of the mouth, where the symptoms are similar to those found in bovine animals. The condition is rare in the horse, and is described in detail in the section devoted to cattle. Anthrax.�This specific contagious disease is apt to become epizootic amongst the herbivora, but as it specially affects cattle and sheep it is described in detail in the section dealing with the former animal. It is a rapidly fatal condition, and from its danger both to animals and men requires skilled assistance. Actinomycosis.�This disease, which is produced by one of the higher bacteria, occurs in human beings, cattle, pigs, and the horse, but is specially common in. cattle. The parasite grows most commonly in the tongue, producing an enlarged, hardened growth known as woody-tongue (see chapter on cattle). Pneumonia.�Inflammation of the lungs is now known to be an infectious specific fever, and although it is a distinct condition from pleurisy, yet the two are frequently, in fact commonly, found to be present together. The actual cause is a micro- organism, to whose attack the horse is often rendered susceptible hy exposure to sudden changes of temperature, by allowing a hot horse to stand in a draught or exposed to the cold, or by allowing him to get chilled when wet. Imperfect drying after washing, °r removal from a warm to a cold stable, driving in a cold wind ^after confinement in a warm stable, or breathing impure air in ^an over-crowded stall which is badly ventilated, these and such- hke conditions all render the horse liable to pneumonia. The disease is very dangerous and requires skilled treatment t^rorn the outset. It begins, like many fevers, with shivering ^and a cold surface of the body, laboured breathing, loss of

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		no THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER appetite, and disinclination to move. The pulse increases in its rate, the ears and legs are cold, the eyes and nose reddened, and the breathing movements quickened. The horse stands with the legs spread out, the head thrown forward, breathing quickly and with effort. The bowels are generally costive. Treatment.�The horse must be kept warm and at the same time supplied with plenty of pure air. A hot ill-ventilated atmo- sphere is almost necessarily fatal. The food should consist chiefly of gruel and should be laxative, cooling, and nutritious. Bran boiled in sweet milk, cooked carrots or turnips, together with some good hay are suitable. The horse should be clothed and warmly wrapped up, but the clothes should at the same time not be too heavy. Water should be given freely, to which will be added medicines to combat the fever as directed by the veterinary surgeon. In cases of great exhaustion it will be necessary to administer stimulants. Hot applications to the chest may be advised, and can be applied by wringing out blankets in hot water, two or three being placed one over the other against the chest, but these should on no account be allowed to get cold, and must be frequently renewed under the direction of the expert. The disease is so very dangerous to life that the owner will be well advised to procure assistance as early as possible. Tuberculosis.�As is of course well known, tuberculosis is an infectious condition caused by the tubercle bacillus. All the domestic animals are more or less liable to it, but by no means equally so, and amongst those which are less susceptible is the horse. When it does occur in this animal it is usually found in the abdominal organs, especially the spleen, though it is by no means so rare in the lungs as is sometimes supposed. The symptoms and treatment are dealt with in connection with those animals in which it is most common, namely, cattle. It may be here stated, however, that in all tubercular animals the essential thing is to secure healthy, warm, well-ventilated surroundings, avoiding damp and cold as far as possible, and encouraging life in the open sunshine with plenty of good digestible food. The infectious nature of the disease should be kept in mind, so that other animals should not come in contact with those already infected.

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			CHAPTER IX

		Animal Parasites Every one who keeps domestic animals or other hvmg pets in captivity is well aware of the fact that they are liable to be in- fested with various kinds of vermin or parasites, and that some of these parasites produce somewhat serious results, while others are merely unpleasant. In any case they are always unwelcome. Since none of the domestic animals are free from liability in this respect, and since the parasites which attack them are frequently closely related, it will be convenient to deal with the subject in a section by itself, treating first of all briefly of some general con- siderations, then referring in detail to the various species of parasites which occur, and lastly noting how they are distributed amongst the different animals, and the means which may be taken to effect their removal, some of which we have already discovered in the subject of domestic hygiene. What is a Parasite?�It is well to remember that in the whole realm of living matter the contents of nutrition are so arranged that all the animals as well as those plants which have no green colouring matter are bound to obtain their food from organic substances. Now, since organic matter is found in both living creatures and dead bodies, it follows that both of these sources are available for food, and as a matter of fact both are largely utilised. As a rule, of course, we find that the majority of animals, and almost all the plants which require organic material, feed upon non-living matter, which is either found dead, or else is killed for the purpose of food; but, on the other hand, there are a considerable number of creatures which derive their nourishment cither in whole or in part from living tissues. When the relation- ship between the feeder and the creature fed upon is such that the feeder is of an inferior character to the victim, the former is known ^as a parasite. That is to say, a parasite lives at the expense of

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		larger or higher animals, partially or entirely, either using various parts of them as food, or else robbing them of food that they have already taken in and digested. The Origin of Parasites.�It is not very difficult to imagine some conditions and surroundings which may have given rise to the habit of parasitism. Some light is thrown upon this by the law of the survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence. For example, in the case of many lowly creatures the shallow pools and ponds in which they live are apt to dry up in hot weather or the summer season, and those creatures which re- mained there would perish together with their eggs. But those which took advantage of the superior instincts and powers of flight of insects or other animals which moved to other places would thereby get themselves carried into more suitable sur- roundings, and so gain an advantage over their more sluggish competitors. In that way one class of parasites might originate. In many other cases, no doubt, parasitism arose out of the habit of feeding upon flesh. Some small animals unable to kill and devour larger ones might soon readily recognise the convenience of preying upon a highly nutritious living food supply to which it was possible to return whenever desirable, an act which would naturally lead to the habit of parasitism. Further, it is not difficult to imagine that parasites which were at one time quite external might gradually become internal parasites, while in other cases the habit of many female animals of searching for some secure refuge for the purpose of laying their eggs has undoubtedly been the starting-point of parasitic relations. At any rate, however parasitism originated, it is a very widely spread phenomenon, and there is probably no animal which does not unwillingly entertain some unwelcome guests which make no return for the services rendered to them. Terminology and Classification.�Living parasites which are found upon the bodies of their hosts are termed Ectozoa; those which are found within the bodies of their hosts are called Entozoa. Other terms refer not to the position of the parasite, but to the degree to which it carries its habit of parasitism. Those parasites are said to be permanent or occasional, constant or transient, fixed or erratic, and so forth, according as to whether

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		Thoroughbred Stallion, "Gallinule" Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

			Shetland Pony Stallion, "Thoreau" Photo by Brown & Co., Lanark

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	ANIMAL PARASITES
	ANIMAL PARASITES	113
		113

they passed the whole or only a portion of their lives upon or within their host. A permanent parasite, therefore, is one which lives from the hatching of the egg to the reproduction of the next generation upon one host. Most of the higher parasites are constant, and the majority of the entozoa are permanent. Occasionally the complete development requires only one host, but in quite a number of cases the peculiar method of reproduction and development demands two separate hosts. It need hardly be said that there is no absolutely hard and fast line between parasitic life and life in a free state. Some creatures which are parasitic at one time live freely at another period, whilst others are always parasitic. To these parasites the terms occasional and regular are applied, respectively. General Characters of Parasites.�If the true parasites are com- pared with animals which live an independent life, it is found that the former show some general distinctions from the free creatures to which they are closely related. As a matter of fact we find that parasitism involves a certain amount of in- feriority of structure, probably the result of a degeneration from the true type of the class to which the parasite belongs. De- generation of this kind is the result of a general law of nature in virtue of which we find that when organs are not used they tend to disappear. Thus, in the case of the internal parasites which have no necessity to move about in search of food, no necessity to either capture their food or masticate, it is not surprising to notice the absence of organs of locomotion and digestion. Indeed in those cases in which the food is supplied to them already digested from their host, the necessity for a digestive system is done away with, and this is accordingly in such species either very simple or entirely absent. It also follows that the organs of locomotion are extremely rudimentary, and, indeed, the only necessity for energetic action on the part of the parasite comes from the point of view of growth and multiplication. The struggle for existence being reduced to a minimum, the food being sup- plied ready digested, there being no necessity for movement, the surrounding temperature being maintained by the host, no waste of energy, very little excretion�all these render it possible for the whole energy of the jparasite to be centred upon its growth. VOL. II. H

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		and multiplication. No wonder then that this growth in many parasitic species is marvellously rapid, and, if measured by egg pro- duction, greater in proportion than in any other living creatures. The Habitat of Parasites.�The particular host selected and the particular position of the parasite in or upon that host is its habitat, and this is not a matter of indifference, but in many cases is absolutely definite. Each parasite has its normal habitat. The fixed parasites have a definite habitat, and cannot pass from one host to another (e.g. worms). Others pass a somewhat rambling existence (e.g. lice, ticks, and fleas). Even those which live upon the surface of their host often restrict themselves to special parts of the skin, while of those which live internally some dwell in the intestine, some in the blood, some in solid organs, such as the liver and muscle. Frequently certain parasites select one tissue or organ or host for one period of their life, and another for a succeeding stage. Reproduction of Parasites.�Parasites reproduce themselves in various ways. Some give rise to successive generations in the same host, others, such as the worms, merely grow to maturity in one host, giving rise to offspring which do not mature in the same host as their parents. In some the second generation may become mature on re-entering the same host or another of the same species. In others two entirely different kinds of hosts are necessary to complete the life of the parasite, which in this case is immature in one host, adult in another. The animal which harbours the adult parasite is termed a definitive host, and that in which the immature stage is passed is termed the intermediate host. Parasites are extraordinarily prolific. Those which live in the intestine especially produce enormous quantities of eggs. It is estimated that one of the round worms (Ascaris lumbricoides) will produce in a single year 64,000,000 eggs, a mass which is 1740 times the size of the parent worm. But in spite of this apparent excess of egg production there is no real waste, because, as a matter of fact, this enormous number is apparently necessary in order to procure the continuance of the species, since these worms do not increase much in frequency. Put in another way this means that the chances against any given egg reaching the habitat in the

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	ANIMAL PARASITES
	ANIMAL PARASITES	US
		US

next host which is necessary to its development are millions to one against it. Mode of Infection of the Host.�We have already drawn atten- tion in the section on hygiene (vol. i.) to some of the ways in which the domestic animals become infested with parasites, and it need only be said here further that contaminated water, vegetables, meat, or other articles of diet are usually the means of carrying the parasite to the host. In some cases the eggs are eaten and develop in the host. In other cases the intermediate host con- taining the immature parasite is swallowed, whilst occasionally the parasite may be transmitted directly. The Result of Parasites.�It is comparatively rare to find that the parasite does serious damage to its host, and still rarer to find that it produces death. In fact most parasites are a source of annoyance rather than danger, inconvenience rather than actual risk of life. Some of them produce considerable irrita- tion which may cause inflammation, others cause some dilatation of the parts in which they lie; all of them abstract a certain amount of nourishment from the host, sometimes this being blood itself, while occasionally they produce toxic substances which injure their carrier. The only result which applies to all of them is the withdrawal of a certain amount of nourishment, which, how- ever, is not a great loss, and cannot usually be estimated. The most serious results commonly produced are those of severe irri- tation either upon the skin or internally, or else some obstruction of the bowel or other part from the presence of a large number of parasites. For the purposes of this book those parasites which are found in connection with the animals which are here dealt with may be divided into the following groups :� I. Worms (Vermes)� A. Flat Worms (a, Flukes (Trematodes); b, Tape-worms (Cestodes)). B. Round Worms (Nematodes). II. Segmented jointed parasites (Arthropods)� A. Mites, &c. (Arachnoids). B. Lice, fleas, &c. (Insects).

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		n6 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER A brief description of the principal points of these groups in order will save repeating the general character when dealing with each individual parasite. I. Worms.�The parasitic worms are all soft, contractile, invertebrates without joints and without limbs, having excretory organs which open to the exterior. Flat Worms.�This division of the worms, nearly all the members of which are flattened, possess no sensory organs, and carry on a feeble respiration through their surface. The majority of the species included are hermaphrodite. The flukes are soft, non-segmented worms, having one or two suckers, by means of which they attach themselves, possessing a digestive canal which is closed posteriorly. The tape-worms in the adult stage are ribbon-like. Nearly all of them have suckers or hooks at the head end which serve as means of attachment, but they have no digestive apparatus at all. In their adult stages they dwell within the intestines of the various animals, but before they reach that stage they undergo a metamorphosis in some organ of various animals. The round worms are nearly all unisexual, that is, the sexes are separate. They are elongated, rounded, slender, and sometimes thread-like, and are possessed of a digestive canal, which opens both anteriorly and posteriorly. Structure and Life-History of Tape-worms. � The parasites included under this designation are familiar enough. They exhibit length and breadth with only a minor degree of thick- ness. Scientifically they are called Cestodes, a name derived from the classic word for a " girdle " or " belt." Each tape-worm presents itself to view to the eye of the naturalist as a colony of animals. It is in point of fact not one animal, but an aggregation of similar units. Each unit is represented by a " joint " of the worm. This joint in the common species is of elongated shape, and is known as a proglottis (Fig. 64), the whole worm itself being called a strobilus. If we investigate the constitution of a tape-worm from a general point of view, we find it to consist of three distinct parts. These are, first, the minute head (Fig. 64, a, and Fig. 68), by means of which the worm attaches itself to the lining membrane of the bowel or intestine within which it lives.

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ANIMAL PARASITES

117

To the head, secondly, succeeds a slender portion called the
neck (6). Succeeding the neck we find small and imperfectly
formed joints. As we pass backwards we find the third portion
of the worm to consist of fully formed joints or proglottides (d).

The Process of Budding.�The manner
in which this curious organism is de-
veloped can be readily understood when
we have regard to the fact that the
head and neck constitute the source
of its origin. The joints are budded off
from the neck extremity; the youngest
joints are, therefore, those next the neck,
the most mature and oldest joints being
those at the opposite or tail end of the
worm. This process of budding giving rise
further to what we may call " colonial"
beings, is represented in other groups of
the animal world, but it is a process
which is typically seen in the parasites
under consideration. With respect to
the size of tape-worms they may vary
materially in this respect. A common
length in the case of the ordinary tape-
worm (Tania solium) (Fig. 64) is seven
or eight feet, but this extent may be
greatly exceeded when we have regard
to the fact that the intestine or bowel
of man measures twenty-six feet in
length, so that we can readily under-

FlG. 64.�Tania solium.�Tape-
worm derived from pork,
showing�a, head ; b, neck ; c,
a detached joint; d, three de-
tached joints.

stand how, under favourable circum-
stances, a tape-worm by continuous bud-
ding may grow to an enormous length.

At the same time we have to take into
consideration the fact that the oldest of the joints of the worm are
perpetually dropping off as new joints are being produced by bud-
ding from the head and neck. It is the passage from the bowel of the
cast-off joints which, "of course, forms the one distinctive symptom
indicating the presence of this parasite in the digestive system.

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	n8 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Development�In order to understand the life-history or career of a tape-worm we must first bear in mind the rule applic- able to other parasites, namely, that these animals demand two " hosts " for their development. The first host which receives the young worms does not develop the perfect parasites. They require to be transferred to the body of the second " host," which must eat the flesh of the first in order that the full life-history may be completed. We may naturally begin the consideration of tape-worm development with the minute eggs which are con- tained to the number of many thousands in each mature joint of the worm as it exists in man. In this description we select the

		Fig. 65�Cystic worm.�4, Fig. 66.�" Measly " pork showing young head ; 3, neck; 1 and forms of tape-worm. 2, bladder or cyst.

common or pork tape-worm (Figs. 65, 66), as illustrative of these parasites' life-histories. Each egg is about the ^th part of an inch in diameter. If we reflect upon the fact that each joint of the tape-worm contains many thousands of eggs and that a full- grown tape-worm numbers many hundreds of joints in its con- stitution, we may feel appalled when we consider the number of eggs to which a single parasite may give origin. It is the fact that these eggs require to pass through a complicated cycle of development which materially lessens the chances of their de- velopment, and in the course of which by far the greater majority undoubtedly perish. This constitutes nature's mode of limiting their propagation. The eggs in the case of the common tape-worm escaping from

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		ANIMAL PARASITES 119 the body of man are swallowed by a pig. This animal represents the first " host." In the pig it will be understood the egg has no chance of becoming a mature tape-worm. The egg is a small body, and within it can be seen a little embryo possessing six horny hooks at its head extremity. Swallowed by the pig, these embryos are liberated from the eggs, and bore their way from the digestive system of the animal to take up their abode in its muscles or flesh. Arrived in the muscles, each embryo settles down and develops around its hinder part a bladder-like expansion. In this stage of its development the young tape-worm is known as a scolex or cysticerus (Fig. 65), whilst it has also been known as a cystic worm, and as a bladder worm. The average size of the bladder-like cyst is that of a small pea; occasionally, however, it may be of larger size. If the pig happens to have received a large dose of tape-worm eggs the animal becomes much affected by the passage of the embryos from the digestive system to the muscles. It exhibits symptoms of fever and of general disturb- ance of its bodily functions. These symptoms cease when the embryos have settled down in its flesh. A pig thus affected is said by the veterinary surgeon to be troubled with "measles," and the flesh of such an animal is described as "measly pork" (Fig. 66). It is this pork which forms the great source of tape-worm infection by this species of worm in man. The Further History.�Let us now suppose that a portion of measly pork in an imperfectly cooked state is eaten by man. This event naturally forms the commencement of the second epoch or era of the worm's life-history. Passed into the human stomach, the immature tape-worm gets rid of its bladder-like expansion. The already formed head and neck of the bladder of the worm (Fig. 65) constitutes the head and neck of the future tape-worm. The head attaches itself to the lining mem- brane of the bowel in man. Next begins the process of budding from the neck forming the joints, and it only requires time for the complete and perfect tape-worm to be thus produced. The period occupied in this process on an average may be set down at four months.

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120 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

The following table may be found to summarise the various
stages in this curious development:�

The egg.

The boring embryo passing to the

muscles.
The resting stage (bladder worm, or

cysticercus).
The liberated scolex or bladder worm.
The head and neck fixed in the bowel�

budding begins.
The full-grown worm with its mature

joints containing eggs.

The pig is the
" host."

First epoch
or period

Second epoch
or period

Man is the
" host."

Some Other Histories.�From the account just given of tape-
worm development, it will be seen that the young stage of each
tape-worm residing in the first host must be eaten by its second
host. It is, of course, possible that the animal which naturally
forms the second host of the tape-worm may, by swallowing the
egg, convert itself into the first host. This, however, rarely
happens. It has been said that, in the case of the common worm,
the " cystic " form or " bladder " worm takes up its abode in
the muscles of the pig. The muscular system, however, is not
the only part of an animal in which the young tape-worms may
reside. Thus these cystic worms may be found in the brain, in
the eyeball, and in other parts of the animal frame. In one case,
that of the young form of a tape-worm of a dog, called Tcenia
ccenurus, the cystic worm may attain the size of a hen's egg.
When it occurs in the brain of the sheep it gives origin to a disease
of that animal known as " staggers." In the same way the young
form of another tape-worm passes its early stage in a first host
represented by a fresh-water fish, as will hereafter be described.
A tape-worm of the dog, Tcenia marginata, spends its youthful
stage in the sheep and other domestic animals, and yet another
parasite of the dog has for its first host hares and rabbits. Just
as the cat obtains one of its tape-worm parasites by eating the
mouse, in the same way a tape-worm found in the fox passes its
early life in a species of field animal known as the " vole." But
perhaps the most extraordinary example of what has been called
" the vicious cycle of parasitism " is that seen in the case of the

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dog. This animal is affected with a tape-worm called the Tcenia cucumerina, a worm, by the way, which may also occur in its full-grown condition in man. The young form of this tape-worm passes the first stage of its life in the louse, living on the dog's skin, into which, in the form of the egg, it passes from the dog's intestines. The animal infects itself further by the swallowing of the louse with its contained tape-worm embryo previously derived from its own body. The " vicious cycle " in this case is, therefore, represented within the body of one and the same animal. Amongst other tape-worms which are liable to occur in man is the Tcenia mediocanellata, otherwise known as the " beef tape- worm." In all probability this species represents the most common parasite in Britain and Europe. The worm has as its first host the muscles of the ox, and more rarely those of the sheep. In about sixty days after infected meat has been eaten the mature joints may be discharged from man's bowel. This tape-worm is one of the largest found in man, and may attain a length of over twenty feet. The head, like that of other tape- worms, possesses suckers, wherewith it adheres to the lining membrane of the bowel, but it has no hooklets, as is the case with the common or pork worm (p. 129). Another species of tape-worm, but one not common in Britain, is that known as the Bothriocephalus latus, otherwise known as the Broad tape-worm, and as the Russian tape-worm, from the fact that, while uncommon in Britain, it is frequently found in Russia, Poland, Switzerland, and sometimes in Ireland. It has also been found in Japan. This is the largest tape-worm infesting man. It may grow to a length of twenty-five feet, its mature " joints " numbering over three thousand. The joints in this species are wide, that is when measured from side to side, but are short when compared with the oblong joints of other tape-worms. The head of this species has neither hooks nor suckers, but it is deeply grooved on each side. The reason for the peculiar geographical distribution of this worm is readily found when we have regard to the mode of infection. It is necessary, of course, for man to eat the first " host," in which the worm passes the preliminary stages of its existence. The broad

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worm is found to pass its earlier stage in the body of fresh-water fish, of which the pike is an example. As such fishes in a dry and uncooked state are frequently eaten by inhabitants of the countries in which this tape-worm occurs, infection is limited to such regions. A Dangerous Tape-worm.�Whilst the presence of any tape- worm in the body undoubtedly gives rise to symptoms of ill- health, at the same time the ailment cannot be regarded as a rule as a dangerous one. The case is, however, very different when we come to consider the history of a special tape-worm

		the Broad Fig. 68.�*Tania* Fig. 69.�Cyst of hydatid tape-worm tape-worm. echinococcus. showing secondary growths.

	found in the dog, and known as the Tcenia echinococcus (Fig. 68). This is an extremely small species of tape-worm. In its total length it averages a quarter of an inch long, and consists of four joints only. The head has a double row of hooklets, and four suckers for adhesion to the intestine of the dog. The head measures in width the xj^jth part of an inch. Only the last of the four joints is capable of producing eggs, which are of spherical shape. The great interest attaching to this worm is found in the fact that man unfortunately tends to appear as the first " host " of this parasite, although other animals, such as oxen and horses, may be infected. Hydatids.�When the eggs of this dog tape-worm are swallowed by man or other of the animals mentioned, instead of each de-

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		123

veloping into a little cystic worm, it gives origin wherever it may rest�in the liver, lungs, brain, or kidneys�to a body called a hydatid. Inside this hydatid we find produced, by a process of budding (Fig. 69), other embryos which project from the sides of the cyst. Hence we find a tumour formed, filled with a straw-coloured fluid containing a large proportion of salt. We can readily understand that if more than one such hydatid tumour is formed in the case of an organ like the liver very serious destruction of the liver tissue may in this way be brought about. Each of the little embryos developed by budding inside the hydatid varies in length from ^jth to the _T^th part of an inch. It possesses four suckers and a circlet of hooks. We are now able to perceive the dangerous nature of the small tape-worm of the dog, for if man swallows the eggs of this parasite they will tend to produce in his body hydatid tumours, involving serious risk of life. The dog, no doubt, obtains his infection from cattle and sheep, and from hydatids produced in their bodies through these animals swallowing the eggs of the worm. In cases where dogs are fed on the offal of slaughter- houses infection of these animals is extremely frequent. In- fection is also liable to occur in man from his close association with infected dogs, and also from drinking water into which the eggs of this tape-worm have escaped. Uncooked vegetables in the shape of lettuce, for example, may also be regarded with suspicion, in that the eggs of this tape-worm are liable to infect them. It may also be added by way of prevention that dogs should not be encouraged to lick the faces or hands of their owners, inasmuch as they may in this way convey parasites they have obtained from contact with other and infected dogs. It is a wise law which enacts that no dog may be kept in a slaughter- house, as through the observance of this rule risk of infection can be largely avoided. Prevention of Parasitic Infection.�With regard to the pre- vention of parasitic infection, there are four rules capable of being readily put into practice, the observance of which un- doubtedly protects man from infection by the parasites just described. The first rule enacts that all flesh meat should be thoroughly cooked. If meat is kept at the boiling temperature

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		for a certain time until its substance is permeated by the heat, the danger of infection contained in the meat may be avoided. Hydatids are killed at a temperature of 170⁰ F. It has already been noted that infection is most common in countries where meat is eaten in a smoked or uncooked condition. A physician has remarked that the habit of prescribing for various digestive ailments raw meat has resulted in an increase of cases of infection by the tape-worm derived from uncooked beef and mutton. A second rule advises us to pay great attention to the purity of drinking water. Whilst ordinary supplies, such as those of towns and cities may be regarded as thoroughly safe, water de- rived from wells, springs, and ponds cannot be so regarded, in- asmuch as many chances exist of contamination by manure from the surroundings, such contamination substances being liable, as we have seen, to contain the eggs of parasites. Where any doubt exists regarding the purity of water-supply, the rule should be followed to use either a Berkefeld filter or to boil the water thoroughly before use. The third rule concerns the care with which all vegetables should be treated in the matter of cleanliness, and especially these vegetables which are eaten uncooked. The fourth and last rule concerns the health of our dogs. If a dog be noticed to be passing worms of any kind he should be at once treated by the veterinary surgeon. Treatment.�The treatment of round and thread worms has already been described. For the treatment of tape-worm a somewhat different plan has to be practised. It is well to mention here that a great number of cases fail to be speedily cured because the strict directions of the physician are not ad- hered to. In the second place it must be clearly understood that ■no case of tape-worm can be regarded as cured unless the minute head is brought away with the joints. If the head and neck alone be left attached to the lining membrane of the bowel they will be capable, through the process of budding already described, of giving origin to a new worm, so that in many cases a patient from whose bowel has been discharged several feet of worm, and who imagines himself to be cured, is apt to feel thoroughly disappointed when after an interval joints begin again to be discharged. Treatment of Tape-worm.�The remedy upon which most

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			ANIMAL PARASITES 125

		reliance is placed for the cure of tape-worm is the extract of male fern. An authority lays great stress on the fact that disappoint- ment in the treatment of tape-worm by this drug depends upon the extract not being freshly prepared, or on its not having been taken from an active root stock of the fern. The mode of treat- ing a case of tape-worm resolves itself into ensuring that the stomach and bowels are as empty as possible. To effect this end the patient is usually advised to fast for a period of eight hours before taking the medicine. In other cases a dose of castor- oil or of Epsom salts taken three hours before its administration may effect the same end. At bedtime the liquid extract of male fern is taken. The dose is a drachm, although ninety minims in the case of a strong man may be taken with safety. The extract should be given in a drachm dose, to which are added one drachm of powdered gum arabic, and one ounce of peppermint water. Another formula consists of seventy-five minims of the liquid extract of male fern, one yolk of egg with a little chloroform water and simple syrup to make up a two-ounce mixture. Presuming this dose has been administered at bedtime after an eight hours' fast, in the morning a full dose of castor-oil should be taken. A meal of mashed potatoes is recommended to be taken in the forenoon. After this treatment the worm will probably be ex- pelled. Careful search should be made to ascertain if the head and neck are present. If not, the same treatment should be repeated after an interval of, say, three days. If the extract of male fern causes nausea and sickness as above prescribed, the chemist should be instructed to place this substance in capsules con- taining ten or fifteen minims each. Four or six of these capsules may be taken for a dose in place of draught above described. Other remedies for tape-worn include turpentine. The ob- jection to this remedy is that it must be given in a fairly large dose, and the amount required is apt to induce serious irritation of the kidneys. Kousso has also been prescribed, this subtance being infused in boiling water in a quantity of four drachms. The infusion is swallowed when it has become cold. The rind or bark of pomegranate taken in the form of a decoction is also effective. From one to two ounces of the decoction maybe taken each hour after fasting until three doses have been swallowed.

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		126 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER It may be well to add that all tape-worms or other parasites passing from the bowel should be duly burned by way of avoiding any distribution of the eggs, and thus preventing fresh infections. Structure and Life-History of Flukes.�Flukes, like tape-worms, are parasitic worms, but they present a wider range in the nature of their parasitism, some being found attached to the exterior of other animals, while some live within various organs of the host. Here, again, it will, for the present, suffice to describe a single member of the group, and the tjrpe which is most commonly taken as a sample is the Liver-fluke (Fasciola hepatica), a much-dreaded agricultural pest, which give rise to the disease of sheep known as " liver rot." The adult liver-fluke is found often in large numbers in the liver of the sheep, or, in some cases, of other animals, among which man must be included. The body is leaf-shaped and about an inch long. At the front end there is a conical projection, on the tip of which is a sucker surrounding the opening of the mouth. There is a second sucker placed farther back on the tinder surface of the body, and the excretory organs open by a minute pore at the tip of the hinder end. The animal is covered by a thick cuticle beset with minute backwardly directed spines, which facilitate an onward wriggling through the substance of the diseased liver, which gradually becomes more and more de- generated and broken down, till at last, in bad cases, the sheep dies. The internal structure of the fluke is extremely complex, and only a few of the more salient features can be mentioned. The body wall consists of the cuticle with underlying epidermis and muscular layers, within which the spaces between the various organs is filled up by a soft packing material, much as in a tape- worm. Here, however, though special circulatory and respiratory organs are absent, the digestive system is well developed, for the surrounding food, consisting of blood and broken-down liver substance, requires to be digested. The mouth leads into a muscular pharynx, acting as a suction-pump, this into an ex- tremely short gullet, and this again into a forked intestine, the halves of which are much branched and end blindly. The ex- cretory organs are much of the same kind as in the tape-worm,

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	ANIMAL PARASITES
	ANIMAL PARASITES	127
		127

and the nervous system is not much better developed. It consists of a ring round the front part of the gut, thickened above into ill- defined cerebral ganglia, and giving off a number of nerves, of which the most important take a backward direction. The life-history is more complex than that of the tape-worm, and of a remarkable character, including a number of stages. The ripe eggs produced by the adult fluke may be taken as the point of departure. These pass down into the intestine of the sheep, and thence to the exterior. If they happen to fall into water or on to damp grass�and fluke-disease is commonest in wet fields�an elongated ciliated embryo hatches out from each of them; this swims actively about for some time, and if it happens to come across a certain small water-snail (Limncea truncatula), further stages in its life-history become possible. The larva makes its way into the lung of the snail, and becomes a shapeless bag (sporocyst), within which are developed a number of cylindrical rediae, constituting the next stage. The redia makes its way out of the sporocyst and travels to the liver of the snail, upon which it preys. The last stage in the life-history is the tadpole-like cercaria, which is really an immature fluke, and this is produced within the redia much as that took origin within the sporocyst. The cercaria leaves the snail, and, swimming through the water by means of its tail, reaches a piece of grass or some other plant, to which it becomes attached. The tail is lost, and the body becomes invested in a firm limy coat or cyst. If now a sheep should happen to swallow one of these encysted forms, the limy covering is dissolved by the action of the gastric juice, and the young fluke, escaping, passes on into a small in- testine, whence it travels up the bile-duct into the liver, there becoming adult (Ainsworth Davis). Structure and Life-History of Round Worms.�The round worms which are parasitic, though varying immensely in size, are all of them more or less similar in structure. They are mostly smooth, white or pinkish in colour, both ends tapering to a point, possessing a mouth and a digestive canal, the sexes being separate, the male worm being usually smaller than the female, and the life-history being perfectly simple without any metamorphosis. In their young and immature condition they live as a rule out of

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		128 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER a body in water, or on moist earth or on vegetables. Some of them, however, live within either the mucous-membrane of the large intestine, or within the cells of arteries. In the adult stage they dwell in one or other part of the intestinal tract or in various parts of the lungs, where they produce disease, which will be dealt with under the animals concerned. General Symptoms of Intestinal Worms.�In a large number of cases one or other of the parasitic worms may be present in the intestines of an animal without producing any marked symptoms at all. But when the worms are present in very large numbers, or when they attach themselves to delicate portions of the intestine, or bore their way through the walls to other parts, then symptoms make their appearance. An animal may show general signs of poor condition and ill-health; the skin is perhaps scurvy and dry, the appetite very irregular, the breath foetid, the bowels sometimes loose, sometimes costive, but the only distinctive symptom from which a certain diagnosis can be made is the passage and discharge of the worms themselves, or their eggs. It is said by some that horses which are suffering from parasitic worms are apt to elevate the upper lip, rubbing it against the manger, or to shake the tail, evidently from irritation of the gut. Sometimes there is even colic. In cattle there may be considerable emaciation, the appetite varied and sometimes depraved, the rumination being impaired. Here, too, the breath will be foetid. In sheep the appetite is frequently lost, and diarrhoea may be present, the wool appearing unhealthy and sometimes shedding. The sheep may even eat earth, and show the presence of itching by prolonged shakings of the tail. Finally, there may be con- siderable wasting, and the animal has a hopeless look about it, and tends to remain by itself, apart from the rest of the flock. In pigs there is generally unusual voracity, which, however, does not keep the animal in good condition, as they lose flesh in spite of the appetite. There is often a cough, and diarrhoea with abdominal pains. Many even suffer from convulsions. In dogs, the great majority of which harbour one or more parasites, the appetite may be excessive, and at the same time the

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		Thoroughbred. Stallion, "The Tinman" Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

			Thoroughbred Stallion, "Cyllene" Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

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	dog show wasting. The skin appears itchy, and the coat in bad condition. There is indigestion and even vomiting with foetid breath, and the itching of the gut is shown by the dog drawing itself along the ground. The temper is apt to be irritable, and there may be even convulsions. The Distribution of Parasitic Worms in Domestic Animals.�The following facts will give some indication of the extent to which the domestic animals are attacked by these parasites. In the horse there might be found in the intestinal tract at least three tape-worms, and seven round worms ; in the sheep one tape- worm, one fluke, and seven round worms; in the dog thirteen tape-worms, one fluke, and five round worms; in the goose and duck nine tape-worms, seven flukes, and seven round worms ; in the chicken four tape-worms, two flukes, and seven round worms ; in the turkey and pigeon at least two round worms each. The occurrence of these different parasites varies considerably in different countries in the world, and we shall only consider in detail those which are commonly found in Great Britain, in which country, however, several serious conditions are produced by parasites, especially in pigs, sheep, and cattle; and from the extreme commonness of the tape-worm in the dog human beings are constantly infected. A detailed description of each worm will be found in the section dealing with the animal which is the host of the parasite. Parasites of Men and Animals.�There are several parasites, both internal and external, which are found to occur in one or other of their stages in both man and the domestic animals, and of these there are three which are particularly important, all of which belong to the group of tape-worms, and which may, there- fore, be specially noticed at this stage. Taenia Saginata or Taenia Mediocanellata�This is the largest tape-worm of this particular family which is found in man, in whose intestine it grows to a length of from twelve to twenty-four feet. The mature form occurs in no other animal, not more than one being found in each person as a rule. The parasite occurs all over the world, and is, perhaps, the most common tape-worm found in Great Britain. In some parts of the world, such as Abyssinia, it is the rule perhaps rather than vol. 11. 1

i^

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		the exception to find the natives infected. It is said to be getting somewhat more common, and this is attributed to the fact that raw beef-juice is now prescribed as an article of invalid diet. The bearing of this view will be seen when it is stated that the cystic stage of the parasite (Cysticerus bovis) is found almost only in the muscles of cattle, in which it gives rise to the condition known as measly beef. If human beings partake of beef thus infected the embryo finds its way to the human intestine, where it attains its adult stage in about sixty days. From thence the eggs are discharged and find their way into drinking water, which is thus contaminated, and should cattle partake of this the life-cycle becomes completed. It is worth remembering that a temperature of 47° to 48⁰ C. kills in the beef, but the centre of the joints which remains undone never reaches this temperature. Taenia Solium and Cysticerus Cellulosae.�This tape-worm infests man both in its early stages and in the adult form, the latter, however, occurring in man only. The parasite rarely reaches a length of more than ten or twelve feet, and like the parasite of measly beef, inhabits the small intestine, there being usually no more than one parasite found at a time. The most common source of infection is from the pig, man becoming in- fected by feeding upon measly pork. The eggs, however, may themselves be swallowed along with contaminated vegetables or water. The parasite is killed by boiling, but not in an underdone joint. Salt and smoked pork especially, as well as underdone meat and sausages, are the most common sources from which human beings become infected (Fig. 64). Taenia Echinococcus.�This parasite is really a tape-worm of the dog, the larval stage of which, however, occurs in man, giving rise to a very serious disease known as hydatid cysts. This disease is extremely common in certain parts of the world, as much as one-sixth of the total mortality of Iceland having been contributed to its presence. The adult worm, which is extremely small for a tape-worm, having only four segments, and reaching a length of not much more than one-quarter of an inch, occurs in the intestine of the dog and the wolf. When the eggs are developed in the dog they pass out with the excreta.

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and find their way either by means of water or vegetables into the human stomach, and from thence finally to the liver. Here they give rise to a bladder-like structure which grows to great dimensions, causing the hydatid cyst. The adult worm never develops further in man. In order that the adult should occur in the dog or wolf it is necessary that these carnivorous animals should feed upon an infected liver or other organ from some other animal which has been similarly attacked. It thus be- comes very important that dogs should not be fed upon raw flesh or the internal organs of animals in slaughter houses. Tape-worms of the Dog.�In addition to those already men- tioned a number of other species of tape-worms inhabit the dog in their adult stage. In fact a very large percentage of dogs are found to be infected with tape-worms at one time or another. The eggs which pass out from the canine host are scattered about with the excreta, and having great powers of resistance to heat, cold, dryness, and moisture it is no wonder that these parasites are so common. After the eggs are thus discharged they are swallowed by one or other of the hosts which harbour them in the early stage. These hosts may be either cattle, pigs, sheep, or rabbits, in the various organs of which the next stage is passed. The dog feeding upon the dead carcase, or a portion of it, of an animal thus infected takes the immature tape-worm into its intestine, where they become attached. Here in a very short period the parasite attains its adult form, discharging innumer- able eggs, and thus perpetuating the source of infection. It would be beyond the purpose of this work to describe in detail all the various tape-worms which are found in dogs, but we notice the more important points in connection with those which attack both the dogs and our other domestic animals. Taenia Ccenurus.�This parasite rarely reaches a length of more than one yard in the dog, and is of considerable importance to farmers on account of the fact that its cystic stage develops in the brain of sheep (Ccenurus cerebralis), where it gives rise to the disease so well known as gid or sturdy. Dogs which feed upon the heads of sheep that have been thus infected, in their turn develop the adult tape-worm in the intestine in three or four months.

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		Taenia Marginata.�This parasite in the adult stage, which occurs in the intestine of the dog, reaches a length of from four and a half to six feet. Its cystic stage occurs in sheep and cattle, and a dog feeding upon the organs of these animals becomes in- fected, as we have before seen. Taenia Serrata.�This very common parasite, which is usually about a yard long, is found in its cystic stage in rabbits and hares, and is thus particularly common where these animals or portions of them are given to dogs for food. A dog swallowing their cystic stage from the rabbit develops the adult tape-worm in the intestine in two months. This, in its turn, produces a large number of eggs which, passing out of the dog with the excreta, become scattered over the grass, and thus again reach the rabbit. Taenia Canina.�This very common parasite of the dog passes its immature stage in either the dog louse or the flea. The ripe segments of the adult tape-worm discharge their eggs along with the excreta from the dogs. These eggs become mingled with the hair of the dog itself, where they are devoured by the lice or fleas, the next stage being passed within those external parasites. The dog, in its turn licking its coat from the irritation produced by the flea or louse, swallows the insect together with the eggs of the tape-worm, and this latter being set free in the dog's in- testine, once more grows into an adult worm. The fact that the flea is only an occasional parasite upon the dog and passes readily from one to another, explains how this tape-worm can be so often found in dogs, even where the most scrupulous care is given to their cleanliness. From what has been already said it will be seen that tape- worms are extremely common in dogs, and that the mode of infection in every case is somewhat similar, while the life-history of the tape-worms themselves only varies with the different hosts which are inhabited. It may be added that, whereas in the case of human beings it is unusual to find more than one adult tape-worm in the intestine at one time, it is quite common to find several species together in the dog, doubtless because the dog frequently feeds upon the various creatures which form the interim hosts of the parasite. It would serve no useful purpose to describe in detail the numerous other species which

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			ANIMAL PARASITES	133
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	are also found in dogs, those we have already mentioned being the most common from the point of view of both human beings and domestic animals. The Bot-fly.�The parasites known as "bots" are really the larvae of several species of gadflies, which are a considerable source of annoyance to horses in the summer and autumn months, at which time of the year flies may be seen hovering round the horse preparatory to depositing their small white eggs, which

		FlG. 70.�Deposits of the eggs of flies on the head Fig. 71. � Fore- and neck of the horse. leg with deposits of eggs on it.

they do upon the horse under the jaws, on the breast, on the shoulders, and on the fore-limbs, according to the particular species of fly concerned. Here the eggs are hatched by the heat of the sun, and the larva, escaping, causes considerable irritation on the skin of the horse, which the animal attempts to relieve by licking the itching spot. In doing so the parasite is conveyed to the mouth, and thence to the stomach. Here they attach them- selves by means of the hooks round their heads to the mucous membrane of the stomach, mainly on the left side of that organ, and here they remain as a rule attached until the following spring. At that time, having developed considerably, they loosen their hold upon the stomach wall, and are passed out of

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134 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the bowel with the excreta. They lie thence upon the ground or burrow in the soil for a little while, ultimately becoming trans- ferred into the fully developed gadfly. Symptoms and Treatment.�As a general rule the presence of these parasites in the stomach is never suspected until the

		Fig. 72.�Portion of stomach of horse with larvae of the bot-fly adhering. groom observes the larva in the excreta. So that it is quite evident that their presence does not of necessity involve any serious harm to the horse. As a matter of fact, there is no reliable method of treatment which will free the stomach from the parasite, and at the same time do no harm. Unless present in very great numbers it cannot be said that the horse suffers through harbouring the parasite. But when very numerous, and # I

				Fig. 75.�Female fly of Fig. 72.
			Fig. 73.�Male fly FlG. 74.�Larva of of Fig. 72. fly in rectum.	Fig. 75.�Female fly of Fig. 72.

	when attached to the right half of the stomach, they may then be responsible for digestive troubles, causing the animal to get feeble and easily fatigued from severe indigestion. The only symptoms produced apart from dyspepsia will be those or irritation, and the treatment will be similar to other forms of irritability of the digestive tract.

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			ANIMAL PARASITES 135

		In order to prevent the deposition of the eggs in the summer and autumn the long hairs in the regions of the jaw, breast, shoulder, and fore-limbs may be closely trimmed off, and a little oil applied to prevent the eggs adhering. Should the gadflies be known or seen to be about the skin, the regions mentioned may be washed with soap-suds every day before the eggs have had time to hatch. Round Worms of the Horse.�Several species of nematodes or round worms infest the intestine of the horse, of which the most important is A scar-is Megalocephala, a large white or yellowish white worm, varying in length from four to about twelve inches. This parasite sometimes occurs in immense numbers in the small intestines, occasionally producing actual obstruction. The present writer upon one occasion counted no less than two hundred and seventy-three of these worms in a space of two or three feet of intestine. Two round worms belonging to the Strongyles also occur in the intestine of the horse, where they deposit their eggs on the mucous membrane, in which situation small swellings result. Another worm infesting the lower part of the intestine of the horse is the whip-worm or pin-worm, as it is sometimes termed (Oxyuris curvula), the presence of which causes considerable irrita- tion and uneasiness in the region of the tail. Treatment of Worms.�Two points must be borne in mind in connection with the treatment of intestinal parasites. The first matter is, if possible, to kill the worm itself in the bowel. This done, it is a perfectly simple procedure to cause its expulsion by a purgative. But it is quite useless to expect to get rid of the tape-worm, for example, simply by means of strong purgatives, which cause a part of the parasites to be passed out, leaving the head attached to the intestinal wall, where it will immediately proceed to grow as before. In the case of the round worms the treatment is more simple, and the remedies for both these kinds of parasites will be found in the list of prescriptions. II. The Ox Warble-fly {Hypoderma Bovis).� This fly is respon- sible for the condition known as warbles in the hides of cattle, which are little rounded swellings, about the size of a hazel-nut, occurring especially on the back and near the shoulders, and at

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		136 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER a certain stage showing a small aperture in the centre. The two-winged fly which produces this condition is rather over half an inch long, black in colour with a yellow face, the wings being brown. The female fly lays the eggs on the hairs of cattle, especially in the region of the back and the shoulders, the egg itself being of an oval shape, and provided with a stalk, which enables it to attach itself to the hair upon which it is deposited. The larva which develops is in the form of a maggot with legs, its exact size and shape varying at different stages. This larva eats it way through the skin of the animal into the tissue which lies underneath, and at a subsequent stage retraces its steps through this channel, widening it as it approaches the surface on its return journey. It is the aperture of this channel which is seen in the centre of the warble. Inside this warble lies the larva with its tail end towards the opening. When the maggot is full grown it squeezes itself out of this opening, or can be artificially squeezed out, and in the natural process it falls on to the ground, where it passes the next or pupil stage. This stage lasts, according to certain observers, from twenty-five to twenty- six days, or six to eight weeks. The flies seem to be most common about midsummer on to the end of July, and commercial reports of warbled hides state that these are most common be- tween February and September, and especially during the months of April and May. Some authorities describe a different course for the larva. Treatment.�Cattle should be examined in the spring for the presence of the nodules or warbles, and all the grub should be squeezed out by hand, the central opening in the warble being slightly enlarged if required. At the same time the maggot must be destroyed, and since this practice necessarily prevents the development of flies, it is obvious that were it carried out uni- versally the condition would be ultimately stamped out. Fleas.�Of all the external parasites which attack the dog especially, none are so persistently annoying than fleas, owing to the fact that no matter how much attention is paid to the cleanliness of the dog's coat and surroundings, fleas will make themselves obviously present. This is because they pass so easily from one dog to another, so that a moment's

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			Clydesdale Stallion, "Ruby Pride' Photo by Brown & Co., Lanark

		Celtic Pony (By Permission of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland) Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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	ANIMAL PARASITES
	ANIMAL PARASITES	137
		137

contact with an animal infested with fleas is sufficient for these active, wingless, dipterous insects to transfer themselves to another host. In order that our dogs and other animals�for there are varieties of fleas which infest cats, poultry, &c, as well as dogs� may be kept reasonably free from fleas, it is necessary to under- stand the life-history of this pest. In a few words this is as follows. The flea undergoes a complete metamorphosis through the stages of egg, larva, pupa, and perfect insect, but it is only in the last or adult stage that fleas are parasitic. Hence the importance of destroying the earlier stages, especially the eggs. These are deposited in all sorts of dirty and dusty places; there- fore, especially in the corners of rooms, in cracks in floors of kennels and stables, and such like places. The cleaner the animal-houses, and the freer from dust, the less likely are the fleas to breed there. The eggs hatch out, producing maggots, which in the course of about a fortnight reach the pupa stage in a cocoon, which in another fortnight or so becomes the perfect adult flea. From this cycle it will be obvious that it is perfectly futile to keep the coat of the dog or other animal clean and disinfected if the kennel itself be not thoroughly cleaned also. He simply becomes infested with a fresh lot. Destruction and Prevention of Fleas.�A great many pre- parations are on the market for the destruction and prevention of fleas, of which Keating's Persian insect powder is highly re- commended. It is harmless, clean, and does its work, and can be dusted over the coat of the animal, as well as over the floors of rooms in which pet dogs are kept. It may be applied to carpets and rugs, where the dogs are allowed to lie. Numerous specially prepared soaps are also advertised, concerning which it may be well to utter a word of advice, namely, never to use a strongly carbolised soap for dogs' skins. Carbolic acid may be absorbed through the skin and cause symptoms of poisoning, namely, depression and trembling, and even death may ensue. A harmless soap for this purpose, and one which is effective, is Spratts', which has a beneficial action upon the skin as well as killing the fleas. A readily prepared flea-destroyer is made from one part of J eyes' Fluid diluted with forty parts of water. A

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			138 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		strong infusion made from quassia wood chips is also useful and harmless ; it may be used with soft soap instead of water. After using in this way wash the animal with pure water to remove the quassia. No matter what application be used, it must be remembered that it should be repeatedly applied until every sign of the fleas' presence is gone. Lice.�Two kinds of these parasites infest domestic animals ; one kind are described as blood-suckers (Hcsmatopinus), the others are known sometimes as bird-lice (Trichodedes), the former being the true sucking louse, the latter a biting louse. Both are de- graded forms of wingless, hemipterous insects. The blood- suckers have a long narrow head with a trunk, which is the sucker, the bird-lice having large broad heads, without a sucking-tube, _^^9 but with jaws adapted for biting. ^rfs3^-~~^.* In the blood-sucking family there are species wG^3�r\ which are found in the horse and ass, the horse a S and ox, the ox alone, the goat, and in the pig, Fig. 76.�Fly of dog, and ferret. In the bird-lice family species horse-louse. r ,i_ 1 j i 1 occur tor the horse and ass, ox and ass, sheep, goat, dog, cat, duck and goose, peacock (two species), turkey (three species), pigeon (four species), and five species occur in fowls. The common sucking louse of the dog is yellowish-white in colour, the head and thorax somewhat darker, the louse being found especially in the region of the throat, and behind the ears, but extending at times to any other part of the body. The common biting louse of the dog is of a bright yellow colour, with darker spots and dark brown bands on the head. Like other lice the parts most affected by them are the head and face, especially round the eyes and ears, but they may be found on any part of the body. Symptoms of Lousiness.�The presence of these annoying pests will be manifested by great irritation displayed by the dog or other host, there being continual scratching. On ex- amination of the skin the lice themselves may be seen actively moving, or traces of their presence noticed in the shape of small clots of blood and streaks.

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	ANIMAL PARASITES
	ANIMAL PARASITES	139
		139

Prevention and Treatment of Lousiness.�Here, as in the case of other external parasites, scrupulous cleanliness of the dog and the kennel are the best preventives. The importance of hygiene in connection with parasitic infections cannot be too strongly urged. Some of the advertised preparations for the destruction of lice are very poisonous, and require that the dog should be kept carefully muzzled while they are applied. Of this nature is white precipitate (a mercurial poison). Safe and effective remedies are found in a lime and sulphur lotion, or sulphur ointment, or two parts of olive-oil with one of paraffin. The destruction of the biting louse has another important bearing upon canine ailments, as it will be remembered that this louse is the intermediate host of one of the most common of the tape-worms which infest dogs. Thorough destruction of all lice is, therefore, a means not only of freeing dogs from them, but also a preventive of the spread of tape-worms. Two kinds of lice are apt to attack the horse, producing the condition known as lousiness. One of these belongs to the family of blood-suckers (Hcematopinus), and the other simply attaches itself to the hair, feeding upon the external skin without drawing blood. These two kinds of lice may occur in the same case. As in the case of other parasitic diseases the only efficacious treatment is that which is directed to the killing of the parasites themselves. This may be done by simply applying some oily dressing which prevents the parasites obtaining the air essential for their breathing. For this purpose ordinary linseed-oil will do quite well. A lotion which will kill the parasites may be made from tobacco by simply soaking an ounce of strong tobacco in two or three pints of water, or a strong antiseptic solution of carbolic acid (1 in 40) will also be found fatal to these parasites. A word of advice to be noted here is that it must not be concluded that because one of these dressings has been applied once that therefore all the parasites in the part have been killed. It will frequently happen that only the full-grown parasites are killed at the first application, many of the eggs escaping. A close examination of the skin must therefore be made on suc- cessive days in order to observe the appearance of any fresh lice,

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	140 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER and the best plan, perhaps, will be to repeat the application of the parasite killing agent at the end of a week, still keeping an eye on the skin for some time afterwards to be quite sure that all parasites have been destroyed. Mange in the Horse is caused by two varieties of mites, the most common of which is known as Psoroptes Equi. As in mange of other animals the principal symptom produced is great itching of the skin, rendering the animal unable to rest comfort- ably or quietly. In some forms of the disease, caused by one of the parasites which actually burrows in, there may be consider- able inflammation of the part, which is aggravated by the animal

		I \/ burrowing burrowing I // '■ mange parasite mange parasite Fig. 77.�Male. Fig. 78.�Female. ofhorse. Upper of horse. Under Non-burrowing parasites. surface. surface.

continually rubbing the itching part against anything which is handy, and so producing open sores. Inflammation from these varieties should be an unknown occurrence in a well-managed stable where cleanliness is insisted upon. Should, however, a case occur the part must be thoroughly washed, and all scabs removed, in which a dressing of some ointment which contains mercury, sulphur, or some other drug fatal to the parasite must be thoroughly well applied to the part. As in other parasitic diseases the treatment must be repeated at intervals, until every sign of the presence of the parasites has disappeared. When this stage is reached it will be observed that the itching has ceased, and new hairs are commencing to grow in the spot, provided that the skin has not been absolutely destroyed.

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	ANIMAL PARASITES
	ANIMAL PARASITES	141
		141

PARASITES OF THE PIG The Trichina Disease.�This disease is caused by a minute worm, known scientifically as the Trichina spiralis (Fig. 81), so called from the spiral manner in which it lies embedded in a cyst or sac in the muscles of affected persons. The history of the discovery of the trichina worm forms in itself an interesting chapter in science. In dissecting rooms there had been oc- casionally noticed in the muscles of the chest small white particles, many of which were of a gritty or limy nature. In 1835 the late Sir James Paget, then a medical student, discovered the white specks in question to represent small worms of rounded shape. Later on Professor Owen (afterwards Sir Richard Owen), described the worm, and gave it the name it now bears. The further history of the trichina worm refers to certain mysteri- ous outbreaks of illness occurring in Britain, in Germany, and elsewhere. The cause of these outbreaks was variously in- terpreted. The symptoms of the ailment exhibited a somewhat indefinite character, and when numerous cases occurred the ill- ness was variously referred as to typhoid fever, acute rheumatism, and even to poisoning. No fewer than twenty-six epidemics of the disease in question occurred in Germany between i860 and 1865. In one of the most typical of these epidemics occurring at Hedersleben in 1865, three hundred and fifty persons were seized with the mysterious disease, and of these one hundred died. It appears that on the 25th October of the year just mentioned, a pig was killed and sold ; a few days afterwards the mysterious epidemic made its appearance amongst those who had partaken of the flesh of the animal. In this country epidemics of the trichina disease have not been common, probably for the reason that in Britain raw or imperfectly cooked pig's flesh is not a common article of diet. Still cases of trichina disease (otherwise known as Trichiniasis), have occurred in Britain. An outbreak took place in Cumberland, for example, in 1871, whilst other cases have been subsequently recorded. The symptoms of the disease produced by the trichina worm consist of general derangement of the system, accompanied by fever, prostration, and by muscular pains. The origin of the

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142 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

latter symptoms will be made clear when we understand the
manner in which the life-history of the trichina is ordered.

The worm, as has already been remarked, is enclosed in a
capsule or sac, being coiled up therein in a spiral manner. Each

of these little sacs is about the
■yVth part of an inch in length.
It is, therefore, just visible and no
more to the naked eye. When the
worms first gain access to the flesh
of an animal they are immature
(Fig. 82); that is, they exist in a
young or imperfect state of de-
velopment. The length of the

SIi�Trichinas in muscle, each
enclosed in a cyst.

worm itself is about the ^gth part

of an inch. The perfectly developed
female worm attains a length of about -J-th part of an inch,
whilst the male in the same state averages the ^th part of an
inch in length.

The History.�The trichina worm is found not only in man,
but in rats, cats, pigs, and other animals. It is, of course, flesh-
eating animals which are most liable to harbour this parasite,
seeing that it can only be acquired by the second
animal eating the flesh of that in which the
trichina lies in its immature state. In man a
common source of the disease is represented by
his eating pork containing the immature trichinas
(Fig. 82). What happens in a case of imfection
may be described as first consisting in the dis-
solving of the sacs or capsules in which the
immature trichinas are contained. The young

worms are thus set free in the stomach. In from
two to four days each of these worms has become
fully developed within the intestine or bowel,

FlG. 82.�Immature
trichinas in muscle.

The result of

this production of the two sexes of the worm is the development
in the bowel of immense numbers of young trichinas. These
young are probably liberated from the bodies of the female
parents in from seven to eight days after the infected meat has
been eaten. Now comes the essential feature of the trichina

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	ANIMAL PARASITES
	ANIMAL PARASITES	143
		143

disease. Immense numbers of young are produced. One esti- mate gives from 30,000,000 to 100,000,000 of young trichinas as the number produced as the result of an ordinary infection. Soon after their production the young brood of trichinas begin to migrate from the digestive system. They bore their way through from the digestive system in order to reach the muscles of the body. A period from eight to ten days seems to be re- quired for the completion of this change of abode. We may thus reckon that a period of from fifteen to sixteen days is required for the full development of the trichina disease. We now are able to understand the special symptoms this disease exhibits. The passage of millions of these minute worms from the digestive system to the muscles is attended with severe pains and with prostration, and the other features which mark epidemics of this character. The muscles in which the young brood chiefly take up their abode are the diaphragm or " midriff," the muscles between the ribs (intercostals), the muscles of the neck, those of the organ of voice and of the eye, and less frequently the biceps and triceps of the arm. Once settled down in the muscles, the young brood of worms ultimately develop the capsules or sacs (Fig. 81), in which we saw the worms to be enclosed within the flesh of the pig. If a portion of flesh thus infected were to be eaten by another animal, the history just detailed would be repeated, and we thus note, as in the case of other parasites, that the trichina worm requires two " hosts " for its development, and cannot become a mature worm in the host to whose muscles it has migrated. The Source of Infection.�Seeing that the source of infection in this disease can only come from the flesh of an infected animal, it may be taken for granted that the pig (in the case of man) is the one species to be feared in connection with this ailment. The source from which the pig derives its trichinas is a doubtful matter, but having regard to the miscellaneous feeding which that animal exhibits�due to no fault of its own�we need not feel surprised if amongst the miscellaneous articles which the pig may occasionally eat, the dead bodies of rats or other animals which have been infected With trichinas are represented. The further history of the worms once imbedded in human muscle

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		144 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER is one of degeneration. After some time each worm gradually becomes converted into a little limy particle. We can therefore understand that if the individual who is attacked by the trichinas survives the period of pain and prostration caused by the passage of the young worms from the digestive system to the muscles, he will not be further troubled. Prevention.�-In the case of the trichina worm, as will also be found in the case of tape-worm infection, the great means of prevention is represented by the thorough cooking of pork. It has been ascertained that the freezing of pork and processes of salting and pickling have no effect in killing the trichinas em- bedded in it, but if, on the other hand, meat be exposed to the temperature of boiling water for, say, half-an-hour, the parasites in it will be destroyed. One authority says that thirty-six minutes' boiling for every two pounds or so of trichina-infested meat will undoubtedly kill the parasites. There is illustrated here one great rule for the prevention of parasitic infection de- rived from flesh, namely, the efficient cooking of all meat. In addition, it may be added that the rigid inspection of flesh, and especially of pork, must undoubtedly tend to lessen the chance of acquiring the malady we have been considering. This, of course, refers to the acquisition of parasitic disease by human beings from animals. In the case of the animals themselves the only thing to be done is to see that their food�as far as possible�does not come from possibly infected sources.

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			Dartmoor Ponies Photo by Reid, "Wishaw

		.Dartmoor monies Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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ANIMAL PARASITES

145

TABULATED SUMMARY OF THE COMMON PARASITES
Table I.�Parasites of the Horse


	Disease.	Parasite.	Site.
A. External�
(!)....	Lousiness	Haematopini Trichodectes	Skin
(2) . . . .	Mange	(a) SarcoptesScabiei (equi)	Skin in general
		(i) Psoroptes Com- munis (equi)	Neck and shoulders
		(c) Symbiotes Com- munis (equi)	Limbs and inferior parts
(3) � � � �	Ringworm	Tinea tonsurans Anchorion Schon-. leinii	Skin
N.B.�The abo\	'e applies to all the domesticated animals, only bovis, ovis, suis, or
can	s being substituted in the case of the mange parasite.
B. Internal�
(!)....	Thrush (foals)	Odium albicans	Buccal mucous mem- brane
(2) . . . .	Stomach disorder	Spiroptera Mega- stonia Spiroptera Mieros- stonia	Stomach wall
(3) � � � �	Stomach disorder,	Larva of equi	Non-glandular part of
	or bots		the stomach
(4) ■ ■ � �	Intestinal helmin- thiasis	Tasina Perfoliata	Intestines
(5) � � � ■	j?	Taeina Mamillana	>»
(6) ....	»	Tajina Plicata	>»
(7) ....	j?	Ascaris Megaloce- phala	Small intestine
(8) . . . .	j)	Strongylus armatus	Caecum and large colon
(9) ■ ■ ■ ■	>>	Oxyurus curvula	Large intestine and rec- tum
(10) ....	»	Sclerostoma Tetracanthus	Caecum and colon
(11) ....	Washing ?	Filaria Equina	Pleura and peritoneum
(12) ....	Parasite bron-	Strongylus	Lungs and air passages
	chitis	Arnfieldi
(13) ....	Defects of vision	Filari Oculi	Eye (anterior chamber)

VOL. II.

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146 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

Table II.�Parasites of Cattle


	Disease.	Parasite.	Site.
A. External�
(1) ....	Ticks	Ixodes Reduvius	Skin
(*)....	Warbles	Larvae of Hypoder- mis bovis	The hypodermis
B. Internal�
(1) � � �	Stomach trouble	Amphistoma Coni-	Rumen and reticulum
		cum	of first and second stomachs
(2) . . . .		Strongylus Convo-	Abomasum or fourth
		lutus	stomach
(3) � � � �	Intestinal helmin- thasis	Taenia denticulata	Small intestines
(4) � ■ � �	>>	Taenia Expansa (im- portant)	»»
(S) � � � �		Taenia Alba
(6) . . . .	H	Strongylus Ventri- cosus	Small intestine
(7) � � . .		Triescephalus amnis	Large intestine
(8) . . . .	Liver rot	Distomum hepati- cum (commonest) Distomum Lanceo- latum	Liver (bile ducts)
(9) � � � ■	Parasitic bron- chitis	Strongylus Micrurus	Lungs and air passages

Table III.�Parasites of Sheep


	Disease.	Parasite.	Site.
A. EXTERNAL.�Same as preceding. The Psoroptes Communis of the sheep causes
Sheep Scab	, and the Haematopinus is the Sheep Ked found in the wool and
causing inaction.
B. Internal�
(1) ....	Stomach trouble,	Strongylus Contor-	Fourth stomach or abo-
	diarrhoea, and washing	tus	masum
(2) . . . .	Internal helmin- thiasis	Taenia Expansa	Small intestine
(3) � � ■ �		Taenia Alba
(4) � � � �	»	Strongylus Ventri- cosus	»
(S) ■ ■ � �	j»	Sclerostoma hypos- tomum	»
(6) ....	»	Trichocephalus Af- finis	Large intestine
(7) ....	Liver rot	Distomum hepati- cum Distomum Lanceo- latum	Bile ducts of liver
(8) ....	Parasitic bronchi-	Strongylus Rufe-	Lungs and air passages
	tis or broncho-	scens
	pneumonia	Strongylus Filaria

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ANIMAL PARASITES

Table IV.�Parasites of the Dog


	Disease.	Parasite.	Site.
A. External�
(i) . . . .	Flea	Pulex serraticeps	Skin
(2) ....	Ticks	Ixodes ricinus	Skin
(3) � � � �	Dermodecic	Demodex Follicu-	Sebaceous gland and
	mange	lorum	hair follicles
(4) . . . .	Canker of Dog's	Symbiotes Auricu-	Ear
	Ear	laris
	Others as before
B. Internal�
(i) . . . .	Stomach disorders	Spiroptera Sangu-	Stomach, oesophagus,
		molenta	lungs, aorta
(2) . . . .	Intestinal helmin-	Spiropteria perfo-	Small intestine
	thiasis	rans
(3) � ■ � �	rt	Taenia Serrata (cysti- circus pisiformis, rabbits and hares)	»
(₄) . . . .	ii	Taenia Marginata	»
(5) ....	»»	Taenia Ccenurus	j>
(6) . . . .	»	Taenia Serrata	»
(7) ■ � ■ �	tr	Taenia canina or cucumerina (Dog flea, Pulex serraticeps)	»
(8) . . . .	is	Taenia Echinococcus	j>
(9) ....	tr	Taenia Litterata	j>
(10) ....	)>	Ascaris Marginata	Stomach and small in- testine
(ii) ....	Nasal irritation and discharge	Linguatula taenoids	Nasal cavities
(12) ....	Parasitic broncho- pneumonia	Filaria Immitis	Lungs and air passages

Table V.�Parasites of the Pig


	Disease.	Parasite.	Site.
A. External.�	As before.
B. External�
(i) . . . .	Intestinal helmin-	Echinorhynchus	Small intestine, especially
	thiasis	Gigas	duodenum
(2) . . . .		Ascaris suilla	Small intestine
(3) ....	3)	Triccephalus crena- tus	Large intestine
(4).....	»	Trichina speralis	Adult, in digestive canal Embryo, in muscles
(s) .....	Parasitic broncho-	Strongylus Para-	Lungs and pulmonary
	pneumonia	doxus	passages

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			CHAPTER X

		Poisonings Although animals in a natural state appear to be able, by means of instinct, to avoid such plants and other substances as would be seriously dangerous, it is also true that animals which have been for many generations in domestication are not thus so capable of determining for themselves what is injurious. More- over such a large number of animals' foods are more or less artificially prepared that it is quite possible, either by careless- ness or error or accident, for harmful substances to find their way into these various foods ; and besides the food stuffs them-' selves there are innumerable accidental and deliberate methods as the result of which an animal owner may find one or other of his animals exhibiting symptoms of having swallowed some kind or other of poison. It will be well, therefore, to sketch briefly the action and symptoms produced by the most common poisons, either mineral, vegetable, or animal, and to indicate the most simple and effective means of treating such cases until expert assistance can be obtained. The symptoms of poisoning will, of course, vary immensely, according to the particular poison which has been administered or taken. But suspicion will always be aroused when an animal which was known an hour or two previously to be in perfect health suddenly appears to be seriously ill and in danger of death. In the absence of any obvious signs of injury such a case would immediately cause one to suspect some kind of poisoning, especially as very few diseases bring the patient into a state of collapse as quickly as this. The most important ex- ception to be kept in mind is perhaps the possibility of internal haemorrhage or the rupture of some internal organ. It is of the utmost importance in all cases of poisoning to ascertain imme- diately, if possible, the exact nature of the poison. It is, of 148

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		POISONINGS 149 course, not always possible to do this, but on the other hand in many cases immediate inquiry as to the surroundings of the animal may at once lead to the discovery of the cause of the accident, and so enable us to administer a suitable antidote. It may be further remembered that while it is very easy for dogs and cats to empty the contents of their stomach by vomiting, it is by no means so in the case of the horse, and it is in this latter animal especially that no time should be lost in cases of suspected poisoning in sending for the veterinary surgeon. We may consider first these substances which come under the head of mineral, corrosive, and irritant poisons, noting each one in turn, and mentioning only the most important points in connection with this large subject. Poisoning by Phosphorus.�This substance is largely used now- adays in various preparations for the destruction of vermin, and hence may be accidentally conveyed to animals. The symp- toms produced are somewhat like colic, there being severe pain, attempts to vomit, groaning, rapid pulse, and purging. In fatal cases death occurs in from three hours to several days. Treatment.�Emetics may be administered, especially copper sulphate. Spirits of turpentine is recommended as follows :� i\|- to 3 ozs. for horses ; 3 to 6 ozs. for cattle ; 6 to 12 drachms for pigs. Note that neither milk nor oils must be given, since phosphorus is readily dissolved in them. Arsenic.�This is perhaps one of the most common forms of poisoning in the domestic animals, since the substance is used for various purposes ; for instance, in preparations used for killing weeds, vermin poisons, and in medicinal preparations. Two forms of arsenic poisoning must be mentioned, namely, the acute form and the chronic form. Acute Arsenic Poisoning.�There is no mistaking in this case the sudden serious onset of the disease, which may last for a few hours only or several days, a fatal termination being indicated by the rapid breathing, tremors, and obvious collapse. The symptoms are those of acute inflammation of the stomach and intestines, swelling of the lips, gums, and tongue, and frothing at the mouth. In cattle there may be seen acute diarrhoea, which is often stained with blood.

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		150 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Treatment.�The usual antidote prescribed is the hydrated peroxide of iron, the dose of the antidote to be given as follows :� horses and cattle, 10 to 40 ozs. ; pigs and smaller animals, several spoonfuls. Other antidotes which hinder the absorption of the arsenic are solution of Epsom salts, mixed with caustic potash solution. In the absence of other means lime-water or white of eggs may be administered. Chronic Arsenic Poisoning.�When the poisonous stage begins to show itself�in a horse, for instance�the appetite falls, the skin is hide-bound, there is diarrhoea, weakness of the hind-quarters, and increasing loss of flesh, with ultimate great weakness and collapse. Treatment.�It is absolutely useless to apply an antidote in this case, since the arsenic has been absorbed for a long period of time. The only hope is to search out the source of the poison, which will probably be found to be in the fodder, and to treat the other symptoms as they arise. Lead Poisoning.�This is usually a more or less chronic con- dition, occurring as the result of the absorption of lead from contaminated pastures or chemical fumes, and the symptoms are associated with the alimentary tract. There may be at first some acute inflammation with vomiting and pain. As the condition becomes more chronic there is continued constipation with colic symptoms, whistling or roaring in horses, perhaps abortion, and finally various nervous symptoms, such as trem- bling and paralysis, with wasting of the muscles. A characteristic symptom which can be readily recognised is the presence of a blue line on the edges of the gums, which is due to the deposition of the lead itself, which has been absorbed and is now being con- verted into sulphide. Treatment.�The antidote is dilute sulphuric acid in mucilage or water, which produces an insoluble sulphate of lead. Sulphate of magnesia has the same effect, and it should be given in small doses at frequent intervals. Iodide of potassium assists in the removal of the lead from the system. A laxative should be given at intervals. Mercury.�Poisoning by mercury may be extremely rapid, especially in young animals, when it is due to the substance

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known as corrosive sublimate, an exceedingly poisonous form of mercury. This substance may produce death in an hour, but apart from such rapid corrosive poisoning, there is the more chronic form, known as true mercurialism, which may last from a week or two to several months, and exhibit a great variety of symptoms. Amongst these we may mention salivation, loosen- ing of the teeth, which may even fall out, foul smell in the mouth, catarrh of the stomach and intestines, profuse diarrhoea, cough, nasal discharge, itching and eczema of the skin, loss of hair, pustules, great weakness, trembling, delirium, and paralysis of single muscles. Any combination of these above symptoms may be present, though some of them are as a rule absent in any given case. Treatment.�The compounds of sulphur are recommended, such as flowers of sulphur, in order to form an insoluble compound with the mercury. Iron filings may be given in iodide of potassium. Common salt should not be administered. For the various symptoms appropriate treatment will be recommended by a veterinary surgeon. Poisoning by Copper.�Copper is an irritant poison, producing symptoms somewhat similar to those of arsenic, mercury, and others, especially the inflammation of the alimentary tract, as shown by the colic and diarrhoea, which is followed by extreme prostration, trembling, and even convulsions. Treatment.�Sulphur and iron filings may be administered to reduce the absorption, and the other symptoms relieved as ad- vised by the expert. Zinc Poisoning.�Here, again, we are dealing with an irritant poison, the symptoms being similar to those of copper, and the treatment to be adopted is on the same lines. Tartar Emetic�When poisoning arises from this source it is usually from the administration by mistake of the so-called butter of antimony. The symptoms are similar to those of other corrosive poisonings�namely, salivation, colic, diarrhoea, trem- bling, spasms, and somewhat rapid death. It is said by some con- tinental writers that enlargement of the stomach is characteristic of this form of poisoning. Treatment.�Administer remedies which contain tannin, to

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		152 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER form insoluble compounds. Thus, decoction of oak bark may be administered, or even ink. Saltpetre.�The symptoms produced by poisonous doses of nitrate of potash are those of inflammation of the stomach and intestines, together with colic, diarrhoea, distension of the ab- domen in cattle, vomiting, salivation, prostration, trembling, and palpitation. The condition is usually acute, death occurring in from five minutes to half-an-hour, or several hours. Treatment.�Stimulants such as camphor and coffee may be given with narcotics. We may add that nitrate of potash is frequently used in connection with stables, and hence care should be taken that it is not given in excessive doses. Nitrate of soda may be administered in mistake for common salt, and is also used as an agent for manuring pasture. Great care should be taken that this substance is not allowed to become mixed with food or water. Common Salt.�It might not appear at first sight that the administration of common salt could be attended with much harm, but nevertheless when given in excessive doses it will produce irritant poisoning of a very violent type. The symptoms are those of inflammation of the stomach and intestines with a hot dry mouth, intense thirst, vomiting, diarrhoea, weakness, paralysis (especially of the hind limbs in horses), fits of cramp (especially in pigs). Death may occur at any period up to forty- eight hours. Treatment.�Administer large quantities of water, as much as the animal will take, together with mucilage and stimulants. Caustic Potash, Caustic Soda, Spirit of Ammonia.�These three substances may be grouped together under the general heading of the caustic alkalies, and of the three the most likely to occur in accidental poisoning is the strong liquid of ammonia. The symptoms are a blistering of the lips, mouth, tongue, and pharynx, with dribbling from the mouth. There is cough and considerable difficulty in swallowing. Treatment.�Caustic ammonia may be neutralised by the ad- ministration of dilute acids as antidotes, such as vinegar, which can always be obtained everywhere, or lime-juice. Stimulants may be given, but emetics and purgatives should be avoided.

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Corrosive Acid.�The symptoms following poisoning by a corrosive acid, such as sulphuric acid, are extremely acute�in- flammation of the tongue, mouth and pharynx, swelling and bleeding of the lips and mouth, violent pains, rapid and feeble pulse, followed speedily by a fatal termination. Treatment.�Just as corrosive alkalies call for the administra- tion of dilute acids, so here in poisoning by corrosive acids we must administer dilute alkalies, such as lime-water, solutions of soda, potash, or magnesia. Poisoning by Carbolic Acid.�In poisoning from this acid, which is frequently present in stables, &c, in the form of a dis- infectant, there is loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhoea, greenish brown urine, paralysis, trembling, rapid pulse, and irregular breathing. Treatment.�Administration of Glauber's salts and sulphates neutralise the acid. Lime water may be given, together with stimulants such as camphor, coffee, or alcohol. General Caution and Advice.�In all suspected cases of poison- ing the animal owner, after acting at once to the best of his knowledge and ability, should lose no time in calling in the veterinary surgeon, by whose aid many valuable lives may be saved.

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			CHAPTER XI

		Vegetable Poisons We may now turn our attention to the brief consideration of the various forms of poisoning in animals which may occur as the result of the accidental eating of poisonous plants, or the wilful and deliberate administration of various vegetable poisons. It will be readily realised that, as far as the poisonous plants which grow wild in our fields are concerned, cases of poisoning will be most common in these animals which spend much of their time at pasture, and which are herbivorous. So that this class of poisoning will be more common in horses, cattle, and sheep, for example, than in dogs or pigs. Many of the plants which contain these active poisons are widespread in their distribution, while others are more or less restricted to certain localities or to special places in a given district, and it is therefore advisable for a farmer to have a certain amount of knowledge which will enable him to recognise dangerous plants when he sees them growing wild. It is just one of those ways in which the modern nature- study commonly taught in schools may be applied to very practical advantage. Lupinosis, or Poisoning by Lupins.�Cases of poisoning from the eating of this plant are extremely common in certain parts of Europe, notably in Prussia and Northern Germany, in which districts large numbers of sheep perish, the losses amounting to many thousands in the year. Cows, horses, and pigs are also susceptible to the disease. It appears to be due especially to the cultivated yellow lupins, and in a much less extent to that which has the blue or white flowers. No doubt the yellow variety contains more of some chemical substance which is vio- lently poisonous than do the other varieties. This poison lies generally in the pods, the seeds, and the husks of the plant, but to a certain extent it is present in all parts. '54

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		VEGETABLE POISONS 155 Symptoms.�The sheep which surfer from lupin poisoning exhibit a rise of temperature a day or so after eating the poisonous lupin, the fever rising in acute cases to 104⁰ to 106⁰ F., together with a rapid pulse. Very commonly there is jaundice, which may come on from the second to the sixth day. Then the animal becomes weak, moves stiffly, hangs the head down, as if it were very heavy, staggers irregularly from side to side, or backwards and forwards, grinds the teeth, and is extremely nervous. The dung is at first hard and yellow, afterwards tarry, from being mixed with blood. Death may ensue in a couple of days, but usually the animal lives four or five, and most acute cases are fatal. Treatment.�Since there is no known certain antidote for the poison contained in the yellow lupin, the only way to be sure of avoiding danger from this source is to rigidly exclude the plant from the fodder. If it be absolutely necessary, owing to the circumstances of the farm, that lupins should be used as food, then care must be taken to ascertain on what portion of the land the poisonous variety grows, so that this may be excluded. Once the disease has broken out a little acid should be added to- the drinking water. This renders the poison insoluble. Poison from Castor-Oil Seed Cakes.�The symptoms are those of gastric disturbance with vomiting, colic, difficulty in swallow- ing, and blood-stained diarrhoea, followed by weakness of the hind limbs. Treatment.�Administer mucilage, stimulants, and opium to relieve the pain and diarrhoea. Poisoning by Beech Nut-Oil Cakes.�Poisoning from this source may just be mentioned, since when it occurs death ensues very rapidly. The symptoms are, first of all, violent colic, with fits of mania, spasms and convulsions, staggering, and finally suffocation. Treatment.�Administer tannin, choral hydrate, or morphia. Cotton Seed Meal Poisoning.�Poisoning from this source is occasionally encountered in young animals, in which case there is digestive and urinary trouble, especially the presence of blood and albumin in the urine, and paralysis of the bladder. Treatment.�As in all cases where the source of the poisoning

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		156 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER can be traced to the diet that particular food must be immediately changed. Mustard should be administered in doses of 2 to 4 ozs. for calves, and 2 to 6 drachms for lambs. Poisoning by Meadow Saffron.�Poisoning by this plant (Colchicum Autumnale) produces at first symptoms of acute inflammation of the stomach and intestine, with vomiting and loss of appetite, diarrhoea, which is blood-stained, swelling of the abdomen (tympanites) in cattle, urine which contains blood, weakness especially in the hind-quarters, staggering, violent palpitation in horses, and death in from one to three days. Treatment.�Administer mucilaginous drinks, tannin, or potim, and treat the other symptoms as advised by an expert. Poisoning by Wild Poppies.�The wild poppy plant (Papaver Rhoeas), although occasionally producing poisonous symptoms when taken in excess, is seldom actually the cause of death. Cases, however, have been described in cattle in which animals show symptoms of furious attacks of mental disturbance, evidenced by bellowing and raging and throwing themselves about. It has also been observed as a chronic poisoning in horses, which have been fed for a long period on a diet containing quantities of this plant. The treatment will depend entirely upon whether the animal is in the somnolent stage or the violent condition. In the former stimulants should be administered, in the latter tannin, and a bath of cold water or iced water. Poisoning from Tobacco.�Nicotine poisoning may occasionally occur as the result of using a decoction of tobacco in too strong a solution, this solution being occasionally prescribed in veterinary medicine. The symptoms after the initial vomiting progress in the direction of great weakness of the muscles, then paralysis with collapse and unconsciousness. The heart, which is at first rather slow in acting, in the latter stages becomes extremely irregular, and the extremities are cold. Treatment.�Administer some remedy which contains tannin, as this precipitates nicotine ; black coffee may be given, and stimulants. Poisoning from Yew Tree.�Poisoning from eating the leaves of this tree (Taxus baccata), which is to be found in almost every ■district of England, is quite common. In fact, a considerable

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number of animals die every year from this source. Both horses and cattle are found in the fatalities, and from the fact that many seasons may pass without a case occurring on any given farm where the tree exists, and are then followed by a season in which there is some case of fatal poisoning, it is thought by some that the virulence of the poison varies with the circumstances. Ex- periments which have been undertaken to test the toxic properties of the yew have not led to any definite information, but it would appear that it is more dangerous when taken on an empty stomach. It should be remembered, however, that poisonous symptoms may be due to the animal consuming a larger quantity on account of its hunger. Symptoms.�The disease may run an extremely acute course of less than an hour, death occurring suddenly with staggering, falling down, and convulsions�-the ordinary symptoms of a narcotic poisoning. Other cases last several days, and there are then symptoms of gastric irritation followed again by the totter- ing, trembling, and convulsions. Treatment.�Cases occurring as suddenly as those mentioned are, of course, beyond assistance, but in the less acute cases a purgative may be administered at once, such as castor-oil, together with stimulants, such as alcohol or ammonia. There is no known antidote. We may mention in passing that it has been decided from the legal point of view that it is the business of the owner to prevent his animals from eating yew growing on a neighbour's land (Axe). Poisoning by Box Tree.�The leaves of this plant (Buxus sempervirens), should they be consumed in considerable quantities, produce symptoms of vomiting, diarrhoea, collapse, and occa- sionally death from convulsions. Treatment must be directed to relieving the symptoms by a mixture containing tannin. Poisoning by Foxgloves.�This plant (Digitalis purpurea) is the source of the well-known drug used in heart affections, namely, digitalis, a drug which is used equally commonly in both human and animal medical practice. It may, therefore, happen that poisoning may occur from the administration of an overdose, or by consuming the plant itself, the former being the more common.

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		158 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER The symptoms are those of the action of the drug, namely, slight retardation of the heart's action, which is followed by in- creased stimulation of that organ. The pulse after a while be- comes irregular, and possibly even imperceptible. The breathing is difficult, and the tongue in some cases swells to a considerable extent. Treatment.�The drug which is best calculated to antagonise the action of digitalis on the heart is perhaps aconite, and stimulants, either alcoholic or ammonia, may be given in large quantities in dilution. It may be noted that animals instinctively avoid eating foxgloves when the plant is growing wild, but should it be cut and dried and mixed up with other fodder, it may be a source of danger. Care should therefore be taken in cutting grass for purposes of hay in such situations as the foxglove is known to grow, that the latter be not mixed with the crop. Almost every one is familiar with the striking appearance of this plant, so that there can be no excuse for neglecting so simple a precaution. Poisoning by Oleander.�This rare form of poisoning from the oleander plant (Nerium oleander) gives rise to symptoms of vomiting, colic, diarrhoea, palpitation, and in fatal cases death following paralysis. Treatment must be directed to the relief of the special symptoms. Poisoning by Laburnum.�This too is a somewhat rare occur- rence, the symptoms being somewhat similar to those just men- tioned. Emetics may be given, and administrations of tannin, as well as symptomatic treatment. Poisoning by Ergot of Rye.�Two forms of this poisoning occur, one acute and the other chronic. The acute form may be due to the accidental or wilful administration of the tincture of ergot, which is a well-known drug. In these acute cases the symptoms will be vomiting, colic, and diarrhoea, followed by paralysis and cramp of certain muscles. Serious results will occur in animals which are pregnant, as the action of the drug induces labour pains and consequent abortion. In the chronic form of ergot poisoning the phenomena are somewhat different, and are due to the action of the drug upon the blood-vessels,

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		VEGETABLE POISONS 159 which are kept in a state of contraction, thereby cutting off the blood supply to various parts of the body. The result of this is that those parts which are thus deprived of their nourishment die producing what is known as necrosis, a word which signifies local death, or death of a part. This may occur in various situa- tions, especially the extremities of the limbs, the ears, the tail, and the teats. Invariably in pregnant animals abortion also happens in this form of the disease. Treatment.�Administer anti - spasmodic drugs in order to counteract the contraction of the blood-vessels, and other remedies as advised by the expert. Poisoning by Oil of Turpentine.�A certain number of plants which may be eaten by animals are of a resinous nature, and contain oil of turpentine, of which the most common, perhaps, are the young shoots of conifers. Cases have been described of this nature which have resulted from cattle being allowed to feed during the spring-time in pine forests, the cattle devouring the young fir shoots. The name " forest-sickness " has, therefore, been applied to this kind of poisoning by some continental writers. Symptoms.�The symptoms are those of irritation of the stomach and intestines with colic, constipation, followed by diarrhoea, and complicated frequently with inflammation of the kidneys, the evidence of which is found in the urine which con- tains blood. The animals become rapidly thinner and pro- gressively weaker. Treatment must be directed to immediate cutting off of the supply of the irritating plants, and suitable drugs for the complications mentioned, as advised by the veterinary surgeon. Poisoning by Hellebore.�Several plants belonging to the Hellebore family, which occur commonly in Great Britain, may be responsible for symptoms of poisoning in animals. These symptoms vary a little according to the particular species of plant involved, but may be said generally to consist of vomiting, colic, diarrhoea, progressive weakness, and even paralysis. The treatment can only be directed to antagonising the various symptoms as they appear. The plants which are responsible are respectively those known to botanists as Helleborus niger (yiridis, fcetidus and Veratrum album).

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		i6o THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Aconite Poisoning.�The plant known as Monkswood (Aconitum Napellus) is a common wild plant, and since its active property is of an extremely poisonous nature it is well to be familiar with its appearance. In addition to that the plant itself is used in the preparation of a drug, which is very largely used in both human and veterinary medicine, the slightest overdose of which may lead to very serious symptoms. When we add that the active principle is incorporated not only in medicines which are used internally, but also in a liniment for external application, it will be seen at once that we are dealing with a very important sub- stance. The symptoms in the first place point to a very marked stimulation of the function of the salivary glands of the mouth, the result of which is the profuse slavering and even frothing. In human beings the sensation at the back of the throat which occurs in aconite poisoning is described as burning, and from the signs and movements made by animals suffering from this poison- ing it is quite obvious that a similar result occurs in them. But the most profound and dangerous effect due to the action of aconite is the extreme depression produced upon the action of the heart, for which purpose indeed the drug is used in such cases as fevers, where that action is unduly excited. The active prin- ciple, however, is so extremely potent that in unskilled hands it is easy to go beyond what is required, and thus lead to poison- ing. In fact, the preparations of aconite had far better never be administered save under the express directions of the veterinary surgeon. From the extreme depression of the heart's action which follows the administration of an overdose, the animal is found to stagger, stumble, and fall down, being finally quite unable to rise, and death may occur in a few hours. Treatment.�From what has been said of the action of aconite it will be at once obvious that treatment must be directed to stimulating of the heart, and for this purpose digitalis, alcohol, spirits of ammonia, or any other cardiac stimulant may be given. At the same time the animal should be kept perfectly quiet, and free from any possible source of excitement, which may bring on cardiac failure. Dog's Mercury.�Poisoning by this plant (Mercurialis annua)

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			Ponies in the New Forest Photo by Reid, Wishaw



				Ponies in the New Forest Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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VEGETABLE POISONS 161 produces symptoms of colic with inflammation of the stomach and rapid small pulse, and must be treated by suitable remedies to relieve the pain and stimulation of the heart. Hemlock Poisoning.�The common hemlock plant (Conium maculatum) produces symptoms of foaming at the mouth, saliva- tion, vomiting, and impending paralysis, and may be treated by the administration of stimulants, and, as advised by some, camphor. Poisoning by Acorns.�Acorns are so common and so largely eaten by some animals that they are apt to produce somewhat serious symptoms from the large quantities consumed. These symptoms are those of indigestion or even actual inflammation of the stomach, with constipation, followed after an interval by diarrhoea with a good deal of straining. The symptoms do not permit of any direct antidote, but must be treated as they arise according to advice; but the acorns themselves being such a common occurrence in rural districts it is well to remember that overfeeding on them may cause harm.

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			CHAPTER XII

		Animal Poisons In addition to the poisonous substances which are found either in the form of minerals, or occurring in one or other parts of plants, we must briefly note one or two forms of poisoning which may happen as the result of the action of animals which are the possessors of some kind of poison appa- ratus, or particularly irritating qualities. Under this group fall to be noticed the results following the stings of certain insects, the effect of the bite of venomous reptiles, and the irritative results of certain flies. Fortunately in Great Britain we enjoy com- parative immunity from venomous serpents, and as a matter of fact the only venomous reptile in Great Britain is the adder or viper (Vipera berus), which, however, is more common than many people think, occurring as it does in every county of England, Wales, and Scotland. It is absent from Ireland. We would here draw the attention of our readers, especially those living in districts in which the adder or viper is common, to the probability that this snake is responsible for a great many more deaths amongst the domestic animals than is at all recognised. We have ourselves seen cases of death from adder bite occurring in sheep, cattle, and dogs, in the latter case, particularly in fox- hounds, which, when hunting over the ground with their noses closely applied to the surface, are very apt to disturb the rest- ing adder and receive a fatal bite. We would emphasise this occurrence, because such cases not being usually suspected by the owners of the animals, are almost invariably attributed to malicious acts of poisoning on the part of those who are un- sympathetic to the sport of hunting. The venom of the adder is an extremely potent poison, the effect of which in any given case depends entirely upon the dose of this venom which is in- jected into the system of the animal at the moment of the bite.

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This dose may be sufficient, as in a case which came under the notice of the writer, to produce death in a Hereford bull within half-an-hour. Symptoms of Adder Bite.�In cases of suspected poisoning from the bite of an adder, it will frequently be possible to find the marks of one or both of the fangs of the reptile, though these marks may be obscured by the hair of the animal, thus render- ing them difficult of observation. If observable they are seen as minute pricks, as if inflicted by a pin, which, in the case of both fangs being used, are about one-third of an inch apart. The position on the body thus bitten of these marks will depend entirely upon the attitude of the animal at the time. As a matter of fact the hoofs of cattle and horses and sheep are much too strong and hard to allow of their penetration by the delicate fangs of the viper, and it is usually only when these animals are lying down, and thus exposing more vulnerable parts, that any accident of this kind is likely to happen. Even then most parts of the skin are either too strong or too well covered with hair or wool to be in danger, and so in fatal cases it is nearly always found that the seat of the bite is either upon the udder, the lips,, or in the folds of the limbs. In the great majority of cases, how- ever, the minute marks made by the fangs will escape notice. The symptoms produced are those of extreme prostration and rapid failing of the heart, followed, if the dose be a fatal one, by death within a very short time. There will be some swelling of the part round the area of the bite. Treatment of Snake Bite.�In the rare but fortunate incident of the cause of the accident being immediately discovered every effort must be promptly made to prevent the absorption of the venom into the system, because once that absorption has happened there is but very little hope of saving the life of the animal from a large dose. The wound should be opened freely with a knife and allowed to bleed, and then a ligature applied, if it be in such a situation as this can be done. In order to prevent the patient dying from sudden heart failure stimulants, such as ammonia or alcohol, may be freely administered, and in the case of snake bite it is astonishing what large amounts of stimulants can be tolerated without any ill-effects being produced.

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		164 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER Remedies for Snake Bite.�Various remedies have been pro- posed for snake bite, amongst them being the injection of a solution of permanganate of potash into the wound, whilst ammonia has also been used in the same way. It is doubtful, however, if these remedies have any actual effect on snake-bite poison, and, therefore, treatment in the shape of sucking the wound, cauterising it, and preventing the spread of the poison through the system, are means which are preferable in respect of the probability of their acting in a favourable manner, and also by reason of their easy application. Snake-bite Serum.�In connection with snake bite it is in- teresting to note that of late years the principles of snake poison have been used to inoculate animals. It is found that as the result of this graduated inoculation an animal can bear in time a dose of the poison of an amount sufficient to have killed ten or more of its species. In the blood of such an animal there ap- pears to be developed a substance called an antitoxin or anti- venene. It is this principle which, obtained from the animal's blood, is now used for injection into the blood of human beings who have been bitten, the antitoxin counteracting the effects of the poison. The discovery of this mode of treating snake bite is due to the investigations of Dr. Calmette of Lille, who, himself, bitten by a snake on which he was experimenting, used his antitoxin with success. Professor Sir T. R. Fraser, of Edinburgh, has also made experiments in the same direction, and a supply of this remedy for snake bite is now regularly used in India and in other foreign countries. In connection with snake bite Sir T. Lauder Brunton, M.D., directs attention to the use of crystals of permanganate of potash. This plan was long ago advocated by Sir J. Fayrer, M.D., an Indian authority of great experience. It is recommended that crystals of the permanganate should be kept in a small case, which at one end is provided with a knife blade. The snake bite is to be incised with the knife, so that the crystals (after being moistened with water or saliva) can be freely rubbed into the wound and surrounding tissues. This ap- pliance could be carried in the pocket in countries where danger from snakes is to be apprehended. Experiments on

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	ANIMAL POISONS	165
		165

animals bitten by snakes shows that this treatment is of effective nature. Stings.�Certain poisoned wounds are of comparatively minor importance. The sting of a bee, of a wasp, or a hornet represents an ordinary injury of this description, although at the same time it includes in itself all the characteristics of a wound associated with poisoning. The sting may be described as practically consisting of a hollow needle communicating with a poison-bag. Through pressing this bag the poison secreted therein is forced along the hollow of the sting, and thus passes into the wound which the latter has made. There is a striking likeness indeed in respect of this arrangement between the sting of the insect and its mode of operation and the hypodermic syringe of the physician, whereby he is enabled to inject morphia and other drugs into the patient's skin. The sting of a jelly-fish in another direction represents a poisoned wound, seeing that in this animal we find stinging-cells, which, when they come in contact with the skin, rupture or burst, discharging a dart and a poisonous sub- stance. In the case of the stings of bees and other insects an im- portant feature may be pointed out in the shape of the fact that the danger varies with the situation of the injury. A sting on a limb may prove of no great account, but when the injury affects the throat great danger may ensue because of the swelling which supervenes. In the same way an injury to the eye should be attended to at once by an expert on account of the danger to the organ of sight, which might ensue from the progress of in- flammation. If the sting be seen to remain in the wound, it should be extracted by pressing a watch-key over it. There may be then applied as a lotion ammonia well diluted with water (sal volatile and water will suffice), or if nothing better be at hand a solution in water of ordinary baking soda will suffice to lessen the pain. A homely remedy, but one which appears to be effective in the hands of country people, is that of slicing a raw onion in halves, and of rubbing the juice over the part which has been stung. In the case of a sting affecting the mouth or throat hot water should be used by way of gargling the parts, and expert assistance should be at once sought. If collapse or faintness

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		166 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER comes on the patient must be treated by means of stimulants cautiously administered in small doses at short intervals. Poisoning by Cantharides.�Symptoms of poisoning may arise as the result of the administration of one or other of the medicinal preparations made from Spanish Fly. The poisonous principle of this creature has a specially powerful effect upon the kidneys, in which it is apt to set up inflammation, hence is found blood in the urine. But in addition to this there may be inflammation of the stomach and intestines, together with vomiting and diarrhoea. The treatment must consist in the relief of the in- testinal pain by means of some preparation of opium, together with mucilaginous drinks and some stimulants. General Caution.�We would repeat, finally, that in all cases of obvious or suspected poisoning, no time should be lost in obtaining the services of the veterinary surgeon, both on account of the immediate danger of such cases, and on account of the necessity of accurate after-treatment.

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			CHAPTER XIII

		The Animal Owner's Medicine Chest, and how to use it We have now to turn our attention to that portion of our subject which deals with the actual medicines used in the treatment of common animal complaints, the ways in which those medicines act, the various chemical forms in which they may be dispensed, and the different methods by which they may be administered to the various animals. It is by no means our intention to describe the action of every important drug. We have no desire whatever that the animal owner should imagine himself capable of becoming an amateur veterinary expert. That would be a most unwise and unscientific proceeding from both the point of view of the owner and the animal. Our sole subject here, as throughout the whole of these volumes, is to place before the intelligent animal owner precisely the same kind and amount of information which well-educated parents nowadays ought to possess in order to be able to deal intelligently with any emergency which may arise in the case of their own children, and in order that they may duly carry out the instructions of a physician or surgeon. In the same way our desire is that the animal owner should have that amount of accurate knowledge of simple methods of treatment, certain actions of a few drugs, and ordinary methods of first aid treatment, which will enable him to save his animals from much pain and suffering and perhaps death in the absence of expert advice, and which will further enable him after such advice has been obtained in serious cases to carry out the instructions given. We have, therefore, to consider in this connection some of the terms used to describe the actions of large groups of medicinal agents, the doses of the more common of those agents, the frequency of administration of medicines, and what drugs it may be considered advisable

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		168 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER and serviceable for a well-provided stable, kennel, or byre, to have at hand in case of emergency. Since it is no use using words until we clearly understand their meaning, let us first of all define in simple language those terms which are used quite commonly to describe in a general way the action of the more common medicinal preparations. CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS�TERMINOLOGY An Alterative is a drug whose action is not very definitely , known, but which in some way changes the condition of the body for the better. It is a general term. An Anesthetic is a drug which relieves pain either by rendering the animal entirely unconscious, as in the case of chloroform when administered by inhalation (general anaesthetic), or a drug which deadens sensation in a small part of the body to which it can be applied externally, or into which it can be injected (local anaesthetic), such as cocaine. An Anodyne is a drug which has the property of diminishing pain. A general term. An Antacid is a drug which antagonises the results of an acidity, or which neutralises an acid. An Anthelmintic is a drug, the action of which is to kill in- testinal or other parasitic worms. It may also expel them from the bowel. Another term used with much the same meaning is vermicide. An Antiperiodic drug is one which is used to prevent the recurrence of some symptom which tends to recur again and again. An Antiseptic in the widest sense is any agent which interferes with the life and growth and action of living microbes. More especially the term is used to describe those chemical preparations such as carbolic acid, which prevent the development of any organisms which cause putrefaction or sepsis. For this reason antiseptics are applied to open wounds, which may otherwise be- come infected, or to the surface of bodies, buildings, drains, or other places where dangerous organisms may accumulate, and where they can be destroyed.

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	Hackney Pony Stallion, " Whitegate Swell" (Winner of many Prizes, and a well-known Sire) Photo by Parsons, Cheshire

		:kney Mare, " Rosadora' Photo by Reid, Wishaw

u

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 169 An Antispasmodic is a drug whose action antagonises spasms or prevents muscular contractions and cramp. An Aperient is a drug whose action upon the bowels is that of a mild purge. An Antipyretic is a drug which reduces the temperature of the body, hence it is given in fevers. Its action is similar to that of a febrifuge. An Aromatic or Carminative is a drug whose action is that of dispelling flatulence, and thereby relieving pain. It is generally a stimulant with a somewhat powerful smell, and which produces, when taken into the stomach, a sensation of warmth. An Astringent is a drug which lessens the amount of secretion from a mucous surface. It also causes the tissue to which it is applied to contract. A Cathartic is a drug whose action is that of a strong purge. It is stronger than an aperient. A Cholagogue is a drug which increases the amount of bile poured into the intestine, thereby acting as a purge and stimu- lating the activity of the liver. A Caustic is a substance applied generally to the skin or some other surface to destroy some local abnormal growth. A Demulcent is a preparation with no great medicinal pro- perties of its own, but which is applied to sensitive surfaces, such as mucous membranes, to protect them from irritation. A Diaphoretic is a drug, the action of which is to produce sweating or perspiration, and which is therefore of great value in conditions of fever, where the skin is hot and dry and where a profuse perspiration reduces the temperature. A Disinfectant is a preparation which kills any infectious microbe. It is similar to an antiseptic. Many so-called dis- infectants, however, have but slight properties as germ killers, and are really but little else than deodorisers. A real disin- fectant must contain some drug or chemical which is fatal to microbes. A Diuretic is a drug which so acts upon the kidneys or the circulation, or both, as to increase the secretion of the urine. An Emetic is any substance which will induce the stomach to empty its contents by the act of vomiting. (Emetics must not

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		170 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER be given to cattle on account of the complicated anatomical structure of their stomachs, which makes vomiting almost an impossibility for them.) An Emollient is a preparation applied to a part to soften it. Poultices and ointments act in this way. An Expectorant is a drug, the action of which is to increase the secretion from the glands which occur in the lining membrane of the air-passages. This secretion is termed mucus, and is that which is coughed up or expectorated. Expectorants there- fore are said to "loosen the cough"; that is to say, they enable the patient to cough up mucus, and hence relieve the irritation in the air tubes. A Febrifuge is a drug, the action of which is to reduce an ab- normal high temperature, such as occurs in all fevers. It is a general term. An Irritant is a substance which, when applied to the part, increases the amount of blood at that spot. Such substances are also called counter-irritants. The stimulating liniments, such as turpentine, act thus. A Laxative is a drug which acts mildly upon the bowels just as an aperient. A Narcotic is a drug, the action of which is to relieve pain, and to deaden sensation. A narcotic is therefore frequently ad- ministered for the purpose of giving a patient much needed rest or sleep. Most narcotics are poisonous in large doses. A Purgative is any drug which increases the action of the bowels. Purgatives, therefore, include aperients, laxatives, chola- gogues, and cathartics. A Sedative is a drug whose action tends to allay excitement, particularly of the nervous system, or to reduce pain. It also depresses the action of the heart, reduces the frequency of the pulse, and, speaking generally, acts in precisely the opposite way to a stimulant. A Styptic is a drug which, when applied to a bleeding spot, tends to stop the bleeding. A Stimulant is a drug whose action tends to increase the activity of various parts of the body. It is specially applied to drugs which so act upon the heart, and which are therefore

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 171 termed cardiac stimulants. Stimulants, however, may be also digestive, nervous, and so forth, according to which part of the body or which function is specially stimulated. A Sudorific is a drug which increases the action of the sweat glands, thus inducing perspiration. A Sialagogue is a drug which acts upon the glands in the mouth, increasing the secretion of saliva. A Stomachic is a drug which improves the digestive powers in any one of various ways. It is a general term. A Tonic is a drug, the result of whose action is a general im- provement of the condition of the patient. This may be pro- duced as the result of helping digestion, nutrition, stimulating the nervous system, or in many others ways, so that tonics in- clude a large variety of drugs whose actions are of various kinds. The term is a general one. The Dose of Drugs.�Great care should be taken that the dose of all drugs or medicines which are kept in stock for common use or for emergency should be clearly marked in English on the label of the bottle, and whenever this label becomes indistinct it should be immediately renewed, so that no possible mistake can arise by the administration of an overdose. It is never safe to trust to memory for the administration of the contents of a bottle, nor for the dose of the drug. Many serious accidents, and often fatal accidents, arise from the neglect of this simple precaution. Of course there are certain homely remedies which are in every-day use, from which no special danger need be anti- cipated, but it is precisely this familiarity with simple and harm- less drugs which is apt to lead to disastrous results in other cases. We therefore repeat with all emphasis that no medicine, should ever be given unless the contents and the dose are clearly and legibly written on the label of the bottle. No general rule can be laid down for the dose of all drugs for all animals. There are many factors which have to be taken into account in estimating the dose in any given case. Different species of animals are more susceptible to the action of certain drugs than others, and what would be a small dose for one animal of a certain drug might be an excessive dose of the same drug for another animal. But in addition to these differences caused

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THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

by the species of the animal concerned, many other factors have
to be considered, and one of the most important is the size and
weight of the animal which is the patient, just as in human
medicine a dose of a drug for a child is less than that for an adult
in the great majority of cases. So in the case of our animals
the young one of any given animal will require less than the full-
grown adult beast. Age also makes a difference, but as the age
and the size frequently go together it is customary to use the
figures denoting the age of the animals as a guide for adminis-
tration. Age and size, however, do not always represent the
same factor in the case of drugs, because very young animals
exhibit certain susceptibilities to the action of some drugs
which are not to be accounted for merely by their relatively
smaller bulk. Then the special temperament of the particular


Horse, &c.	Ox.	Sheep.	Swine.	Dogs.
3 years ii-3 � 9-18 months 5-9 1-5	2 years 1-2 � 6-12 months 3-* i-3	1 \ years 9-18 months 5-9 » 3-5 i-3	15 months. 8-15 � 6-8 � 3-6 i-3	iyear 3-6 months 'i-3 20-45 days 10-20 �	1 part j � 8 » J iff >»

animal concerned often needs to be taken into consideration, and
especially is this the case when the animal has a very nervous
temperament. Such animals, and such human beings even,
are found to require smaller doses of certain drugs of a stimulant
character than do their more phlegmatic brethren. One fre-
quently has to consider also the question of the previous ad-
ministration of a medicine, as the result of which the animal may
have become more or less accustomed to its action, the habit of
tolerance being thus established. And, finally, there is the
question of idiosyncrasy, which can only be determined by
observation of the special patient being dealt with. These
symptoms lead to very curious and exceptional results, which
may be called unexplainable, and which can only be prevented
by previous experience with the same patient and the same drug.

Keeping the above general considerations in mind, and re-
membering that any given case may require modification in one

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 173 or other direction in accordance with what we have just said, it may be useful to quote the foregoing table as a general guide to the doses required for horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and dogs, taking the age of the animal as a standard, and as referring when full grown to animals of an average size. The Frequency of Giving Medicine.�The question invariably crops up and must now be considered as to how often a dose of a medicine given for a special purpose should be repeated, sup- posing that more than one dose be necessary to obtain the re- quired result. Of course, in the case of special prescriptions which have been prescribed and dispensed by a veterinary surgeon, full instructions as to the frequency of administration will be found written upon the label, and the animal owner will have been advised as to when he should cease the administration, being guided by the observing of the results obtained. But apart from such definite instructions being given there are certain general rules which apply to simple cases of home treatment which are worth while noting. Suppose, for example, that it is considered advisable to ad- minister a purgative. The drug is selected, the dose estimated, and the proportion administered as described in various parts of this book, and the animal owner is uncertain as to whether the dose should be repeated, and, if so, how often and when. In answer to this it may be stated generally that purgatives should not be administered unless they are obviously required, and cer- tainly should not be given as a habitual article of diet as some people seem to think. Then when the dose of a purge has been administered the question as to whether it should be repeated or not, has to be answered by observing whether the first dose has or has not fulfilled its purpose. In other words, no second dose of a purgative should be given until sufficient time has elapsed to render it certain that the first dose has not been effective. In the case of a horse this period may be stated in ordinary cases at a day and a half, this time being allowed to elapse before the administration of the second dose. In all cases the dose of a purge should be allowed to be " worked off " before a second dose is given, or else the effect of the second dose is really simply to double the amount already given. During the interval between

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		174 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER the administration of the first and second doses the horse should be kept at rest, and given a warm bran mash and water which has had the chill taken off. In the case of ruminants the second dose of a purge may be administered somewhat sooner, twelve or sixteen hours being sufficient to estimate that the first dose has failed. In dogs an even shorter time may be allowed, and in these animals, should the first purge not have acted in from seven to ten hours, it may be repeated. In other cases the action of the drug may be required much more quickly, as an example of which we may instance emetics, whose object is to empty the stomach of some contents which are considered harmful or undesirable. Such an action is required as soon as possible in order to prevent bad results. If, then, an emetic has been administered, say, to a dog, it should in the first place be given in a full dose for that drug and for that animal at age of the particular patient in order that, if possible, one administration should be sufficient. Should, however, this dose fail to take effect, it may be repeated in from five to ten minutes, in order to secure the emptying of the stomach. The action of an emetic may often be helped by giving a full drink of lukewarm water, and if the drug fails the desired result may be obtained by tickling the back of the throat with a feather. The question of the frequency of administration is not quite so obvious when one has to consider the action of drugs which are more or less indefinite. It is quite easy to know when the administration of an emetic has failed in its purpose, but not so easy to decide how often one should administer a tonic or other drugs which are given over a considerable period of time. Speak- ing generally, and subject always to any special instruction which may have been given, it may be said that tonics, febrifuges, diaphoretics, and alterative drugs may be administered twice daily. In the case of those drugs which are administered for the relief of pain or spasms, or in the hope of producing rest or sleep, the general rule will be to give an average dose which can be repeated every four or six hours, the object being to keep up the effect produced for a considerable time and not allow it to wear off. This period, therefore, will apply to most narcotics and sedatives as well as to stimulants. In the case of the last,

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 175 however, the administration may require te be repeated more frequently according to the amount of weakness or heart failure which it is desired to overcome. The above general instructions may be taken as a safe guide in ordinary simple cases, but it must be clearly recognised that in any but such cases the amount of the drug and the frequency of its administration should always be laid down by a veterinary expert. The Forms in which Drugs are Given.�There are a great many different methods of preparing medicinal agents so that they may be conveniently administered, these forms depending partly upon whether the drug concerned is readily soluble in water or otherwise, partly upon the kind of taste which it possesses, and partly upon the precise part of a body which it is desired to act upon. Thus many drugs are given simply in the form of solutions, these being called tinctures or infusions, or decoctions, and so forth, all of which ought to be manufactured in such a way as to be always of the same strength. Some of these which are not readily soluble, or quite insoluble, are made into a powder and mixed with a thick liquid, such as gruel or mucilage, in which the powder is suspended. When thus given the mixture acts as a protective layer to the stomach or intestines. Other drugs are made into solid forms, either soft or hard, varying from the appearance of a small pill to a fairly large ball one or two ounces in weight or even more. In some cases the drug is merely in- corporated in a sticky mass, which may be smeared on an ex- ternal surface, or may even be rubbed on the teeth of animals, and thereafter swallowed by their licking. A most important point to remember in connection with any drugs which are at all irritating to the mouth is that they should be sufficiently diluted with water to avoid irritation. Such drugs as oils, which will not mix with water, may be given after being thoroughly mixed with milk or eggs. With the administration of drugs in the form of hypodermic injections or other injections we have nothing here to do; such special means of administration should be left to the veterinary expert. How to Administer a Ball to a Horse.�This is a form of medicinal administration which it would be well for all those

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		176 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER who have to take charge of horses to learn how to negotiate ; since drugs are frequently put up in this shape by the veterinary surgeon, and left to the owner or stableman to administer in his absence. It is an excellent way of giving a drug which has an offensive taste. A ball is nothing more or less than a large or long pill. In some cases the drug is simply wrapped in paper, or it may be contained in a gelatine capsule. By far the best method of giving a ball is by the hand, and Professor Axe gives the following directions as to how this should be done:� " To give a ball the animal should be turned round in the stall and quietly approached with the bolus between the thumb and two first fingers of the right hand, which may be placed on the face to steady his head, while the left is employed in seizing the tongue firmly but gently across its middle. Two or three inches of tongue should project beyond the hand and be turned up to the tush on the horse's right side. The ball is then quickly carried along the mouth and dexterously placed high upon the back of the tongue, and the hand withdrawn ; the tongue is then released, and the free end of the halter quickly wound round the jaws, while the operator takes a step to the right to watch the downward course of the ball along the channel of the neck. If it is not seen to pass, it is well to wait for a moment or two, as some old stagers will appear quite quiet until released, and then drop the ball from the mouth when unobserved. If it does not appear to have been either swallowed or ejected, water may be offered, and, if taken, one may be pretty sure that the bolus has reached the stomach." To Administer a Drench.�A drench is simply a somewhat large quantity of medicine in a liquid form, or medicine diluted with a considerable quantity of water or gruel, or other substance to prevent irritation. Such a drench is commonly given to a horse out of a horn, the advantage of which implement is that even if the horse do bite the horn with his teeth no harm will ensue. A drench is thus given simply by causing the horse's head to be held up while the contents of the horn are allowed to trickle slowly from the mouth down the throat. It need hardly be pointed out that various forms of liquid nourishment, such as eggs beaten up in milk, beef-tea, and so

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 177 forth, may be administered from a horn, just as a drench would be. Three eggs mixed up with about a quart of milk may be given in this way to a horse. External Application of Drugs.�This method of administration includes drugs applied in the form of ointments, blisters, liniments, lotions, or embrocations, and is one of the most common ways of attempting to give relief to minor injuries or ailments. A blister may be applied for several reasons. On the other hand, a blister may be made containing a counter-irritant, which is thus applied to a part in which it is desired to stimulate the circulation. A lotion is generally an antiseptic or anodyne dressing simply applied to the part without any friction. A liniment or an embrocation, on the other hand, is generally rubbed in with the hand, for example, in rheumatism or stiffness from other causes. When friction is thus applied care should be taken that the whole part is rubbed equally. Lastly, medicines- may be externally applied as ointments, the basis of which is usually vaseline. These ointments contain various drugs mostly having some healing properties, which assist wounds to close up or which protect them from external contamination. Ointments, except over open wounds, should be lightly rubbed in at time of application. Blisters and their Application.�There is yet another method of applying drugs externally in which the object is not the ab- sorption of the drug through the skin so that it may act when taken into the system, but to produce a local reaction at the point of application so as to relieve some conditions at that place. We have already referred to this form of treatment under counter-irritation. It will be well, therefore, here to add a word as to the counter-irritations which are generally used, and how they are applied. The common method is to apply them locally in the form of either a blister or a poultice, though certain lina- ments act also in this way. Thus a mustard poultice acts really as a counter-irritant or blistering agent by stimulating the blood-vessels of the part, and so inducing the local congestion or excess of blood, by which means it is desired that any morbid productions in the region may be removed. Perhaps the most common form of applying a counter- VOL. II. M

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		178 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER irritant, especially in the horse, takes the form of the ordinary blister. It should be always remembered when using blisters that the active ingredients are very irritating substances, and that the object is to produce irritation where they are applied. It is important, therefore, that when a blister is used the animal should be so fastened up that it is prevented from licking off the blistering agent, or otherwise interfering with its applica- tion. In order that the effect of the blister may be more readily obtained the hair of the part may be cut off, and, if necessary, even shaved, thus allowing the irritant to come into close contact with the surface of the skin. The blistering agent is then well rubbed in, the rubbing directed against the grain of the hair, and the application being continued for from five or ten minutes. After this the part may be washed with clean soap and water, or if it be desired that the blister should act for a considerable time it may be put on in such a form as allows of it being kept in position. An ordinary blister for purposes of counter-irritation for application to the horse may be made as follows: powdered cantharides, 2 drachms; camphor, 5 grains; lard, 1 ounce. These ingredients thoroughly mixed and applied as directed. To the above compound \ ounce of oil of turpentine may be added in the case of cattle. In pigs the camphor and the turpentine in the proportion of 1 to 4 may be mixed alone and applied. In the case of dogs a special mixture of equal parts of olive- oil and strong ammonia is often sufficiently strong to act in this way. Applications of Heat and Cold.�Amongst the more modern methods of treating local inflammation is the application of various forms of cold, either in the shape simply of cold water or ice. It will thus be necessary in certain cases to decide whether a given area of inflammation is to be treated by applying to the part a cold preparation or a hot one. In order to decide this point the question to be considered is the stage to which the inflammation has reached. It is only in the early stages that the local application of cold can be really of much value. It should therefore be applied at once. The general tendency of cold as applied to the treatment of inflammation is that of checking the formation of " matter," and of producing a return to the natural

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 179 state as regards the spot, by preventing the further escape of the white blood cells from the vessels. But where the inflamma- tion has advanced beyond the early stage, and where it is of advantage to encourage the congestion and the work of the white blood cells there, it will be found advisable to apply hot applica- tions instead of cold. It is especially in those cases where it is obvious that a certain amount of suppuration or formation of matter is inevitable that the hot applications are of value. They hasten the process, as, for example, is seen in the case of an abscess which is about to " point." In such a case it is im- possible to check the formation of the matter, and so the best thing to be done is to bring the whole thing to a head as soon as possible in order that the matter can be evacuated, the local application of heat assisting in this. Application of Heat.�The two principal methods of applying heat locally are by means of poultices and fomentations. These forms of hot applications are particularly called for in such parts of the body where the tissues are firm and tense, and may re- quire some slight softening or loosening. Such a situation is found, for instance, in the feet. By an application of heat in such dense tissues the inevitable formation and escape of the matter appears to be assisted. Frequently the poultice or the fomentation is only an intermediate method of treatment adopted to render the part more quickly suitable for the knife of the surgeon. The most important point to recollect in the applica- tion of hot poultices and hot fomentations is that the application of the heat should be continuous. To allow a poultice to remain on after it has lost its heat is not merely useless, but in some parts of the body may be actually dangerous. When used at all, therefore, poultices should be frequently changed, applied in such a way that the heat is retained to the longest possible time, and entirely removed when that heat has disappeared. Poultices.�Considering how frequently it is desirable to apply a hot poultice, either for the relief of pain or for the other purposes already mentioned, it will be well to give some little attention to the method of their preparation. In the first place poultices are made from a large variety of substances, of which the most important are bran, linseed meal, mashed potatoes,

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		180 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER carrots, or turnips, or some such other material. To a poultice made from any of these there may be added more or less mustard if it be required to be stimulating, or, on the other hand, such drugs as laudanum may be added to produce a soothing effect. Should the poultice be wanted for a wound which is discharging offensive or foul matter it is a good plan to add to it some powdered charcoal. In any case the poultices are always made of a considerable thickness to retain the heat, and they should be removed at least every half hour. The method of making a poultice may be well illustrated by taking as examples those prepared from linseed meal or bread, a description of which process will apply in the case of any other ingredients. Linseed Meal Poultice.�To make a linseed meal poultice you require a piece of old linen or calico the required size and shape, which should be warming on a tray before the fire, a kettle of boiling water, linseed meal, a bowl, a spatula or knife, and a little olive oil. Warm the basin by pouring in a little hot water. Pour this off, and put in the required amount of boiling water� only custom can tell you just how much this is. Then stir vigorously with the spatula in your right hand, whilst you freely sprinkle in meal with your left. As soon as the mixture is the consistency of porridge pour it on to your linen, and spread it rapidly with your spatula to the thickness of half-an-inch over the linen, leaving an inch uncovered all round. If you dip your spatula frequently in hot water you will be able to spread more swiftly and smoothly. Turn up the spare edging of your linen so that it covers the edges of your linseed, smooth a little olive- oil over the surface, and apply it as warm as the patient can bear it; try it with your wrist first. Cover it over with a piece of thick flannel or mackintosh, and bandage on firmly but not tightly. A poultice made like this ought never to adhere to the skin in the least. Prepare your patient as far as possible before making the poultice, and, if the animal already has one on, when you remove it lightly dry the part with a warm soft towel and slip the fresh poultice on immediately. Large poultices may be left on four hours; small poultices should be changed more frequently. Poultices applied to wounds must be light and thin, and not covered with mackintosh; very often charcoal sprinkled on the

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 181 surface of the linseed meal is ordered if the wound is offensive. A little laudanum sprinkled on the poultice is ordered sometimes to soothe pain. When a mustard poultice is ordered the mustard should be mixed with two parts of linseed, and the mixing must be very thorough ; cover the surface of the poultice with thin muslin or rag, or with tissue paper, before applying it. All these poultices can be spread on brown paper if necessary, and for practising poultice-making brown paper should always be used. Let me once more repeat that the " home nurse " should do his practising in times of health, and not wait till illness comes along before he makes his first poultice. Bread and Other Poultices.�A bread poultice is made by stirring up stale bread-crumbs in boiling water, spread on white rag. Smear surface with oil and apply next the skin. Bran in a flannel bag makes a light poultice, and oatmeal has been used in an emergency. For mustard plasters the leaves can be bought at any chemist's; but, failing these, a little fresh mustard spread on brown paper and covered with tissue paper does very well. They should not be left long enough to blister unless the expert specially orders it. A soothing dressing, such as vaseline, may be used subsequently if the skin is very red and sore. Charcoal Poultice.�This useful application in the case of putrifying wounds may be made by mixing together equal parts of linseed meal and bread crumbs, and then boiling these, spread- ing them out in the usual way in the form of a poultice, and sprinkling over the surface from half an ounce upwards of powdered charcoal, according to the size of the poultice required. The Application of Ice.�When cold is ordered to be applied to an inflamed area, it is generally assumed that it will be applied in the form either of ice or iced water. In towns nowadays there is no difficulty in obtaining ice either from the fishmonger or the butcher, who generally stock it throughout the year. In country districts, on the other hand, it will only be available when produced naturally. The best way to apply cold in the shape of ice is to procure a thin rubber bag, which should be filled with the ice, the latter being broken by some sharp-pointed instrument into fairly small lumps, care being taken, however, that it is not

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		182 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER crushed to powder. If the ice be crushed into too small portions it rapidly loses its coldness when applied to the body and melts. It may be advisable to apply a piece of flannel or lint between the ice bag and the skin, or the hair may be of sufficient thickness to act as a protective. In any case, just as the important point in the case of the poultice is to be sure that the poultice is always hot, so in the case of the ice bag the important point is to be sure that it is always cold. That means that it must be constantly refilled. Cloths wrung out of iced water or lint soaked in some lotion are also used as local applications when cold is required. Con- cerning these it need only be said again that the important thing to remember is that they must not be applied longer than the coldness lasts. Fomentations or Stupes.�These are only another method of applying heat to a part in order that pain may be relieved or inflammation subdued, or wounds cleansed. When a fomentation is applied for the purpose of relieving local pain it should be put on as hot as the animal can bear it. A fomentation is a piece of folded flannel wrung out in boiling water and applied as hot as can be borne. It needs covering with a piece of mackintosh, or spongio-piline. This latter is a wool stuff with waterproof backing that can be bought at the chemist's, and can itself be used as a fomentation. But it is expensive, and soon spoils if constant wrung out. To prepare a fomentation place a towel over a basin, and put your folded flannel on the towel. Pour the boiling water over the flannel, and then take the two ends of the towel and twist them opposite ways ; this is the only plan by which you can properly wring out a fomentation without burning your hands. Take the twisted towel to the animal's side, and do not open it out till the last minute. In cases of severe pain a few drops of laudanum may be ordered to be sprinkled on the flannel before applying. In all cases poultices and other warm applications leave the skin particularly sensible to cold, so, on their discontinuation, some cotton-wool should be worn for a time over the part. Fomentations are particularly convenient and useful applications for dogs, which may be the subjects of severe pain, and for this purpose a fomentation may be used as an anodyne.

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 183 THE MEDICINE CHEST It is desirable that every animal owner should have certain simple remedies kept at hand in a place set apart, say in a small cupboard placed in a dry position and under lock and key. There are many cases in which an intelligent owner may render valuable service to the suffering animal before professional aid can be obtained, and it is a far greater satisfaction to the owner and also to the professional man to know what drugs an animal has been receiving than to prescribe for a patient which has been the re- cipient of a lot of patent medicines whose composition in most cases have to be taken on trust. To this end we would propose that some of the following drugs will be found most useful in some of the everyday ailments� Magnesium Sulphate (Epsom Salts).�Two or three pounds of this salt will be found to be very useful by stock owners, and may be given to cattle in from half a pound to pound doses, calves to three months old about three ounces, sheep and pigs up to six ounces for purgative doses, administered in from half a pint to a pint of water, to which a little treacle may be added in order to give it a better taste. The action is also increased by using the water tepid. It is not a desirable purgative for horses, but when given in doses of from an ounce to one and a half ounces it is a very useful medicine where there is any fever present, such as in the early stages of influenza. Potassium Nitrate, Nitre, Saltpetre.�This salt is excreted from the body by means of the skin and kidneys, and may be used for both horses and cattle which are suffering from a fever, horses being allowed half an ounce to an ounce, and cattle double that quantity, sheep up to two drachms, and pigs up to a drachm. It is frequently combined with Epsom salts, and may be given in the form of a powder for a horse in the early stage of any febrile disease as three drachms of Epsom salts and half a drachm of nitre administered in the food and repeated twice daily. It will be found more convenient to keep this salt in the powdered form, which saves time and trouble which would be spent in pulverising the salt with a mortar and pestle. Flowers of Sulphur.�This may be administered as a laxative

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		184 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER to any of the domesticated animals; cattle would require doses of about four ounces, horses two ounces, pigs and sheep six drachms, given in treacle and water, given once or twice daily. In one quarter of the above doses it may be mixed with the food and given in the morning and evening meal with a view to improving the condition of the animal receiving the powder. This form of sulphur is very often and effectually used externally in skin troubles, such as mange, more especially in the case of dogs. If one ounce of the sulphur is rubbed down with four ounces of lard it will be found a useful remedy for this parasitic trouble. Oil of Eucalyptus.�About ten ounces of this kept in the medicine cupboard will be found most useful as a medicinal agent for steaming a horse which is suffering from a cold, with much discharge from the nose, about a teaspoonful added to a quart of boiling water, and poured over some hay seed, or sawdust, contained in a bucket, and allowing the patient to inhale the steam will be found to give much relief. Linseed Oil (Raw).�This oil may be given to horses and cattle as a laxative or purgative in doses for the former up to a pint, and for cattle a quart, but should not be repeated too quickly. In most cases the Epsom salts will be found to be a preferable purgative for cattle, but the oil is sometimes preferable where the animal is young and weak; also for lambs it is a more gentle purgative than the salts. If a wine-glassful is added to and mixed with the food of a horse once or twice a week, it will be found to keep his coat in good order, and improve his condition considerably. It is also used as a vehicle for mixing with other drugs in which it is preferable to give them, but which we shall mention later. For external application it does not form such a good dressing as rape oil, owing to its tendency to turn rancid. It is preferably kept in stone jars of the gallon size and well corked. Castor Oil.�Both foals and calves for a day or two after they are born often have no action of the bowels, and a dose of an ounce of castor oil will frequently give relief. For calves and foals it forms one of the best purgatives given in doses of from one to four ounces, depending on the age of the patient. For

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		Exmoor Ponies Photo by Eeid, Wishaw

			Exmoor Ponies Photo by Reid, Wishaw

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		THE ANIMAL OWNER'S MEDICINE CHEST 185 dogs and cats it is a useful and quick purgative when administered in doses of from half to an ounce, and for the pig and sheep a dose of from two to three ounces will produce the same effect. Liquor Ammonii Acetate Mindererus Spirit.�A small bottle of this medicine will be of great use among the other medicines, and may be safely administered to an animal, when given judiciously, when there are signs of febrile disturbances in- dicated by the thermometer, given in the early stages before further advice can be obtained. The doses which may safely be given are as follows :�- For cattle and horses from one to two ounces may be given as a draught in a pint of cold water, but in many instances this mixture may be given in the ordinary drinking water, and per- haps this is the safer way of giving the dose, especially if the patient is suffering from a cough. A dog may have one to two drachms given in a little water. These doses may be repeated twice daily. Carbolised Oil.�A bottle of this oil will be found a most useful dressing for many external wounds, and also for the lubrication of the hands, &c, during many cases of parturition, when some aid is necessary, especially for shepherds. Colic Draughts for Horses.�A number of these should always be ready for immediate use where one is responsible for the care of a number of horses. These may be made and prescribed by the visiting veterinary surgeon, as it is a very important matter that he, when called into a severe case, should know exactly what his patient has had in the way of medicine before his arrival. A simple and, in many cases, useful draught may be made by well mixing an ounce of chlorodyne with a pint of raw linseed oil, and given to the patient on the first appearance of abdominal pain. This might with safety be repeated in the case of a heavy farm horse in an hour, a smaller dose for a smaller and younger animal. A quart bottle of the veterinary chlorodyne may be added with advantage to the contents of the medicine cupboard. Astringent Lotion.�A Winchester quart of this very useful external dressing should be kept and replenished from time to

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		186 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER time by the veterinary surgeon. It will be found useful for bathing wounds with which have been first well washed and cleansed with an antiseptic lotion. Astringent Dusting Powder.�This may also be obtained from the same source, and in many cases should be applied after the lotion. Disinfectant Fluid.�A good supply! of one of the many such fluids that are on the market should always be ready for use. Such a fluid, of which perhaps the well-known J eyes Fluid is as useful as any, may be mixed with water, and used as a wash for many external troubles as well as wounds and irritations of the skin as a first aid application. With these drugs a few instruments, &c, may be added, as� I. A graduated measure glass, marked in minims and drachms. A useful size would be one showing 2 drachms or 120 minims, the cost about 3s. II. One glass and one tin funnel. Cost 6d. each. III. Absorbent Cotton-wool. IV. Carbolised Tow, which in many cases will be found preferable for bathing and washing injured parts instead of sponges, which sometimes are not kept as clean and in the good order they might be. V. A few linen bandages and also a few " Grey open wove " bandages of 2 inches and 2§ inches in width will often be found very useful. VI. A pair of dispensing scales are almost indispensable, and will cost about 15s. VII. An enema syringe should also be stored. A good and serviceable one may be obtained for about 10s. 6d. VIII. An indiarubber syringe for washing out wounds, &c. Value 4s. for the best make. IX. An abscess knife. ASymes', with spring handle, may be bought for 3s. X. A pair of dressing forceps, is. 6d. XL Dressing scissors with blunt ends with improved take-off joint, which can be kept much cleaner than the old-fashioned kind. Price 4s. XII. Balling iron for horses is useful in many cases as an aid to those who are not adept at administering this form of medicine. XIII. A drenching tin, of which there are several patterns, and may be bought at prices from is. 6d. to 6s. XIV. Two or three thermometers should also be included for taking the temperature of the various animals, the average normal tem- perature being, Horse, ioo° F.; Cow, 101.2⁰ F.; Sheep, 104⁰ F.; Pig, 102.4⁰ F.

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			CHAPTER XIV

		General Advice on Breaking-in, Riding, Driving, Feeding In bringing to a conclusion that section of this work which deals with the horse, we may perhaps do our readers good service by adding a few words of general advice in connection with the handling of horses, both during the period of their breaking-in, and afterwards when they are at work in the saddle, trap, or other vehicle. Not every person is a born rider or driver, though most people who have the good fortune to own a horse are apt to think that the fact of possession confers an infinite amount of knowledge. As a matter of fact most amateur riders and drivers, unless they have been taught by a competent and ex- perienced horseman, make numerous mistakes which interfere with the comfort of the animal, or the success of their riding or driving. They also frequently are directly or indirectly the cause of accidents in riding or driving from which they them- selves suffer. And yet it is astonishing how unwilling many persons are to learn accurate methods in these matters, or to admit that they are not infallible. It is the sensible and in- telligent man who is willing to take the advice of his old coach- man, who has lived among horses all his life, and has an intimate knowledge and sympathy with their every mood and movement, such as is only obtained by a life in the stable. In these matters, as in others, the elders among us are loth to change opinions and habits, and the man who has driven badly all his life hitherto will, in all probability, continue to do so as long as he drives at all, and would resent most strongly any suggestion that his performances fell short of absolute perfection. If he has been accustomed to tickle his horse with the whip every five seconds whilst driving, he will continue to do so, in spite of the fact that he thereby deprives himself of all value that the whip has as an implement in driving. If he has been accustomed to accompany

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		188 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER his driving with vicious tugs at the horse's mouth every ten yards, nothing will induce him to give up so doing, in spite of the fact that he rapidly ruins every horse's mouth that he has the chance of handling. But to the younger owners of horses we would appeal to learn the science and art of riding and driving from one who knows, and not to be above taking a hint or a wrinkle from an experienced man, which may be the means of preventing many an accident, and will certainly assist in training the horse. There is no disgrace in not knowing all about horses when one suddenly becomes possessed of one, or is put in the position of riding or driving one ; but there is considerable dis- grace in making a pretence to knowledge and experience which one does not possess, and inflicting the results of our ignorance upon a long-suffering animal, and possibly risking the safety of other people who may be confiding enough to trust our assumed knowledge. HINTS ON BREAKING AND DRIVING There is a fascination for some people in the idea of buying or breeding young horses, breaking them in, and selling them when they have " grown into money." That they more often grow into some unsoundness has nothing to do with our present aspect of the case, and the true gambler in immature horse-flesh is not usually deterred from his speculative amusement by one or two pieces of what he calls " bad luck." It is obviously impossible, within the limits of the present book, to do more than touch upon the outlines of a matter which has been the subject of many volumes. We shall therefore confine ourselves to giving con- cisely a few hints on the most important points in connection with the breaking to harness and driving of horses for the benefit of the amateur who has hitherto had little experience in these matters. Tackle.�The indispensable equipment which is required is a strong set of harness, a headstall, a surcingle, and a large stock of patience. The quality of the last is probably the most im- portant, because although horses of a certain disposition may be hurriedly broken-in with success, yet the colt with pluck and spirit, which will eventually make the most pleasant trapper, re-

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		GENERAL ADVICE ON BREAKING-IN 189 quires dealing deliberately with. Also, the more gradually each lesson is instilled, the more permanent will be the impression. Some people seem to think that by some wonderful and unex- plainable hereditary process, a horse is born more or less broken- in. Obviously unbreakable and vicious animals have in course of ages been weeded out, and a naturally tractable stock hands on its nature to subsequent generations; but it is the disposition only which is passed on, nothing more tangible is acquired; and every colt has to be as carefully taught what is required of him in his service to man as his mother was before him. Horses are by nature good-tempered; some, however, are much more scarey and high-spirited than others, and if roughly handled are extremely liable to resent bad treatment by a dis- play of their powers of self-defence, which we call bad temper. These are the horses which try the breaker's skill and patience, and are so often returned as spoilt from the hands of the pro- fessional. The breaker cannot spend too much time over the education of a nervous horse, and as such subjects are usually of good breeding and quality, the time spent will be well repaid later on when selling time comes. Food.�The first point to be taken into consideration is the feeding of the colt. Possibly more depends on this, particularly when breaking ponies, than might at first sight be supposed. A colt is not going to be worked, he is merely going to be broken-in, and a diet which would be quite unfit for him under the first con- ditions will suit him admirably during his educational course. Corn should be absolutely withheld, and the diet restricted to hay ad lib., or, preferably, grass picked up in a small paddock. The more sluggish the colt is at this time, in reason, the more quickly will he accept the new instruction and adapt himself to new conditions. Therefore it is perfectly legitimate, indeed it is of important assistance, to keep the colt in an obese and phleg- matic state by a grass dietary�which must not be confounded with a low and weak condition, which is an entirely different thing, and not to be recommended, on account of the various troubles it may indirectly bring in its train. Catching.�If a colt will not come to hand in the paddock, he will have to be driven into a shed or stable and there captured.

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		igo THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER It will save time if he is accustomed to come to a quarter-peck measure with some corn in it. Then, if he is without a headstall, he can be captured with a halter in the following manner :� Pull out the running nose-band, and slip it round the quarter- peck measure, keeping the headpiece of the halter to the outer side of the measure. As the horse feeds with his nose in the measure, the nose-band can be almost imperceptibly slipped up the measure and round his nose, while the headpiece is passed quietly over his ears. When endeavouring to catch or drive in a horse, never run. If the animal breaks back, do not, by violent gesticulations, endeavour to stop him, or run and try to cut him off. If you run, so will the horse ; and as he can run the fastest, he will get the best of it, and will, furthermore, enjoy the excitement. Walk slowly after him, and gradually work him in the desired direction, and in the end you will get him to do what you want. It may take time, but not half so long as it will if he is upset and frightened. If a halter must be used to break-in instead of a headstall, do no forget to knot the slip rope, to prevent, as far as possible, squeezing and chafing the jaws. Teaching to Lead.�The next point is to teach the horse to lead. In this connection, and, indeed, throughout the pre- liminary handling, much more rapid and successful progress will be made if the breaker makes up his mind to work single-handed and to have no spectators. No animal is more suspicious than a young horse�suspicious of every object and every movement. Thus his whole time is spent in closely watching the actions of those around him, and this very peculiarity of his is of the greatest value to the horse-breaker. It is essential that he should follow every movement, and learn to connect each with its proper function in connection with himself, because only in this way does he assimilate and profit by the lessons taught him. Now, if two or three persons are present, the colt gets confused with trying to keep an eye on all of them at once, gets terribly nervous, hardly realises what is being done to him, and much valuable time and energy of both horse and breaker are wasted. We have proved this time after time. In the case once of a terribly

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		GENERAL ADVICE ON BREAKING-IN 191 nervous and wild little hill pony brood mare of nine years old which was being broken, the writer could catch her, affix bridle, surcingle, and crupper in about five minutes, alone ; but the presence of an assistant rendered it impossible to do these things at all except by sheer force and after a prolonged struggle. The first step in the actual breaking, then, is to affix the headstall with a 4-foot rope attached to its back dee, and by pulling the horse's head round to one side to upset his equilibrium and get him to move. Never stand in front of a horse and en- deavour to drag him forward. For one thing, it is impossible to succeed in making him budge an inch by this means if he does not wish to, as he is perfectly stable in this position, and is heavier than his breaker. If you stand close to the shoulder, however, and pull or push the head round gently, the horse is bound to move a fore-foot. Then he can be judiciously made to move again in a more or less circular direction, until he suddenly seems to understand what is wanted, and leads freely. Mouthing.�The next lesson is to mouth the colt with a bit affixed to the side dees of the headstall. Here a surcingle and the crupper off the set of harness will be required, and a rope or rein passed from the bit through the back loop of the crupper, which is kept in place by the surcingle. It may incidentally be mentioned that a horse cannot kick the operator when putting on the crupper if the latter is careful to stand just behind the shoulder and close to the horse, remembering to keep the animal's head pulled round slightly towards him. The horse should be reined up just sufficiently tightly for the head to be held in its best natural position. The object is to connect in the mind of the animal the fact of the bit being placed in the mouth necessitating the best natural carriage of the head. If the horse has a badly-formed neck, however, no amount of reining-up can permanently improve it. Great care should be taken not to rein up so tightly as to cause the corners of the mouth to become sore, as is so often done. Their sensitiveness, upon which the future " mouth " so much depends, is impaired if they have been cut and raw at this stage of breaking. Having got thus far, be content to lead the horse about (by a rope attached to the back dee of the headstall, and

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		THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

	not attached to the bit or side dees) for some days, taking him into traffic, introducing him to persons and motor cars, and otherwise endeavouring to accustom him to the many things he will have to be intimately acquainted with before his educa- tion is complete. Lead alternately from the off as well as the near side, as if every operation is performed from the near side it will be found one day, when urgent necessity compels an off- side approach, that the horse resents that to which he has not been accustomed. Also, it may be hardly necessary to mention, when leading from the near side keep to the right side of the road when passing vehicles, and vice versa, as only thus can a horse be controlled and prevented from suddenly turning his quarters across the roadway. Teaching to Guide.�Difficult horses, or ones which are to be very highly educated, should next go through a course of long-

FiG, 83.�Showing horse bitted up ready to lead ; also showing position of reins in long-rein driving. rein driving to mouth and supple them. This consists essentially in driving them round and round in a large circle by means of a pair of long reins (two pairs of driving reins will do) attached to the bit. One rein passes over the back or round the quarters of the horse, and the other passes direct from mouth to hand, the superfluous rein being gathered up in loops ready to let out as required. The horse must be taught to circle in either direction, to turn about in the figure 8, and perform either at the walk, trot, or canter. As success depends almost as much upon the skill of the operator as upon the tractability of the horse, and as a paddock or large yard is necessary for the evolutions, we will not

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			GENERAL ADVICE ON BREAKING-IN

		dwell on the system, excellent though it is, but will refer the reader to special works which treat of the matter in detail. The whole system is far superior to lunging with one rein only, which has not the same effect, and which must not be confused with long- rein driving (see Fig. 83). The breaker has now reached the stage when he has to teach the horse to understand and obey certain signals given with the rein. A good mouth, as understood by drivers, may be analysed as the promptness, accuracy, and precision with which the animal obeys the signals given him. This, again, depends partly upon the sensitiveness of his mouth, and partly upon the way in which he is taught the meaning of certain signs. Now, no one is more helpless than the man who is walking behind a horse and driving it in front of him with reins. If the smallest pony chooses to bolt under these circumstances, it can hardly be prevented, and the driver usually ends by ignominiously letting go the reins and sitting down rather suddenly in the road. Teaching the Horse the Reins.�Having harnessed the horse fully, except, perhaps, for the hames and traces, and having passed the breeching straps through the tugs and strapped them, and fastened up the belly-band, put on two reins, one fastened to each side of the bit, being careful to leave the ends which pass to the hands separate. There are several reasons for this. First of all, the longer the reins the greater the control of the man over the horse ; secondly, if things do not go smoothly, the horse can be pulled round by one rein and stopped; thirdly, the danger of the man getting tripped up in the loop of the rein is done away with. Some instinct of the horse leads it naturally to pull against the indication of the rein. Thus, if the left rein is pulled, the un- trained horse always endeavours to bear to the right, and vice versd. To counteract this a slight, sharp flick with a long whip must be given to the left side of the animal when the right rein is pulled, and so on, the pull and flick being simultaneous, and graduated to the degree of turn required. It is wonderful how quickly the colt learns to obey the indication of the rein alone, its promptness being in exact ratio to the precision with which the double indication is given in the first instance. Once the horse has learnt the meaning of the various pulls on its mouth�left VOL. II. N

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			THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER

		rein, turn to the left; both reins, stop (this always accompanied by a decided verbal " whoa ! ") ; " click ! " go on, &c.�he is fit to put into the shafts, provided he has got used to blinkers, in which he is sure to be a little strange at first. Putting into a Cart.�Bad starting, than which no more tire- some trick exists, is usually caused by (a) putting a horse into too heavy a cart at first; (6) starting it uphill; (c) or driving it with tender shoulders. A very light, empty cart should be used, and not a heavy one loaded up with men, on the supposition that the heavier it is the less possibility will there be of the colt running away with it! An assistant will be required to hold the shafts up over the horse's back and to help to harness him. Everything should be done without fuss, quietly and expeditiously, as the whole future behaviour of the animal depends upon the first impression it gets of harness work. A headstall or halter should be left on under the bridle to lead by, and a rope should be tied across the loins as a preventative of possible kicking. When everything is ready lead the colt off quietly, a person on each side of its head to prevent accidents. In most cases, if the preliminary lessons have been well instilled, the colt will go off well and quietly. For two or three days his work should be confined to a few miles out and back along all classes and gradients of roads, making a " round " whenever possible. At length, if all goes well, the breaker should get into the cart and drive the colt, the attendant still leading from one side. In a day or two both may ride, and the pace may be increased and the journeys lengthened. Sore Shoulders.�We have insisted on a light cart, short journeys, and as small an amount of exertion as possible for the colt, because only thus can that bane of horse-breakers, sore shoulders, be avoided. The soreness of course starts as a bruise, which quickly works into a sore place, and will necessitate a total stoppage of breaking operations at a time when it is most im- portant that the work should be regularly carried on ; and it may, in addition, lead the colt to acquire the habit of starting badly or awkwardly. Thus, at all costs, must these catastrophies be avoided. If the animal is confined at first to pulling a very light, empty cart, and is not made to sweat excessively, the

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		GENERAL ADVICE ON BREAKING-IN 195 shoulders will gradually harden of themselves, without any dis- organisation ensuing. Of course we are assuming that the colt is provided with a properly-fitting collar. A straw collar is better than a leather one at this stage, and if a breast collar is used on alternate days, bruised shoulders may be avoided. In any case, if the neck becomes in the slightest degree bruised, stop all shaft work at once until it is perfectly well again. Also, daily from the commencement of breaking-in to harness, bathe the neck under the collar immediately on the return from work with a saturated solution of alum and water, which will help, to harden the skin. Tricks.�It must be borne in mind throughout the breaking that it is a comparatively simple matter to -prevent a horse doing that which he should not do, but that if he is once allowed to develop a trick or vice it may take months of trouble and hard work to make him forget it again. Shoeing.�A visit to the blacksmith is, of course, part of the necessary education of every horse, and is very often actually the first point attended to by the amateur horse-breaker. We do not hold with this early shoeing, and consider that, for a variety of reasons, the business is best deferred until the colt is so far broken as to be fit to drive regularly. Leaving out of the question the undue fright experienced by an almost unhandled animal, and the horror and dislike with which in consequence it may, in future, associate a visit to the blacksmith, a young horse is much more likely to injure himself, or do harm of some sort, if he is shod. Furthermore, if the breaking process is unduly prolonged owing to galled shoulders, the animal will be as well without shoes during his enforced idleness. The feet must, of course, be trimmed up, and the edges of the hoofs rasped to prevent a tearing out of ragged edges, and if this is attended to the horse will be able to do quite a lot of work on dry roads without further attention. The dampness of our climate is one of the chief causes which makes it impossible for a horse to do all his work unshod. Water softens horn, and causes it to become much too weak to stand friction ; but in the case of a colt the work it does (or should do) during breaking is not of a sufficiently arduous nature to be likely

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		196 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER to do harm to the feet, provided, of course, that the animal has naturally hard and well-shaped feet to start with�a condition we are taking for granted. Driving.�-We have treated of the breaking-in of a colt entirely from the single harness point of view, because a horse which will go alone will always work in double harness, although the reverse is not always the case. Once broken, a horse has to be mannered and taught one thousand and one little items, insignificant enough in themselves, which, in the aggregate, help to raise his value to that of a high-class and expensive animal. Many people confuse quietness with sluggishness. A quiet horse should be full of spirit, free and fast, but he should have been so perfectly mannered that he never " plays up," or shows the exuberance of his spirits in an unorthodox manner, but is absolutely free from tricks, vice, or peculiarities. All this is taught by the exercise of great patience and attention to detail when driving the colt after the rough breaking-in is completed. First of all, teach the horse never to fidget or move off until the signal�a combined " click " and tightening of the rein�is given. Teach him to stand well and alertly, and not to rest his legs or go to sleep. Teach him to stop dead at a decided " Whoa! " without any additional signal with the reins, as this habit may prove most useful in an emergency. General Rules for Driving.�In driving, always go slowly off the top of a hill, and at the summit pull the horse well back into the breeching, so as to get his weight off the forehand. If the animal is thoroughly steadied like this, and his head is kept up with a tight rein, he can trot down almost any hill with a good surface in safety. Horses most frequently fall on the slight hill down which they are being driven with a slack rein. If their weight had been taken off the forehand, a false step would not have resulted in anything worse than a slight stumble. There- fore the driver must be " driving " all the time, and must not allow himself or his steed to be lulled into a false sense of security. It is difficult to define the exact tension at which the reins should be held. It should vary with the gradient of the road and other factors ; at the same time, of the two extremes, a tight rein is much safer than a loose one, for with it the horse is always

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					GENERAL ADVICE ON BREAKING-IN

				under control in the case of a sudden shy or stumble. With a loose rein he may fall, or shy right across the road, before the rein can be brought to a tension sufficient to steady him. Never whip or flick a horse going downhill if it can possibly be avoided, and never use the whip unless the reins are held tightly. One of the worst errors the amateur driver falls into is an inability to keep the whip still. This is, of course, fatal to the freeness of a colt; and we have known many old horses turned into in- veterate slugs in their old age solely through this fault on the part of their driver. If a horse is being continually flicked and touched with the whip-lash, he will, in a remarkably short time, have become so familiarised with it that he will fail to respond. If the whip must be used to correct some fault or to stimulate, it should be used sharply and decisively�in other words, it should not be used at all unless it is absolutely necessary. He will thus always have a wholesome fear of the weapon, and will never develop into a slug. A sluggish horse may often be cured by a few thorough beatings, which show him that his driver intends to put up with no nonsense. Therefore, we repeat, if a driver cannot resist flicking his horse's back with the whip in and out of season, then the whip must be kept in its socket, so that he may not be tempted to make improper use of it. As a rule, it is not advisable to whip a horse for shying. If he is really frightened the punishment will only increase his fright; if he shies from high spirits, such bad manners must be suitably punished only if it is impossible to ignore them altogether. In these days of motor cars and other road nuisances, it is especially necessary that only competent and experienced drivers should be allowed on the roads. Very often a horse shies at some object solely because of the nervousness of his driver. By instinctively tightening the reins, and settling himself in his seat, the driver conveys to the horse that something is about to happen. The animal becomes agitated and nervous by the un- usual signs conveyed by the reins, looks about expectantly for the supposed danger, and shies or otherwise displays his alarm at some object which, had the driver not given him the office, he would probably have taken no notice of. Always put on the brake gradually, and in a degree to corre-

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		198 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER spond with the steepness of the gradient. Some people put it on hard at any and every hill, whereas it is more restful for a horse in a light vehicle to hold back down slight inclines. In any case, the brake power should be applied notch by notch as the de- clivity increases, and should be taken off gradually in the same way as the bottom is approached. Some General Advice.�We are nearing the conclusion of what has been deemed most advantageous for the horse-owner to learn, and before leaving the subject we should like to remind him of some very important considerations which he will do well to keep in mind. These refer particularly to feeding and diges- tion, subjects with which we have already dealt. We would here only recapitulate and emphasise one or two points. The proper digestion of the food is of such importance to any animal that there is no need for apology in impressing the matter upon our readers. Remember that animals are not all alike in this matter, but that they differ immensely in accordance with their anatomical structure. That is why we should learn something of their anatomy. Thus those animals which have a comparatively simple stomach do not masticate their food as do those with com- plicated stomachs. The horse and the pig do not masticate as ruminants do. These latter have, as we shall see in a later volume�and as has been already noticed in the chapter on digestion�four divisions to their stomach. In them the first masticating of the food is only done sufficiently to allow of their swallowing it. One of the most important results of this is that horses�and in this respect pigs resemble them�cannot digest the coarser and harder portions of some food-stuffs nearly so well as ruminants. For this reason if the horse is found to bolt its food without properly masticating it, some chopped hay must be mixed with the feed to make certain it is chewed. Teeth and Digestion.�A great deal depends upon the teeth with regard to good and bad digestion. If the teeth are bad mastication is difficult, and in such cases it will be well that the corn for the horse shall be crushed, ground, or soaked. Digestion in the Horse.�The species of animal makes a con- siderable difference in its digestive power, animals of different

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		GENERAL ADVICE ON BREAKING-IN

	species not digesting the same quantity of any given food. Thus if we compare the digesting capacity of the horse with that of ruminants we find that in the horse it is inferior. " Investigations carried out on this point have shown that the horse digests almost the same amount of crude protein from the various food-stuffs as do the ruminants. It is in the crude fibre and crude fat that the greatest differences are seen, and in a less measure in the nitrogen-free extract. In the case of such a difficulty digestible material as straw, the peculiarity of the horse as compared to a ruminant is clearly shown, for the former utilises only about half of what the latter does. When it comes to the different varieties of grass, the horse is found to digest only 20 to 25 per cent, less nitrogen-free extract and crude fibre than does the sheep. With clover, hay, or lucerne hay the differences are again less, being at most 10 per cent., whilst the digestibility of the grains is about equal for each class of animal, except as regards the crude fat." Those who would learn all about the " Scientific Feeding of Animals " cannot do better than read the book of that title by Professor Kellner, from which the above quotation is taken. Work and Digestion.�According to the same authority it does not appear to make much difference whether the animal is working or not as far as its power of digesting certain substances is concerned, though the quantity may vary. It is not the work done so much as the rate at which it is done which, curiously enough, seems to matter. It has been observed that cab-horses working at a quick trot did not digest their food as well as they did when at rest. Digestion was better performed at a walk than when trotting. Remember, finally, in this all-important matter of proper feeding that the greater is the call upon the horse at work the less coarse fodder must it have, for the reasons just explained. Hay, straw, green stuff, and all fodder that is bulky must be re- duced to a minimum in such conditions, if the horse is to digest properly and enough. At the same time coarse fodder must not be withheld entirely for long, or else the appetite will get less and indigestion ensue. Male animals intended for breeding pur- poses should be fed more liberally than those who are to be used for purposes of ordinary work, care being taken that they do not

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200 THE MODERN VETERINARY ADVISER get too fat. These general principles, and other details which we have mentioned in previous sections, the horse-owner will do well to understand and keep constantly in mind. Care in feeding is a great matter ; the absence of it accounts for many of the common ailments and troubles in the stable, and the know- ledge of what is required is not beyond the attainment of any one. Conclusion.�We have now to leave the consideration of the horse, which has occupied our attention for these two first volumes, and pass on to the dog. But before doing so let us summarise in a word what our effort with regard to the horse has been. We have endeavoured to give the horse-owner of average intelligence such an account of the structure of his animal�by means of models and descriptions�that he will be able to appreciate the importance of the directions given for the welfare of the animal. These are chiefly included in the general term " Hygiene," a good general knowledge of which is indispensable to the horse-owner who wishes to keep his animals in good condition, and get the best results out of them. We have given full accounts of all the principal ill-effects which may follow faulty shoeing, in order to impress upon our readers the importance of keeping a super- vising eye upon this part of the stable management. Finally, we have given an account of all the ailments and accidents which the owner can be expected to attend to himself in the first in- stance, and in addition have endeavoured to point out to him a great many directions in which he can obtain assistance from the veterinary surgeon. In leaving this part of our subject we would only add that it is the truest economy to pay attention to all these matters, and to seek skilled veterinary advice in all con- ditions of doubt or serious illness.

		END OF VOL. II.

	Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.