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		THE HORSE ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

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			THOROUGHBRED STALLION ST. SIMON

		�\W \»-a 4«t cA VC\s, utvve. V.-j tiatopv^'. Olvvto, 't.v. Kwj.vY.v \yj KW; Yom. 'Tlia ptopetVj oS YY\s. titivce v\\e YX\Ve o! Y>owYand

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THE HORSE ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE ^WjTH A COMPLETE GUIDE TO BREEDING TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT

	Edited by PROF. J. WORTLEY AXE, M.R.c.v.s. Ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Late Lecturer at the Royal Veterinary College, and at the Agricultural Colleges of Downton and wye Chief Veterinary Inspector to the Surrey County Council Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the British Dairy Farmers' Association Author of '' The Mare and Foal" '' Abortion in Cattle " " Anthrax in Farm Stock " " Examination of Horses as to Soundness " " Glanders, its Spread and Suppression " " Swine r " Lithotomy or the Removal of Stone from the Bladder of the Horse'

			VOLUME I

		LONDON THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY 34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND 1908

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		*

	PREFACE

The object of the editor in preparing this work has been ^to set out in one compact whole some of the most useful ^formation relating to the horse. The origin and develop- ment of the horse, his varieties, his breeding, training, and Management, in health and disease, with other cognate sub- jects, have each in turn been considered. To render the book more intelligible and useful to the reader, each group of diseases is preceded by a brief reference ^to the anatomy and physiology of the parts therein concerned, ^an(* the whole has been written in the simplest possible language consistent with a clear enunciation of the subject. Having regard to the extent and variety of the matter to ^be dealt with, it was necessary to seek the co-operation of ^0utside help, and I have much pleasure in saying how readily *^hls was accorded by my friends Sir George Brown, C.B., Dr. teming, Professor Shave, Mr. Harold Leeney, Mr. Hunting, f^^r- ^Vero Shaw, Mr. Lupton, Mr. Malcolm, and others, and °^w much I owe them my grateful acknowledgments. ^The greatest care has been taken in the selection and Production of the very large series of illustrations which will ^e ^fou_nci in this book. Of these many are in colours, em- ^af^mg portraits of prize - winning animals of the leading ieties, and drawings from nature illustrating anatomical Pathological subjects. Of the large number of black-and- ¹ ^e illustrations many are reproductions from photographs,

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	vi
	vi	PREFACE
		PREFACE

many are drawn from original specimens, or reproduced from drawings in the portfolio of the Editor, while some are from the text-books of Chauveau, Kirks, and others. To those who have allowed me the use, or favoured me with portraits, of their animals, I am duly grateful, and my best acknowledgments are due to Captain Nicholas for his kindness in allowing me to present to my readers photographs of the beautiful white horses which are used by His Most Gracious Majesty the King on state occasions. J. WORTLEY AXE, The Wilderness, Pinner.

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	CONTENTS VOLUME I Introduction -
	CONTENTS VOLUME I Introduction -	Page xvii-xxii
		Page xvii-xxii

Section I.�THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE Divisions and Points of the Horse ------ 3 The Head, Upper Aspect of the Body�Top-line; Posterior Extremity, Anterior Extremity, the Lateral and Inferior Region, External Genital Organs, Fore Extremity, the Posterior or Hind Limb. Section II�CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS Introductory - .... - 27 Centre of Gravity....._..--- 28 Equilibrium - .....- 30 uscles in Relation to Power and Speed - - - ³¹ ^The ^B°nes as Levers -.......... 33 Head and Neck........... - 36 The Withers...........- - 52 ^The Back............. 55 The Croup ........... . 58 ^The Brkast -............ 61 Chest and Abdomen........... 62 ^LE6S - -..........- - 66 The Shoulder, the Arm, Elbow, Forearm, Knee, the Canon, the Fetlock, *e Pastern, the Foot, the Hind Limb, Leg (Second Thigh), Hock, Cow- Hocks, Bow-legs, Sickle or Curby Hock.

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		viii CONTENTS Page Body and Limbs ------...... 90 Distribution of the Weight of the Body - ..... 91 Height -------------- 93 Elevation of the Height at the Withers, Elevation of the Height at the Croup Length............- - 95 Width ------ ---_._. 98 Proportions of Height to Length - - - - . - . - 99 The Head as a Unit of Measurement ------- 99 Compensation of Defects of Conformation...... 101

			Section III.�VARIETIES OF THE HORSE English Breeds ---------- - 107 The Thoroughbred, the Hackney, the Pack-Horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Yorkshire Coach-Horse, the Hunter, the Saddle Horse, the Harness Horse. Ponies and Pony-breeding - - - -.....- 153 The Dartmoor, the Exmoor, the New Forest, the Welsh, the Westmoreland, the Shetland, the Irish, the Dale or Fell Pony, the Rum Pony, the Hackney Pony, the Wilson Pony. Heavy Horses -.._'....... . 172 The Shire Horse, Clydesdales, the Suffolk. Foreign Breeds ------------ 200 The Arab, the Percheron, the Hanoverian Horse, the Morgan Horse, the Oldenburgh, the Holstein, the Schleswig, the East Friseland.

			SECTION IV.�HEALTH AND DISEASE Introductory ------ ...... 213 Etiology�Causes of Diseases, Bacteria. The Digestive System - - - -..... - 229 The Alimentary Canal and its Appendages, The Lip, the Teeth, Salivary Glands, Deglutition, the Stomach, the Small Intestine, the Large Intestine, the Colon, the Rectum, the Liver, the Cells, the Blood Vessels, the Bile- ducts, the Bile, Glycogen, the Pancreas, Food, Gastric Digestion, Intestinal Digestion.

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		CONTENTS ^ix Page The Digestive System�Its Diseases and Injuries ----- 247 Diseases of the Lips, Inflammation of the Mouth (Stomatitis), Aphthse, Inflammation of the Tongue (Glossitis), Congestion of the Palate (Lampas), Inflammation of the Throat (Pharyngitis), Abscess of the Throat, Salivation or Ptyalism, Inflammation of the Parotid Glands (Parotitis), Fistula of the Parotid Duct, Salivary Calculi, Choking, Vomiting, Acute Indigestion, Chronic Indigestion, Gastritis, Chronic Dilation of the Stomach, Euptured Stomach, Colic or Gripes, Flatulent Colic, Constipation, Diarrhoea, Super- purgation, Dysentery, Enteritis, Eupture of the Intestine, Intestinal Ob- struction, Calculi (Stones), Inversion of the Eectum, Diseases of the Liver, Hernia or Eupture, Irregularities and Diseases of the Teeth. The Urinary Apparatus - - - - - - 333 -Definition, the Kidneys, the Arrangements for the Eetention and the Discharge of the Urine, the Quantity and Composition of the Urine, Morbid Condition of the Urine, Diabetes, Polyuria or Profuse Staling; Hematuria or Bloody Urine; Diseases of the Kidneys, Inflammation of the Bladder�Cystitis; Eetention of the Urine, Incontinence of the Urine, Stone in the Bladder, Inversion of the Bladder. The Nervous System ----- - - - 373 The Cerebrospinal System, the Sympathetic System, Structure of the Cerebrospinal Nervous System, Functions of the Nervous System, Cerebro- spinal Nerves. Diseases of the Nervous System ------ - 405 Cerebritis and Meningitis, Vertigo, Abscess in the Brain, Epilepsy, Ec- lampsia, Chorea (St. Vitus' Dance), Stringhalt, Apoplexy, Crib-biting, Tumours in the Brain and Cranium, CEdema of the Choroid Plexus Exostoses or Bone Tumours, Thickening of the Membranes, Diseases of the Spinal Cord and its Membranes, Paralysis. The Absorbent System - - - ... - 425 The Lacteal System, the Lymphatic System, the Lymphatic Glands. ^The Organs of Circulation- " ⁴³⁰ The Blood, the Nerves of the Heart, the Blood Vessels, the Pulse, the Contractility of the Arteries, Blood Pressure, Prevention of Death by Hemorrhage, the Capillaries, the Chief Arteries and Veins, Distribution °' the Systemic Arteries. ^ISEASES OF THE HEART AND OF THE BLOOD-VESSELS - - - 453 General Consideration of the Pathology of Heart Disease, Physical Exami- nation of the Heart, Pericarditis (Inflammation of the Heart Sac), Endo- carditis (Inflammation of the Lining Membrane of the Heart), Myocarditis (Inflammation of the Muscular Structure of the Heart), Diseases of the Valve of the Heart, Hypertrophy (Enlargement of the Heart), Atrophy of the Heart, Fatty Diseases of the Heart, Eupture of the Heart, Arteritis, Atheroma (Endarteritis Deformans), Thrombosis, Iliac Thrombosis, Throm- bosis of the Jugular Vein (Phlebitis), Aneurism.

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CONTENTS Page Diseases of the Blood -.........- 478 Anaemia, Plethora, Septicaemia. The Organs of Eespiration and the Eespiratory Process - - - 482 Description of the Eespiratory Process, Effects of Eespiration, the Mech- anism of Eespiration, Asphyxia, Ventilation.

Diseases of the Eespiratory Organs -		497
		497

	STJflW ST ?? ^Catarrh' ^NaSal ^Gleet> Hemorrhage, Bleeding Larynx ' ^% ' "* " ^the ^GuttUral ^Pou<*^es> Dise^es of the

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			ILLUSTRATIOiNS VOLUME I

		FULL-PAGE PLATES Horoughbred Stallion, St. Simon (colour) - - - Frontispiece Symmetry�Arched Chest - -........28 Equilibrium in the Walk and in the Gallop - -. 30 Hackney Stallion, Danegelt 174 (colour) - ³⁸ Short Neck-Long Neck....... 48 High Withers�Low Withers ------ 52 Short Back, Dished Face�Long Back - - 54 ^CK Hollow from Age�Back Naturally Hollow 56 Straight Croup-Sloping Croup - - - - 58 Roach Back�Good Quarters�Split-up - - - - CO Good Fore-Legs�Weak Fore-Legs - - ⁶⁶ ^0NG Sloping Shoulders�Straight Shoulders - - - 70 bright Pasterns�Good Quarters and Gaskins ----- 80 Phases of the Gallop-..... ⁸² Good Hocks�Weak Fleshy Hocks�Curby Hocks - 86 Shire Stallion, Harold (colour) - ⁹⁸ Brown Horse, Ard Patrick - - - ¹⁰⁸ ^AY Filly, Sceptre�Bay Horse, Flying Fox - - - - 112 Hackney Mare, Lady Dereham 2891 - ' ¹¹⁶ ^A Group of Ponies (colour) - - - 154 xi

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		xii ILLUSTRATIONS Page Hackney Stallions, Confidence, D'Oyley's 153, and Lord Derby 415 - 170 Champion Shire Mare, Rokeby Fuchsia (colour) - - - - - 174 Hackney Stallion, Polonius 4931 - .....- 180 Pack-horse, Triumph II, and Dartmoor Pony Stallion, Goldfinder - 190 Suffolk Stallion, Ruler 2453 (colour) ------- 202 Hunter, Tennis Ball - - - - - - - - . _ -214 Harness Horse -------..... 222 Shetland Ponies ---........ 234 Stroxton Tom 15871 ------....- 246 Cleveland Bay, Speciality 1562 (colour) - -..... 258 Shire Horse, Lincolnshire Lad II ------- 266 Clydesdale Stallion, Lord Stewart- ------- 280 Arab Mare, Bozra - ....... 294 Hackney Mare, Ophelia (colour) --------- 306 Hanoverian -----......- 320 American Trotters, Crescens and Star Pointer ----- 336 The Anterior Aorta and its Branches (colour) ----- 344 Operation for Stone ---........ 364 Calculi - - - ........ 370 Nerves, Arteries, and Muscles of the Limbs�I (colour) - - - 390 Nerves, Arteries, and Muscles of the Limbs�II (colour) - - - 398 Anatomy of the Horse's Head (colour) --....- 402 Brain Tumour�CEdema of Choroid Plexus (colour) - - - - 414 Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis and Arteritis (colour) - 424 Distribution of the Arteries�I (colour) - -..... 448 Distribution of the Arteries�II (colour)....... 452 Valvular Disease of the Heart - - ..... 464 Thrombosis ------ - - 474

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".:�

ILLUSTRATIONS

TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

53
54
61
61
64
67

68
74
74

75
75
75

77
77
78

78
80
80
80
82
82

84
87

Page
2

4
6

Exterior of the Horse: Side View
The Head: Side View
Portion of Lower Jaw, showing Tongue
Examination of the Mouth - -
Median Section through a Horse's

Head, showing Soft Parts -
The Head: Front View -
Examination of the Nostril
Examination of the Haw -
Exterior of the Horse: Three-quarter

Back View -
Exterior of the Horse: Three-quarter

Front View -----
Bones of Left Fore-Leg -
Principal Tendons of the Fore-Limb -
Front View of Horse -
Back View of Horse - - - -
Bones of Left Hind-Leg -
Centre of Gravity -
The Centre of Gravity in the Horse -
Equilibrium -----

Base of Support.....

Eever of the First Order -

Eever of the Second Order -

Lever of the Third Order -

^r*ie Bones as Levers -

Eean Head, well set on - - -

fleshy Head.....

Front View of Skull and Temporal
Muscles ------

Broad Face, lop ears - - - -

yarrow Face - -

■Straight Face (Arab Stallion) -

Undulating Face -

�ed Face -

Roman Nose - - . -

orehead Prominent between the Eyes
EongEars- ......

Head loosely coupled -
f*^ead close coupled -

f*^ead carried vertically
^bwan Neck

Straight Neck.....

^eNeck- -__._--

�^he Mastoido-humeralis ^Musole "
^ection of the Withers, showing Sus-
pension of the Trunk between the
* ^ore-Limbs -__'�-

Ligamentum Nucha? -

Section through the Withers

Narrow Breast -

Broad Breast -

Two Ribs, showing Costal Cartilages -

Articulation of the Hip Joint

Oblique Position of the Limbs in draw-
ing a Load -

Bowed Knees

Calf Knees -

Toes turned out -

In-kneed ------

Toes turned in -

Good Forearm and Canon -

Weak Forearm and Canon -

Bones of Fetlock and Pastern

Attachment of the Sesamoid Bones to
the Skeleton of the Leg -

Good Pasterns -----

Long Sloping Pasterns

Short Sloping Pasterns

Flat Foot - - -

Upright Foot - H

10
11

14
19
20
21
22
23
28
29
30
31
33
33
34
35
36
37

38
39
39
40
40
41
41
42
42
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

nil Hind-

Posterior View of Pelvis
Limbs of Horse

Bones of the Hock Joint

drawing a

The Hind-Limbs bent ii

Load ^B

Cow-Hocks -----

Bow-Legs ------

Excessive Length from Two Different
Causes ------

Compensation for Excessive Length -

Proportions of the Horse in Profile

Bacteria and Bacilli -

Spirilla - - - -

Salivary Glands exposed -

Salivary Glands.....

Section of Salivary Gland, showing a
Group of Lobules - - - -

Section of Salivary Gland, showing the
connection of the Lobules with the
Ducts ------

The Nervous Mechanism of Salivary
Secretion.....

Abdomen laid Open -

Stomach laid Open

Peptic Gland - - - - -

89
89

96
97
100
226
227
230
231

231

232
233
234
234

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ILLUSTRATIONS


Page		Page
235	Caries.....	330
236	Parrot Mouth -----	331
237	Reversed Parrot Mouth	332
	Teeth of Crib-Biter -	332
238	Wolf's Tooth - - - -	332
239	The Kidneys, Ureters, and Bladder -	333
240	Section through Kidney	334
240	Uriniferous Tubules - -	335
	Urine Salts -----	338
245	Crystals of Urea -	340
	Hippuric Acid -----	341
259	Uric Acid......	341
260	Kreatin ------	342
262	Kreatinine -----	342
264	Blood Corpuscles and Leucocytes	343
265	Haemoglobin Crystals from the Blood -	344
267	Pus ----- -	344
269	Casts in Horse's Urine	345
277	Crystals of Oxalate of Lime from
279	Horse's Urine -	345
280	Retention of Urine in the Mare�Pass-
281	ing the Catheter - - - -	351
282	Retention of Urine � Catheter in-
291	serted ------ Stone overgrown with Granulation	352
296	Tissue ------	358
297	Stone empouched in the Fundus of the
299	Bladder ------	358
299	Stone empouched in the Fundus, and
300	extending into the Cavity of the
302	Bladder ------	359
309	Grooved Staff - - - - -	362
313	Lithotomy Knife (sharp-pointed)	362
314	Lithotomy Knife (blunt-pointed)	362
316	Whalebone Probe -	362
317	Dilator ------	36a
	Spike-faced Forceps - - - -	364
317	Drainage Tube.....	366
	Perineal Needle	366
318	Lithotrite ------	367
321	Forceps for Lithotripsy	367
324	Scoop ------	368
	Sound ------	368
	Vesical Calculus -	369
326	Sections of Vesical Calculus	370
	Inversion of the Bladder -	372
327	Ganglion Cells of the Sympathetic
328	Nerve of the Muscular Coat of the
328	Bladder ------	374
329	Diagram of the Ganglia of the Sympa-
329	thetic System of Nerves -	375

Section through the Small Intestine -

Large Intestine -----

Large Intestine, showing its Position
in the Abdomen -

The Liver and Pancreas

Hepatic Cells -----

Section of Lobule of Human Liver

Section through Duodenum, showing
Brunner's Glands -

Head of Horse, showing Positions of
the Parotid Gland and Duct-

Parotitis ------

Fistula of the Parotid Duct

Two Views of a Salivary Calculus

Choking in the Throat -

Choking in the Neck - - - -

Sleepy Staggers -----

Ruptured Stomach -

Spasmodic Colic (1) -

Spasmodic Colic (2) -

Spasmodic Colic (3) -

Flatulent Colic - - - - -

Dysentery - - - -

Portion of Intestine impacted with
Concretion -

Strangulated Bowel -

Group of Faceted Calculi -

Rounded Calculus -

Mixed or Conglomerate Calculus

Inversion of the Rectum

Fatty Liver .--._■-.

Common Liver Fluke -

Liver infested with Echinococcus

Truss for Umbilical Hernia

Clamp for Umbilical Hernia

Treatment of Umbilical Hernia with a
Clamp ------

Treatment of Umbilical Hernia with
Needles ------

Inguinal Hernia.....

Ventral Hernia.....

Lower Jaw of Horse, showing Numeri-
cal Excess of Molars on the Right
Side - - - - -

Overgrowth of Anterior Molar below
and Posterior Molar above -

Undulating Irregularities of Molars -

Marginal Irregularities of Teeth -

Tooth-Rasp -

Tooth-Shears ^^1

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ILLUSTRATIONS

Nerve Cells
Section of Nerve
ihe Spinal Cord

^tions of Spinal Cord "

U^er Surface of Horsed ■ '
^LPPer Surface and H ^am "

°f the Brain ^Hori20ntal Section

;^et't>go, or Megri_ms -

Si;^heLymP^hat^e;selsofthe
^Setteⁿ ^tL°^Ugh ^ Small Inte,

fc^fL^icGia�d : :

p ^00d Corpuscles

sucdr ,°^d ^CorPuscles, showing
^essive changes of outline during
^a Penod of ten mi_nut_es . . ^gHorse's Heart -

Page

438

439

442
450
468
469
478
483
484
485
486
-187
500
50]

505

509
510

Page

378
379

381
381
382

384
385
406
408
413
422

426

427
429
431
433

Diagrammatic Views of the Heart ^ -

Section of the Heart, showing the Val-
vular Apparatus -

Transverse Section through a small
Artery and Vein -

Diagram of Circulation

Fatty Infiltration of Muscle

Fatty Degeneration of Muscle -

Aneurism of the Aorta

The Lungs in their Natural Position -

The Larynx

The Larynx, seen from above -

The Lungs and Bronchi

Sack-like Ends of a Bronchiole -

Insufflator - - -

Fumigation of the Nostrils for Catarrh

Transverse Section of Horse's Head,
showing the Guttural Pouches -

Concretions of Pus from the Guttural

Pouches -

Tracheotomy Tubeinsertedinthe Wind-
pipe

Larynx of a " Roarer

434
437

PEDIGREE TABLES
Hermit ........

Orme ........

Stockwell.......

St. Simon.......

Denmark .......

Lord Derby II......

Confidence......

FlREAWAY -------

Speciality......

What's Wanted.....

Royal Albert......

Lincolnshire Lad II - - - -
William the Conqueror - - - -

Page

110

111

114

115

118

119

122

123

128

176

177

184

185

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			INTRODUCTION

		"Only the introduction! That may very well be passed over"�is a not uncommon exclamation from the reader, and even a more frequent unuttered impression in his mind. In opposition to this idea of the reader, J⁶ ^Writer ventures to press the author's view of the question in the hope Jeing able to show that a synopsis such as the present introduction is ^tended to present is a very useful, indeed it might even be designated an dispensable, preparation for the study of what is to follow. Certainly it ^Cannot be otherwise than helpful to a reader to have spread before him in one view the outline of the work to which he intends to devote his attention. ⁰ °ne disbelieves in the value of a plan of a building, or a map of a country, and in the present case the object is to indicate as briefly as Possible, i_n _a preliminary sketch, the chief features of the work on the ^orse, so that the reader may be informed of its scope and intention at the outset. b iv ^miiy ^De ^0Dserved that the division of the literary work into sections y different writers was obviously a necessity, and the book is consequently ¹⁶ outcome of the knowledge and experience of a considerable number of . ontributors, each one of whom has been selected for his special qualifications » his own department. The object which has been carefully kept in view _d ^roughout is to fill a hiatus in the literature relating to horses, by pro- ^^Clng a book of the horse which shall contain information on all the an?^tS ^WllicJl ^are ^constantI7 ^the subject of enquiry among owners of horses, ^ ^c ^at the same time to present this information in a form which will not inTn"^ a previous study of technical or scientific works to render it te ⁶! ^gible ^to ^tne unscientific reader. Not because in this work the _b^acning_s of science are ignored or treated in a slovenly manner, but °^ause the method is here adopted which is happily becoming very general _n °ⁿ§ scientific writers, of using plain words to express ideas, and so losing ⁰ hing of accuracy in regard to the facts of science, while gaining the ^ advantage of leaving no shadow of doubt to obscure the meaning. _c paling of necessity with a multiplicity of subjects, the importance of ^J°ⁿciseness of diction has from the first been recognized, and in arranging

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		INTRODUCTION
XV1U		INTRODUCTION
XV1U

	the plan of the book it was impossible to ignore the fact that many books had already been written on the subjects which it was proposed to treat in a single volume. The subsequent pages indicate that the chief existing works on the horse have been consulted and the value of their teachino-s acknowledged. But the promoters of the present work had before them the constantly - repeated request for a treatise on the horse which should meet the requirements of a large class of readers whose time and patience are limited, and who are not disposed to undertake the task 01 wadino- through a small library of books in order to get the information which they want. In this connection we may recall a story told of an Eastern potentate who determined to acquire something of all the knowledge which was extant. His learned men accordingly made a vast collection of the most advanced works which the world contained. The king, staggered at the sio-ht of the accumulated books, demanded if it were not possible to reduce the contained wisdom of the volumes to a smaller compass. The learned men agreed that it might be done, and the command was given to proceed with the work. Laborious attention to the business before them enabled the philosophers to submit to the monarch a few volumes which they assured him contained an epitome of all that was really true of the sciences in the world. The monarch essayed to study the new tomes, but soon became wearieci. Another command then went forth to prepare one book in which all the knowledge should be represented as far as it was real. This also was done at the king's order with no better result than the issue of a final mandate to the wise men to formulate a single word in which the science of the universe should be expressed. Wisdom was justified of her children in this case at least. In a moment of inspiration the learned men saved their reputations and their lives by giving his majesty the one word "Perhaps!" How perfectly the two short syllables conveyed to the wise men their estimate of the scientific works which they had had to study and condense, only themselves could say. How far the word might be applied to much that has been written since let the masters of modern science tell us if they will, and it remains for the reader to decide how much of the Eastern monarch's craving for the mere results, without the necessity of following the steps in the process, mental or physical, by which they were obtained, still remains in the world. The present authors do not promise to epitomize by the summary method of the Wise Men of the East, but they venture to claim that they have succeeded in compressing a large amount of valuable information within limits which could not be contracted without the omission of facts that could not well be spared.

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			INTRODUCTION

		The history of the horse begins, as seems fitting, with an account of the animal's origin in prehistoric times from ancestors which differed greatly in form and habit from the horse of to-day, but possessed special characters which entitled them to the name of horse-like animals, characters wlncli became more marked age after age until they culminated in the appearance of the horse as it now exists. . , Many collateral subjects had to be considered in connection with tne evolution of the horse�embryology, geology, and palseontology, all had to ^be laid under contribution, so far only, however, as was essential to the argument. In fairness to the reader, who is not asked to believe more than js capable of proof, it was deemed necessary to show that what is called tne "theory of evolution" in reality represents a fact in nature, a process which ^ls always and everywhere going on, and is exhibited in an intelligible form « the development of the ovum in the higher mammalia as in the lowes forms of life. The fossils of what is known as the Tertiary formation Ornish among other things a consistent record of the evolution of the horse, ^Wlth hardly a gap, certainly without one of sufficient extent to lessen the ^al«e of the facts on which naturalists have based their conclusions. As leading _Up to the evidence which geology furnishes, it was essential to ^devote some notice to special organs and parts in the anatomy of the noise °ⁿ account of certain features they present suggesting that tney must at f°ae remote period have existed in a more developed form and possessed ^lmPortant functions which, owing to changes in conditions under which tne Jjunal lives, they have gradually ceased to perform. Among the structures ^tJlat the horse possesses, but for which no present use can be found, tn J¹¹⁰^ conspicuous are the horny growths on the insides of the legs, above tne ^^ees and below the hocks, and also at the back of the fetlock joints. _x^lhese "corns", "callosities", or "chestnuts" and "ergots" as they are ^ax]^ly called, have always attracted attention and excited curiosity, ^and ^ was thought desirable to make a special investigation in reference to ^tlleir structure. The description and the illustrations which are given will _tf^Ve no doubt in the mind of the reader that whatever may have been 7^lr origi_nai function, and whether they occur in the form of distinct iterances (as in the horse) or merely as "bare patches" (as inl the ass;, ^ley are true horn. Whether or not they represent vanished digits (oi _a°?.^s) ^ls a question which is to some extent answered, but the reply leaves "gering doubt in the mind. , , .. , ., **o_m the horse of the remote past, the horse known only by its toss ^emains, to the creature of to-day the change is not very marked, and to the "^Clenti_St, indeed, is hardly perceptible. When we deal with more recent P^eri°4s, the varieties of the horse of historic times, and the first historical

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		_xx INTKODUCTION notice of the animal under some kind of domestication, form an interesting chapter, in which many important facts not unclouded by tradition are introduced to the notice of the reader. In connection with the History of the Horse, our heavy and light breeds, our Shire horses, Clydesdales, Suffolks, and Cleveland bays, our racers, hunters, hacks, and ponies all receive due notice in regard to their origin, specialities of form, and qualities. The chapters dealing with the external points of the horse and the general subject of its conformation, its excellences and its defects, cannot fail to interest the practical horseman. Room for differences of opinion exists in questions of form and quality, as the awards of our judges at exhibitions of live-stock prove; but there are canons to be remembered, to infringe which would bring down thunders of animadversion from the orthodox horseman. Outside these fundamental maxims, however, much liberty is permitted. Every horseman knows something of the standards of form, some know a good deal, and all are concerned to know whatever is to be learned on the subject. Principles of breeding and the management of breeding stock, including the different systems of training for the turf, the chase, and the show-yard, constitute a chapter in our book of the horse which will be read with interest by all lovers of the animal, whatever may be the sphere of work in which it is employed. There is perhaps no enquiry more constantly advanced than that for information regarding the management and training of animals and the diseases to which they are subject, and the stereotyped reply to the enquiry always and truly has been hitherto that there is no single book in which all these matters are dealt with. Stable architecture and stable fittings are also important matters, in regard, for instance, to aspect, means of ventilation, and sanitary arrangements in general. Indeed, such questions cannot be estimated as anything less than vital to the well-beino^- of animals which are confined for a large portion of every day and nio-ht within a box or stall; and even the possessor of a pony is interested in knowing the common details of stable life, of which a large proportion of owners of horses are ignorant, and thus become subservient to their servants. How much fodder, litter, water, air, and exercise a horse requires are points of practice about which no material difference of opinion exists, but the man who does not know is often afraid to ask even of a friend, and must not, for his reputation's sake, enquire of his groom on such elementary matters. All such details are given in the present work. Veterinary hygiene or sanitary science as applied to the horse has a chapter to itself, with the object of bringing to a focus all the scattered rays of knowledge on the subject, which are often too diffused to be of

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		*

	xxi INTRODUCTION

much practical value. Starting with a healthy animal, free from hereditaiy taint sanitary science claims to know how to keep it healthy, and the clam may be admitted to be reasonable. At any rate failure can be shown.tobe due n_0t _t _Qf _kQ _e ^ _of _the _ganitari but to tl e - tence of obstacles which render that knowledge inapplicable; and «e does occur not unfrequently an unsatisfactory combination of surrounding - g ^tnf^ifc ^is ^ �y^to ^see ^ ^t0 ^d0> ^the ^fact c, /ca that it is impossible to do it, . , _Hnn to i]l^gT; ^dealiDS <* the laws of health, forms a natural introduction dablr f ^-^olog^-which relates to the laws of disease An I ,^treatiSe °* «- diseases of the horse has not been aimed , mil' T^¹' tempting an exhaustive description of the many 2^&lf ^Whi<* W-fiesh is heir to, it will be absolutely essential to enter 1 ⁿ!^t0 ^the object that the enquirer may not have to complain o ?»V* information on matters which he rightly looks upon as mo ^Want. An intelligent acquaintance with the principles of P^f ^atllW ^cal^ated to check than to encourage rashness on the part of^the ^an^teur doctor, and such knowledge is certainly not likely to incline Possessor to undervalue the services of the experienced professional man Horses are particularly liable to certain acute affections of the clige »; respiratory organs, and in many cases the success of remedial measu Will depend on the promptitude with which they are applied, bonier ₀must be done in sudden illness of man or beast, and no doubtcan exis f the desirability of using remedies which will be beneficial ^^steaa^1. It would conduce to the interest of the veterinary surgeon.ana > to the well-being of domestic animals, if stock-owners were ^oura Z r? ^a ^8UW^]y* ^of ^suita^ remedies at hand for use in an emergency, "*** of being forced to take refuge in the employment of the numerou »^0st�m_S which are offered, and of the composition of which no one but Proprietor knows anything. ., _to _the � ^Aln°ng the diseases of the horse, those which are traceable to ^Vf^on of _parasites _have _received _a _considerable share of attention. 11 ^Portance cannot well be overrated, whether these creatures occur mtt ? ^of microbes of the disease - producing order, originating specific ^tl0Us Which result in the development of infective material. « » _i°!^e tangible shape of so-called worms occupying the cavities of he body ^af ^c^hig irritation by their mere presence. The whole subject �^arasitism is p_rofoundly interesting, and although it has for many>**» J^een jn absorbing study with many advanced scientists, some, oTwhom ^ devoted their IhJto the solution of the problems which i^presenta ^tllere are numerous mysteries yet to be elucidated in reference to

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		xxii INTRODUCTION origin and development of even some of the most common animal parasites. With the completion of the section treating of diseases of the. horse, the chief object of the work may be said to have been attained, but there remained some collateral subjects on which the reader might reasonably expect to be informed. Among them that of the Law of Warranty in relation to soundness and unsoundness, vices, and patent defects, comes prominently forward. Very few experienced owners have escaped some complications in connection with the purchase and sale of horses, and it was deemed, therefore, advisable to make this chapter as complete and authoritative as possible. Dentition has been treated in special relation to the changes which occur in the teeth at different periods in the life of the horse, and thus afford a fairly correct indication of the animal's age. The subject is an interesting one for the horseman, and at times it is a matter of some importance to be able to judge of a horse's age, especially when the marks to which so much value is attached in early life have been obliterated. The illustrations in this chapter are authentic copies of drawings from nature, excepting a few that show the peculiar changes which occur after the age of ten years up to thirty or later. These drawings were copied from a pamphlet by Mr. Sidney Galvayne, and it will be sufficient to remark that his method of judging the age beyond the period when the ordinary marks are present has been tested for many years and found to be remarkably reliable. Horse-shoes and horse-shoeing form a subject the value of which will not be questioned. It has been exhaustively treated by the writer both ii its ancient and modern aspects, chiefly of course in its regard to the application of shoes to the healthy foot. The methods of shoeing for the cure or amelioration of diseases and defects have not, however, been passed over. An index and a copious glossary have been appended to the work. The last was rendered necessary by the unavoidable introduction of terms in such constant use among scientists that it was inexpedient to omit them, although it has been throughout recognized as a matter of moment that the text should be as free from technicalities as the character of the different subjects would permit. Lastly, it is necessary to refer to the illustrations, which are numerous, and it is believed well calculated to fulfil their object. Some of the mos* important have been drawn especially for this work, and to ensure absolute accuracy advantage has been freely taken of the art of photography, whiel^Jhas recently made such vast strides towards perfection.

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		THE EXTERIOR OE THE HORSE

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	Fig. 1.�Exterior of the Horse: Side View References numbers are used to indicate the same parts throughout this chapter.
(Note.�The same 1 Forehead. 2 Forelock. 3 Ear. 4 Supra-orbit. 5 Eyebrow. 6 Eye. 7 Nose. 8 Nasal Peak. 9 Nostril. 10 Upper Lip. 11 Lower Lip. 12 Chin. 13 Cheek. 14 Temple. 15 Neck. 15' Crest. 16 Withers. 17 Back. 18 Loins.

		19 Croup. 20 Tail. 21 Throat. 22 Cervical G roove. 23 Shoulder. 24 Shoulder Point. 25 Breast. 26 Upper Arm. 27 Elbow. 28 Point of Elbow. 29 Forearm. 30 Chestnut. 31 Knee. 32 Canon. 33 Fetlock-joint. 34 Pastern. 35 Coronet. 36 Foot. 37 Brisket. 38 Chest.
			39 Abdomen. 40 Flank. 41 Testicles. 42 Sheath. 43 Buttock. 44 Point of Buttock. 45 Thigh. 46 Haunch. 47 Stiae. 48 Leg or Gaskin. 49 Hock. 50 Point of Hock. 51 Tendo Achilles or Ham-string. 52 Chestnut. 53 Canon. 54 Fetlock-joint. 55 Pastern. 56 Coronet. 57 Foot.

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		*

	Section I THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE

IVISIONS AND POINTS OF THE HOESE np-i . ^DarQely i _t) °tt ^borse ^may ^1)e primarily divided into three parts, ^fcwo are so di ^ ²' ^the ^Tnmk; ^and ³' ^tlie ^Extremities- ^Thc ^,i,st organs oL ^SP^0sed ^as to form cavities in which are lodged the various ^Tfle head ⁶' ^&S ^the ^brain' ^heart' ^IunS^s» ^or8'^alls ^of digestion, &c. parts anter^°^m ^ndS ^th°^Se P^ortions forming the skull and the face� the body ^ r° ^the ^neCk ^The ^tnmk' ^which* ^makes ^UP ^thc ^cllicf ^bulk ^ofbackwards.^ J.^IV1Slble ^into~ ¹> ^tl)e ^sP^ine> which extends from the head The extr V **' ²' ^tbe ^tborax ^or chest; and 3, the abdomen or belly. (^fore extr" V ? ^movable ^suPPorts of the body. The two in front two heir T/^ ^eXt6nd ^fl'°^m ^the ^top ^of ^the ^shoulders ^t0 ^the ^feet' ^tlie Viewed ^extremities) from the hip-joints to the feet. p.uts _wi � ^ema%> each of these several regions presents a number of names s convenience of desertion are distinguished by special are of' ⁶ ^wmc'h are based on anatomical considerations, while others two side°ⁿT⁰ⁿ °^ligin' ^and ^m°^ie °^r ^leSS ^familiar ^t0 aU horsemen. Of the being _th_e ^ ^b°^dy' ^lt ^k ^usual ^to ^speak ^of ^the ^left ^M ^the " ^near ' "^icle' as the "⁶ff"^e °ⁿ ^Wbicb ^tlie ^rider ^mounts ^and dismounts, and the right , °n side. ^extendrn ^Cf^mm°ⁿ ^WheD ^refen'ⁱⁿ§' ^to ^the ^ox ^to ^sP^eak ^of ^the ^uPP^er P^artexpressi ^S � ^m ^ ^he&d ^t0 ^the ^tail ^M ^the " ^tol^>Iilie "> ^and ^tlie ^same (iuT'i '^S "^0t ^infre1^uen% employed in the case of the horse. We ha ° f^D^ ^a* ^tbe ^extei'ior °f tl^ie l^10rse the primary divisions to which and W_t � "^ ^become ^at ^oncc obvious. The subdivisions�their extent �Will °^nS' ^toS^etherwith the surface markings and characters of each _SUp _Iieiⁿ°^W ^be considered in some detail. The information to be here branch f°i7 ^ ^re8'^arcled as essential and complemental to that higher confo � ° � ^Ke ^knowl^ecl^s?^e presently to be considered under the head of ^a ion. Each of the primary divisions is capable of being broken

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THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE

up into subordinate parts. These have been classified and arranged in the
following description, and the subdivisions are mapped out and indicated
m the figures which accompany it.

1. THE HEAD

The head is suspended from the neck, to which it is united by a number
of muscles, as well as by a long elastic ligament attached to the cervical
vertebrae and extending backward to the withers. Its bony base is united
with the first bone of the snine by a free-moving joint

Pig. 2.-The Head : Side Vie.

3 Ears. ⁴ Supra-orbit ⁵ F 1, ^^■■I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
¹¹ Lower Lip. "Chin Mn,!v !'» ^ye' ^? ^Nose- ⁸ Nasal Peak. 9 Nostril. «Upper Lip.
^leeK- Lemrjle. « k��u ₂, m,-----, ,0

'Temple. «Neck. 21 Throat. 22 Cervical Groove.

th^lt \ ^V7T ^conside^tion two extremities (the superior and

lost rio or^l 1 T^rfaCeS' ^distin§-hed as the anterior or front, the
postenoi or back, and the right and left lateral surfaces.

SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE HEAD

This region campises-l, the poll; and 2, the throat.

It ocnmiH u ^P°^U ^0r "^aP^e ^is ^the ^hiS^hest Point of the head.

ri_drSL tl ^SPaCe ^tW6en ^the ^6arS- ^In ^fron" * ^is lifted by a bony

Belfind i7 ^§ ^thf,^BUmmit ^0f ^the forehead, and termed the occipital crest.

th neck Tl⁸ ft ?f^6n0r ^6Xtremit^ ^0f ^the ^C�1 ^ or upper line of
neck. A tuft of hair, the forelock, falls from this point over the fore-

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THE HEAD
^head, and

insects^ j⁸⁶� ^to protect the eyes from the sun's rays, as well as from

^Tjie Throat.

foreign «,*«», '

reign matter.

^tlle lo\v_e^inr°^at* ^TJle ^tiiroat ^is ^tflat P^art occupying the angle between
comprised th* ^ ^ ^neck' ^ ^extends ^uP^warcis towards the ear, and
^0r recent ^e/^ar^^nx or upper part of the windpipe, and the pharynx
hardly t +J? ^mt° ^Wfi^^cn ^^ie f°°d passes before being swallowed. Out-
^uu organ i^leS6' ^and beneath ^tlie ^skin °" either side, is the parotid gland,
^and ves ]^V ^10Se ^nct*^on i* *^s to secrete saliva. Many important nerves
' ^seis are also situated about the throat.

INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE HEAD
Tl ^-
;""^! l»arf^Cgl°ⁿ ^comP^rises�!j the lips; and 2, the mouth, with the organs

contained in it

■me r *

Where t] ^^le ^P^s ^are P^ced ^at the lowermost part of the head,

'he low � ^^Ua ^he entrance to the mouth. The upper lip unites with

mi.s.surp I ^above the chin, where together they form the angles or com-

;111 < 1 ]_ow mouth. They are loosely attached to the bones of the upper

⁸uitab] � r ^WS ^resP^e0tively, and by the aid of a number of muscles

to the ^sP^oseo-. are capable not only of opening and closing the entrance

ifldfWi ^U * ^a^^so °f seizins; the food in the act of feeding. They are

-The _UD prehension, and may be regarded as hands to the mouth.

than tli i °^ne ^1S ^tne ^more voluminous, and has a greater range of action
. ^le lower ou _e.

These ar ^ °^ ^^0l)^ ^coarse hairs are scattered over the outer surface.

'"'^,'^u ter ^nne°ted by their roots with nerves of sensation, hence they have

t° clip _ri teelers". It is a common practice among grooms and dealers

ance. ¹ ^ln o^er to give the head a clean and more refined appear-

" Tl
^0rgan ₀f ^' ^tne nostril, the eye, and the ear, is a most remarkable

^reclined ^X*f"^ess*^on- When it is curled up, relaxed, lowered, elevated, or
^hen w_e^We ^S° ^many ^variations which affect the whole pi rysiognonrj.

Pleasure j- ^tlle ^exP^ressiori ^of the horse under the influence of pain, fear,
°r bite '� ¹ ^C;^lstress>" ^Wflen we observe his attitude as he attempts to snatch
certain d" ^ ^or ^one of his companions; when we observe the lips in

*he _ttai,'^S6ases; ^when we translate the language of the stallion as he scents
^Se° how ' / ^animai ^as he passes through the death agonies, then can we
-~~Gni,h ^perfect the expression is and how it varies in each circumstance."
�°°�x and Barrier.

^tne nostr'l ^6r ^extrem^y °f the head, from a line drawn across the face above
^s and angle of the mouth, is commonly spoken of as the muzzle.

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6 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE The Mouth.�The mouth is an elongated cavity situated between the upper and lower jaws. Below it is limited by the lips, laterally by the cheeks, while above it communicates with the cavity of the throat (pharynx). When the mouth is opened the parts exposed are�1, the teeth; 2, the tongue; 3, the bars; 4, the frcenum. The Teeth.�The front teeth, of which there are six in each jaw, are distinguished as incisor teeth. Beyond these, in the male animal, are four canine teeth, one on each side above and below. In the mare these are absent. Still farther back will be seen the molar or large teeth, or, as they are commonly termed, grinders, of which there are twenty-four, arranged in rows of six, right and left of each jaw. The eruption of the teeth and the changes which they undergo serve to indicate the age. (See Dentition.) The Tongue.�The tongue is the soft fleshy organ filling up the channel of the mouth. The anterior part is free and capable of being protruded, while the posterior portion is fixed to the lower jaw. Behind, it is connected with a bone (os hyoides) having several joints, so arranged that the organ may be freely extended and retracted. It is acted upon by five pairs of muscles, by which it is capable of being moved in every direction.

	Fig. 3.�Portion of Lower Jaw, showing Tongue, &c. B, Cireumvallate Papilla?. C, Fungiform Papilte. D, Tongue. E, " Bar" or Interdental Space. 1, Canine Tooth. 3, Lateral Ineisor. 2, Corner Incisor. 4, Central Incisor.
			Endowed with a high degree of sensibility and mobility, it plays an important part in the function of mastication and deglutition. The Bars.�The bars are represented by

		that small section of the lower jaw situated � -, j ., ^m ^the ^male between the canine teeth and the grinders. In the mare, where rtp f�.� i . � i ? � � �,. .. -, . , �.' ^ere �^e former are absent, the space is larger, being limited m front bv the on�₀₁. ;� ■ _mi , ;, ,i ■ ° ... , ^y ^ine ^C0lner incisors. The bars are covered by a hm sensitive membrane, on which the bit rests, and are frequently the Trtion 77 ^m ^V ^&Kl °^ften ^reSultig ⁱⁿ ^dea^ -nd sloughing of a portion ot the law-bone Thw* -�, �'<»., ^& L edge of the bone\ IITV" 1 " ^^ ^anim"^ls' '" H condition the pres^of thtolt "Z "T �^M ^ » T2 +W ir. rT.₀ i�f+* j ., ! ° ⁿ ^the P^art ^ls ^more severe in its effects measure ZeTl * ^^ ^b ^ "^mo^^s" <*� '* * ^a M riZ the h T "f- /^S ^the ^reSult ^0f ^bad breaking and unskilful riding the bars frequently become callous, and the natural sensitiveness

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THE HEAD

ier

destro^d ^the ^tractabilit3⁷ ^of the horse depends is blunted, or altogetl

ThP ^m ^Wllicl1 ^CHSC ^the ^animal ^is rendered difficult to control.

Pale ■ *^e'�^Tne palate consists of a thick membrane of a whitish or

larger ^^ ^COVerin8' the roof of the mouth. The front, and by far the

derTse ^P°^rtl0n' ^ls ^knovvn as the hard palate (fig. 5), in consequence of the

a lire of the tissues composing it. Here it presents a number of

Fig\ 4.�Examination of the Mouth

!>^_Se rid

a, Tongue; J, froenum; cc, openings of the salivary ducts: d, teeth.

along th°^C ^X �^es' ^8eparated from each other by shallow grooves, and divided
^foi>Ward aiT-^ ^line ^bj ^a ^long^itudmal furrow. The ridges are arched
behind _a l ^ . ^aCt °^ ^^eeciiⁿg assist in keeping the food in the mouth.
^0rdinary ^nC ^COntlnuous with the hard palate, but beyond the reach of

That port^eCti°ⁿ; ^is ^the ^S°fi P^alate-
fr^Uentlv h ¹⁰ⁿ ^tbe ^^ar<^ P^a^^ate immediately behind the incisor teeth
the period �^C°^mes ^sw°Uen and painful in young horses especially during
from «j ° *^ne second dentition, when the animal is said to be suffering

The' Pr^>aS "' ^^See ^Diseases of the Mouth.)
^is ''^l loose _t]^CenUm (%■ 4).�The froenum, or anterior pillar of the tongue,
surface ₀f <■}, °^ ^P *"⁰^ ^0I* ^mucous membrane extending from the under
⁵ tongue to the lower jaw. It unites the two parts, and

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₈ THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE

while allowing ample liberty to the tongue it restricts in some measure
the range of its action.

ANTERIOR SURFACE OF THE HEAD

This division of the head comprises�1, the forehead; 2, the nose; and
3, its two orifices or nostrils.

The Forehead.�The forehead forms the upper part of the head
in front, extending from the poll and ears, down to a line drawn

Fig. 5.�Median Section through a Horse's Head, showing Soft Parts

j, Inferior Turbinated Bone. K, Body of Lower Jaw.

L, Hard Palate, showing Transverse Ridges m ac

M, Tongue. O, Section through Hyoid Bone.

P, Soft Palate. Q, Epiglottis.

R, Opening of the Eustachian Tube into the » J -

s, Cartilaginous Rings forming the Trachea or Windpip .

T, Qisophagus or Gullet.

A, Lamellar Portion of Ligamentum Nucha;.

B, Funicular Portion of Ligamentum Nuchse.

c, Brain in Section. D, Spinal Cord. E, Frontal Sinus.

F, Anterior Meatus "j

G, Middle Meatus V of Nose.
H, Posterior Meatus J

I Superior or Maxillary Turbinated Bone.

On either
hollow

across the face between the inner corners of the eyes,

side it is limited by the ear, the temple, the supra-orbit or
of the eye", the orbital ridge, and the eye itself. The upper portion
forms the vault of the cranium, and encloses the brain; the lower form
the front wall of two hollow cavities termed the "frontal sinuses". Hig
up it is somewhat rounded, being covered by two fleshy muscles,
lower part is protected only by skin. The forehead is partly covered t>y
the "forelock", to which reference has already been made. The forehea

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THE HEAD

not

_Saiu . � *~*«* mm size in airrerent anima

strik' ^m"^m ^at ^different periods of life. In the young it presents a
g prominence, but it becomes less marked as the animal -tows older.

^and ^as the frontal

m, . �- sinuses open out and their bony walls expand.

_of J^e Nose.-

-The nose forms the greater portion of the lower division

�_ i " ^10ut °f the face. It is formed by the union of a number of bones,

Plat -⁸ ^0I" two elongated cavities separated from each other by a thick

_0r ! ° ''^ai'tdage (septum nasi) and communicating behind with the larynx

j_iS ], ! P^art ^0I* the windpipe, and also with the pharynx, or throat. It
foreh?. i ^^ ^exP^anded, where it joins the

down ^U ' ^ Squally narrows as it proceeds

__,^r ⁽� tt ends in two crescentic openings

mine ⁿ°'^Stl'^ils' between which is a slight pro-

limiterM ^tllC "^MSal ^peak"' ^LateraUv ^ifc ^is

the ^ ^v the eyes and cheeks. The form of

t₀ ^0se' like that of the forehead, is subject

"ariatirm

with age

The bones on either

of +i ^2t' "^lto ^which are implanted the fangs
^tJle molar

■

descend

teeth, subside as the latter

_a ^l' 8^lvmg to the face a sharp angular

' ^,lUce' ^and to the nose increased promi-
nence Tl ■ i
in n ^cnaracteristic is especially marked

fro ⁽ ^ses' ^an(i serves to distinguish them

n» more youthful specimens.

itte Nostrils. �The nostrils are two

_ext, ^nt"^shaped openings situated at the lower

tral ^6mity °^f ^the ^head' ^riS^ht ^and ^leffc ^of ^a ^cen"
,_||(' Prominence, designated the "tip" of the

Fig. 6.�The Head: Front \

¹ Forehead. ''Poll. 'Forelock.

³ Ear. ⁴ Siipra-orbit.

' Eye. 'No ' N«

"Nostril. ^I0 Ppper Lip.

nmn °^r ^the "^nasal P^eak"- ^They ^com"

icate with the right and left nasal passages respectively, along wind,

_que ^air ^enters and leaves the lungs in the act of breathing. In conse-
«l"^Ce ^of the long and pendulous condition of the soft palate (fig. 5), which
tal- ⁸ °^ff ^the ^mouth ^from the windpipe, respiration in the horse can only
whi\^PlaCe ^throuS^h the nostrils. These orifices and the passages into
^leh they foad are very capacious. Around the former are scattered
^ewlong coarse hairs, the roots of which are connected with nerves of
_fr ^Satl0u- Like the hairs of the lips, they play the part of " feelers ". It
_0r "^Uen% happens, however, in our better-bred horses, that these tactile
_0pg^D8 ^are removed as a part of the equine toilet. If the nostrils be
termd ^^g' ^ ^by ^drawing ^aP^art their edges, or, as they are technically
^edj ^ala3, with the thumb and finger, there will be found, in addition

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THE EXTERIOR OE THE HORSE

to the respiratory passages, a short blind pouch or «d-de-MO .in
formed by an inflection or in-folding of the common integument,01 b
This is placed outwardly and somewhat above the mam channel, and
tmguished as the "false nostril". Its use is not well understood, but it wo

appear to be the remains 01
an organ once essential in the
economy of the primitive horse,
but now probably of little phy-
siological importance. At the
time this observation is being
made, an opening, about the
diameter of a hemp - seed
(c, fig. 7), may be noticed at
the point of junction oi tne
infolded skin and the mucous
membrane. This is the orifice
by which the tears or super-
fluous moisture escapes from

___________________________________

Fig. i.�Examination of the "Nostril
True Nostril. b, "False Nostril. c, Nasal Duct.

the eyes, from which it i^s

I carried by along narrow tube

termed the nasal duct. When
seen for the first time it has been regarded by some as an ulcer, an
have on two or three occasions been consulted as to its treatment.

LATERAL SURFACES OE THE HEAD

The lateral surfaces, or sides of the head, are distinguished as ng
and left. They are symmetrical, and the parts presented for consider
tion are the same in each. Commencing from the top, we have -1,
external ear; 2, the temple; 3, the supra-orbit; 4, the orbital-ridge,
5, the eye; 6, the cheek.

The External Ear.�The ear is situated on the lateral aspect ot
the poll, on the outer side of the forehead, and above the temple. It ^lSformed by a plate of cartilage or gristle invested by a covering of skin,
and rests on a cushion of soft fat. It is acted upon by no fewer than
twenty muscles, so arranged as to enable it to move in any direction i
quest of sound. Internally it is covered with long soft hairs, which serve
to prevent the entrance of insects and other foreign matter.

The Temple (fig. 2).�The temple occupies a space on the side of the
head immediately beneath the ear and on the site of the articulation o
the lower jaw. In front it has the supra-orbit, or hollow of the eye,

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THE HEAD

ehind, the parotid gland; and below, the cheek This region Mi uap_^
lot ^n0t °^nl^ ^because ^ embraces within its area the joint by w
air ^JW .^is ^llinS^ed ^ to the head, but also on account of the temj
Z^V ^Wlllch ^crosses it near to the surface. ,._n,_imled space

S_Upra._orbit _(fi _SUp_ra-orbit is a somewhat round

J^ted above the eye and' between the forehead in front and the^ ,
^ It contains a mass of soft loose fat, which in the jo ng - ^

the f,!r^ndant' ^and 1^tiite> ^or ^nea1^' ^fiUs "P ^th\f ^1 rn old animals a

_de ^Jatty matter becomes less and less considerable, until

^eP hollow appears, known as the " hollow of the eye . ^^ _tQ

j-o a certain extent this change in the fulness of the ca j ^

J^tlnguish an old from a young animal, but it cannot be a

large

Sea" ^timeS ^reliable- ^In �7 P°°^r ^C°^ltS ^the ^

_ex ^^Ure absorbed, in which case an ^*

p_ar,^e^^si0n of advanced age is im-

dj_s ^to the face. This, however,

rec₀ ^S ^again ^as ^soon ^as ^tlie ^ll0rse° ^rs^his condition.

.(fig ₂*;^bital" arch or Eyebrow

mj ' >'~ The orbital-arch is the pro-
_Spai^6nt descent-shaped ridge which
the¹^ ^the ^Upper ^SUI'face of the globe of

^ms the anterior limit

b_aso ^ ^UUilow of the eye, and is the
aent of the upper eyelid.

The Eye.

�The eye occupies a

d_e

foreh ^CaVity ⁰ⁿ ^the ^side °^f ^th<3

areh ^ ^and ^beneath ^tlie ^orbital-
^cUrt'^- ^ P^rotected by two movable
a_Q(j ^f⁸: ^tne upper and lower eyefock

_Kff ₈-Examination of («) the Haw

only appended lashes, which not

place^86rVe ^t0 ^protect ^from ^and to dis-

io' into it-

^uPon t\^f°^reign ^matter ^tliat ^maJ ^faU , t of lio-ht passing

Th_e ^Ut ^also ^assist ⁱⁿ regulating the amount oi ng ^__^ _g _dense

opan¹^ visible in ordinary observation of this ^orf _tra] _fcrans-

PaJT ^membrane, the sclerotic or "white of the eye , >, _front;

w lT ^rane, the « These form the - ^ ^brane. the
^^^ich may be noticed 3, a yellowish-browii ovcdj^ _rf _theital, ^nClrcling a clear dark space, 4, the 2^_; ^ _d _the meW-

Cl^C°^rner ^of ^e eye reveals a flat fleshy-looking body term ^

** mrtfeww, or, commonly, the third eyelid or haw ( g

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		THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE

ran is composed of a thin piece of cartilage covered with mucous mem- ■me. It is capable of being projected over the surface of the eye ana oy i thin edge may be made to sweep away any foreign matter that may. jcidentaUy fall upon it. Deep pressure applied to the upper lid with the Qger, as shown in fig. 8, will cause the haw to protrude. The Cheeks.�The cheeks form the greater portion of the side of he face. They extend from the temples and throat above to the angles >f the mouth below. In front they reach to a vertical line drawn down- ward from the outer corner of the eye to the nostrils, and behind extend alone the posterior edge of the lower jaw. The upper part of the cheek is broad and fiat, and corresponds to the expanded portion of the lower jaw- bone. The inferior portion is narrower, loose in its arrangement, and more distensible. In the groove dividing the two parts are lodged the mam blood-vessels of the face, as well as the duct of the parotid gland by which saliva is carried to the mouth.

			POSTERIOR SURFACE OE THE HEAD

	The posterior surface of the head embraces the intermaxillary space, the chin, and the chin groove. Intermaxillary Space. � The intermaxillary space is enclosed within the two branches of the lower jaw, which bound it laterally- Above and below it is limited by the throat and chin respectively, ft corresponds to the under surface of the tongue, and gives lodgment to the submaxillary lymphatic glands. The latter, which lie on the inner side of the broad portion of the jaw-bone immediately beneath the skin, are specially interesting to the horseman on account of the enlargement they undergo in glanders, strangles, nasal gleet, and other diseases affecting the nostrils. The Chin (fig. 2).�The chin is the prominence situated above and behind the lower lip, and the chin groove appears as a transverse depression above it. 2. UPPER ASPECT OE THE BODY�TOP-LINE The Neck.�The neck comprises the cervical portion of the spine, and the muscles attached thereto, as well as a broad elastic ligament running through the centre of its entire length. In front it supports the head, where it concurs to form the poll, and lower down is united to the throat. Behind, the neck joins on to the shoulders, the withers, and the breast. The superior arched border constitutes the cervical crest (fig. l), the curve of which varies in different races of horses, and in different members of the same race. In stallions it is specially marked in all breeds.

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UPPEE ASPECT OF THE BODY�TOP-LINE

The inferior border of the neck is rounded, and encloses the ami J> p
trachea (fi_g. 5). A little higher, on the side, may be noticed » W^^
groove (fig. ₂) running from the throat downward. This is ^tlie ^

of the neck" or cervical groove, along which runs the jugulm
^deeper still, the carotid artery. . _inl,_fioll of

_rt The Withers.-The withers comprise that prominent po ^^
^the spine placed between the neck and the back, and supports

Three-quarter Back View

is Chin-
ii (lervioal

3i Knee.

4ii plank'

49 Hock.
M Pastern.

11 Lower LiP'
so Tail-

Fig. 9.�Exterior of the Horse ^^^^^^^^^^
7 Nose. Nostril. .""W^

''Poll.

'Ear.

Eye¹⁵' C

17 Back. ¹⁸L°^ins- ^Cl ^P 30 Chestnut

2<s Upper Arm. " ^F

39 Abdomen

■" Shoulder.

36 Foot.

²⁴ Shoulder Point.

38 Chest

48 Leg or Cask in-
54 Fetlock-joint.

⁴³so

'B_u

, "³ Fetloek-joint. ³* Pastern. » Coronet.
k. 44 p_oinf. _nf _Hl,_twt 45Thie'h. « Haunch.

' Stifle.
53 Canon.

^______________________________ 82 Chestnut.

⁵⁶ Oor~.°* � ^S1 ^Tendo Achilles or Ham-string.

"^ide V the upper extremity of the shoulders. -It is ^Ih^second to
Projecting _spini _of _the _dorsai _Vertebra, numbering from

^the sixth, or seventh, and the muscles in connection w ^ ^

later

this

it tho l^i^ �# fl,₀ Wse is taken, and, as

point the height of the horse is

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	14 � THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE

on, it is a part to which great importance is attached in the matter of conformation. The Back.�The back, as understood by horsemen, is an arbitrary division of the part properly so called, and extends from the slope of the withers in front to the last rib behind, where it is connected with

		Fig. 10._Exterior of the Horse: Three-quarter Front View 1 Forehead. " Poll. 3 Ear. 7 Nose s w it., "Cheek. "Neck. «Withers 17 Back �??"■ °^NostriL ^lu Upper Lip. n Lower Lip. 23 Shoulder. »ShoulderPoint. ^M Breast 9 _P \ Croup. ²¹ Throat. � Cervical Groove. joint. -Partem. 35* _Coronet. ₃₆^ J?T�- ³⁰ Chestnut. - _Knee. ₃₂ _Canon. ₃₃ _Fetlock. « Haunch. - Leg or Gaskin. =» Point of Hock i"^ * ^Abdomen- ⁴° ^Flank- " ^Sheath' * �^^h- so Coronet. » Foot. Chestnut. =3 Canon. «Fetlock-joint. ⁵⁵ Pastern.

			the loins. It extends over and embraces about eleven of the eighteen dorsal_ vertebne, as well as the arches of the corresponding ribs. The back is largely made up of muscles of various forms and lengths, some of which extend from the haunch behind to the neck in front The Loms.--The loins, like the withers and the back, have their anatomical base m the spine, and extend from the last dorsal vertebra

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			*i

	POSTERIOE EXTREMITY J;^efo^ to the croup and haunch, with which they unite behind^ J °nes which enter into its formation are usually six m ^^ ^^e7 differ in their skeletal relations from those of the bacK ^ ^ Wing no- ribs connected with them. On either side ^e«w this region is the flank. _uarters situated , A he Croup.�The croup is the uppermost part of tne q ^Detween the loins and the tail. Below on either side it join ^ ^^d «P_Per part of the buttocks. The haunch-bones ^^ _are.-,^ClUm ^ln forming the basement structure of this ^veS^lon> _Qf _t]lt,,_t.. _s^^ated a number of large important muscles of locomotum- _rs IT ^are ^eiW* * the movements of the hind ^�"* ^ dff"^POn ^the *«■ The form, length, and widt ho ft he croup ^ ¹ f^nt animals. In the mare, during the later stages of p e > W¹? °^f this part become depressed, or sink downward ep �?* the root of the tail. This is generally described as a ^ /^haunch-bones" or "falling of the hips". It resultho* ^ ^ some ⁿ ^and ^^ieldinS ^of ^the ^broad ^liS^ameDtS ^of the muscles rest. miarter commonly «Dnt ^Point °f ^the launch is a division of tne q _the <?* of _as _tl^ ,. _int _of _the hip". It is situated m to ^ °^UP' behind and below the loins, and in proximity witbj ^ ^^ bon_e ?^rmed ^by ^tlie P^r°J^ecting ^outer ^a_f^ngle l^ally liable to injury _f � Owing to its prominence, this part is specie y ^ ^ ^ frem ^Cible ^contact with doorways, and m slipping t' _lace. ^ly _suffers _b _contact _with the ground. Future an ^ P ^ bio ^the ^bone ^a^^e ^of ^fre(l^uent ^occurrence' ^and ^8 Wn as "down at the hip".

		3. POSTERIOR EXTREMITY

_c, ^e Tail.-The tail consists of from twelve to fiftfⁿ^^'_eI of skin _e ^m ^l0nS ^taP^erinS ^muscleS' ^and ^theS%^are Tn^s continuous with, covered with long hairs. It emerges from, ana i and "b ^md ^C°^lumn- ⁰ⁿ ^either ^side ^itS ^baSe ^iS ^ el_ow _with _the _anugj _which _it _covers. intestinal canal ! ^Anus'-The anus is the terminal extremity <^ ^ ^ .^ em»\ '^0Ugb ^which the excrement leaves the body. _1);iir. C? ' i* * -tuated beneath the tail, and below it a J _foy _a^eS_c⁸. ^le«gth of _skin termed the Perineum. The anus »surr _rf cont, ^ar ^muscIe termed the ^w^r ^»», whicn, ' _Jd _animal_s, °^ntractu_lg, prevents the involuntary escape of the faeces. In

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		THE EXTEEIOR OP THE HOUSE
	1G	THE EXTEEIOR OP THE HOUSE

and in those weakened by disease and poverty, the power of this muscle is enfeebled, and the orifice becomes relaxed and loses its full power of control. In paralysis of the anus the faeces are allowed to escape from the bowel involuntarily. This condition is usually associated with paralysis of the tail. The Perineum.�The perineum is the hairless region which in the male extends from the anus to the scrotum, or purse. In the female it is short, and limited below by the vulva. It is bounded on either side by the thighs and buttocks. 4. ANTERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BODY The Breast.�The breast is situated at the lower extremity of the neck, and in front of the chest, supported on either side by the arms. In some horses it is fleshy and rounded, in others sharp and prominent. Its basement structure is formed by the sternum or breast-bone. 5. THE LATERAL AND INFERIOR REGION The Brisket.�The brisket is a prolongation of the breast backward, between the fore-limbs and along the inferior face of the trunk, where it forms the floor of the chest. Behind the elbows it corresponds to the '" girth-place ". The Chest.�The chest is a spacious cavity occupying the anterior third of the trunk, and containing within it the lungs, the heart, and the great vessels proceeding to and from them, as well as the oesophagus, a portion of the trachea, and some important nerves. The withers and back form together its upper boundary. Outwardly on either side it is limited by the ribs, to which in front are connected the shoulder and the arm. The floor is formed by the sternum or breast- bone, and parts in relation with it, while in front and behind it is bounded by the neck and the abdomen respectively, and separated from the latter by the diaphragm or midriff. The Abdomen.�The abdomen embraces all that region comprising the inferior and lateral parts of the trunk between the chest in front and the sheath and groin behind, or, in the female, the groin and the mammary gland. It encloses the organs of digestion, urination, and generation, and other accessory parts. Its outer and inferior walls are made up of super- imposed layers of broad expanded muscles and their tendons, which are braced up by a sheet of elastic tissue that spreads over the under surface of the belly immediately beneath the skin. Within is a more or less thick layer of fat. ^J Vol. i.

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			EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS ¹⁷

		Behind, between the thighs, the abdomen presents two oval openings (external abdominal rings) through which the testicles descend into the scrotum, and remain suspended by means of the spermatic cords. In ^e fetus a third opening (umbilicus) is observed in advance of the sheath. This is commonly termed the navel opening, and gives passage to blood-vessels by which the foetus is brought into relation with the ^da* through the medium of the foetal membranes. After birth the navel-string sloughs away and the umbilical opening closes. The Flank.-The flank is a portion of the wall of the abdomen extending f_rom _tlle _lumbar _spine downward, between the last rib in «°at, and the haunch, thigh, and stifle-joint behind. Below, it is con- ^tmuo^ with the floor of the belly. Above, the flank presents a tn- ^^ula* depression immediately beneath the loins. This is commonly ^tCT7^d the «l_lollow _Qf _the _fl/_nk». ⁿ ^kne_ss the flank frequently serves as a guide to the existence °. disease. _In _certain _conditlons _of ^health it becomes "tucked up b_rea^^teUded' while in others it affords an indication of the rate of _T,^m§ V its alternate rising and falling. ihe Groin.^The groin is the space situated right and left ot the _t^es c e_s in the male and of the mammary gland in the female. Outwardly ^]t ^ls bounded by the inner and upper part of the thigh. The skin eover- ^ ^this part is comparatively thin and supple, and covered with tine T* ^Xt ^ also abundantly furnished with small glands that throw out ;^U1 ^Unctuous secretion for the lubrication of the parts. Enlargements some- ₍,"^m'^s ^aPPear in this region from swelling of the lymphatic glands, or as a Cr^iUenCe of rupture, and in geldings as the result of disease of the ^lniati_c cord�schirrus cord. 6. EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS HALE in t^⁶ ^Testides (fig. 1).�The testicles are two ovoid glands situated ^the _8pace _between _tte _tMglls_ _They _are _enci_0Sed in a pouch of skin, ¹⁰ scrotum, commonly spoken of as the "purse", and separated from other by _a membranous partition. They appear in the purse at J' but soon disappear, to descend again about the tenth month. * left one is generally somewhat lower than the right. In some ^tances the testicles fail from various causes to reach the scrotum, or eh/ ^one ^of ^them ^may "^come ^down"' ⁱⁿ ^wllicl1 ^case ^they ^are ^f°v is It¹ ^m ^tlle ^cavity ^of the belly or in the inguinal canal. When this ^he ease the animal is called a crypt orchid, or more commonly a Vol. T 2

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		THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE
	18	THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE
	18

"rig" or ridgeling. In geldings the under surface of the scrotum is marked by a depressed scar on either side of the middle line, resulting from the operation of castration. The Sheath (fig. 1).�The sheath is a loose portion of infolded skin arranged in the form of a recess, into which the penis is retracted. The infolded portion of integument is thin, supple, and devoid of hairs, but largely supplied with sebaceous glands, which secrete an unctuous matter for the lubrication of the penis. FEMALE The Vulva.�The vulva is the genito-urinary orifice of the female. It is an elongated, vertical opening, placed below the anus. On either side of it are two folds of skin and mucous membrane, termed ■ the labia or lips. When these are separated, a small globular organ is seen lodged in a fold of mucous membrane at the lower part of the orifice; this is the clitoris. During the period of heat, or sestrum, the labia, swollen and sensitive, are repeatedly opened and closed, and the clitoris becomes momentarily exposed and projected backward. 7. FORE EXTREMITY The anterior limb or fore extremity extends from the withers above to the foot below; it is united to the trunk by muscles extending along the back, up the neck, and on to the walls of the chest and breast. It presents for consideration a number of regions, as well as parts and divisions of more or less importance. The regions of the front member comprise the shoulder, the arm, the forearm, the elbow, the knee, the canon,. the fetlock, the pastern, the coronet, and the foot, to which must be added the ergot. The Shoulder.�The shoulder is situated on the lateral aspect of the chest, and forms the chief point of attachment of the fore-limb to the trunk. In front it follows the line of the posterior extremity of the neck, with which it unites. Behind, it is limited by a more or less prominent muscular ridge extending down to the elbow. Above, it reaches as high as the withers, and custom has fixed its lower limits at the elbow. It must, however, be pointed out that what is commonly spoken of as the shoulder embraces also the upper arm, and as these two parts are intimately related and show no lines of demarcation, they may for con" venience of description continue to be classed together. Shoulder Point (fig. 1).�The shoulder point, as it is erroneously termed, is the angular prominence corresponding to the shoulder-joint.

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FORE EXTREMITY

As a matter of fact it is not formed by the shoulder, but by the arm,
and would be more appropriately designated the point of the arm.

The Elbow.-Tke elbow marks the point of union of the arm above
with the forearm below. The point of the elbow is the summit ot tne
Ulna or smaller of the two arm bones. From the prominence of this par
it stands exposed to injury, especially when the feet are allowed to grow
long or the heels of the fore-shoes are made to project beyond them, ti
result being an inflammatory swell-
ing termed capped elbow.

The Forearm.�The forearm
extends from the elbow-joint to the
knee. It is invested by muscles,
which act upon the bones below,
some carrying them forward (exten-
sors), others bending them back-
wards (flexors). The forearm com-
prises two bones, the radius and the
ulna. The point of the elbow, as
already explained, is formed by the
superior extremity of the latter.

The Chestnuts or Castors.�

The chestnuts or castors are small
homy excrescences of an ovoid or
elliptical form, situated on the inner

,^e\\

surface of the arm a little

way

above the knee. They vary in size in

Fig 11.�Bones of Left Foreleg
_A) Scapula or Shoulder B,ade. B, *»«-

Arm Bone. 0, Ulna. B, Kadius.

Bones, forming the Knee.

different breeds, and to a less extent

^ln Afferent animals of the same

breed. I_n coarsely-bred Cart-horses

they reach their greatest dimensions,

^;,,1'1 sometimes grow outward like veritable horns, in which case they

are usually removed by the smith. The chestnuts are probably the re-

^mains of a vanished hoof, which in the ancient horse invested a digit

corresponding to the thumb of man.

The Knee.�The knee of the horse corresponds to the wrist of man. It
^ls formed by two rows of small bones, which rest upon the metacarpal bones
^lu'^low, and give support to the forearm above. The upper row comprises
^four bones, and the lower one three. It is a joint of many parts, but al-
though complex in its structure its action is limited to the movements of
flexion and extension. Passing over it before and behind are some large
tendons, which are attached to the bones below and bring them into action.

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THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE

-The region between the knee and the fetlock-joint is
It comprises three bones, together with several import-
ant tendons and liga-
ments. The bones
consist of the large
metacarpal, or canon
bone, and the two
small metacarpal, or
splint bones. The
canon bone occupies
the central position,
and imparts to the
front of the limb
its natural roundness.
The splint bones are
placed one on each
side, and somewhat
towards the back of
the limb. They are
united with the large
metacarpal bone by
short ligaments, which
in adult animals be-
come transformed into
bone, and then form
a permanent bond of
union between them.
The splint bones are
very important, from the

The Canon.-

cermed the canon.

Fig. 12. �Principal Te

2. Outer Side View.

1. Front View.

A, Extensor Metacarpi Obliquus.

B, Extensor Metacarpi Magnus.

C, Annular Ligament.

D, Extensor Pedis.

E, Extensor Suffraginis.
G, Outer Branch of Suspensory

Ligament.

fact of their being the
seat of bony excrescences
termed " splints", which
often produce severe and
protracted lameness. Situ-

A, Extensor Metacarpi Obliquus.

B, Extensor Metacarpi Magnus,
c, Annular Ligament.

D, Extensor Pedis.

E, Extensor Suffraginis.

F, Outer Small Metacarpal or Splint

Bone.

G, Outer Branch of the Suspensory

Ligament.
H, Flexor Pedis Perforates.
I, Subcarpal Ligament.
J, Flexor Pedis Perforans.
K, Suspensory Ligament.

ated in front of the large
canon bone are the great
extensor tendons of the
phalanges, and behind it,

in the order named, are:
the suspensory ligament; the subcarpal ligament; the tendon of the flexor
pedis perforans; and the tendon of the flexor pedis perforatus (fig. 12).

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FORE EXTREMITY

There are no active muscles in this region, but diminutive remains of
them are to be found, which, in the far-off ancestors of the horse with
their several toes, were muscles of considerable size and importance.

The Fetlock.�The fetlock is situated between the canon bone above
and the pastern below. Its bony base re-
sults from the union of the large metacarpal
bone with the first phalanx, or large pastern
hone, and the two sesamoid bones. The
latter are tacked on behind, and are sup-
ported m position by the suspensory liga-
ment. A. tuft of long hair hangs from the
^angle of the fetlock. This is the footlock,

and

^ln its midst may be noticed the ergot,

ⁿy growth varying in size in different

^als> °ut especially large in coarse-bred
^art-horses. Like the chestnut, the ergot
P^reseats the vestigial remains of what
'^l* ^once ^a digit in the lost ancestors of

horse. I_n ft_s p_resent condition it is
^L leved by some to exercise a protective
influence when the fetlock is brought to the
found during the rapid locomotory move-
ments occurring in the forced gallop, and
specially i_n the final struggle of a race.

*he Pastern.�This region extends
^U|ui the fetlock to the coronet, between

^ch points it takes a more or less oblique

downward and forward. Its

J base is formed by the first and second
Phalanges, or, as they are commonly

nned, the large and small pastern bones.
The Coronet.�The coronet is that

Front View of Horse

y Poll. ² Forelock. ³ Ear.

Fig. 13.

¹ Forehead.

P<^u't of the limb situated immediately

⁴ Supra-orbit. ⁵ Eyebrow,

Eye. ⁷Nose.

8 Nasal Peak. ⁹ Nostril. ¹⁰ Upper Lip.

¹⁵ Neck. ²⁵ Breast. ²⁹ Forearm. ³¹ Knee.
32 Canon. ³³ Fctlock-joint. ³⁴ Pastern.

³⁵ Coronet. ³⁶Foot. ³⁸ Chest. ⁴⁶ Haunch.

^ove the hoof, and extending from front
back. It is, in fact, the lowermost

division of the pastern. The term is use-
^ul ^omT as indicating proximity with the crown, or upper circumference
^of the foot.

The Foot.�The foot, as understood by the comparative anatomist,
Horaces all those parts of the limb beneath the lower extremity of the fore-
^arm ⁱⁿ front and the inferior extremity of the leg or second thigh behind.

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THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE

In the horse, however, the term is restricted to the terminal portion of the
limb, or that section of it enclosed in the hoof. Two bones and part of
a third constitute its bony base. The former comprise the third phalanx
�the pedal or coffin bone, and the navicular bone; the latter, the second

phalanx, or coronet bone. Connected with
these are various tendons, ligaments, fibrous
tissue, and cartilages, the whole of which
are invested by a highly vascular and sen-
sitive covering of modified skin, and out-
wardly protected by a horny envelope, or
huge nail, to which the term hoof has been
applied.

8. THE POSTERIOR OR HIND LIMB

The Quarter.�In considering the re-
gions of the hind limb, it will be convenient,
if not anatomically exact, to refer to that
division of the horse commonly spoken of as
the "quarter". This region comprises all
those parts extending from the loin and

It
the
the

flank in front to the buttock behind,
embraces within its scope the croup,
haunch, the thigh, the buttock, and

stifle.

The Thigh.�This is the most massive
and muscular of the several regions of the
extremities. The thigh commences above,
at the lower border of the croup, and extends
downward as far as the stifle. In front it

Fig. 14.� Back View of Horse
" Croup. ³⁹ Abdomen. ⁴° Flank.

⁴³ Buttock. *> Leg or Gaskin. ⁴⁹ Hock.
⁵⁰ Point of Hock. ⁵¹ Tendo Achilles or

Ham-string. ⁵³ Canon. ⁵⁴ Fetlock-

joint. » Pastern. ⁵⁶ Coronet. ⁵⁷ Foot.

is limited by the flank, while behind it is
in relation with the buttock.

The ossific base of the thigh is the femur>
or thigh-bone.

The Buttock.�The buttock is the pos-
terior fleshy part of the quarter extending from the root of the tail down'
ward to a little distance below the stifle-joint. There is no anatomical
boundary by which its anterior limits can be fixed. In this connection
the division is an arbitrary one. It embraces portions of the croup, the
thigh, and the leg or gaskin. The point of the buttock (fig. l) is formed
by a bony projection (ischial tuberosity) below the root of the tail.

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THE POSTERIOR OR HIND LIMB

The Stifle (fig. I).�The stifle comprehends that angular prominence
situated in front of the limb immediately beneath the flank. At this
point the femur, or thigh-bone, articulates with the tibia, or leg-bone, and
the patella, or knee-cap, to form the stifle-joint. This is the largest and
most powerfully constructed joint in the body. It is remarkable, not only
for the complexity of its arrangement, but also for its considerable range ot
action.

The Leg.-The leg or gaskin is that part of the hind extremity
extending f_rorQ the thigh to the hock-joint. Behind, it is bordered

7 ^two Powerful tendons (tendo
Achilles) (fig. _1)s _both _of _whicll

are firmly united to the point

^ut the hock, and are commonly

spoken of as the ham-strings.

^ihe ossificbase of this region is

formed by two bones�the tibia

and the fibula. The latter is

^a small slender bone placed on
the outer side of the former,
which is of considerable dimen-
sions and power.

The Hock�Tarsus.�The

nock intervenes between the leg
^au'¹ the canon bone. It is
^more or less flat on the outer
^> ' convex on the inner sur-
^la,,'> narrow behind, and broad

;^l'^ld somewhat flat in front.

Fig. 15.�Bones of Left Hind Leg

8 region comprises six small

"Ones wlnr.L � "j. 1 1, 1 x. A Hip Bone or Pelvis, b, Thigh Bone or Femur, c, Knee-

«8, Which are United by Short j��$%^ _r,_Etal, '_E,TWa. G, Tarsal or Hock Bones.

swong ligaments, and supported

^by the metacarpal bones. Above, they articulate with the tibia, or leg-bone,
^illul with it form a hinge-joint of considerable extent by which the chief
movements of the hock are effected. Above and behind, the hock forms an
acute angle with the tendo Achilles, termed the point of the hock (fig. 1).
The regions below the hock are the canon, the fetlock, pastern, coronet,

toot, and corresponding parts already described in dealing with the fore

extremity.

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			*s

		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

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			Section II CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

		There are few Englishmen who possess, or have possessed, a horse, who ¹ ° ^Uot aspire to know something about conformation and its mechanical ^latl0s to pace, action, and power, although few would claim to have ^e ^nmst elementary acquaintance with those divisions of science on which ^exa°t knowledge of the subject depends. Anatomy, physiology,. ^BchanW», and physics form but a small part of the intellectual equip- TT ^0f ^tlui average judge, and yet it is doubtful if the proud possessor ? f^se higher branches of learning would excel in precision of judgment ** Jess gifted confrere. Dealers and Breeders, and those who adjudicate »t our horse exhibitions,. ^iave Httle more than the empirical faculty to guide them, yet they are among the most expert in the world�recognizing at a glance not only the grosser faults and weaknesses of form and action, but refinements " distinction and aptitude to service which only the practised eye can ^lcern- Granting, however, the power to acquire this high standard of fcwlence by purely empirical means, it will not be suggested that the goal of perfection in horse judging has yet been attained, or that the _i^,rll,ty of attainment will not be enhanced by a consideration of those ^LePartments of science already referred to. If by external conformation ' are to appraise the value of a horse, it must be by estimating with ^lore or less precision his physical capabilities and endurance as an ^an"nal machine, and to this end routine observation and practical J^lulgment might with advantage be supplemented by the teachings of science. ^S ^J-° all persons concerned with the breeding and employment of the j°r^Se ^as ^a means of locomotion, a knowledge of conformation and its ^ects _ls indispensable to success as a commercial enterprise, and notwith- l^ng the purely empirical form which that qualification assumes ^{ ay^-) in those who possess it, the time is not far distant when the ^erior of the horse will come to be interpreted by the light of a more 97

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		28 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS -exact knowledge of his anatomical and mechanical construction. It i^sby a study of conformation that we assign to a horse the particular place and purpose to which he is best adapted as a living machine and ■estimate his capacity for work, and the highest success in this connec- tion will be best attained by the judicious blending of practice with science. CENTRE OF GRAVITY One important step towards an appreciation of the effects of con- formation on the progression and utility of the horse is a general under- standing of the location of the centre of gravity, the disturbances which ^ .........._ it is liable to undergo ^aS ~~^;- " ' -'-""""��/'' -■-^■■H~~ a consequence of the various movements of the body i¹¹locomotion, and the special in- fluence of conformation in ac- o iri&V'"- ........... . . I celerating and determining the ^No-² extent of such disturbances. In dealing with this branch of Kg. 16 the subject, our readers need hardly be reminded that all bodies whatsoever, whether living or dead, are influenced by the force of gravity in such a way that they are drawn towards the earth. Every body, whether large or small, is composed of a number of molecules more or less regularly distributed throughout its mass, and upon each of which the pull of gravity is exerted, hence results the exercise of ^anumber of small parallel forces acting in the same direction. What is called the centre of gravity will be found in the centre of these parallel forces, which may or may not be in the centre of the body- If the molecules making up the mass be of the same kind and uniformly distributed throughout it, the force of gravity will be exercised on ah parts alike, in which case the centre of gravity will be in the centre of the body. If, on the other hand, the molecules be more numerous in one part than another, or in other words, if one part be more dense than another, the force of gravity will attract that part more, in which �case the centre of gravity, instead of being situated in the middle of th^ebody, is drawn nearer to the part which weighs the most. To illustrate this point let us take the case of a rod made up of ^anumber of particles equal in weight and equally distributed throughout & as shown in fig. 16, No. 1. Here the several component particles being attracted towards the

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			Plate i.



		^\|i

	SYMMETRY

ARCHED CREST

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			2!)
		CENTRE OF GRAVITY	2!)
		CENTRE OF GRAVITY

earth equally in parallel forces, it is evident that the centre of these forces, which is the centre of gravity, will he at the middle point Quite different will be the case where the rod is made of particles of the same kind, unequally distributed, and causing one part to be denser or thicker than the other (fig. 16, No. 2). In this case the centre of gravity is found to fall at F, in the direction of the heavier part D, where tlie parallel forces are for equal lengths the more numerous. These conclusions may be roughly illustrated by taking a piece o stick two or three feet in length, of uniform thickness, and placing it

	Yig. l7._The Centre of Gravity The centre of gravity is at or near the spot where the dotted lines cross across the edge of a knife, where it may be made to balance or brought to a state of equilibrium when resting on a point about the middle of its length. If now a small quantity of lead be run into one end, and the experiment be repeated, the point at which the stick can now be made to balance will have shifted, and will be found somewhere towards its loaded extremity. According to the researches of Professor Colin, the centre of gravity in the horse is situated somewhere about the point of intersection of two lines, one passing vertically through the trunk behind the xiphoid

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		.30 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS cartilage of the sternum or breast-bone, and the other horizontally between the middle and lower third of the body. This conclusion has been con- firmed by the experiments of Messrs. Goubaux and Barrier, and may be accepted as approximately correct. EQUILIBRIUM " A body is said to be in equilibrium when the several forces acting upon it balance one another." The part upon which it rests is termed the base of support. It may be neces- sary to point out that there are three conditions of equilibrium, viz. stable, un- stable, and neutral. Of these the two former are more especially concerned witn ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ equine conformation and movement. J-¹¹ ^A ^B stable equilibrium a body, when slightly Fig.m-Eqmubrium _displaced or pushed aside, will return to A, Stable. B, Unstable, c, Neutral *. ^ . . -, ^L .^.* _T, ', 4. ,-,_rV its original position. 11, on the contiai^> it tends to move farther away from its original position or to topple over, its equilibrium is unstable. The conditions which conduce to render equilibrium stable are: 1. A broad base of support. 2 That the centre of gravity should be situated low down. 3 That the line of gravitation should fall at or near the centre ° the base. . . From these considerations it would appear, as Goubaux and Barn have pointed out, that " a horse having a heavy body mounted upoij long slender limbs, drawn close to the median plane, will be endowe with an equilibrium relatively unstable". While, conversely, a horse .standing on short legs, set well apart so as to supply a large base ; support! will possess an equilibrium relatively stable. The horse in progression is constantly displacing the centre of gravi j in one direction or another, and the disturbance of equilibrium whi^cj, is thereby effected is as constantly being restored by the formation a new base of support, which will vary both in form and extent Wi the various movements incidental to the several paces respectively. In a standing position the base oi support of the horse may be describ^ as an area enclosed within four lines placed nearly at right angles to ea< other, and extending from foot to foot, as shown in fig. 19. In this attitude equilibrium presents its highest degree of stabiH r It is during the fast paces, when the trunk is impelled forward by

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PLATE II.

Fig. 2.

Fig. i.

EQUILIBRIUM IN THE WALK AND IN THH GALLOP

Copy

^rtgh'.-887.b_yEadl

eard, Muybridge

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			1

	MUSCLES IN Rftatt� m impulses from behind that +1 the feet leave the ground to^T^ f ^% » �st displaced, and - disturbed equilibrium. JT w l7 T" °1 "^ ^md -establish Jhe various phases of movemen ^1 ^ °^bvi°^US ^hJ ^mining » the walk, which, _as _We ^ * °� ^or ^her of the several paces -e the base of -Wi. ^Tfe ***** ^ ^iS °^ne °^f ^fo» r^uh� > it. In P_late _n r¹; ° ^uf^go a succession of changes H axxs of the body, ' ^ ¹ �^d* ⁶' ^rt ^r�« Parallel with the fcj« formed by the Jo " ^6tt ^and right limbs re- Xflt- ^In%2itis altered both in shape and Chi^y ^the ^ ^h-^d- \|^nd, thereby enlarging f^wHleatthesL! ^ * ^ade to assume tnangul_ar _form. ^ tion i -⁶ ^hne ^of de- left fl ^g°^nal ^fr°m the Tt^^.^thind. base of '^atl0ns ⁱⁿ ^e forth b ^SUpP°^rt ^are ^called ^tio^'f !h^for^ard ⁱⁿ- placing _tl ^the ^tr^k dis- vitv. %"^ecentreof gra- Placement¹⁸ ^f°^rward dis- own, con,:,'" ^ve,7 ^mnchp._M �; ^able � ft,
		Fig. 19.-Base of Support

^S»PPW t^f°^0t' ^M lading suppor and � ^ ^TOuM ^M » fron _T,e":r: ⁱⁿ ^re� ^T° ^pwer - � P^lace to t)i_a�₀ ^of ^locomotion b_y which th_a i. i �

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			32 CONFOKMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

		These fleshy masses which clothe the bones are each and all endowed with the property of contractility. When this power is called into action by nervous stimulation it has the effect of bringing the two extremities oi the muscle towards each other, by which the length is diminished, while at the same time its thickness increases. These changes are well seen in the biceps or muscle of the upper arm, 'A. the elbow be bent and the closed hand be brought up to the shoulder. When a stimulus is applied to a nerve entering a muscle, the latter i^&made to contract throughout its entire length at nearly the same moment; as a consequence, it is found that the period occupied by the contraction °* a short muscle is nearly equal to that required for a long one. It will b^eobvious from this, that as a muscle will contract to the extent of one-third of its length, the speed and propulsive power of a horse with long lim^^&and long muscles will be much greater than that which can be produced by another having short ones, assuming, of course, that all other things ^al'^eequal. Of two muscles of the same length whose activity of contraction is ^atits maximum, the greatest power will be given out by that which has th^egreatest volume; in other words, the strength of a muscle is in proportion to its thickness; and it is equally true to say that the longer the muscle th^egreater will be the range of its contraction, and the more considerable th^edisplacement it will effect in the movement of the bones to which it may ^D&attached. Hence it is that while muscles of strength are short and thi^c' those of speed are long and slender. From the foregoing facts the conclusion may be drawn, that masro.^uCas short legs imply short muscles, animals so constructed must be comp^al^a' tively slow in their movements however great may be their strength; ^a11conversely, horses whose legs are relatively long, and whose range of acti^oIJis necessarily more considerable, will be capable of developing a m^uC* higher rate of speed. The draught-horse and the race-horse afford typ^icaexamples of the truth of the proposition that " the volume of the muScWi gives the measure of force, their length that of speed ". In choosing ^ one, therefore, the highest muscular development consistent with reason^aDactivity in the slower paces should be sought for, while in the other t" first and most important requirement is ample length of the leg muscles * particular, combined with just so much thickness as will yield the n power by which to support the weight and endure the strain that m^y imposed upon them. Any surplus muscle over and above these req^ulments will augment the weight, and tend rather to retard than to incre^a" the velocity of the gait.

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THE BONES AS LEVERS

�\, with few exceptions,
The muscles concerned in locomotion are each, wiw _tendons.

attached to two bones, either directly, or through the medium ^.^

The hones connected by their extremities form a series 01
joints, and being thus enabled to move
one upon the other, constitute so many
bony Levers by which the movements
of the body are effected.

A. lever is a rigid and inextensible
bat used for the purpose of moving
bodies by means of a power or weight

eitl

>;'^r greater or less than that of the

themselves. ^^^^^^^^H
When a bone is operating as a
^lCTf> one end is more or less fixed
^luul ^m:ul1' to move upon the corre-

*l>ondmg snrf_iU,e of the bone with ^^

Fig. 20.-Lever of the First Order

T^ it is articulated, and thus per- . _in

forms the office of fulcrum, while the other portion is left free to>�>
obedience to the power and the weight. A lever presents for-canside
tion three elements, viz. the Fulcrum, the Power, and the Weight,
respective positions of which
determine the class to which it
belongs.

flu' action of a lever in the
development of force and speed
will depend upon the relation of
the power to the weight.

Levers are divided into three
classes. In levers of the first
class the fulcrum is placed be-
tween the power and the weight,
^;,s illustrated in the beam of an
■ ordinary pair of scales (fig. 20).

FULCRUM

I h'vers ₀f the second class

Fig. 21.�Lever of the Second Order

^tlu' ^Eulcr«m situated at one H^H

^eml- and the weight occupies a position between it and the power, this
� is illustrated in the loaded wheel-barrow, when the man supporting
^1lu' ^stafts represents the power, the barrow and its contents the weight,

^;uul &e wheel the fulcrum (fig. 21).
Vol. i.

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

In levers of the third kind the fulcrum is again at one end, but to
power now occupies a position between it and the weight. A comn¹⁰'
example of this kind is seen in a pair of fire-tongs when holding a lump °

coal. The coal here repr^e'
sents the weight, the haO⁰¹:
holding the tongs the po^e¹'
and the joint the fulcru^
(fig. 22).

Fig. 22.�Lever of the Third Order

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ The two arms of a le^ve

are distinguished respectively as the power-arm and the weight-arm. I'¹former is represented by the distance between the point at which the po\^veacts and the fulcrum, and the latter by the distance between the fulcrU¹!
and the line through which the weight acts.

In the case of the biceps muscle acting upon the radius (fig. 25), &
power-arm is the distance between the centre of the elbow-joint, which j
the fulcrum, and the point of insertion of the muscle. The weight-arm ^xthe distance from the fulcrum to the knee.

Of the three varieties of levers referred to above, those of the first cla^sare levers of speed, and for the most part are engaged in movements °
extension. Those of the third order are also levers of velocity, but &
more especially concerned in movements of flexion.

-e

Levers of the second class are much less frequently met with than th°
of the first and third, and are essentially levers of force.

In the animal machine an example of a lever of the first order will ^D

found in the extension of the cannon on the hock when the foot

the ground. Here the muscle representing the power (fig. 23) acts up
the point of the hock, the fulcrum is the hock-joint, and the parts bel°
the weight. The same parts of the limb also afford an illustration °i J
lever of the second class when the foot is on the ground (fig. 24). In * j
instance the point of the hock is the part on which the power acts,
ground is the fulcrum, and the weight is at the hock-joint.

The third order of lever is represented in the fore-arm (fig. 25), where
fulcrum is at the elbow-joint, the power is the biceps muscle, which is inser
just below the elbow in front, and the weight is the parts of the limb bel° ^

It will be seen by an examination of these illustrations, that in levels
the first and third class, or levers of speed, the power-arm is shorter t J ^
the weio-ht-arm, while in those of the second order the length of the fo^rI°
exceeds that of the latter. _ Jj

Bones which act as levers of the first class when the foot is oft ,
sround, become levers of the second kind when the foot is on the gi'°^uthe fulcrum and the weight having now become displaced.

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	THE BONES AS LEVEBS

		a s w o !zi ted XJi > f <1 fed m

Fig. 23.�Lever of the First Order Fig. 24.�Lever of the Second Order Fig. 25.�Lever of the Third Order In these diagrams F is the fulcrum, P the point where the power acts, W the weight, and M the muscle which is the source of power

			OS

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

HEAD AND NECK

If there is any part of the horse which can be regarded as of exception³¹importance it is the head, for besides being the centre of intelligence
it is also the seat of vice. Moreover, it is the dial-plate on which ^wefind the outward expression of the inward temperament in all its varied
moods. It forms, besides, the boundary walls of the most important
cavities in the body, notably, the cranium or brain-case, the orbits
containing the eyes, the nostrils, and the mouth. From these considera-
tions it becomes obvious that if the several organs with which the h^eadis connected are to perform their respective functions efficiently, ampl^espace must be provided by the bony framework for their accommodation
and unrestrained action. Moreover, the head is not altogether uncon-
nected with locomotion, inasmuch as important muscles extending &^oxathe arm upward along the neck are ultimately connected with it, and
are the chief agents in raising and advancing the fore-limbs during p¹'⁰'
gression. Further, an extensive bony surface is required for the attach-
ment of the muscles of masti-
cation and expression.

Quite apart from size, th^easpect of the head varies very
materially in different animal'
not only among those of di
ferent varieties, but in a l^eSdegree also among differen
animals of the same variety-
While in some it presents
clean-cut, finely-chiselled on
line, in others the angles ai
lines of the bony framewor
are rounded off and more °
less obscured, and the hea

Fig. 26.�Loan Head, well set <

as a whole displays a heav'

plain appearance. The form⁶ '
distinguished as the lean head (fig. 26), is more especially pronounced ¹the thoroughbred, and is always an evidence of good breeding. Here t
skin will be noticed to be thin, and closely adherent to unclerly¹¹^
parts. The bony outline is sharply defined. The muscles, vessels, ^anerves are seen standing out in bold relief, giving the head altogetn
a clean, sharp expression and airy carriage. Quite the reverse is the ^ca

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VOLUME AND GENERAL ASPECT OF THE HEAD

to tbe latter, winch is known as tbe plain or fleshy bead (fig. 27).
tbe skin is thick, coarse, and united with tbe parts beneath *^*^
amount of connective tissue which hides the bony lines and F⁰¹*¹*
beneath, rounds off the face, and gives to the head as a whole afce y
and fieshy appearance. This type of head is associated with animals
a dull, lymphatic temperament and low cast.

VOLUME AND GENEBAL ASPECT OF THE HEAD

In this, as in other respects, harmony of proportion is the_ point.of
excellence to be desired, whether it be in tbe heavy or the ^.^
of hor_Se₈. Deviations in this respect, however, are not equally objectm
*** to the two classes. A large bead in the hunter or ^ ^e of
*<* only render an animal unsightly, but by displacing the centr
gravity forward, predispose to stumbling, and impose upon the *»*-
» ^due amount of weight and wear. These objections do not apply
to the slow-moving draught-horse, whose powers of traction depend
«Pon the amount of force he can bring to bear upon the collar. Here
^l**ge bead, if not so agreeable to look at, would be rather an advantage
than otherwise, not only because of
its extra weight, but because of the
larger surface of attachment it would
afford those muscles that assist in
^hxni^ the front part of the body
to the act of pulling.

the size of the head may deviate
^m Proportion either in the direction
of excess or deficiency. When the

dimensions of length, width, and
depth are all in excess the bead is

■ ■ ■ Hg_e _or _coarse. This ^^^^^

Fig. 27.�Fleshy Head

^^^^^^

condition results more especially from ,

^uu ^a^ue development of the bony framework. It may not, however, be
^together thus caused, but may, in some measure, be due to an exceptional
thickness of tbe skin and superabundance of connective tissue intervening
^lv,NV,'"» it and the underlying bones. In the latter case the head has
' ^luav>- look, rounded and fleshy in appearance, and the bony lines and
Prominences, as well as tbe nerves and blood-vessels, so conspicuous m
^NN''^UW horses, are altogether obscured. Animals of this class are
^ally low-bred, soft, and wanting in endurance. In point of size the
head should accurately fit the body, or if it departs at all from the

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CONFOKMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

standard of proportion in its osseous parts, better a trifle too large than
too small. A small head in relation to other parts means not only ^asacrifice of symmetry, but maybe also of power and intelligence.

FORM OF THE HEAD

The head of the horse presents great variety of form. In order t°
indicate the defects of conformation of this part it will be necessary ^lD

the first place to convey some idea as t°
those characters which combine to develop
the highest standard of beauty and phy»^l0'
logical excellence in the whole. In speaking
of the "Points of the Horse" we ha^J
already referred to the various regions int°
which the head is divided, and we now p¹'⁰'
pose to examine them as to their magnitude?
formation, and reciprocal relations.

The aspects from which the head wn*
require to be examined are: (1) the anten°|
or front view; (2) the lateral or side view*
(3) the posterior or back view; and (**
the view of the upper and lower extreniiti^eSrespectively.

Viewed from the front (fig. 28) the firs
and most striking feature is the forehead'
whose anatomical relations with the bra-¹¹¹'
the eye, the breathing organs, and the orga¹¹^
of mastication impart to it such exception^3,importance. This division of the head ^l

limited below by a line drawn across tn

� to

Fig. 28. �Front View of Skull and
Temporal Muscles

oc, Occipital crest. P, Parietal bone,
x, Parietal suture. F, Frontal bone. Na,
Nasal bone. Mx, Superior maxillary bone.
Pr.mx., Pre-maxillary bone. L, Lachrymal
bone. M, Malar bone. T, Temporal muscle.

face from the inner corner of one eye

that of the other, from which it rises ^t0the poll or occipital crest.

The forehead should be deep ^aDbroad, inasmuch as the bones which f°^r"

its basement structure not only encio^
the brain cavity but two other cavities (frontal sinuses) below
which are part of the respiratory system of organs. A large forehea
therefore, may be taken to denote a large brain and a large breathing
capacity.

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		*mmmmmmmmmm* HACKNEY STALLION, DANEGELT 174 By Denmark 177; dam, Young Nelly. Purchased by Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart., for 5000 guineas. Winner of Numerous Prizes.

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FORM OF THE HEAD

Tl f

*»t -ithor^ns^r^nrucir' ^aCCept°^db^ ^aU ^Wlte- on this subject;
to draw as that a lar d ^^ **' ^ ^Se6mS ^aS ^reasonable ^an inference
^lungs- There is no rl^Tf °^ ^CheSt ^betokens voluminous and capacious
^te*P<*al muscles, ^l^T °* ^ ^G°^UbaUX ^a*^d ^Bm'^that ^the
ears and take such °^VG ^the ^ejes ^to ^the ^roots ^of ^tlie

^s°mewhat to the t� * t **"* � ^tlle ^functi°n of mastication, add

^il-^date the ^urrr/T^ °^f ^the ^f°^rehead; ^but ^thls ^does ^not
aiul consequent^ Ur Z ^& ^ ^&aAle^ ^is ^an ^exP^ssion of a broad,

^fcW na,,;.i: !^U T^1Gatl°ⁿ ^0± ^lar§^e bones; and since the bones to which
°^f thecrantm If !* ""J � ^ ^ ^& ^COnsiderable P«t of the vault
?"** to si!' .J ^g-^Cal fr^nCe ^1S ^that ^the «** of the latter, in
^h^e i_n thThote _tV° ^th6m- ^AS ^t0 ^Whetller ^the ^intel-

^relatio* to the vnT ^P;°?r^al ^t0 ^the ^Width ^0f ^the fo^ead, or in
^Pr°P°^ to enter bT/ ^the ^brain> ^are questions into which we do not

^meDt with Gavor tW T °^reg°^ing ^consideratio^ we are in agree-

^jot that the more voluminous the brain the larger is the
^r~ - spinal cord and the

nerves that proceed from
it, and that "a large
forehead denotes a high
degree of intelligence
and a good nervous sys-
tem ".

From the forehead
downward the face
should still maintain
ample width, to give
room to the nasal pas-
sages which form its
front and lower aspect.
From the eyes, the la-

aco, lop ears

teral boundary lines in
a well-formed face will

Fig. 30.�Narrow Face

�-

^U°^VP^ the skin.. r. ^1U

pnoi^r ,i "^c ^UJ^JCU ^auu capacious.

SE^T ^f !« ^be thin and pliable, and

«P8 fine and m

^b°^Uld be clearly d^fild \n ! \ ⁷ ^ ^and P^romi»ences of the face

"^ hidde/by �_n1;!^nd ."!* ^aS ^Se- ⁱⁿ the low-bred and phlegmatic

^CUtaneou_s _tissue. ⁷ ^Undue thickness and fleshiness of the skin and sub-

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

Viewed in profile, the face from the forehead downward will be found
to vary very considerably. In the thoroughbred and the Arab it is
usually straight or inclining to hollowness beneath the eyes (fig. 31,
and Plate V); while in the
coarser breeds the disposition
to convexity is more and more
noticeable as we approach the
heavy draught-horse. As both
these formations are quite con-
sistent with the most perfect
physiological activity - of the
cranial and respiratory organs,
any preference that may be
given to one over the other
can only be regarded as a mat-
ter of taste, and not as having
any intrinsic value; for our own
part we prefer that the line of

Fig. 31.�Straight Face (Arab Stallion)

the face, when viewed in profile,

should be neither uniformly straight nor convex, but commencing above
in a bold forehead, should gently recede in its course downward and

again rise to slight convexity over the lower region of the

nose, giving t°

this aspect of the head a gentle and
graceful undulation (fig. 32).

While making observation i¹¹profile it is requisite to note that the
branches of the lower jaw should
be broad and deep, since they gH
attachment both within and without
to the most powerful of the muscles
of mastication. Moreover, viewed
from behind they should be set well
apart and clear of the neck, so tba*

Fig. 32.�Undulating Face

the larynx or upper portion of th⁶

windpipe, which is situated between
them, as well as the pharynx or throat, may have ample space in which
to move while the head is being bent, or turned sharply from side to
side.

Undue narrowness of this region, when occurring in horses with short,
fleshy necks, tends to embarrass breathing, especially when the animal is
tightly reined up. In some high-couraged and nervous animals of this

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FORM OF THE HEAD

�conformation, respiration becomes loud under exertion, and may even emi
a distinctly roaring noise. . ,

Although not defects in the sense of interfering with function ana
utility, there are to be noticed certain extremes and irregularities m tie
lines of conformation of the head
which seriously detract from its
beauty both of symmetry and ex-
pression.

In this connection the face may
be immoderately and uniformly
■convex from the forehead above to
the nostrils below, when it is said
to be arched (fig. 33)�a type of
conformation at one time common in
the English draught-horse, but now
fast disappearing under the segis of

the show-yard and the stud-book.

Fig. 33.�Arched Face

Undue prominence commencing be-
tween the eyes and extending to the same point constitutes the Koman
frose (fig. 34), to which the same observations apply. The reverse con
dition, in which the face is hollowed, is sometimes spoken oi as disliea

(Plate V, fig. 1). .

latter formation, function is more or less
interfered with under severe exertion, and
the powers of endurance are in some
degree curtailed. Moreover, such animals
are often said to be roarers in consequence
of the narrowed nostrils rendering the
breathing loud and coarse. They are not
however, roarers in the proper sense of

the term.

The face may be rendered irregular
and even unsightly by an undue promi-
nence of the lower forehead, which it

Fig. 34.�Roman Nc

may be noted is usually associated with
narrowness of the part and gives the face a heavy, ill-natured ^exP^res"
sion. Especially is this so where the eyes are small and laid back m
the orbit. A rise in the face between the eyes (fig. 35), when consider-
able, not only affects the contour of the face and detracts from its beauty,
but is regarded by some as significant of temper if not of vice, the truth

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

of which, says Captain Hayes in his excellent work on TJie Points of the

Horse, "I have seen verified in many instances".

Ears.�Besides the special function for which they are designed,

the ears are not only an element of

beauty, but by their movements

serve to indicate the emotions and

temperament of the animal. Their

effectiveness as a mark of beauty

will be influenced very much by the

transverse diameter of the poll, and

the manner in which they are set

on, as well as by their form, dimen-
sions, and carriage.

When well set apart on a fairly

broad crest and carried with a gentle

Fig. 35.�Forehead prominent between the Eyes

inclination forward without being ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

either upright and staring, or too dependent and heavy, they set oft' a

well-formed head to the greatest advantage. As to length, connoisseurs

are not exactly in agreement, some
extolling the excellence of short
ears, and others of long ones. There

can be no doubt, however, that
with this, as with all other organs,
they must be in harmony with
related parts. A long head with
short ears is as unsightly as when
the proportions are reversed, and

the disfigurement is materially

added to in either case where they
present a broad, thick, fleshv char-
acter and an investment of coarse
hair. Ears of medium length and
width, thin, flexible, neither too
pointed nor too rounded at the

__________________________________

Fig. 36.�Long Ears

tip, well set up on a good base,

active and alert, are not only

marks of good breeding, but impart to the face an expression of lightness,

brightness, and intelligence.

In most horses the temperament finds expression in the movement

and disposition of these organs. In the nervous and excitable they »^re

ever erect and respond to every sound, moving vigorously from one

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			LENGTH OF THE HEAD

		position to another with rapid succession; while m the du ₀._eneral their movements are slow and not easily awakened, and carriage is heavy and drooping. n, f_orms The backward set of the ears is frequently indicative ot v we, a feature in the kicker and the rogue, but is also seen habitual!} of the best-tempered and most tractable of animals. .,. , _feature The general activity in the movement of the ears is a stiiK g ^ in the case of blind horses, whose sense of hearing would seem more and more acute as the loss of sight becomes more ^^ ^ _keptsound engages the attention where vision is lost, and in a state" of constant activity, moving fast in one direction and the another, the head at the same time being inclined in th* dKectx - that, to bring the ears more immediately m line with the our<* -und. Moreover, in these cases the head is carried high, andt ^hs, _wHch are raised well from the ground, appear to dwel^ Ward movement, or in other words, the horse --eysjhe ^ °* feeling his way, and lacks the free, bold forward action ot Perfect vision. LENGTH OF THE HEAD A head otherwise proportionate to the body may exhibit excess or deficiency of development in the direction of its length, ,e ri -7 too long or too short. All Continental observers have ae eptedJ_tconclusion of the distinguished Frenchman Bourgelat, ^ t o ^ half times the length of the head should be equal to the d tance^ Iron the withers to th! ground and from the point of the ^^� point of the buttock If the head fails to equal these �°T^ is said to be too short, and if it exceeds them it is too long. _Captam fiayes avers that a more practical rule is to compare tfo.length t head with the depth of the body at the lowest point ot the bacK. a well-shaped horse", he observes, "which is not in gross condition these two measurements are very nearly equal. There can be little doubt that any great excess of length irl this part situated as it is at the extremity of the neck, would not only disturb the harmony of conformation, but by adding to its weight expose the toie limbs to additional wear. It is also conceivable that by displacing the centre of gravity forward it would in some degree restrict their liberty o action and adversely influence the pace. Moreover, horses with this tauit are liable to carry themselves indifferently and to bear unduly on the bridle. While this disproportion is specially objectionable in the saddle-

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44 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

horse and the harness-horse, it is not so in the draught-horse, where any
extra weight at the end of the cervical lever may be turned to good account
by being thrown into the collar as a means of traction.

The disadvantage of excessive length will be somewhat modified when
the head is set on a short neck, and aggravated when it is attached to a
long, lean one. A head too short, although a fault of proportion, presents
some compensating advantages in its lightness and greater mobility.

COUPLING OF THE HEAD

Given a well-formed head, the next point of importance is the manner
of its adjustment or attachment to the neck. However good it may be W
proportion and outline of form, if it is badly hung the general appearance
of the animal will be seriously impaired.

A head should be attached on to the neck and not into it: the angle of
the jaw should stand clear away from the throat, which should meet the

head at a nice curve and not at an
acute angle. When the former rela-
tions exist, the line of demarcation
between the one and the other is
marked by a well-defined groove
extending from below the ear down-
ward to the throat, and the carriage
and movements of the head in every
direction are executed with freedom
and enjoy ample range of action-
The two principal departures °^rdefects of conformation which occur

Fig. 37.�Head loosely Coupled

here consist in (1) too loose and
{2) too close coupling. In the former the head is too disconnected from
the neck or loosely hung (fig. 37), the groove referred to above is deep
and wide, and commonly the neck is long and wanting in strength and
muscularity. This defect of conformation is frequently seen in horses
light in the middle, long in the leg, of irritable temperament, and wanting
in general muscular development and vigour of constitution. Many of such
are roarers. In the latter the attachment of the head to the neck is close
and deep from poll to throat, the intervening groove is superficial, narrow*
and ill-defined, and the union of the two parts is close and compact (fig- ³⁸/'
Such a conformation not only detracts from the beauty of the fore end,
but seriously curtails the range and liberty of movement of the head &

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COUPLING OF THE HEAD

t oc+W heavy xn haxxd,

every direction. Moreover, horses so made are mosuiy m> j

besides being stiff and ungainly in their side movements ₀ _le8B

The direction of the head in relation to beauty and usefulness xs ^
important than its mode of attachment, and it will be correct tos^ ^
tbe one is in some degree influenced by the other. It may be 1
^8tate precisely what is the most classical disposition of the neaa ^
f ^sPect, but we agree in the suggestion of Goubaux and Barrier **»*
^he^ has a good as well as a natural direction when it extends oblxquely
Mom above to below, from before to
^)eWd, and forms with the ground
s^urf_ace an angle of about 45 degrees"
\H 26).

*his position, besides being fa-
curable to an extensive range of
^Nlsl()lh gives the animal a good view
⁰¹ the ground before him over which
^Le is travelling, and at the same time
^coiifidence and safety in movement.
The disposition of the head is
^v,ry considerably influenced by the

¹ '"''formation of the neck. In that con-'

Fig. 38.�Head close-coupled

?&«* known as " ewe-neck" (fig. 42) �

^U gently assumes a horizontal direction, or, to use a stable phrase, x.

"^ncd with the nose more or less " poked out". /

,. ^Xt results from this attitude that bridle control xs very matexially
^W or may be altogether lost, on account of the too backwaudx^
¹' ^m,,,»¹^t of the bit which is made to act either directly on the angles ot

⁶ ^h, or, what is worse, on the first molar teeth.

. ^"tempered horses of this type are apt to seize the bit xn

Moreover,

■ *" wnicn case an uhcuijjuo ^ *.~~~------ - ,._orm

, ,. -«*Um of the line of vision being set high, obstacles and irregu-
r^tles on the ground surface immediately before them are lxable to
°^Ve^oked, i_n which case stumbling becomes habitual and dangerous

^iVlM,,Po

� unectxon ot tne neaci appruuoueo mc y^^�- � .,

rfion to the decree of curvature of the neck (fig. 39), and xn some

^cases. wh

ere the latter is unduly arched, the former may even take an

^,h,iwe direction from before, downward and backward, so that the cnm
¹⁸ ^le to approximate the breast. This conformation not only hinders
P^r°gressi_on by displacing the centre of gravity backward, but the animal
^becomes unsafe both on account of his liability to stumble and the difficulty
^whxch, in extreme cases, is experienced in causing him to turn to the right

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		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	16


or to the left. For the purpose of draught the vertical disposition of the head does not constitute a serious defect, but in animals used for riding and driving purposes it is most objectionable. Among other reasons, the range of vision in these cases is restricted, and although the ground immediately in front of the animal is well in view, dis- tant objects in the line of vision are not so well observed. Horses of the kind in question usually bend their knees fairly well, but the action is short and choppy> and lacks liberty and range 01 shoulder movement. CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H The carriage of the head will Fig. 39.-Head carried vertically be determined for the most part by the form of the neck and the way in which it is connected with it. The most finished appearance IS given to the animal when the head is carried well up, with a gentle slop^efrom above downward and forward, forming with the ground surface an angle of about 45 degrees. In this position the field of vision is not ... j restricted as when the head is directed straight out, or brought towards a vertical position, or where, as sometimes occurs, the chin is directed towards the breast. At such an angle, too, the head enjoys an amount of freedom and mobility which would be impossible in certain extreme . departures towards the vertical and horizontal as depicted in figs. 39 and 42. It will also be obvious that with the angle of the throat well open* the larynx will have plenty of play and the breathing be correspondingly facilitated. The head thus favourably placed confers the further advan- tage on the rider and driver, of more complete restraint and guidance o)^rallowing the bit to fall upon the bars instead of being drawn into th^echeeks, where it may be seized by the " grinders " and removed beyon^dtheir control. When the head is carried well up in a natural manner, the elevation of the shoulder and the forward swing of the fore-limb as a whole ^ar6greatly increased. Moreover, as we have elsewhere pointed out, by raising the head the muscle attached to it (mastoido humeralis), which is mainly concerned in lifting the shoulder, is made to contract through a greatei

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				47

			NECK

	distance, and therefore to raise the limb correspondingly high and bring it into position for the execution of a great forward stroke. Carried f ^:l ^low Spending position, the head displaces the centre of gravity forwards, encumbers the fore-limbs, diminishes both speed and action, ana robs the horse of the most elegant feature of his fore end.

		NECK ^part from any consideration of mechanical advantage which it m: ^confe* on a horse as a living motor, a good neck is an attractive feature ^eve7 variety, from the ^jJ* fattest pony to the heaviest" shire". It i_s ^unv^'er, i_n the drivina. ^0rse and the saddle- ^h;^,1'^Se * the special r^¹- ^d beauty ^Whch * » capable of �^Parting are _more _es- pemlly demanded; but ^Xt ^must ^ observed that ^1U ^associating these two ^Pea it is not intended to convey the idea that ;^h,ic°nfig_Urat_ioriofneck f suited to the one r^1,1 ^ -dually ap- !;:;;^,,n;^itc* ^to the Ul, , that either would ;, ^^apted to the horse ^^^H On ,....., ^irary, in each pjo- 40 �Swan Neck ^.^ neck must be swucted to meet the special purposes for which the animal is intended. diff ^f°^rm ^of ^tlie neck, as everyone knows, varies very considerably in _he ^eten* animals, and also in the same animal at different periods of life; _d°^Ce,^lt ^is designated arched (Plate I, fig. 2) when the upper border _s °^nbes a convexity along its whole length from the poll to the withers; ⁿ-"<-ck (fig. 40) when the curve is confined, as in the neck of the ,*?' ^to the superior part; straight* (fig. 41) when the superior and inferior

					is
orders are rectilinear; and ewe-neck (fig. 42) when the upper border i

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			CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	48


concave. The form of the neck not only influences the carriage of the head? but may in some measure conduce to speed and modify action. The la^sti two varieties are especially favourable to rapid movement since they allow of a more considerable extension of the head beyond the base ol support than the others. When the neck is arched the head is disposed towards the vertical position, sometimes so much so as to materially limit the range of vision, ^s0that objects at a distance are not observed. Moreover, " the arched and the swan neck, by their ten- dency to curve the vertebrae n¹the shape of an S, diminish the length of the neck, move the centre of gravity backward; and are more favourable to i^t&elevation and depression ^a&well as to the lateral displace- ment of the trunk. They als° offer advantages in the saddle- horse, in which grace, bril- liancy, and extent of move- ment are preferred" (Gouban* and Barrier). Arching of t^^eneck, although for the nro^stpart a natural conformation > Fig. 4i.-straight Neck may also be imparted by ^aP' propriate schooling, or increase where it already exists. The training resorted to for this purpose has tn further advantage that the various manoeuvres of which it consists imp.^arto the neck a suppleness and mobility which greatly enhance the rapid¹*/' elegance, and precision of the animal's movements altogether.

		CARRIAGE Whatever may be the form of the neck, the appearance as well as tn^especial fitness of an animal for any particular purpose will be greatly ^lD' fluenced by the manner in which it is carried. In this connection it will be found to vary towards the high or ^veX' tical position on the one hand, or the low or horizontal position on tn other. In either direction extreme examples are objectionable, although estimating the extent of depreciation from either cause, compensating ^c° - ditions, if any exist, must be fully taken into account. A neck well earn

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		Plate III.

SHORT NECK

	LONG NECK

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CARRIAGE

not only lightens and brightens the outlook of a horse, but it gives him an
expression of energy and courage. Moreover, in this attitude the head
ives ample natural support, is light on the rein, and relieves the hands
of the rider or driver of an objectionable and tedious burden so common m
animals otherwise formed. There is the further advantage in an elevated
triage of the neck, that the muscle chiefly concerned in raising the arm
{wastoido humeralis, fig. 43), and which is connected above with the head,

enjoys a greater range
of contraction by vir-
tue of its increased
length, and by bring-
ing the shoulder well
up increases in a cor-
responding measure
the upward and for-
ward movement of
the limb as a whole.
It conduces, indeed,
to that free shoulder-
play and fine knee
action which all
lovers of horses so
much admire and

enjoy.

The "nagsman"
with his sharp bit,
the "runner" with his
raised hand propping
up the horse's chin,
and the coachman

Fig. 42.�Ewe Neck

with his overdraw

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^J check-rein, all recog-
' ^tlle influence of an uplifted neck on the action of the fore-limbs; but
Bauat be _110teci _tliat _whji_e these artificial devices conduce to a more
⁰ ^fcy action they at the same time shorten its range, and, by imposing
*^straint on the head and neck, deprive the gait of the liberty and elegance

^m°venient displayed in a natural carriage.
. , "ith the neck directed forward and carried in a more depending position
¹⁸ otlierwi.se. Here the head hangs heavily on the neck, the shoulder
^,u'^ll<»n is restricted, there is a lack of mobility, and the animal is heavy in
^llllul = and may be hard in the mouth and difficult to guide. Beyond this

Vol. i. ^j 4

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

to its

to the neck in

some consideration will require to be gi¹

regard

length and volume.

A neck too long or too short not only disturbs the harmony of propor-
tion, but impairs to a greater or less extent the mechanical properties of

the machine. TJn-

due length is

not

infrequently asso-
ciated with a slight
muscular develop-
ment, giving to
this region a gaunt,
slender appear-
ance. Moreover,
it possesses the
further fault of
imposing on the
fore extremities an excess
of weight, thereby imped-
ing action and increasing
the wear and* tear of the
limbs. More especially is
this the case w^There the
neck is carried in a for-
ward direction. To some
extent the disadvantage of
a long neck is compensated
by an erect carriage, which;
by displacing the centre oi
gravity backward, lightens
the burden in front, and
at the same time gives a
light and easy hold to
the rein. While recog-
nizing the objectionable

Fig. 43.�The Mastoido-humeralis Muscle

A, Attachment to head. B, Body of the muscle, c, Attachment to
the humerus or upper arm bone

features of excess, amp

length is

nevertheless iB'

dispensable to speed, action, and brilliant carriage.

In the race-horse a long neck is especially requisite, for, as we have seeH>
the range of action of wdiich the shoulder is capable, and the forward move-
ment of the fore-limbs, will be mainly determined by the length of th^emuscle (mastoido humeralis), which, starting above from the back of th^e

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		CARRIAGE ₅₁ ^is ^l,,'thVw^tef J^>y,^the_u^lenS^tl1 ^of the neck. The neck in some respects ^maintaim_n� _enTK ^balaneing-pole is to the gymnast, viz. a means of ^ments- Tlti_s i^U "^Um °^f ^the ^bod7 ⁱⁿ the performance of its varied move- '^Sicl1' "1 the walk + i ^8l7 ^iUustrated ⁱⁿ ^the ^swing of the neck from side to P^osture, it₈ ran-'l i ^Vatl0n ^when ^the ^body "» raised from the recumbent ^rigl't or to the left ^nati°ⁿ ^fr°^m °^ne ^side ^to ^the ^other ⁱⁿ turning to the ^lt ^U) respond n^_tl ^Ample ^lenS^th g^ives pliability to the neck, and enables ^passes from one¹ � ^m ^regulating ^the ^centre ^of gravity while the body ^eils.^v of control _anf^tltude ^to ^an°ther. Moreover, it renders the animal qualities which tl ^lmparts ^to ^the ^movements steadiness, ease, and grace� ^1)e ^Avorth anytV ^nding"^horse ^and ^the driving-horse should both possess ^A short neck f^lng ment, i_10r _to _tl' ^0r reasons stated above, is not conducive to rapid move- l^,r,!Portions. ^ ^mobility of the body which is seen in more extended ^uscular develop⁰¹⁶^⁶¹' ^kck ^of ^length ^is ^usually identified with great Phability, j_t . ^Pment, by which the part is rendered heavy and wanting in ^SJ^tllei' inconsiste^ ^ ^ ^understood ^tbat shortness in this region is alto- ⁰¹ action i_n _th_e f ,^Wlth ^a ^fast P^ace' ^but ^since ⁱⁿ this condition the range ^erefore be o-_re ^'l¹¹¹³⁸ ^is considerably diminished, its repetition must ^^Vear and + ^lncreased to make up the difference, thus adding to In the drauT °^f ^b°^th ^b°^dy ^and ^legS' ^attribute is th"^8lt"^norse' ^whose movements are slow, and whose highest ^Sulting from _a 8h^nergy ^and ^P°^Wer ^he ^Can ^put ^forth' ^any ^disadvantag^e re- ^massi_Ve and stro ^ ^^ ^ ^comP^ensated ^wbere the muscles clothing it are I>e,sid_e8 th l ^g" ^f0l'^Ul 3l not^os"⁸-¹¹ ^and ^Carriage ^of ^the ^neck> ^the ^exP^ert J^udg^e ^of horse °rU8cul_ar _11Cck ^0Se sight of the importance of its mass. A strong, heavy, ^6eD' ^UQ attrib ⁶ °^aSe °^f ^tke ^sl°w-moving draught-horse is, as we have P^ose f_0r ^ ^of strength, and therefore a condition suited to the ⁰ hunter, and th � ^&nimal ^is required; but to the race-horse, the chaser, \|^Vl11 ^Qot only i_nt ,? ^k ^any ^surP^lus weight attached to the cervical lever ^J6ai; °f the fore-p¹ v,^re ^^ P^rog^ression> ^but materially add to the wear and ^lr^fhcated should¹¹}! ^ ^these ^and °^tlier ^reasons ^tbe neck in the cases k '^ ^tlle same t ^^ ^Hgllt ^without ^being ^weak> ^and ^carried well up. °^sfc ^e°nditi_0ns ^lme * ^is ^su�iounted by a well-proportioned head the appertaining to this region will be secured.

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52 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

			THE WITHERS

		As we have elsewhere indicated, the withers comprise that more or less elevated portion of the spine situ- ated between the back and the neck, and supported on either side by the upper extremity of the shoulders. In form, extent, and character they are liable to considerable variation, according to the age, sex, and type of the animal. In early life this region is but slightly marked, but it becomes more and more con- spicuous as the animal advances towards maturity, and the bony framework is developed. It is more prominent in the male than in the female, and more sharply outlined in the gelding than the stallion. The character of the withers, although somewhat variable in the members of each class, is very much influenced by breed. In the thoroughbred they are marked by considerable elevation and refine- ment, while in the commoner breeds they are more or less low, fleshy, and thick. Between the two extremes there are numerous intermediate forms. When the withers are high, and thin from side to side, they are spoken of as being "fine" or sharp. When they are low and thick, they are described as coarse. Height of the Withers.�The height of this region is determined for the most part by the length ot the dorsal spines, and their pr°" minence above the level of the
	Fig. 4 A, V_r»ndior upknee.or lon

	pedis or foot bone. L, Rib.

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		Plate iv.

HIGH WITHERS

	LOW WITHERS

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		THE WITHERS
			53


scapular cartilages will be in proportion as the fore part of the body is suspended higher or lower between the fore extremities. Keference to fig. 44 will explain how the trunk, suspended by muscles etween the two front legs, may vary in height in different animals, and ¹ > m consequence, the withers are rendered more or less prominent.

	Fig. 45.�Ligamentnm Nuchse A, Cordiform portion. B, Lamellar or flat portion, c, Attachments to dorsal spines. Nos. 1 to 7, Cervical Vertebrae. ^e elevation of a increases the height of the withers in proportion ^e trunk is set higher or lower between the supports bb. e importance of the withers as an element of conformation will be ^K ^Understood when considered in respect to their anatomical relations, y reference to fig. 45 it will be seen that the great elastic ligament gives passive support to the head and neck is implanted into the its of the bones forming this region. \|\/r It. o o scles which raise the head and neck, and move it from side to side, as well a «<->+!. i � i others which elevate the shoulder and extend the spine, are _t ⁿected with it. The freedom and energy with which these parts the K ⁶ ^actiⁿg is greatly increased when the withers are high, since Y lever upon which they act is lengthened, and their contraction

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

is rendered more effective in its results. In addition to being high, the
withers should also be ample in length from before to behind, and sloped
so as to fall well into the back.

Ample depth and backward inclination of the shoulder are usually
found where the withers are high and sloping. Under these conditions it

results that the head is well carried,
the fore end heightened, the play of the
shoulder increased, and greater liberty
is given to the entire body. It must,
however, be noted that the advantages
of height in this region will be more or
less discounted in riding-horses if the
withers are unduly thin, owing to the
difficulty in protecting them against
injury by the saddle.

Coarse Withers are characterized
by undue thickness, besides which they
are usually low and wanting in length
and backward slope.

In animals so constructed the head
and neck are badly carried, the shoulders
lack liberty and range of movement, and
the action of the fore-limbs is restricted.
Moreover, withers when low (Plate IV,
fig. 2) and coarse are exposed to in-
jury from forward displacement of the
saddle, and the imposition of undue
weight on the fore-limbs not only impairs
the action, but adds materially to the

Fig. 46.�Section through the Withers
A, Rhomboideus. B, Cervical trapezius, c, Lon-
gissimus dorsi. D, Scapula. B, Infra spinatus.
F, Panniculus. G, Latissimus dorsi. H, Serratus
magnus. I, Interspinals dorsi. 3. Levatores cos-
tarum. K, Transversalis costarum. L, Serratus
anticus. M, Skin.

wear and tear of the legs. It must not,
however, be concluded that the indiffer-
ent qualities referred to are necessarily
identified with coarseness. We fi'^e~

quently see horses with thick, coarse
withers but still possessing ample height, length, and obliquity, and maybe
a well-disposed shoulder, which, however, it should be observed, has the
defect of being always more or less loaded. In these examples the necK
also tends to coarseness, and although the action of both shoulders and
knees may be ample, it is usually of the heavy-dwelling order, and badly
sustained. Coarseness of this region is often identified with animals o
a low type, which, while being deficient in energy, display a marked ten-

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		Plate V.





SHORT BACK, DISHED FACE

	LONG BACK

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		55
	THE BACK	55
	THE BACK

dency to fatten, and a " soft", or, as it is sometimes expressed, a " washy" constitution. Horses of this cast are difficult to "condition", and lack power of endurance. In the cart-horse, whose movements are slow and whose value centres in the power he is capable of developing in draught, coarseness of the withers, indicating as it does great muscular development, is a point of excellence rather than a defect; and when, in addition, this region is of good height and length, the mechanical advantage is still further enhanced. A glance at fig. 46 will assist in explaining the conditions which determine the coarseness or fineness of the withers. From the above it will be seen that in the anatomical composition of this region there are a variety of structures. Centrally placed appear the spines of the vertebrae; outside these, right and left, a quantity of muscular tissue, being parts of several muscles here belonging; then come the scapular cartilages, followed by another layer of muscle, and finally the skin which encloses the whole. It is to these parts, and to the fibrous tissue which binds them together, that the withers owe their thickness or thinness, and in proportion as they are more or less bulky will the one or the other condition prevail. THE BACK The back is essentially the weight-bearing region, and as such is of the first importance to the utility and beauty of the horse. Moreover, it is through the spinal column that the body is propelled by the hind extremities in its forward movements, and by the muscles which clothe it that the trunk is raised from end to end, and the weight imposed upon it supported in executing the different paces. The extent of the back is limited in front by the withers, behind by the loins, while its width is determined by the arches of the ribs. Length.�It is generally conceded by the best judges of horses that the back should be short,- but what degree of shortness is desirable is a question upon which writers at any rate are not in agreement. " In all cases", says Captain Hayes, " the horse's back and loins should have the appearance of being as short as possible", and most authors who have writ!en on this subject pretend that shortness of the back constitutes its beauty. H. Bouley has very judiciously asserted that this pro- position is too absolute. " A very short back is not desirable except in animals destined to carry heavy weights, as the shaft-horse, the pack-horse, and the saddle-horse."

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		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
56		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
56

	In this we quite concur, recognizing that a back too short not only brings the anterior and posterior limbs too much in proximity with each other and reduces the base of support, but by diminishing the length of the muscles which act upon the limbs from the trunk and the great propelling muscles of the back, materially reduces the capacity for Beyond this, the back, when unduly short, although possessing great stability and power, lacks the suppleness and elasticity which more extended proportions afford. It should also be pointed out that the length of the chest being in conformity with the length of the back, which forms its roof, any deficiency in the latter will materially diminish the capacity of the former. In this connection, however, some compen- sation may be assured if the chest be deep and the ribs well arched. A back of too great length is an evidence of weakness, and is frequently associated ° with legginess, lightness of muscle, and want of stamina. It lacks solidity and resistance to the weight imposed upon it, and under stress of work tends to become depressed and hollow. The disadvantages of a long back are minimized when it is wide and muscular, and supported by short, strong loins. Ample width is at all times essential to a good back. Any shortcoming m this respect is identified with corresponding deficiency of power in the back muscles, and narrow- ness of the chest. When this region is very narrow the spinal ridge is prominent and sharp, and liable to injury from the saddle, which is always badly carried; moreover, the sides are flat and the chest conse- quently deficient in capacity. Loins.�The loins comprise that portion of the spine interposed between the back in front and the croup and haunches behind. Below, it is in relation with the flanks. « Whatever may be the work the animal is destined to perform, the loins should be as short as possible, a condition of solidity important to recoo-nize, because the lumbar vertebra have no support laterally from the ribs as in the case of the backbones, being simply articulated one with the other. Its shortness also favours the impetus transmitted by ' the posterior limbs to the spine, because it lessens the elasticity and mobility of the structures through which the force of impulsion must pass As to the relation of the entire length of the dorso-lumbar region the back should be long and the loins short, especially in saddle- and pack-horses."�Goubaux and Barrier. When the loins are short and the ribs approximate to the hauncn, the animal is said to be "well ribbed up". A long, weak loin, by separating these parts, increases the width of the flanks and gives the

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		Plate VI.

	BACK HOLLOW FROM AGE

BACK NATURALLY HOLLOW

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		57
	DIRECTION OF THE BACK AND LOINS	57
	DIRECTION OF THE BACK AND LOINS

appearance of slackness, hence the common expression, " slack in the loin". Horses so constructed are said to "want a rib". DIRECTION OF THE BACK AND LOINS The line described by these regions will be found to vary to a con- siderable extent in different individuals. In some it is straight, in others more or less curved in an upward or downward direction. A straight back is the one universally recognized by judges as com- bining the greatest measure of power with the most perfect freedom and scope of action. An upward curve of the back is described as a roach back (Plate VIII). Most writers appear to agree that this condition is specially adapted to the purpose of bearing weight, but it presents several important disadvantages. In animals so constructed the back is shortened by the upward curvature, and the great spinal muscles are said to be wanting in development�two conditions distinctly opposed to great range and rapidity of movement. Captain Hayes points out that as a rule in these cases the " chest is flat-sided", but Goubaux and Barrier aflirm that it is " incorrect to associate this condition with flat ribs and a narrow chest". Between the two statements there is a medium which best accords with the experi- ence of the waiter, and it may be expressed by saying that sometimes roach-backed horses are flat-sided. In both light and heavy draught-horses this defect is sometimes acquired by beino- forced into heavy and prolonged work at an early period of life, while the bones and ligaments of the spine are imperfectly developed. Horses thus deformed are said to be " pulled out of shape". Whether congenital or acquired, however, this arching of the back is seldom found to interfere with the services of the shaft-horse whose ^work does not call for rapid locomotion. It is an eyesore, and as such materially depreciates the value of the animal in which it occurs. The back is hollow or saddle-backed when it describes a downward curve (Plate VI). Here the bones of the spine are depressed, either as the consequence of some disturbance in the course of development, or from relaxation of the ligaments by which they are united and supported. In this type of horse the vertebrge lack firmness of union, the back as a whole is wanting in rigidity and power of resistance, with the result that the weight, instead of being borne by the bones, is in too great part supported V the connecting ligaments, which, when overburdened, yield, and V so doing add to the existing defect. Not only is the superimposed ^Weight badly sustained, but, owing to want of solidity in the spine, the

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		58 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS force of the impulses transmitted to it in progression by the hind extremities is greatly diminished. It is for these reasons that sway-backed animals lack the power and pace of others more perfectly constructed. This condition, like the roach-back, may result when horses are sub- jected to hard work and heavy burdens during their colthood. It is also developed in very old animals, whose back muscles, becoming wasted and weak, fail in their support of the spine and the weight imposed upon it. In considering this defect it must not be overlooked that hollowness of the back is in many cases more apparent than real. Horses with lofty carriage, prominent withers, and high croup often give the appearance of hollowness, although the back may be anatomically and physiologically perfect, and a similar false appearance will result if the spines surmounting the vertebrae in this region are exceptionally short and the muscles slightly developed. In any case hollowness of the back, whether real or only apparent, is an eyesore. In the former case it is a serious defect as well, insomuch as it diminishes the capacity to race, or jump, or carry weight. Horses thus, formed are more especially adapted for harness purposes. THE CROUP The croup comprises that part of the body situated between the loins. and the setting on of the tail. It extends on each side as far as the upper part of the thighs and buttocks. The pelvis, which together with the sacrum forms the bony base of this region, although entering into the formation of the trunk, must nevertheless be regarded as parts of the hind extremities. corresponding with the scapulas or shoulder-blades of the fore-limbs. The coxse or uppermost bones of the posterior limbs are united together below, and joined to the sacrum or terminal portion of the spine above. By this arrangement a firm and compact union is effected between the leg and the trunk, so that the impulses from behind may be imparted to the entire body, through the articulation of the femur or thigh-bone with the pelvis. To the horse as a living motor the construction and development ot this region is of supreme importance. In galloping, jumping, rearing, as well as in draught, those vigorous efforts which enter into the highest expression of speed and power are mainly produced by the action of the muscles of the croup on the upper and lower thigh. How far that action may be effective in the one case or the other will depend upon the mechanical arrangement of the parts. Length and width are qualities to which the croup owes its chief beauty

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				PLATE VII.

			:;,* '^f-_: \|=*

E»X -~. ■'.. .e�m

	STRAIGHT CROUP

		SLOPING CROUP

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		59
	THE GROUP	59
	THE GROUP

and power. All horses, whatever their type and purpose, should possess these attributes in a high degree, and of course in proportions best adapted to the particular services required of them. In the race-horse an extended croup is of the first importance to the development of a high rate of speed. "The muscles are then long, and their range of contraction and power over the bony levers on which they act is correspondingly great. In the heavy draught-horse great length is not an essential quality, but, other things being equal, an extended croup is a feature much to be desired, since it not only adds to the beauty of the animal as a whole, but materially increases the liberty and scope of action of the hind-limbs. Just as length is identified with speed, so is width related to power; hence it becomes of the first importance that in horses designed for heavy work the pelvis should be broad, thus affording ample space for the attach- ment of large, powerful muscles. Here it should be pointed out that the full width of the coxae or pelvis is not always accurately expressed in the transverse diameter of the croup, inasmuch as any marked downward slope or lateral inclination of the former will tend to reduce the width of the latter; but since m these circumstances the width of the bones remains the same and the muscles are undiminished in volume, it is not of material importance to the horse as a living motor. As we have already observed, ample width is essential in all classes ov horses, but in the lighter breeds excess in this direction becomes a fault, more or less serious in proportion as it is great. A croup too wide imparts to the action behind a heavy, rolling character; the movements of the limbs are thus made to dwell, and progression is impaired. In the slow-moving draught-horse this is of no importance, but m those employed for riding and driving purposes it is a serious defect. A narrow croup, although less objectionable in the latter than the former, is in both a sign of weakness. Besides length and width, the direction of the croup also exercises con- siderable influence in determining the aptitude of the horse for particular service. The highest point of this region occurs immediately behind the loins where the internal angles of the ilia or haunch-bones are firmly united with the sacrum or terminal portion of the spine. Thence it proceeds more or less obliquely in a backward and downward course. Everyone recognizes the great variation existing in the degree of inclination of this region, but few appreciate the nature of its influence on the peculiar mechanical endowments of the animal. The slope of the croup is in one way or another governed by the slope

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		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	GO	CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

of the pelvis, which forms its bony base; and although it is impossible to define the precise measure of power or speed which may be evolved under different degrees of inclination, it is fully recognized that while the former of these two forces is favoured by great obliquity, the latter is best de- veloped by a direction approaching the horizontal. When the conformation of this region is marked by great obliquity the horse is designed to " employ great force at a slow pace, while with the croup disposed horizontally he is capable of developing great speed, but fails when called upon to carry weight or cover a long course. For light carriage work such a conformation may suffice, but it is not adapted for heavy draught. " Between these two extremes there are numerous intermediary types which may with sufficient ease be grouped into three categories as follows:� "1. Saddle-horses which are obliged to move a more or less heavy weight carried on their back, at a sufficiently great velocity, whether at the trot or the gallop. Those which are destined for the turf should have a croup approaching the horizontal ideal of 25 degrees, but with a more oblique ilium (30 degrees) for the purpose of giving solidity to the structures anterior to it. Trotters are benefited by a somewhat more oblique direction of the ilium (35 degrees). As to hunters and cavalry horses, used exclusively under the saddle, and from which great strength of the loins and posterior quarters but less speed are demanded, their croup should have an intermediary position between the oblique croup of the draught- horse and the horizontal one of the thoroughbred. . . . "2. Driving-horses employed on the track or as animals of luxury, whose exclusive gait is the trot without any weight on the back, can without disadvantage have a horizontal croup. " This is appreciated as a quality of beauty and fashion as well as for its mechanical advantages in rapid locomotion. " 3. In draught-horses for fast, heavy work or mixed motors, combining at the same time force from their bulk and their muscular power and a certain speed from their relative muscular activity ... a croup slightly more inclined than that of the cavalry horse or the trotting horse will fulfil the required conditions". (Goubaux and Barrier). Excessive inclination or backward slope of the croup constitutes the unsightly condition known as " goose-rump". Such a conformation, al- though not inconsistent with ordinary work, is incapable of great speed. In the heavy horse it is the least objectionable, for although by such construction the force of impulsion is transmitted too much in the vertical direction to yield its fullest effects, the powers of draught may still be very considerable.

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			PLATE VIII.

	ROACH BACK

GOOD QUARTERS
		SPLIT-UP

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				61
			THE BREAST	61
			THE BREAST

THE BREAST The dimensions of this region are more especially interesting on account °f its width, which by many is regarded as an indication of the size and capacity of the chest. This, however, both observation and dissection have proved not to be the case. The distance between the two first ribs varies out little in animals of the same variety and size, although the actual width

		Fig. 47.�Narrow Breast Kg- 48.�Broad Breast

	of the breast may present very considerable differences in the same speci- mens. The cause of this discrepancy will be found in the varying size of the muscles, especially those which unite the fore extremity to the sternum or breast-bone. When these are largely developed the pectoral region is full, deep, and broad, and still more so if associated with general obesity. W hen from any cause such an animal is made to waste as a consequence °f disease or indifferent food, a difference in the transverse diameter soon becomes apparent. It is not, however, to be understood that the size of these muscles, and therefore the width of the breast, bears no relation to the respiratory capacity, for " dense and vigorous muscles require a spacious

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₆₂ CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS thorax, whence it follows that the width of the pectoral region owing to the volume of its muscles, should coincide with a certain degree of respua tory power If therefore this region is narrow it becomes desirable to dete- ne to what cause this narrowness is due whether to that of the thorax directly or to the animal's condition." (Goubaux and Barrie.) The same eminent authorities observe that horses endowed with speed should be well open in front. A very narrow breast is always to be r- warded as a defect of conformation. It indicates, they say, a feeble rvX-nt of the muscular system and very often respiratory organs o small amplitude » Captain Hayes, however, is of opinion tha a ra e-horse cannot be too narrow in front, but he insists that his ^%^* properly shaped and properly put on, and that the action m fiont shal be true "f which may be taken to mean that he shall possess a fair amount ^Tgreattenefit could result to the function of respiration by the front ribs being placed wide apart; too great width at this point, whether from the°size of the muscles or from the space between the ribs, would be a distinct mechanical disadvantage to horses of speed, for by separating the fore-limbs it would unduly enlarge the base of support, and by disp acmg the centre of gravity from side to side the forward impulses would be weakened and the velocity diminished. In heavy horses a deep, wide, muscular breast is a point of superior excellence because it adds to the bulk and increases the power of draught, in which slow but energetic movements are most essential.

		CHEST AND ABDOMEN

	Although having comparatively little concern directly with the mechanism of locomotion, the chest and abdomen require the fullest .consideration, not only in relation with the extremities by which they are supported, but also in regard to the organs they enclose. In the chest are contained the central organs of circulation and respiration, heart and lungs; while the abdomen gives lodgment to the more volu- minous apparatus devoted to the digestion and assimilation of the foot It may be said, therefore, that these two regions which mamly compose the trunk are specially related with those organs to whose physiological activity the body owes its energy, whether expressed m the terms ol "speed" or "force". It will be manifest from this that whatever may be the type of horse, whether constructed for pace or power, the.high* development attainable in these parts should be sought for As Goubau* and Barrier observe, "The body containing the organs which are ^

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			63

		THE CHEST

essential to life . . . cannot be defective from ^^ ^J^°^ If disproportion seems to exist in the trunk compared to the limo , ^ tin- latter are not properly constructed to support the ^toimer, generally, although excess may not be objectionable, the same cannot said of deficiency of development. u^+hnnt « Our machine, having a weak chest and small abdomen, wil be wr^out energy, without wind, and capable of very little exertion. Such an anrm will be a poor feeder and will not last long." , With reference to the general dimensions of the trunk, it need on y be said here that ample depth and width throughout are of ttft importance to continued soundness and endurance. Undue lengtn � defect in so far as it can only be acquired by such an ^^e ^eJ to length of the back as to place the muscles of the latter at a distinct ^uu'^lh� disadvantage in raising the forehand. Moreover, as po nte -t by Captain Hayes, "The longer it is, the ^« «T^J^ ^e- and hmd-li_mbs be from each other, and the less able will the annual *» to carry _Weight»₅ or to move it. It is a point of conformation equally objectionable in the heavier and in the lighter types of horses since the solidity and strength o^ the back, so necessary in draught, is dmmishea by undue length; and the action of the hind-limbs is transmitted with less force along the spine.

	THE CHEST The cavity termed the thorax or chest has for its bony base the dorsal vertebra above, the sternum or breast-bone below, and the nDS «* either side. The spaces between the latter are tilled w by the intercostal muscles. In front it is limited by the neck, and behind by the diaphragm�a broad, flat muscle which intervenes between it and the abdominal cavity. The size and mobility of the chest walls, and consequently the volume and breathing capacity of the lungs, are mainly due to the length and disposition of the ribs, especially those situated behind the shoulder, where, unlike those in front, the lower extremities have no fixed attachment to the sternum below, and are greatly increased in length by the addition of tapering rods of elastic cartilage (fig. 49). The movements of the ribs in ordinary breathing tend to increase the size of the chest during inspiration and to diminish it during expiration, but the manner in which these changes are effected is not, as commonly supposed by some people, ^Y ^tbe rising and falling of the ribs at right angles with the long axis ^the body. I_t _is _foundj _on _tlie _contrary, that when the chest expands

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

it does so by the ribs being drawn forward and outward, while at the
same time the intercostal spaces are enlarged by the separation of the
ribs one from the other. In contraction of the chest during expiration
these movements are reversed, the intercostal spaces becoming narrower
and the ribs being brought nearer together.

The extent to which the chest is capable of enlarging is much greater
behind, where the ribs are long and loosely connected below, than in

front, where they are shorter and more closely though
movably united to the breast-bone as well as to the
spine above. From these considerations it will be
seen that the power of expansion possessed by the
thorax is for the most part due to the length and
curvature of the posterior ribs, and it is for this
reason that ample scope is so much desired in this
region.

The points of special interest as affecting the
conformation of the chest are its dimensions in
respect to height, width, and length.

Height.�The vertical diameter of the chest is
spoken of by hippotomists as its height. This
dimension, although regulated by the length of the
ribs, is not necessarily in exact conformity with it,

"Fig. 49.�Two Ribs, showing at
a a the Costal Cartilages

but will be greater or less for ribs of given length
according to their degree of curvature. The greater

the curve described by the ribs the less will be
the distance between their two extremities, and consequently the less
will be the vertical diameter of the chest; but it should be noted that
any diminution in the vertical distance resulting from their convexity
will be added to the transverse diameter, and thus what is lost in height
is gained in width. Ribs of moderate length, but wanting in curvature,
may give a fairly deep chest, but the sides will be flat and the capacity
of the thorax small in consequence. As Cline has observed, the more
the chest departs from a cylindrical form the less becomes its capacity.
Ample depth in this region is commonly denoted by the position of the
sternum, which should come well down below the point of the elbow.
This, however, is not always a reliable indication, as the position of the
chest between the fore extremities may be set higher or lower by the
muscles which suspend it, just as the height of the withers, as we have
seen elsewhere, may be influenced by the same cause.

From what has been said it will be seen that it is of the first
importance to the beauty and utility of our subject that the ribs should

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THE CHEST

still i5' ^n0t °ⁿ^ ^t^^lat ^^e ^c^-^est ^may he deep, but, more important
ba k- ^lat ** ^may ^wel1 ^arcned- Besides this they must be well inclined
sho ]?^rd ^towards the haunch, to which the posterior or "back" ribs
be i ^near^ approximate. It is equally important that they should
strn t*. ^W^⁶ ^aP^art ^an^ united by broad intercostal muscles. So con-

ttiove
A:

, the ribs will have plenty of play in their outward and forward
u ' ^ano- the capacity of the chest will be correspondingly large,

of i- , ^lortcoming in these respects imparts to the body an appearance
parl_a f^S' ^legginess, and instability. The animal will be, in stable

and j' ^s^^ach hi the loin ", badly " ribbed up ", and wanting in power
endurance.

With y^ot observes that the distance between the summit of the

that 1 ^a ^^e ^sternum iⁿ ^a well-formed chest should be greater than
C_a,_)t, � ^Ween the sternum and the ground. Eeferring to this point,
i_lle;l, ■^tiayes, in his work on The Points of the Horse, contrasts the
0_ni J ^ent^s of the race-horse with those of the draught-horse, selecting
^h 11 ^e ^ano St. Simon as examples of the one, and the shire horse
^re$ult f ^U1UD° ^and shire mare Chance as examples of the other. The
his measurements are given in the following table:�

Cheadle Jumbo.

Chance.

St. Simon.

Ormonde.

34 ins.
33 ins.

27-1 ^ins-

35 ins.
314 ins.

29 ins.

36J ins.

35^ ins.

^a ^four-_VpWas _a / ^ar"°ld, and those of St. Simon in September, 1884, when

^c°nditi_OTl

^e~year-old, and presumably both horses would be in racing

^shiie 1, ^XiJ ^1S ^no^' however, stated at what age or in what condition

Would

ttiate]

.^Ses Were when their measurements were taken, and as this

^la% affect the comparison, it is impossible, in the absence

to estimate the value and accuracy of the conclusions at

^s||,,w _a^-. ^ain Hayes has arrived. Both Cheadle Jumbo and Chance were

^l0w

^Conuit_10n

^ano if the measurements w^Tere taken while in the usual

'uteris} * ^1UQ' ^no ^reliable conclusion could be drawn as to the relative
^f°ttQ. j ^S °^f ^the chest and limbs by comparison with horses in racing

referri

^^engtb ₀fV^eieriln^ g^enerally to the depth of chest as compared with
that << jf ^ln different types of horses, Captain Hayes points out

v_0I,. _T < take Ormonde as the highest type of the race-horse we

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		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	6ti	CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	6ti

shall find that the distance from the top of his withers to his brisket, if applied down his fore-leg, will reach from his brisket only to the bottom of his fetlock. In the high-class Leicestershire hunter it will come down to the middle of the pastern, in the heavy-weight hunter to the coronet; in the artillery 'wheeler', or light cart-horse, to the ground; and in a Cheadle Jumbo it will be four inches more in length." Width.�In the exercise of our judgment on this point it is necessary to view the chest first from the front, whence the extent to which the ribs project beyond the line of the shoulder will be noticed, and then by standing first to the right and then to the left, before and behind respec- tively, a more complete inspection may be made of its general contour. The greatest width of this region will be found at a point corresponding to about the eleventh rib. It is, however, to be understood that in estimating the transverse diameter of the chest some consideration must be given to the condition of the horse as to his state of obesity and muscular development. Very fat animals may display ample width and roundness for the time being, only, however, to subside to the meanest proportions after a brief period of ordinary work, or a change from sloppy food to hard corn. Conversely, the standard of measurement presented by horses, and especially young ones, when ill-done and emaciated, may lead to an under-estimate of what the transverse measurement of the thorax may be when they are in fair condition. To be able to appreciate these discrepancies and to form a sound judgment of the actual dimensions of this region is a qualification only to be acquired by long practice and close observation. LEGS The legs are supports situated right and left of the anterior and posterior extremity of the body respectively, hence they are distinguished as front- and hind-limbs. They each comprise a column of bones articulated together at irregular intervals, forming large, free-moving joints, and besides supporting the trunk serve for the attachment of muscles through whose agency the body is moved from place to place. The muscular apparatus by which this is effected is confined to the upper portion of the limbs, and by means of long tendons (fig. 12, p. 20) acts upon and directs the movements of the bony segments below. By this disposition of parts the lower portion of the leg is rendered light, and enjoys as the result a freedom and liberty which could not otherwise have been the case. The weight of muscles attached to the lower extremity ^oi

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		Plate IX.

	GOOD FORE-LEGS

WEAK FORE-LEGS

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LEGS

^a long lever, such as the leg represents, would not only render the steps
heavy and the movements awkward, but it would also lower the centre of
gravity and seriously interfere with progression. Moreover, the grace and
elegance of form and action which the horse now possesses could not in
such circumstances exist.

Function of the Limbs.�Although the action of the fore and
bind extremities have much in common, their functions are in some
Aspects widely different. This might be inferred from the manner of
their attachment zo the trunk, the fore part of which is supported, as
ⁿ a sling, by muscles which con-
^^eet it to the fore extremities.
% reference to fig. 44, p. 50, it
"^nl be seen that there is no joint
^r solid union between the fore-
hmbs and the chest such as is
°und between the hind extre-

E-"

mities and the pelvis. In the
°rmer ease the scapula or blade-
ⁿe moves freely over the sur-
^aee of the ribs with which it is in
°^0se contact, while in the latter

^Ue head of the thigh-bone (fig. 50)
confined by strong ligaments
^Un the cup-like cavity of the

Fig. 50.�Articulation of the Hip Joint

A A, Capsular or enclosing ligament. B, Round ligament.
0, Pubio-femoral ligament. D, Cotyloid ligament. E, Head
of femur.

j. *^s> with which it forms the
an 1 ^U^' through which the hind-limbs transmit their propulsive efforts
Sect the forward movement of the body.

Wil] be noticed later that the weight borne by the front limbs

hav
is

^^at ^sustained by the hind ones, and in addition to this they

^a^so to receive and disperse the forcible impact from behind which

posed upon them in racing and jumping, and in a less degree
t,i -⁶ -, ^Wer paces. Their ability to meet these requirements is

r ed by the peculiar manner of their attachment to the trunk.
', as we have seen, is effected by muscles only, which permit the
& and propulsive force to fall upon the passive organs of locomotion

1 . ^s' tendons, and ligaments�without exciting that violent reaction
would necessarily result had the scapula a fixed articulation with
^unk, such as exists between the pelvis and the thigh-bone.

iU be seen, therefore, that besides being organs of support, the fore-
re specially designed to break and disperse the concussion to which
j re exposed in the more energetic movements of the body.

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CONFOKMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

As organs of propulsion they exercise but slight influence as compared
with the hind-limbs. Their greatest efforts in this connection are
developed in heavy draught (fig. 51), when "the body strongly in-
clined forward gives the fore-legs an oblique direction backward, which

permits them to push
against the collar to
which the shoulders
are energetically ap-
plied. It is by the
extension or opening
out of all the articu-
lar angles previously
semi-flexed that the
fore-limbs are able to
accomplish this result.
When they are di-
rected obliquely and
in an inverse direc-

Fig. 51.-Oblique Position of the Limbs in drawing a Load

tion, as is seen some-

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^ times at the begin-

ning of the effort of traction, the force which they exercise upon the trunk,
and therefore against the collar, is at its minimum. Traction forward can
be favourably executed only when the foot directed backward is fixed
against the roughness of the ground. This is observed in the draught-
horse as he moves his load; when the soil, the point of support, gives
way, the feet suddenly glide backward." (Goubaux and Barrier.)

THE SHOULDER

Of all the parts of a horse none perhaps come in for so much criticism
as the shoulder, and having regard to the influence it is capable of
exercising over the various phases of locomotion, and in safeguarding
the integrity of the limbs with which it is connected, no wonder can
be entertained that it should be made so much a matter of concern to
the breeder, the dealer, and the user of horses.

In this, as in most other regions, no single design can be made to
meet all purposes, and between the two extremes of conformation which
lend themselves respectively to speed and power some variation will neces-
sarily be found to exist. The measure of mechanical perfection either in
regard to the one requirement or the other being incapable of accomplish-
ment it must suffice to indicate the more salient features identified with each.

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		69
	THE SHOULDEK	69
	THE SHOULDEK

. In estimating the form and character of this region due consideration ^Wl11 require to be given to the general condition of the animal, which ^y very materially modify, if it does not altogether obliterate, the finer Matures of the part. This is very much the case in young highly-fed ^^0rses, and especially stallions and brood mares, in what is termed " show Edition", whose tissues, loaded with fat, almost completely efface the J^Utllne and bony landmarks of the shoulder. To the real judge of horse °^Q this is not of serious importance, for, recognizing the difficulty, he ^?l11 endeavour to determine the extent of its boundaries by close obser- vation of its movements and their relation to neighbouring parts, as the Withers, the neck, the back, and the chest. In the reverse condition, j^ether the spareness be the result of poverty or work, every part of }^e ^gbn becomes clearly defined, so that its general form, extent, and lection may be fully made out. °ne of the first essentials in the make-up of a horse is ample length ^e shoulder, in which a long blade-bone provides accommodation ^and attachment for muscles of proportionate size. The greater the ^ength of the latter the more they will be able to shorten during con- .Action, and the greater will be the range of movement they will effect jⁿ the act of progression. A long shoulder is much to be desired in ^^0l'ses of speed, and most of all in the thoroughbred. Without it the jj ^do not develop that sweeping stride which distinguishes the race- wTt" ^and ^the ^trotter- ⁰ⁿ ^the *^contraiT> ^e ^action ^is ^short' ^cramP^ed'** '^ln ^Ulg in elastic reaction, and conducive to concussion and wear of ^be limbs. sn>pi^ecessary ^as ^len§^tn ^is ^t0 ^tlie ^velocifcy ^of ^the §^ait'^{t* ^is ^only ^when profi_tT^ented ^b7 obliquity (Plate X, fig. 2) that the shoulder can fully horse t^? f" ^In ^a11 ^horses ^of whatever ^variety, ^from ^the ^heavv ^draug^nt" i_mport° ^the ^boys' pony, ample inclination of the blade-bone is of primary a lo_nw^anCe" ^HlS^h> sloping withers and a deep chest usually coexist with In tv^�ll~^iuclined ^snoul^der- the f₀ ^Condition the shoulder muscles are enabled to enhance greatly extend^9,1*¹ ^m°^Vement of the arm-bone, and to favour the elevation and But 1 ^^e ^entire l�!³- sl_0pi_no. ^^ere ^are ^otl^ier advantages of equal importance arising out of ^tlle ti\| ^S-, ^Ulders�they impart liberty and elasticity to the gait, lighten and _w ^and ^save the limbs from the injurious effects of concussion dev_el₀ ,^len§^tri ^and ^o1:)liquity the shoulder should combine a well- to th° ^metrical set of muscles, in volume and strength adapted fecial services of the animal. In the race-horse, whose purpose

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		_?0 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS is speed any undue thickness in this situation will seriously detract from LTgh ness of the forehand and prove an obstacle to both velocity and endurance, besides adding materially to the wear and tear o the limbs In a ess degree the same remarks will apply to the hack and the light harness-horte, in whom thick, fleshy shoulders are not only an eye sore, but greatly detract from the liberty and harmony of the gait by <wp,�burdening the forehand. TUsZl� is often aggravated by the coexistence of coarse withers and a neck surcharged with muscle. _ylinill_flpr. In the hunter and chaser, Captain Hayes observes, the shoulde blades should be long and oblique, so as to enable him in the best possible n atei to esist the shock of landing over a fence. On account of having ST^^Sna of work to do, his shoulders should be more muscular this special kina _The ^ _of _Mg _shoulders _bemg sloping lm\tbt him to tat off' more cleverly at any obstacle than he ^ItJZ^-^t^* range and rapidity of movement is Intne ^aug ₁ _th _and _obli_quity of the shoulders are not subordinate to.POW«, ff^M n \^ _at _n0 _timc °^f ^Tl^^oUoln^. AmpirienV, besides affording cons titute aBenaaBd ^ ^ ^^ ^ _& SitwS- well inclined increase the length, elasticity, and all his weight into the collar. Since, however, "horses cannot be made to fi the tvarness it would surely require but little ingenuity to make tot^JTS horse; if at the same time due regard was paid to the the harness n ^ ^ j _wnatever ground of ^aPPT!^r"i��U be observed that in some of the finest specimens of the .■Shi' and "'C yd lie" a sloping shoulder is one of the leadmg fenne ana _ v, y ^_d hmpness, and elastic ^flhehXt^ht�U- » sftihing contrast to the «Wr stiltv wobble of those otherwise constructed. ft niTtemains to notice that as mass is related to power, as length is to speea the shoulder muscles of the heavy draught-horse should b Ts tla possible, so that energy and weight together may operate

			in the collar.

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		PLATE X.

LONG SLOPING SHOULDER

	STRAIGHT SHOULDER

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		71
	THE ABM	71
	THE ABM

THE ARM The arm is intimately connected with the lateral aspect of the chest, and, like the shoulder-blade with which it articulates above, is completely invested by muscles. The two regions being outwardly undistinguish- able one from the other, some hippotomists have treated them together as jointly forming the shoulder, and large numbers of practical horse- men do not differentiate between them. The bony base of the upper arm is supplied by the humerus, a some- what massive bone whose superior extremity articulates with the scapula to form the shoulder-joint, from which it proceeds obliquely backward, and with the radius and ulna combines to form the elbow-joint. The range of movement of the upper arm and the forward swing ⁰¹ the entire limb will very much depend upon its length, which should be as great as possible so long as it is not out of proportion with the Moulder. Any discrepancy in this respect gives rise to relatively short shoulder Muscles, whose limited contraction would restrict the movements of the arm both in extent and freedom. When the arm is unduly long the shoulder muscles are overtaxed, and the forward movement of the limb is diminished. There is besides this a lack of liberty in the action of animals so constructed, and a disposition to stumble and to fall. When too short the forearm is not sufficiently advanced, as a result of which the step ^ls shortened and speed is diminished. " On general principles the shoulder and the arm. should be long absolutely, in order to be favourable to velocity; but with the same total length of these two segments, it is necessary that the former should be long and the latter short."�Goubaux and Barrier. The force exercised by the fore-limb in the forward movement of the body being directed through the arm, some importance must attach to the degree of inclination which this region presents. In this connection it is found that while great obliquity of the humerus detracts from a high rate of speed, in the heavy draught-horse such a condition becomes an advantage, since it gives to the muscles connected with it a more perpendicular insertion, whereby their power is increased. It is hardly necessary to say that to a proper length and direction ot the arm should be added a set of well-developed muscles.

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		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	72	CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	72

ELBOW The elbow is by no means the least important item in the make-up of the fore-limb, since it affords attachment to the largest and most powerful muscles of the fore extremity. Acting as a lever, the power of the muscles connected with it is augmented or diminished according as the lever arm is long or short. Besides being long the elbow should stand clear of the body, and be directed backward, or with the slightest outward inclination. When inclined too much in the latter direction the toes are made to turn inward, and the animal is said to be " pigeon-toed". When the elbow is directed towards the chest the feet are disposed outward. In addition to being unsightly both these conditions predispose to accident and injury. Speedy cutting, interfering, and stumbling are common consequences of these defects of conformation, besides which they disorder and retard the action and produce a rolling and irregular gait. FOBEABM Two bones (fig. II, p. 19) enter into the formation of the forearm. The radius, the longer and larger of the two, is situated in front, and extends from the arm to the knee; the ulna, whose upper extremity forms the projecting point of the elbow, is situated behind, and unites with the radius by ossific union for about two-thirds of its length. For the purpose of speed, the length of the step in progression, and consequently the velocity attainable, will be greatly influenced by the length of the forearm. From the point of view of speed, therefore, this region should be as long as possible. Although favourable to great range of forward movement and a high rate of progression, a long radius does not admit of that sharp, high knee action so much admired in the park hack. This kind of movement is more likely to be developed when the forearm is short. The muscles of this region both before and behind should be large and well set out, so that when viewed in profile the forearm presents ample width throughout its entire length; any undue and abrupt narrowing towards the knee not only disturbs the harmony of proportion, but is a sign of weakness, which will be still further emphasized in the tendons and parts below forming the region of the canon. Viewed from before, the forearm should be thick in conformity with its width.

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			73 KNEE

		It is also important, in order that the body may be truly balanced, tha^ it should be well directed. Any deviation from the vertical line m on way or another must be regarded as a serious defect of conformation, inasmuch as it alters the distribution of the body-weight, and m doing s not only tends to impair the natural action, but to relieve certain parts the limb to the detriment of others. ,,, Considered in relation to parts below the knee, the forearm should long and the canon short in all fast motors such as racers and chasers. The muscles of the former region, being coextensive with the bones wi in these circumstances enjoy a large range of contraction, and be aD move the shorter canon through a greater space and with greater rapicu y, and thereby develop a higher speed. KNEE The knee as a factor in locomotion is of much importance in relation to conformation. It i_s _a i_arge and complex joint, made up of a number o bones united by many connecting ligaments, and so arranged as to alio a free and extensive rancre of hinge-like action between it and the aim. Although the degree of movement which it permits is very considerable, it can only take place in the directions of flexion and extension i.e. bending the canon upon the forearm and projecting it forward, lmportan tendons, by whose agency these movements are effected, cross the anteno and posterior face of the joint respectively on their way to the bones be ow. From every point of view the knee should present ample space, its surface should be regular, and its parts clean and well-defined. An aspect of roundness is objectionable, since it denotes a thick skin and a super- abundance of connective tissue beneath it, as well as a low cast of breeding ^and ^a ^S()ft> lymphatic temperament. Viewed in profile the joint should be wide from front to back, and the Projecting angle seen at the outer and back part above should be large ^and Prominent, so as to give room for the play of the tendons which it partly encloses, and to furnish ample space for the attachment of others to it which assist in flexing the knee. Regarded from the front the joint should present a broad, flattened surface for the accommodation of the extensor tendons which pass over it. The further advantages of a large knee will be to provide large articular surfaces and generally to increase the capacity for movement, and to break and disperse the effects of concussion. The direction of the knee should -coincide with the vertical direction of the forearm and canon. Deviations from this course of one kind or another are frequently

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

observed, and present some of the worst and most objectionable defects of

conformation.

When the knee is displaced forward in advance of the vertical line

it is said to be "bowed", or the horse "stands over", "knee sprung", &c.

(fig. 52).

This deformity may exist at birth and con-
tinue through the life of the animal, when it is
said to be "congenital", or, as more frequently
occurs, it arises out "of hard work, injury, and
contraction of the weight-bearing structures of
the limb, especially the back tendons and liga-
ments. Other examples result from an enfeebled
state of the flexor and extensor muscles, whose
tendons being relaxed fail to give support to the

joint.

When of congenital origin "bowed knees" are

not a serious defect except in bad cases, but when

otherwise induced they impair the working powers

of the animal and

render him dangerous

both in the shafts and

Fig. 52.�Bowed Knees

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ under saddle.

When the knees incline backward (fig. 53)
the horse is said to have " calf knees ". This
is a condition most frequently met with among
heavy horses, but we are not aware of any
serious defect arising out of it. It may, how-
ever, conduce to sprain of the back tendons and
ligaments in horses of speed, as some writers
have affirmed, by displacing the weight unduly
backward.

Lateral deviation of the knees may also
occur in an inward or outward direction. In
the former the joints approach each other

more or less closely and the feet are turned

Fig. 53. �Calf Knees

outward (fig. 55). In the latter they are
set wide apart while the feet are directed inward (fig. 56). These
disturbances in the conformation of the limbs are not only un-
sightly but serious. Besides rendering the animal unsafe to ride
or" drive and awkward of gait they give rise to an unequal distribu-
tion of the body-weight on the supporting columns and conduce to

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THE CANON

*� Toes turned

Fig. 56.�Toes turned in

Fig. 55.�In-kneed

limb*¹ °^f ^the ^connectmg ^and supporting ligaments of the joints and

THE CANON

This

behind ^re^^lon ^⁸ limited above by the knee in front and by the hock

^eitlbra_c' helow by the fore and hind fetlock joints respectively. It

^whieh ^Vlthiri its circumference the three metacarpal bones, in front of

are |i *-

°f the f ti extensor tendons, while behind, the suspensory ligament

*ⁿ the orrl ^C ^^e ^carP^al ^or check-ligament, and the flexor tendons follow

^ °^CeUni ^named. The canon bone proper is the longer of the three.

^aild th_e f fi ^Central position and assists in forming the knee-joint above

I_m^^0ck-Joint below.
^^w° sra_a]i y behind the large canon, lodged in a groove formed by the
⁸trono- J3 P^llnt-bones, is the suspensory ligament of the fetlock-joint, a
^attaeh_e(j l ^ene band of dense, tough, though elastic structure firmly

^es (s ^Ve. ^° ^^e ^uPP^er extremity of the canon and below to the small
°Ppositi₀ bones) behind the fetlock-joint, which it supports in

^SPHn -^t0 ^tlle ^weight imposed upon them by the body.
(%> 12 ^ ^ trom behind the knee and hock, where it is firmly attached

powerful b ²°^' ^iS

a thick, short, tendinous cord, the check-ligament, a

^th the fl ^which, after passing a short distance down the leg, unites
B_y _t, . ^exor tendon on its way to the foot.

rangernent the weight imposed upon the flexor muscle may

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		76 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

			be transferred to the canon, thus enabling the former to rest and re- cuperate after exertion and fatigue. The posterior part of this region is formed by two tendons, the flexor pedis perforans and the flexor pedis perforatus. These two long, dense cords, after traversing the posterior part of the canon, are continued downward over the fetlock-joint, to which they give support, and finally become attached to the pedal or foot bone and the short pastern respectively. The length of this region is greater behind than in front in all varieties of the horse, and, as might be expected, all things being equal, it is also slightly longer in the race-horse, the hunter, and other fast-moving types than in the heavy, slow-moving draught-horse. Considered in relation to the arm in front and the second thigh or leg bone behind, the canon in the thoroughbred should be short, for as Goubaux and Barrier observe: "When it is thus the muscles experience less fatigue and contract to better advantage. A short canon is less heavy, oscillates more freely . . . and does not necessitate the same elevation of the limb above the ground to reach the limits of its move- ments." Viewed in profile the canon should be straight and form a line per- pendicular to the ground. Any marked deviation in this respect is pre- judicial to the integrity and consequently to the work-bearing capacity of the legs. It tends to bring about an unequal distribution of weight on the underlying joints, and to impose undue strain on some of the connecting ligaments, which, sooner or later, results in active disease. As the region of the canon is made up of weight-bearing structures, size and strength in its several parts are of the first importance to the resistance of wear and tear and prolonged endurance. In every variety of the horse this part should present great width from front to back, with little or no variation from beneath the knee downward (fig. 57, and Plate IX, fig. 1) until approaching the fetlock- joint, where it will gradually widen out in conformity with a relatively large articulation. This quality of amplitude is not only an evidence of power in itself, but also of a high state of development of those parts related to it�the knee- joint above, the fetlock below, the muscles of flexion and extension, and the tendons which proceed from them and concur in the formation of the canon. Most horsemen know how important it is, and insist on substantial measurement below the knee. This is no doubt a good working rule, but it must be observed that lightness of the parts under consideration is not always to be regarded as an absolute defect of conformation, but

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THE CANON

must be considered in relation to the services they have to pe ^ ^
From this view-point it will be obvious that such a condition w^ _^
serious in proportion as the body is large and the weight to
excessive. , train

A massive frame supported by small canons would impose un ue
on tendons and ligaments
alike, and impart ruinous
concussion to the joints.

Congenital deficiency of
development is sometimes
observed in the flexor ten-
dons and parts immedi-
ately below the knee (fig.
58), which, instead of
being well set back from
the bone, are here con-
stricted and narrow. This
"tying-in", as it is termed,
of the tendons is a grave
fault of conformation not
only in itself, but also
because it is invariably
associated with a small
knee. Captain Hayes is of
opinion that this defect is
"in almost all cases due

to an admixture of more or

Pig, 58.�Weak Fore-arm
and Canon

ig. 57.�Good Pore-:
and Canon

less cart blood". Whether ^

this be so or not w^re are
not prepared to say, but we agree with him in the statement that animals
30 constructed are "unfit for fast work or for jumping".

Width from side to side, always greater in the fore- than in the hind-
limb, is no less important than that from front to back. As this
dimension is entirely made up of the bones, it affords a clear index not
only of the strength of the bones themselves, but also of the width
and the general scope of the knee- and fetlock-joint which they concur m
forming.

Moreover, the greater the transverse diameter of the canon the larger
and stronger will be the tendons and ligaments in relation to it.

Narrowness in this region is a mark of weakness, and mostly accom-
panies a slight development of the entire limb.

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78 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

	We have already pointed out that in horses of speed the canon should be absolutely long to give length and range to the stride. It should, however, be short in proportion to the forearm. When weight is thrown upon the limbs the flexor tendons and the suspensory ligament should stand out in bold relief, the one behind the other, with a well-marked groove between them (fig. 57). A similar depression ought also to be seen im- mediately behind the canon-bone, between it and the suspensory liga- ment. To the touch these tendinous structures require to be hard, tense, �and well developed. In common-bred horses the out-

				Fig. 60.�Attachment of the Sesamoid Bones to the Skeleton of the Leg aa, Suspensory ligament. B, B, Outer and inner branches of the same, c, c, Outer and inner sesamoid bones. D, Superficial sesa- moid ligament. K, Deep sesamoid ligament. P, F, Lateral phalangeal ligaments. G, Crucial sesamoid ligament. H, Intersesamoid lig^a" ment. I, I, Posterior phalangeal ligaments.
			Fig. 59. �Bones of the Fetlock and Pastern A, Splint-bone. B, Canon-bone, c, Suffraginis or first phalanx. D, Second phalanx. E, Pedal bone. f, Navicular bone. G, Sesamoid bone. H, Ergot.


		line of the parts composing this region is obscured by a thick skin and a superabundance of subcutaneous connective tissue. The legs are then said to be coarse and fleshy, and present a rounded, unshapely appearance.

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			THE PASTERN 79

THE FETLOCK . ^The fetlock-ioint -+-L � ^lng and import � ^W ^lts ^anatomical relations, constitutes an interest- composition ar P^lece °f animal mechanism. The bones entering into its the canon, arti 1 �^WU ^ln ^^g° ^' ^and ^consi^s^ ^0I" the inferior extremity of two sesamoid b ^ ^ow ^w^tn ^tne l°ⁿg pastern and behind with the movements, altl ' ^°^Ur together combining to form a joint whose directions of m j. ^c°nfined to flexion and extension, are in these Ti,� ^to ^at range ^ihe sesamoid bon_Pmeans of the su ^aie ^connected with the back part of the knee by which the bones ^&PenSOry hgament (fig. 60), a powerful elastic band by ward pressure m ' ^suPP°rted in opposition to the downward and back- resistance to th l ^t0 ^tnem ^ ^tne ^canon- While offering considerable ^S01'y ligament still ^6SCent ^of ^tllQ* fetlock-joint, the elasticity of the suspen- weight imposed P^errnits it to yield more or less in accordance with the ^ls still further an vl ^ ^^ie spring-like action thus imparted to the joint play over the se ^ ^^le ^^exor tendons, which, in descending the leg, ^miti_ng the descent-⁰¹ f ^°^n6S ^beh^mci ^as does a rope over a pulley, and by the elasticity ₀f ti ° ^ ^^e^^oc^ thereby prevent any undue strain on ^Jt will be ^suspensory ligament, struction of th' " �' ^re^^ore' that besides supporting weight, the con- ^important purr, ^J°^mt ^1S ^ ^lts ^elastic mechanism specially adapted to the ^To ^be in otI⁰"⁶ ^WardinS ^off concussion.

	^S	^UVJ SICle an "1 -P ------- ^iu) ^uiJ^ J-cuj.uok.-j(JillU &11UUJ.U. UC UlUtlu. umu ^ai'ticul_ation _Q ^rom front to back, thus providing for a large surface of ^Ward projeeti_on f T^ °^f ^ ^b°^n6S ^and S^reater leverage from the back- ^of Movement h «, * ^sesamoid bones, which unite to render the range ^J °^tn ^free and extensive. rp, THE PASTERN J. lie p_as, situated between^W_t^hlCh' ^M ^W6 ^haVe ^Seen' ^assists ^to ^form ^the fetlock-joint, is 8 to thi_s reg^¹ � ^ ^COronet- ^Tlie P^oints of special interest attach- ^encieney Will _Con^^e ^ltS ^length ^and ^its obliquity, in both of which excess or w "I ^lon§^er th ^l ^{Uteadefectofconformation} Proportionate to its extent. _t ^6lf * ^of the bod ^PaStem ^the ^m°^re ^the ^reaction of the soil against the ^ ^ad lio._am^y_f^aUgments ^and ^fatig^ues ^the muscles and taxes the _Tl ^JJeficien_Cy f i ₁^whlch ^are connected with the sesamoid bones. * , ^0rt-Jointed t ⁰ⁱ ^the ^paStern ^eviden% has inverse drawbacks. ^Pplenessin._COn_SeQ^0rSe ^SUrcharg^es his bones beyond measure. He lacks Fence of the insufficiency of the fetlock as an apparatus

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CONFOKMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

of dispersion, and has, from this fact, hard reactions; besides, he is more
predisposed to osseous blemishes of the bones of the limbs, as ring-bones, &c.

The direction of the pastern is intimately allied to its length; that 1$
to say, a long pastern (fig. 62) is in most cases too horizontal, while it
becomes more vertical when it is too short. An exception is illustrated
in fig. 63, where the pasterns are both short and sloping.

The close relationship which associates long-jointedness with low-
jointedness is easy of comprehension, the pastern becoming less and less

...

IKSll

Fig. 62�Long sloping Pasterns Fig. 63.�Short sloping Pasterns

Fig. 61.�Good Pasterns

a column of support in the one, and more and more an elastic spring ^lDthe other in proportion as its length increases.

A spring gives all the more as it is more elastic and as the pressure whicn
it supports is greater. This is precisely what takes place in a long-jointed
pastern; which is at the same time nearly always low-jointed, because it ^lSrelatively weak and flexible under the weight and the reactions of the body-

The long and oblique pastern renders the horse more supple and moi*^epleasant to ride; it enables him to disperse more easily the violent reaction
of locomotion at great speed, and it would be very desirable in the saddle-
horse, the driving-horse, and the race-horse were it not a source of dang⁶to the integrity of the tendons.

" The short and straight pastern is strong; it has no very prejudici
influence against heavy-draught services, but it renders the reactions har >
and jeopardizes thereby the integrity of the osseous apparatus, hence
unfits a horse for fast riding."�Goubaux and Barrier.

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		PLATE XI.

	UPRIGHT PASTERNS

GOOD QUARTERS AND GASKINS

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THE FOOT

^Ue hardly be said that to appropriate length and direction must be
ample width from front to back and from side to side, affording
^; tor broad articulations and coextensive ligaments and tendons.

THE FOOT

trength, beauty of proportion, energy and endurance, however well con-
ed in the equine frame, are of little avail in the absence of a good foot.
° realize the highest services which these qualities are capable of
°P^lrig requires the coexistence in this region of a high standard of
_a ^ence both in conformation and strength. It must be recognized that
. . Power of the motor becomes greater, so much more perfect and
ca ' -^ ^oul°- he the parts specially exposed to wear. It is too often the
att uninitiated to lose sight of the foundation in presence of an

_c ' ^Ve superstructure, a course which in the experience of the writer has
iud ^an^ P^anS^s °f disappointment and regret to many self-constituted

c*
ao ' ^ant* Proportion.�This region is liable to considerable variation

a result f +i �

arm 1 � ^e operation of shoeing and other causes, so feet naturally

^rend ri ^unie> and well conformed, may by unskilled treatment be

alwav ^aDnorttially small and unshapely. This is a question which must

ceive consideration in estimating the true character of this organ.

in fchig ative size of the feet will first demand attention. Discrepancies

^ail(i aw �^k" ^are for the most part indicative of chronic disease, but now

This i_rr ^0rses come into the world with one foot smaller than another.

^^Veuknes-.^te ^arity °f development is objectionable in so far that it indicates

disease. ^1IQlnishes the base of support, and renders the foot liable to

⁰ diffp

^e feet o ⁿ"^ate between congenital and acquired disparity in the size of

attuvteu_r ^etlmes requires an amount of technical knowledge which the

^seldom _0c ^e expected to possess; as, however, the former is of

^at all tijv, ^^ence> any departure from the standard of uniformity should

Altho_u h ^reS^arded ^witl1 the greatest suspicion.

^a^ hors_es ^b ^amPto size is a quality much to be desired in the feet of

⁰ ^well-be" ^CU6 ^^evefop^ment ^m this direction is distinctly prejudicial to

'''s are ^ ^t^^le ^ammal. Large feet call for large shoes, hence the

^at'gued- _m ^m°ered with superfluous weight and the muscles are early

⁰¹ Wer br' ^V6r' ^^e ^actwn becomes heavy and unsteady, which sooner

^e§s ai_lc[ � ^bS about brushing, stumbling, and premature decay of both

-3et

^jectionable, but still to be condemned, are feet wantin

b ⁱⁿ

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82 CONFOEMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

volume. When unduly small they neither supply a good base of support
nor take a sufficient grip of the ground. Many are structurally weak,
and all fail to conserve the limbs for want of that breadth and substance
necessary to diffuse and disperse the ruinous effects of concussion. The
objection to small feet will be more serious in proportion as the action
is high and the hoof is wanting in stoutness and strength.

Objectionable as are these conditions of excess and deficiency of de-
velopment, there are defects of conformation still more inimical to work and
wear which require to be noticed in dealing with this region.

Flat feet are among the worst of this group, for the reason that flat-
ness is nearly always associated with weakness of the general structure of
the organ. Besides being flat, the feet are usually on the
large side. The heels are low, the frog
full and fleshy, and the crust thin, loose
in texture, and brittle. Feet of this
character are commonly found in animals
bred and reared on soft fen or marsh-
land. They are liable to laminitis, bruis-
ing of the sole and frog, and especially
predisposed to corns. The pasterns

Fig. 65
Upright Foot

in horses of this class are wanting in

Fig-. 64.�Flat Foot

substance and usually much inclined.
Upright Feet.�Feet so termed are deep in the crust, from the
coronet to the ground surface, from heel to toe, and at the same time
wanting in forward slope or obliquity. The direction of the pasterns
in this formation follows more or less closely that of the feet, as a result
of which the weight is directed towards the front of the foot, causing it
to fall more immediately on the bony columns, and much of the elastic
reaction of the tendinous and ligamentous structures behind is lost to
the limb.

THE HIND LIMB

In dealing with this division of the body, it would have been more in
accord with anatomical teaching to have commenced with a consideration of
the pelvis as forming the upper extremity of the hind-limb, but as we have
already dealt with it when speaking of the croup, it only remains to say
that although the pelvis is the counterpart of the shoulders, its intimate
connection with the spine, and the share it takes in enclosing the viscera,
render it permissible to regard it for our present purpose as the posterior
part of the trunk.

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Copyright 1887 by Eadweard Muybridyej
Copyright 1887 by Eadweard Muybridyej		[From Animals in Motion, published by Chapman & Hall

	PHASES OF THE GALLOP
	PHASES OF THE GALLOP

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		THE HIND LIMB 83 V °/^iaVe ^already P^ointed ^out that while the fore-limbs are united to the Ta t?⁷ ^mUSdeS ^alone ^the ^llind ^ones have the additional connection pro- vided by the hip-joint, where the head of the femur (fig. 66) fits into the acetabulum or cup-like cavity formed by the bones of the pelvis. By Jus arrangement the hind extremities are brought to act directly on the launch, and through it on the spine, so that as the feet grip the ground and the limbs straighten out by effacement of the articular angles, the body forced forward in a succession of propulsive efforts which the muscles of en impart to it. The various regions composing the hind ex- tremity have their analogues in the fore one, but it is noticeable that the direction in the one is reversed in the other�at least so far as the upper segments are concerned. Thus, that portion of the pelvis which s opes downward and backward is the analogue of the shoulder, which ^PThe ^WnWai'^d-^and ^f0I'^Ward- hum > - ^which passes downward and forward, is the counterpart of the Th fv ^^er ^arm> which slopes downward and backward. _war(j � _f1 °^r ^sec°nd thigh, whose inclination is downward and back- parts' b r ^e(l^uivah5nt of the radius or forearm, which is straight. The j. .,, ^se are more or less uniform in direction in the two members. _og -p ^Us ^De seen that in both the fore and the hind extremities the ₀ i ^& ^are so disposed as to form a series of angles which are more j _ ^J ^nsi0-erable in proportion to the length and slope of the bony , . ^e. ^act °f progression these angles are alternately closed and opened, s m the consecutive shortening and lengthening of the limbs. On to which these movements are capable of being effected will hbTdr l^he ^len8th ^of ^the ^stride ^and ^the ^force ^of ^the ^imP^ulse ^wllich ^the ini.- imbs are capable of imparting to the body. In this connection it is o served that in speedy animals the angles below that of the shoulder iont and the pelvis behind are remarkable for their open condition, lence the peculiar straightness of the legs of the race-horse. ne greater obliquity of the shoulder and the more horizontal position the croup in horses of speed tend to diminish the scapulo-humural and coxo-femoral angles, and, as Goubaux and Barrier observe, " facilitate the or ward and backward movement of the inferior regions, and give them the reedom of extending themselves effectively to pass over the ground or communicate the impulsion". In horses of draught, where the steps are ^s ort, extreme lengthening of the locomotory column, so necessary to animals of _Sp_eed, is not required. The shoulder therefore is less sloping, he croup more inclined, and the upper angles consequently more open.' Ihe lower angles of the limbs, which, as we have seen, are open in horses of

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

speed, are less so in horses of power. The greater obliquity of the mov-
able segments of the limbs in the
latter enable the muscles to act at
much greater mechanical advan-
tage than they otherwise would do.
The hind - limbs, although
w assisting in supporting the body,
are pre-eminently organs of pro-
pulsion. United by solid union
to the pelvis above, and possessed
of muscles larger and more power-
ful than those of the fore-limbs,
they are in these and in other
respects admirably constructed to
exercise their power in the for-
ward movement of the trunk. The
manner in which this is effected
will be best understood by refer-
ence to Plate XII, where it is
seen that in commencing the fast
gallop the first act of the horse
is to bring the hind-limbs under
the body and raise the forehand.
The former at this time are short-
ened by the closing of the articu-
lar angles. Gradually these are
again opened, and one after the
other the legs are forcibly ex-
tended; and as they become more
and more backwardly inclined,
the body is forced forward to a
point when the ground ceases to

�Posterior View of Pelvis and
Hind Limbs of Horse

Fig.

offer further resistance, and they

leave it to take a fresh and more

A, Pelvis. B, Femur or thigh-bone. 0, Tibia or lower
thigh-bone. D, Fibula. E, Astragalus. F, Calcaneus,
forming point of hock, o, Cuboides. H, Large metatarsal
or canon-bone. I, I, Small metatarsal or splint-bones.
J, Sesamoid bones. K, 0s suffraginis or large pastern.
L, Os coronae or small pastern. M, Navicular bone. N, 0s
pedis or Foot bone.

forward position in order that the
movement may be repeated. It
will be seen, therefore, that the
greater impulsive force which the

hind-leg is capable of transmit-
ting to the trunk is due to the column of bones of which it is made up
being directly and firmly connected with the trunk through the medium

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		LEG (SECOND THIGH) 85 in the f !? ' ^a ^concbtion, as we have seen, which has no parallel of the hi V~ thigh is the uppermost of the free-moving segments of the qxx* ^extremity- Viewed from without, it embraces that portion ^tll(i flank T ⁶f ^enclosed ^within the limits of the croup and haunch above, has f_or ^, ^ront> ^tne buttock behind, and the stifle and leg below. It with the n 1 °^ ⁶ ^tbe ^^emur ^or thigh-bone, one end of which unites' tibia and J? ^t0 ^form ^tlle hip-joint, ^and the other articulates with the The i_m^P ^to ^form ^the ^stifie- % the mas f¹⁶⁶ °^f ^tlie ^tlligh ⁱⁿ ^tlie ^functi°ⁿ ^0I> locomotion is indicated ^region of th i ^tlle ^muscles ^wllich enter into its formation. In no other power, j* ^ioeo^otory columns do these organs reach such volume and driven for i ^m°^St ^part ^^e forcible impulses by which the body is of the th' V, ^m ^vai'i°us modes of progression originate in the muscles k^y des ^b ' ^an ^aS ^aU ^element ⁱⁿ ^eq^uine conformation this division of the Not tT^VeS ^tte ^fullest recognition. ^Sa°uld b ⁶, ^aSt ^lmP^ortant consideration affecting this region is that it AVhe_n ti^ f ^ected, neither inclined unduly forward nor backward. ttUich und ,°!^mer i^nchnation prevails the leg as a whole is brought too ^a"d its n ^r -⁶ ^' thereby its range of forward movement is curtailed, of its p_r ^i-¹⁸ "* ^S°^me degree expended in raising the trunk at the expense carried to f ^ ^ce' With a too backward inclination the limbs are behind hi "* ^t0 ^ ^r6ar' ⁱⁿ ^wbich case the horse is said to " leave his legs ^^le inferi ^1S- ^a^^S° ^^mP^ortant i¹ race-horses, hunters, and chasers that ^CW the t ^ ^ef_^tremity ^0I> the thigh should be outwardly inclined, so as to Vie_wJ .^When ^moved forward in the act of galloping and jumping, cilar devel ^ ^Pr°^file' ^the ^igh should be broad and exhibit ample mus- ^d°^Wn "� g°^Pment ^from ^toP ^t0 bottom, or, as it is expressed, be " well let "' ^tllis dim^een-^fr°^ml3ellind' ^[t* ^should be thick in proportion; any lightness ^alvvays a s\|^enS10n ^giV6S ^t0 ^the ^part ^a ^lean> "spht-up" appearance, which is §ⁿ of weakness. [Plate VIII.] LEG (SECOND THIGH) ^is .^proP^eriy aT^nt °^f ^tHe ^hind"^limb ^situated between the thigh and the hock ^tlligh. Tw₀⁶b^gnated ^the ^leg' ^m°^re ^commonly ^xt ^is spoken of as the second ^fibul_a. The f ^Cnter ^int° ^itS basement structure, the tibia and the ^SuPplie_s _well ⁰^^e^r ^1S ^mudl ^tlie larger and more important of the two, and ^regio_n. '^mgh ^a11 ^the conditions pertaining to the mechanism of the equirement of all fast motors that the leg should be long, thus

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		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
	8G


providing for a large range of action, and also for the accommodation of muscles proportionate in extent. Any shortcoming in these respects diminishes the horse's stride, in which case the speed can only be kept up by multiplying his movements, which, of course, tends to physical exhaus- tion. With a long leg velocity of the gait is best served by a short canon. As in the case of the thigh, the direction of the leg should neither be too straight nor too much inclined. A leg that is too straight brings the limb unduly forward, and shortens the step by limiting the power of exten- sion, while one that is too much inclined throws the leg too far back and limits the power of flexion. It is important that the superior part of this region should be well furnished with muscle brought down from a well-developed thigh and buttock. The lower part or "gaskin" should be wide, the hamstring thick and bold, and well set away from the bone (tibia) by connection with a long calcaneum or point of the hock. The longer this point is, the greater will be the length of the lever arm, and the more power will the muscles exercise in propelling the body forward by straightening the hock. HOCK This is the most complex, as it is also the most important, joint concerned in the mechanism of locomotion. It is here that the strain in the efforts of propulsion chiefly falls, and the joint at which the con- cussion thereby developed is for the most part broken and dispersed. We may venture the statement that no joint in the body of the horse presents such a variety of natural conformation in different indi- viduals as the one under consideration, and none calls for such careful scrutiny and analysis of detail both as to conformation and soundness. Two sets of bones enter into the construction of the hock-joint, each having a purpose of its own. One group of four small bones (1, 2, 3, 4 in Fio- 67) arranged in two rows and resting on the head of the canon, are united 'together and to adjacent bones by short, powerful ligaments, and so close is the union that the movement of one bone upon the other is reduced to a simple gliding action of the most limited extent. This movement, slight though it be, is of the first importance in breaking the jar communicated to the joint in the act of progression. The second division comprises two large bones � the astragalus and the calcaneus. The former presents in front two smooth, prominent ridges and a deep, intervening furrow, after the fashion of a pulley, which, when articulated with a corresponding formation on the lower extremity of the tibia or leg bone, form a joint whose action in the

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Fig. i.-GOOD HOCKS	Fig. 2.-WEAK FLESHY HOCKS
		Fig. 3.-CURBY HOCKS

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HOCK

direction of flexion and extension is marked

and

great

range

The calcaneus serves an entirely different purpose. Forming the
point of the hock, to which are attached strong tendons (fig. 23), it
represents a lever more or less powerful in proportion as it is long or
short.

The examination of this joint should be made from various stand-
points, so that all its dimensions as well as its general outline may be
duly appreciated.

The first and most important requirement of
this region is size. The hock should be large,
shapely, and well directed. The calcaneus, or bone
forming its "point", should be long, so that the
lever of which it forms an important part is
^creased in length and power, while width and
strength are at the same time imparted to the
gaskins (Plate XIII, fig. 1).

Viewed in profile it should be wide from front
to back and rest on correspondingly broad canons;
^an)^r narrowing or " tying in " (Plate XIII, fig. 2)
^at this part is a serious defect of conformation.

Seen from before, the bend of the hock should

°e full and clean, with ample width from side to
^Sl(le well maintained and apportioned from top
^to bottom.

Fig. 67
A, Astragalus. B, Calcaneus,
c, Tibia. D, Great Metatarsal
or canon-bone. E, Splint-bone.
1-4, Small tarsal bones.

Quality is an important adjunct to strength
^atld proportion, and will be marked by an absence of any appearance of
^r°undness, a thin, supple skin from beneath which the bones stand out in
sharp relief, imparting to the joint both leanness and neatness of outline.

Pull, round, fleshy hocks in which all the anatomical parts are
obscured, whatever may be their size and proportion, are objectionable
^as they denote a common descent, a lymphatic temperament, and a lack
°t energy and endurance.

Given a large, well-directed hock, the power of the muscles which
^act upon it and the segments of the limb below it will generally be
°und proportionate in size and strength.

. The direction no less than the form of the hock is materially
^lnfluenced by the greater or less inclination of the tibia or second thigh
^a°ov_e and the canon below.

When these bones approximate to a vertical position the hock and
^le limb as a whole are rendered straight, and the angularity of the

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			CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

		joint is least pronounced. It is this variety of conformation combined with length of limb that gives the race-horse his immense stride, and in turn enables him to extend the hind extremities to their farthest limits, and to realize all the power of his propelling muscles. It matters not how strong the quarters may be, if the tibia or second thigh slopes too much backward, or the canon too much forward, the hock is no longer straight, and the power of extending the limb is more or less curtailed, and the speed proportionately diminished. The importance of a straight hock and of a straight hind-limb generally, so manifest in the race-horse, is not an essential point in the conformation of the draught-horse. The great power which the latter puts forth in the act of draught is favoured by a greater obliquity of the bony segments, for in this position the muscles are able to act in a direction more at rig;ht angles to their levers, and con- sequently at consider- able mechanical ad- Copyright 1887 by Eadweard Muybridge. Redrawn from "Animals m Motion (Chapman and Hall) Fig. 68.-The Hind-Limbs bent in drawing a Load Vantage. Ill shifting a heavy load the cart- horse takes advantage of this by bending the joints (fig. 68) so as to increase still further the obliquity of the bones and give more effective action to the muscles. Acting in this attitude the limbs are less considerably extended, whereby the steps become short and the movements slow, but the power is greatly augmented. In conformity with the anatomical disposition of the bones which form the true hock-joint, the movements of the hock are restricted to those of flexion and extension. In the former case the canon is carried forward and upward, in the latter it is drawn downward and backward. It is also noticeable that, viewed from behind, this joint is directed some- what obliquely outward, so that its hinge-like formation is enabled to give the entire limb an outward inclination in its forward stroke, by which the stifle is prevented from being brought into contact with the belly, a provision of the highest importance to race-horses, chasers, and

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BOW-LEGS

hunters, where the hind-limbs while being raised require at the same
time to be advanced well under the body.

COW-HOCKS

This term is applied to that defect of conformation in which the
Points of the hocks are turned in (fig. 69). Animals so constructed are
ⁿ°t unfrequently defective in other respects, often leggy, badly coupled,
'^split up, and narrow behind, with the toes directed unduly outward.

Although in - turned
hocks in moderate de-
gree do not interfere
with a horse's useful-
ness, in the more pro-

nounced cases it is not
only an eyesore, but

when coexisting w^Tith
the other defects re-
ferred to, it is a mark of


	■IB	PHl^-'-
	MB	#Blfe
	■"""""-=IWA"' ■ ■	ifjKl
	% \|l	Jr"I_:_t
	^::	BX&
	J� ■-;■■:.-.. -:r: .::...■":. j :n!fgE= j>3 SEgi	^: - - --^

weakness, and materi-
ally impairs the action
of the limbs, which are
made to move too
much away from the
body instead of in a

�Cow-Hocks

Fig. 70.�Bow-Legs

^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 line parallel to it.

^vkwaivl i . As a result of this an

«aore or 1 ^1S ^imP^arte<l to the gait, and both power and speed are thereby
^less impaired.

BOW-LEGS

this

Erected o _f^State ^of development (fig. 70) the points of the hocks are
inward. Tv �' ^t^^le *^e§^s ^are ^set ^w^^e ^aP^art, and the toes are turned
referred to iT ^1S ^not ^on^ ^a ^more unsightly defect than the one last
^ail(l us_ef_ul_n ^U ^ *^mP^airs to a still greater extent the locomotive powers
'formation i ^S ? ^^e ^ani^mal- A striking feature of this variety of con-
hock which ^ P^eculiar rotary movement or outward twist of the
Moreover, _v[ ^CUrs ^at the moment when the foot comes to the ground.
^:aro short and ^°^m ^hind, the gait is rolling and unsteady, the steps
banting i_n liberty and grace.

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	90	CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

SICKLE OR CURBY HOCK In this variety of conformation (Plate XIII, fig. 3) the canon, instead of occupying a vertical position, inclines more or less forward, so that the leg is brought under the body, or, as it is said, the horse is " under himself behind". The effect of this is to increase the angularity of the hock and give it a bent or sickle-shaped appearance. In such a disposition of parts it results that " the column of support below the tibia being situated too- obliquely forward, the pressure of the weight of the body, instead of being transmitted to the ground by the bones exclusively, as in the vertical position of this segment, causes a strain proportionable to the degree of obliquity on the ligaments which unite the hock to the canon, and imposes. upon them an abnormal function" (Bouley). To this it might be added that by bringing the hind extremities more immediately under the centre- of gravity, the strain on the extensor muscles and their tendons is- considerably augmented. Horses with curby hocks are not generally desirable property, although for harness-work, and especially in a level country, they may prove serviceable and enduring. They are not, however, adapted to carry heavy weights, or to put forth severe efforts of draught without injury. BODY AND LIMBS As we have already observed, the body and the limbs make up the sum of the height. In considering the latter, only those portions separate from the trunk are referred to, viz. parts below the elbow in front and the stifle behind. The rest is accounted for by the depth of the chest and the abdo- men. The proportion which these two parts bear to each other will vary to some extent in animals of different types. All things being equal, the limbs of the race-horse and other light breeds are always longer than those- of the heavier varieties. " The body containing the organs which are most essential to life, such as the heart, the lungs, and the digestive apparatus, cannot be deficient from excess of development, since these organs are precisely those from which the animal machine draws its power and resistance. If dispro- portion seems to exist in the upper part compared to the lower part, then the latter is not properly constructed to support the former, but generally; although excess may not be objectionable, the same cannot be said of defi- ciency of development. Our machine having a weak chest, a small abdo- men, will be without energy, without wind, and capable of very little-

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		DISTRIBUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF THE BODY exertion. Such an animal will be a poor feeder, and will not ^j^' All these are great imperfections if he is called upon to peiloim services. . . The xiphoid region (pit of the stomach) should desce^ several fingers' breadth below the elbow, the ribs should be loun , ^ ^ wide behind, and a head wide in its middle part. The ^abdo�^en _iddle full, quite cylindrical, and a head thick from its inferior line to of the back. V _seems to " .Vs to the limbs, they cannot be too strong. As soon as ^suc* be the case, the reason of it is that the upper part is not ^m P^r0P° , ^^ " If the supports of the motor are slender, weak, too long, a ^ justed-in a word, disproportionate in relation with the weig . ^-^ most irreproachable body will be powerless; the macnme wi force, without solidity, without speed, and destined soon tc> we,i ■ " Our way of ascertaining their disproportion consists m measui g^ ^ distance between the passage of the girth and the pastern-joint, known that, in a beautiful conformation, this distance is equal to ^ horses of ordinary size, a little longer in large horses, and a little Email ones." (Goubaux and Barrier.) DISTRIBUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF THE BODY The weight of the body is borne by the fore and hind limbs but^its distribution between these two pairs of supports is not, as mig 1 ^ Posed, equally shared by them. The experiments of General mo 6 to show, that with the head elevated and occupying a natural posra, the proportion of body-weight sustained by the fore extremities is a o one-ninth, or, eleven per cent greater than that supported by tne ones. This difference in the disposition of the weight before and bel i is capable of considerable modification. It is found that when the neat raised and drawn backward the weight imposed on the hmd extremit is increased from 4 to 10 kilogrammes, from which the fore extremitie ^,u'^e at the same time relieved. If, on the other hand, tho head lowered and drawn towards the chest, a like amount of weight is ( placed forward. Horses with long necks add more to the weight of the fore extrenu y than those whose necks are short and thick. The following table, taken from Goubaux and Barrier's exhaustive work, gives the results which General Morris obtained in a series o experiments performed to establish the relative weight of the fore an hind extremity of the body.

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CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS


Observations upon Hoeses.	Weight. Head at forty-five degrees.			Weight. Head raised and drawn backward.			Weight. Head lowered and drawn towards the chest.
Observations upon Hoeses.
	Ill	HI	Total.	Fore Extre- mity.	Hind Extre- mity.	Total.	I\|!	Hind Extre- mity.	Total.
Average of eleven horses,*!	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.
good combination, head j-	572	429	1001	550	451	1001	587f	413\|	1001

Average of eleven horses,!
body well proportioned, j-	54l�	440	9811	528	453+;	9811-	550	4311	981\|
neck short, head strong....J
Average of two horses, body^ well formed, neck short, r Average of two horses, neck\ Average of two horses, neck\ One horse, neck strong, headi
	528	429	957	517	440	597	539	418	957
	539 550	440 429	979 979	517 528	462 451	979 979	561 572	418 407	979 979
strong, croup short and j- One horse, neck and body \ well formed, head strong.../	528	462	990	519J	4704	990	536*	4531	990
	572	440	1012	550	462	1012	594	418	1012
One horse, neck strong, head \ One horse, neck strong, head \	594 517	440 473	1034 990	583 506	451 484	1034 990	583 528	451 462	1034 990

In considering this difference in the weight of the fore and hind
extremity Goubaux and Barrier have succeeded in showing how materially
it is influenced by the height of the withers. In a series of experiments,
the particulars of which are given below, they demonstrate that in
horses low in front the fore-limbs are permanently surcharged with weight,
and in proportion as this condition exists so will be the liability to undue
wear and tear of the fore-legs, especially where the nature of the occupation
compels the imposition of weight on the back; and conversely, that a
low croup favours the imposition of undue weight on the hind-limbs.

From the accompanying tables it will be seen how the distribution of
weight on the fore and hind extremities may be increased or diminished
by certain attitudes which the animal may assume, as well as by the
fixed conditions of natural conformation.

These changes are but some of many more or less pronounced, which
must necessarily result from displacements of the centre of gravity
occurring in the various phases of locomotion.

The manner and the importance of these displacements will be best
understood when considered in relation to that condition which is known
as equilibrium.

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HEIGHT

ELEVATION OF THE HEIGHT AT THE WITHERS

Distribution of Weight. I

i Distribution of Weight. I �& .

'3 �

Observations.

,H<Of

I S<1S

lbs.

55
105|
105*

79;
105}

.:i

10H

140-|
132
143
220
248?
110
77
33

lbs.
484
704
418
305+
484
484
576?-
534}
297
418
583
3761
396
473
242

lbs.

lbs. 1 Hds. Ins.

77 I 1 0

132 | 1 0

lbs.
473

6904

Common mare.
Percheron gelding.
Common mare.
Barbary mare.
Thoroughbred horse.
Norman gelding-
Percheron gelding.
Norman mare.
Corsican gelding.

Irish cob.

Boulon gelding.

Percheron gelding.

Corsican gelding.

German gelding.

Female ass.

His.

550

822⁴-

539

404*

598§

6774

682'

682

440

572

814

633}

539

572

301:

I Hds. Ins. Hds. Ins.

lbs.

539

809|

523}

385

589}

6731

677*

675?

429

561

803

6244

506

550

275

14 2
16 2
14 1

14 1

15 2
Hi 0

16 1
16 1

9 I 13 1
10 | 14 2
16 1

12 I 15 1

13 14 3

14 I 15 3
11 1

15 0 1023

16 3 15131

402| I

14 2

14 1

94i.:

690*

286 1184 I 1

4751 12311 Aj

16 0 1073|

15 3 1157|

16 1 1254'
16 0 1210

479?

572

528

286

407

572

198

110

154

165

242

20
20

■5T5
I*

13 3

14 3

15 3

726

979

1386

367?-1 266-1 l^j

363 176 U\>

451 121 |$s

2175 854^r

15 0 1001

15 0
15 3
11 3

902

1023

517

ELEVATION OF THE HEIGHT AT THE CROUP

i Distribution of Weight.

Distribution of Weight. I sj

,_3s, si

Observations.

lbs. 1 Vat.

455? 1124

677} 148?

387i 167;.

281} 127}

459-4 154

446* 264

567} 1184

517 176

279* 167

473' 33

567} 2504

lbs.

567}

836

554?

4091

6134

710}

686%

693

446}

506

818%

644}

574'

583

312

Hds. Ins.

Common mare.
Percheron gelding.
Common mare.
Barbary mare.
Thoroughbred horse.
Norman gelding.
Percheron gelding.
Norman mare.
Corsican gelding.

Irish cob.

Boulon gelding.

Percheron gelding.

Corsican gelding.

German gelding.

Pemale ass.

lbs. lbs.
473 77
6904 1 132
402^:i 136|

286 1184 I 1

4754 1231

479? I 198

0
0
0*

572° ! 110

154
154
165

242

528

286

407
572
3671
363'
451

270}
I 244
143

374
330

440

2664 I &

176

121 1%

204} 1074

1217} 85$ &

HEIGHT

The height of a horse is the vertical distance from the highest point of
the withers to the surface on which he stands. It is made up of two parts
�the body and the legs, the relations of which we shall refer to presently.

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		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
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Although horses are divided into a number of classes or varieties, it is only in one of these that a limit is set to the height. Everything equine not exceeding 14 hands, of whatever character, is termed a pony, while under- sized horses of a certain type are designated "cobs"; but to this latter class there is no precise limit of vertical measurement as recognized in the former. It is, however, to. the diminutive pony that we owe the more portentous horse, for the latter is but an enlarged edition of the former, evolved by a process of selection, judicious mating, high feeding, and skil- ful management. Returned to their native element, outside the sphere of civilization and land culture, and the present race of stock would soon decline both in stature and symmetry, and ultimately return to the minia- ture condition from which they sprang. Between the smallest pony and the highest horse there is great dis- parity of size, and it will be recognized that towards both extremes useful- ness gradually declines, and beyond certain limits reaches an unremunera- tive, if not a vanishing point. Within the two extremes there are to be found all intermediate sizes suitable to the many requirements of civilized man, but the tendency of systematic breeding has been not only to fix the type of each distinct variety, but at the same time to bring the height up to, and maintain it within, the limits of the greatest practical usefulness; for there is un- questionably a point in the upward growth of this, as of other species of animals, beyond which the harmony of proportion becomes so far disturbed as to curtail seriously both power and pace. Height, although largely identified with power, cannot be regarded as a precise measure of strength and endurance. Numerous examples will occur to the mind of experienced horsemen, of small horses outpacing and vanquishing their much larger confreres. That unspeakably game little animal, The Lamb, which won the Grand National at Liverpool on two occasions, was only 15.2 hands high, and yet he outstripped in speed and endurance many brilliant chasers inches higher than himself, and when nine years old carried 11 st. 5 lb. to victory. It is difficult to say precisely what is the limit of stature within which the greatest usefulness is to be found in our various breeds, and probably opinions would be found to be very much divided on the subject. The writer, however, believes that in the cart-horse it will be found at 17 hands, in the race-horse at 16.2, and in the riding-horse and carriage- horse at 15.3. " When the height at the withers is considered in relation to height a the croup, observations show that these points are situated upon the sam horizontal line or upon different levels. In the latter case the horse J

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		95

	LENGTH

said to be high or low in front, according to the corresponding height a the croup. There results evidently from this an abnormal distribution of the weight of the body upon the four extremities; this at least is the result of our measurements and our weighings. -A lowering of some centimetres at the withers usually causes a sur- charge of the anterior members, and therefore modifies the conditions o the equilibrium and the velocity of the gait. These drawbacks increase in proportion to the burden carried on the back, which is often added to subject's own bulk. Lastly, the region of the withers is more exposed, on account of its prominence, to contusion and wounds caused by the harness. " Inverse effects accompany the diminution of the height over the croup. The hind-quarters, surcharged in their turn, are wanting in action and ar obliged to use greater efforts; the hocks are soon ruined. - But these different disadvantages, with their grievous consequences, manifest themselves only when the inequality in the height of the two parts is very marked. When it is slight, it is but little perceived m prac- tice. Besides, it has not the same importance in all services. The cavalry- horse, the pack-horse, and the dray-horse, always heavily loaded, will show the effects of being htv in front much sooner than the race-horse, the toucher, the trotter, or the light draught-horse. These latter, on the con- trary, ni _wH_ch _Speed i_s the main quality, suffer much more from a detect m the fond-quarters; an excess of height of the croup over that of the withers ¹³ ^a durable disposition in them, while an equality of the height iri front and behind is the best conformation in the others. Many horses of good ^breffrng and of great speed have the croup considerably higher than tlie others; this conformation is even very much appreciated by horsemen, especially _m _nunters _&nd _steeple._cliasers. It should not be forgotten, how- ^evJ», that the overloading of the anterior members is compensated by the relative lightness of the "fore-quarters and the power and great length of the hind-q_Uarterg _Here> _ag _with _the _hare; _acCording to M. Richards comparison, the posterior limbs are carried far under the trunk, their foot- Pnata are much beyond those of the anterior, the hind-quarters are strongly t, the ^crouP and loins are vigorous and well supported, the spines of the dorsal Vertebrae are long, and the shoulder very oblique. There is then y ^a compensation." (Goubaux and Barrier.) LENGTH The length of the body is the distance from the point of the shoulder in front to a line falling from the point of the buttock behind. Although varying i_n different animals, it will be found, as first pointed out by

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	9G
	9G	CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS

Bourgelat, that in most well-formed horses it equals about two and a half times the length of the head, and it would seem that any considerable departure from this rule, either in regard to excess or deficiency, tends to render the conformation more or less seriously defective. In dealing with this part of the subject it will be important to consider what are the elements by which the length of the body is determined, and

			Fig. 71. �Excessive Length from two different Causes

	After Goubaux and Barrier. (By permission of Messrs. Lippincott) what are the relations in which they stand to each other. In answer to the first question it may be stated that the parts which concur to make up the sum of the body-length are the spine, the shoulder, and the buttock. The two latter furnish the anterior and posterior extremity respectively? while the former intervenes to form the back and loins. As we h^aValready observed, the length of the body in a well-formed horse is abou

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LENGTH

jual to two and a half times the length of his head, and whether it is

anTth" ^WU1 ^depend ^uP^on ^the ^lenS^th ^o� ^tne ^sP^ine ^on ^the ^one ^hand'

other ^ie_T^eXtent' ^direction, and relations of the shoulder and croup on the
the⁶¹' ' ^ ^t0 "^De ^^aint"^ⁿg^el that we owe the figurative expression of
⁵ ^mterestm§ ^facts, as shown in the following illustrations.

Fig. 72.�Compensation for Excessive Length
ubaux ^and Barrier. (By permission of Messrs. Lippineott)

^0l»pari₈

^a^°dy i_s °i°^f ^diagrams 1 and 2 (fig. 71) will show how the length of

causes.

*«* the H^U^^Ced V each of these

_t ' W both zx ^represented ⁱⁿ the illustration are of equal length, a d,

resu °^ther- The ^ ^Stipulated ^two ^heads

and a half from one extremity

^iUit of u_n(j_Ue , ^e ^ex°ess of this dimension in diagram 1 is clearly the
_Vo § °* the back, or dorso-lumbar portion of the spine,

amt-Ange, Cours d'hippologie, t. i, p. 154; Saumur, 1850.

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			CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
98			CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
98

	m n, while in the other it arises out of the more extended quarters, C D> and greater obliquity and length of the shoulders, A B. The too great length arising out of the first-named cause is a serious defect of conformation, as the loins in such cases are weak and badly supported by the quarters, and the great distance between the posterior scapular angle and the haunch, mn (which in a well-formed horse should not exceed the length of the head), robs the back of that solidity and strength which it would otherwise possess. Although undue length of body is a fault of conformation, it is capable of being compensated within certain limits by the harmonious propor- tions and disposition of the shoulder and croup. Indeed an animal so constituted may surpass in symmetry and physical excellence one whose length falls within the classical range of two heads and a half. A strik- ing example of this is shown in the illustration fig. 72. Here the body of diagram 2 exceeds in length that of diagram 1 by one-sixth of a head, but this difference, which under other circumstances would constitute a serious defect, is compensated by a short back and a high development and favourable inclination of the shoulders and quarters, AB, CD.

		WIDTH Although dependent in a large measure on the amplitude of the osseous framework, the width of the body is largely influenced by the development of the muscles which envelop it. To appreciate the transverse diameter ot the trunk it is necessary that our inspections should be made from different points of view, especially from before and behind, while a glance from above will materially aid in rendering our estimate of the proportions °' this part more satisfactory and complete. In all varieties of the horse ample width is essential to power and endurance; any shortcoming in tlu^srespect not only betrays a lack of muscular development, but is usualv associated with flat sides and want of chest-room. Narrowness is a seriou⁸defect of conformation. Viewed from the front the breast should be wid^e' the shoulders muscular, the ribs well sprung, and the hips broad and full o muscle. The magnitude of the body in this respect will vary for animal of different types, but in due proportion it should be insisted upon in ^ai' In horses for speed width is especially desirable behind, where the propel*¹¹¹" power resides, while too much in front would tend to encumber movem^e11and impose undue weight and wear on the legs.

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	SHIRE STALLION, HAROLD

		The best Stud Horse of his time Esq,
Sire, Lincolnshire Lad II 1365; dam, Flower by Champion 419. The Property of A. C. Duncombe,		The best Stud Horse of his time Esq,

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		99
	THE HEAD AS A UNIT OF MEASUREMENT	99
	THE HEAD AS A UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

PROPORTIONS OF HEIGHT TO LENGTH What is the most desirable relation in the proportions of height to kQgth is a matter upon which opinions may differ, but it is held by those ^who have thoroughly studied the question that the most perfect conforma- tion will be found where the dimensions of the one most nearly approximate ^to those of the other. Here it should be pointed out that the so-called "long low" horse so much admired by connoisseurs is not, as it seems to be, ^So much greater in length than height, but owes the apparent discrepancy ^of proportion in these dimensions to the fact that he stands on shorter legs, ^an<l is consequently nearer the ground. In this way he is made to look ^°^w, but the greater depth of body which such animals usually possess add Materially to their height. "Any considerable excess of height over length is always a serious ^^efect of conformation. Animals so constructed are mostly narrow, defi- ant in muscle, light of bone, and slow in their paces; they are liable to ^vush and to forge, and soon become fatigued under exertion. Not less ^jectionable is the animal whose height falls appreciably short of his ^etlgth, when that length is of the classic measure of two heads and a ^ In this case the disproportion will impart to the machine a heavy ^CUl*vbrous aspect. Moreover, there will be a distinct lack of liberty, range, ^an<A grace in the movements, and his shorter limbs will preclude the pos- ^Slbility of any considerable pace." In further discussing this subject °^ubaux and Barrier observe: "Many persons imagine that fast horses, ^tters and others, are longe-r than they are high, and they assign to the ^ength a quarter of a head, or even a third more, than to the height, ^a ^Suggestion which is in direct opposition to the reality. ... Our Measurements upon the handsomest running horses, steeple-chasers, Orloff ^tr°tters, Ano-lo-Norman and Arabian, Barb, Andalusian, some Hungarian ^and American horses enable us to affirm that the excess in length, scarcely ^arQountino- to 1 2 4, or 5 centimetres, is the exception, the equality or ^excess in height permitting variations of the same value being the rule." Jⁿ the heavier breeds of horses excess of length over height is both more Sequent and considerable than in the lighter varieties, but in the most ^aPproved specimens of the former the disparity is least and less frequently ¹¹¹ evidence. THE HEAD AS A UNIT OF MEASUREMENT Ever since the days of Bourgelat the study of proportions in respect to ^lle various regions of the horse has been more or less vigorously pursued,

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				CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
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especially by French hippotomists, and it is to the founder of veterinary schools we owe the first serious attempt to '' establish the relation of the dimension which should exist between the parts of the body ", or, in other words, a law of proportion. As a result of numerous measurements, Bourgelat selected the head as a basis of proportion for all other parts, and the more

			Fig. 73.�Proportions of the Horse in Profile From Goubaux and Barrier. (By permission of Messrs. Lippineott)

	recent researches of the distinguished savant Colonel Duhousset led him also to adopt this region as a unit of measure. The results of his observations are recorded by Goubaux and Barrier, from whose able work on the Exterior of the Horse we extract the follow- ing list of proportions:� The length of the head almost exactly equals the distance� 1st. From the back to the abdomen, N 0, fig. 73 (thickness of the body). 2nd. From the top of the withers to the point of the arm, H E (shoulder). 3rd. From the superior fold of the stifle-joint to the point of the hock, J' J. 4th. From the point of the hock to the ground, J K. 5th. From the dorsal angle of the scapula to the point of the haunch, d' D. 6th. From the xiphoid region to the fetlock-joint M I; above this latter in large horses and race-horses, below it in small horses, and in those of medium size. 7th. From the superior fold of the stifle-joint to the summit of the croup in subjects whose coxo-femoral angle is large: this distance is always less in other cases (G. & B.).

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		COMPENSATION OF DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION Two and one-half times the head gives 1st. The height of the withers, h, above the ground. 2nd. The height of the top of the croup above the ground. _that _q{ _the 3rd. Very often the length of the body from the point of tne ai buttock, E f. , buttock, r> F, is The length of the croup from the point of the haunch to that o ^ ^ .^ ^.^ always less than that of the head: this varies from 5 to 10 centime er . ^ ^ ^ ^^ from one haunch to the other, it often exceeds only very little its leng V to the latter) (G. & R). _horse The croup, d F, exists quite accurately in length four times in the sam ^ ^ � 1st. From the point of the buttock to the inferior part of the stitte-j ' _int0 _the 2nd. In the width of the neck at its inferior attachment, from chest to the origin of the withers, S X. , , , _lower j_aW) x Q, 3rd. From the insertion of the neck into the chest to the angle o when the head is held parallel to the shoulder. commissure of the , 4th. Finally, from the nape of the neck to the nostril, to n, or to the com lips. . i The measure of one-half the head will also guide us very muchfa..the con^uetio: the horse when we know that it is frequently applied to several of his parts y 1st From the most prominent point of the angle of the lower jaw to profile of the forehead above the eye, R Q (thickness of ^e head). _(attachment 2nd p_rom _the _throat _rior _bQrder _0{ _the _neck behind the poll, Q ( of the head). 3rd. From the inferior part of the knee to the coronet, t' t. 4th. From the base of the hock to the fetlock, v u. (approximate 5th. Finally, f_rom the point of the arm to the articulation of the elbow (app length of the arm). COMPENSATION OF DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION The perfect horse is an unknown and unknowable quantity, for ^h°^e� Perfect judgment of his physical conformation may be, it is impossiD the most astute and experienced of horse experts to gauge with precis the absolute and relative value of his many and various component part. From _a general view-point, it may be affirmed that all horses, howeve beautiful they may be, are still but a combination of excellencies ana ^,l"^U'^cts, and upon the preeminence of the one or the other will depend m * «ge measure his utility and value. It must not, however, be forgotten ^tlmt faults of conformation, although at all times objectionable, are not ^^Ways of that serious practical importance which the uninitiated assign to ^theilb for, as Goubaux and Barrier observe, " it frequently happens that a S⁰⁰^ quality annuls a defect, or that one defect may be counterbalanced by Mother whose influence is diametrically opposite". The following long list of examples of this kind we reproduce from ^neU" exhaustive treatise on the Exterior of the Horse.*

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				CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
		102		CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS
		102

		Defects. Corresponding Compensations. Too voluminous head ...... Neck rather short, well-muscled. Head too common .........Ears well-placed, eyes expressive, physiognomy bright. Neck too short .....- ... Head light, well - attached, withers prominent, shoulder beautiful. Withers thick and fleshy ... ... High in front, beautiful shoulder and good axes in front. Withers low ... ... ��■ �� Hind-quarters powerful, fore-quarters light, good equilibrium, members strong. Back long and sway-backed...... Croup strong, body muscular, loins short, well- attached; abdomen small. Back short and narrow ■ ...... Chest high and long. Loins long ...... ... �� Body well-muscled, loins well-attached, ribs very pro- jecting behind; croup oblique; shoulder beautiful, fore-quarters light. Chest narrow ... ... �� ■ ^^>^s l°ⁿg> ^very projecting backward; intercostal spaces wide. Chest scarcely low enough ...... Chest wide and long. Abdomen very voluminous...... Body short and strong, well-supported; flanks short, chest spacious, members strong. Greyhound abdomen ... ... ■ � � Good condition, good appetite, firm, dense muscles, but not too nervous a temperament. Breast rather narrow ... ... � � ■ Chest spacious, muscles dense, energetic, good anterior equilibrium. Breast somewhat wide ...... Body of rather small volume, gaits easy, not rock- ing, strong members. Shoulder short ... � � � � � � High in front, withers prominent, neck long, shoulder oblique and muscular, arm long. Shoulder straight ... � ■ - � � ■ Body short, hind-quarters powerful, withers pro- longed backward and high, neck long and straight. Arm short and too straight ... ... Shoulder long, oblique, muscular, beautiful neck and withers, good equilibrium. Forearm a little short ... � � � Beautiful shoulder, arm long, humero-radial angle large, forearm muscular. Forearm slender ... � ■ � � � � Shoulder and arm muscular, canon short, tendons well-detached, good anterior axes. Canon long and slender, tendons weak Forearm wide, thick, muscular; members solid, muscular, good axes, neck well-carried, head light, high in front. Croup a little short ... ... �■� Thigh rather low down, muscular, rather straight; loins short, supported, well-attached, fore-quarters light, hocks good. Croup a little oblique ... �� Ischium straightened, thigh inclined, hocks good, axes regular, tail well-attached, croup long. Croup a little narrow ... ... Croup long, with sides inclined, muscular loins well- attached. Croup too horizontal ... ... ... Thigh long, little inclined, muscular; leg long, good axes, body a little long to avoid forging. Thigh too straight ... ... ��■ Croup horizontal, leg long, inclined; good equi- librium.

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				103
	COMPENSATION OF DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION			103
	COMPENSATION OF DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION


			OtlS.
		Corresponding Compensation . Oonp and leg long, P�f* ** " T* �pported, '»»^��Xkoeta strong, good .. Thigh long, straight, muscuuu, ^axes- �! ��rl nes body a little Thigh oblique, hocks wide, good axes, D y long to avoid forging. strong, well- ... Leg, thigh, and croup ��; �f^f'_but of attached; fore-quarters light, a good equilibrium. , _axeS; _{ore- ... Heels high, tendons well-detachea quarters light, withers high, fetiocta^^ Heels low, axes regular, withers high, tor q light. , _s0\_e concave. ... Pastern straight, horn e^.^^ted, croup Chest deep, flank short, body well-suppo - anl shoulders long, oblique, -* Members short, locomotory angles conveme , g easy. straight well - attached; ... Head light, neck ^XroWque, arm straight, withers prominent, shoulder ODuq > _d _hed>articulations wide, thick, tendons well good axes, hind-quarters po-erhd. _ ... Tore-quarters light, croup, thigh and e P hocks strong, ^�?^J^«M Body light, chest developed tendon muscular development good. . _{ore. quarters powerful, and eleyateO m _ten_ the hind-quarters; articulations thick, wi dons well-detached. _tbe ... P�«_ri,d «-■-?J^ta?» forearm; neck straight, withers pi well-supported. _y v _hind. . ... Fore-quarters light, rather low than tag quarters very muscular, loins powerful, wide, thick, clean. .....Energ^ vigour, rather nervous temperament.
Defects. Thigh thin and short....... Leg short and too oblique Leg too straight Hock weak Pastern long......... Pastern short......... Heels too low......... Body somewhat long...... ^B°dy rather short ...... A. little low in front...... Too low behind ...... Members too long Horse under himself in front Horse knee-sprung Horse under himself behind . Shortened gaits

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		VARIETIES OE THE HORSE

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	Section III VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		ENGLISH BREEDS

ihe Thoroughbred. � A really good Thoroughbred is beyond all ₀� , !°ⁿ the ^most valuable horse in the world, as not only is an animal on tV,^S ^crPti°ⁿ capable of winning a fortune for his or her possessor are ' °^P ^a^ ^^e ^stud, but there are few other breeds of horses which bio r\ °^aP ^0I> being more or less improved by a dash of Thoroughbred a.m ' same time, a difference of opinion unquestionably exists tW ^to ' ^exP^eri^enced horse-breeders as to whether the Thoroughbred of ue present l ■ recor1 ^1S ^tne ^ecL^ual ^0I" the illustrious heroes of the past, whose achie r ^VQ* ^arfectionately treasured up by racing men, and whose of _a i ^are indelibly impressed upon the memories of race-goers ^uesti ^ne §^eneration. Upon one point, however, there can be no prove V ^lssue, namely, that the modern race-horse is required to ^which ex" ^Ue ^uP°u the turf under totally different conditions from those ^races i_n i ⁿ the past. The ancient and barbarous custom of running Present _ao. ^ "eats has happily fallen into discredit, the tendency of the °^ ^race-tn._e ' ^Un^ ^a ^very short time ago, being to devote the programmes recent Xurf i ^^S almost entirely to short scrambles of under a mile; but that low elation has pronounced against this practice, with the result ^enefit w ^raCes ^aPP^ear on every card. This unquestionably is for the °^f ^five and°ⁿ-^y °^f ^tlle ^British Thoroughbred but of the Turf, as the results ^skill of th -^1X ^u:rl^ong races are very often more dependent upon the ^whilst th_e^e ^Jockey ⁱⁿ s^ettins* away than upon the speed of his mount, ^a ^e(I to ^stlon of a horse's stamina can never be settled if he is not It has b °^rB ^a ^mi^^e during his racing career, "lat the rjr y ^ar§^uect too, ^an(I with a considerable amount of justice, ^stock, and 1 forcing yearlings for sale, and confining the young ^prove thei ^U ^tS !^lkewise' ^m hot unhealthy stables, is not calculated to unknown eve t ^ma ^&n^ ^constitution. Yearling races, however, are now the sheltering '� ^ ^our two-year-olds have also been taken beneath § of the Jockey Club, so that it is illegal to run them

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	108	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	108

before a certain date. The institution of so many valuable stakes in recent times has had the effect of encouraging owners to avoid meeting a dangerous opponent, by saving their animals for other engagements in which the dreaded horse, or horses, may not be entered, and this very greatly increases the difficulty in comparing the merits of many public performers. The time test is always unreliable, for, placing on one side the extreme difficulty of starting the watch at the moment of starting and finishing a race, there are no possible means for making allowances for the little accidents which occur whilst running, but which may make a good horse's time slow, or a moderate one's fast. As a consequence, we find quite second-rate horses the possessors of records which cannot be approached by those held by animals which would have beaten them by many lengths had they met when the "fastest time" was accomplished; and therefore, with all clue respect to our cousins across the Atlantic, who place almost implicit confidence upon the clock, the opinion may be repeated that, as a means of arriving at a conclusion concerning the merits of different horses, the time test is not to be relied upon. In the old days, before the advent of stop-watches and professional time-keepers, the reported records were even more unreliable still, and in fact cannot be accepted seriously by persons who set themselves the task of analysing form, and who may be pardoned for expressing their disbelief in the ability of even that great horse Eclipse to cover 4 miles at an average speed of something like 80 feet a second. At the same time, there are reasonable grounds for believing that there were far more stayers running at the commencement of the nineteenth century than can be found at the present time, but it is questionable nevertheless whether this may not be in a great measure due to the fact that it is an exceptional circumstance for a modern race-horse to be trained for a long race. The shorter events are still so decidedly in the majority that there is very little inducement for an owner to try and find out whether his horse can stay over a long distance; and therefore, doubt- less owing to there being no encouragement to test his merits, many an animal possessed of stamina is regarded as being quite a second-rater, though if he had been given a proper chance for distinguishing himseii he might have won almost undying fame. It certainly is to be hoped that this is the case, for, as the Thorough- bred is largely utilized as a cross for other varieties of horse, and notably in the production of the Hunter, it is evident that the services of a sire that is not only bred to stay, but can stay, are more valuable than those of animals which could not have got beyond six furlongs in their racin₀days. On the other hand, there are good and solid grounds for believing

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		Photo, by W, A. Rouch

	BROWN HORSE, ARD PATRICK

By St. Florian, out of Morganette by Springfield, out of Lady Morgan Winner of the Derby_; 1902, &c. &c. Sold to the German Government for 20,000 guineas

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		ENGLISH BEEEDS _109> that the by no means uncommon, but on the other hand very general Practice of brzngmg up Thoroughbreds as though they were as delicate _f hothouse plants, cannot but have the effect of reducing the robustness. of f^eir ^cons^on- whilst the insane craze that exists for the blood fashionable srres" can only end in such close inbreeding that before other century or even half a one, has elapsed, it is extremely likely /t breeders will find themselves at their wits' end for a cross This Whtwi ^dr^g6r ^WhiCh ^WiU ^^ ^t0 ^be ^faC6d ^S°°^ner ^or ^later, b^ it is one teh the horse raisers of fifty years ago most probably never contemplated. -tab1 ■ TJ ' " ^mUCh ^Str°^nger ^riValrJ ^then ^existed ^between the the ,? ^m ITFT °^f ^the ^C°^Untry' ^and ^eSP^rit ^de ^corP* rather forbade ttcing public flocking in the direction of one or two favoured sires- list m the second place, in the early days of railways, and before their a n, .I" ' ^convey^ance ^of ^mares ^from P^lace to place was not so easy ^ natter as it is now. The latter circumstance may possibly be utilized an argument in support of the theory that inbreeding was a greater ger in the past than in the present, as owners experienced greater rem ^tj ^m ^gGttmg ^tbeir ^brood-^mares ^away ^f�m home; but the fact _a ^ains that at no time in the history of the Turf were the services of muted number of popular sires so greatly in request as now and _a sequently, when their offspring come to be bred from, there must in ^a_Utⁿ!^rat1^ °^r ^tW° ^ ^a ^8Teat ^deal °^f ^inbreedinS ^which cannot fail to. _as e trouble. Be this as it may, however, the modern Thoroughbred e at present exists is undoubtedly a bigger animal than his ancestors Wt_er^CT^qUent1^ r?^^^⁰,^ ^diCtUm "' ^g°°^d ^bi§ ^one ^is always ^isL ,T ^a ^g°f ^lttle °^ne ' �Tf*z ^of ^e latter-day horse have ^a»hna]\ T ^Slde,^whf ^tb6y ^C°^nten_A^d J? ^be ^is ^a ^suP^or all-round ^LV* ' ^^ ^6ra' \ ^baS ^b6en ^6XP^ressed above, the ₀ � ^Pr6Sent ^race-^]lorses ^are ^as ^sound as their predecessors and in _8t . °ⁿ ^1S Pertained by some of the most experienced trainers' that tai_nl ^amma ^and constitution the old horses were the superior. It cer to _a/ ^apP^ears that even one generation ago the horses were called upon HenT ^m°^re ⁱⁿ ^PUbHC ^than ^tbeJ ^^ ^ P^resent> ^whi]st at the period ^aetuall7^at"^raCmg ^WaS ^ ^V°^gUe' ^if ^tbe ^nUmber °^f ^PaCeS ⁱⁿ ^which an animal rnorg. ^mn ^W6re ^n0t ^S° ^manJ' ^tbe ^mdeS ^be g^alI°P^ed ^re very often PWes ^an ^ldustration being the case of Eclipse, who won thirteen Kind's ^his back"¹ ⁿ °^f ^Whidl ^he ^CarriCd ¹² ^St°^ne ^aDd ^bl ^tW0 ¹⁰ ^stone on the Xh^Vlng ^attemP^ted ^to direct attention to a brief comparison between ^dev_ote °^r0Ughbreds ^of the past and present, the writer now purposes to a portion of the space at his disposal to a reference to the sport

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	110	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	110

�of racing as it existed many years ago in this country, this being in his opinion desirable as proving that, although the modern race-horse is doubt- less descended from three great Eastern stallions, which will be named in due course, the sport flourished in this country long^ before the sires in question were foaled, and that, consequently, it is unfair to deny "that the modern Thoroughbred may owe a portion of his excellence to the mares which were crossed with the trio referred to. It is not, how- ever, necessary to enter into a detailed history of the Turf, which in some form or other flourished in England at an extremely remote period; but it is desirable that some of the efforts made by English sovereigns to improve the native breed should not be lost sight of. King John, for instance, was a firm believer in the efficacy of Eastern blood, and devoted �a great deal of attention to his stud at Eltham, a locality which up to now has been intimately associated with the development of the race- horse. The fortunes of this class of animal, however, appear to have fluctuated somewhat until the time of King Henry VIII, who certainly �did more for British horse-flesh than any monarch who had preceded him- It was during his reign that the blood of the high-class English horses, which had got into the hands of foreigners during the Wars of the Roses, was reintroduced into this country, and he restored the glories of the Eltham stud, besides founding similar establishments at Windsor and Hampton Court. It is evident, moreover, that King Henry, like King John, was a believer in Eastern blood, his master of the stud being called the Keeper of the Barbary Horses, which he crossed with those he received from the Marquis of Mantua, who had benefited by the wars alluded to above to the extent of becoming the owner of some of the finest English horses living, for one of which he is reputed to have declined an offer of its weight in silver. Queen Elizabeth undoubtedly inherited her sires regard for horse-flesh, as she had studs at Greenwich, Hampton Court, Windsor, St. Albans, and Waltham; but it was not until the reign of King James I that racing became recognized as a great sport in England, though across the border in Scotland it was established as a national institution earlier, and in fact Queen Elizabeth had presented the sport- loving King James with some race-horses long before he succeeded to th^ethrone of England. King James does not appear to have been at all disposed to rest contented with the quality of his race-horses, as he purchased the so-called Markham Arabian at a price which is variously estimated at �500 and �200, but the transaction apparently turned out unprofitable, as the horse ran badly and there are no records of any good- stock being left behind by him. A great acquisition was, however, secured in the reign of King Charles I by the Duke of Buckingham, who purchased

-ocr page 148-



			HEEMIT

		A dark-chestnut horse by Newminster out of Seclusion. He was bred by Mr. Blenkiron in 1864, and in the following year was purchased by Mr. Chaplin at the Middle Park sale for 1000 guineas. As a two-year-old he showed excellent form, winning the Biennial at Bath, the Biennial at Ascot, and the Biennial and Troy Stakes at Stockbridge. As a three-year-old he won four races out of nine, including the Derby Stakes at Epsom, beating Marksman, Vauban, and twenty-seven others. In 1870 he was put to the stud at Blankney, where he remained until April, 1890, when he died, and his skeleton is now set up in the museum of the Royal Veterinary College, London. His fee in 1870 was 20 guineas and 10s. 6<1 to the groom, but his great success at the stud ultimately brought it up to 250. "After Stockwell," says Mr. Joseph Osborne, " he was the most successful sire of modern times." He got two Derby winners, viz. Shotover and St. Blaise, beside many other good horses, among which may be men- tioned St. Agatha, Trappist, Holy Friar, Lancaster, Industry, Charon, Monachus, Ambergus, Devotee, L'Eclair, Eylestone, Out of Bounds, Zealot, Peter, The Abbot, St. Hilda, St. Louis, Angelina, Thebais, Tristan, Shotover, St. Blaise, Wandering Min, Queen Adelaide, Lonely, Timothy, Friar's Balsam, and others. Before he died in 1890 his progeny had won over �340,000, which has since been considerably added to. As a race-horse and a sire, Mr. Chaplin declared Hermit to be the " best friend he ever had ".

-ocr page 149-

Eclipse, 1704

Pot-8-os, 1773

Sportsmistress, 1765

Waxy, 1790


	Maria,	1777
	Trunipator, 1782
	Prunella	1788
	BuZzard	1787
	6 til Dam	1790
	Sir Peter	1784
	Matron,	1782
	Beningbrou	jh, 1791
	Evelina,	1791
	Stamford	1794
	Sophia,	L79S
	Eclipse,	1764
	Grecian Princess, 1770
	Amaran thus, 1786

Herod, 1758

JUsette, 1772

Whalebone, 1807

Conductor, 1767

Brunette, 1771

Penelope, 1798

Highflyer, 1774

Promise, 1768

Camel, 1822

Woodpecker, 1778

Misfortune, 1775

Selim, 1802

Alexander, 1782

7th Dam

4tli Dam, 1812

Highflyer, 1774

Papillon, 1769

Maiden, 1801

CO
00

Florizel, 1768

7 th Dam

King Fergus; 1775

7th Dam, 1780

Orvillo, 1799

Highflyer, 1774

Termagant, 1777

Master Henry, 1816

Sir Peter, 1784

Horatia, 1778

Miss Sophia, 1805

Buzzard, 1787

Huncanninca

Banter, 1826

.Marske, 1750

Spiletta, 1749

Alexander, 1782

Forester, 1750

7th Dam

Boatlicea, 1807

Old England, 1741

7th Dam

Brunette, 1771

Matchcu), 1748

Mayfly, 1771

is
I
I

[25

7th Dam

Matchem, 1748

Conductor, 1767

7th Dam, 1742

Trunipator, 1782

Squirrell, 1754

Brunette, 1771

Dove, 1764

Paynator, 1791

Spectator, 1740

Mark Anthony

Kachel, 1763

5th Dam

Snap, 1750

Miss Windsor, 1754

Dr. Syntax, 1811

Eclipse, 1764

King Fergus, 1775

Polly

Beningbrough, 179

Herod, 1758

6th Dam, 1780

Pyrrha, 1771

4th Dam

Babraham Blank

Jenny Mole

CO
00

Prince T'^Quassa

6th Dam

Bloody Buttocks, 1733

bJD
d

Herod, 1758

Fortitude

7th Dam

John Bull, 17S9

Eclipse, 1764

Xantippe

Grecian Princess, 1770

Ardrossan, 1809

Eclipse, 1764

7th Dam

Miss Whip, 1793

Evergreen

7th Dam

3rd Dam, 1817

Sir Peter, 1784

The Wren

Whitworth, 1805

Jupiter

Oth Dam

7th Dam

lady Eliza, 1813

Highflyer, 1774

Spadille

Flora

5th Dam, 1793

Y. Marske

Sylvia

Ferret

Sir Peter, 1784

Sir Paul, 1802

Pewet, 1786

Paulowitz, 1813

Highflyer, 1774

Evelina, 1791

Termagant, 1777

Coin, 1822

Trunipator, 1782

Paynator, 1791

7th Dam

5th Dam, 1810

Delpini, 1781

6th Dam

7th Dam

Ion,1835

Beningbrough, 1791
Evelina, 1791

Orville, 1799

Edmund, 1824

Waxy, 1790

Emmeline, 1817

Sorcery, 1808

Margaret, 1831

Buzzard, 1787

Selim, 1802

7th Dam, 1790

Medora, 1811

Sir Harry

6th Dam, 1803

Woodpecker, 1773
Misfortune, 1775

Buzzard, 1787

Selim, 18*2

Alexander, 1782

6th Dam, 1790

Sultan, 1816

Sir Peter, 1784

Williamson's Ditto, 1800

Arethusa, 1792

Bacchante, 1809

Mercury, 1778
7th Dam, 1776

6th Dam, 1791

Palmyra, 1838

Waxy, 1790

Whalebone, 1807

Penelope, 1798

Camel, 1822

Selim, 1802

Oth Dam, 1812

Maiden, 1801

Hester, 1832

Orville, 1799

Muley, 1810

Eleanor. 1798

Monimia, 1821

6 th Dam

Is
o

Buzzard, 1787

Selim, 1802

7 th Dam, 1700

Sultan, 1S16

(a
CO


	Bacchante, 1809	w illiamson' s Ditto ,1800 \
		7th Dam, 1791
		7th Dam, 1791
	Phantom, 1808	Walton, 1790
		Walton, 1790
		Julia, 1799
		Julia, 1799
	Filagree, 1815	Soothsayer
		Soothsayer
		Web, 1808
		Web, 1808
	Eniilius, 1820	Orville, 1799
		Orville, 1799
		Emily, 1S10
Priam, 1827		Emily, 1S10
Priam, 1827	Cressida, 1807	Whiskey, 1789
		Whiskey, 1789
		Y. Giantess, 1790
		Y. Giantess, 1790
	Octavian, 1807	Stripling, 1795
		Stripling, 1795
		7th Dam
Octaviana, 1815		7th Dam
Octaviana, 1815	6th Dam, 1807	Shuttle, 1793
		Shuttle, 1793
		Zara, 1801
		Zara, 1801
	Whitelock, 1803	Hanibletonian, 1772
^t		Hanibletonian, 1772
		Rosalind, 1788
Blacklock, 1814		Rosalind, 1788
Blacklock, 1814	Oth Dam, 1799	Coriander, 1786	{
		Coriander, 1786
		Wildgoose, 1799
		Wildgoose, 1799
	Dick Andrews, 1797	Joe Andrews, 1778
		Joe Andrews, 1778
		7th Dam, 1790
Manuella, 1809		7th Dam, 1790
Manuella, 1809	Mandane, 1800	Pot-8-os, 1773
		Pot-8-os, 1773
		Y. Camilla, 1787
		Y. Camilla, 1787
	Waxy Pope, 1806	Waxy, 1790
		Waxy, 1790
		Prunella, 1788
Starch, 181C		Prunella, 1788
Starch, 181C	Miss Staveley, 1805	Shuttle, 1793
		Shuttle, 1793
		7th Dam, 1793
		7th Dam, 1793
	Oiseau

			j
			I
Cuirass, 1823	Castanea	1	I
		1	j

Bay Middleton, 1833

Cowl, 1842

Crucifix, 1S37

Belshazzar, 1830

Belle Dame, 1839

Ellen, 1831

-ocr page 150-

Sir Hercules, 1826

Birdcatcher, 1833

Guiccioli, 1823

The Baron, 1842

Economist, 1825

Echidna, 1838

Miss Pratt, 1825

Stockwell. 1849

Sultan, 1816

Glencoe, 1833

Trampoline, 1825

Pocahontas, 1857

Muley, 1810

Marpessa, 1830

Clare, 1824

Doncaster 1870

Touchstone, 1831

Orlando, 1841

Vulture, 1833

Tecldington, 1848

Rockingham, 1830

Miss Twickenham,

Electees*, 1819

Marigold, 1860

Buzzard, 1787

Eatan, 1841

5th Dam 1852

Melbourne, 1834

6th Dam. 1844

Lizbeth

o -

Castrel, 1801

Pantaloon, 1824

1'dalia, 1816

Windhound, 1S47

Touchstone, 1831

Phryne, 1840

Decoy,1830

Thormanby,186r

Muley, 1810

Muley Muloch, 1830

Nancy, 1813

Alios Hawthorne,1838

Lottery, 1820

Rebecca, 1831

7th Dam, 1818

Rouge Rose, 1865

Catton, ]

Sandbeck, 1818

Orvillina

Redshank, 1833

Selim, 1802

Johanna, 181L

7th Dam

Ellen Horn, 1844

Emilias, 1820

Plenipotentiary, 1831

Harriet, 1819

Waxy, 1790

Pawn Junior, 1817

Pawn

Walton, 1799


	Gladiator,	1833
	Loilypop,	18S6
	Pantaloon	1824

Partisan, 1811

Parasol, 1800

Moses, 1819

Pauline, 1826

Quadrille, 1815

Sweetmeat, 1842

Blacklock, 1814

Voltaire, 1820

7th Dam, 1816

Blacklock, 1814

Belinda, 1825

Wagtail, 1818

Macaroni, 1860

Buzzard, 1787

Castrel, 1801

7th Dam, 1790

Peruvian, 1806

Idalia, 1815

Musidora, 1804

Jocose, 1843

Orville, 1799

Master Henry, 1815

Miss Sophia, 1805

Banter, 1826

Alexander, 1782

Boadicea, 1807

Brunette, 1771

Blacklock, 1814

Brutandorf, 1821

Mandane, 1800

Physician, 1829

Prime Minister, 1810

Primette, 1820

Miss Paul, 1811

The Cure, 1841

Catton, 1809.

Mulatto, 1823

Desdemona, 1811

Morsel, 1836

Waterloo, 1814

Linda,1825

Cressida, 1807

Polly Agnes, 1865

Whalebone, 1807

Sir Hercules, 1826

Birdcatcher, 1833

Bob Booty, 1804

Guiccioli, 1823

Flight, 1800

Miss Agnes, 1850

Sultan, 1816

Clarion, 1836

Clara

Agnes, 1844

00
00

Priam, 1827

Annette, 1835

Emily, 1810

Whitelock, 1803

Blacklock, 1814

7th Dam, 1799

Voltaire, 1826

Phantom, 1808

6th Dim, 1816

7th Dam, 1802

Voltigeur, 1847

Catton, 1809

Mulatto, 1823

Desdemona, 1811

Martha Lynn, 1837

Filho-da-Puta, 1812

Leda,1824

Vedette. 1854

Whalebone, 1807

Sir Hercules, 1826

Peri, 1822

Birdcatcher, 1833

Bob Boot}', 1804

Guiccioli, 1823

Flight, 1809

Mrs. Ridgway, 1847

Lottery, 1822

Inheritor, 1831

Handmaiden, 1817

Nan Darrell, 1840

Blacklock, 1814

Nell, 1831

Madame Vestris

Selim, 1802

Sultan, 1816

Bacchante, 1809

Bay Middleton, 1833

Phantom, 1808

Cobweb, 1821

Filagree, 1815

The Flying Dutchman, 1846

Catton, 1809

Sandbeck, 1818

Orvillina

Barbelle, 1836

Amadis

Darioletta, 1822

Selima, 1733

Flying Duchess, 1853

Whitelock, 1803

Blacklock, 1814

7th Dam, 1799

Voltaire, 1826

Phantom, 1808

6tl) Dam, 1816

7th Dam, 1802

Merope, 1841

Whisky, 1789

Juniper, 1805

Jenny Spinner

5th Dam, 1817

Sorcerer, 1796

6th Dam. 1810

Virgin

Waxy, 1790

Whisker, 1812

Penelope, 1798

Economist, 1825

Octavian, 1807

Florauthe, 1818

Caprice, 1797

Harkaway, 1S34

Rugantino, 1S03

Nabocklisb, 1810

Butterfly

Fanny Dawson, 1823

Teddy the Grinder, 1798

Miss Tooley, 1808

Lady Jane, 1796

King Tom, 18*1

Selim, 1802

Sultan, 1816

Bacchante, 1809

Glencoe, 1833

Tramp, 1810

Trampoline, 1825

Web, 1808

Pocahontas, 1857

Orville, 1799

Muley, 1810

Eleanor, 179S

Marpessa, 1830

Marmion, 1S06

Clave. 1824

Harpalice, 1814

Sir Paul, 1802

Panlowitz, 1813

Evelina, 1791

Cain, 1822

Paynator, 1791

6th Dam, 1810

7th Dam

Ion, 1853

Orville, 1799

Edmund, 1824

Eimneline, 1817

Margaret, 1831

Selim, 1802

Medora, 1811


	7th Dam,	1803
	Blacklock	1814
	7th Dam,	1817

Adeline, 1851

Velocipede, 1825

Sir Peter, 1784

Miss Cranfield

7th Dam

Little Fairy, 1832

St. George

Zodiac, 1801

Abigail

Lacerta, 1816

Gohanna, 1790

Jerboa, 1S03

Camilla

-ocr page 151-



				c

		ORME Orme is a bay horse with a star on his forehead, but in other respects free from white. He was bred in 1889 by His Grace the late Duke of Westminster, in whose hands he continued to remain, and is still located at Eaton. He is by Ormonde, out of Angelica, by Galopin, and stands fully 16 hands high. As a race-horse he stood far out and away from his com- peers, and was decidedly one of the best of his time. He commenced his racing career as a two-year-old by placing to his credit the Richmond Stakes, followed by the Prince of Wales' Stake, value �2800. At Newmarket first October Meeting he won the Middle Park Plate, value �2505, when he carried 9 sts. 3 lbs. At the Houghton Meeting he won the Dewhurst Plate and the Home-Bred Post Foal Stakes. In 1892 he was unable to compete.for the Two Thousand Guineas and the Derby owing to an illness which it was alleged had resulted from the effects of poison secretly admin- istered to him by some unknown person. As a three-year-old he won the Eclipse Stakes, value 9105 sovereigns, and the Sussex Stakes at Goodwood. At Newmarket he won the Great Foal Stakes, the Champagne Stakes, the Limekiln Stakes, and the Subscription Stakes. As a four-year-old he won the Rous Memorial Stakes at Ascot, and for a second time the Eclipse Stakes at Sandown Park, value 9902 sove- reigns. At Goodwood he won the Gordon Stakes, and wound up a splendid racing career by running Childwick to three- quarters of a length in the Limekiln Stakes, when giving him 2 sts. 5 lbs. At the stud he got that brilliant race-horse Flying Fox, who, after winning the Derby, St. Leger, Two Thousand Guineas, Eclipse Stakes, and other races, was sold at the sale of the late Duke of Westminster to M. Edmond Blanc for the record price of 37,500 guineas. Six yearlings by him disposed of at the Eaton Sale averaged 3878 guineas. He is also the sire of Duke of Westminster, Orchid, Flying Lemur, Manchuria, Missel Thrush, and Ormenus.

-ocr page 152-



			ENGLISH BREEDS 111

		vtt^Hnf¹^^Slen^TUrk' ^Wllich ^Sired ^a ^number ^of �lMe animals. The ad- vent o the Commonwealth, and the wars which preceded it, played havoc with the operations of horse-breeders in _Qn r S tt ■ -> -, Restoration, King Charles II devot 7 ^dlrectl0ns- ^However' ^Wlth ^theof the pnniL , T ^de7^oted some attention to the improvement ot the equine race, and imported a number of mares (these mav be taken to have possessed Eastern bloods whioV, , fi, ^[ ⁷ also a few stallions, all of which howl ^ ^ " *** ^Mar6S"' ^andking died. His successor did nJt intT 7, '^ ^distributed ^when ^thethe reign of William and M ?"* ^himSelf ⁱⁿ horse-flesh, but in imported by the crown M ^a ^g *? ^V&luable ^Eastern horses ^wereWilliam and Q_ueen _Mal_v ^Moreo^ ^d�g the period in which King of stallions, to which the I T� ^thmn&' °^ne °^f ^the illustrious trio speared upon the bopt,^� ?^h°^r0Ug^hbred ^owes much of his excellence, Captain Byerley dul^ ^g ^ ^^ ^Turk' ^the larger ^of subsequently becamp , fmpugn in Ireland, and the horse which Queen Anne Z r ^^ °^f ^the ^M. she ascended the thr J^Ut!% ^a ^racing monarch, and very soon after became known Th^t ^&^^J* ^Arabian> the sire of Flying Childers, served the Thorough ^°^rSe' ^ ^SeC°^nd °^f ^the ^tllree g^reat ^sires ^whichcomb, York bv hi? W? ^S° ^WeU' ^WaS P^resented ^to ^Mr- -Darley of Butter- of the Leed'es Arl i' ^ ^Ws ^W ^at ^the ^stud surpassed even that Childers a_re,_T w S , ^ °^f ^Eetty ^Leedes' ^the ^dam ^of the Flying than twenCl ! ir°^Ug ^ ^^ ^Ambian ^ Altogether no fewer t^ reiTrft^ n °^f ^EaStem ^bl°°^d ^Came ^into ^is country during Thoroughbred ' ""* ^fr°^m ^her P^eriod ^tbe ^breedin§ ^of ^e P^iples than Wlv ° JTi I'TI ^^ ^Up°^D ^m°^re ^Scientificreference has \ ^^[y- ^ihe ^last of the great trio of stallions to which Godolphin ArlT ^been_n^made ^as ^being Pilars of the Stud-book, was tire white. This V ^bay ^h°^rSe' ¹⁵ ^hands> ^with his off-hind heel 1728, and IT 7? ^f°^Und ^ln ^a ^water-cart in Paris in the year his death bl ^imp°^rted ^mt° ^tbis ^untry, where he lived until 1753, Writ ca^ ITH ^lyA^ment6d' ^aDd * � � ^tban by his his remLs ; tL ^ ^ ^t0 ^Ms g^raVe' ^sat disconsolately upon then disZeaJ ^T-^T* ^ ^made ^f°^r ^Wring him into it, and story 7_0er Kh T ^ ^ ^t0 ^be ^Seen ^ag^ain ^At ^least - the the developmen If th^ee^OTS "f^ T^ ^diSpkyed ⁿ° ^interest ⁱⁿCumberland efftf. Thoroughbred; but the latter's son, the Duke of * stud! C^trf rl' ^ ^f°^Unded ^AsCOt ^races' -^d g^ together the great EcWw; ^ T^ * ^ > °^f ^Dog^s' ^re some say regafdng th^Zl ^f°^ale_f^d;^^0Ug^h ^d0ubte ■» expressed in other quarter's of Cumber and the h⁷, ^ ^^ ^SmCe ^the ^time ^of * Duke -land, the history of the Thoroughbred horse is clearly traceable

-ocr page 153-



		VAEIETIES OF THE HOESE
	112


in the Stud-book, and consequently it is unnecessary to particularize further on that portion of the subject. At the same time the varying conditions which regulate the production of this class of horse are worthy of comment, for the methods pursued by breeders have greatly altered, and some persons think for the worse. In the old days people raised their Thoroughbreds with the view of running them themselves, such functions as public sales of yearlings being unknown and unheard of. Consequently the unfortunate practice now so prevalent of stall-feeding* young stock, and in fact treating them as though they were prize bullocks, had no existence then. Each breeder acted independently according to his own ideas of what was desirable for the benefit of his stock, and not with the fear of adverse criticism upon the condition and precociousness. of his yearlings. The value of their horses was consequently for the most part estimated by the test of future events, or by their breeding and the performances of their relatives, rather than by the amount of blubber they carried upon their frames, or the height to which their stature had been forced by a system of artificial rearing, which naturally must affect their constitutions and hardiness to a greater or less extent �probably to a greater. It is, of course, but natural that certain families of Thoroughbreds require different treatment from others, not only in their rearing, but subsequently in the course of their preparation for the engagements they are destined to fulfil, and possibly no greater illustration of this can be produced than the case of the Newminsters, which usually run best after a tender preparation, Hermit, the Derby winner of 1867, being perhaps the most notable instance of this. At the same time, it cannot be- reasonably doubted that the youngsters which enjoy a long freedom in a roomy paddock are more likely to develop into sound-constitutioned animals than those which have been pampered and artificially forced from the earliest moment. It must, however, be always remembered that allowances should be made for the conditions under which young horses- have to be reared, as very much indeed will depend upon the nature of climate and soil. Foals bred in damp places, and exposed to much rain and cold wind, or running on clay soils, are sadly handicapped in their growth and progress; whereas the more fortunate youngsters which are favoured by a more genial climate, and possess the advantage of having: a large undulating area to roam about in, have every advantage placed in their way. The desirability of the paddocks being situated upon un- dulating ground consists in the facilities it affords the colts and filh^eSlor utilizing all their muscles from an early age; whereas if the land i^sflat, each set of muscles will not be equally brought into play. Indeed

-ocr page 154-



			Plate XV.

		Photo, by W. A. Rouch

BAY FILLY, SCEPTRE By Persimmon, out of Ornament by Bend Or, out of Lily Agnes. Winner of the St. Leger, 1902, &c. &c. The Property of W. A. H. Bass, Esq.

	BAY HORSE, FLYING FOX By Orme; dam, Vampire by Galopin, out of Irony. Winner of the Derby and St. Leger, &c. &c. and sold as a four-year-old at the Duke of Westminster's sale for 37,500 guineas to M. Edmond Blanc

-ocr page 155-



		ENGLISH BEEEDS IK

bred^mfh- K^ld ^be ^neglected ^that ^conduces to soundness in the Thorough- thou 1 ^f°^r °^bvious ^reas°ns the great object of all breeders, to be ¹ T ^mUSt ^b<3 ^admitted ^tliat ^a ^larS^e majority of them do not appear °f taTh ^UP ^t0 ^thelr ^convictions ^wnen they ^are guilty of such an act Plants^X ^aS ^t0 ^treat ^tneir y^ounS ^stock ^as though they were hothouse made b ,^aCkney~^The remarkable advance in popularity that has been to the ⁷ � ^Hackney horse ^during the past twenty years is due not only interestr?⁰¹¹⁸ °^f ^th6 ^members ^of ^the society that exists to support his chano-e \ ° ^tbe natural attractions possessed by the breed, and the horses for *** ^Undoubtedly ^come ^over ^the feelings of those who keep thing el¹ ^P ^e" ^In ^fact> there is a fashion in horse-flesh as in every- mfluenc ⁶' Z ^ caprice °f owners is also regulated by extraneous F_or i_ustan^_e ?^h ^materially affect the posit ion of many a variety of horse, ment is not⁶' "* ^tlm6S °^f P^rosP^erity ^and P^lenty the head of the establish- ^a period of ^much disposed to curtail his stable expenses as he is during ^extravaganc ^turai ^or mercantile depression. When trade is bad no necessity _wv. ^&n allowed, and the all-round horse is regarded as a ^and others for lrlf^°^re' °^ne ^anima^~ ^or ^more could be kept for harness, balance at th i purposes, without materially affecting their owner's ^n order hrw Hackney _rea'ii . ^eT^er' ^to ^arrive at a proper understanding as to what a ^to which the if ^1S' ^ ^Wl11 P^ernaP^s ^De ^as ^weH to consider the original uses horse, ~__an /^eed ^Was put, and then to draw attention to the origin of the ^transfo_rmin ^airangement which, though it may be regarded as somewhat ^Various reason ^ ^COnventional lines, may be accepted as desirable for t was i_n _tj' ^most valuab_le ₀f ^ante'^railway ^days that the Hackney was regarded as the East Angli_an ° ^breeds' ^llis* Particular mission in life being the carrying of distant i_n _ma Yorkshire farmers from their holdings to the markets, commencement⁷ f^¹¹⁰?⁸ ^a S^ood number of miles. Consequently at the and a good nu b ^nineteenth century, and also for some years before ^of the farmer's"¹ ^Subse(l^uently, the Hackney was regarded in the light (occasionally hi ^ ^^ ^C°^uld ^be ^relied ^upon ^to ^convey his master accompany her s ^DUStres.⁸ .^aS ^wel1' ^for sometimes the farmer's wife would him safely bach ^V?' "f�⁸ ^behind ^him ⁰ⁿ ^a P^illion) to market and bring j°hs as are usu'all it ^ ^lnterYening ^day^s ^could ^be devoted to such light Position of the HaV -^d ^t0 ^the °^dd ^horse °ⁿ ^a ^farnL ^This ^being ^the that the variety ^eJ ^Jt ^can scarcely be a subject of surprise to anybody ^be regarded as _relTv f^⁷ ^esteemed ⁱⁿ ^the ^old ^day^s- Neither can it

	vol.!. markable that when railways became established,		many
			many

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	114	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

agriculturalists who adopted them as means of locomotion became lukewarm in their support of the breed that had served them faithfully for many years. Their neglect of the Hackney perhaps was only natural, for the horse was too light for farm-work, and the old-day farmer was not the sort of man to continue breeding an animal for which he had reduced uses, and for which he did not prophesy a large popular demand. The result was the partial decadence of the breed, which might possibly have become entirely extinct were it not for the loyalty and devotion to it evinced m a most practical form by a few old admirers, who stood by it during the period of its adversity, and who are now reaping a rich reward for their constancy to the horse. Unquestionably, however, the rescue of the Hackney from ultimate extinction�for the old breeders and their descendants who had held on to the blood were getting fewer and farther between�is due to the action of the members of the Hackney Horse Society, who for the past fe^ years have laboured with the object before them of bringing the great merits of this class of horse before the public, with results that must have exceeded by far the most sanguine anticipations of the originators oi the movement. At the same time it may be mentioned, as a further proof of the value of their efforts, that the gentlemen who were spending their time and their money in furthering a very patriotic movement had t° encounter one or two unforeseen difficulties, the defeat of which has un- doubtedly rendered the success that has attended their labours still more remarkable. The chief obstacle which they had to overcome was the erroneous statements that were made to the effect that the Hackney waS not a distinct variety, and consequently could not be expected to breed true; whilst even the institution of a Stud-book was received with expi^eS' sions of hostile criticism in certain quarters. There can, however, be no doubt whatever that many a Hackney pedi' gree is as long and as clear as the most fastidious breeder could desire, i°^xmost of the staunchest supporters of the variety were as careful as any breeder of the Thoroughbred horse in preserving accurate records of then" studs, and so far as the writer can see, there is no legitimate ground i°^rstigmatizing these men either as rogues or fools, one of which they mu^shave been if they had manufactured pedigrees, or been deceived themselves concerning the breeding of their horses. True it is, of course, that unti a few years ago the Hackney had remained unhonoured by a stud-boo > but all such volumes are at first necessarily things of threads and patche > being manufactured from information afforded their compilers by breeder > and surely therefore statements, substantiated as they are by documentary �evidence which has been handed down from father to son for generatio

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				5-

		STOCKWELL Stockwell was a chestnut horse with two white hind-legs and a white blaze down the face. He was bred in 1849 by Mr. Theobald, and sold to Lord Exeter for �180, and 500 more if he won the Derby. He was one of the best race- horses of his day, and subsequently became one of the first sires of the century. He was by The Baron out of Pocahontas, who was also the dam of Rataplan, King Tam, Knight of St. Patrick, &c. &c. During his turf career he accounted for a number of races. Besides the Two Thousand and St. Leger, he also won the Newmarket Stakes at Goodwood, a sweep- stake of �400, and the racing stakes �600; at York, the Great Yorkshire Stakes of 1590 sovereigns; at Newmarket he won the Grand Duke Michael Stakes, the Newmarket St. Leger, and the Whip; after which he went to the stud, where he begot a peerless family. Among his sons were Belladrum, Blair Athol, Lord Lyon, Uncas, Doncaster, St. Albans, The Marquis, and numerous other good ones; while his daughters included Isola Bella, the dam of Isonomy; Stockings, the dam of Mowerina; Sandal, the grandam of Sainfoin; Woodbine, the grandam of St. Serf; Caller Ou, Achievement, and many others of the highest distinction. He died at Hooton Hall, Cheshire, on the 5th of May, 1870, when 21. years old.

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«^o

Eclipse, 1764

Pot-8-os, 1773

Sportsmistress, 1763

Waxy, 1790

Herod, 1758

Maria, 1777

Lisette, 1772

Whalebone, 1807

Conductor, 1767

Trumpator, 1782

Brunette, 1771.

Penelope, 1798

Highflyer, 1774

Prunella, 1788

Promise, 1768

Sir Hercules, 1826

Mercury, 1778

Gohanna, 1790

7th Dam, 1779

Wanderer, 1790

Woodpecker, 1773

Catherine, 179S

Camilla

Peri, 1822

Eclipse, 1764

Alexander, 1782

Grecian Princess, 1770

Xhalestis, 1809

CO
00

Sir Peter, 1784

Rival, 1800

Hornet

Herod, 1758

Woodpecker, 1773

Miss Hamsden

Chanticleer, 1787

ffl

Eclipse, 1764

6th Dam, 177S

Rosebud, 1766

Bob Booty, 1804

Herod, 1758

Bagot, 1780

Marotte, 1766

Ierne, 1790

G-amahoe

Patty

Guiecioli, 1823

Tom Tug, 1777

Commodore, 1793

Smallhopes

Escape, 1802

Highilyer, 1774

6th Dam, 1791

Flight, 1809

Herod, 1758

Marotte, 1766

Y. Heroine

Hero, 1753

Old Heroine

7th Dam

Eclipse, 1764

Pot-S-os, 1773

Sportsmistress, 1763

Waxy, 1790

Herod, 175S

Maria, 1777

Lisette, 1772

Whisker, 1812

Conductor, 1767

Trumpator, 1782

Brunette, 1771

Penelope, 1798

Highflyer, 1774

Prunella, 17SS

Promise, 176S

Economist, 1825

Phenomenon, 1780

Stripling, 1795

Octavian, 1807

Oberon

6th Dam

Floranthe, 1818

Herod, 1758

Anvil, 1777

7th Dam

Caprice, 1797

00
CO

Eclipse, 1764

Madcap, 1774

7th Dam

King'Fergus, 1775

Hambletonian, 1792

7th Dam, 1782

Whitelock, 1803

Phenomenon, 1780

Rosalind, 17S8

Atalanta, 1769

Blacklock, 1814

Pot-8-os, 1773

Coriander, 1786

Lavender, 1778

5th Dam, 1799

Highflyer, 1774

Wiklgoose, 1792

Coheiress, 178'

Miss Pratt, 1825

King Fergus, 1775

Beningbrough, 1791

7th Dam, 1780

Orville, 179S

Highflyer, 1774

Evelina, 1791

Termagant, 1772

Gadabout, 1812

Highflyer, 1774

Sir Peter, 1784

Papillon, 1769

Minstrel, 1S03

Florizel, 1768

3
w

Matron, 1782

Maiden

Herod, 1758

Woodpecker, 1773

Miss Pvamsden

Buzzard, 1787

Dux, 1761

Misfortune, 1775

Curiosity, 1760

Selim, 1S02

Eclipse, 176

Alexander, 1782

Grecian Princess, 1770

5th Dam, 1790

Highflyer, 1774

Oth Dam

7th Dam

Sultan, 1816

Highflyer, 1774

Sir Peter, 1784

Papillon, 1769

Williamson's Ditto, 1800

Dungahnon, 17S0

Arethusa, 1792

7th Dam

Bacchante, 1809

Eclipse, 1764

Mercury, 1778

7th Dam

Calomel's Sister, 1791

Herod, 175;

6th Dam

Folly, 1764

Eclipse, 1764

Joe Andrews, 177S

Amaranda, 1771

Dick Andrews, 1797

Highflyer, 1774

6th Dam, 1790

7th Dam

Tramp, 1810

Mercury, 1778

Gohanna, 1790

7th Dam

5th Dam, 1803

Trentham, 1766

Fraxinella, 1793

7th Dam

Trampoline, 1825

Eclipse, 1764

Pot-S-os, 1713

Sportsmistress, 1763

Waxy, 1790

Herod, 1758

Lisette, 1772

Web, 1808

Conductor, 1767

Trumpator, 1782

Brunette, 1771

Penelope, 1798

Highflyer, 1774

Prunella, 1788

Promise, 1788

Eclipse, 1764

King Fergus, 1775

Polly; 1756

o
o

Beniugbovough, 1791

Herod, 1753

6th Dam, 1780

Pyrrha, 1771

Orville, 1799 '

Highflyer, 1774

Rachel, 1750

Evelina, 1791

Tantrum, 1760

Termagant, 1772

Muiey, 1810

Eclipse, 1764

Saltrarn, 1780

Virago, 1764

Whiskey, 178!

Herod, 1758

Calash, 1775

Teresa, 1767

Eleanor, 1798

Florizel, 1768

Diomed, 1777

.Tuno's Sister

Y. Giantess, 1790

Matchem, 1748

Giantess, 1769

Molly Long Legs, 1753

Eclipse, 1764

Virago, 1764

Whiskey, 1789

Herod, 1758

Calash, 1775

Teresa, 1767

Marmior;, :

Florizel, 1768

Diomed, 1777

Juno's Sister

Y. Jfoisette

Squirrel, 1754

Noisette

Bloody Buttocks

Clare, 1824

Eclipse, 1764

Mercury, 1778

7th Dam, 1756

Gohanna, 1790

Herod, 1758

6th Dam

Maiden, 1770

Harpalioe; 1814

Trentham, 1766

Coquette

Amazon

Mercury, 1778

Fractious

7th Dam

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Hambletonian, 1792

Whitelock, 1803

Rosalind, 1788

Blacklock, 1814

Coriander, 1786

6th Dam, 1799

Wildgoose, 1799

Voltaire, 1826

Walton. 1799

Phantom, 1808

Julia, 1798

5th Dam, 1816

Overton, 1788

6th Dam, 1802

Gratitude's Dam, 1796

Voltigeur, 1847

Golunrpus, 1802

Catton, 1809

Lucy Grey

Mulatto, 1823

Orville, 17

Desdemona, 1811

Fanny

Martha Lynn, 1837

Haphazard, 1797

Filho-da-Puta, 1812

Mrs. Barnet, 1806

Leda, 1824

CamiJIus

7th Dam

Waxy, 1790

Whalebone, 1807

Penelope, 1798

Sir Hercules, 1826

Wanderer, 1811

Peri, 1822

Thalestris, 1809

Birdoatcher, 1833

Chanticleer, 1787

Bob Booty, 1804

lerne, 1790

Guiccioli, 1823

Escape, 1802

Flight, 1809

Y. Heroine

Mrs. Ridgway, 1849

Tramp, 1810

Lottery, 1822

Mandane, 1800

Inheritor, 1831

Walton, 1799

Handmaiden, 1817

Anticipation

San Darrell, 1844

Whitelocli, 1803

BlacVilocK "1.814

7th Dam, 1799

Nell, 1S31

Comus, 1809

Madame Vestris

Lisette, 1772

Buzzard, 1787

Selim, 1802

7th Dam, 1790.

Sultan, 1816

Williamson's Ditto, 1800

Bacchante, 1809

7th Dam, 1791

Bay Middleton, 1833

Walton, 1799

Phantom, 1808

Julia, 1798

Cobweb, 1821

Soothsayer, 1808

Filagree, 1815

Web, 1808

Flying Dutchman, 1846

Golunrpus, 1802

Catton, 1809

Lucy Grey

Sandbeck, 1818

Beningbrough, 1791

Orvillina

Evelina, 1791

Barbelle, 1836

Don Quixote, 1784

CO
OO

Fauny

Darioletta, 1822

Selim, 1802

Selima

Hambletonian, 1792

Whitelock, 1803

OX)

Rosalind, 1788

Blacklock, 1814

Coriander, 1786

6th Dam, 1799

Wildgoose, 1799

Voltaire, 1826

Walton, 1799

Phantom, 1808

Julia, 1798

5th Dam, 1816

Overton, 1788

6th Dam, 1802

Gratitude's Dam, 1796

Merope, 1841

Saltram, 1780

Whisky, 1789

Calash, 1775

Juniper, 1805

Dragon

Jenny Spinner

7th Dam

4th Dam, 1817

Trumpator, 1782

Sorcerer, 1796

Young Giantess, 1790

5th Dam, 1810

Sir Peter, 1784

Virgin

7 th Dam

Pot-8-os, 1773

Waxy, 1790

Maria, 1777

Whisker, 1812

Trumpator, 1782

Penelope, 1798

Prunella, 1788

Economist, 1825

Stripling, 1795

Octavian, 1807

Floranthe, 1818

Anvil, 1777

Caprice, 1797

Madcap, 1774

Harkaway, 1834

Commodore, 1794

Rugantino, 1804

7th Dam, 1791

Nabocklish, 1811

Master Bagot, 1787

Butterfly

7th Dam

Fanny Dawson, 1823

Asparagus, 1787

Teddy the Grinder, 1798

Stargazer, 1782

Miss Tooley, 1808

Sir Peter, 1784

Lady Jane, 1796

Paulina, 1778

OX)

a
3

Buzzard, 1787

Selim, 1802

7th Dam, 1790

Sultan, 1816

Williamson's Ditto, 1800

Bacchante, 1809

7th Dam, 1791

Glencoe,1S33

Dick Andrews, 1797

Tramp, 1810

7th Dam, 1803

Trampoline, 1S25

Waxy, 1790

Web, 1808

Penelope, 1798

Pocahontas, 1837

Beningbrough, 1791

Orville, 1799

Evelina, 1791

Muley, 1810

Whisky, 178

Eleanor, 1798

Y. Giantess, 1790

Marpessa, 1830

Whisky, 17S9

Marmion, 1806

Y. Xoisette

Clare, 1824

Gohanna, 1790

Harpalice, 1814

Amazon

Sir Peter, 1784

Sir Paul, 1802

Pewet, 1786

Paulowitz, 1813

Highflyer, 1774

Evelina, 1791

Termagant, 1777

Cain, 1822

Trumpator, 1782

Paynator, 1791

7th Dam

5th Dam, 1810

Delpini, 17S1

6th Dam

7th Dam

Ion, 1835

Beningbrough, 1791

Orville, 179!

Evelina, 1791

Edmund, 1824

Waxy, 1790

Emmeline, 1817

Sorcery

Margaret, 1831

Buzzard, 1787

Selim, 1802

7th Dam, 1790

Medora, 1811

Sir Harry

6th Dam, 1803

Whitelock, 1803

Blacklock, 1814

6th Dam, 1799

Velocipede, 1825

Juniper, 1805

6th Dam, 1817

7tli Dam, 1810

Hornsea

Highflyer, 1774

Sir Peter, 17S4

Papillon, 1769

Miss Cranfleld

6th Dam

Little Fairy, 1832

Highflyer, 1774

St. George

7th Dam

Zodiac, 1801

Woodpecker, 1773

Abigail

Firetail

Lacerta, 1816

Mercury, 1778

Gohanna, 1790

7th Dam, 1779

Jerboa, 1803

Trentham, 1766

Camilla

Coquette

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			ST. SIMON

		St. Simon is a brown horse, with a star on the forehead and some white on the near hind-heel. He was bred by Prince Batthyany in 1881, and is by Qalopin out of St. Angela, who. was also the dam of Angelica and the grandam of Orme. St. Simon is 16 hands 1 inch in height, and is the property of his grace the Duke of Portland. He commenced his racing career as a two-year-old (1883) by winning the Halnaker Stakes at Goodwood, and at the same meeting he beat the colt by Balfe-Katrine for the Maiden Stakes. At Derby, in the same year, he won the Devonshire Nursery Plate, carrying 8 st. 12 lbs. in a large field; and later, at Doncaster, he won the Prince of Wales' Nursery Plate, carry- ing 9 st., and giving 14 lbs. to the heaviest weighted of his twenty-one opponents. He finished up his first season by beating^ the Duke of Kichmond in a match at equal weights for ,�500. As a three-year-old he continued his unbroken record. Commencing at Newmarket, he won the Trial Match from Tristan, and walked over at Epsom for the Epsom Gold Cup Later in the year he won the Gold Cup at Ascot, the Lrold Cup at Newmarket, and finished up a brilliant season by winning the Goodwood Cup from Ossian, who was beaten twenty lengths. As a stallion he has been widely patronized, and his stock have displayed an amount of speed and stamina perhaps unprecedented in the annals of the turf. His sons and daughters have won more classic races than those of any horse since the time of Stockwell. The Derby was won by Persimmon (1896), and Diamond Jubilee (1900); the St. Leger by Memoir (1890), La Fleche (1892), Persimmon (1896), and Diamond Jubilee (1900); the Oaks by Memoir (1890), La Fleche (1892), Mrs. Butter- wick (1893), Amiable (1894), and La Eoche (1900); the Two Thousand Guineas by St. Frusquin (1896), and Diamond Jubilee (1900); and the One Thousand Guineas by Semolina (1890), La Fleche (1892), Amiable (1894), and Winnifreda (1900). His daughters have also been fruitful of good horses, especially those of the blood of Hampton and Melbourne. In 1896 his stock won �59,740; nearly approaching to that of Stockwell, whose offspring in 1886 aggregated the sum of �61,195.

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			ENGLISH BREEDS

		^as a guide for the conduct of rt k j worthy of credence amongst irmT ? ^g °P^erations ^of ^the ^latter, are as Porary horse-raiser who transmit 11 ^m6n ^aS ^i§ ^the ^dictum ^of ^a ^contem" the editor of a stud-book ^formation concerning his horses to The exact sources from which rh_P TT i two centuries ago are never likelv t« I ^a ^ckne7 originally sprang nearly f° ^far ^aS ^the <W of the orioTa an l" ^"^at is to say, of course, however, the most ample and suffi_cl? ? ^C°^nCerned- ⁰ⁿ ^ sires' side, -nuns now before the public _cTf ??"? ^ls forthcoming, and man -1 other pillars of the UollZhl 1 ?* ^Wk ^to ^the Ay Arabian *?t ;tn ~^ed -^^i3w_fl ^A ^very ^tenabie ^** t-i » ' ^s"ggests that BWi "8� ^UP0H the origin of the Hackney, wh It th°"^Cl^tl,e ^God»lP'>h A^b an ^StaUi0"^S' ^SUdl " »- ^h� >ve re- ^ ol _tl°^ff8I>rin8 «* their onioT' T ^PUt ^to T ^SMto ^of �� «* fc/ "» ^ona s^» ^&g and Flemish mares formed MhaW , ^m« ^m«e than 2 ! ^Ha°^kn^ ^Th« ^ab°« intention is, » Wwtoal _gTOuad �» conjecture, founded, it is true, upon very C- il^ty » aiwtaf" "V* ^8ame; ^but truing 2 cooU ^TCn ^m ^ll!s Preface to vol f T' ^dearly ^d«>onstrated b_y Mr. ,"^S " r^ �ue of « _tT^C V ^the «"�* Stud-hook, which W P ^SS °^f ^1,0Ke ^is concerned IT t" ^aS ^referCMes ^to ^ Ceding of with the th ^&di"V Horse the 1 tCf ^a°^kM7: ^Md ^aS«" ⁱⁿ ^his« Tr , ^wie tollowine sentpr,oo . ⁸ ' ^at ^so remote a period as therefore V ^meant to neioh tu₀ ^d ^fl0m ^the Anglo-Saxon as «, ' ' °f ^assu^ing that the �-«. 1, , ^appear ^tantiaj reasons, U of" Sen 7' °^f ^Fkmi Mod ^^ �^d ^ ^^ th_at / ^h ^effected so much ,� ' ^Were P^ut to the Eastern worses of one hundred and fifW . ^ncl ^h% years ago that is

-ocr page 162-



		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	116	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	116

certain, is that they were far smaller than their descendants, but the differ- ence in size may be easily accounted for by the better stabling, feeding, selection, and management that the Hackneys of the present day are favoured with; though it may be added, that beyond a doubt all varieties of horse have increased in stature since the period referred to. It does not, however, appear from the published writings of old authors that the horse- breeders of the past were over particular as regards the height at shoulder of their steeds. Master Blundeville, of Newton Flotsham, Norfolk, who wrote and flourished in the reign of good Queen Bess, was careful to im- press upon his readers the desirability of breeding from tall roomy mares " of a high stature strongly made large and faire ", but unfortunately he omits to mention the stature which in his opinion was high. Blundeville, however, was exceptionally well qualified to express an opinion upon the subject of what he was pleased to refer to as the "trotting pase", for his part of the country, East Anglia, has from time immemorial been one of the strongholds of trotting horses. Even so far back as the fifteenth century, one Dame Margaret Paston, in the course of a letter addressed to her absent lord, informs him that "there be bought for you three horses at St. Faith's Fair, and all be trotters, right fair horses, God save them, and they be well keeped". One of the earliest reliable references that may be quoted as applying to the height of stallions in the olden days appears in the Norwich Gazette of 1725 in the form of an advertisement of a gray horse which stood 14 hands; but before a hundred years had elapsed such giants as Silvertailed Fireaway (West's), who was foaled in 1807 and stood 16 hands, were in existence, and it may be mentioned that he in turn sired Pheno- menon Fireaway, who stood 16'2 hands. This height was considerably i° advance of that which was common a few years ago, when 15'2 hands was recognized as the maximum shoulder measurement by the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England; but in response to the appeals of Hackney- breeders the Council of the " Royal" removed their restrictions upon horses over this height competing at their shows, with beneficial results to all parties concerned. Of late years a very perceptible increase in the heigh* both of Hackneys and Hackney-bred horses has been perceptible, and in the summer of 1895 King Edward (then Prince of Wales) disposed of a pair oi Hackney-bred harness horses, which stood just a trifle under 16 hands, f°^ra thousand guineas, a circumstance which, did it stand alone, would afford a practical and unassailable demonstration of the value of Hackney blood, and likewise of the height to which Hackneys may attain. It will p^r°' bably, however, be some little time before this class of horse will averag anything like 16 hands, especially when it is remembered that for y^earthe Royal Agricultural Society of England was disqualifying anim^a

-ocr page 163-



				Photo, by Gambit

		HACKNEY MARE, LADY DEREHAM 2891 By Ritualist 1542; dam, 2016 Dorothy by Lord Derby II 417. Winner of numerous prizes The Property of Mrs. Temple

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			ENGLISH BREEDS 117

		exceeding 15 "2 hands, but nevertheless the fact remains that the stature °f the Hackney is steadily increasing. Reverting, however, to the palmy days of this breed of horse, which ^may be taken to have been at the commencement of the nineteenth ^Century, at which time the variety was well established and vastly popular amongst farmers generally, some allusion may be made to the speed and lamina of the Hackney of those days. For instance, the doings of a grand- daughter, by Driver, of old Shales, the fountain-head of many a famous Modern strain of Hackney, is credited with the negotiation of 15 miles within the hour carrying 15 stone upon her back. This is smart trotting ^Certainly, but the old horse himself possessed a record of 17 miles within -h^e 60 minutes�an altogether extraordinary performance when the con- ations under which the feat was performed are considered, as the state ?* the roads was doubtless inferior to that met with now by equestrians ¹¹¹ the country. So far back as the year 1800 a 14-2 hands, twelve f^ears' old mare, named Phenomena, negotiated 17 miles on the Hunt- ^lugdon Road in 4 minutes under the hour, and was afterwards backed ⁰ trot 19i miles within the 60 minutes, but the match fell through on ^^Ccount of the supporter of time paying forfeit when he learned that herioi-nena had covered 4 miles in under 11 minutes in a trial. Of course J^ls little mare was an altogether exceptionally speedy trotter�in fact, the ^u«e of Leeds cheerfully paid 1800 guineas for her at one period of her i ^eet�■but at the same time a number of the Hackneys which existed °^ut that period were very fast. A case in point is Read's Fireaway, eul ^a^^er ^ne ^nac^ ^can'i^e<l ^on° the second prize offered at the Agri- ■ ^Ul'al Society's meeting, was again brought out, and trotted his mile minutes 49 seconds, though the weight he carried is not recorded, j_s Mission that is certainly to be regretted in the interests of sport. It P^robable, of course, that the accuracy of such performances as those fa-f ^aDove may be questioned by some who read these lines; but the remains that in each case there was a backer of time who paid his _e ^&y ^0Ver them, and he at all events would scarcely have been weak gh to do so unless fully satisfied that he had lost his wager. Moreover, Hi t ?^1110uncement that the party behind time in the last of Phenomena's Pa f ^6S f^e*"^erreci to above�which was for 2000 guineas�was content to the ^6lt ^a^^or(^^s ample proof that the correctness of the time test was a ^accepted, and attention paid to it. Consequently, therefore, there old ' ° ^^Ut ^very little justification for traversing the accuracy of the his ^COlds> ^and more especially so as the then watch-holder was confining case ^U ^ns ^to fractions of minutes, and not of seconds, as is now the ¹ trotting tracks. It is therefore highly probable that had the sport

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	118	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	118

of trotting been as popular amongst Englishmen as it is on the other side of the Atlantic, the Hackney, instead of now occupying the honour- able position of emperor of harness horses, and the most useful of ride- and-drive animals, would be regarded as a valuable instrument for gambling purposes, and that this extra appreciation of his merits would have effected a considerable increase in both his monetary value and his speed. Having thus discussed the origin and acquirements of the early Hackney, it becomes necessary to consider the appearance of the horse, which, it may reasonably be inferred, was a heavier, stouter animal than the type now fashionable. This conjecture may legitimately be hazarded for two reasons: first, because the horse has become more finely bred, and has got further away from the old foundation stock, the mares of which were probably pretty coarse and plain; and secondly, on account of the requirements of his owners being very different from what they were well-nigh a century ago. The class of horse that was required to carry a burly agriculturalist, and occasionally his wife as well, to market upon his back, must naturally have been more stoutly built than the quality-showing animals which now grace the show-ring and charm the public by their display of elegance combined with action. Upon this part of the question there can be no two opinions; and it would be paying but a very slight compliment to the intelligence and resources of Hackney breeders to deny them the possession of the amount of acumen which would have convinced them of the advisability of raising lighter animals, and the faculty for accomplishing what they desired by careful selection of then* breeding stock. It must consequently be accepted as a fact that the old-time Hackney was exceptionally powerful, and was possessed of ^aconsiderable amount of speed at both actions, walking and trotting�' for many a Hackney can trot faster than he can gallop; the latter gait is not affected by the breed�for, as Mr. Euren asserts, it is quite true that it was not an unusual occurrence for the old Norfolk farmer to ride fifty or sixty miles a day. Therefore it is certain that, in addition to being strongly built, the old horse must assuredly have possessed both speed and stamina. To ensure the latter he must have had plenty of depth of chest, and likewise ample width, so as to give amp'^eaccommodation for his heart and lungs; whilst his shoulders must have been long and sloping, else he would have proved a very rough, if ⁿ° impossible, conveyance for the farmer who rode him, to say nothing of the lady seated on the pillion behind her husband. Associated wit these sloping shoulders, if old portraits are to be believed, were shot flat legs and a plentiful, if not excessive, supply of bone, whilst

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		DENMARK (BOURDASS') 177 Denmark was a chestnut horse, 15 % bred by William Rickell, Warter Wold, Pocklington. He was foaled in 1862, by Sir Charles (Beal's) 768, out of a mare by Merryman 1309 by Lund's Merrylegs 449. His dam was 23 years old when, with Denmark a foal at her foot, she won the first prize at the Great Yorkshire Show at Driffield. The great majority of the most fashionable hackneys of the present day have de- scended from this horse. Among his more famous sons are Confidence (Moore's) 163, Danegelt 174 (for which Sir Walter Gilbey gave 5000 guineas), Dorriiigton 184, Lord Derwent 418 (a great prize-winner), Candidate 920, Dorriiigton II 956, Connaught 1453, Ritualist 1542, and others. Among his more famous daughters are Princess 289, Lady Dorothy 185, Sovereign 325, Lady Watton II 470, Apology 527, Lady Mary II 464, Sweetbriar 514, Nelly III 800, Countess 424, Primrose 827, and Ophelia 1301. Denmark won a number of prizes in Yorkshire between 1865 and 1876, but his achievements at the stud were greater than in the show ring.

-ocr page 167-

Driver, 187_

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway (West'fJ), 203

I'agan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Fireaway (Burgess¹), 208

Highflyer

Skyscraper

6th Dam

Wildfire (R. Ramsdale's), 884

Scot Shales, 692

Shales (Thistleton's), 702

Jenkinson's (hong Sutton) Mare_
Hue ami Cry (Maisliall's), :.73

Marshland Shales, 436

T. Jenkins' Mare

Hue ami Cry (M arshall'a), 373
Dove's Trotting Mare__

Smuggler, 789

(ith Dam

Phenomenon
(V. Ramsdale's), 673

Sportsman (Wright's)

Lund's Mare

Driver, 187

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Joseph Andrews

Performer (ltamsdale's), 647

Pickering's Horse

Ifaldenby's Prince

Walmsley's Horse

7th Dam

8th Dam

Merrylegs (Lund's), 449

Sportsman

5th Dam

3rd Dam

4th Dam

H
►J

<
X
O

Shales (The Original), 699

Driver, 187

8th Dam

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender (Wroot's), 590

Roundhead

Joseph Andrews

Performer (flamsdale's), 647

Pickering's Horse

Haldenhy's Prince

5 th Dam

Walmsley's Horse

6th Dam

Trotting Jalap

7th Dam

Merrylegs (Lund's), 449

Sportsman

4th Dam

-a
(3

Filho De Puta

Alfred

3rd Dam

W
Q

Shales (The Original),

Driver, 187

8th Dam

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Roundhead

Joseph Andrews

6th Dam

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547

Pickering's Horse

Haldenby's Prince

5th Dam

Walmsley's Horse

6th Dam

Trotting Jalap

7th Dam

Merrylegs (Lund's), 449

Sportsman

4th Dam

Shales, 609

Driver, 187

Fireaway, 201

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway, 203

Spectator

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Fireaway, 208

Skyscraper

5th Dam

3rd Dam

Atlas (R. Ramsdale's)

4th Dam

W. Wright's Farmer's Delight

5th Dam

Blaze

Shales (The Original), 699

A Hackney Mare

Driver, 187

Foxhunter

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

Rxmudhead

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway (West's), 203

Spectator

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208

Highflyer

Skyscraper

4th Dam

Hyperion

All Fours

3rd Bam

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_Fireaway_A 203

Fireaway, 208

Wildfire, 864

V. arshlanii Shales, 435
8tfi Dam

7 th Dam

Wildfire, 865

President

6th Dam

7th Dam

Bay Phenomenon, 888

Fireaway (j enkinson's),_201~

Pretender (Wroot's), 5%

Norfolk Phenomenon
(Bond's), 522

8th Dam

Scot Shales, 0!!2

Bead's Trotting Mare

8th Dam

5th Dam

6th Dam

Atlas (P. Ramsdale's), 892

Holtby's Brilliant

Dutch Sam

4th Dam

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547

Grey Atlas, 330

8th Dam

Grey Woldsman, 343

7th Dam

8th i>am

5th Dam

Fireaway (Burgess¹), 208

Norfolk Cob, 475

Norfolk Phenomenon
(Bond's), 522

"bf!i Dam

Kireaway (Head's) 202

Roan Mare

8lii Dam

Shakespeare (Wilkinson's), i

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547

Merrylegs (Lund's), 449

8th Dam

F'ireaway (Burgess'), 208

7th Dam

8th Dam

Scott's Roan Horse, 1147

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208
Sth Dam

Fireaway (Ramsdale's), 222

Fireaway (Scott's), 223

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547
8th Dam

7th Dam

3rd Dam

M
K

O
►J

Joseph Andrews (Leake's)

Slnihjp (The (in;ci]","\l). 699
Sth Dam

Driver, 187

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

8th Dam

Fireaway (West's), 203

Spectator

Pagan

Sth Dam

Emmett's Trotting Mare

7th Dam

Fireaway (Burgess'), 20S

Highflyer

Skyscraper

7th Dam

5th Dam

6th Dam

3rd Dam

Black Priest

4th Dam

5th Dam

04
O

Driver, 187

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway (West's), 203

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Sth Dam

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208

_H!ghliyer ~

Skyscraper

Sth Dam

6th Dam

7th Dam

Fireaway (Ramsdale's), 222

Waxy

7th Dam

5th Dam

6th Dam

Fireaway (Scott's), 223

Driver, 187

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

T. Jenkinson's Marc

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Joseph Andrews

7th Dam

Sth Dam

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547

Pickering's Horse

Haldenby's Prince

8th Dam

6th Dam

_\Valmsley's Horse

7th Dam

8th Dam

4th Dam

Overton

Cockflghter

__Del])iui
8th Dam

Palafox

6th Dam

7th Dam

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 207

Fireaway (Wset's), 203

Enunctts Trotting Mare

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208

Skyscraper

7th Dam

8th Dam

Norfolk Cob, 475

Shales (Thistleton's), 702

Marshland Shales, 435

T. Jenkins' Mare

Norfolk Phenomenon
(Bond's), 522

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201.

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Sth Dam

Fireaway (Read's), 202

Scot Shales, 692

Read's Trotting Mare

Sth Dam

Roan Mare

6th Dam

3rd Dam

Borodino

6th Dam

4th Dam

5tii Dam

_ Driver, 187

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway (Jenkinson's). 201

Fireaway (West's), 203

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Sth Dam

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208

Hl^rlvci

Skyscraper

Sth Dam

6th Dam

7til Dam

Wildfire (R. Ramsdale's), 864

Scot Shales, 092

Shales (Thistleton's), 702

^Jenkinson's (Long Sutton) Mare
J_ Hue and'Cry (Marshall's)^!3
8th Dam

Marshland Shales, 435

T. Jenkins' Mare

5th Dam

Hue and Cry (Marshall's), 373
8th Dam

Smuggler (Chadd's). 789

6th Dam

7th Dam

Phenomenon
(Ramsdale's), 573

Sportsman (G. Wright's)

Lund's Mare

5th Dam

Driver. 187

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway (West's), 203

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

8th Dan:

Fireaway (Burgess'),

Highflyer

Skyscraper

8th" Dam

7th Dam

Fireaway (P. Ramsdale's), 222

Waxy

Ponteland

5th Dam

( Till":;

Trip
7th Dam

sth Darn

3rd Dam

4th Dam

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		LOUD DERBY II (BURNHAM'S) 417 Lord Derby II was bred by Mr. J. R. Burnham, Froding- ham Hall, Winestead, Yorkshire, in 1871. He was a dark- brown horse by Lord Derby (Leake's) 415, out of Nancy by Achilles (Hairsine's) 2 by Fireaway (Scott's) 223. This horse has sired many notable animals, and his blood when crossed with that of Denmark has given us some of the most distinguished of our modern hackneys. Among his sons who have made names at the stud and in the show ring are: County Member 948, Cadet 1251, East Riding 1475, Lord Derby III 1508, Lord Rattler 2566, Grand Fashion II 3024, Gentleman John 3624, Lord Denby II 3092, Contest 1746, and others. Among his daughters are to be found Princess 499, Lady- bird 177, Silver Belle 508, Brunette 49, Lily 219, Modesty 1731, Dorothy 2016, Propriety 4597, Lady Sarah 2963, Dorothy Derby 1081, Levity 2247, Frisk 439, and Falka 2043. Lord Derby II was equally successful in the show ring as at the stud, and in the course of his career won many prizes in Yorkshire.

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		119
	ENGLISH BREEDS	119
	ENGLISH BREEDS

nnddle piece of the ancient horse was a good deal heavier than would now b_e _care(j _for _in _ft _ghow _animal_ . At the same time, the modern Hackney must be accepted as represent- ing very strongly the leading characteristics of the old stamp of horse, mitted ^tnat be ^is lighter, and perhaps more blood-like to suit the requirements of the age as suggested above, his form is, generally speaking, ^very much the same, even though it be presented upon somewhat more delicate lines. As to conformation:� The head should not possess the delicacy of that of the Thoroughbred; Either should the coarseness of the Shire horse be apparent in it, a plain clerbred expression or a clumsy head-piece being most particularly objec- '^lonable in any Hackney, and especially so in a mare. At the same time, . ^ett^erriinate look, or the appearance of a gelding-like head upon a stallion, ^a serious fault, for the prepotency of this horse is great, and a sire which ' to impress a masculine appearance on his colts is seldom popular ,ⁿS^st breeders. Moreover, it may be remembered that though style in °rse is indispensably associated with merit in most breeds, one does r _ti ^re1^uire ^a superfluity of the commodity about the head, but would ei have it distributed equally and in correct proportions about the w u � ^us' ^an exceptionally blood-like head on a Hackney stallion of v ^⁶ ^norse ^was symmetrically proportioned, necessitate a reduction ma 1 ^tance' ^and then he would become a weed; and consequently it in-L ^rePeated, that the head of a Hackney stallion should be there and ^- � ' P^rov^ed always that it be properly proportioned in itself about tlf^S .^relation ^to ^tne ^rest ^0I" ^tlie body. It should be rather wide or _a ^e J^owl> and taper gradually towards the muzzle�a Roman nose uotino- ^W �'^0W* ^are abominations in any horse, the one frequently de- chara + ^& ^SUrly disposition, and the other completely destroying the ⁿicel_v ^%V\ °^ ^tll<3 ^^6a(^' ^^e ^eyes °^ ^a Hackney are of a good size, and ^lookbo^P i ^6d ^iU ^H1S ^Sku11' ^and ^sll0uld be soft, amiable, and intelligent- ^cWact ' ⁶ⁿ°^tlng ^tlie courageous and confiding disposition which is very with _u^enStlC-°^f ^tlle ^ll0rS6' ^A ^Sma11 °^r ^sunken ^ey^e ^is ^usually identified session ⁿ?^ertaint^ ^of temper and general unreliability, whilst its pos- ^tne ea»s sh^ ^immeasura% ^from ^the beauty of any animal. Finally, ^big i'ound^St°^Uld ^be ^Sma11' ^P°^inted' ^carried ^erect, and set on high; a coarseness ^vi ^ear ^1S ^n0t ^infrecL^uently accompanied by objectionable ^toP of the \ T -^a ^l0P ^6ar ^Whicl1 ^is ^carried ^out almost level with the sire for +~l T ^1S ^sirnPby hideous, and should tell greatly, against any _Th_e crtt ^ti°ⁿ ^iS °^ften ^hereditar7- ^neek ratheT W^t ^ ^pronounced ⁱⁿ ^the ^case of a stallion, and the ⁾ⁿg, though it looks shorter than it really is on account

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	120


of its massiveness; but it must not be imagined that because the neck of a Hackney is big and powerful it should necessarily be coarse. A thick clumsy neck is as bad as a short one in the case of any saddle- horse, and worse than a thin narrow one. The neck of the Hackney possesses a peculiarly graceful bend, and gradually increases in its dimensions until it reaches the shoulders. But it should be quite free from coarseness. The shoulders themselves are one of the most important points, for if they and their associated muscles are short there is no flexibility to be found about them. They should also slope well backwards to ensure the much-sought-for smoothness of action that everybody admires; whilst the existence of a mere suspicion even of superfluous lumpiness about the points is a very serious fault. The chest of the Hackney should be broad, not so broad as to influence his speed or action, but yet wide enough to afford room for the free play of both heart and lungs. For similar reasons it should be deep, but this depth is not so striking in the Hackney as in the case of some other varieties, owing to the fact that this horse is, or should be, exception- ally deep about the back ribs, and consequently is more level in his lower line than most breeds. The fore-legs should be short; very big in the arms; heavy and flat in bone; with nicely sloping powerful pasterns, not long enough to be weak, yet sufficiently springy and sloping to minimize concussion; and the feet should be on the large side, deep and set on dead straight, an in-toed Hackney being simply an abomination. The knees should be rather big, but so should the entire limb; and it is a most serious fault if the horse stands back upon them�a calf-kneed horse, in fact, should never take a prize of any kind, or be utilized as a sire. The back should not be long; but a sufficiency of room both in front of and behind the saddle must be sought for, whilst the back itself must be level and present an exceptionally powerful appearance. Oi course in the case of aged horses a dip is no disqualification, as late in life its appearance is only to be expected. A flat-sided Hackney is not appreciated, for the ribs should be well sprung, and, as stated before, the back ones should be unusually long. The quarters, another most important feature, should be long. To this formation an appearance of length of back is often due. They must, moreover, be as level as possible and powerful-looking. The tail, which is usually docked short, is set on high, and carried gaily when its possessor is excited, or set going at his best. The hind-legs are very muscular about the thighs and second thigh⁸'

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				121
			ENGLISH BREEDS	121
			ENGLISH BREEDS

	' ^too much bent at the hock, and possess a considerable amount of j⁰¹¹⁶ kelow that joint. The pasterns, moreover, should be of a nice ° ^l ^Wlthout showing a trace of weakness. ⁱⁿ general appearance the Hackney, assuming that he is a representative , !^Se' ^should strike even a stranger to the merits of the breed as a remark-

		^e combination of activity, strength, and symmetry. Unless he carries _ miself jauntily the first attribute is likely to be lost sight of, and r. ^^e ^°^es not display power all over he ceases to be a good specimen
_ race. I_n the case of no other variety of horse is symmetry a ^e important property than in the Hackney, for a coarse animal is as so f ^t0 ^comman<i success as a very light one. Perhaps even more ' '' as it _nas k_een _SUgg_ested above, there has been a strong disposition pi ^ecent years to introduce a more blood-like class of animal to the iu_e 4-^C\ ^w^ilst breeders can scarcely be blamed if they attempt to ^ . ^ne requirements of the market, it will be an error on the part gr_eat ^^es_-" they award prizes to narrow split-up stallions. Even that r_ec ^e(i^Ulne attribute, "quality", may be too dearly purchased, and the �effe^ ¹ ¹⁰ⁿ ^0I> ^a light flashy race of Hackney stallions will assuredly n₀ _n ^U ^lmmense amount of mischief to the breed; moreover, it is by ^spleivr"\|^S-^lm^°^SS^^e for refinement to be associated with substance, many Th ^lnstances of the combination being alive, tiiost l °ⁿ °^ the Hackney is one of the most important, in fact the ^Pable ^a!^acteri^sti^c feature of the breed, no horse in existence being ^s only 4. ^ext^eiiding himself as does a good specimen of the variety. As P^r°Omw_t supposed, it is his shoulder action that plays the most . ^acWy vf^art hi his movement; but it may still be observed that a ¹¹¹ harm₀ ^re he can be regarded as a goer, must use all his joints ^ttlUst all k ^W^ k^s shoulders. His knees, pasterns, stifles, and hocks Motion, _t^,^e ^Correctly flexed before the beau ideal of that poetry of ^tlle htaek! \ ^incomP^arahle one, two, three, four, which so distinguishes fⁿ hnm_en ' ^m ^aU other horses, can be arrived at. There should be Hⁿg as it^& ^amount of liberty about the shoulder action, the fore-legs !!°^r8e is e r^⁶ ^daslie<i ^out ⁱⁿ ^front so that it almost appears that the !j^e doubled T°^Uring ^t0 ^get ^rid ^of ^tHem> ^The ^knees ⁱⁿ ^turn ^should^Qd the J! ^tllen extended straight, whilst the pastern-joints first ^feet ^ftre _st_ret\ ^ackwards ^a»d then straighten themselves, so that the ^°^mentary po_ig � °^Ut ⁱⁿ.^a straight line with the fore-leg, and affect a ^h¹ these varied ^m ^ ^ ^before ^being brought down upon the ground. ^almost imperce⁶nfK\|^0V^^mentS ^&T& transacted so instantaneously as to be ^hile the back lea ^ ^l°^Ut ^ensemble ^is ^as described above. Mean- ^egs are acting, or should be, as powerful motors for the

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	122
	122	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

propulsion of the body. The hocks and stifles are bent, the former being tucked in under the horse's belly, so that when the feet reach the ground they are in a line with, and apparently close behind, the fore ones. Great goers, especially if they are fast, are often inclined to move wide at the hocks, but this is an unsightly style of action, and will tell against a horse to a greater or less extent, though it may be added that some very notable performers, both upon the turf and elsewhere, have moved with their hocks very far apart from one another. Dash, fire, and freedom in his action are all essential to the success of a Hackney; and if possible to a still greater extent, so is that smoothness and levelness of motion which is always a characteristic of the perfect-actioned horse. Dash, in fact, need no more necessitate the presence of roughness or rockiness in a horse's action than need the fault of dishing, i.e. throwing out the feet beyond the line of the fore-leg when the pasterns are bent upwards, be associated with high stepping. Both are nasty faults, and the possession of either will most probably mean the forfeiture of a prize. The question of shoulder and knee action is one, however, upon which opinions of Hackney breeders may be accepted as differing somewhat- Otherwise it would not be possible for some horses to have won the prizes which stand to their credit, for animals have before now carried off high honours in the show-ring which have entirely failed to get away in front, owing to their having used their knees to a far greater extent than their shoulders. This is the class of horse that conforms to the description " all action but no go", for he lifts his knees almost up to his bit, and then puts his feet down again close to the place whence he took them up. This fighting style of going is surely not comparable to the action advocated above, especially when it is remembered that the feet must suffer from being smashed down upon the ground, and that half the animal's energies are being wasted in his fruitless beating of the air. A horse that uses his shoulders need not necessarily omit to bend his knees, and in addi- tion to proving a fine and showy mover, will undoubtedly be a far more comfortable conveyance for his rider, whilst it stands to reason that his leg^swill last much longer than those of the other class of animal. The position of the shoulders, and other points in the structural development of the Hackney, such as the length of neck, strength of loin, and length and slope of pasterns, are of course a more important consideration in the selection ^ota Saddle than a Harness horse; but it must always be borne in mind that the latter is the more saleable animal, in addition to being the more correo type of the breed, and consequently, when the two varieties meet, the pr^e" ference should always be given to the Harness horse. Indeed, the modern Hackney is not an ideal saddle horse.

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				;,'.

		CONFIDENCE (D'OYLEY'S) 158 The most famous of Norfolk's Hackneys in recent times was the celebrated horse Confidence. Bred by Mr. William Rose, Dykebeck, Wymondham, in 1867, he passed into the hands of Henry D'Oyley, of Hempnall, Long Stratton. Con- fidence was a black-brown, 15-2 hands high, and had for his sire Prickwillow (Tice's) 614, his dam being by Highflyer (Jacob's) 360. Among his best sons were Confidential 1379, Canvasser 114, Confidant III 1741, John Gilpin 1499, Harvester 1799, Gem 2082, Felicity 2064, Doctor Syntax 877, Cassivelaunus 2198, Hedon Surprise 2509, Fashion (Grout's) 199, Reality (Flander's) 665, Honesty 369, Lord Bardolph 412, and others. His best daughters during his later life were Her Majesty 1137, Acclamation 1, Kiss me Quick 2853, Nelly 2349, Carmen Sylva 3578, Lady Isabella 2194, Wild Mint 1399, Twilight 4819, and Mascotte 1706.

-ocr page 175-

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201
_ Kmmett's 'Trotting Male

Fireaway (West's), 203

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208

Skyscraper

7th Dam

Norfolk Cob, 475

"Shales (TliisUe'ton's), 702
T. Jenkin's Mare

Marshland Shales, 435

titli Ham

-Norfolk Phenomenon
(Bond's), 522

Fireaway (,i enkinson's), 201

Pretender (Wroot's), 590

Sth Dam

Fireaway (Bead's), 202

Scot Shales, 692

Read's Trotting Mare

Roan Mare

Prickwillow (Cobbin's), 007

Shales (Thistletoif's), 702_
T. Jenkin's Marc

Marshland Shales, 435

Shales (Wright's)

Flamingo, 277

Worthy

Flamingo

4th Dam

Driver, 187

Fireaway, 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway, 203

Emmett's Trotting Mare

5th Dam

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Bellfounder (Steven's) 52

Bellfounder (Jary's), 55

6»

Velocity OJavy's)

Norfolk Hero (Mann's), 494

6th Dam

P-H

Norfolk Hero (Wigg's), 495

Scot Shales, 692

Shales (Thistle-ton's), 702

Jenkinson's (Lung SjittonKMare
Hue and Cry (Marshall's), 373

Marshland Shales, 435

T. Jenkin's Mare

Nicholson's Trotting Mare

3rd Dam

sini'los, 699

Driver, 187

Fireaway, 201

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

8th Dam

Fireaway, 203

Spectator

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

4th Dam

�1

o
s
1-3

Pretender (Wroot's), i

Bellfounder (Steven's), 52

8th Dam

Bellfounder (Jary's), 55

Velocity (Jary's)

Norfolk Hero (Mann's), 494

Shales (Thistleton's), 702

Marshland Shales, 435

X. Jenkin's Mare

6th Dam

Whiskey

7th Dam

8th Dam

Norfolk Hero (Wigg's), 495

Scot Shales, 692

Shales (Thistleton's), 702

Jenkinson's (Long Sutton) Mare

Marshland Shales, 435

Hue and Cry (M arshall's), 373

T. Jenkin's Mare

Nicholson's Trotting Mare

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Norfolk Hero (Smith's), 499

Eagle

Congress

4th Dam

Shales (Dodd's)

Bay Mare

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Bellfounder (Steven's), 52

8th Dam

6th Dam

Whalebone

Camel

3rd Dam

O
Z

O
o

Driver, 187

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Joseph Andrews

7th Dam

8th Dam

Creeper (Wright's), 170

Hero

6th Dam

7th Dam

Creeper (Templeman's)

Standard

Lord Fitzwilliam's Blacklegs

5th Dam

Flying Buck (Grove's), 280

Harkaway

Flying Wonder

4th Dam

Fireaway, 201

Fireaway (West's) 203

8th Dam

Fireaway, 208

Skyscraper

7th Dam

5th Dam

Fireaway (Burgess¹), i

Wildfire (R. Ramsdale's), 864

Sth Dam

Phenomenon (Ramsdale's), 573

Sportsman (G. Wright's)

Lund's Mare

Sth Dam

Performer (Taylor's), 550

-a

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547

Merrylegs (Lund's), 449

Sth Dam

6th Dam

7th Dam

Pretender (Brigham's), 604

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547

8th Dam

Black Pretender

7th Dam

Atlas (Greenwood's)

Atlas (Ramsdale's)

Sth Dam

6th Dam

7 th Dam

3rd Dam

4th Dam

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Bellfounder (Steven's), 52

8th Dam

Bellfounder (Jary's), 55

Velocity (Jary's)

Norfolk Hero (Mann's), 494

"Shales (Thistleton's), 702

T. Jenkin's Mare
________Whiskey

Marshland Shales, 435

6th Dam

7th Dam

8th Dam

Norfolk Hero (Wigg's), 495

Scot Shales, 692

Shales (Thistleton's), 702

Jenkinson's (Long Sutton) Mare
~!Hue and Cry (MarshaIi's)T37ir~

Marshland Shales, 435

T. Jenkin's Mare

Nicholson's Trotting Mare

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Grey Norfolk Hero
(Smith's), 335

Congress

Congress (Warne's)

Cook's Pioneer

6th Dam

7th Dam

4th Dam

Bellfounder (Lord Suffleld's)

5th Dam

Gold Leaf (Wright's)

;7th Dam

Shales (Dodd's)

3rd Dam

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Sth Dam

Bellfounder (Steven's), 52

Smuggler (Chadd's), 789

7th Dam

8th Dam

Bellfounder (Jary's), 55

Velocity (Jary's)

4th Dam

5th Dam

-ocr page 176-

Shales, 699

Fireaway, 201

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway (West's), 203

Spectator

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208

Highflyer

Skyscraper

5th Dam

Fireaway (Ramsdale's), 222

Waxy

Ponteland

6th Dam

4th Dam

Granby

CO
C5

Trip

7th Dam

5tli Dam

6th Dam

Shales, 699

Driver, 187

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

Joseph Andrews

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Roundhead

Joseph Andrews

6th Dam

Performer (Ramsdale's), 547

Pickering's Horse

Haldenby's Prince

5th Dam

Walmsley's Hoi'se

6th Dam

Trotting Jalap by Jalap

7th Dam

3rd Dam

Overton

Cockfighter

Delpini

Palafox

5th Dam

H
i-l

Driver, 187

Fireaway, 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway, 203

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Fireaway (Burgess'), 208

Highflyer

Skyscraper

6th Dam

Norfolk Cob, 475

Scot Shales, 092

Shales, 702

Jenkinson's Mare

Marshland Shales, 435

Hue and Cry, 873

T. Jenkins' Mare

5th Dam

Norfolk Phenomenon
(Bond's), 522

Fireaway (Jenkinson's), 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender (Wroot's), 596

Joseph Andrews

7th Dam

Fireaway (Read's), 202

Shales (The Original), 699

Scot Shales, 692

Read's Trotting Mare

7th Dam

Roan Mare

5th Dam

eg
ft

Smolensko

Borodino

5th Dam

3rd Dam

<3\

W
K

Driver, 187

Fireaway, 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Fireaway, 203

Pagan

Emmett's Trotting Mare

Sth Dam

Fireaway, 208

Highflyer

Skyscraper

Sth Dam

0th Dam

7th Dam

Norfolk Cob, 475

Scot Shales, 692

Shales, 702

8th Dam

Marshland Shales, 435

Hue and Cry, 373

T. Jenkins' Mare

8th Dam

5th Dam

6th Dam

Norfolk Phenomenon
(Bond's), 522

Driver, 187

Fireaway, 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender, 596

^Joseph Andrews

7th Dam

Sth Dam

Fireaway (Read's), 202

_Shales (The Original),

Scot Shales, 092

"A well-bred Hunter'

Read's Trotting Mare

Roan Mare

3rd Dam

o
S5

Scot Shales, 692

Shales, 702

Sth Dam

Marshland Shales, 435

Hue and Cry, 373

T. Jenkins' Mare

Sth Dam

Black Shales, 83

Fireaway, 201

Pretender, 596

8th Dam

Capt. Ogden's Trotting Mare

7th Dam

Brown Shales, 102

Primo (Taylor's)

Hewson's Roan Mare

Harkaway (Johnson's)

4 th Dam

P
ft

Driver, 187

Fireaway, 201

T. Jenkinson's Mare

Pretender, 596

Joseph Andrews *

7th Dam

8th Dam

Creeper (Wright's), 170

Hero

Valerius

8th Dam

Creeper (Templeman's)

Lord Fitzwilliam's Blacklegs

7th Dam

Sth Dam

3rd Dam

4th Dam

-ocr page 177-



				c

		FlREAWAY (TRIFFETT'S) 249 Tritfett's Fireaway 249 was a dark-brown horse, 15'2 hands high, bred by Philip Triffett, Holme, Yorkshire, in 1859. He was by Achilles (Hairsine's) 2, out of Nancy by Per- former (Ward's) by Norfolk Phenomenon (Bond's) 522. He won a great number of prizes in Yorkshire, and continued his show career up to 1874. As a stud horse he produced some excellent stock, especially mares, among which were a number of high-class animals, such as Polly 494, Jenny Bother'em 2124 (dam of Ophelia 1301), Polly Horsley 495, Queen Mary 295, Fanny 114 (dam of Connaught 1453), Empress 95 (dam of Sweetbriar 514, Prin- cess 289, and Primrose 827), Lady Jane 197 (dam of Sovereign 325), and Lightsome 2248.

-ocr page 178-



			ENGLISH BREEDS 123

		ihe walk of the Hackney is second in importance only to his trot, for . ^Weyer free a mover a horse of this breed may be when fully extended, he ^sure to lose admirers if he is incapable of settling down to his slower Paces when required to do so. Moreover, it stands to reason that no . ^0rse ^can be always moving at a trot, and he will soon disgust his owner > instead of striding out and using his joints and limbs properly at his Slower paces, he goes shuffling along in a fashion that partakes somewhat °t the nature of a cramped trot, and yet is slower and more exhausting ⁰ himself than a good honest walk. Great as is the show made by a good Hackney when he trots, it is doubtful if he is not more majestic- coking when walking�that is to say if he can do so in proper form, ^tor when he strides out with head erect, no nobler-looking horse exists than a good Hackney stallion; and moreover, as remarked above, the Possession of a natural gift for walking adds considerably to the value °f a sire. Before leaving the Hackney, the extraordinary success of Sir Walter ^ilbey's Hedon Squire at the Horse Show held in connection with the great International Show at Paris in 1900 must be referred to. Upon "he occasion in question Hedon Squire was awarded the champion prize, offered for the best stallion in the show other than an Arab or a thoroughbred, by a jury of judges representing different foreign countries. Purely no greater tribute to the merits of the breed could be desired, as he met and. defeated the best Harness type of horses that the world could produce. The Pack-horse.�It is unfortunately rather to the discredit of British horse-breeders that so useful a variety as the Pack-horse, which ^at one time was so commonly met with in many parts of the country, ^aQd particularly in Devonshire and Yorkshire, should have become practi- cally extinct; but the fact remains, that until the occasion of the Crystal Palace Horse Show of 1897 it was popularly believed that no specimens of the breed could be found. After an infinite amount of trouble, however, had been expended on the search, a stallion and a mare were discovered, ^and by permission of their owners w^Tere included in the Diamond Jubilee parade of British horses, which was arranged in honour of Her Majesty Queen Victoria's long reign. The reproach, therefore, of permitting a ^Dreed of horse, to which in all probability more than one modern variety °wes its existence, to die out entirely, cannot be applied to the men of ■Devon, though unhappily there is no denying the fact that instead of ^creasing in stature and power, the existing Pack-horses are lower at ^he shoulder and , built on smaller lines than their ancestors. This is ¹¹¹ all probability a direct result of the inbreeding which followed their

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	124
	124	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

abandonment; the breed in its original purity falling into so few hands that the very limited number of adherents who have remained staunch in their allegiance to it have not been able to secure the crosses they desired, and consequently the stature of the Pack-horse has become less, and the old breed practically extinct. A couple of hundred years ago, before the Hackney invaded Devon- shire and Yorkshire, and when no other means of locomotion existed, the Pack-horse was an institution in the west and north of England, where he was not only employed in agricultural and ordinary road work, but as the medium for carrying supplies to the inhabitants of outlying holdings on the moors and wolds. In order to be of service in this respect, it was necessary that the horses should be powerful and sure-footed, and these are two properties which the ancient Pack-horse possessed to a very considerable extent. What the precise origin of this most ancient breed may have been there are unfortunately no means of ascertaining, but it is reasonable to assume that he was, in the first case, a cross-bred Eastern and old English War-horse. This theory is quite a possible one when it is remembered that a succession of English sovereigns engaged themselves in importing both Arab, Barb, and Turk stallions into this country with the laudable object of improving the native horses; whilst the existence of the War-horse, which had been increased in size by crossing with Flemish mares, renders it highly probable that this variety may claim the distinction of being a parent of the Pack-horse, and con- sequently a still more remote ancestor of the Cleveland Bay. Be the origin of the Pack-horse, however, what it may, the indisputable fact remains, that until the invasion of Devonshire by railways and Hackney horses, the old breed was regarded on all sides as essential to the existence of the inhabitants of the west country, and he would have been a rash, if not reckless, individual who would have ventured to prophesy that it would ever become out of date, or be neglected by Devonians, who up to comparatively modern times utilized the Pack- horse for sporting as well as for general purposes. An illustration of this is forthcoming in the 16-hands Cottager, the property of Mr. Skinner, a resident near Totnes, which in a steeple-chase run at the annual race- meeting, held in that town about the middle of last century, suc- ceeded in defeating the Thoroughbreds and cocktails which competed. The owner of this horse, moreover, had previously issued a challenge to trot him, against any animal in the west country, 4 miles on the road, carrying 14 stone, a fact which goes a long way towards proving that the Pack-horse was a fine and fast mover both at the gallop and at the trot.

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		125
	ENGLISH BREEDS	125
	ENGLISH BREEDS

Generally speaking, the Pack-horse, so far at all events as he exists at the present day, has a very great resemblance to the Hackney, as he has a deep chest, big level back, deep middle, and powerful quarters; his ^gs too are short, heavy in bone, and carry a great deal of muscle on ^fche arms and thighs; but he differs very considerably from the Hackney ^m three most important points, namely, head, shoulders, and action. Pack-horse's head is far more blood-like than that of the Hackney, its ^Sttlall _si_ze and delicate outline being most probably due to the posses- sion of _a strong strain of Arab blood; whilst his shoulders, as a rule, ^^re ^nger and more obliquely set, for the Pack-horse was largely utilized ^0r ^saddle work, the moors and hills of Devonshire being most unsuitable °^r vehicular traffic. Nor is the action of the Pack-horse so high as ^ of the Hackney, as in the first place an animal largely utilized for saddle purposes, if a stepper, would be a rather uncomfortable mount when negotiating the steep declivities and stony bridle-paths of Devon- ^lre; and in the second place, the question of sure-footedness was more fought for by Devonians of the old school than an ability to bend the ^nee- At the same time it must not be imagined that the Pack-horse was a very free and attractive mover, as all references to the breed allude ⁰ his action as being excellent in both respects. Another point of .^x erence which exists between the Hackney and the Pack-horse is seen k ^tne colours of the two breeds, for Packs were always bay, black, or ^ ⁿ> whilst a large percentage of Hackneys are chestnuts. Still, the the ^ce between the few remaining survivors of the Pack-horse and slen 1 ^0]?U^ar Hackney is considerable, though it is to be hoped that the ^ ^r ^ranks of the former will not be further reduced by crosses with to fi ^r°^tter' g^rand horse though the latter is, for England is large enough , ^Qd accommodation for a few specimens of an ancient horse, which . ^0ne good service in assisting old breeders to produce some popular ^eties of the present day. Probably, moreover, there could be no cross for Hunter-breeding than the Pack-horse upon weedy, light- > breedy " mares, from which it is desired to produce short-legged, ^Tu ^e<^ ^stock ^capahle of carrying weight. em" ^CleVeland Bay.* � The subject of this paper stands pre- and^Uently ^f°^rward ^as ^tlie ^eldest large-sized carriage horse of the day, , as will be shown later, his antiquity is undeniable, though a _or-y considerable amount of ambiguity exists as regards the precise but ⁿ ° h ^^ree(i- ^The ^date ^0I> bis production is also quite unknown; most^tl ⁶ °^tlier ^hand ^there ^are ^g00(i ^reasons ^for believing that, like borse V u ^§Hsh ^varieties> be is a descendant of the old English War- which played so prominent a part in the early history of our

-ocr page 181-



		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	126	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	126

country, and which is fully referred to in the description of the Shire horse. The War-horse, however, though small in stature, eventually in- creased in bulk by a judicious system of crossing with imported stallions, and no doubt became in due course of time too heavy an animal for light draught purposes, and hence it is but reasonable to infer the inhabitants of some districts were glad to do their best to produce an animal more suited to their requirements. This horse, it appears most probable, was the original tap-root from which the modern Cleveland Bay is descended; but owing to the fact that the majority of English horse-breeders were devot- ing their resources to the production of a powerful class of animal which would be serviceable in times of war to carry soldiers clad in armour�it being the command of successive kings that they should do so under heavy penalties�it is but natural that the advent of the lighter variety should have been delayed. Indeed, his services were scarcely required until a comparatively recent period in the history of the country, as it was not until almost the conclusion of the reign of Queen Elizabeth that Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel, first introduced light coaches into England, the aristocracy of which country had up to that period been in the habit of indulging in their carriage exercise in carts. No doubt, however, the coaches designed by the Earl of Arundel were cumbersome affairs, as the roads in his days were not exactly adapted for light vehicular traffic; but on the other hand, it is reasonable to infer that a less powerful horse than those which had been bred up to that time would be equal to drawing them, and hence it may be assumed that the attention of certain breeders was directed to the production of a lighter class of animal somewhere about the reign of good Queen Bess. From that period until the present time there has, of course, been a steady improvement in our highways and a corresponding diminution in the size and weight of conveyances, with, of course, an increasing demand for the more lightly built yet powerful harness horses; and no doubt as highways have improved and the vehicles become more shapely and less cumbersome, horses have been bred to meet the requirements of the times. Consequently animals of the Cleveland type, either as he now exists or in his less finished form, have more and more been sought for by a certain class of horse owners, who have been anxious to procure an upstanding, imposing-looking animal, possessed of plenty of substance, and sufficient strength to draw heavy loads, but yet showing some quality and an ability to get over ground more actively than the breeds which were solely adapted for agricultural purposes. As observed above, there can be very little doubt regarding the antiquity

-ocr page 182-

127

ENGLISH BEEEDS

the Cleveland Bay, although diversity of opinion might reasonably be
lowed as to his precise origin. Very probably the Thoroughbred has
ered largely into his composition, and as it is in turn extremely likely
^at the Pack-horse was a scion of the old English War-horse, which is
^iry referred to in the chapter on Shire horses, it may be justifiable to
'S^ue that the ancient British race and the Eastern importations are
sponsible between them for the existence of the Cleveland Bay.

J-he theory that the breed is the result of the successful manipulation of
^e -thoroughbred and Cart-horse is scarcely so tenable as the one just pro-
Pounded, as though it may be admitted that the Pack-horse and the Cart-
^0rse are both descendants of the old English War-horse, the similarity that
jested between them was by no means pronounced, the former being a far
c'hter, more blood-like animal, and therefore a better horse to work upon,
ttiay also be observed that the quarters and some other points of the
^Ueveland Bay are the reverse of carty, and this circumstance affords further
¹⁰-ence of the improbability of the presence of Cart-horse blood.

Although it is suggested that the southern districts of England deserve

"re credit in the production of the Cleveland Bay horse, there can be no

ot at all that his development and improvement, indeed one might

^lQst add his present existence as a recognized breed, is due to the

hern part of the country whence he derives his name. This assertion

lengthened to some extent by the theory, that the black points which

^so characteristic of the horse are the result of the introduction, at

^e remote period, of Scandinavian blood, and this was naturally far

dj f⁶ ^eas^y procurable for the purpose of experiment in the Cleveland

Sol /^C^ ^^nan ^m the south. Nor, it may be added, was the Pack-horse

y confined to the last-mentioned part of the country, as under not
y that designation, but under the title of the Chapman's Horse, he was
i . y extensively known throughout England, and Yorkshire especially,

§ frequently alluded to by old writers on the equine race. On the

. hand, the possibility of the south of England having produced the
,^^1Iaal tap-root of the Cleveland Bay, or the still greater probability

. ^ere ^at least being a strong dash of Devonshire blood in his com-

POSifi ' V "^"g, " �'"U_g «««" *"■ ^V.V-U^XV "-"- "* "">

wv l ⁱⁿ ^tlie ^fact ^tliat ^tne ^dark ^streaks ^or"^list"^down ^tne ^back>

i , ^UP *° not so many years ago was a treasured point in the Cleve-
j_n , ^ay' ^ls ^a distinguishing feature of the dun animals commonly found
t₀ ,, evonshire district, though, of course, it is not entirely confined

p ^horses of the west country.
t₀ j ^L ^a ^tnl^s> and much more that could be written were it necessary
that t^⁰' ^aS ^t0 ^^e P^osslbl^e origin of the Cleveland Bay, it will be seen
' ^cL^uestion of the precise composition of the breed, like that of other

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	128	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

established varieties, can only receive an approximate answer, and this is by no means astonishing when it is remembered that the horse now under consideration can be traced back to the commencement of the eighteenth century. In fact, that not invariably reliable authority, " the oldest in- habitant", has asserted that the black-pointed bays were common in some parts of Yorkshire long before the importation of the Darley Arabian was an accomplished fact. This may, however, be quite possible without affecting the correctness of the contention put forth above, to the effect that the Cleveland Bay originated in an Arab cross, as undoubtedly Eastern horses had been imported into England years and years before the Darley Arabian appeared upon the scene; but under any circumstances- full credit for the production of the Cleveland Bay is due to the district from which he derives his name. The strong probability that a Thoroughbred cross was introduced some hundred and fifty years ago into the mares which have produced the modern Cleveland Bay is referred to by Mr. W. Scarth Dixon, in his admirable article on the breed which appears in Light Horses, as he there states that many of the best pedigrees trace directly back to a mysterious stallion known as " Old Traveller", of which no further information is forthcom- ing. There are evidences, however, to prove that a Thoroughbred stallion named " Old Traveller " was at the time covering mares in the Yarm dis- trict at a low fee, and there is much reason to believe that this animal was the horse whose name appears in many Cleveland Bay pedigrees. It must not be supposed, however, that the horses which were bred two hundred years ago in Yorkshire under the name which heads this chapter, were all utilized as coach-horses. On the contrary, the majority of them were relegated to duty on the farm, a fact which is referred to in the Farmers' Magazine of seventy years ago, which states that, when a lighter class of animal came to be the fashion for carriage traffic, the Cleveland Bay was permitted to become practically extinct until its value for agricultural purposes was noticed by some practical farmers in the north of England. This statement would go to prove one of two things, namely that the Cleveland Bay of that period was a far more powerful animal than the modern possessor of the name, or that farm-work was not so heavy; and indeed it may be very likely that both these conditions are reconcilable,, for oxen were largely utilized for the heaviest work. At the same time,, the certainty that exists that Thoroughbred blood had been introduced long before the period to which the Farmers Magazine refers, shows that the then existent Cleveland Bay was not a heavy horse; and assists ^msubstantiating the correctness of the contention propounded some lines above, that the Cart-horse was not a component part of the variety*

-ocr page 184-



			SPECIALITY 1562

		Speciality is a bay horse without white, and stands 16 hands 1 inch high. He is by Merry heart 1299, out of Beatrice 932, and was bred by Mr. J. Lett of Eillington, York. He has been exhibited on ten occasions, and won nine first prizes and one second, including Champion prize for the best Cleveland Bay Stallion at the Great Yorkshire Show, and first prize at the Royal show at Cardiff in the same year. Speciality is a typical Cleveland showing excellent quality and grand all-round action.

-ocr page 185-

Drover, 91

Salesman, 271

7th Dam by Master George,

Salesman, 272

Wonderful, 358
7th Dam by Ebor, 99

6th Dam

Emperor, 653

Chilton, 67

Luck's All, 186

7th Dam by Barnaby, 15

5th Dam

Prince Frederick, 234

l'liienix

Emulator, 103

7th Dam by Warwick

Cardinal, 47

King George, 160

6th Dam

7th Dam by Bay Emperor, 29

4th Dam

Golden Forester, 122

Forester, 110

7th Dam by Nailor, 209

6th Dam

Wonderful Lad, 361

Nobleman, 219

7th Dam by Nimrod, 218

Forester, 112

Master George, 203

6th Dam

7th Dam by Eoseberry, 259

Captain Cook, 46

Master George, 203

Captain George, 46

7th Dam by Trafalgar, 326

5th Dam

Cleveland, 60

6th Dam

7th Dam by Short Legs, 276

3rd Dam

Cleveland, 59

Favourite, 105

7th Dam by Kelsey, 622

Sir George, 278

Golden Pippin, 128

0th Dam

4th Dam

Victory, 336

King George, 159

rth Dam by Etty's Horse, 501

King George, 161

Nailor, 208

6th Dam

7th Dam by Forester, 108

Barnaby, 18

Golden Hero, 123

Barnaby, 15

7th Dam by John Connell's
Horse, 496

5th Dam

Forester, 108a

6th Dam

Forester, 113

Victory, 336

Victory, 337

7th Dam by Barnaby, 15

Commodore, 76

Direction, 468

4th Daim

Victory, 336

Volunteer, 346

7th Dam by Champion, 554

5th Dam

Cleveland Lad, I

Wonderful Lad, 361

7th Dam by Wonderful, 357

Yatton Lad, 364

7th Dam by Nailor, 208

Brilliant, 42

King George, 160

Master George, 203

7th Dam by Barnaby, 16

6th Dam

Admiral, 2

6th Dam

7th Dam by Barnaby, 15

3rd Dam

Cleveland Lad, 69

Wonderful Lad, 361

7th Dam by Wonderful, 357

Yatton Lad, 364

Nimrod

6th Dam

7th Dam by Nailor,

Brilliant, 42

King George, 160

Master George, 203

7th Dam by Barnaby, 15

5th Dam

Admiral, 2

6th Dam

7th Dam by Barnaby, 15

Sportsman, 299

Sportsman, 292

Ottonburgh, 222

7th Dam by Nailor, 210

Grand Turk, 138

Eichmond Lad, 257

7th Dam by Trafalgar, 325

4th Dam

Eeformer, 251

Bay Thornton, 36

7th Dam by Skyrocket, 283

5th Dam

Elegant, 385

Magnificent, 195

7th Dam by Peerless, 415

Cleveland Champion, 53

1°

Victory, 336

7th Dam by Favourite, 475

Champion of England, (5

Splendour

6th Dam,

MrB. Gilbert, 227

King George, 159

King George, 161

7th Dam by Nailor, 208

Barnaby, 18

Barnaby, 15

7th Dam by Forester, 108A

4th Dam

Ottonburgh, 222

Grand Turk, 138

7th Dam by Eichmond Lad, 257

6th Dam

Baylock, 371

Baylock, 372

7th Dam by Bmtandorf

General Benefit, 120

Wellington, 552

6th Dam

7th Dam by Borgee, 453

Emperor, 102

Eichmond Lad, 257

Royal George,

7th Dam by Magistrate, 193

5th Dam

Golden Forester, 122

6th Dam

Emperor, 387

A pure Cleveland Mare

Cleveland, 60

Cleveland Lad,

7th Dam by Short Legs, 276

Wonderful Lad, 361

Wonderful, 357

6th Dam

7th Dam by Luck's All, 178

Captain Cook, 44

King George, 160

Master George, 203

7th Dam by Barnaby, 15

5th Dam

Admiral,

6th Dam

7th Dam by Barnaby, 15

3rd Dam

Faithful, 390

Symmetry, 314

7th Dam by Forester

Colonel, 75

Brilliant, 454

6th Dam

7th Dam by Volunteer, 341

4th Dam

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ENGLISH BEEEDS 129 ₀f p ** ^may ^be ^added that the experiments for introducing a strain art-horse blood have been attended with most unsatisfactory results ^ar as the Cleveland Bay type has been concerned. r V _K^C₁^COrdmS ^to ^tlie Cleveland Bay Stud-book, which may be accepted as a of tv ^autllority ^uP^on the subject with which it deals, namely the breeding his class of horse, there exist three families�the "Dart", the "Barley arvest", and the "Hob Hill Horse", to one of which all the best and most ... ^Ca Cleveland Bays belong. No particulars, unless the statement th fl ^^ee ^missbl8 " ^can he accepted as information, is forthcoming regarding st of this trio of tap-roots, but his son Agar's Eainbow, afterwards dat^f^8,8-^¹¹¹⁸ ^Geor§^e ^the Fourth, sired some excellent stock, though the Hors°'' ^hlS ^belng ^f°^aled ^is ^n0t ^given ⁱⁿ ^the ^Stud-^book ^The "^Hob Hill ab f ' °^r' ^t0 ^^Ve ^^m ^b^s ^refd ^name> "Farmer's Glory", was foaled tim i, ^an^ "^Baidey Harvest" a little before that period, since which fort⁶ P^edigrees of Cleveland Bays have been far better kept. Un- pai_n^Unately' ^ll0wever' ^a11 ^e breeders of this class of horse have not taken abn ' * P^Ure' ^and' ^moreover, the Cleveland Bay, as remarked his 1 ' ^WaS ^a ^Vlctim ^of experiments which contributed a good deal towards _Cent ° P^restige and popularity during a portion of the nineteenth PublisT ^ ^a ^CaSB ⁱⁿ P^oint' the article written by J. B. Lloyd, which is may j?* ^U1 ^the ^first ^number of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, states th ^qU°^ted ^as P^rovmg how the breed was crossed. This gentleman ^cultural t ^ab°^Ut ^the ^year ¹⁸²⁷ ^he "^determined ^to try and breed some agri- ⁰¹¹ Cl_ev ^orseswith more activity and little or no diminution of strength" ^mares _a i .^es' ^and ^^or ^tb^^s P^urP^ose "purchased some Gloucester cart ^intendi_n^S ⁿ ⁱⁿ ^the ^legS ^aS ^he ^COuld ^get ^them "� Consequently it behoves ^the pedia ^PUrchasers ^on ^the look-out for pure-bred Cleveland Bays to study thouo-h ?^r6eS °^f ^the ^animals which take their fancy very carefully, for ⁸°m_e^bhor ^ ^qU-^te P°^Ssible ^for ^the evidences of cart blood to be absent in hi their ^ ^ ^G^ ^mherit it, the taint is likely to appear sooner or later ⁱⁿg fron^tli ^and ^m°^ney ^ma^ ^be thrown away and time wasted in breed- V manv^Ph^arS'_r1^ll0WeVer' ^tHat ^the ^examP^le ^of ^Mr- ^L1°yd was not followed ^of the societ v^S °^f ^the ^Cleveland ^Ba^ ^and according to the Stud-book ^the Period \⁷ ^h ^has ^been formed to further the interests of the breed, ^horse- After tb⁶¹¹! ^th<3 ^yearS ¹⁸⁵¹ ^and ¹⁸⁶⁷ ^WaS ^a ^Very ^fine °^ne ^for ^theProbably on 1c ^ ^year ^itS P°P^ularity hegan to dwindle somewhat, ^hicb was berr^-',^ ^^ ^S° ** ^is ^sugg^ested, of the increased attention Pieties in que^' ^t0 ^ ^Shir6 ^h°^rSe ^and ^C1ydesdale, ^for though the ^Bay in looks T T ^ k ^1U ⁿ° ^S6nSe ^be ^re§^arded as rivals of the Cleveland

	* 01. I.
		adaptabihty for fast harness work, the favour with which

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	130	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

they became regarded no doubt diminished the number of admirers of the lighter horse. The advent, or perhaps it may be more properly termed the resuscitation of the Hackney, has also proved beyond all doubt injurious to the progress of the Cleveland Bay, and the steady increase in the stature of the former breed causes it to become a more formidable rival every year. Public taste, too, has rather set in in favour of action, and here again the Hackney takes precedence of the big horse; whilst the hardness of the times has caused many scores of country gentlemen to reduce their studs; and in most instances the coach-horses, the duty of which was to draw the family landau round the Park during the London season, have been the first to go. At the same time the Cleveland Bay's position in the equine world is, at the time of writing, a very long way removed from being an unsatisfactory one. Indeed, it is incomparably superior to what it would have been had there been no Society at the back of the breed to look after its interests, and to provide some satis- factory guarantees as regards the genuineness of pedigrees. Many dealers too are consistent in their support of the big coach-horses, and favour the Cleveland Bay�when they can get them at a reasonable price�above all others; but in the case of professional purchasers, who only buy to sell again at a profit, their support is naturally more a matter of pounds, shillings, and pence than a sincere devotion to the breed they patronize. Consequently it must always be borne in mind that when a dealer has made his connection as a seller of a certain class of horse, it is to the highest degree improbable that he will forsake that particular variety for another if he can by any possibility avoid so doing. It may, however, be once more repeated, that the resuscitation of the breed was accomplished by the appearance, in 1884, of volume 1 of the Cleveland Bay Stud-book, and since that date the managements of some of the great horse shows have evinced a disposition to try and give the variety a help along. This, it may be stated, has not invariably been associated with profitable results, and even the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England has found it necessary to amalgamate the classes of Cleveland Bays and Yorkshire Coach-horses, to the extreme concern, expressed and implied, of the admirers of either breed, who, nevertheless, have only themselves to thank for the reduction of their prizes, as they did not support the shows sufficiently. This rather suggests the existence of ^aiaapathetic spirit on the part of breeders of Cleveland Bays, who certainly are not to be credited with the push and go which characterizes the actio of other horse-breeders; but against this charge the excuse may be made that the breed is in, comparatively speaking, a few hands, as the Clevelan Bay, though an excellent horse in his own particular line, is scarcely

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		ENGLISH BREEDS 131 regarded as being an animal for everybody's money. He possesses ^e great qualification, however, which should commend itself to all horse , ners, and this is an unusually robust constitution; which circumstance no doubt the cause of a good deal of the crossing that is going on Ween the Cleveland and other breeds, and possibly accounts for the atively small number of the pure-bred " Bays" which are to be found. doubt, however, the Cleveland and Hackney cross is fairly successful ^en the production of a sizeable animal possessed of high action is the J^e°t of a breeder, and extremely long prices have been realized for imals thus bred. Plenty of good hunters have also been bred from ^eveland Bay mares; but upon the whole this sort of breeding partakes Very much of the nature of a lottery, that the wise man who desires turn a penny, usually seeks to produce a harness horse from his Cleve- 1 ±>ay. A.t the same time stories are told of the ability some pure- ^a ^representatives of the breed have displayed in the hunting-field, but scarcely conceivable that many very great feats were accomplished ^ms direction with any of the crack packs. -&s to conformation, the head of a Cleveland Bay can scarcely be , ^rioed as a very attractive or taking one, being inclined to plainness, !t is xi^ _a _coarse head, and is usually well carried. The neck is air length and slightly arched, showing plenty of strength at the li v^ °ⁿ' ^^u^ ^a^ ^^ne ^same time it is free from coarseness and superfluous iu 1 ^ei" ^^ome difference of opinion�up to a certain extent�exists amongst bn1^beS °ⁿ ^^ie ⁽l^uestion of shoulders, for though it is probable that every- r_eo. Prefers them well set and sloping, many persons argue that they j,^b ^ the Cleveland Bay as a harness horse above all things, and that j. ' °re the possession of a long sloping shoulder is not so essential in te t- ^S ³ ^as ^ ^would be if he were used for saddle purposes. This con- of +-l ^Q ^1S' °^ ^course> strongly opposed by those who regard the capacity th t "^ree(l from the other point of view, and there can be no doubt f_a ^vast majority of the active supporters of the horse are dead in ^a nicely placed shoulder. Upon the question of middle there ₀� uirlerences of opinion, however, as the judges agree that the back and V ^6Ve should be short, his girth considerable, his loins powerful, tho if ⁽l^uarters l°ng and level. He is wide in chest, and short on leg, r_ea]i^to . ^Us ^neight often makes him appear longer on his legs than he In tl ^1S' ^an^ ^^S ^arms ^an<^ ^tnig^ns ^can scarcely be too big and muscular, only � ^ttlatter of bone the Cleveland Bay is conspicuously good, as not quite ^S P^nty of it, but it is remarkably flat, and the quality is Prom' ^eirt> it being extremely dense, and the sinews show up Y- The pasterns slope well, and the feet are large and truly

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	132


formed, the hocks being of good size with plenty of the right sort of bone below them, whilst the tail is set on rather high. His usual height is- about 16 hands 2 inches, or a little more or less. So far as the action of the Cleveland Bay is concerned, it cannot be successfully contended by his admirers that he possesses any of the fire and dash of his great rival the Hackney. Neither does he show the snap of the knee and peculiar poise of the fore-feet just before they touch the ground; nor of course does the big bay go nearly as high. On the other hand, the Cleveland Bay succeeds in giving a fine show when he is a good one, and he can get over the ground without losing much time, for he has plenty of shoulder and hock action, and cannot be accused of being a slovenly mover, but very much the reverse. In colour the true Cleveland must always be a bay. There are no two opinions about this, though it does not necessarily follow that the bay must always be of any one particular shade. On the contrary, although the lighter shade predominates, many of the finest-looking specimens which have been seen of the breed, animals possessing moreover pedigrees which have been absolutely above suspicion, have been of the darkest shade, and no objec- tion has been raised against any of them, nor ought any to have been. The legs below the knees and hocks should be quite black, and above them, on the forearms and second thighs, some black horizontal stripes, such as those which appear on the zebra, are often to be seen. These, when found, are not objected to, in fact many persons regard them as signs- of good breeding; but a white blaze on the forehead, or a white heel, are regarded as signs of impurity of blood, and will at once condemn their possessor to be suspected as a cross-bred. Some authorities would not reject an otherwise good horse for a very small star on the forehead, or a few white hairs on the heel, but a Cleveland Bay is all the better without either. The dark stripe down the back, or " list", is regarded very favourably by many breeders, but is not to be accepted as an infallible proof of pure breeding any more than are the zebra-like stripes on the thighs and quarters. A possible explanation of the appearance of these markings has been suggested above, and assuming it is a correct surmise, it speaks volumes for the prepotency of the old Devonshire dun. So far as the general appearance of the Cleveland Bay is concerned, it may be stated that he is a big upstanding, massive, yet active-looking animal, and conveys the impression to those who look him over of being an extremely powerful carriage horse, and therefore well calculated for heavy vehicles; but his "quality" is not conspicuous. Finally, the temper of a pure-bred Cleveland Bay is all in his favour, as he is a docile, willing worker, if not ill-treated and put to feats beyond

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	ENGLISH BREEDS	133
	ENGLISH BREEDS

^fils strength. It is true, however, that his reputation for pluck and tamina has been impugned by some persons who have crossed him with ^^e view of producing a hunter, and who have pronounced him soft. ^ms, however, is scarcely a fair charge to bring, as, in spite of the pro- stations of the thick-and-thin admirers of the Cleveland Bay, the horse ³ more adapted for harness than for saddle, and it therefore is surely inning him out of his course to expect an animal to discharge duties ^0r which he was never intended. The Yorkshire Coach-horse.�The subject of this article so closely resembles the Cleveland Bay in appearance that there is considerable dim- m distinguishing between the representatives of either breed on the Part of those who are not experts on the subject of horse-flesh. It is there- ^ore perhaps permissible, heretical though it may appear to some minds, to gard the Yorkshire Coach-horse as an offshoot of the Cleveland Bay, wruch he is very like, though he shows more quality and breeding. Ihe Yorkshire Coach-horse has been recognized by horse-breeders as a ^lstinct variety for a hundred years. It is only, however, within a com- paratively recent period that he has been taken seriously in hand by °se ^who, in the best interests of the horse, have placed restrictions on . ^e operations of breeders, with the result that the Yorkshire Coach-horse now the recipient of a fair share of public attention. At the same ^aie> the existence of a remote Thoroughbred cross has been fully recog- "^e(l by the members of the Yorkshire Coach-horse Society, who, whilst ^eavouring to promote the interests as a breed of the animal they are , uged to support, are sufficiently liberal in their views to admit the ^ents which the Coach-horse has derived from both the Thoroughbred ^aM the Cleveland Bav. Beyond all doubt the Yorkshire Coach-horse owes his origin to the veland Bay-Thoroughbred cross, the object of the founders of the breed § the production of a horse which stood very high at the shoulder, and med a great amount of quality with a sufficiency of substance. As progressed, more Thoroughbred blood was introduced, the result being th * .^Cer^^am amount of weediness ensued, and this weediness it has been _q ^ctuei desire of later breeders to counteract. A coaching stallion of ie l ^ Cleveland Bay mare was a very popular cross, and the ^j was, as might be expected, a valuable harness horse�as the plain- wh'l Cleveland Bay was neutralized by the breeding of the sire, hanr) ^16re ^WaS P^^enty ^0I" power about the youngster. On the other in 1 ' ⁶ ^1Irtr°duction of a superfluity of Thoroughbred blood resulted ^shoul l u ^S1Ze ^anc^ tightness of bone; and as the Yorkshire Coach-horse - a tall animal and yet possess substance, it was speedily recog-

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		134 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		mzed that the Thoroughbred cross, if persisted in, might soon become prejudicial to the interests of the breed. The difficulty in attempting to trace the pedigrees of Yorkshire Coach- horses may be appreciated when it is stated that at least one animal appears in the Stud-books of both the Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach-horse Societies. Still, the efforts of the society which bears the name of the breed will doubtless be rewarded by an improvement in the horse, and will eventually lead to the encouragement of breeders to abjure the in- troduction of extraneous blood, with the result that the stylish blood-like Yorkshire Coach-horse will be universally recognized as a defined breed, as he deserves, and without the further assistance of either a Thoroughbred or a Cleveland Bay. As may be supposed from the greater amount of quality he shows, the Yorkshire Coach-horse is a more active-looking and stylish animal than the Cleveland Bay, and his action and liberty are preferred by many. On the other hand, he does not possess the bone and substance of the Bay, as may readily be imagined when it is remembered that the blood of the Thoroughbred circulates so freely in his veins. His close relationship, however, with the aristocracy of the equine world assures the Yorkshire Coach-horse the possession of a great deal of quality, and beyond all doubt the acquisition of this great virtue endears him to many people who vote the Cleveland Bay a commoner. At the same time it must be confessed that at present there is a good deal of dissimilarity amongst even the best-known Yorkshire Coach - horses, some of which are much more blood-like and therefore narrower than others, this being no doubt due to their relationship to either the Thoroughbred or the Cleveland Bay, as the case may be. In appearance, however, the Yorkshire Coach-horse very closely resembles the Cleveland Bay, but he shows a good deal more style and finish, and is not so pronounced in substance, owing to his possession of so much Thoroughbred blood. Indeed, he displays far more quality than would be acceptable to the ordinary judge of the big Bays, whilst his head is more refined and his crest more arched. Perhaps, too, his action is freer upon the whole, but this is more a matter for consideration when the points of individual animals come to be reckoned up, than a general characteristic of the breed. The Coach-horse likewise fails m bone when brought into comparison with the Cleveland Bay, and i^s> generally speaking, the lighter, corkier animal of the two. He is usually a taller horse, as good specimens often reach 17 hands, and in colour may be either bay or brown. Any other shade of coat is strongly objected to, and white markings are disliked, though a spot on the forehead or

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		135
	ENGLISH BEEEDS	135
	ENGLISH BEEEDS

^a little white on the heel are not unfamiliar to judges. In most of their essential properties, however, the Cleveland Bay and the Yorkshire Coach- horse are very closely allied, the two varieties representing the best type neavy coachers we possess, whilst both of them have been frequently tossed with the Hackney of late years. The Hunter. � Although there are few horses more sought after than _a first-rate weight-carrying Hunter, the fact remains that in the Y^st majority of cases the animal belongs to no definite breed, most Hunters being made up of the Thoroughbred sire crossed with a mare of ^m°^re or less doubtful pedigree. It may, however, be at once conceded that a very great number of men who ride to hounds would prefer being Counted on a clean-bred horse to a half-bred one, provided that a suitable ^aiUmal was forthcoming; but the supply of Thoroughbreds available for ^the purpose of hunting men is limited, and consequently a composite ^auimal has to be produced. It is scarcely complimentary to the Hunter, that he should be the only variety of horse whose admirers confess them- selves unable to produce him as a distinct breed. On the other hand, the confessed inability of most Hunter - breeders to work without the direct assistance of the Thoroughbred is a direct testimony to the value of the ^iatter horse. ,. ^At the same time, although surprise may be expressed at the recognized _f^lenity of producing a breed of Hunters, the general admission of the ^^ct must be accepted, for the present at all events. It is a very re- _co^ettable circumstance, nevertheless, as until there is some reliability ^p^iug the pedigree of a breeder's stock, there will always be a great ^a °f uncertainty regarding the results of the experiments he may i ^a ^e- The establishment of the Hunters' Improvement Society has, 'ever, done much to assist the raisers of this class of animal, and the _a J ^U8l0n ^of mares in the Stud-book they publish must in the course of ^ew years contribute very materially to further progress in the direction fut ^r ^purP^ose- it is therefore possible that in the dim and far-off ^Ul'^e Hunter-breeders may succeed in establishing a definite breed for themselves. ^J ^b ^. or should modern Hunter-breeders be blamed by those who may of TlT ^Wlt^ ^tlleil ⁰P^inions ^as to the necessity for the introduction _ex ^ ^orouglibred blood, for every important authority of the past has ^ pressed _some very similar views upon the question. Whyte Melville, his ^ ~T^Untm9 Recollections, thus places what was in his mind before is /tV �^S: "^In ^a11 ^the <l^ualities ^of ^a Hunter, the Thoroughbred horse fine " ^SUperior ^to the rest of his kind "; but this good sportsman and ^er proceeds immediately to qualify somewhat his .praise by adding

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			136 VAKIETIES OF THE HORSE

		that the Thoroughbred all the same may not always be the pleasantest of mounts. Dick Christian, whose valuable opinions upon the question of Hunters have been immortalized by " The Druid ", was precisely of the same opinion, and he expressed himself in very similar though perhaps more emphatic terms; whilst "Nimrod" (Mr. Apperly), in 1842, although he did not advocate the claims of the clean-bred horse as a Hunter, recognized the desirability of a bit of blood in his composition. The remarks of the last writer, so far as they have reference to the Thorough- bred being used in the field, may perhaps be accepted as a reply to the suggestion made by Blaine two years previously, when he observed that it would be well worth the while of hunting men to purchase some likely young Thoroughbreds that were not fast enough for racing, and having thrown them up for a time, to proceed to make them into Hunters. From these references to the opinions of men whose names are still household words in the hunting world, it will be seen that if the out-and- out sticklers for blood are wrong in the views they possess upon the subject of Hunter-breeding, they are erring in extremely good company. Moreover, in view of the uncertainty which the opinions referred to foreshadow, it is scarcely probable that Hunter-breeders would summon up the heart or courage to make experiments on a large scale. They certainly do not appear to have exerted themselves very much until the last few years, to produce even the proper kind of mare to cross with the Thoroughbred stallions whose services they so implicitly rely upon, the result being that Hunter-breeding has generally been a lottery, in which the number of the blanks has been far in excess of that of the prizes. Any sort of mare was promiscuously put to Thoroughbreds by enterprising farmers, who were prepared to chance their fortune; and the produce of the union was recrossed with the Thoroughbred or not just as luck would have it. This is illustrated by the statement of an elderly farmer, which is repeated by the Druid. This breeder told him that he had never produced the type of Hunter he wanted until he had put a short-legged cart mare to a Thoroughbred horse, and then had the female produce of the union served by another Thoroughbred, and this brought him what he wished to get. The above system has no doubt been practised with varying results by many Hunter-breeders of the past, and some also of the present time. Others have set to work on different material, and have used the Thorough- bred upon all sorts of light mares from the Coach-horse downwards. It may be noticed, too, that there were " hunters " of some sort or other in England at a date prior to the period when the Thoroughbred horse as we know him became available for a cross, but it is pretty certain that

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ENGLISH BREEDS

137

efforts were made to perpetuate or improve the race as it then existed,

^and perhaps for the reason that Hunters were not required to do the same

^ork as the modern animal of the shires.

still, even in those early days Hunters were not without admirers; for

tar back as the year 1602 Gervase Markham expresses himself as

°^Ws: " The Hunting Horse, both for his virtue, strength, goodness,

u endurance, I place next to the horse of service". Markham also

^escribed at some length, and in his usually quaint style, " the three

^special characters or forces by which a man shall choose a good Hunting

orse". These were: (1) his breed, (2) his colour, and (3) the shape

his lineaments. Markham, however, in spite of his professions of

^egiance to breed, appears to have possessed a somewhat open mind,

he commences his observations on the subject by stating that if the

^rse were a bastard Jennet, or bastard Polander, he would not be amiss,

^at is to say if the parent on one side were English bred. He never-

^ess expressed a predilection for the native article. Markham was

more catholic in his taste for colours, as bays, browns, grays, and

^ns were all admired by him; but he strongly objected to blacks�on

^SuPerstitious grounds apparently�and chestnuts marked with white he

> also opposed to. The third property upon which Markham was

' ^Ustomed to base his opinions of a Hunter was shape, on which he

Patiates with unusual prolixity. Briefly, the points this old writer

sti for were a long, lean, large head, with a spacious, wide jowl, a

� ^rt sharp ear for preference (but if these organs were long and pointed

� ard it was to be accepted as a sign of speed), a long and rising

*ead, eyes full and round, and nostrils wide. The sort of neck

Knam liked to see was the straight and firm, "as it were of one piece

the body", a strong broad chest, exceedingly short flat legs with

~knit joints, and straight upright pasterns, the hoofs being strong and

�long and narrow. Upon the question of the mane and tail, how-

' Markham was most emphatic, as he held that the thicker and denser

harr of these were, the greater the sign of dulness, whereas if they

thin it was a sign that the horse was possessed of spirit.

t v° Lawrence, whose work was published in 1809, bears testimony

jt ^e *^act that a good deal of progress had somehow been made by the

^er since the days of Gervase Markham, but the chief credit for

fo ~l been accomplished appears to have been due to Irish breeders,

j ^e°rnmences his observations by stating of their horses that, " The

are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world ". Lawrence, more-

tp ' oes not show signs of being perfectly sound upon the question of

ghbred blood, for he prefaces his description of a Hunter by saying:

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	138	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

" Hunters are of all degrees of blood from the Thoroughbred to the Cart- horse. It depends on the nature of the country for which they are chosen, and still more on accident. ... If a man desires to make a figure in a capital hunt he must provide a Thoroughbred Hunter. He must be equal to the weight of the rider, neither leggy, nor long-waisted,. nor slight-boned, nor have crooked pastern joints. He should be well set upon his haunches previously to being used as a Hunter. In general a Hunter should have a good loin and spreading haunches, strong and well-knit joints, should go clear of his legs, have a good mouth, a striding gallop, and reach at least the height of 15 hands". Eleven years later John Scott, writing in the Sportsman's Repository, again alludes to the superiority of the Irish horses, which he says " are renowned as leapers both standing and flying, to be attributed in some measure to their form, shape, and frigate build". He refers to the English Hunter as being "a horse between 15 and 16 hands in height from the half-bred to the Thoroughbred species, and ought to be of a lofty forehand, and shoulders well formed for action, with wide and substantial loins, moderately short legs and pasterns, and sound feet." " Nimrod", although credited with being a first-flight man in his day, does not appear to have been so profoundly impressed by the sanctity of the Hunter as some modern authors, for he admits that a Hunter may be put to many purposes in addition to field, as he can carry a man to battle, or be used for draught. " It is therefore singular," he adds, " that out of a hundred men at covert side not half a dozen of them are on their own bred horses." This he accounted for by the uncertainty of breeding, for which it was difficult to lay down rules, but he thought the chief difficulty was to obtain the services of a good stallion; and therefore he, unlike most writers upon the Hunter, advocates a cross of Arab blood. So far, however, as he dared to go into the question of breeding Hunters "Nimrod" went, the cardinal principles that he laid down for the guidance of his readers being to observe the peculiarities of the horse and mare, and cross accordingly, a tall horse to a low mare, and so on, selecting only animals with moderate-sized carcasses, as he "never saw a very closely ribbed large-carcassed horse brilliant as a hunter". "Nimrod", moreover, appears to have been a little heretical as regards his opinions on the subject of a Hunter's head, and he expresses- himself as indifferent to its size and shape, provided it is well hung on, which is important, for he states his belief that even more than the- mere length of neck, the set-on of the head is connected with the heavy bearing on the hands. He considered, however, that the length of the- head, and neck should be proportionate; if one were long so ought the-

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			ENGLISH BREEDS 139

		ther to be, and vice versa. Length of shoulders "Nimrod" was quite positive was a necessity, an oblique scapula being indispensable for up- ^lu and down-dale work; and though, of course, he did not like coarse °^ulders, he objected to them less than straight ones. The arms he ^ed long, strong, and muscular, the knees broad and deep, the fetlocks ¹ iair length and sloping, and the feet wide; chest deep, quarters lengthy, ith long muscular thighs and well-placed hocks. Upon the question of ction "Nimrod" had a great deal to say, being a hard-riding man, and was only natural that he should advocate a gentle action with no. Celling about it. So far as the general appearance of his ideal Hunter ^ent, "Nimrod", like every modern judge, preferred to see a horse appear ⁰ °e smaller than he really was, for then he was sure that the animal was J ^metrically built; whilst he adds that according to his experience ^e long-backed horses were the best brook jumpers, whilst the short- acked ones excelled over timber. Youatt, unlike " Nimrod", was a great stickler for blood, believing ^at though half-bred Hunters could continue to get along, if stoutness ^ere really wanted a hard rider should be mounted on at least three- t. arter or seven - eighths bred animals. According to this writer, na unter should stand less than 15 or more than 16 hands at shoulder. he were below that height Youatt considered he could " always, ^easure the object", and if above the prescribed limit the horse was P_ to be leggy and awkward at his work. In the opinion of this. ^lter the first point to be sought for in a Hunter was lightness in hand, ^ therefore he, again disagreeing with "Nimrod", sought for animals. th n_eak small heads, with thin necks, and especially those that were s^t on their underside. He also insisted upon broad chests, big arms, ,, short legs, with pasterns of fair length; whilst, though he desired t the feet should be set on straight, he would regard their being tr ^out^wards slightly as an unimportant fault, though he would reject ^Unter that was pigeon-toed. Finally, Youatt advocates a short and wj, ^^act body, and therefore is once more at variance with " Nimrod",. appears to have been tolerant of a long back. ^ ^r°rn all that has gone before it is pretty clearly shown that the si a ^6rS °^ ^^ne P^ast) ^s0 f^ar ^as they were afforded opportunities, were gel- � avail themselves of the services of a Thoroughbred horse for an' ^ Hunter stock. Then, as now, it was not often that a clean-bred ₀j ■ was to be found up to more than 13 stone. The consensus _a tr ⁿⁱ⁰ⁿ that has been expressed in favour of the Thoroughbred as �_o ter sire, both by past and present writers, renders it impossible- P^ect that the day is yet at hand when Hunters shall exist as a

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	140	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

distinct variety having the faculty of reproducing themselves; and the idea has been well-nigh abandoned of attempting to establish a class of Thoroughbred animals up to greater weight than the half-bred horses now available for men who ride to hounds. Whether this is practicable, experience alone can show, but unquestionably a move is being made in the direction of the prevailing practice of sending mares to Thoroughbred sires, and again repeating the process with the fillies that are thus obtained. The results of the second cross are again sent to Thoroughbreds, and so it may be continued until the foals are, virtually speaking, themselves Thoroughbreds, though whether they will have retained the substance of the original dam, together with the bone and size which she may have possessed, is a question which can only be replied to when the experiment has been worked out. The rooted antipathy which exists in many quarters to the half-bred stallion affords a very probable cause for believing that the manufacture of a breed of weight-carrying Hunters would not be an exceptionally difficult task; but until the prejudice against the half-breds subsides breeders who are trying to raise animals for sale, and cannot therefore afford to offend the susceptibilities of their patrons, may be excused if they decline to digress from the beaten track that has been traversed by their predecessors for generations. No doubt, too, the course adopted by the Eoyal Commissioners, who are entrusted with the distribution of the money voted for the King's Premiums, has exercised a very decided influence upon the feelings of the public. According to the practice of, and rules laid down by, the Commissioners, the premiums are only divided amongst Thoroughbred stallions which are considered to be suited for serving half-bred mares and breeding Hunters therefrom, but whether the conditions go far enough or the reverse is a point upon which opinions differ very materi- ally. To commence with, the judges are not informed of the pedigrees or performances of the competitors for these premiums, and as many of the horses are either non-stayers themselves, or descendants of such, it is a debatable point whether they are likely to instil stamina into their offspring. Secondly, as the selection of the districts in which the horses are to travel for the season is left to their owners, and the competi- tors are grouped in classes accordingly, it naturally follows that many a fine stallion, which happens to have the bad luck to compete in a strong class, fails to gain a prize, and his services are thereby lost to breeders in other districts, whereas, had he been entered in another class, he might have won easily, and would thereby have done much better public service during the succeeding season than the horses that were awarded premiums in that class. It appears therefore that the

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			ENGLISH BREEDS 141

		money devoted to the King's premiums would be much better applied U the judges were to select the horses that were to travel each district from the whole of the competitors, and not class by class, as there would then be increased prospects of having the money distributed among all the best animals, which would be a distinct benefit to the breeders of horses. Besides this, it is quite possible, under the existing order of things, for a stallion to be given a premium as a sire to travel ^a district for which he is totally unadapted by his shape, size, make, and breeding. Thus a small-bred, little horse may be selected to serve mares in a pony-breeding part of the country, or a big coarse one in a district where the mares require quality put upon them. Consequently t is certain that the King's premiums would accomplish more good if the judges were empowered to select the stallions which in their opinion ^were best calculated to serve in each particular part of the country. The desirability or the reverse of introducing the Arab cross into. Hunters is one that has often been debated. No doubt the reputation °f the Arabs was considerably affected by the ignominious figure they cut at Newmarket some years ago, when they finished behind some very Moderate Thoroughbreds over a distance of ground; but under any circum- stances it is difficult to see in what respect the Arab is superior to the English horse, provided that the latter is carefully selected for the purposes ⁰¹ a Hunter-breeder, and therefore if a sire has to be found to cross with half-bred mares, it surely would be safer to cross with an animal that has °een a good performer himself, or else comes of running and of staying Wood. The latter qualification is probably more powerful than the former, but it too frequently happens that horses which have passed through a long turf career come down to the level of a Hunter sire ^0ldy because they lack the quality of endurance. It is also quite possible that a good performer on the course may be found to be incapable of ^Degetting race-horses, although his offspring may be quite fast enough tor work across country. A second objection that is not infrequently ^raised against using horses that have done much work upon the turf for -hunter - breeding is, that these animals have been forced from a very early age, _an(j }_iave \)_eeil* generally subjected to conditions of life which ^are likely to have impaired their energies for begetting staying stock hat are capable of carrying weight to hounds, and lasting out a long day ^beneath it. A considerable time ago, as the history of the turf informs ^Us> the Thoroughbred of the period had to run over long courses under ^elter weights and in heats, and in fact was subjected to treatment hat their descendants of the present day could not stand. Such animals ^Were far more likely to produce Hunters than the modern race-horse;,

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			142 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		and therefore it once more may be suggested that as the Thoroughbred is accepted as indispensable to Hunter-breeders, all the more care should be exercised by the breeders of weight-carrying Hunters in selecting a stallion that can stay. So much space having been given to the selection of a Hunter sire the question of the mare may now be considered, for after all there can be no denying the fact that she plays a very prominent part in the production of a Hunter. The latter is, however, very frequently the offspring of quite a haphazard cross, between a mare of a heavy �or light breed as the case may be, and the first available stallion, regard- less of merit either in respect to pedigree or performances. But this method of breeding is merely groping in the dark. It is impossible to expect business men to embark in such an undertaking as raising Hunters as an enterprise with nothing but their luck to influence the results. For farmers it may do very well, for they possess the mares, and can work �them very nearly up to their time of foaling and soon after it, so there is not much time wasted, and if the youngster proves a misfit there is but little loss over the transaction. If, on the other hand, Hunter-breeders can be induced to act upon the advice of the Hunters' Improvement Society, a great step might be made in rendering their enterprise more reliable; for even if, failing an established breed of Hunters, it is admitted that the Thoroughbred as a sire is essential for the production of a Hunter, it is the fashion that the mare should be half or three-parts bred. Consequently, it is not only possible, but probable, that any breeder who pays due regard to the individual merit of his mares, and ascertains their pedigrees before he buys them, may reasonably anticipate that his results will be more satisfactory than if he crossed the clean-bred horse indis- criminately with any sort of mare, and chanced the rest. Cart blood may, moreover, be a capital thing in its way�that is to say, it is satisfactory enough if a farmer's mare flukes a good stamp of weight-carrier to a horse that happens to suit her�but how about the offspring of the union if a filly? The ancient breeder referred to above, who told "the Druid" that he had never produced the sort of Hunter he wanted to breed until he crossed a cart mare with a Thoroughbred and their filly foal back again to the clean-bred animal, was no doubt a lucky man to get what he required in two crosses, but it is not recorded that he did so a second time. Unquestionably the prepotency of the Thoroughbred is great, but this circumstance gives no guarantee that the cart blood will not assert itself, and until a breeder provides himself with a stud of mares that possess some good back-breeding for several generations he must expect some disappointments as the result.

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	ENGLISH BREEDS
		143


The task of breeding a heavy-weight Hunter is a very much more difficult one than the production of a light-weight animal, and the cross- country men who are not troubled by superfluous flesh or bone can mount themselves, if they please, on Thoroughbreds or cross-bred animals for, comparatively speaking, small amounts. This being the case, it is naturally the ambition of every breeder, whose ulterior object is the sale of his young stock, to produce a weight carrier, and consequently the raising of light-weight horses is seldom seriously attempted, except by amateurs who breed for their own requirements and not for market. Size, in addition to power, stamina, and action, is a great desideratum in any Hunter, for a. big horse possesses the charm of making the fences look smaller than they really are, and vice versa, and therefore a little horse will not command the price that would be given for a bigger one, however clever he may look or be. At the same time it must be noted that the quality of a weight carrier is usually in inverse ratio to his strength and stature. There is no valid reason for preferring a great clumsy mare to a sym- metrically built one for a cross with the Thoroughbred when it is desired to produce a Hunter�in fact, the less coarseness she possesses the better are the chances in the lottery�but still she must have bone and size. If weedy, it would be too much to expect her to throw a weight-carrier; whilst if coarse, the foal will very probably be pronounced too common for a Hunter, and be condemned to a life of slavery between the shafts. A bit of breeding somewhere is, of course, essential to a mare from which it is hoped to breed a foal possessed of quality, and a good-girthed, big- quartered, short-legged one will most commend itself to the practical breeder as the sort to go for. In process of time the Stud-book of the Hunters' Improvement Society, if it does not degenerate to all intents and purposes into a replica of the General Stud-book, will be accepted by breeders as an invaluable guide in the selection of their horses, both for work and breeding purposes; but rapid as has been the progress of the volume, it must take many years before it can assume the propor- tions of a reliable guide to Hunter-raisers generally. Only one foal a year at best can be expected from a mare, and therefore the progress °f building up foundation stock must be slow; but meanwhile a work of reference of inestimable value to the Hunter-breeder is being steadily compiled, and this volume, in course of time, must become a most reliable source of information regarding Hunter mares. It is highly probable that a mare which herself has proved a valuable Huntress will produce a ioal of merit; but whilst fully accepting the theory of the poet Horace, ^ho mentioned that Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis, it does not invari- ably follow that a clever Huntress will produce a saleable foal, let alone

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			144 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		a weight-carrier. Still, the produce of really good mares is usually good in turn, but unfortunately the supply of high-class matrons is limited and with difficulty obtained. There is yet another point in connection with the breeding of Hunters which must be considered, and this is that the same class of horse is not required for every hunting county in England. This circumstance is a very fortunate one both for breeders and sportsmen, as in the first case there is a more elastic market in which to dispose of their horses, and in the second the demand for any particular class of animal is restricted to those who hunt in a particular district. At the same time it is essential that every Hunter should gallop and be safe and quick at his fences. Size, as has already been pointed out, is a most important quality, and so of course is action, but there are men who, provided their mount possesses the other attributes of a good Hunter, are so happily constituted as to be dis- posed to give way a little on the subject of action if only they feel satisfied that their horse will carry them to the end of a run. It must not, how- ever, be imagined that action is not a great point in the Hunter, for it is, and a horse that is deficient in this respect is never likely to command a high figure. He must possess freedom at the shoulder and a knack of bending his hocks above all things, as, if he fails in these points, it will not be at all likely that he can see the end of a long run beneath a welter weight, whilst, so far as his rider's comfort is concerned, a good shoulder action in his mount is a blessing which all horsemen must appreciate. The appearance of a Hunter must naturally conform to the work that he is expected to perform, and the animal that is expected to carry a welter weight over a stiff country is, of course, different in shape and make from the horse which is required to gallop under a less severe burden. At the same time there are several points which all Hunters must possess in com- mon, for they are all required to stay and jump, and therefore the chest should be deep enough and wide enough to provide ample accommodation for the heart and lungs, whilst the quarters and thighs must be big and powerful. Nor can the importance of good legs and feet be overestimated. An animal that is bad upon his fore-legs is always an unreliable mount. This fact has been recognized by most people from time immemorial, and amongst the older writers none was more emphatic in his denunciations, of indifferent fore-legs than the Duke of Newcastle, who wrote in 1667. He states as follows: " Some say if a horse have a great head, and thick neck and fleshy shoulders, that he is hard on the hand. You must know, that if he have any imperfection in his leggs or feet, but especiall before, the horse must be hard on hand; for he leans on the hand to ease the grief of his leggs, as gouty man doth use his staff. And let him be finely

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			ENGLISH BREEDS 145

		shap't or ill shap't, if he have any imperfection in his leggs, he must be hard on the hand." The secondary importance which was attached by the Duke of Newcastle to the head of a Hunter will scarcely be in accordance with the opinions of modern experts, who for the most part are greatly influenced in their selection of an animal by the opinion they form of this portion of his anatomy, a refined-looking intelligent head being regarded by most hunting men as a sine qua non in the composition of the horse that has to carry them. The subjoined description of a Hunter that may be expected to find favour with hunting men of all degrees may be offered for the guidance of the reader. The head should be small, lean, and bear an intelligent expression; it should be fairly wide at the jowl, and taper gradually towards the muzzle, which should be of a good size. The forehead is broad, the eyes rather full and soft, and the ears small and nicely carried. The setting on of the neck is an important point, for if the head meets it at a sharp angle, not only is. an awkward appearance the result, but the horse loses a considerable amount of his natural power to recover himself if he makes a mistake;, whereas if he possesses a head set gracefully on his neck in a gentle curve in the throat, he is capable of greater activity in moving it suddenly upon an emergency, and thereby may save his rider a fall. The neck itself should be lean, though muscular, quite free from lumber, slightly arched and increasing in size until it reaches the shoulders, a coarse heavy neck being a very bad fault in a Hunter. The shoulders themselves should be long and sloping, well laid back at the withers, which in turn should be Well raised but fine, most judges, though not all, being opposed to wide withers. His chest should be both broad, flat, and deep, so that the girths are well behind the forearms, whilst the forearms should be long and muscular, with big deep knees, and plenty of good sound flat bone and wiry sinews below them. The canons should be short from knee to fet- lock, and the pasterns of fair length and sloping. The middle piece must be very powerful, with well-sprung ribs, strong loins, and a big flat back. -The hips should be wide, and the quarters very long, level, and powerful, With deep and very muscular thighs, big clean hocks, and a considerable amount of vein below them. The tail must not be set on too low, or else the horse will present a goose-rumped appearance, which, in addition to> being an eyesore, will convey to many minds the impression that the ^arunial is descended from common stock. The feet should be large, and of course perfectly sound and symmetrical, dark in colour, with a rather high ^neel, healthy frog, and thick soles. In general appearance, therefore, the �hunter may be described as being an intelligent-looking, short-legged korse, possessed of great power behind, and an ability to carry the weight Vol. I. 10

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		VAKIETIES OF THE HORSE
	146	VAKIETIES OF THE HORSE

required of him through a long day. Eegarding the action of a Hunter, all that need be said is that galloping and walking are the two most useful gaits that he can possess. When fully extended his gallop should be smooth, without any disposition to fight about it, but rather of the low creeping order; and of course the faster he is the better. An ability to trot, too, with ease to his rider is, of course, an additional and a valuable attribute, for it usually happens that this mode of progression is resorted to in the journey to and from the meet; but it is not every galloper that can trot, and after all the former is far the more important action in a Hunter. A horse of this description that can walk well is, of course, an animal for selection over one that cannot, as the rider of a tired Hunter which cannot step out is not to be envied when he has to make his way home on a strange road and in the dark. There can be no two opinions upon the question of temper in a Hunter, as an awkward head- strong animal, let alone a vicious one, is always a danger to his rider and the rest of the field. Finally, the manners of the perfect Hunter must be exceptionally good, his mouth should be light, his intelligence great, and while possessing courage, he should be steady and tractable, with his heart in the right place. A puller will soon wear down the strength of his rider, whereas a horse with manners will carry him without demanding half the expenditure of energy and trouble to keep him straight. Briefly speaking, therefore, a Hunter, for whatever purposes he may be required, should possess� First, the best of legs and feet. Second, action, strength, and courage. Third, long sloping shoulders, without which the action will not be there. Fourth, powerful quarters and big muscular back-legs. Fifth, a neat intelligent head. Sixth, a deep chest, and a flat and not too short back. Some points of a Hunter were briefly epitomized by Whyte Melville as follows:� " A head like a snake, and a skin like a mouse, An eye like a woman's, bright, gentle, and brown, With loins and a back that would carry a house, And quarters to lift him right over a town ". With every word of the above all hunting men will cordially agree, their principal regret being, no doubt, that the gifted author did not still further extend his poetical description of a very valuable class of horse. The Saddle Horse.�Having referred to the various distinct breeds

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		147
	ENGLISH BREEDS	147

of horses which are recognized in England, it is desirable that a short space should be devoted to the Saddle horse�not necessarily as regards his breeding, but so far as his structural development and qualities are concerned. In so far as a breed of Saddle horses is concerned, there is nothing of the sort in this country, though in America breeders have made one. In the first place, perhaps the most essential point of all is to secure good manners, as no matter how excellent a Hack may be in other ways; he will never be a safe, whilst he will often be a very dangerous, ride, if through vice, bad breaking, or some other cause, he is not to be depended upon to answer his bit, or be easily controlled by the slightest touch of the rein. After manners the question of shoulders in the riding- horse is a subject for the gravest consideration of those who have to judge him, as a short-, straight-, or heavy-shouldered animal can never be expected to move at any of his paces as smoothly as one whose shoulders are long, obliquely placed, and free from lumber. "No shoulder no saddle horse", is an expression made use of by a hard-riding and practical Yorkshire gentleman, who most truthfully maintains that no matter how good a Hack's legs and feet may be, if his shoulders are faulty he will be a sorry mount for anyone. Of course it would be most foolish to ignore the importance of the legs and feet of a Hack or any other horse, and so it should be a subject of care to a judge to note that the arms of the animal he is looking over are big, the knees large and properly placed�not standing back or over�the bone between them and the pasterns short and flat, with nice springy sloping pasterns terminating in sound, properly-shaped feet. The importance of a good pastern is great when the horse is to be used for saddle work, as if the pasterns are too short or straight the animal is not so well calculated to preserve his balance if he stumbles, whilst he will certainly be a rough-actioned Hack. The head of the typical Hack should be breedy-looking and small, with neat ears, fair-sized eyes�a pig eye looks very objectionable through ^a bridle�and an elegant muzzle with large nostrils, the jowl being moderately deep, but in no respects heavy, and the forehead wide. This sort of head, if set upon a delicate and slightly arched neck, which widens as it nears the shoulders, is always attractive; and it must be borne in mind that a short, thick, heavy neck is an abomination in a Hack. The withers should be fairly high, and, like the shoulders, sloping, ^So as to assist in keeping the saddle in its place. There should be a ⁿi^ce depth of chest, but at this point extreme width is not required.

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	148	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	148

The back should be neither long, weak, nor dipped, but there must at the same time be plenty of room to carry the saddle and leave a reason- able amount of space behind. The Hack should be well ribbed up, and possess nice long straight quarters, as, if the latter are short or slope, they are a great eyesore to judges; a weak quarter is a very serious defect. The hind-legs should be nicely bent at the stifles with a good length of bone down to the hocks, and short thence to the ground, the pasterns, though not so long and sloping as those of the fore-legs, being lengthy enough to ensure elasticity of action, whilst the feet must, of course, be sound and healthy. The tail is set on rather high, and is not usually docked short in a Hack, but neatly squared. The hocks should be large, free from all blemish, and so placed that they are neither so close together nor so wide apart as to prove a source of weakness to the horse, which they will if either of these defects is present. The action of the Park Hack should be free, well-timed, and elastic, his principal paces being the walk and the canter; he is rarely required either to trot or gallop, and any approach to a high fighting style of going is very strongly to be deprecated. A horse which creeps along, as it w^rere, over the ground with a smooth easy canter will always command attention, whilst a fast level walker is almost always as much admired. It is re- markable to notice how often the walking action of a Hack is neglected by judges and purchasers of this class of horse; but the discomfort and danger of riding an animal which is an awkward walker are both so apparent, that in selecting a Saddle horse his style of going at this gait should be closely studied. The important subject of manners may also be regarded as including action within its scope, for no horse which does not move smoothly and answer its bit and its rider's knee, can ever be expected to possess the perfect manners which are so inseparably asso- ciated with the true type of riding horse. The great points, therefore, to be sought for in a Hack are manners, which includes mouth and freedom from vice; action, which is invariably associated with good shoulders and limbs; and elegance of form, in other words, quality�a trio of properties which it is not easy to combine in any one animal; and hence the great value of a perfect Saddle horse. How to produce this much-sought-after class of animal is a subject which causes breeders a great deal of anxious thought, but it is the prevailing belief, founded upon experience, that as a rule the beau ideal Park Hack should possess a great deal of Thoroughbred in his composition, even if he is not perfectly clean-bred himself. The possession of this blood will almost certainly ensure a fine neat head, and the right sort of shoulder, though in the latter point Thoroughbreds differ like every

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	ENGLISH BREEDS
	ENGLISH BREEDS	149
		149

other horse, some being far superior to others. It not infrequently occurs, however, that a blood-horse is much too high-couraged for a timid rider, who consequently seeks for an equally good-actioned but steadier mount. To such the advantages of an Arab cross may be suggested, for although the Eastern breeds are decried by many authorities, there can be no disputing the fact that, in spite of their not uncommon ten- dency to be faulty in shoulder, the Arabs are usually very excellent Hacks, provided they are given a fair chance to do their merits justice. They certainly put good heads upon their offspring, whilst their docility is great, so that although their action may not invariably be so imposing as might be desired, they will, if judiciously crossed, throw most excellent Saddle horses, whilst in their pure state they can carry a lady or boy very comfortably and well. The style, too, in which an Arab will come up to his bit, and change his legs as often as desired, is worthy of all the praise that can be bestowed upon any horse; and therefore to this breed and the Thoroughbred the would-be breeder of a Park Hack may look when seeking; a cross for suitable mares. Weight-carrying Saddle horses of the stamp which is sought for by elderly gentlemen of considerable bulk are naturally built on far more substantial lines than the Park Hack. They must also be heavier in bone and the possessors of irreproachable decorum; but valuable though they be, the art of producing this class of horse has hitherto remained ^a mystery, the appearance of a weight - carrying cob being usually a matter of chance, though possibly the crossing of an Arab and a powerful Hunter mare might produce the animal required. For Covert Hacks a dash of Thoroughbred blood is most desirable, as the duties of these horses are so varied, and their work is often of so arduous a nature, that high courage combined with manners and style ^are chiefly desired by those who use them. Many an excellent Covert Hack has been the offspring of a blood-horse and a pony mare, or vice versa, and it is from such sources that the best of them are most likely ^to spring. The Harness Horse.�The formation of the ideal Harness horse is Uaturally very different from that of the Park Hack, or even the ordinary Saddle horse, one at least of the most difficult points to secure in the latter�long, sloping, well-placed shoulders�not being so essential to per- fection in the case of a Harness horse. This stamp of animal should be ^long and low and stand over a great deal of ground. His loins should ~^e powerful, and his quarters lengthy and level, with muscular thighs and . ^road, flat, well-placed hocks. A sour head is seldom associated with good ¹¹ ^any horse, as it usually betokens a sullen or vicious temperament, which

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	150


is shunned by driving men, whilst a heavy head and a dull expression generally accompanies a soft, cowardly disposition, which prevents its possessor from struggling on under difficulties, as many Harness horses are called upon to do. The neck of a Harness horse should not be short or heavy, as both these faults are apt to make him clumsy, a defect which is prejudicial to the merits of any horse. His neck, too, should be firmly placed on his shoulders, which need not necessarily be so oblique as those of the Saddle horse, nor is it imperative that the withers should lie so far back. Indeed, many persons advocate a moderately straight shoulder in the Harness class of animal, being of the opinion that such a formation more readily adapts itself to the collar, but in this respect, as in all others, it is no difficult thing to go too far, as coarse shoulders not only are liable to injure action, but detract very much from the appearance of any horse. Big forearms, with plenty of length above the knee, and short from this joint downwards, with broad flat canon- bones, are very desirable features for a Harness horse to possess, whilst the pasterns should slope, and the feet all round be of good size, well formed, and of course sound. Considerable depth and fair breadth of chest should also be present, so that whilst the speed and " handiness " of the animal are not affected, there may be plenty of room for the play of both heart and lungs. It is not absolutely necessary that the back of a Harness horse should be as level as that of a Hack, as he is not required to carry any considerable weight, upon it; but a distinctly hollow or dipped back is a great eyesore, and should always be avoided when possible, though a really good animal in other respects need not be discarded if his back happens to be hollow. Neither is a badly ribbed-up middle piece or a slack loin a fatal defect, though any signs of weakness, such as these, depreciate the value of an animal and detract from his appearance. On the other hand, the import- ance of good quarters can scarcely be overestimated, as a horse which is cramped here is naturally placed at a disadvantage for harness work; whilst good thighs and hocks are quite essential to him. The stifle joints should be nicely bent�but not too much so�and there should be plenty of length of limb between them and the hocks, which in turn should be large and powerful, and of course quite clean and free from blemish. A capped hock, let it be mentioned, though an unsightly disfigurement, does not of a neces- sity betoken unsoundness or an incapacity for work, and therefore need not entail the discarding of an otherwise good horse, provided he is passed sound in other respects; but they are always better avoided if possible, if only on account of their ugly appearance. There should not be too much of a bend at the hocks; " sickle hocks " are very often associated sooner or later with

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			ENGLISH BREEDS 151

		weakness, and they should be well placed, not being carried outward below the line of the body or inwards according to the conformation known as " cow hocks". The tail should be set on high, as must be the case when the quarters are level, for though plenty of " goose-rumped" horses are good workmen, a drooping quarter never adds to the appearance of any animal. The question of manners in a Harness horse is a matter of great import- ance, as an animal with a naturally bad mouth, or one which has been ruined by injudicious breaking or heavy hands, to say nothing of a vicious or timid dispositioned one, is always an unsatisfactory and very often a dangerous horse to drive. Very frequently, of course, the manners of a horse become affected by bad bitting, and consequently in trying a recent purchase of which nothing is known it would be unwise to discard him, if not at first satisfactory, until the peculiarities of his mouth have been carefully studied. Indeed it may safely be asserted that as many equine tempers have been ruined, and manners spoiled, by injudicious bitting as by any other means, and therefore in forming an estimation of a strange horse's manners, it is always necessary to pay attention to his mouth. Again, the question of manners is so often associated with temper that no one is ever justified in ignoring the character an animal may possess. Some animals entertain peculiar aversions to certain objects wdiich they may possibly encounter when being tried, and although they may be steady enough under any other circumstances, may earn for themselves a bad reputation amongst strangers. A bolter, however, and particularly one whose eyesight is at all affected, is never to be trusted, for if a horse once decidedly gains the upper hand over his driver, he rarely forgets his power, and is therefore liable to repeat the outbreak at any moment. Action and style are two points about a Harness horse which are ab- solutely essential to success in the show ring, or inclusion in the category of valuable animals. Unfortunately, however, they are both difficult to secure, nor are they always associated with each other. Yet they must be there if a horse is to be accepted as a good one, for no matter how perfect uis formation may be, or how well he moves, he will go down before a good judge if he does not carry his two ends up; whilst if he accomplishes this ^and is deficient in action his other merits will all be overlooked. To com- mence with, a good Harness horse should hold his head up proudly as it ^were, and not be dependent upon a bridoon bit for keeping it in position; out, on the other hand, a " star-gazer" which throws his head-piece back as _Xf he were taking an observation of the sky is never an animal to be ^aOttiired, and not infrequently is an awkward horse to drive. When it is oticed, therefore, that a Harness horse is driven in a martingale, it is as well ⁾ try and ascertain how he carries his head without one; whilst, on the

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			152 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		other hand, it may be mentioned that it is no unusual thing for animals to be shown off with the reins attached to the bridoon bits in thsir mouths, instead of to the other bits which are merely added for the sake of appear- ance. The action of a Harness horse is necessarily a most important part of his composition, as an imposing show is the object most sought after by both judges and purchasers. A considerable difference of opinion however exists regarding what is required, though in all cases lofty knee action is insisted upon. Many high movers, however, appear to be incapable of doing any- thing except bending their knees, and such animals usually possess an evil propensity for smashing their fore-feet down in almost the same place from which they raised them, and leaving their hind-legs behind them, after a fashion which is simply distressing to a lover of real action. Still, such horses can win prizes under some judges, but this fact does not necessarily prove that their style of moving is at all in conformity with the ideas of practical men who really understand what action is. In the first place, a Harness horse should use his shoulders and pasterns as well as his knees, for when he can do so he possesses an ability to "get away" which the shoulder- tied high knee-actioned animal can never hope to do; whilst if he does not flex his hocks and tuck his hind-legs well under him, the smoothness of his going, to say nothing of the dash which is so characteristic of a good Harness horse, will be entirely absent. In short, there should be plenty of power and fire about the going of this class of animal, and this there never will be if he does not move from the hocks, which should convey the appearance of propelling his body forwards, as indeed they should do. Having thus endeavoured to describe the leading points to be sought after in a high-class Harness horse, it may perhaps be desirable to offer a few suggestions upon how to produce the sort of animal which is wanted. There are, however, in existence at the present time, as has been shown in the foregoing pages, at least three English varieties�the Hackney, the Cleveland Bay, and the Yorkshire Coach-horse�which in their pure and unadulterated state should between them be able to supply the. require- ments of most seekers after a high-class Harness horse. It not infre- quently happens, however, that a buyer is anxious to combine the brilliant action possessed by the Hackney with greater size than that breed usually attains, and in such instances a cross with a Cleveland Bay mare may be the means of securing what is wanted, though the plainness which is so frequently associated with the latter breed may possibly provide a disappointment. The fact that the Yorkshire Coach-horse is the result of a Thoroughbred and Cleveland Bay cross, however, does not commend the Coach-horse as a desirable cross for the Cleveland Bay; but many most

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	PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING

brilliant-actioned and sizeable horses have been produced from the Coacher ■and the Hackney. Assuming that action and not great stature is required, the introduction of Hackney blood, provided always that the stallion used is Hackney-bred, and not therefore the possessor of a strain of alien blood either Thoroughbred or otherwise, is morally certain to produce what is required, though, of course, if the mare is hopelessly bad, or else is bred in such a way that her blood "will not " nick " with that of the sire, a disappointment is likely to result. All things being equal, however, it may safely be expected that the old and true type of Hackney will provide his stock with action all round, a good middle piece, and short, flat legs; whilst the Cleveland Bay will produce an increase of size, though if bred to underbred mares his offspring will probably be very plain. At the present time, a large number of American Roadster mares are being imported into this country, but the greatest care should be exercised in breeding from them, as, excellent though their style and manners may be, it should always be remembered that the horses on the other side of the Atlantic possess a tendency to be light in barrel and bone, and so if not bred to the right sort of horse are likely to throw back to a weedy ancestor. Still, these should throw something very good to an old-fashioned short-legged, heavy-boned Hackney. Of the heavy breeds of draught-horse, the Suffolk undoubtedly is to be regarded as providing the greatest field for valuable Harness crosses, and if bred to the Thoroughbred or Arab, and then to the Hackney, it is very possible that a good stylish Harness horse might be produced, though the majority would be more likely to be of the Vanner type. The first �crosses with either of the above varieties produce some extremely useful animals, but as a rule these cannot be expected to possess the brilliancy of action and the breediness which are associated with the highest class of Harness horse, such as has been described above. PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING As many writers have truthfully observed, the first difficulty that confronts a person who is attempting to describe a pony is the diversity °f opinions which exist upon the subject of the description. An animal that is regarded as a Pony in one part of the country is styled a Cob *Q another, the inhabitants of one district possessing very different ideas ^upon the qualifying height from those entertained by the residents in another. Then again these little horses appear in such different forms, ^hat a description which holds good for one variety would not apply ⁱⁿ the least to another, the truth being that ponies are as varied in

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			154 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		their character and conformation as they are in their adaptation to different purposes. The public, however, or at all events a very considerable number of persons, ignore this fact entirely, and though they readily distinguish between the different varieties of large horses, they are very prone to regard anything below a certain height, fixed by themselves, as merely a pony, and unworthy of that careful division and classification which has been adopted with such good results towards kindred varieties. This, of course, is altogether wrong, for the equine bantams exist in quite as many varieties as the bigger horses. This being so, the consideration of the varieties of the pony becomes extremely difficult, for not only do representatives of old - established breeds appear in strong numbers in some parts of the country, but cross- bred and manufactured animals are still more numerous, the result being that breeding ponies to any particular type or ideal standard is a great lottery, though unquestionably profitable. There is no doubt that the pony is to a certain extent the survivor of the old English horse which was possessed by the ancient Britons, as there is ample evidence to show that the equine race in those early days was far smaller than now. The increase in size in our general horse stock is a natural result of scientific breeding and attention to the feeding and general welfare of brood stock. Civilization encourages the domestication of animals, and domestication ensures an increased development of frame, and therefore, even were evidence not at hand to prove the fact, it is beyond all doubt that the horses of the Britons were very little taller than many so-called ponies of the present day, though undoubtedly they were stronger in build. There appears, however, to have been a desire from the very first to increase the size as well as to improve the quality of the native pony, as, in addition to crossing these animals with others which had been imported from abroad, several rigorous laws were made and enforced against the practice of permitting undersized stallions to run on common land with breeding mares and fillies. These restrictions very naturally contributed to the quasi - extinction of the old-fashioned pony, though it must at the same time be remembered that many long- established breeds still exist in various localities, and that although it is quite possible that their type has a good deal changed, still enough remains behind to connect many of them with their lost ancestors. No doubt the principal difficulty that pony-breeders have to contend against is the tendency to increase of size amongst their stock. Improve- ments in regard to shape and make are, comparatively speaking, easy,

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	A GROUP OF PONIES
	Shetland	Dartmoor
		English

Welsh

Exmoor

Irish

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	PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING
		155


but it is the propensity to add inches to his stature that makes a pony a difficult animal to produce. All horses which are reared in luxury are prone to grow and spread, as has been observed before, and conse- quently pony-breeders have discovered that it is necessary for them to adopt rigorous measures with their studs. To commence with, it is not a judicious act to attempt raising ponies on good land where the keep is plentiful and very nourishing in quality. A pony from his earliest youth should be compelled to live on poor land, and in fact to go short of commons, if the size is to be kept down to the required standard. Of course, this rule cannot be made to apply to ponies which are in work, but even in the case of these overfeeding is most unde- sirable. It may be pointed out that ponies are naturally small feeders, though an artificially large appetite can always be produced by treating them to a too liberal diet. The fact that ponies can be more satisfactorily reared on sterile than on rich land is in itself a direct encouragement to persons who own, or who can acquire a lease of, mountainous or moor- land ground, to try their fortunes as breeders, and certainly to the man who possesses patience, and can afford to wait, an enterprise of this de- scription should turn out a complete pecuniary success. Not only is such land comparatively speaking worthless at the present time, but the cost of attending upon the stock and feeding them is very small. The value of their winter keep cannot possibly amount to more than a trifle, and the quarters required for the brood stock during the more inclement seasons of the year may be of the most primitive kind. The chief aim, in fact, of pony-breeders should be to bring their stock up hardy and to encourage the survival of the fittest, so that these little horses may continue to possess what they now enjoy, the most robust constitu- tions of any variety of the equine race. In fact, in their case health and soundness appear to exist in direct ratio to their diminution of size; hence an infirm pony is comparatively seldom met with. In addition to short commons and outdoor life on the mountain-side there is another important requirement, viz. to arrange the breeding opera- tions so that the foals shall be dropped late in the season. This of course is reversing the ordinary practice of horse-raisers, but it will be readily seen that the very motives which require that breeders of large animals shall procure early foals, are those which induce pony men to breed late ones. When the young animal finds a quantity of rich keep at hand he naturally feeds himself well, and proceeds to spread out and extend his lines in all directions; whereas, if his growth is not forced on at first, and there is not an over-abundant supply of food for him, as his age advances he will naturally become stunted, and this is

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	156	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	156

exactly what his owner wants. A foal dropped in the early spring gets all the best of the grass, and so does his dam, with the result that hex milk is richer and more plentiful than it need be; whereas one which comes later on in the season obtains less luxuriant fare, and with bene- ficial results so far as the intentions of his owner are concerned. That ■all horses can stand cold and privations fairly well is an accepted fact, but it is equally true that there is in this respect, as in all others, a limit to their powers of endurance. The colder the latitude in which he resides the smaller in stature he will be; therefore it may once more be suggested for the guidance of pony-breeders that the three cardinal points of their creed should be a cool mountainous climate, a sufficient though not over-liberal supply of food, and late foals. There is, however, another and a very important subject to be dis- cussed in connection with the raising of ponies, and that is the desirability or otherwise of practising a system of close breeding. That "sibbing" has been most successfully practised by the leading pony-breeders of the day is incapable of being disputed, and certainly Mr. Christopher Wilson of Kirkby-Lonsdale carried this practice to an extreme which was absolutely daring in the case of the well-known pony stallion Sir George, whose victories at the Royal Agricultural Society's shows were so frequent as to become almost monotonous. Mr. Wilson bred Sir George to a daughter of the little horse, and then again to the female offspring of this union, repeating the experiment a third time, and yet he not only lost nothing by doing so, but actually gained immeasurably, as in this way he produced one of the very finest pony mares that ever looked through a bridle. Strange to say, too, he did not lose any bone nor an ounce of strength; on the contrary, the mare in question was bigger below the knee, and as sound in constitution as any member of his stud. Having regard to Mr. Wilson's experiences, it can scarcely be contended that in- and-in breeding, so far as ponies are concerned at all events, is a bad policy if judiciously carried out, and doubtless the system will be found necessary in order to impress type and keep down size. In inbreeding, however, as in everything else, there is a limit that must be reached sooner or later, and breeders who adopt such methods must always be on the look-out for evidences of deterioration in stamina and constitution amongst their stock. One can scarcely avoid suggesting, moreover, that it is quite possible that some particular animals or some strains may be more peculiarly adapted for the purposes of inbreeding than others; and here again is a possible danger on which the attention of breeders must be fixed in carrying ■out their crossing experiments. It is obvious, too, that any sire which may be selected for inbreeding purposes should not only possess a strong

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			PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 157

		constitution and be absolutely sound, but must also be as near perfec- tion in his looks as can be secured. Weaknesses and faults, it must be remembered, likely to be perpetuated as are the best and most attractive points, and when imperfections are strongly rooted in a strain of horses they are most difficult to eradicate. Of course, the value of an inbred animal�provided always that he or she, as the case may be, is sound and good-looking�as a stock pony is immense, and a breeder possessing such an article may seek for an outside cross with some degree of confidence, knowing that at all events on one side there is good material to work upon. In ponies, however, as in all other stock, a male will oftentimes nick with one female and not with another, and vice versa; and therefore the breeder who may fail at first will not be acting wisely if he at once makes up his mind that his sire or mare is worthless, because their first foal turns out to be a disappointment. The effect of a suitable sire upon common pony mares is extraordinary, and the rapidity with which a strain has been improved by the influence of a desirable stallion in the stud has upon many occasions been noted with astonishment, and even by those best acquainted with the history of the mares. This is a most satisfactory circumstance, for beyond a doubt many valuable strains or varieties of pony have been so long neglected as to render their owners sceptical as regards the possibility of improve- ment. Experience, however, has so amply proved the contrary that no one who is associated with the raising of this class of stock should permit, his mares to run with a moderate stallion. A difficulty, however, exists m selecting the horse pony to run on common land on which mares of many and varied types are kept, for an animal that will suit some may fail with others, but there is always safety in following blood. A good- constitution ed Thoroughbred pony is sure to leave good results behind him, ^and may be safely used to any class of mare; and in such cases as those m which owners are either unable or unwilling to provide separate accom- modation for such mares as may not be quite adapted to the stallion running With the drove, he is not likely to do them more harm than many horses which are permitted to be at large on common ground. It is the indifferent typeless class of horse that has done so much harm to ponies generally, and tt Would be an excellent thing if a law were passed that no stallions should ^De allowed to run at large amongst mares on public land unless they ^^ad previously received a licence to do so; and surely no man is justified ^ln enforcing his legal rights to the detriment of the property of other Persons possessing similar privileges. Having thus attempted to explain the principles which have influenced ^^e operations of the most eminent pony-breeders of the day, it now

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		VARIETIES OF THE HOESE
	158


becomes necessary to enlighten our readers as to what a pony really is. The differences of opinion which have existed in different parts of the country as to the necessary stature that qualifies its possessor to be accepted as a pony have already been referred to, and it may be added that the 14-h.-2-in. standard which now marks the line of distinction between the pony and the horse at most of the principal shows, is possibly not sub- scribed to by every breeder. But assuming that it is, and that there is a hard-and-fast rule making every animal under 15 hands a cob if he stands 14-h.-2-in. or over, and every one a pony if he does not reach the latter standard of height, difficulties almost innumerable still confront the writer who attempts to describe the points and conformation of a pony. This is mainly due to the existence of so many varieties of the breed, in behalf of all of which some special features of type are claimed by their respective admirers. Unfortunately, however, a writer is opposed by a still more serious obstacle that must be encountered, namely, the divergence of opinions that exists amongst the chief admirers and supporters of these �different breeds. Doubtless this is in no small degree attributable to the fact that all sorts of undesirable and irregular crosses of blood have been introduced into each variety; partly as a result of mistaken theories that have been applied, and partly to the indifference of many persons whost first duty it should have been to have kept the particular variety of pony with which they were connected pure and free from any undesirable taint. As suggested above, there is little doubt that the person who pro- poses to breed ponies, and to found a new stud upon raw material which he has succeeded in collecting hap-hazard from all the four points of the compass, will act wisely if at the commencement of his operations he trusts to the good offices of a Thoroughbred pony sire. There are plenty of these little horses to be picked up every year whose breeding is as good ■as that of any animal in the Stud-book; but valuable though they are as corner-stones in the establishment of a strain, it must always be borne in mind that there is a strong probability of their begetting stock that is taller than themselves, whilst they are not likely to introduce high action into their stock. Of course, the possibility of the former being the case is somewhat discounted by the fact that the foals they get will be out of small mares; but then, as in all likelihood the mares in question have been picked up here and there with little or no information as to pedigree, there may be the taint of size on their side, and if this is so, the appear- ance of big foals at the commencement of the operations might reasonably be expected. Still, as it is not within the power of everyone who proposes founding a stud, to buy his mares from well-established herds, the beginner is compelled to do the best he can for himself; and provided he possesses

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	PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING	159
	PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING

the golden gift of patience, and can afford to wait a few years for the return of his money, he should eventually succeed, as others have succeeded before him. Of course, if a person possesses the means, and is impatient to show profitable and satisfactory results, he can indulge at once in the luxury of procuring the best of blue-blooded pony mares and stallions; and unless his operations are attended by the most cruel luck, he can then start with almost a certainty of breeding good-looking foals that can be raised at a profit. On the other hand, the man who proposes to begin at the begin- ning, as other successful breeders have done before him, and who possesses both judgment and patience, should in the course of a few years show even better results, for though he will naturally have to wait longer for a return of his money, the profits will be proportionally higher in the end, and his stock will be increasing every year in value. On the contrary, if he ■starts with expensive animals he rims the risk of incurring severe losses by death, or having to pay large premiums for insurance; besides which, there cannot be so great an increase in the value of his stud as there would be if he commenced with lower-priced foundation stock and worked ■at it until the desired improvement had been effected. There is, moreover, the fact remaining that although his capital, or a great deal of it, should lie idle for a few years, the working expenses of a pony-breeding establishment are not very heavy, even if they are not actually insignificant. The rent of a hillside, a very appropriate situation for such a place, cannot pos- sibly be more than a few shillings an acre; the necessary attendance upon the animals whilst they were upon it cannot be much, and the expenses of such additional forage as would be required in the winter and on certain special occasions will not be likely to amount to more than a compara- tively small sum. There is another point, moreover, for the pony-breeder to take into consideration before he commences operations, and this is the probability that exists of his always finding a market, and a ready one, for his surplus toals. This in itself should form no small inducement to a person who may be anxious to try his luck, as the prospect of having stock on hand which ^^e is desirous of disposing of not infrequently acts as a deterrent to an intending breeder. There is always a demand for ponies, be they good- booking or only commoners, and therefore so long as the small tradesman ^id the costermonger exist, so long will a man be able to dispose of his ^ulls, and such transactions should certainly yield some profit to the ^vendor. If the misfits can pay their own way, the profits on the better ^ass of animal, not to mention the " cracks " when they begin to make leir welcome appearance, will be considerable.

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			160 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		The introduction of a bit of blood into the newly-founded pony stud will be doubly valuable if high action is not sought for at the outset, for the superfluous males and the mares which are not considered good enough to keep for breeding purposes would assuredly command a readier market than many of the continental monstrosities which now find their way into the country to supply the home demand. No one would willingly invest his money in the purchase of a coarse underbred-looking animal with straight short pasterns if he could get hold of an active, symmetrical, wear- and-tear-looking pony with some approach to the type of what may be regarded as the correct one. Consequently an investment in a little Thoroughbred blood, it may be once more repeated, is of the highest im- portance to the founder of a stud of ponies brought together from all quarters. It is noticeable that some sires will always get foals bigger than they are themselves, and beyond the limit of height allotted to the pony, whilst others, happily for their owners, invariably produce smaller ones; so if the beginner is fortunate enough at the outset to procure a horse pony belonging to the latter category, which at the same time possesses, the invaluable merit of impressing his own quality upon his foals, the path of that particular breeder will be a rosy one indeed. In commencing pony-breeding there is one question that the speculator must always put to himself and answer before he sets to work. This is, what type of pony is it that he proposes to raise. In all other varieties of horse there are lines laid down to guide the operations of a breeder, as the standards are pretty well fixed; but in the case of the pony matters are^ somewhat mixed. It is not merely sufficient to try and produce a little horse; a breeder should have something more definite before him than that, or else his operations will be conducted on a happy-go-lucky method of progression which can only end in disappointment and disaster. Perhaps the most valuable and saleable type of pony is the Harness type, possessed of a high, free, and graceful action. Very few ponies, and especially the higher-priced ones, are required to gallop, the canter and the trot being; the paces that are most affected by their owners. For the production of such as these the Hackney pony is, of course, the best of all sires- to use in the first instance, provided always that his merits as a stock- getter are proportionate to his other qualifications. He should at all events be equal to the task of introducing action into his foals, and it is remarkable for how long this most essential "entity" will remain in a strain when once it becomes fairly rooted in it, which, by the way, it is. sure to be in the case of closely inbred strains, such as those most pony- breeders now possess. The Hackney sire of small stature, combined with action, finds many

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			PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 161

		friends amongst admirers of ponies, but the services of a sire possessed of Hackney blood to any considerable extent are apt to produce a heavier class of foal than those now in request. The fashion, of course, may change, and perhaps it will before long, as it is by no means improbable that a heavier breed and, on the whole, more powerful type of pony will be in demand. As it is, generally speaking, there is naturally far more action in the first cross Hackney than in the first cross Thoroughbred pony; and whilst the latter shows, as a rule, the more quality, the former possesses the greater amount of substance. The Hackney, it must always be borne in mind, is a trotter above all things and then a walker, whereas the Thoroughbred is a galloper, and it is only natural to expect that the inherent qualities of the sire in either instance will be transmitted to a greater or less extent to his offspring. Of course, the character and breeding of the mares�especially the breeding�will have a great deal to do with the appearance and value of the foals. That goes without saying, as otherwise the mares could be collected from all parts and merely selected by their looks, without any attention being paid to their ancestors; but in such a case it is to be feared that the success of the stud, if ever attained, would be delayed for many a year, as the foals would come season after season in all shapes and sizes; and unless a breeder can get hold of a "sorty" lot of mares, all bred on pretty much the same lines, he cannot reasonably expect anything like uniformity amongst their produce if they are all served by the same horse, as no doubt they would be for a season or two at least after the stud had been established. This brings us once again to the all-important question of inbreeding, which has been alluded to above, when a reference was made to the remarkable successes of Mr. Christopher Wilson. Here, of course, lies one of the greatest secrets of the triumphs of that gentleman; but it must be remembered that when he "sibbed" so strongly he was only combining blood of which he thoroughly understood the properties. It is questionable, therefore, whether a person who starts a pony farm by collecting a herd of Dartmoor, or New Forest, or any other breed of mares, and crosses them with a Thoroughbred or Hackney pony sire, w^Tould be acting quite wisely if he determined to commence close inbreeding at once and to shut his eyes to the imperfections of his stock, or their approach or otherwise to the approved type. He may, of course, be fortunate in getting one or two youngsters of exactly the class he wants ^ln the first or second season, and these he might breed together, and thus ttake good progress towards the goal he has in view; but the wise man will first of all try to establish the type he requires amongst his breeding stock, and when he has produced the material, and enough of it to work Vol. I. 11

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	162	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

upon, he will make no more experiments, but will inbreed to a greater or less extent until he has possessed himself of a herd of ponies of the required shape and make. By this it is not intended to convey the meaning that a series of first or second crosses must result in a breeder getting what he wants. On the contrary, some time may be required ere he can possess himself of the number of foundation stock necessary to his purpose. At the same time, if it clearly appears to him that his stallion does not suit his mares, and that the crossing and recrossing is not advancing him much along the road he wants to travel, he will be foolish to persevere in it, and if he is wise he will commence again. In the case of the first foals bred from "native" mares�the term "native" may be accepted as applicable to the more or less pure-bred mares of some old established variety that have been purchased as foundation stock�and the Hackney or Thoroughbred sire, it will be best to cross them with their sire; but sooner or later�and probably sooner�it will be necessary to find a stallion of their own breeding, else in time the original pony blood will be absorbed by that of the Thoroughbred or Hackney, as the case may be, and all traces of the original pony will be obliterated. Consequently breeders must bear in mind that if they desire to found a strain that shall make a name for itself, their stock must be something different from either bantam Thoroughbreds or bantam Hack- neys, though participating in the best qualities of the one or the other, whichever may be used. The services of a " native" sire may perhaps be resorted to by some owners in certain instances; but a difficulty will always exist in discover- ing an animal of unimpeachable pedigree which also fulfils the requirements of a breeder in other essential points. The fact is, as stated above, that the " commoners" who have for centuries possessed the privilege of grazing their ponies on common land, have not been careful in protect- ing their property, the result being that many good mares have acciden- tally been served by uncut two-year-olds of an indifferent character, whilst many quite undesirable entire horses have been permitted to roam about the land, and work destruction amongst the different herds. Of late years the indigenous stock�or what remains, if any, of it�has received some attention, but the assistance has come so late that many reputedly pure-bred ponies of a certain variety are simply improvements upon the mongrels that have been produced in the course of a long period of neglect. It therefore appears that the founder of a pony- breeding stud may be acting more wisely in relying upon a Thorough- bred or Hackney-bred sire in the first instance � provided he cannot produce a stallion of the Wilson, or some other established strain�than

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	PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING	163
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upon a pony which may be all he is described as regards looks, but which, on the other hand, may be full of most undesirable blood. In the case of mares it is a different matter. A beginner would be unfortunate indeed if all his investments in foundation stock turned out worthless; but it may be remembered that each mare stands or falls to a certain extent upon her own merits, whereas a sire possessing a bar sinister in his pedigree is liable to injure the produce of every mare he serves, in fact there is no limit at all to the mischief such a horse may create in a stud. Eegarding the native breeds of ponies which have existed�or in some cases still exist in a more or less modified form�in certain parts of the kingdom, it may be said that the efforts that have been made to rescue them from extinction have met with fairly satisfactory success, though unhappily great mischief has been accomplished through injudicious crosses. The best-known varieties of pony will now be briefly dealt with, begin- ning with� The Dartmoor.�Almost from time immemorial the Dartmoor ponies have been highly thought of, but, like many other kindred breeds, they have suffered to a certain extent by the apathy of those whose first consideration their welfare should have been. The region of Dartmoor embraces an area of some 20,000 acres, the chief portion of which is included in the Duchy of Cornwall, and consequently belongs to H.E.H. the Prince of Wales. The rights of common are let by the Duchy, and there are also some manorial rights of pasturage. At one time it was laid down that no stallion exceeding 12 hands high should be permitted to run on the famous moor, the duty of supervising the Forest and its occupants being relegated to a family of "moormen", who succeeded to the office from generation to generation. Many owners of the ponies, and to their credit be it said, have attempted from time to time to improve the race, the services of a Thoroughbred sire of as diminutive proportions as could possibly be obtained being usually the animal selected for the purpose. There is very little doubt, too, that Arabs have been tried as crosses for the Dartmoors, with questionable results, as there has always existed a disbelief in the minds of breeders as to whether the constitution of these sons of the desert would stand the rigours of ^a winter on the moor, the climate of which at times is most inclement. At the present time many good ponies come from Princetown, being raised by some of the officials connected with the convict establishment ^which is situated there. Although the breed has become a good deal mixed "^ere and elsewhere by crosses with Exmoor, Pack-horse, and other blood, ^nere are many excellent ponies to be found in the neighbourhood, and ^thusiasts believe that by the enterprise of pony-breeders the improved

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	164	VARIETIES OF THE HOESE
		VARIETIES OF THE HOESE

Dartmoor will, in course of time, multiply and become more generally dis- tributed throughout the country. In this respect the modern breeders will only be following the example of a little band of energetic pony-lovers, who laboured hard to introduce stamina and quality into their herds, but, as suggested above, the great difficulty that invariably presented itself was the acquisition of a suitable cross-bred pony that was small enough to be turned out with the native mares. Perhaps the best known breeders of the past were a well-to-do farmer named Elliot, known as Lord Elliot, owing to the fact that he was lord of the manor of Brent, and Mr. John King, who possessed a herd of ponies that ran upon the Buckfastleigh moors. The former died about the year 1860, and many of his stock came into the possession of Mr. Hamblin of Buckfastleigh, where their offspring are no doubt to be found at the present time. Probably the best representatives of the Dartmoor pony more closely resemble the pocket edition of the Hunter than any other variety of the equine bantam tribe. They certainly might display a greater amount of quality about their heads, but their shoulders, as a rule, could not be improved upon, whilst their weight-carrying capacity and powers of endurance are extremely great. Being ponies of a most robust constitu- tion, they can rough it anywhere; they are wonderful stayers, and excellent in both harness and saddle when they have not been ruined by injudicious crosses. As regards their fore-legs and feet, they are excellent, though in the eyes of some judges they might be a trifle heavier in bone; but light- ness below the knee in the case of a showy, blood-like looking pony is a very venial fault, whilst it may be added that appearances are very often deceptive, and the little horses are frequently far heavier below the knee than they appear to be. The chief point that is unsightly in the composition of the Dartmoor pony lies in the direction of the quarters. Here, besides being wanting in length, they not infrequently droop, disturbing the otherwise elegant top line and symmetry of the whole. Cow-hocked specimens are unfor- tunately to be found in too many instances, and no doubt this defect is a great cause of trial and disappointment to breeders who are desirous of raising good-looking stock for the market. There is, however, consolation to be derived from the knowledge that, even if a pony possesses such defects, the cost of his production is so small that a very fair margin of profit may still remain after he is disposed of. The ears of the Dartmoor are rather large for a pony whose height should not at the utmost exceed 13 hands, but they are characteristic of the variety and must be accepted as such.

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	PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING
		165


The Exmoor.�The Exmoor pony, like the Dartmoor, should not ex- ceed 13 hands at the shoulder, even if he reaches that height, a fact that is rather remarkable, for Exmoor is better supplied with nourishing keep than Dartmoor. There is also a sort of glamour of romance in connection with the Exmoor, as the stories of the mysterious Katerfelto�the dun stallion which appeared upon the scene, from where no one appears ever to have discovered�have been the thesis adopted by other writers besides the great Whyte Melville, and to the public the mysterious is nearly always attractive. Some sceptics asserted that there was never such an animal as Katerfelto; but they were wrong, for he was eventually secured, and while in captivity served several mares. Mr. G. S. Lowe, who investi- gated his history upon the spot, asserts that he was a dun horse with a black list down his back, and that his appearance was that of a blood-like cob. Suffice it to say, that Katerfelto was no myth, and that his mysterious appearance may probably be due to the fact that he had survived some shipwreck and made his way to Exmoor unnoticed, or, at all events, for a long time uncaptured by any of the inhabitants of the locality. The residents in the village of Exmoor can offer no information whatsoever concerning the origin of their ponies; all they appear to know is, that this breed has existed for a period far beyond living memory, and that the animals are most necessary to their comfort. About the year 1820, Sir John Knight purchased some 20,000 acres of moorland, for the purpose mainly of raising ponies, and he afterwards added to his original purchase the part of the forest that belonged to Sir Thomas Acland, as well as the celebrated herd of ponies contained thereon. The original stock was subsequently crossed with the Nubian horse Dongola, the Arab, and the Thoroughbred; but he ultimately tired °f pony-breeding and devoted his attention more to sheep�not, however, before the height of the Exmoor had been brought up to nearly 13 hands by the use of Thoroughbred blood. In the year 1850, Sir Frederick Knight, who then owned Simonsbath, recommenced pony-breeding operations to a great extent, and produced ^s°rne extraordinarily good-looking animals up to 13 hands, whilst several ^extremely beautiful specimens of Sir Thomas Acland's strain still survive, -"-he latter have chiefly been bred by the late Sir Thomas Acland at ^orloch, near Dulverton, to which place their ancestors were removed ^when Sir John Knight purchased Simonsbath. It is believed that shortly before his decease Sir Thomas Acland introduced some crosses, and so olio wed the example of Sir John Knight. If so his action is much to be ^regretted, as the truebred Exmoor pony had already become extremely ^are, for no British pony has been a greater victim of fantastic crosses.

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		166 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE As regards his general appearance, the Exmoor perhaps shows more quality than the Dartmoor, his head being extremely clean and neat, his eyes full of spirit, whilst his limbs and middle piece are excellent, and they are not so frequently found cow-hocked as the Dartmoors are. They are a most valuable cross for the purpose of producing the miniature Hunter style of pony, and anyone who purposes embarking in the pleasurable pursuit of pony-breeding should congratulate himself if he succeeds in getting possession of a few mares of the old blood, for they are sure to serve him well; but, as has been stated above, the majority ■of so-called Exmoors are simply mongrels. The New Forest. � As probably everyone who reads these lines is aware, the New Forest owes its existence as a royal forest to William the Conqueror; and it is pretty certain that since the days of that monarch it has been to a greater or less extent the home of horses of some shape or other. The extent of the crown property here is about 70,000 acres, and admirers of the ponies that exist in the forest are in the habit of claiming for them that they are indigenous to the locality; but whether this is the case or not, it can scarcely be claimed for the present repre- sentatives of the ancient race that they appear to have repaid the care that has been bestowed upon them. So far back as the middle of the eighteenth century the famous Marske, the sire of Eclipse, was covering mares in the neighbourhood of the forest at a half-guinea fee, whilst in more recent days the services of Arab stallions have been available through the good offices of the late Prince Consort, and no doubt the large number of grays that are met with in the district strain back to the latter horses. Still, in spite of the advantages it has received, the New Forest pony of the present day is in appearance beneath the level of the Dartmoor or the Exmoor, as it fails to equal these varieties both in head and shoulders, added to which it is often badly goose- runrped; but it possesses plenty of courage and dash, and makes an excellent trapper, so there is reason to believe that the exertions which are being made to improve the breed will be crowned by excellent results. At present there is an association in existence for the purpose of improving the variety; but though the writer made enquiries and asked for information concerning it, no reply was received, and consequently it is but reasonable to infer that no tangible results have hitherto been attained by the promoters thereof. The Welsh.�The true Welsh pony, and especially if he is a creditable representative of his race, is one of the best and most serviceable animals that could be desired. The worst thing that can be said about him is that the Welsh pony has been so carelessly bred that a variety of types exist to confuse the public mind. As a rule, the Welsh pony runs rather taller

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			PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 167

		than the varieties referred to above, for it is not often that a really good-looking one stands much under 13 hands, and there are a great many over that height. Still, as it is not everyone that requires a very small pony, this may be regarded as a qualification in favour of the Welshman by many persons; and at all events there is no denying the fact that these animals have not only fully maintained their hold upon the affections of the public, but have deserved it. The best specimens very closely approach the miniature Hunter type, which may be laid down as the most generally accepted ideal for the all-round pony; but many of them lack the quality that the introduction of Thoroughbred blood always brings, though the Welshman is grand material to work upon. He is generally a very free and fast mover, with plenty of action, and his legs and feet are exceptionally good, soundness being one of his notable attributes�in fact so much so that, as far back as the year 1842, Nimrod in his book alluded to the Welshmen as never going lame in their feet or becoming roarers. Roughly speaking, though the Welsh pony and cob are not always so blood-like in the head as some breeds, they are by no means coarse there; they are very good about the shoulders, the back is short and strong, and the quarters, if sometimes plain, are as a rule superior to those of many other varieties. The Welsh pony also has a society devoted to his interest and improvement, and, like the Exmoor, may be dismissed with the observation that, however valuable he may be for the beginner to commence with, it is probable that if the object of the breeder is to produce 12-hand ponies, he may experience some difficulty in making his ^enterprise a success. The Westmoreland. � Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart., in his extremely ^lnteresting article on the subject of ponies, which appears in the Live &tock Journal Almanack for 1896, makes the statement that the moors and waste lands of Westmoreland and Cumberland have for centuries been ^Used for breeding ponies, horses, and Galloways. Such being the case, *t is remarkable to think how little the Westmoreland pony is really ⁿ°^wn; for although the presence of valuable ponies in the north has ever been doubted, it was not known to everybody that the district has ^een the home of such animals for centuries. It is, however, extremely Probable that the fame of Mr. C. W. Wilson's strain, which hail from irk by-Lonsdale, has of recent years so completely overshadowed all the ner ponies in the district, that the latter have become lost sight of. f⁰ doubt Mr. Wilson found some of his foundation stock in that !^0ca%, but he. it may be observed, so improved them by judicious Ceding and a scientific attention to the details of out crosses, that no

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	168	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	168

better ponies can exist, and consequently diligent search should be made by intending breeders in the neighbourhood whence the Wilson ponies came. The Shetland.�There is not much to be written about the Shetland pony that is not generally known, but it is satisfactory to be able to assert that these useful little horses are making steady headway in the south of England. Possibly the Shetland is the only variety of the equine race of which specimens can be found that possess the blood of no outside cross, and it is upon the sterile moors of Shetland that this pony can be found in all its native purity. Beyond all doubt the inclemency of the climate and the poverty of the fare to which he and his ancestors have been subjected are responsible not only for the diminutive proportions of the Shetland, but for the robustness of his constitution, for no animal unless absolutely sound could exist and propagate his species amidst the hard- ships which have been the daily lot of the Shetland for generations. He is a sturdy, cloddy-built little animal, standing about 10 hands at the shoulder, though of course both taller and smaller specimens are to be met with in plenty, and no doubt owing to climate influences the coat of the Shetland is extremely dense. For his inches he is a marvel of strength and activity, which properties have rendered the Shetland's services invalu- able in coal-mines, where the exertions of undersized animals possessed of plenty of power are most useful in bringing coal to the bottom of the shaft. This variety is being a good deal benefited by the Shetland Pony Stud-book Society, which is doing good work by interesting the public in the breed; but the inherent good qualities of the Shetland will always ensure his finding friends in all parts where his merits become properly understood, his docility and intelligence rendering him a very useful animal for the purposes of juvenile equestrians. *The Itish.**�The Irish ponies can scarcely be accepted as being in- digenous to the Emerald Isle, as, though they chiefly come from the Galway districts, any originality of type which they may have once possessed has become so defaced by the various crosses which the breed has been subjected to that it has quite disappeared. Some enthusiasts hold that the original ponies were rescued from the wrecks of the Spanish Armada, but there is no real authority for the belief. The most famous of them are the Connemara ponies, a long, low, heavy-boned, very useful type of pony. In colour they are usually chestnut, and they run from about 14 hands upwards. As a rule they are excellent workers, but as foundation stock for commencing breeding operations upon, the Irish pony as a race scarcely possesses enough of a pronounced type to be recom- mended, though beyond all question the introduction of a number of

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			PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 169

		small-sized stallions of good quality into Ireland is calculated to effect a very great improvement in both their appearance and value. The Dale or Fell Pony.�This pony is doubtless a very close relation of the Westmoreland tap-root, if not identically the same animal, and also resembles the Rum pony in its conformation, so that the descrip- tion given of the latter may be taken as applying equally to the subject of this chapter, though the Dale pony is, generally speaking, rather the more breedy-looking animal of the two. At the same time, it is difficult to believe that there is not some intimate relationship between them, though doubtless the Dales have received more attention from north-country breeders than have the Rum ponies from the Scotsmen of the west coast. A very great recommendation of the Dale pony is his great stamina, as some members of the variety are credited with having travelled immense distances under heavy burdens; whilst the strength of their constitutions is borne evidence to by the fact that they exist and flourish on the hills on the borders of England and Scotland under conditions which would render existence impossible in the case of most horses. Like the Rum pony, the Dale pony is extremely sure-footed, and being as it were a sort of half-way breed between the horse and the pony, the Fells should prove acceptable additions to the establishments of those who desire to possess a sturdy, useful animal of rather less stature than the ordinary cob. Finally, as a proof of the antiquity and stamina of the English north-country pony, it may be stated that an account is in existence of a Mr. Sinclair of Kirkby-Lonsdale having, for a wager of 500 guineas, ridden a Galloway 1000 miles in 1000 hours at Carlisle in the year 1701, the Galloway being presumably a Fell pony. The Rum Pony.� The association of the above name with a well- known breed of ponies inhabiting the north and west of Scotland has become of late years an accomplished fact, owing to the fact that almost all the best specimens have been bred on the isle of Rum, whilst those °n the mainland have become deteriorated in quality. The former circum- stance is doubtless owing to the fact that so far back as the year 1847 ^a former Lord Salisbury turned a Thoroughbred stallion out on the island; "Ut unhappily no authentic records of the ultimate fate of the horse or °f the produce of his sons and daughters have been forthcoming. At a ^e°niparatively recent period, however, Lord Arthur Cecil purchased the ^entire stock of island ponies, and removed them to the neighbourhood °f the New Forest, where doubtless their improvement will be studied ^Wlth ultimate benefit to the breed. The Rum pony is usually black in colour, and the average height ^ls between 13 hands 2 inches to 14 hands 3 inches, which proves that

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			170 VAEIETIES OF THE HORSE

		they are considerably taller animals than the ordinary run of English pony. As a rule, their shoulders are good, and their feet and legs are the perfection of soundness. On the other hand, although rather narrow in their build, their heads incline to coarseness. Lord Arthur Cecil claims for them that the main characteristics of the breed are extreme docility when broken in, immense strength, and great intelligence, all of which merits, combined with iron constitutions, have been preserved by the specimens of the Rum pony which have come beneath the notice of the writer. The Hackney Pony.�The Hackney pony, now unquestionably an established breed, is a most valuable little animal, not only on account of his intrinsic merits, but because of the great success which usually attends the crossing of him with the mares of other pony breeds. As a variety but little need be said of him here, since in character and make-up he is simply a pocket edition of the ordinary Hackney, which by judicious selection has been bred down to the desired height by pony lovers, who have wanted to possess an animal of about 14 hands which will excel in action and possess all the good looks of the larger members of the breed. With the possible exception of the Wilson ponies�which have had more judicious care expended upon them for a longer period, and which owe by far the largest proportion of their excellence to the strong dash of Hackney blood which is inbred in their veins through Sir George �the Hackney ponies are the most valuable and generally high-priced of all the varieties of equine bantams, and for harness purposes, in cases where high action is desired, there are no animals of their inches which can approach them in style, symmetry, and action. Consequently it is not surprising to find their numbers increasing on all sides. No doubt Sir George, the stallion from which the Wilson pony sprang, is likely to be accepted as the most successful member of the breed which has appeared, his long sequence of victories at the Royal Agricultural Society's shows providing the strongest testimony to his good looks and action and quality. Sir Horace, by Little Wonder, for which Sir Gilbert Greenall was content to pay 500 guineas, is another Hackney pony whose name will long be a household word amongst breeders, as will that of Mr. J. Jones's Cassius; whilst included in the category of famous little horses of the variety is Pick Up, by Model, a winner of the early shows of the Hackney Horse Society, which was purchased to run in the New Forest. All these animals will be remembered as being first-rate Hackney pony stallions. The Wilson Pony.�This variety, which only exists in small num- bers, owing to the fact that its origin is comparatively a matter of recent

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		Plate XVIL

HACKNEY STALLION, CONFIDENCE, D'OYLEY'S 153 By Prickwillow 614; dam by Highflyer 360 by Flying Buck 280. A famous hackney sire

	HACKNEY STALLION, LORD DERBY 415 By Performer 459; dam by Joseph Andrews (Leake's). A famous hackney sire

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PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 171

date, is founded upon a long-sustained cross of the Hackney upon the Fell
pony. Mr. C. W. Wilson, of Kirkby-Lonsdale, to whom is due the entire
credit of its production, founded his stud by selecting a number of high-
class Cumberland mares and crossing them with the Hackney pony stallion
Sir George, which possessed a strong dash of Norfolk blood. The fillies
from this cross were put to their sire, and in most cases this was repeated
for another generation, with the most remarkably successful results; for
although the height was well kept down to under 14 hands, the bone
and stamina of the strain was fully maintained, whilst their beautiful
quality and action made them popular from the first. A proof of this is
forthcoming from the fact that at Sir H. de Trafford's sale by auction in
Norfolk in September, 1895, five Wilson pony mares were disposed of at
an average of over 700 guineas each, the highest price of the day being
obtained by a three-year-old filly, which realized 900 guineas: this young-
ster being the most inbred of the lot.

In appearance the Wilson pony may be described as being a high-
class miniature Hunter, gifted in most cases with superlative action, and an
amount of quality which is surprising even in the case of so small an
animal. In colour they are usually bay, and it may be added that the
originator of the family, Sir George, was a winner at the annual show of
the Royal Agricultural Society of England upon no fewer than eight-
occasions.

The following were some of the Wilson ponies disposed of at the sale
referred to above:�


	600	guineas
	65	33
	300	33
	600	33
	105	33
	720	33
	700	33
	150	33
	900	33
	210	33
	155	33
	350	33
	100	33

Snorer II, 8 years

Foal, Snorer IV......

Georgina

Dorothy Derby, 5 years ...
New foal, Agnes Derby ...
Dorothy Derby II
Snorter II ...
Jackdaw, 2 years ...
Miss Sniff, 3 years
Julius Caesar, 1 year
Eoman Warrior, 2 years
Snorter, 3 years ...
Young Sir George, 9 years

The most famous of the mares of the family, so far as the show ring is
concerned, are Snorer, the original, so named because of the singular noise
she made in her nostrils, Dorothy Derby, and Dorothy Derby II, all of
which have won prizes at the most important shows; whilst the names of
others have appeared prominently in many an exhibition catalogue.

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			172 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		HEAVY HORSES The Shire Horse.�The subject of the present article is entitled to be accepted as the giant of the equine world, and possibly no variety of English horse impresses foreign visitors to an agricultural show more than do the majestic animals which within the last few years have come to be included in the category of the Shire horse. Previously to a decision being arrived at amongst breeders to abandon such designations as Cart-horse and Agricultural horse, some confusion naturally existed in the minds of inexperienced persons who frequented horse shows as to the classification of our heavy breeds, and consequently the fusion of all heavy English horses�of accredited pedigree�save Suffolks, into one division has been welcomed by the public, and no doubt the animals themselves have been benefited by it. Accepting, therefore, the Shire horse as the modern representative of the English draught horse, the searcher after earlier records of his existence will at once discover that the variety possesses the distinction of being a very ancient one indeed. Sir Walter Gilbey, in his most interesting work on the old English War-horse, maintains, and with a very considerable amount of success, that the Shire is a direct descendant of that celebrated animal of which the ancient Britons were so proud, and their Eoman conquerors were so extremely covetous. Still, whether Sir Walter Gilbey is fully justified in his deductions or not�and he writes with authority, since no one man has done more for the advancement of the Shire horse than he�the fact remains that there was an ancient breed of horses in Great Britain at the time of the Roman invasion, and that the animals were then considered remarkable for their size and power, though of course vastly inferior in stature to the Shire horse of the present day. There is no doubt at all, as history shows, that the old strain of horses was highly prized by successive kings of England who flourished since the Conquest, this fact being clearly proved by the references that have already been made to the good deeds, from a horse-breeder's point of view, of the different English monarchs. It is equally certain, also, that in the earlier stages of their respective efforts to improve their race of horses, the sovereigns of England were more influenced by a desire to produce a superior type of War-horse than to assist mere peaceable agriculturists in preparing their land for cultivation. As a matter of fact, all the necessary farm-work, which in those days must have been terribly heavy, was performed for centuries by oxen, the few horses that were employed for what was considered to be a somewhat degrading

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			HEAVY HOESES 173

		task being known by the designation of stots or offers. A peculiarity in connection with the former of these titles is, that it is a term applied to oxen in certain parts of Scotland, and perhaps it points to the association of the old draught bullocks with horses used for farm-work. William the Conqueror was the first king of England who attempted to produce a horse specially adapted for agricultural purposes; and so far as can be ascertained, the first notice of a horse being so employed was published in the first year of this sovereign's reign. It consisted of the delineation of a horse attached to a barrow and attended by a man. The figures were woven in a piece of Bayeux tapestry, which has served as a landmark to proclaim and fix an approximate date for the introduction of horses into the operations of the husbandmen, and is therefore historically important. Henry II was the next monarch of England who appears to have made serious efforts to improve the race that was then known as " the Great Horse". In his reign sires were imported from abroad. John, whatever his other failings may have been, developed a genuine interest in horse-breeding, as evidence of which he imported one hundred large-sized stallions from Flanders and Holland for the purpose of crossing with the native mares. Edward II evidently possessed a hankering after both light and heavy horses, for he is credited with having imported thirty Lombardy war-horses and a dozen big draught stallions for breed- ing purposes; whilst Edward III, working on different lines, added his quota to the efforts of his predecessors by deciding to keep all the best animals in the country, which end he accomplished by prohibiting the exportation of any horses at all. Then there appears to have been a lull in the enthusiasm of the English kings in the matters of horse-breeding, until that monarch of decided views, Henry VIII, undertook to grapple seriously and practi- cally with the question of undersized animals, though Henry VII may be credited with having attempted something by reviving the expor- tation laws. Bluff King Hal, however, when he once determined to see into the matter, lost no time in setting to work with characteristic energy. Only mares and stallions above, a certain height were allowed to be bred from, and the wealthy prelates and nobles, whose wives in- dulged in such expensive luxuries as French hoods or velvet bonnets, were compelled to keep stallions of a stipulated size for the benefit of the community. Satisfied with the improvement that his earlier laws had effected in the race of English horses, King Henry, in 1535, caused another edict to be passed, which provided that all owners or farmers of parks and enclosed ground of the extent of 1 mile in compass should keep two mares apt and able to bear foals, of the altitude of 13 hands

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	174
	174	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

at least, under a penalty of forty shillings. A like penalty was also inflicted upon any owner or farmer who willingly permitted such mares to be served by a stallion under 14 hand's. Still later on, in the year 1541, it was enacted that no horse under 15 hands should be allowed to run in eertain forests and districts. This is specially interesting to the modern Shire horsebreeder, as the expression " Shire" is referred to in the Act� not, it is true, in connection with the animal, but with the districts in which stallions under 15 hands were to be permitted to run loose on moors and in forests. The districts were Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, Huntingdon, Buckingham, Berkshire, Oxford, Worcester, Herefordshire, Gloucester, Somerset, South Wales, Warwick, Northampton, Cheshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, Leicester, Lincolnshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Kent, South Hampshire, and North Wiltshire. Not only were these stringent provisions made for ensuring the services of desirable stallions, but legislation was directed also towards mares, filly foals, and even geldings, which did not appear likely either to grow or to be able to bear foals of reasonable stature, or not likely to be able to do " profitable labours by the discretion of the drivers". In such cases the driver or drivers were compelled by the Act to cause the unprofitable beasts to be killed, and their bodies to be buried in the ground or " otherwise bestowed as no annoyance thereby shall come or grow to the people there near inhabiting or thither resorting". Subsequently, the laws already in existence prohibiting the exportation of horses were extended to Scotland, so that any person discovered selling horses to a Scotsman, and the purchaser as well, rendered themselves guilty of the act of felony. That the vigorous policy of King Henry worked well there can be little doubt�a statement made by Sir Thomas Chaloner in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, assists to prove this�for there is every reason to suppose that his subjects, knowing the determined disposition of their monarch, and his peculiar methods of enforcing obedience to his will, acted up to the strict letter of the law in every particular. Finally, it may be added as a testimony to King Henry's sincerity in his desire to improve the heavy horse, that Balph Holinshed states that he " erected a noble studderie for breeding horses, especially the greatest sort, and for a time had verie good success with them". To King Henry VIII, therefore, the present Shire horse is indebted for a good deal of the size and power it possesses; but in spite of the improvements brought about by the active policy of that much-married monarch, the English animals, even at the conclusion of his reign, were not as a rule equal in stature to the horses of the Continent. This is borne testimony to by the writer last quoted, who, in alluding to the

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			CHAMPION SHIRE MARE, ROKEBY FUCHSIA

		By Lincolnshire Roy; dam, Lady Grey by Noble Devonshire. The Property of A. J. Hollington, Esq., Enfield Winner of Numerous Prizes

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			HEAVY HORSES 175

		position of the equine race in this country in the days of Queen Elizabeth, expresses himself as follows: " Our horsses moreover are high, and although not commonlie of such greatnesse as in other places of the maine, yet if you respect the esinesse of their pase it is hard to saie where their like are to be had. Our cart or plough horses (for we use them indif- ferently) are commonlie so strong that five or six of them (at most) will draw three thousand weight of the greatest tale with ease for a long journie, although it used to be not a load of common usage�which con- sisted onlie of two thousand, or fiftie foot of timber, fortie bushels of white salt, or six and thirtie of bail, or five quarters of wheat�experience dailie teacheth, and (as) I have elsewhere remembered. Such as are kept for burden will carie four hundred weight commonlie, without any hurt or hindrance." An ability to move about under such a weight must have been thought a sine qua non in the case of the charger of the period, for, as Sir Walter Gilbey has pointed out, the armour carried by horse and man about that period must have scaled quite that amount. As an instance, there is the armour which is credibly believed to have belonged to the Duke of Suffolk, one of the numerous brothers-in-law of King Henry VIII, now lying on view in the museum of the Tower of London, the weight of the various portions being as follows : man's armour, 99 lbs. 9 ozs.; horse's armour, 80 lbs. 15 ozs., which, added to the weight of the rider and his accoutrements, would have brought the figures up to very nearly if not quite the amount alluded to by Holinshed as being the ordinary burden for the charger of the Elizabethan era. Some extremely interesting allusions are contained in the book pub- lished by Thomas Blundeville of Newton Flotman, Norfolk, in 1566, as the author was evidently a practical judge of horses, and succeeded in collecting for his work a good deal of very useful information to lay before the readers of his Breeding of Horses and Art of Riding. As may naturally be expected, the " Great Horse " occupied a good deal of his at- tention, and he commences by referring to the fact that " some men have ^a breed of Great-Horses meete for the war and to serve on the field". This breed Blundeville describes as " though not finely, yet strongly made, he is of great stature ", and he offers some interesting descriptions of both the Flanders and the Almaine or German heavy horses, with which he evidently associates the English animals. Blundeville commences by referring to the similarity which in many points existed between the two breeds, and then proceeds to describe their points as follows:�"The Glanders horse in his shape and disposition differeth in a maner nothinge from the Almay ne horse, saving that for the most parte he is of a greater stature and more puissant. The mares also of Flanders be of a greate

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		176 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE stature, strong, longe, large syze and fruytefull, and besydes that wyil endure great labour as is wel sene, for that the fleminges do use none other draught, but with these mares in their wagons, in the whiche I have sene twoo or three mares to go lightly away such a burden as is almost incredible." In his description of the " German horse " Blundeville thus expresses his opinions : " The Almaine is commonly a great horse, though not finely yet very strongly made, they be very grosse and heavy, yet by industry can be made lighter behind than before. The disposition of this horse (his heavy moulde considered) is not evyll, for he is very tractable, and will labour indifferently well by the waye, but his pace for the moste part is a very harde trot." It is extremely probable that in paying his tribute of praise to the capacity of the Flemish mares Blundeville was labouring under the impression that the summit of equine perfection had very nearly been attained by these heavy animals; and there is no denying that, though their powers may appear almost con- temptible in the eyes of modern Shire horse-breeders, their performances were better than they at first appear to be, as the vehicles to which they were attached must have been of ponderous weight, whilst the condition of the so-called roads was indescribably bad during that period of the world's existence. Later on, in the reign of James I, it is recorded that when horses were required for military purposes beyond the seas, it was calculated that eight animals would have to be provided for each baggage wagon that carried a ton, and three for each ambulance conveyance that was to be supplied for carrying the wounded and invalids to places of safety. The estimated value of these horses was �9; but they were clearly regarded as being of inferior quality to the " strong or great" horses which were also alluded to. It was recommended that 200 of the latter should be purchased at the price of �15 apiece, which shows that the breeders of the bigger horses were making money out of their studs. In the year 1667, the first Duke of Newcastle published a second edition of his work, The Manner, and Feeding, Dressing, and Training of Horses for the Great Saddle, and Fitting them for the Field in time of War, which had appeared in 1658. His grace appears from his writings to have been inclined to take rather a pessimistic view of the position of the English horse of the period, for he states : " There were many good races [of horses] in England, but they are all now ruined, and the many new breeders of horses come up presently after the wars are, I doubt, none of the best; for I believe their stallions were not very pure, because the men that did govern in those days were not

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			WHAT'S WANTED (2332).

		What's Wanted was bred by Mr. J. Ashmore of Darlton, Nottinghamshire, in 1873. He was a bay horse 17 hands high, with two white hind- legs and a broad blaze down the face. At two years old he came into the hands of Mr. James Forshaw, Carlton-on-Trent, Newark, in whose stud he continued to the time of his death in 1882. He had for his sire Bold Lincoln, 231, and his dam Diamond was by Oxford, 1683. At three years old he had sired that good mare Sunshine (Shaw's), and each succeeding year his stock occupied a more conspicuous and prominent position in the prize-ring. Premier, 2646, his most distinguished son, not only took high honours at the best horse exhibitions in the country, but he proved himself one of the most successful sires of his day, following closely in the wake of his stable companion Harold. Besides Premier, What's Wanted sired a large number of noted horses, and established a strain, the blood of which is to be found in most of our best shire stock. Among his best sons may be mentioned Bold Lincoln, 2536; Northern King, 2635; Silent James, 2668; Eclipse, 2571; Old Times, 2861; Union Jack, 2684; Benefactor, 2394; Trade Mark, 2940; Blyth Echo, 2991; Duke of Lancaster, 2566; Candidate 2405; and Royal Stamp 3296. He had more good daughters than sons, and of the best were Princess Alice, Reciprocity, Brock, Shire Queen, Sun- shine, Flower Girl, Maggie (Foxwell's), Lassie, Lady Whitelock, Shire Maggie, &c. &c. He died when only nine years old, and at a time when still greater success might have been expected from his services at the stud.

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	Bold Lincoln, 231	Matchless Junior, ] 544	Matchless, 1509	Active, 29 1	Farmer's Profit, 873	Farmer's Profit (Howard's)			"j
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						6th Dam	England's Glory, 705	Honest Tom, 1060



					5th Dam	Abraham JJewland, 10	Abraham Nejvland, fi	K., 119]
							Abraham Nejvland, fi
							7th Darn	Farmer's Glory, 824
							7th Darn
							--------



				4th Dam	Stafford, 2049	Honest Tom, 1079	Honest Tom, 1073	Honest Tom, 1007
							Honest Tom, 1073
							..._.. 7th P&m .	Phenomenon, 1713
							..._.. 7th P&m .
						6th Dam	Thumper (Golden's)











			3rd Dam	Honest Tom, 1071	Honest Tom, 1066	Honest Tom, 1061	Honest Tom (Townsend's)







					5th Dam	England's Glory, 705	Honest Tom, 1060	Brown Horse (Milton * Colley's)
							Honest Tom, 1060
							7 th Dam	Odham's Horse of Thorney Fen
							7 th Dam




















	Bounce	Lincoln, 1328	Oxford, 1683	Farmer's Glory, 816	Drayman, 607	Honest Tom, 1060	Brown Horse (Milton & Colley's)
						Honest Tom, 1060












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			4th Dam	Loveden Lad (Hooton's)





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	Diamond	Oxford, 1683	Farmer's Glory, 816	Drayman, 607	Honest Tom, 1060	Brown Horse (Milton & Colley's)

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	2nd Dam			Magnum Bonum, 1440 ■	Magnum Bonum, 1439	Phenomenon, 1711	Kisher's Black Horse of Weston
						Phenomenon, 1711
						7th Dam I	John Bull (Bradley's)
						7th Dam I	/
					6th Dam 1 -	/	Stack Prince, 166 1
		King of the Country, 1226	King of the Country, 1225				Diamond \>y lilack Prince, 152 \
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			4th Dam	Thumper, 2113	Hero, 1032	Magnum Bonum (Marshall's)
						Magnum Bonum (Marshall's)
						7th Dam	John Bull, 1160
						7th Dam
					6th Dam	Thumper, 2112	John Bull (Bradley's)
						Thumper, 2112
						7th Dam	Bolingbroke (Bradley's)
						7th Dam
				5th Dam	Honest Tom, 1073	Honest Tom, 1067	England's Glory, 705
						Honest Tom, 1067


































						1
						1	...

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Marfieet's Horse

Pacey's Lame HorBe, 1702

Jolin Bull, 1160

John Bull, 1169

Honest Tom (Drury's)

4th Dam

Honest Tom, 1(160

Drayman, 607

Farmer's Glory, 816

Oxford, 1683

Matchless, 1006

Lion, 1308

Dumplin (Breakspear's)

7th Dam

5th Dam

3rd

Dam

England's Glory alias the
Poynton Horse

Luck's All, 1426

Farmer's Glory, 816

Oxford, 1683

4th Dam

The Berkshire Grey Horse
(Iven's)

John Bull, 1161

" .1'eaYcey's r.reyjHorse_

7th Dam

B. (Bakewell's)
7th Dam

K.. (Bakewell's)

Abraham Newland, 8

1-2

Abraham Newland, 10

K. (Jake's)

Farmer's Glory, 824

England's Glory, 705

7th Dam

5th Dam

Abraham Newland, 12

Primrose (Wilmott's)

4th Dam

■

SS
CM

Marfieet's Horse

Pacey's Lame Horse, 1702

John Bull, 1160

3rd Dam

Old G. (Hanbury's)

4th Dam

w
w

B. (Bakewell's)

K., 1191

K. (Bakewell's)

Abraham Newland, 8

Abraham Newland, 10

K. (Jake's)

Farmer's Glory, 824

Honest Tom, 1060

England's Glory, 705

itil Dam

Waxwork (Grey's)

Sni Dim.

Samson (Bingham's)

4th Dam

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			ROYAL ALBERT (1885).

		Royal Albert was a rich brown horse standing 17 hands 2 inches, with two white hind-legs and a blaze down the face. He was bred by Mr. C. Marsden of Hatfield, near Doncaster, in 1872, and as a foal was purchased by Mr. Walter Johnson of the same place. In 1883 he was sold to Mr. G. Nay lor of Newhaven, Derbyshire, who, after travelling him one season, disposed of him to Mr. Cecil Salt of Willington, Burton-on- Trent, where he continued in service until the early part of 1890, when he died. He was a big, powerful, and command- ing horse, with a lot of fine quality; somewhat narrow, perhaps, in front, but possessing a grand fore end, good feet and pas- terns, and the most perfect hind-limbs. His legs were full of beautiful silky hair, and big with flat bone. Royal Albert was by Messrs. Johnson's Young John Bull, out of a big black cart mare, whose sire was Royal Albert by Abraham Newland. He distinguished himself more at the stud than in the show ring, although as a two- and three-year- old he won several prizes, notably 1st at Thorne, 1st at Snaith, 1st and silver cup at Doncaster as the " best stallion for getting agricultural and dray horses ", and a prize of �5 at the great Yorkshire show. During the eleven years he was in Mr. Johnson's possession he served at a stud fee of �2, and finished up at Mr. Cecil Salt's, where in his later days he was well patronized at a fee of ten guineas. He left many good mares in Yorkshire, but, says Mr. Johnson, " He seems to have done better among the old-fashioned Derbyshire matrons ". It has been said that King Charming, 3166, and The Beau, 3357, were the first to bring him into prominence in 1884, but it was more particularly in the hands of Mr. Cecil Salt that he really distinguished himself as a sire. Here he got Albert Edward, 5467; Willington Roan Boy, 10,792; Fear None, 4394; Calthorpe Conqueror, 9106; Albert II, 5466; Majestic, 3208; and Dunsmore Al, 9221. Among the many good mares which have desended from him, and distinguished themselves in the show ring and at the stud, may be mentioned Lord Ellesmere's Princess Louisa, Mr. Hanson's Flower, Mr. M'Gibbon's Bonny Jean, Lord Wantage's Forest Queen, Mr. J. Brook's Champion, and many others.

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		177
	HEAVY HORSES	177
	HEAVY HORSES

so curious as the great lords and great gentry were heretofore, neither would they be at the cost". The noble author has, however, a word of praise for English horses, for he supplements his former observations by saying of them: "There are none like them in the world to breed on, but then you must choose them fit for such horses as you would breed "� a piece of advice which must have been obvious to most of his readers. In the course of his work, the Duke of Newcastle appears to be a little hard on Blundeville ujaon one or two occasions, and unnecessarily so, he being particularly unfortunate in his sneer at the drawing capacity of the heavy horses, as he had evidently not taken into consideration the weight of the vehicles and the badness of the roads which have been referred to above. He denies the existence of the similarity that the earlier writer notices between the Flemish, Almaine, and English animals, and in fact appears to have written with some degree of hostility towards Blundeville, for the justification of which no good reason is forthcoming. At a still more recent period it is related that the state coach of Queen Anne was drawn by a team of long-tailed mares of large proportions; and then there occurs another hiatus in the history of the heavy horse; though in the year 1796 an article in the Sporting Magazine refers to " a large and strong breed in the more fertile and luxuriant part of the island", and to the fact of there being no country that could produce their equal for strength and size, " as there are instances of single horses that are able to draw the weight of three tons". Sir Walter Gilbey notices a writer, the well-known Arthur Young, who, in describing a tour he made through England, alludes to there being only two varieties of Cart-horses as deserving attention�"the large, black, old English- born, the produce, principally, of the Shire counties in the heart of England, and the sorrel-coloured Suffolk Punch, for which the sandy tract of country near Woodleigh is famous ". Another rather important link in the chain that connects the present Shire horse with his remote ancestors is to be found in the contribution supplied by John Scott to the Sportsman's Repository in the year 1820. This writer commences his observations by a description which is as follows: "A capital Cart-horse should not be more than 15 hands in height, with a brisk sparkling eye, a light well - shaped head, and short prickled ears, full chest and shoulder, but somewhat forelow, that is to say, heavier in his rump than his forehand. He should have sufficient general length, but be by no means leggy, large and swelling fillets, and flat bones. He should stand wide all-fours, but widest behind, bend his knees well, and have a brisk action walk." From some of his expressions, notably those referring to being lower in front and the bending

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	178	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	178

of the knee, to say nothing of height, it appears probable that John Scott had the Suffolk mare more in his eye than the Shire at the time he wrote. This impression is confirmed by some of his subsequent remarks, as for instance his admission that one or two of his points were not in accord with opinions of " late years ", as many Cart-horses, he observes, " that realized the highest prices, stood 17 hands at the shoulder, and also showed the lofty forehand with the flat shoulder of the Coach-horse". John Scott refers to the " large blacks" of the Midland counties and the Suffolk as the chief breeds of heavy horse, and states that the great Cart-horses of the Midlands were principally bred in Derbyshire, War- wickshire, Nottinghamshire, Lincolnshire, and Leicestershire, and that this variety has been reared in the lowland pastures of these shires from Flemish and Dutch stock. He admits, however, that in " distant" times only Belgic stallions were imported, but later, through the " systematic activity " of Bakewell of Dishley, mares of the first size were also brought from Flanders, and a breed of Thoroughbred horses with foreign blood on both sides was formed. These, he further states, were so improved that Bakewell, " about thirty years since", sent a black Cart stallion up for the king to see, recommending him for a sire of saddle horses; but though the horse had a light head well set on, deep shoulders, flat bone, and the action of a pony, his majesty declined the offer thus made him ■�and no doubt acted wisely. Very probably the extract thus made as to the opinions of John Scott may be in accord with the views of many persons who have devoted their time to the investigation of the ancestry of the Shire horse; but whether his statements are reliable or not, so far as the importation of foreign mares is concerned, they may never- theless be interesting to many. It is of importance also to learn from Scott that the object of the breeders of the Bakewell era was to produce horses of 17 hands, and of proportionate bulk and weight, whilst the chief and most favoured colour was black. The larger-pro- portioned horses were, of course, for agricultural and heavy draught, whilst Scott adds that the inferior-sized ones were utilized for cavalry purposes and funerals. Having thus attempted to trace briefly the genealogy of this ancient breed, through the long period that has elapsed since the days when the earliest kings of this country first directed their attention to the improve- ment and development of the native horse, it now becomes necessary to consider the variety from the point of view in which it at present exists. Before doing so, however, it may be desirable to cast back one's memory to the vicissitudes through which the old War-horse has passed �assuming that he is accepted as the direct ancestor of the modern

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		179
	HEAVY HOESES	179
	HEAVY HOESES

Shire horse, and there appears ample ground for believing that he is. In support of this contention, there can be no doubt that the horses which descended from those employed for the purposes of war by the ancient Britons were crossed with heavier animals imported into England from beyond the seas, and it is scarcely likely that, when the horse-breeders of a nation were encouraged by their successive sovereigns to persevere, the strain they were at work upon would be permitted to die out. Besides, the persuasive powers of such monarchs as King Henry VIII could hardly fail to render his subjects complaisant instruments in his hands, and his predecessors upon the throne, moreover, do not appear to have belonged to the class of ruler that would allow their subjects to stultify their royal efforts to improve the equine race, without offering the most vigorous remonstrances applied in a highly practical form. Therefore it is reasonable to assume that until the days of King Henry VIII, at all events, the blood of the Old English War-horse had not been lost, but, on the contrary, had been improved by judicious crossing. Subsequently to that period the Great Horse had become fairly established, and the fertile pastures of the great inland shires were the localities in which the breed was chiefly fostered and produced. The troublesome times which preceded the restoration of the Stuarts may very probably indeed have affected the progress of the animal, as it is only reasonable to infer that Cavaliers and Roundheads alike were not over-particular as to what means they took to get possession of suitable remounts for their cavalry, and doubtless many an excellent stud was broken up in consequence. Probably, therefore, a temporary check to the advancement of the breed may have resulted, but it still survived; and in spite of the unfavourable criticisms passed by the Duke of Newcastle upon the breeders of that period, they could not have been so incompetent after all, for no allusions are subsequently made by later writers to the de- preciation in value or degeneracy of the Great Horse. On the contrary, though a lighter variety of animal was being bred as well, the big ones were at the same time being quietly improved. Although the horse-breeders of England during the past century do not appear to have been benefited by any ultra-enthusiastic chroniclers of their doings, at all events during the earlier portion of that period, there are substantial grounds for assuming that they were working on methodical lines, and, so far as time and opportunity would permit, were Manufacturing a breed of native horses. John Scott alludes to the fact m the quotation given from his writings on a former page, and confir- matory evidence is found in the statement that an imported Flemish stallion, which was travelling some of the shires about the year 1820,

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	180
	180	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

was the recipient of very little patronage from the farmers in those districts, this tending to show that the English-bred animals were in their opinion the superior. The increase in stature made by the Great Horse, and the intelligent desire to increase still further his proportions, likewise point to the fact that breeders, if quiet, had none the less been working for the improve- ment of the breed, whilst the high prices that were realized by the taller animals point conclusively to the upward tendency of the market, which, after all, is the chief barometer by which the popularity and position of a variety can be discovered. It may, therefore, be accepted as a fact that there was a supply of 17-hands horses available in the earlier quarter of the nineteenth century for those who cared to pay for them; and this being so, the evolution of the old War-horse from an undersized, though willing creature, to an equine giant of huge strength and magnificent proportions became an accomplished fact. During more recent years, the lines of breeders of the Heavy Horse� it would be premature to refer to the animals just yet as Shires�were cast in pleasanter places. There was, in the first place, a ready-made animal for them to exercise their ingenuity upon, the principles of horse- raising and the management of stock had become far better understood, and the facilities for arranging crosses of blood had been infinitely increased. In suggesting that the Heavy Horse men of the nineteenth century have laboured under fewer obstacles than those which confronted their predecessors, there is, however, no desire on the part of the writer to minimize the value of their work. On the contrary, had it not been for their perseverance and intelligence, combined by a liberal expenditure of time and money, the position of the breed would be nothing like what it is. The perfection of any animal�and the Shire horse, as he now exists, is on the threshold of perfection�is always a very difficult task. Still, it is very reasonable to presume that, within the space of a few years more, the number of misfits will be much reduced, and the imperfections which now detract from the value of many a grand specimen of the race will be much less frequently met with. The present position of the Shire horse may therefore be taken to be that of an animal that can always command a ready sale, both at home and abroad. He possesses a whole army of influential supporters, and is generally accepted as a most profitable animal to breed, and a very useful one to possess by those who require the services of powerful horses. On the other hand, it would be idle to deny the fact that the Shire horse, like many another good animal, has his detractors, who prefer some other breed. His enormous proportions, for instance, are

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^viSV^%^^a^nKl^¹^^J^miaKf:y-,'yS^^WfF^^-r' ?7"� ■_______■___________ ' i, . ..r.&i*

	HACKNEY STALLION, POLONIUS 4931 Chestnut Horse by Wildfire 1224; dam 1301 Ophelia by Denmark 177 or Danegelt 174. Winner of numerous prizes and sire of many winners The Property of R. Whitworth, Esq.

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	HEAVY HORSES
	HEAVY HORSES	181
		181

objected to by some, who express the opinion that he is unnecessarily big, oblivious of the fact that it is by virtue of the weight he can throw into his collar that he is enabled to walk away jauntily with such a load behind him as would have appeared incredible to his admirers of a century ago. It is possible that in employing Shire horses for agricultural purposes in some districts their owners are not making the most of their strength, and that a lighter animal would do the work equally well, and in a shorter time; but the whole aim and ambition of breeders of this variety of stock has been to produce the most powerful horses procurable for the purposes of heavy work, relying on the misfits, or such as do not come up to this standard, for purposes of lighter draught. As regards the food question, it naturally occurs that a large frame requires a great deal of keeping up, and if size and weight be required, they can only be maintained by the supply of a liberal amount of nourishment. The firms that employ Shires would scarcely continue to do so did they not find them remunerative slaves; and considering that these animals possess no equal in size or power, and that there is no other breed that can fulfil their duties equally well, it appears that the contentions of their opponents savour somewhat of the hypercritical. There remains, however, one further point upon which the detractors °f the Shire horse are united, and that is, the amount of silky hair or " feather" which adorns his legs. This, it is contended by some, is absolutely prejudicial to the welfare of the horse; they assert that it is productive of grease and other kindred ills; that a profusion of feather presupposes a coarse skin; and, above all, that any animal that is the possessor of much hair is totally unadapted for agricultural work, as its legs would soon become clogged with soil if it were put to work on wet ^and heavy ground. As may be readily supposed, the above objections to the Shire horse, as promulgated by his opponents, are vigorously combated by those who are included in the circle of his admirers; whilst, placing aside the two first charges laid against feather, as being more suited for consideration by the veterinary portion of this work, it may suggested that as the labours of the very heavy feathered Shires are more usually restricted to town than country work, the possibility of its being clogged does not apply with any particular force. Nor can it be supposed that the breeders of Shire horses are influenced in their desire ⁰ produce plenty of hair upon the legs by merely sentimental feelings, ^0r this is not the case. They assert that without feather there is likely ⁰ be a deficiency of bone, both as regards quantity and quality, each of nieh is essential in the composition of an animal possessing such an ^enormous frame. It is only fair, therefore, to allow the breeders who

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			182 VARIETIES OF THE HOESE

		have studied the matter and thought it well out to decide what is correct and what is not, in connection with the attributes of the breed, as it is certain that the practical men in whose hands the variety now is, would be the last to introduce any fancy points into the composition of an animal in the excellence and utility of which they take so much pride, and whose development is a source of both profit and pleasure to themselves. From the ancestry and uses of the Shire horses w^Te pass on to notice the general appearance and the salient features of the breed. Here we have based our description upon the ideas of the late Mr. Sexton, which are published in the official Stud-book of the Shire Horse Society. It may, however, be premised that while differences may be found in the appearance of the horses that come from different districts, it is noticeable that during the past few years a greater uniformity of character has been brought about through the efforts of the Shire Horse Society, and the loyal support it has received from breeders and exhibitors in all parts of the country. This is to be accounted for by the facilities for interbreeding which the development of railways has provided, and also by the strict adherence to the standard that has been set up by members of the society and outside breeders alike, whilst the general disposition that exists to support the same type, is in itself a resolution that has most favourably influenced the progress of the breed during the past few years. As to the matter of conformation, it need hardly be said that in the general make-up of the Shire horse the head is a very important feature, and particularly in the case of the stallion. Here it should be of decidedly masculine appearance, with nothing of the gelding or "quality horse''" about it. It should be long, not too lean, but massive, with a broad forehead, long thin ears pointing rather forwards, and bright and fairly prominent eyes. The forehead should neither be too prominent nor too flat. The nostrils should be capacious, and the jaw deep and strong, with a liberal distribution of strong hairs over the skin. It can scarcely be contended that the head-piece of a Shire horse is exactly pretty, but when well set out and in harmony with the rest of the body it gives finish and character to the whole. The neck is of fair length only, but not too long, rather substantially developed, nicely arched, and well proportioned; whilst the shoulders, which are a most important point in connection with the development of any variety of draught horse, should slope a little from the withers downward and forward, but not too much so. If they are too straight the movements are clumsy, and the activity of the horse becomes impaired; whilst on the other hand, if they slant like

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		183
	HEAVY HORSES	183
	HEAVY HORSES

those of a Hack, they do not so well adapt themselves to the purposes of draught, since they fail to fit the collar as is desired. The girth of the Shire horse is, of course, enormous, but not unnecessarily so when it is remembered that a plentiful supply of heart and lung room is desirable in the case of most animals, and in none more so than in those which are called upon to exercise their highest powers of draught and to undergo long and continuous exertion. The ribs consequently should be well sprung, and the loins wide and powerful, the back being short and level, whilst the quarters must be long, of great strength, and as muscular as possible. The tail should be well set up; when low down it gives the quarters a drooping character, and spoils the top-line. The fore-legs, which are a most important item in any draught-horse, should be short, straight, and well set apart. The arms should be wide and muscular, and join on to big bold knees; while the legs below should be flat and clean, and the outline of the sinews clearly marked, the latter point being a very essential one to secure. Strength of pasterns is a most desirable quality, but these parts are most objectionable when unduly long or unduly short. There is another point to be considered in connection with the fore-legs, and that is in regard to their position when compared with the body of the horse. They should be nicely set under him, squarely and truly, so as to receive and support the full weight of his frame as evenly as possible, since if out of the plumb-line the strength of the fore-legs will be materially diminished. Scarcely of less importance are the hind-legs, as upon the formation of these limbs depends much of the ability to start away with and keep in motion a heavy load, whilst in backing they are indispensable. They should be rather inclined to be straight, a decided bend being a bad fault in a draught-horse. The hocks require to be broad in front and deep behind, and, of course, perfectly clean and free from any symptoms of weakness or disease. Below the hock the canons should be heavy in bone, showing a girth of at least 1 inch more than the corresponding part below the knee. The joints should be large, and free from structural defect, else the value and utility of the horse will be diminished. Both the fore- and hind-legs should be plentifully supplied with long silky hair, ex- tending a considerable way upwards from the ground in the direction of the knees and hocks, and finer in quality in mares than horses. If this is coarse in quality or curly it is a fault. Full allusion has already been made to the question of the " feather", and it only remains to say that without it in profusion neither sires nor dams are qualified for prizes °r patronage. Next comes the all-important question of feet, than which none is deserving of greater consideration on the part of breeders and

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		VARIETIES OF THE HOESE
	184


judges; for however grandly topped a horse may be, he is of no use to anybody if he has not legs and feet to carry him. In this connection it is essential to see that the fore-feet are of the same size, for often they are not, and this, of course, will detract considerably from the value of the animal. They should be wide and open at the heels, and of a good size, and the horn should be dense, tough, and dark in colour. The hind-feet should stand square with those in front, turning neither out nor in, and be hard and durable. The height of a Shire horse should be a good 17 hands when he is full-grown, whilst in the case of mares less height is permissible, but 15'3 hands at shoulder is quite small enough. There is a considerable latitude permitted to judges in their selection of a Shire horse so far as the question of colour is concerned, but it is notice- able that during late years there has been a perceptible increase in the number of chestnuts, whilst the old-fashioned blacks have proportionately decreased. Still, if breeders were to be polled, it would probably be found that blacks, bays, and browns were the most popular shades, grays, which at one time were highly prized, being not so much liked as formerly, though why it is hard to conceive. In addition to the chestnuts, a few roans keep on appearing, in spite of there being a certain amount of prejudice against them in some quarters. The action of the Shire horse is not by any means an attribute of the breed that can be overlooked, for, as may be readily imagined, a draught - horse that is unable to get away briskly with a load behind him is at a great disadvantage, both from the point of view of the breeder and of the employer of horse labour. The walk should there- fore be a fast and even one, plenty of liberty being associated with the movements of the shoulders, whilst the hocks should be used in such a fashion as to bring the hind-feet well under the belly of the horse. Nor should the trot, although of a lesser importance, be overlooked, for an animal that can discharge his load and then get back again quickly to pick up another one is naturally of far greater value than the horse which lacks freedom and force of action. Of recent years, a very decided improvement has been noticeable in the trotting gait of the Shire horse, and his value, commercially speaking, has increased in proportion to the greater nimbleness he displays at this faster pace. It is impossible to write of the Shire horse without reference to the Shire Horse Society, which in recent years has done so much to improve him. The noblemen and gentlemen who formed this body have succeeded, it may be conscientiously suggested, beyond their most sanguine expecta- tions in effecting an improvement in the breed to whose interests they

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			LINCOLNSHIRE LAD II (1365).

		Lincolnshire Lad II was a grey horse 17 hands high, and was bred by Mr. Fred Ford, Locko Park, Derbyshire, in 1872. He was by Lincolnshire Lad, 1196, out of Madam by Match- less, 1506. Early in his career he was owned by William Harriman, Wilsthorpe, Derbyshire, and William Clark, Locko, Derbyshire, and afterwards by Mr. Kyte of Derby, of whom Captain Heaton purchased him in 1881. He served at Worsley and Chatteris, in Cambridgeshire, up to 1885, when he passed into the hands of Mr. Walter Johnson of Hatfield, who tra- velled him in the Doncaster district one season at a service fee of two pounds, but being poorly patronized he was subse- quently let to a society in Montgomeryshire for four years, where he left some wonderful stock. On his return to Hatfield he stood at a fee of five guineas until sold to Mr. Fred Crisp about Christmas 1893. At the Southgate stud he had two full seasons at an advanced fee of ten guineas, and died on June 23rd, 1895, at the age of 23 years. Most of the best shire stock now in the country have descended from this grand old horse. Champion Harold, his best son, got more valuable shires than any sire of the breed, and his sons and daughters continue to keep up his name and fame by transmitting his excellent qualities to their offspring. Lincolnshire Lad II was also the sire of Paxton; Buckton Harold, 11,059; Eastoft Lad; Famous Lad; Majestic; Handcuff, 4457; Lincolnshire Boy, 3188; Carbon, 3523; Lancashire Lad II, 6031; Dunsmore Barrier, 13,011; Potentate, 12,086; The Boy; and other famous sires and dams, from whom have descended many of the best horses in the country.

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LINCOLNSHIRE LAD II, 1365

Madam

Lincolnshire Lad, 1196

2nd Dam

Matchless, 1506

2nd Dam

Lincoln (Lister's)

William the Conqueror
(Styche's)

Oxford, 1683

3rd Dam

a .

Lion, 1368

Fanner's Glory, 816

4th Dam

: ^: 1

Drayman, 607

Competitor, 514

5th Dam

Drayman (Howsin's)

■

Dumpling (Breakspear's)

Honest Tom, 1060

6th Dam

Honest Tom, 1071

6th Dam

K. (Stephenson's)

Brown Horse
(Milton & Colley's)

Magnum Bonum, 1439

7th Dam

Honest Tom, 1066

(Boor & Bonner's)

Farmer's Glory

___

Phenomenon. 1711

England's Glory, 70S

Honest Tom. 1061

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�
o

l-H

o
cm
w

Z
O

K
&

■John Bull (Fisher's Black Horse")

Honest Tom, 1062

Derbyshire, 577

Stych's Brown Horse

7th Dam

Black Legs, 142

Mansetter (Oldacre's)

Blaze, 183

6th Dam

Leicestershire, 1321

Brown George (Arnold's)

►J
-1

5th Dam

Conqueror (Edge's)

6th Dam

William the Conqueror, 2339

Waggoner (Campion's)

4th Dam

John Bull (Fisher's Black
Horse)

7th Dam

Honest Tom, 1062

Robin Hood (Cox's)

David, 565

Heart of Oak, 997

3rd Dam

Sancho, 1993

Bang-Up, 94

News' Brown Horse

Dumpling, 679

6th Dam

Bang-Up, 95

England's Glory, 705

True Briton, 2179

True Briton, 2180

5th Dam

Brown George, 309

Honest Tom, 1002

Derbyshire, 577

Black Legs, 142

Blaze, 1.83

7th Dam

Black Legs, 144

Nelson (Wagstaff's)

6th Dam

4th Dam

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			WILLIAM THE CONQUEROB (2343)

		A brown horse, bred by Mr. Barrs of Repton Park, Not- tinghamshire. He was foaled in 1862, and was by Leicester- shire (Domber's) out of a mare also bred by Mr. Barrs, but whose pedigree is not known. He remained in the possession of his breeder until about 1875, when he passed into the hands of Mr. Kyte of Smalley, Derbyshire, who travelled him for a season or two and then sold him to Lord Ellesmere. He was subsequently repur- chased by Mr. Kyte, in whose hands he died in 1883 at the age of twenty years. Special attention was first directed to him as a sire by the success of two of his sons (geldings) in the show ring, but it was not until he became advanced in years that his merit as a stock horse became generally recognized. He was not a big horse, but had some wonderful legs and feet, and when mated with sizy Derbyshire mares he produced some excellent stock. At the London Show in 1883 his son Esquire, sire of Shrewsbury, Knight of the Shire, and other good horses, took first prize as a yearling. In 1884 that good horse Prince William, 3956, another of his get, occupied a similar position in the one-year-old division, and Esquire again took first in his class. Prince William was afterwards sold to Mr. John Eowell for 240 guineas. As a three-year- old he continued his success at London and elsewhere, and was purchased by Lord Wantage for 1500 guineas. Since that time he has proved as successful at the stud as he was in the show ring. William the Conqueror was also the sire of Staunton Hero, 2918; Endymion, 3073; Blyth William, 4260; Eoyal William, 4661; Carlton William; Hengest, 4452; Hitchin Conqueror, 4458; and many others who have distinguished themselves both at the stud and in the ring.

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			HEAVY HORSES 185

		have pledged themselves. As a result of their exertions, the annual show in the early spring of each year has come to be regarded as one of the most popular exhibitions of its kind that is held in London, and it is, more- over, the means of attracting the attention of many persons to the merits of the Shire who would otherwise have been ignorant of, or indifferent to, the value of this class of horse. As a proof of the higher estimation in which Shire horses are held compared with that of only a few years ago, and the increased value now set upon them, a little information concerning the prices paid for some of the most representative animals of their respective generations may be referred to. Amongst them are the following:�Sweet William, a noted horse, was sold in 1778 for 350 guineas, whilst a few years later a horse called Marston changed hands at 500 guineas. These figures may be regarded as exceptionally high ones for the times, but they offer a striking contrast to those of a more recent period. In 1882 Sir Walter Gilbey paid 800 guineas for Spark, with which horse he won the Challenge Cup at the Society's show in 1883; whilst three years later Lord Wantage was content to give Mr. John Eowell 1500 guineas for his champion colt Prince William, when only two years old. These long figures were, however, far exceeded when the Earl of Ellesmere paid 2000 guineas for the black Vulcan, which had never been seen in a show-ring at the time, though the judgment displayed in selecting the horse was fully vindicated by his taking the championship at the Shire Horse Society's show in the years 1889 and 1891. Even then, however, the highest price to be paid for a Shire stallion was not reached, as a year later Mr. Joseph Wainwright purchased of Mr. John Eowell the black colt Bury Victor Chief, which had achieved supreme honours at the above national show in 1892, for the hitherto record price of 2500 guineas, after the youngster had added to his London triumph by securing the leading honours at the Doncaster show of the Boyal Agricultural Society of England; and everyone was pleased when Bury Victor Chief repaid his new owner for his enterprise by securing for him the Challenge Cup of the Society in 1894. Such figures as the above cannot fail to impress upon readers the enhanced value of the Shire horse of the present day, and the important position he now occupies m the equine world. That his popularity is likely to be still further increased is absolutely certain, and the success which the Shire Horse Society has achieved should stimulate the supporters of other breeds to unite together and work amicably for the furtherance of the common object which they have in view�namely, the development of the horse upon which they have centred their interest, and in which their capital ^xs invested.

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			186 VARIETIES OF THE HOESE

		Clydesdales.�The resemblance which exists between the Clydesdale and the Shire horse may possibly be regarded by persons who are not intimately acquainted with the points of heavy horses as being very close; though, as may be seen by a comparison of the descriptions which appear in this volume of the two varieties, the opinion would be a most incorrect one in several respects, and notably in weight and the position of shoulders as well as in the length and spring of the pasterns. Regarding the origin of the Clydesdale, there is not the same explicit information forthcoming as there is to be obtained with reference to the ancestrv of the English horse, and even the most enthusiastic supporters of the former variety are divided in opinion concerning the source from which it was originally obtained. According to the authority of the Clydesdale Stud-hook, the more popular but least satisfactory explanation is, that the breed comes of a cross between some Flemish stallions that were imported into Scotland over two hundred years ago by an ancestor of the then Duke of Hamilton, and the mares that were in the country at that period of its history. The alternative, and more reasonable, theory of the origin of the Clydesdale is, that the breed owes its existence to the perseverance and capacity of the farmers who then resided in the valley of the Clyde; this hypothesis being strengthened by the impossibility of discovering any reliable data in support of the story of the Duke of Hamilton's ancestor having imported any Flemish stallions into the district during the seventeenth century. In fact, William Aiton, a well-known writer on Scottish agricultural subjects, ajapears to have made full enquiry into the truth of the story, with the result that he could find no one at all who had ever heard of the existence of the Flemish sires, and all they knew of them was gathered from their reading. Suffice it, therefore, to recognize the fact that the Clydesdale horse has existed, and been highly valued by the inhabitants of his native district as a distinct breed, for many generations. No doubt, however, the original horse of Scotland, wherever it may have sprung from, was like the ancient War-horse of England, a very much smaller animal than its modern descendant. At the same time, there is evidence forthcoming that so-called "large horses" were recognized in Scotland as far back as the year 1352, this information being supplied by the " safe-conduct " from Edward, King of England, to William Douglas, Knight, of Scotland, to enter the district of Teviotdale, then in the possession of England, with " ten grooms and ten large horses". This "conduct" is still in existence, and unquestionably may be accepted as evidence that even at that remote period of the world's history there were fair-sized horses of some sort or other to be found in parts of Scotland. Unfortunately, however, as Mr. Thomas Dykes observes, no information is forthcoming as to the precise localities from which these

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	HEAVY HORSES
	HEAVY HORSES	187

" large horses " were brought, though it may not be unreasonable to infer from contemporary events that they came into Teviotdale from Lanarkshire. One other point in connection with these particular horses which is worthy of consideration is the fact that the adoption of the word "magnos" in the aforesaid "conduct", which was in Latin, is an unusual addition, as no qualification of the word "equos" was added to the customary conducts that were issued, this showing that the animals which found their way to Teviotdale were unusually big. It is, of course, quite possible that, as their stature seems to have been exceptionally great, they may have contained the blood of foreign horses in their veins. Still, it does not appear that the horse-breeders of Scotland, such as they then were, displayed anything like the amount of interest shown by the English in the improvement of their stock, though in the reign of King David II, who ascended the throne in 1329, many foreign horses were imported into the country with the object of increasing the size of the native animals. After the reign of David II, there seems to have been no serious attempt made to increase the value of Scottish horses until James IV ascended the throne in 1488, but he soon began to do what he could to benefit horseflesh in Caledonia by importing sires from Spain and Poland, though these belonged rather to the light class of animal. King James V, however, seems to have recognized the desirability of increasing the size and power of the native horse, and issued a law that large-sized stallions and mares were to be kept by the upper classes, just as in England persons of quality were expected to maintain the position they aspired to by their patronage of the equine race,, on lines defined by law. What the breeding or stature of these large-sized stallions was, it is impossible to ascertain; but it is quite reasonable to infer that they possessed a great deal of Flanders blood, even if they were not clean-bred specimens- of that variety, as large numbers of the blacks in question were constantly crossing the Channel at that time in order to improve the race of English horses, which, whatever their other great qualities may have been, were notoriously deficient in size. Most probably the Galloway of that period was the breed upon which the breeders who were attempting to effect an increase of size in the draught-horse of Scotland first set to work, and of these Galloways it was stated that they were fit for saddle, load, or draught,, their strength and size having no doubt been increased by good breeding, and care in the selection of stallions, as the animals from which they sprang were certainly nothing remarkable in size, but rather the reverse. A very possible reason for the horse-breeders of Scotland not having exerted them- selves to produce extra heavy horses, is to be discovered in the fact that most of the ploughing was done by oxen, whilst the unsettled condition

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		VAKIETIES OF THE HORSE
	188	VAKIETIES OF THE HORSE
	188

of the country and the poverty that prevailed no doubt contributed to the curtailment of any sort of enterprise in breeding. At the same time, there are ample grounds for the opinion that some attempts, and satisfac- tory attempts too, had been made to improve the race of Scottish horses, it being more than probable that both Cleveland Bay and Flemish crosses were utilized for the purpose. Great credit is due to the " Society of Improvers" of Edinburgh, who, so far back as the year 1759, offered a prize of fifteen guineas for the best draught stallion, this being won by the bay entire horse Red Robin, the property of William Whyte, a tenant farmer of Polmont. Writing so far back as the year 1782, the Rev. David Ure, the minister of Rutherglen, in his history of the parish in question, states that the horses of Clydesdale had become famous long before that date. He adds of the once famous Rutherglen Fair that " the market day is not now frequented, but six fairs are held annually in the town and are famous for the best horses in Europe". This little compliment to the value of the animals changing hands at Rutherglen may probably have been an exaggeration, but Mr. lire's eulogies may be accepted as valuable, for they prove two facts conclusively�first, that the Clydesdale horse was recognized as a distinct variety and had been for some time; and secondly, that the breed sold well in far-off 1782, else there would have been no support forthcoming for the six annual fairs. The worthy minister also adds that� " A high degree of credit is due to the farmers for their unremitting endeavours to improve this excellent breed. They pay strict attention to every circumstance respecting the colour, the softness and hardness of the hair, the length of the body, breast, and shoulders of their breeders, sire and �dam. No inducement whatever can lead them to encourage the breed of a horse that is not possessed of the best qualities. . . . Every farm almost throughout the extent of several parishes supports six or at least four mares, the half of which are allowed annually to foal. The colts are mostly sold at the Fairs of Lanark and Carnwath, and bring to the owners from five to twenty pounds each. These are generally purchased by farmers from the �counties of Renfrew and Ayr, where they are trained for the draught until about five years old. They are then sold at the Fairs of Rutherglen from twenty-five to forty pounds each, from whence they are taken to the Lothians, England, &c, where they excel in the plough, the cart, and the waggon." The position of the Clydesdale may therefore be regarded as having been �clearly recognized so far back as 1782; but writing eighteen years later in the British Farmer's Magazine, William Aiton, referred to above, takes

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			HEAVY HORSES 189

		exception to the title of Clydesdale being conferred upon the breed, which he refers to as the Lanarkshire, though he admits that " they are natives of every county of Scotland south of the Tay, and therefore ought rather to be denominated the Scottish breed of horse". Aiton, it may be added, appears quite to have shared the Eeverend David Ure's enthusiasm for the variety, as he described it as " the most valuable breed of draught-horse in Britain, not only for farming business, but for every description of work where strength, agility, and docility of temper are required". Aiton also con- firms Mr. Ure's description of the breeding of these horses by farmers in a small way, whilst he expresses the opinion that much of the improvement that had been effected was due to the better feeding and treatment received by the animals. As there appears to be a certain amount of doubt concerning the exact tap - root from which the modern Clydesdale originally sprang, a description of some famous mares, all of which died out at about the commencement of last century, may be read with interest. Some eighty years previously, that is about the year 1715, it is stated in the Stud-book of the Clydesdale Society, one John Paterson of Lochlyoch, in the parish of Carmichael, went to England and purchased a Flemish stallion, which he brought home and crossed with the North Ward mares, the result being that the produce became known for their excellence all over Scotland. The Lochlyoch mares, it is added, were generally browns and blacks, with white faces and a little white on their legs. They had gray hairs in their tails, occasional gray hairs over their bodies, and invariably a white spot on their belly, this latter being recognized as a mark of distinct purity of blood. It was no doubt principally due to the influence of the black Flemish stallion of 1715 that so many of the Lochlyoch mares were so dark in colour, as it must be remembered, as stated above, that it was a bay stallion that won the first prize offered by the "Society of Improvers" at Edinburgh, in 1759; bay, therefore, must have been accepted as a correct colour of the breed upwards of a century ago. Before that period the history of the Clydesdale, as may be gathered from what has been said, is obscure. In fact, there are reasons that have been pointed out by writers upon the breed, for accepting with the greatest caution the information that has been forthcoming from authorities °f a later period. This information was doubtless given honestly and m the best of faith, but it is at the same time quite within the limits of Possibility that inaccuracies may have crept into the narratives that have °6en told. As a case in point, allusion may be made to the case of the ^amous stallion dancer, 335 in the Stud-book* of the Clydesdale Society,

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			190 VARIETIES OF THE HOESE

		which horse is there stated to have been foaled about the year 1810. The correctness of this, however, has been impugned, as a writer in Heavy Horses, an authoritative work on these breeds, which is edited by Mr. James Sinclair, who occupies a similar position on the Live Stock Journal, draws attention to the fact that if Glancer was foaled in 1810, he must have sired one of his most successful foals�Paton's Horse, which took second prize at the Highland and Agricultural Society's show in 1842� when he was five-and-twenty years of age. This, of course, was not an impossible feat to accomplish, though it is an improbable one. Be the date of his birth, however, what it may, there is no doubt whatsoever that Glancer, who was also known by the designation of Thompson's Black Horse, is the corner-stone of many a modern Clydesdale strain. Whether the contention put forth by many breeders � namely, that Glancer was a direct descendant of the Lochlyoch mares referred to above�is a correct one or not, it is impossible to ascertain; but it is generally believed that the clam of the famous black, known as the Lampits mare, inherited the blood in question. It was of course impossible that a breed like the Clydesdale, the merits and value of which became generally recognized almost as soon as the horse was known, would long remain without supporters in other districts than that from which he derives his name. The middle of the nineteenth century, therefore, saw the Clydesdale being bred in other parts of Scotland, so that in course of time the Galloway Clydesdales became recognized as a leading branch of the old tree. These animals were possibly the result of crossing the Clydesdale stallions with the old Galloway mares of the heavier type, which are referred to by the Bev. S. Smith, who wrote in 1810, as being "inferior in size to the dray- horses of many other districts, though they are capable of performing as much labour and enduring still more fatigue, whilst they are more easily kept and less liable to disease". The reverend author describes these animals as being " round in the body, short in the back, broad and deep in the chest, level along the back to the shoulders, not long in the legs nor very fine in the head and neck: their whole appearance indicating vigour and durability, and their eye commonly a sufficient degree of spirit". There is also information, dating from about the middle of the century, which refers to Ayrshire Clydesdales, and Kintyre, Aberdeen- shire, and Cumberland strains, all three of which could trace back to the Lanarkshire root, and cast no discredit on the good horses whose blood they inherited. At the same time, there are strong grounds for believing that, many years ago, there were Shire stallions standing in Aberdeenshire, and con-

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			PLATE XIX.

	PACK-HORSE TRIUMPH II By Cottager; dam by Sportsman

		Photo, by Reid, Wishaw

DARTMOOR PONY STALLION, GOLDFINDER Winner at Brent Show, S. Devon. The Property of Vero Shaw, Esq.

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			HEAVY HORSES 191

		sequently it is very possible that this blood was resorted to by breeders of an experimental turn of mind with the object of improving their studs. Whether the introduction of a Shire horse is a judicious act on the part °f a Clydesdale owner is, of course, a question that each breeder must answer for himself; but it may be stated that the late Mr. Lawrence Drew, up to the date of his decease, in 1884, entertained the strongest opinion upon this subject. This gentleman contended that the Clydesdale and the Shire horse were practically one flesh, and that the most superior draught- horses were to be obtained by crossing the two breeds. Such a doctrine was very naturally regarded as the rankest heresy by the majority of both Shire and Clydesdale breeders, but Mr. Drew was loyal to his convictions to the last. The most famous animal ever owned by him was the dark- brown Prince of Wales, 673, which was foaled in 1866, and lived until �he was twenty-two years old. This horse, so far as his grandsires were concerned, was of unexceptional Clydesdale blood, but the gravest doubts were entertained by some people respecting the breeding of his grandams. �Both of these mares, singularly enough, were grays, and it was the opinion of Mr. Nicol Fleming, who bred Prince of Wales, and of Mr. Lawrence Drew, who owned him during most of his career, that both of them were Shire-bred mares. The horse is described as being rather sour in head, and too straight at the hocks, but a marvellous mover in all his paces; and no doubt he got some fine stock, whatever his breeding ufight have been. Having thus attempted to trace the history of the Clydesdale through the varying stages of his career, it now becomes necessary to describe the leading characters of the breed. The head is broad across the forehead, gradually tapering towards the ears, which are rather inclined to be long; and large; the forehead is wide between the eyes, which should be full and lively, though free from that hard, harsh look which disfigures the expressions of many horses. The jaws are broad and not infrequently rather coarse about the muzzle, whilst the uostrils are large and open. A narrow head is not to be encouraged, as this is usually associated with an absence of intelligence, whilst small sunken eyes are generally accompanied by a bad temper. The head should °e correctly set on the neck, which it should meet at not too acute an ^angle, the neck itself being lengthy and deep and nicely arched, very uiassive and powerfully placed at the shoulders. The shoulders themselves partake far more of the riding character than those of any other draught-horse, as they should be sloping and father long by comparison with those of the Suffolk or the Shire horse; uilst the chest should be broad and deep, and the fore-legs, a most

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			192 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		important point of the breed, should of course be short to the ground from the shoulder. They ought to be very powerful about the arms, showing great muscle here; with flat, broad knees near to the ground, and with as much bone as possible below them. Below the knee, moreover, the bone should be flat and of a good hard quality; whilst the back of the legs from the knees downwards should be well feathered with soft silky hair, coarse or curly feather being objected to by authorities on the breed. The pasterns are another point in the anatomy of the Scottish horse in which it differs very greatly from the Shire, as in the Clydesdale they should be rather long and sloping, in order to give springiness to the action, which is so much desired. The feet must be of a good size, correct in shape, strong, and absolutely sound. A malformed or diseased foot, and indeed a small or shelly one, would be perfectly in- capable of carrying on a week's hard work upon the stone-paved streets of Glasgow or any other large town in which Clydesdale horses are utilized for heavy draught purposes. The feet, therefore, should be round, wide at the corners, the crust thick, and the heels well developed. The middle-piece of a Clydesdale should be big and well sprung at the ribs, a flat-sided specimen of the breed being objected to by most judges. The back is frequently a little longer than it should be to be quite in accordance with what is desired. A slight drop in the back is perceptible in some of the very best horses of the breed, and so is not to be regarded as a disqualification or even as a very serious fault, though it is unquestionably unsightly, and should not be encouraged. The quarters are wide, lengthy, powerful, and well let down. The hocks are connected with the stifles by thighs well clothed with muscle, and are themselves broad, well developed, clean, of course, and set at a nice angle. Below the hocks, the bone should be plentiful and fiat, the hocks being near the ground, and the legs perhaps carried a little forward. The feather is abundant and extends upwards to the hocks. The pasterns gently slope and the feet are sound, well shaped, and of ample size. The chief colours to be found amongst Clydesdales are brown, black, and bay. Gray is admissible but is not usually encouraged, whereas both chestnuts and roans are not recognized. Most Clydesdales are more or less heavily marked with white, as were the old Lochlyoch mares, the excellence of which has been referred to above. The usual and preferable height for a stallion is about 16 "3 hands, or an inch over, the mares, of course, standing lower at the shoulder. The action of a Clydesdale chiefly consists of a light, springy, even walk,

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			HEAVY HORSES 193

		his step being firm and brisk, and his feet being lifted well off the ground. A Clydesdale's carriage has also a great deal to do with his success under a good judge. A gay bearing of the head is much admired, whilst in walking or standing the horse should stand level and straight upon his feet, an inward or an outward turn being a fault, the latter, however, being by far the worst. A free elastic walk is not the only pace at which a Clydesdale can distinguish himself, however, as many of the big Scottish horses are very free-actioned, and have gained quite reputa- tions for being fast and nimble trotters. In fact, at an early Bristol show a Clydesdale outstripped many of the light horses upon the ground; but such a performance is, of course, exceptional. The constitution of the Clydesdale is remarkably robust, and although he may not possibly belong to so long-lived a variety as the Suffolk, the north country horse can usually be relied on to withstand the effects of cold, wet, and hard work, better than any of the heavy varieties in existence. From what has been written of the Clydesdale, it will be clearly seen that though he may not have the same claims to the possession of an ancient lineage as the Shire horse or the Suffolk, he is nevertheless an animal of a defined type, and, as a variety, quite old enough to be relied upon as a true breeder to that type. Moreover, it may honestly be con- tended on his behalf that the Clydesdale supplies a want, which in his absence it would be impossible for the employers of a certain stamp of draught-horse to fill adequately. He is, in fact, the pony of the heavy horses, so freely does he move, the liberty and freedom of his action being possibly inherited from the old Galloway mares from whom he claims to be descended. It is, in fact, impossible to conceive that a more active horse of his weight and height could be produced, even by successive generations of skilful breeders. No visitor to Glasgow can fail to notice how perfectly the breed is adapted for dray and lorry work upon granite streets of a great city. One day's experience of the Clydes- dales attached to drays, and walking off with ponderous burdens, would be sufficient to impress a careful observer with the immense value of the breed for heavy draught; whilst the frequently-displayed impetuosity °f the horse to commence his work, the swiftness with which he at once fills his collar and steps out again after a sudden check in the streets, his general soundness and excellent constitution, all combine to justify bis admirers in the eulogies they bestow upon the Clydesdale, their favourite breed of horse. The Suffolk. � Perhaps in the eyes of the ordinary visitor to an agricultural show there is no variety of the so-called Heavy Horse more

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		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
	194


attractive than the Suffolk. The breed, moreover, comes as somewhat of a novelty to many persons, for, in spite of the great claims possessed by the Suffolk upon the suffrages of the agriculturist and the townsman, it is still in East Anglia that his merits are most keenly appreciated, and, in fact, the farmers in that part of the country prefer the Suffolk to any other breed of heavy horse. It is, however, against the breed that the proportions of a Suffolk do not equal those of a Clydesdale or a Shire horse, many persons being thereby led away into a belief that the east country animals are proportionately weaker than the others; whereas those who are best acquainted with their merits entertain the opinion that, considering his height�-16 hands 1 inch is the recognized limit of stature in connection with this variety �■ the Suffolk is quite as powerful an animal as any other breed of horse in existence. Probably, therefore, if he were better known, the Suffolk would con- siderably increase the circle of his supporters; but, in the face of the patronage that is now being extended to both Clydesdales and Shires, the development of the east country horse will be for a time retarded. Nevertheless, he is holding his ground well abroad, and orders keep coming in from various foreign countries, whilst good prices continue to be realized by fair-class animals from buyers who possess practical experience of their merits. No doubt this horse has not the weight or power to draw, through crowded streets, heavy lorries and other such cum- bersome vehicles when loaded to their utmost�such duties lie far more within the province of the Clydesdale and the Shire; but in front of a plough, with a good man behind it, a pair of Suffolks can get through a day's work that should amply satisfy the requirements of any reasonably- minded agriculturist. Then, too, for the lighter class of goods traffic in towns the Suffolk is a very suitable horse, for he is so much more active than the Shire or Clydesdale, in addition to being faster than either, that he can get through a day's work in a comparatively light wagon far better than they. Consequently he possesses many friends amongst the managers of railway and other parcel delivery companies, who include amongst the goods they have to handle large quantities of articles, which though not weighty enough to load in their heaviest vans, are still too bulky and cumbersome for express deliveries. The precise origin of the Suffolk is, like that of most ancient breeds, enshrouded in obscurity, but, at the same time, the antiquity of this horse is absolutely beyond all question. So far back as the year 1720, allusions to the breed in the Ipsivich Journal are so frequent as to render it certain that it was firmly established at that remote period. Indeed it is asserted by some that the Suffolks were cultivated as a

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	HEAVY HOESES
		195


distinct breed five hundred years ago by crossing the old Norman horse with East of England mares; though it must be observed, in justice to other breeds of less remote antiquity, that the proofs of such assertions are insufficient. Be this as it may, the fact remains that the Suffolks of the present day can boast of pedigrees that extend back as far as 1768, at which period there existed a notable but nameless stallion belonging to one Crisp, a resident at Ufford, near Woodbridge. From this animal every prominent winner at our horse shows to-day, if not every pure-bred Suffolk, is in some way or other descended. It is noticeable, too, that the allusions made to this horse in the Suffolk Chronicle and Ipswich Journal are substantiated by the writings of persons living about the middle of the eighteenth century, who, according to a writer in Heavy Horses, were accustomed to advertise the pedigrees of animals which went back for two or three generations at the very least. In stating that every Suffolk of to-day can take his pedigree back to the nameless horse of Mr. Crisp, it must not be understood that no attempts have been made to effect improvements in the variety by the introduction of outside crosses; but, at the same time, these have all been made in connection with the descendants of the old horse, and, so far as can be gathered by persons who have interested themselves in following these crosses out, they have not been attended with success, as all trace of them has been lost in the course of a few generations. It is known that certain crosses of the old Lincolnshire blood have been attempted, and the ex- periment of crossing with a trotting horse has also been made�the latter being possibly introduced with an idea of rendering the Suffolk more valuable as a coacher, as it is stated that the breed was cultivated by the owners of stage-coaches in the early days of the eighteenth century, when the rate of progression was slower than it became later on. It would appear probable that these crosses with alien blood were responsible for the bay animals which formerly appeared in the breed, but for the past half-century the Suffolk Punches have returned to the ancient colour of their race, chestnut, and even the darker shade of this colour has practically ceased to be seen. No doubt many persons more or less strongly object to chestnuts, which are by some considered to be weakly in constitution, and by others to be fretful and irritable in their dispositions; and perhaps the Suffolks may owe to the colour of their coats a little of their failure to gain new admirers as quickly as have some other breeds; but the fact remains that all the original horses of the breed concerning which descriptions are forthcoming were chestnuts, and that the old colour came out again as strongly and as unvaryingly as ^ever even in the descendants of some of the crosses which were attempted

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			196 VARIETIES OF THE HOESE

		years ago, as stated above. At the same time, it may be added, in con- firmation of the suggestion that his colour has been in some measure responsible for the comparative failure of the Suffolk, that American writers have proposed that an organized attempt should be made to introduce bay Suffolks; but, needless to say, the good sense of English breeders has stepped in and prevented any tampering with the purity of an old-established race, that has already proved its unsuitability for being improved by crossing with other varieties. Whether the introduction of alien blood is in any way responsible for the appearance of the different shade of chestnut and the white markings that are to be found amongst the Suffolks of the present day, is a question that cannot be settled definitely; but probably it is not so, for, as before observed, the crosses all proved to the highest extent unsatisfactory, and were permitted to die out as far and with as little delay as possible, when their inutility was proved. White markings, though permissible to a certain extent on a Suffolk, are nevertheless very far from being liked, and whilst animals which inherit the misfortune of possessing a bald face or a white stocking are eligible for the stud-book, it is questionable whether the presence of any white beyond a little on the heel, and perhaps a small star on the forehead, would not entirely ruin the prospects of a Suffolk in the show-ring. Of course, no colour of coat other than chestnut is admissible in an animal that is desired to enter for the Suffolk Stud-book Association, it being distinctly laid down that though the shade may vary, there is no place for any horses save chestnuts on the pages of the Society's official volume. The favourite shade of chestnut is the deep bright hue, with mane and tail to match; whereas the mealy, soft, smudgy-coloured animals, while being much disliked, are tolerated. Light manes and tails are also strongly objected to by the majority of breeders, although they need not be regarded as serious faults, much less as dis- qualifications, and indeed some Suffolk men profess to prefer horses thus marked to the whole-coloured animals. Silvery hairs have distinguished many good strains of Suffolks, it must be remembered, whilst the very dark-hued animals are considered by some breeders to be the best consti- tutioned of any, though on this ground there are differences of opinion. The late Mr. Hume Webster, in his pamphlet on the breed, actually went the length of asserting that there were about seven shades of chest- nut Suffolks, varying from the mealy to the brown-black, the extreme colours being the least liked, whilst the hue which he refers to as " guinea- gold" he selected as the most popular, not only in this country but amongst American buyers. In addition to his colour the Suffolk is distinguished from the Clydes-

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		197
	HEAVY HOESES	197
	HEAVY HOESES

dale and the Shire horse by the fact that he is a clean-legged animal, and does not possess the extreme amount of feather that is so much sought after by breeders of these varieties. This circumstance may very possibly be accepted as an additional reason for the slowness which has- characterized the headway made by the Suffolk amongst agriculturists,. for they are great advocates of hair and bone, and a general belief prevails that if hair is absent on a heavy horse's legs, bone is certain to be deficient likewise. This, however, is not generally accepted by the breeders of Suffolks, who support their contentions by measure- ments, and assert that their favourite horse�that is, when his height at shoulder and general bulk are taken into consideration-�is fully the equal of his heavier rivals as regards the amount of bone he- possesses below the knee. As a case in point, Mr. Hume Webster refers to Mr. Alfred J. Smith's champion stallion Wedgwood, who at the time he wrote was five years old, and measured 7 feet 11 inches in girth, and lOf inches below the knee�a very considerable measurement when it is remembered that there is no hair included in the dimensions given, as there would be in the case of a Clydesdale or a Shire horse. Wedgwood, it may be stated, was foaled in the year 1886, and was the winner of championship both at the show of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, and many Suffolk county shows. The Suffolk, moreover, is credited with a very enviable reputation for being a good horse so far as the-, soundness of his feet is concerned, and consequently it is claimed for hiirn that he lasts longer upon the stones of a town than any other variety that is put to the same class of work. In fact, so far as the wear and tear of his legs is concerned, the Suffolk affords a practical illustration of the fact that a great deal of hair upon the legs of a horse is no indication of special durability and soundness, for many a Suffolk will continue working at an age at which other heavy horses become worn out. Longevity, indeed, is one of the chief claims which Suffolk breeders insist upon making for their horses, and if half the stories that are told of aged animals retaining all their juvenile vigour for many years after they should in the usual order of things be long past work, be true�and there is no reason for doubting the numerous instances that are forth- coming on the subject�the Suffolk's term of usefulness is certainly a Prolonged one. The extreme docility of the breed is another great point in its favour, ^as it is something for an owner to feel that he is possessed of a strain of horses that rarely, if ever, develop vice, but on the contrary are Usually endowed with the sweetest of tempers and generosity. That the Suffolk is a very willing horse is rendered quite apparent by a visit

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	198
	198	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

to any farm upon which he is employed. Unlike many chestnuts, too, the natural gameness of the Punches is not neutralized by hot-headedness �or vice of any kind; on the contrary, they are a somewhat phlegmatic- dispositioned variety, though they possess an amount of courage which ■enables them to face and endure the hardest of work. The Suffolk, moreover, possesses another great recommendation; he is an animal that requires very little breaking, as he takes to work almost as naturally as a duckling faces water. Above all things he is an agricultural horse, but where pace and strength combined are required, as in the case of town work, he is equally at home. Beyond all doubt, he is the most nimble and active of all the so-called heavy varieties; whilst, as lias been stated before, the Suffolk, for his size, is a very small feeder, and will flourish and look well upon an amount of food that would be totally insufficient for many other big horses. As an instance of the longevity of the Suffolk horse, it is stated in the Society's Stud-book, that at one of the earliest exhibitions held by the Suffolk Agricultural Society, a brood mare aged thirty-seven years was amongst the com- petitors, and at that time she was accompanied by a sucking foal. So far back, too, as the year 1813, Arthur Young, in writing of this variety of horse, alluded to the fact that Mr. Wright, of Eockfort Hall, had seventeen of them in his possession, and that during the space of ten years he had not added one to his stud except a stallion. Julian's Boxer travelled as a stallion for twenty-five seasons; the dam of Lofft's Cup- bearer, owned by the Kev. 0. Reynolds of Leabach, was one of the six- teen foals which her owner had bred from her dam in sixteen successive years; and the mare from which Rising Star, the first-prize horse at Leeds in 1861, was bred, was twenty-two years old when the colt was foaled. The above are a few instances of the longevity and vitality of the Suffolk horse, and these could be multiplied many times were it necessary to do so; but enough has probably been written to convince the reader, if he were unacquainted with the fact before, that the variety now under consideration is a very remarkably long-lived and fruitful one, in addition to being a very willing worker. The head of the Suffolk Punch shows more breeding and quality about it than that of any other heavy horse, a very conspicuous feature being the eye, which is full of expression, yet mild and intelligent-looking to a degree. The neck is powerful and well formed, and the crest beauti- fully turned. The head-piece is well carried, the shoulders, which are very long, lie rather forward, this being desirable for the purposes of draught. The chest is wide and deep, the girth of the middle-piece being very considerable, whilst the body as a whole is long and substantially built.

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			HEAVY HORSES 199

		The back is very strong, the hind quarters long and heavy, and close- coupled with the loin; the legs standing well under the body. The fore- legs�a very essential point, for however good an animal's top may be, he will be worthless if he has not legs and feet to carry him�must be short, flat, and possessed of plenty of hard bone, big at the knees and free from feather, whilst the pasterns are short and powerful, with little hair on them, the feet being of a good size and truly shaped. In height the Suffolk should stand from 15 hands 3 inches to 16 hands 2 inches at the shoulder, as if he is smaller he will lose power, and if bigger he is likely to be deficient in that symmetry and compactness which are so characteristic of the breed. So much space-has already been devoted to the question of colour that it is unnecessary to refer to that question again, beyond remarking that it is imperatively necessary that it should be chestnut of some shade or other, but preferably the deeper ones, and the less white the better. In general appearance the Suffolk Punch is very happily described in the Suffolk Stud - book as being long, low, and wide, and this summary of his outline cannot possibly be bettered. Considerable importance, and very properly too, is attached to the action of their horses by the breeders of Suffolks, who for the most part are united in decrying the presence of a high-flying action in a heavy horse. In the words of the official description of the variety, which cannot possibly be improved upon: " The Suffolk horse is an excellent mover, with a smart, quick step, a true balance all round at the trot, and a capital walker". As may naturally be supposed, an ultra-high flashy action is not desired, and it is naively added that " a horse weighing a ton bending his knee up to his throat latch, and striking the granite with his feet like a sledge-hammer, is not an exhibition that the Suffolk farmer has any delight in". In fact, a Suffolk that is heavy enough for the largest dray is seldom if ever called ^upon for an exhibition of speed and high action; even if he is only up to ordinary railway delivery-van w^Tork he is never likely to be wanted ^u0 go more than seven or eight miles an hour, and this class of animal ^ul never scale a ton. As Mr. Hume Webster alleges, there can be no doubt that the old variety of Suffolks were famous not only for their Uinrbleness of action but for the honesty ol continuance with which they ^ould exert themselves at a dead pull. He also added, with pardonable pride � for in his lifetime he was a most enthusiastic admirer of the -Punches�that the Suffolks of his day (1891) did not belie those great Qualities of their ancestors. They are good drawers, and will continue o tug again and again at a dead pull without any need of the whip. he pure-bred Suffolk needs no whip, but at a signal from his driver

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	200	VARIETIES OE THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OE THE HORSE

will be almost down on his knees in a moment, and will not be beaten by any reasonable load. No doubt the weight and size of the modern Suffolk have been increased to meet the requirements of the market, but they still continue to retain the activity and action which distinguished their ancestors in the past. With so much to recommend them, therefore, it is not surprising that, in spite of the obstacles that oppose them owing to the established popularity of other heavy breeds, the Punches are steadily, though perhaps slowly, making headway amongst agriculturists both at home and abroad. The parcels delivery companies, which require active yet powerful wear-and-tear animals of robust constitutions for their trade, are always glad if they can get possession of any of the lighter specimens of the breed. Whether the Suffolk will ever reach the position of the most favoured Reavy horse is perhaps a matter of considerable doubt, but to those who require for their work a fast, active, good-tempered, and good-constitutioned draught-horse, there is no gainsaying the fact that they might do far worse for themselves than by giving a chance to the handsome and long-lived Suffolk Punch, whose antiquity alone may commend him to their consideration. FOREIGN BREEDS The Arab.�There is unfortunately no room left for doubting that the Arab horse has suffered much through the mistaken and excessive partisan- ship of over-zealous friends. The lavish�one might almost adopt the expression fulsome�flattery of which he has been the victim has certainly alienated from him the sympathies of many a practical man; whilst the hysterical and childish allusions to this, in very many respects, most valuable horse as the " courser of the desert", the " Arab's faithful steed ", and such like sentimentalities, are, though possibly welcomed by the readers of improving works for the young, very far from calculated to attract a business man who wants his horse to use and not to gush over. In fact, had it not been for the existence of a small body of practical supporters of the breed, who have laboured in a serious manner to benefit the horse, there is good reason to believe that the Arab would have been to all intents and purposes non-existent in this country by now; but even as matters are, the position occupied by him is very different from that which should be occupied by the horse to which the Thoroughbred is indebted for many of his excellencies. This admission is not exactly complimentary to the gratitude of English breeders, but a very reasonable excuse exists for their desertion of the Arab in the fact that the majority of his supporters appear to be so perfectly

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			FOREIGN BREEDS 201

		satisfied with him as he is, that very few of them have done anything to improve him by selection. No attempts appear to have been made to improve his speed, or action, by a series of inter-Arab crosses, the great aim of his admirers having been to obtain the blood of certain families; and having achieved this object, the majority of them seem to have been content. It is true that the Arab has increased somewhat in stature, as all breeds of horses do which receive the benefit of a residence in Eng- land, the climate of which, to say nothing of the high feeding, undoubtedly produces size; but in this respect the Arab has not been improved, in the opinion of some authorities, though many persons possessing open minds upon the subject entertain the belief that he might have been made better than he is. Notwithstanding the above remarks, the writer does not desire it to be imagined that he is to be included in the ranks of Arabphobes, but, on the contrary, in the category of well-wishers of the breed. The Arab, in his proper place, is beyond all doubt a most valuable and useful horse, which is worthy of being appreciated far more highly than he is, and which has not exactly received fair-play from his opponents, who, quite forgetting what he has done for horseflesh in this country, have been disposed to depreciate his merits because he has not been proved the possessor of all the accomplishments claimed for him by over-zealous advocates. If only on account of the antiquity of his lineage the Arab is entitled to respect, for, although very few persons will be found to accept the theory that this was the breed selected by Noah as " the best" to accompany him in the ark, there is no doubt at all that this horse has been an inhabitant of the desert for centuries, and that his Arab owners have guarded the pure blood most jealously. It is true, of course, that no written records are forthcoming to prove the authenticity of early Arab pedigrees, but it must be remembered that in the East it is the custom to accept oral evidence, and there is no reason whatever for disbelieving such pedigrees of im- ported horses as have been carefully investigated and enquired into by experienced persons on the spot. The Arab, according to all the authorities best qualified to judge, *s descended from five mares, namely, Keheilan, Seglawi, Abeyan, Ham- dami, and Hadban. From these, other families have sprung, but the blood of one or other of the above mares runs in the veins of every animal which in the remotest degree can claim to be regarded as an Arab. No doubt the families have occasionally been interbred, but this circumstance would not affect the right of the offspring to be regarded as a first-class pure Arab, and prized accordingly; and when such unions have occurred, the foal has been included in the family of its dam; thus

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			202 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		a colt by a Seglawi horse and a Keheilan mare would be styled a Keheilan, and would rank as a first-class Arab of untarnished pedigree. On the other hand, if a mare belonging to this class should be mated with a horse of inferior blood, or in any respect other than a member of her own rank, she and her foals are at once transferred to the second class; whilst the third class is composed of animals which, though possessing relationship with the highest order, are still further removed from them in blood, mis-marked foals of good breeding, and the like. Affixes are used to denote the best specimens of the five great families, and are also applied to the animals of the second class. As may be supposed, sub- families have sprung up which have taken their names from their founders, such as the Seglawi Jedran, one of the most sought-for classes; and though, perhaps, the Keheilans are the most numerous, the best type of Arabs is the Nejdean, though it is becoming rare. Many owners, of course, possess specimens of all the five great Arab families alluded to above, and Lady Anne Blunt, in her charming work, A Pilgrimage to JSfejd, alludes to the fact that in the stables of Ibu Eashid at Hail, which she went over several times, there were mares of the following families:�Keheilet el Krush, a 14 hands 1 inch chestnut; a bay Hamdami Simri; a young Seglawi Sheyfi; a 14 hands 2 inch dark bay Keheilet Ajaz; and a gray Seglawi Jedran, &c. These mares, it will be noticed, all belong to the family of one of the five mares� or " Al Kamsch", as they are termed in the desert�whilst the affixes show the name of the breeder who founded the sub-family in which they are included. Thus Seglawi Jedran implies that the mare is of the great Seglawi family of Jedran's strain. In height the mares found by Lady Anne Blunt in the stables at Hail were certainly below that which would recommend them to English judges of insular ideas; but, as stated above, a very great increase in stature is observable amongst many animals of undoubtedly the purest desert blood in this country, where Arabs of 15 hands 3 inches are not unknown; similar cases have been reported from Hungary, where these horses are much appreciated. It is therefore incorrect to stigmatize the Arab as necessarily being a little horse, though many good judges prefer him small; and it is also a libel on the breed to reproach them with being light in bone. Of course, as in the case of all varieties, some Arabs are not so massive as others; many appear to be far slenderer below the knee than they really are, this fact having impressed itself very strongly upon the mind of the writer when he, quite unknown to the owners, some of whom he had never seen, measured the girth of the fore-legs of the competitors at the Crystal Palace show in 1896. In

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			SUFFOLK STALLION, RULER 2453

		By Prince Arthur 2268; dam, Scott 2221. The Property of Messrs. Wilson, Hadleigh, Suffolk. Winner of Numerous Prizes

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	FOREIGN BREEDS
	FOREIGN BREEDS	203
		203

another respect the bone of an Arab is admittedly unsurpassed by that of any other breed of horse, and that is in its quality, as for density, fineness, and elasticity it is perfect, and hence, no doubt, the immense value of an Arab cross to certain breeds which are the victims of coarse, spongy bone. The Arab is also to be commended for his charming temper; excitable and spirited he is, no doubt, but vicious horses are very rare, in fact almost unknown, and a few soothing words, even from a stranger, if he understands horses, will usually quiet the most ruffled feelings. It has been remarked above that few serious attempts appear to have been made in this country to improve the speed of the Arab by scientific breeding, Mr. Wilfrid Blunt being a notable and honourable exception. The Arab also has seldom been subjected to a proper course of training, and the performances of some representatives of the breed when matched to run against Thoroughbreds at Newmarket can scarcely have been accepted as encouraging to Arab owners to persevere with them on the turf in this country. In India, however, Arabs run very well, and successfully carry big weights over long distances of ground in good company, their stamina being as pronounced as it is remarkable, considering that the chief grain they are fed on in their native land is barley. There are, however, many other uses for the Arab quite inde- pendent of racing, and it is surprising in the first instance to consider how his qualifications as a saddle horse have been ignored by the public. Detractors of the horse take exception to his shoulders, which certainly, as in all other breeds, are not invariably so good�that is, so long and sloping�-as they might be; but in the case of the Arab the muscular development at this point is very great, and this circumstance not in- frequently causes wrong impressions regarding the form and character of his shoulders. Moreover, those who try one generally pronounce an Arab a good ride; and it must not be forgotten by his detractors that he has never been subject to the degradation of leather by his owners m the East, but has been used as a saddle horse from time immemorial. His big quarters, well-shaped, springy pasterns, and light head specially qualify the Arab for saddle purposes; and therefore, as he can jump well and stay, these properties, combined with his usually perfect manners, should cause him to be sought for as a lady's hack or light- weight hunter. As a cross for many other breeds the qualifications of the Arab are undeniable. Through the male line, at all events, he has given us the Thoroughbred, and probably the old Pack-horse, and through the latter the Hackney, and other breeds�two of the finest movers whose names

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	204
	204	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

appear in the Hackney Horse Stud-book, namely, Movement and Magpie, strain back on their dam's side to an Arab�and even upon these grounds it should be impossible to ignore his merits. Nor has the Arab been subjected to a course of treatment and training, such as that bestowed upon the Thoroughbred, which is calculated to impair his soundness. In the desert he is brought up hardy enough�Lady Anne Blunt reports having seen the choicest mares of the Hail stud standing in the open tethered by one foot to brick mangers, and covered with rugs, no shelter of any kind being provided for them; and in this country, to their credit, owners rarely coddle their Arabs. Consequently, when a breeder is anxious to impart quality, stamina, and constitution to his horse, speed and height at shoulder being secondary considerations, the Arab is more likely to produce these, and less likely to transmit infirmities than the Thoroughbred. As a sire of Polo ponies the Arab has done very w^Tell indeed, his stock having pace, alertness, intelligence, and manners to recommend them, whilst his first crosses with Suffolk horses have proved themselves big-framed, neat-headed, good-quartered, very useful animals, which look like carrying weight to hounds. The head of an Arab is of good size so far as the upper portion is concerned, being rather long from the ears to the eyes, and wide across the forehead, which should be convex and not fiat, this being regarded as a fault. The ears are fairly long, fine, and pointed; the eyes not too full and soft in expression, but capable of showing excitement when aroused, the face often denuded of hair for a small distance round them, which gives them the appearance of being circled with rims of dark- coloured skin. The lower part of the head tapers suddenly towards the muzzle, which is very fine and imparts a blood-like appearance to the head, whilst the lower lip projects slightly. The neck is very powerful and nicely arched, with the throat well developed; the chest rather narrow, but deep, with the ribs swelling out behind the forearms, which causes the girth to be considerable; the back short, and the loins and quarters extremely powerful. The forearms are long to the knee, but the canons below are short; the pasterns long and springy, and the feet deep and sound. The thighs are big, and the joints all round should be well formed, the skin and coat being soft and silken respectively. The tail of the Arab should be set on high, and carried, as has been suggested, like that of a rocking-horse when at repose, but when the animal is excited it is raised somewhat. The position and carriage of the tail are points much considered in the East, and it is believed by some persons that the tails of young foals are twisted into the desired shape if they appear likely to be carried low. Colours vary in the Arab,

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			FOEEIGN BEEEDS 205

		bays, chestnuts, grays, and browns being all found amongst pure stock; but blacks, roans, and skewbalds are tabooed. The Emir Ibu Eashid, the owner of the Hail stud, according to Lady Anne Blunt, preferred a bay or a chestnut, whilst many persons would rather possess a white with black hoofs, but it is worthy of remark that of the hundred mares at Hail forty were grays or whites, thirty bays, twenty chestnuts, and ten brown, which may fairly be taken to represent the usual proportion of the colours. The Percheron.�The Percheron is the best known and most valuable of the French breeds of horse, and is certainly of ancient extraction, though it is doubtful whether, as some persons are inclined to believe, the tap-roots of the variety were brought into France by the Crusaders who returned from the Holy Wars centuries ago. It is probable, however, that the Arab had a share in the production of the Percheron; and so far back as the year 1760 it is suggested that the Eastern stallions were utilized by Count Mallart for the service of mares belonging to the Coesme stud, over which he presided. Subsequently, however, the English Thoroughbred appeared upon the scene, and took the place of the Easterns; but in 1820 two gray Arabs arrived in the district and were largely bred from, and to these horses it is generally believed that the modern Percheron is indebted for his gray colour. There is, how- ever, reason for believing that the old blood has pretty well died out, for the department where they originated is only a small place, and as mares and other stock were disposed of, their places were supplied by importations from Brittany and elsewhere, the result being that the old strain became mixed. The fact, too, that the Percheron exists in three types, or perhaps grades would be the better expression � heavy, middle, and light�goes some way towards confusing the modern seeker after information as to what the original stock was like. It is reasonable, however, to assume that the original Percherons were of the class of animal that was adaptable for stage-coach work, and that as these vehicles became ousted from the service of the public by railways, the breeders of the district applied themselves to the production of a heavier class of animal which could be used for van and light agricultural work. In support of this contention there is the fact that within the past fifty years heavy mares, and stallions too, were brought into this district from Brittany, Picardy, and Caux, and these, no doubt, were crossed with the remaining Percherons. With the view of stopping the further contamination of the old blood, a local Horse Association was established, but it does not appear to have effected much good, as the attempt made to sustain the old light type by insti-

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			206 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

		tuting trotting competitions simply had the effect of attracting English trotters, though it may be added that some excellent performances are attributed to Percherons located in the department whence they take their name. Indeed the chief merit which is claimed for the breed is the faculty for trotting fast in front of a comparatively heavy load, while the constitution of a Percheron is described as being most robust, his temper excellent, and his endurance and precocity both above the average. As regards his endurance, however, opinions differ very decidedly, as many who can speak with authority consider that the breed is soft. In height a Percheron ranges from 15 to 16 hands, and at the present day he is more often to be found of the middle than of the light or heavy type. His head is rather large, the forehead wide, the eyes rather full; his neck is short and massive, and is adorned by a very full mane; his withers high; and his shoulders of fair length, and set back. He is deep in chest, and somewhat round in barrel; his back being inclined to be long, whilst his tail is set on high. His legs are short, but the tendons below the knee are rather weak. The prevailing colour is gray, but the opinion has been expressed that it would be desirable to attempt to change in this respect to bay, but how this could be accomplished without a further and possibly fatal encroachment upon the purity of the breed, such as it is, it is difficult to see. It has already been stated that Percherons of the middle degree of stature and development are the most common; but it may be added that the light-framed type is usually to be found in the Norman portion of the district, such as Courtomer, Moulins la Manche, and Aigle; whilst the chief stronghold of the heavy type is in the neighbourhood of Forte Bernard, Saint Corme, and Maniers. The Hanoverian Horse.�Probably most persons who know that His Majesty's Creams which are attached to his carriage on great state occasions are of Hanoverian blood, are quite unaware that there is, or at all events was until recently, a breed of equally valuable white horses in the royal stables of Herrenhausen. No doubt the national emblem of Hanover�a white horse�was derived from this ancient breed, which was utilized for drawing the king on state occasions, just as the creams, or " Isabels" as they are styled in their own country, were pressed at the same time into fulfilling a similar duty to the queen. Whence these two breeds originally came, the writer was unable to ascertain when he paid a visit to the Herrenhausen stables, as the memory of the oldest retainer belonging to the establishment was a blank upon the subject; but there are very good grounds for believing that the creams are descended from an ancient Danish breed of that colour. Their antiquity, however, is

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			FOREIGN BREEDS 207

		unquestionable, and what is more, both varieties breed perfectly true tc colour; and a most remarkable peculiarity of the white horses�"white- boned horses" as they are known in Hanover�is that the foals are all thrown absolutely white, a fact which was proved by the existence of one only a few hours old in one of the boxes at the time of the writer's visit to Herrenhausen. Irrespective of their unusual colour, their antiquity, and the fact that until Hanover ceased to exist as an independent state, the whites and the creams were respectively the horses of the king and queen, there is nothing extremely remarkable about them. They were all tall, powerful animals, rather inclined to coarseness, and not particularly good about the shoulders, but no doubt serviceable if put to work, which, however, they very rarely were. Their tails, which were squared, extended down to their heels, and their manes were correspondingly long. They are stated to be an ex- tremely long-lived breed, and as the founders of the sovereign of England's stud of state horses, will always be regarded with feelings of deep interest if not of veneration by his loyal subjects. The Morgan Horse.�This is an American production in the shape of a harness horse, the precise origin of which is obscure, though, according to all accounts, it is descended back to a stallion named Justin Morgan, which was the property of a resident in Randolph, Vermont, whose name he bore. This horse appears to have been foaled somewhere about the end of the eighteenth century, but the date of his being dropped and his pedigree are alike matters of pure conjecture in spite of the many attempts which have been made to ascertain the facts concerning him. Perhaps the consensus of opinion tends to show that Justin Morgan originally came from Canada; but this theory is opposed by many persons on the grounds that the Canadians are not so easy in their action, though, on the other hand, they possess more durable feet. The Morgan horse is claimed to be the possessor of stamina above the average, and is therefore described as being " entitled to the appel- lation of a fast traveller", as a good one can cover a great number of miles a day and keep up a good pace. As a useful harness horse, with moderate weight, the Morgans were highly popular some forty or fifty years ago in their native State, where they possess many admirers even now. They are not a big breed, the usual height being from 14 to 15 hands, the prevailing colour being bay. In make, the Morgans are round and heavy, with lean heads, wide and deep chest, the fore-legs are set Well apart, clean and sinewy, besides being strong, and, as a transatlantic authority on the breed observes as to make and endurance, they have "that projection of ribs from the spine which is a sure indication of

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	208	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

powerful lungs, and consequently of great wind and bottom". No doubt about the middle of the last century the Morgan horses were extremely popular in America, though not adapted for great speed at short distances; but as little, if anything, is now heard of them now- adays outside the State of Vermont, it is evident that they have not succeeded in maintaining the reputation which they then possessed. Of late, however, these horses appear to be receiving more attention from American breeders. The Oldenburgh.�This breed, which is raised in the district of Germany from which it takes its name, may be regarded as, upon the whole, the most valuable of all the Continental varieties of heavy carriage horse. At all events many�far too many�scores of Oldenburghs are to be seen in the Park every London season, as British dealers, despairing to find the stamp of horse that is required for landau work in the home market, are compelled to patronize the foreigners. Without, however, laying one's self open to the reproach of being narrow-minded and insular in one's views, the opinion may be expressed that, showy and imposing as the Oldenburghs are, they do not possess the bottom and the stamina of Hackneys, Cleveland Bays, or Yorkshire Coachers. On the other hand, they fill the eye as extremely fine-looking barouche or landau animals, for though, as a rule, they may not possess the finish about the head of the Yorkshire Coacher or the Hackney, or the quarters of any of the British Harness breeds, they carry them- selves for the most part very boldly, have fine middles and plenty of bone, and are almost invariably very good indeed in colour, a gray or a chestnut being a rarity amongst them. Beyond all doubt the Oldenburgh is an ancient variety of horse, indeed it is claimed for the breed that it has been in existence for over three hundred years, and no doubt the tap-root from which the modern Olden- burgh has descended must have been alive somewhere and in some form at an earlier date. This admission does not, however, go the length of suggesting that no foreign blood has been introduced into the old strain whatever it may have been; and the appearance of the Oldenburghs very strongly suggests the presence of Hackney and Coacher blood. From the former, beyond all doubt, the fine action which is characteristic of the German horse has been derived, and it is extremely probable that the Coacher gave him size and quality, the latter through the thoroughbred blood the Yorkshire possesses, and very likely colour as well. Whilst upon the subject of colour, it must be admitted with feelings akin to shame, that Continental horse-breeders are far in advance of the Englishman in this respect. They have from the first realized the fact

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	FOREIGN BREEDS
	FOREIGN BREEDS	209
		209

that bays and browns are the colours most in request amongst those who use big horses, and chestnut the least popular of all; and it is mainly to the fact that our foreign rivals can supply the public with what the latter want, that British horse-dealers can find in Germany and elsewhere the class of animal which is so very scarce at home. In addition to size and colour the breeders of the Continent have aimed at the production of action and style, and these they certainly have secured; as for his height and weight, the Oldenburgh possesses both these charac- teristics, the latter to a marked degree. Opinions differ as to whether the constitution of this horse is robust or not, his foreign breeders averring that it is; but people who have experience of him in this country are by no means unanimous on the point. Moreover, it may be repeated that, though there are exceptions, the Oldenburgh, horse for horse, does not possess the endurance of the British breeds from which he is descended; but for park work he is well adapted, and hence his frequent appear- ance in the equipages of the highest in the land. The Holstein.�The district in which this horse is produced is easily ascertained from, the name borne by the variety, which, beyond a doubt, is a very ancient one. Indeed it is claimed on behalf of the Holstein that several celebrated studs in Germany, Spain, and Italy have descended from representatives of this breed which have been imported into these countries, and it is practically certain that this horse was the tap-root from which the Hanoverian breed originally sprang. The origin of this variety, it must be candidly admitted, is obscure, but it appears almost certain that it contains a strong strain of Eastern or thoroughbred blood, as the head is usually particularly neat for a big horse; whilst the middlepiece, quarters, and short legs, to say nothing of the free action which many Holsteins possess, denote the probability of a Hackney cross. It may also be observed that the Holstein Stud Book can claim to be the oldest publication of its kind in Germany, having first appeared in 1886, which fact goes some way towards proving that the merits of the breed are highly appreciated. It must not be understood, of course, that there were not previous registers connected with the Holstein horse, for there were such in existence, and these contained references to the breed which dated back for a century or more. As regards his appearance, the Holstein may be referred to as a horse of good height, with bone and very fairly high action, though his dash is inferior to that of the Hackney. He is rather breedy-looking for his height, which fact renders him a desirable animal in the eyes of those who admire a powerful weight-carrying saddle-horse of the Continental

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	210
	210	VARIETIES OF THE HORSE
		VARIETIES OF THE HORSE

type, though the Holstein is scarcely the average Englishman's idea of the correct stamp of riding animal. The Schleswig.�The Schleswig horse is a totally different class of animal from the Holstein, inasmuch as he is distinctly of the heavy, cart- horse type. He favours the Suffolk stamp, however, far more than he does the Shire Horse or the Clydesdales, being clean-legged like the first, and less bulky than either of the others. Considering his proportions the Schleswig is an active, nimble breed; so, whilst the most useful for the purpose of agriculturalists on light land, he is far better adapted� assuming that he is not soft�-for such military work as the Artillery and Commissariat Departments require, as well as for vans and omnibus traffic. Although there is no direct evidence to prove the correctness of the theory, it is highly probable that the ancestry of the Schleswig horse is connected in some way with that of the French Percheron, as the two breeds possess several features in common. The East Friseland.�This is a big, useful variety of Continental horse, the home of which lies north of Oldenburgh, and is bounded by the North Sea. The East Friseland breed may be regarded as occupying a position in the equine world of Germany somewhat analogous to that filled by the Cleveland Bay in this country, as he may be described as either the lightest of the agricultural breeds or the heaviest of the light harness varieties of his native land. He is an animal that develops very rapidly, so much so, indeed, that many of his breeders, if they happen to be farmers, will make use of him when he is three years old for light work on their holdings, but when he arrives at the age of four they part with him to dealers for landau and other such duties if he shows action and style enough. During the past century the old East Friseland has been fined down a good deal by crossing with blood-horses and steppers, and hence his value has increased in this country, where many of the best-looking specimens of the variety are to be found in the heavy carriages of wealthy people.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE

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		For a description of the Various Drugs, &c, mentioned under " Health and Disease", and the doses to be administered, the reader is referred to the subsequent section� " Veterinary Medicines: their Proper Employment \

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			Section IV.-HEALTH AND DISEASE

		1. INTRODUCTORY Health, using the word in a definite sense, is a theoretical condition; it implies perfect correspondence of the organism with the surrounding conditions, and its maintenance includes perfect adaptation of any changes which may occur in either or both. What Mr. Herbert Spencer says of life may be paraphrased so as to apply accurately to conditions of health. Perfect correspondence would be perfect health. Were there no changes in the environment but such as the organism had adapted changes to meet, and were it never to fail in the efficiency with which it met them, there would be unimpaired and perpetual health. That these conditions do not exist in nature is perfectly obvious, and in speaking of health various and modifying terms are used to indicate degrees of health without suggesting the actual existence of disease. If there were an absolute standard of health there would be no difficulty in defining disease; but in reality there is no distinct boundary line, and the transition from health to disease may be so gradual that it might not be possible to say where the one ends and the other begins. Disease may be taken in a general sense to mean any disturbance of the structures or functions of a living being. The derangement may be acute when it is severe and rapid in its progress; chronic when it assumes a lower type and is disposed to continue; sporadic when it is the result of ordinary causes arising from without, as exposure to climatic changes, ^sufficient or impure food; epizootic when it extends to a large number of ^anirnals at the same time as the result of some cause which is generally distributed; enzootic when it affects a number of animals in a particular locality owing to local conditions; and recurrent when it exhibits a tendency to return after the affected animals have apparently recovered. The science of pathology teaches that the strict meaning of the term disease, or loss of ease, cannot consistently be retained in reference to many morbid conditions because they do not necessarily produce any dis- comfort, and can only be considered as disease for the reason that they are Vol. I. 213 15

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			214 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		a departure from the ordinary normal or healthy condition of the structures or functions. Certain forms of bony tumours which occur in situations where they do not interfere with the mechanism of the skeleton, and are unattended with pain or inconvenience, may be referred to in illustration of this proposition. Pathology includes everything connected with a departure from health, and implies, therefore, a wide range of knowledge in regard to all the circumstances under which structural or functional changes are developed. Etiology is a division of the science of pathology which relates to the causes of disease. Semiology refers to symptoms or indications, or, in other words, to the external expressions of a morbid condition. Predis- posing causes are those which, as the term implies, act injuriously upon the organism and render it liable to the influence of more energetic causes. Various circumstances of an ordinary kind, such as changes of temperature, exertion, quality and quantity of food, the impurities in the atmosphere, age, sex, conformation, temperament, and hereditary disposition may all be classed.as predisposing causes of disease. Nosology is the classification of disease. Diagnosis implies the accurate definition of a disease, its position, nature, and localization. Prognosis relates to the probable termination of disease, or the expression of the opinion of the observer based upon his diagnosis; its value necessarily depends upon his experience of the course which the disease has taken in similar cases, or upon the accuracy of his judgment in regard to the actual morbid changes in the structures or func- tions in the particular case under consideration. ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE The most obvious and at the same time the most simple and practical classification of causes of disease is the division into Predisposing and Exciting. This classification includes at once nearly all that can be said on the subject of causation. Various subdivisions are for convenience employed, but they all relate as a matter of necessity to the two primary divisions, for example, extrinsic and intrinsic causes, in other words, causes acting from without and those which arise within the animal body and which may either increase the tendency to acquire the disease or may actually cause its development. Specific causes occupy a position which in some degree disconnects them from ordinary causes whether predisposing or exciting. The term specific indicates that there is something peculiar to be taken into account, and at the present day the term is limited to those causes of disease which include some particular micro-organism or some specific poison, which may be either extrinsic or intrinsic.

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		HUNTER, TENNIS BALL Bay gelding by Court Ball; dam Express 2589 by Delight. Winner of numerous prizes The Property of H. M. Mackusick, Esq.

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	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE
	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE	215

PREDISPOSING CAUSES OF DISEASE The predisposing causes of disease are generally subdivided under several headings, which may begin with the hereditary constitution, which is the most prominent and important, then temperament, age, sex, &c.� these are all intrinsic, existing within the body independently of any influence from without; then follow a number of extrinsic predisposing causes, such as excitement, occupation, and conditions which induce debility. Excitement may be looked upon as a predisposing cause of disease when it leads to excessive development of activity in the circulatory and nervous systems associated with general or systemic excitement�a con- dition which may stop short of actual disease, but is especially favourable to the action of any exciting causes which tend to set up inflammation. In a state of general excitement the system is liable to suffer from any febrile disease which may be at the time prevalent, or from sudden exposure to violent changes of temperature, which may lead to an inflammatory attack. Certain forms of local excitement lead to the determination of blood to a particular part, which may end in the rupture of vessels, or may increase the functional activity of a part and thus render it liable to any influence from without or within which may induce congestion or inflammation. Excitement may in itself result in the development of active inflam- matory disorders without the intervention of any extrinsic cause, in which case it would be classed among the exciting causes of disease. For the present purpose it is only to be looked upon as acting to a sufficient degree to render the system susceptible to disease without actually inducing it. It is in the nature of things, in fact, that predisposing and exciting causes very frequently approach each other so closely that it is impossible at all times to distinguish the one from the other. Debilitating influences, whether arising out of insufficiency of food or feeding to excess, will both have the effect of reducing the vital energy, and in this way diminishing the power to resist disease. Insufficient food is the most common cause of debility acting in a perfectly intelligible way, not only by a failure to supply a sufficient amount of nutriment to com- pensate for the waste of the tissues, but further by inducing a feeble condition of the digestive powers as a mere consequence of inactivity. Excess of food induces a similar result through the medium of the opposite conditions, the nutritive functions become impaired as the result of con- gestion of the vessels which supply the digestive organs with blood, and consequent overwork and derangement of the secretive and excretive processes. Further, mischief is done by an excess of nutritive material beyond the amount which the system is capable of appropriating, the excess

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			216 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		being converted by oxidation into certain animal alkaloids and extractive matters, which exercise a deleterious influence on the organs and functions of the body. Next in importance to the influence of excess or deficiency of food, bad quality may be considered, the immediate effect of which will depend upon the particular constituents which occasion the deterioration. Products of fermentation, growth of fungi (moulds), decomposition, which implies the presence of septic microbes, may render food of bad quality actively poisonous or positively pathogenic, and in such cases it would come under the head of an exciting cause of disease; but short of being actively poisonous or disease-producing, the changes induced in it may merely have the effect of weakening the system without actually producing obvious disease. All that has been said in reference to the effects of food may be applied to water, which, indeed, may be taken as representing a portion of the food. Impure air exerts a remarkable influence upon the health of the body in two directions: (l) by failing to supply the proper amount of oxygen for the purpose of respiration and the purification of the circulating fluid; and (2) by introducing into the system organic and inorganic sub- stances which may gradually assist in disturbing the nutritive functions and lowering the vitality of the body as a whole. Exertion.�Exercise is a recognized necessity for the maintenance of all the functions of the body, including the mental functions, wdiich are not of first importance with regard to the lower animals. As in the case of food, exercise may be beneficial or injurious according to its amount. Excessive exertion is perfectly well known to be followed by exhaustion, which is necessarily associated with loss of tone in the system and liability to disease. Failure of circulation in various parts will induce congestion and the accumulation of deleterious matters in the blood, and in this condition the body becomes remarkably subject to disease. On the other hand, want of exercise leads to a sluggish condition of all the functions, loss of muscular power, weakness of the heart in common with other muscular structures, feeble circulation, local congestions, inactivity of the respiratory functions, accumulations of fat, and what is perhaps of even more importance, an inactive state of the excretive organs which permits the accumulation in the blood of various deleterious products resulting from imperfect oxidation, which under a healthy condition would be rapidly eliminated from the system. Temperature has a marked influence on the various functions of the body; heat causes debility by its stimulating influence upon the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous functions, the excessive activity being naturally followed by relaxation and exhaustion.

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		217
	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE	217
	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE

Excessive cold produces debility by its immediate sedative influence on the system, and the repellent effect of cold upon the surface diminishes the circulation in the superficial vessels of the skin and leads to an accumu- lation of blood in some of the internal structures, acting particularly upon some parts of the digestive and circulatory system. Its influence upon the nerve centres, whether it is direct or indirect, is shown in the rapid diminution of the vital powers of resistance, a condition which is eminently favourable to the action of exciting causes of disease. Heredity.�Of the existence of a tendency to disease transmitted from parents to offspring no doubt can be entertained; whether the pre- disposition so conveyed be called idiosyncrasy, constitutional peculiarity, remarkable liability, or special receptivity, or be designated by any other form of words, the fact remains that the influence of heredity has always been recognized, although the term itself may not have been used by the older writers. It may be defined as the law of inheritance not neces- sarily limited to the transmission of a tendency to disease, but applying equally to everything which belongs to the living organism, every quality, indeed, whether good or bad, whether relating to mental functions or to organic structure. A modification in the character of organs due to the manner of their employment in a former generation has often been observed; thus large hands are inherited by people whose ancestors led laborious lives, while small hands belong to the descendants of those who have not been compelled to follow occupations which require manual work. In the course of the observations made by Darwin many instances are mentioned of the appearance of peculiarity of structure and of certain diseases at particular periods of life in certain families, and among the cases quoted are blindness occurring in a family and being transmitted to twenty-seven children and grandchildren, the affection beginning always between the fifteenth and sixteenth year, and ending in a total loss of sight at the age of twenty-two. Also of insanity in a family affecting grandfather, father, and son, who all became insane and committed suicide at the age of fifty; in fact, the evidence offered by biologists in favour of the remarkable influence of heredity in continuing a tendency to cer- tain diseases is so complete that it is impossible to question the fact. It is indeed perfectly well known that scrofula, asthma, rheumatism, gout, epilepsy, blindness, and deafness run in families�not necessarily in one continuous line, but commonly interrupted, even a whole generation being passed over, the disease appearing in the next. Temperament.�In dealing with the predisposing causes of disease, certain types of temperament are defined. The sanguine temperament refers to animals of a lively disposition with active circulation and quick

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	218	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

movement, a condition of system which produces a disposition to inflam- matory diseases. The lymphatic temperament, sometimes described as phlegmatic, is exactly the reverse of the sanguine; it is associated with a feeble circulation, a deficiency of red particles in the blood, pallor of the mucous membranes, and coldness of the skin, especially in the ex- tremities, and it predisposes the individual to chronic diseases of a low type. The bilious temperament is probably always connected with a want of activity of the liver and other parts of the digestive organs, which tends to depress the vitality. A nervous temperament is indicated by excitement alternating with depression, both conditions resulting in a predisposition to what are called nervous affections. Age has a marked influence in developing or fostering a tendency to special forms of disease. It is well known that the foal suffers from diseases to which the state of the organism and the circumstances of its life render it peculiarly susceptible. The young animal is liable to the effects of cold, which in- duces irritation or inflammation of internal organs. Very trifling errors in dieting�in the sensitive state of the digestive canal�cause severe, sometimes fatal, attacks of diarrhoea. The brain is easily excited, and the process of teething increases the liability to various febrile and gastric disorders. In advanced age the horse is predisposed to rheumatic affections, stiffness of joints from the increasing density of the ligamentous structure, while the muscular powers are impaired from loss of the true contractile tissue and the increase of fibrous structure, and the steady decrease of the vital powers adds to the predisposition to diseases of a chronic type. It may, however, be affirmed that the influence of the different age periods in the horse in the production of predisposition to disease is not to be compared to the changes which occur in the system of the human subject at different periods in his far longer average life. Sex as a predisposing cause of disease relates chiefly to the generative system, and in the lower animals the female is predisposed to affections due to gestation and parturition from which the male animal is necessarily exempt; but in other respects no important difference has been observed. Mares are not more nor less liable than horses to those affections to which the equine race is prone. Occupation is quoted among the predisposing causes of particular diseases in man, and it is surely the case that horses are likewise rendered susceptible to maladies of a kind which are incidental to their occupation, i.e. the kind of work which they are required to perform. It is only necessary to compare the occupation of the hunter with that of the agri-

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			ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE 219

		cultural horse on the farm, or the work of the carriage- or saddle-horse with that of the poor man's drudge, to realize that the position which the animal occupies, in other words the occupation as it would be termed in reference to man, exercises a very considerable influence on the suscepti- bility of the system of the horse to certain forms of disease: thus, race- horses are specially liable to sore shins; hacks, hunters, and harness-horses to splints and spavins; and cart-horses to side bones, &c. &c. EXCITING CAUSES OF DISEASE Those influences which have the power of acting upon the organism in such a way as to excite disease, especially in the system which is already predisposed, were formerly divided into cognizable and non-cognizable: the first section including all agencies the existence of which could be recognized independently of their action in producing disease, such as heat and cold; and the second referring to influences which were not recognizable, but the existence of which was inferred from the effects produced. In this second class all contagious and infectious influences, endemic or epidemic, were included. The system of classification of half a century ago has now become obsolete, but it is worth while to refer to it, because although comparatively recent investigations have proved beyond doubt that the cause of some of the most virulent infectious disorders are quite cognizable,, there are other maladies which are endemic, epidemic, and in some cases, contagious, which arise from causes the existence of which can only be inferred from the effects produced. The causes which are cognizable or apparent to the senses are mechanical and chemical agencies, food, exertion,, excitement, excessive and defective secretion, defective ventilation and drainage, and climatic changes; and it is evident that several of these agencies, which have already been considered, are capable of acting both as predisposing and exciting causes�exciting when they become sufficiently intense to produce the disease to which their primary action only rendered the organism susceptible. Thus, errors in diet, excitement without exertion, excessive secretion, defective secretion, impure atmosphere, and changes °f temperature may all act as exciting causes of disease. While they ^are placed among the predisposing causes�in fact whether the causes are mechanical or chemical in their character�they may be alternately pre- disposing and exciting influences. Exciting causes of disease which are cognizable.� Mechanical causes are usually referred to in the first instance under the above heading, ^nd they include all agencies which immediately damage the structures or m any way disturb the functions of an organ or any part of the body. The

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			220 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		most intelligible instances of the action of mechanical causes are seen in the effects of blows, sprains, and cuts, which at once produce derangements of parts, described as surgical diseases; but there are other mechanical causes acting with less intensity which may produce affections of the system requiring medicinal treatment�for instance, pressure on any part, although not in many cases productive of injury at the moment, may lead to con- siderable interference with the freedom of the circulation, and if continued, end by inducing organic disease. The cases in which this result is to be apprehended are numerous enough in the human subject, and the horse is by no means exempt from the consequences of undue pressure from portions of the harness. A notable instance is furnished by excessive and ill-regulated pressure from the saddle, which causes a condition known as wrung withers or galled back or saddle gall, and what is more serious still, the pressure of a badly-fitting collar, which interferes with the circulation of blood in the large vessels of the neck, inducing congestion of the brain, attacks of giddiness, or megrims, and even, under certain circumstances, causing an apoplectic fit. Pressure on important organs may also be intrinsic in its character as a consequence of the growth of tumours or the deposit of mineral substances, as in the formation of calculi or stones in the bladder or bowels, &c. Obviously, the pressure which is exerted by the formation of tumours or the deposit of calcareous matter will produce results gradually, and it is also evident that the importance of the disease which is induced will depend entirely upon the function of the part which is affected by the pressure. Tumours or abscesses in the brain, or in the neighbourhood of nerves, or blood-vessels, or on the valves of the heart, in the respiratory passages, the stomach and intestines, or on, or in, the vicinity of organs the functions of which are essential to life, necessarily cause serious and sometimes even fatal interference with vital processes. Besides the direct mechanical effects of blows or wounds or pressure, there may be immediate depression of the vital powers from the shock to the nervous system re- acting on the heart, causing stoppage of the circulation, followed by fainting and sometimes by death. Chemical causes may act upon the interior or exterior of the body, and they may be either extrinsic or intrinsic. The former will include all kinds of irritants or caustics which may be intentionally or accidentally applied to the surface of the body. The action of these, whether they are powerful acids or caustic alkalis, or other chemicals which have the power of destroying integrity of organic structures, has the advantage of being easily recognized, and if discovered in time, may be considerably checked

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		221
	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE	221
	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE

by the employment of appropriate remedies. The chemical agencies which act as intrinsic causes of disease will include those which have just been referred to, with the addition of all poisonous agents either belonging to the organic or the inorganic classes, and all the deleterious products re- sulting from deranged digestion or from imperfect oxidation. Of the effete products which are thus converted into animal alkaloids and extractives, the disastrous effects have already been adverted to under the heading of predisposing causes. Food.�In respect of the influence of solid and liquid food, the lower animals are favourably situated in comparison with the human subject, as, in a state of domestication, horses and other animals which are used in the service of man are not permitted to exercise their own taste in the selection of their diet, but are supplied by their owners with the amount and quality of alimentary matters which are selected with the distinct intention to produce certain desired results. It may happen, however, that in carrying this intention into effect the food may act as an exciting cause of disease owing to an excess of certain constituents. Thus, in the case of animals which are kept for the purpose of being fattened, serious disturbance of certain organs, especially of the circulatory and respiratory systems, may be occasioned in consequence of the excessive quantity of fatty material which is deposited in the structure of important organs such as the liver and heart. Serious results may also follow the consumption of adulterated alimentary matters, which are, as a matter of fact, only given in ignorance, and may therefore be looked upon as accidental causes of disease, which could be avoided by the exercise of care on the part of the attendant. In the case of the horse, the food is generally of a very simple nature, consist- ing of hay, oats, beans or peas, bran, and, incidentally, green food and carrots. None of these articles of diet lend themselves to any process of adulteration; but some of them, oats and hay particularly, may become dangerous in consequence of changes which take place during fermentation, or from the growth of certain moulds, or from accidental contact with the virus of infective diseases. Mouldy hay, and oats which have been damaged by water and afterwards kiln-dried, commonly produce serious and some- times fatal effects. The condition of these articles of food is easily recognized, ^and their use may consequently be readily avoided; but in the case of accidental contamination with the infective matter of anthrax or other contagious disorders there is little probability of the fact being discovered until the animal exhibits indications of the disease, and even then the con- taminated food may altogether escape suspicion. Deficiency of food is a predisposing cause of disease, but when it amounts to extreme privation it becomes an exciting cause. The immediate consequences are lowering of

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			222 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		temperature, poverty of blood, irritation of the mucous membrane of the stomach, sometimes solution of the walls of the organs by the action of the gastric juice, fever and delirium�in short the ordinary indications of starvation. This condition is, of course, extremely rare in relation to horses, excepting as the result of accident or the presence of some disease in the mouth or swallow which prevents the animal from taking food. Excessive exertion has already been considered among the predispos- ing causes, and in order to become an exciting cause it must be pushed to such an extent as to induce acute congestion of the vessels of the lungs or brain or some other organ, a condition which will be quickly followed by interference with the action of the heart and total stagnation of the cir- culation. Short of this condition, which will necessarily be fatal, congestion of the important organs referred to may be followed by inflammation, which, though not necessarily fatal in its effects, is not unlikely to leave serious structural changes in the parts which are affected. The other exciting causes of disease of a cognizable kind are nervous excitement, excessive or defective secretion, impure atmosphere, and climatic changes. The action of all these has been described under the head of predisposing causes of disease. It is easy to understand that they all of them become exciting causes when pushed to an extreme. Thus, violent nerVOUS excitement may result in a fatal shock, or it may induce an attack of apoplexy. Excessive secretion may under certain circumstances cause fatal syncope; while deficient secretion not only impairs the function of the organ for which it was intended, but leads to the accumulation of poisonous matters in the system, which, if not immediately fatal, may lead to serious organic disease. Defective ventilation, uncleanliness, and drainage leading to the accumulation of large quantities of septic matter in the air may occasion rapidly fatal septic poisoning or various forms of disease, which may be commonly classed as low fevers presenting all the indications of typhoid. Climatic changes involving sudden transitions from cold to heat not only render the system liable to various disorders, but are also capable of immediately producing affections of the respiratory system from simple catarrh to bronchitis and pneumonia, in addition to internal congestion of other important organs. The immediate effect of extreme cold is rapidly to reduce the vital powers; the action of heat, on the other hand, tends to cause internal congestion of the liver and other organs, and even extreme congestion of the brain, which may be fatal. Specific causes of disease relate to all those maladies which only occur under the influence of a particular virus or poison. It has been

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		HARNESS HORSE

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	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE
	ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE	223
		223

found convenient to classify these diseases under the terms endemic, epi- demic, and contagious or infectious. Endemic diseases, or in regard to the lower animals enzootic, affect individuals in certain parts or districts only where the specific cause exists and remains. Certain malarial fevers, for instance, belong to particular parts of the world, and susceptible subjects living in those districts are liable to be attacked repeatedly, but they do not, on removal from the localities, carry the disease with them; the affec- tions, therefore, of this class are clearly not contagious or infectious. Epidemic (epizootic) differ from enzootic maladies as they do not occur persistently in a particular locality, but prevail from time to time, affecting large areas, passing through periods of accession and decline, and reappear- ing at irregular intervals not necessarily in the places in which they previously prevailed. To this class the common disease among horses, influenza, belongs. Outbreaks of the disease occur in various parts of the country at different times, and during its prevalence large numbers of horses are attacked; after an uncertain period the malady gradually ceases, only to recur in the same form, or with certain variations, probably in the following season. The cause of these maladies is not known, no specific virus has been detected, and the views with regard to their contagious or infectious qualities are very conflicting. Contagious and infectious Causes.�The two terms contagious and infectious are by advanced pathologists looked upon as interchangeable, but, notwithstanding, they are commonly used with the meanings which were formerly attached to them at the time when the word contagion was accepted as meaning transmission of disease from an affected to a healthy subject by the actual and gross contact of the virulent matter, while infection was held to represent the less obvious mode of transmission through the medium of the atmosphere or by other even less apparent means. The combined signification may now be taken to indicate the Propagation of certain maladies through the transmission in any way of the infecting matter of a specific to a healthy and susceptible subject. Con- tagion or infection may be immediate or mediate. In the first case it is necessary that there should be close association between the diseased and the healthy, so that the transmission of infection is direct; while in the other the infective matter must be conveyed by the agency of persons or substances which have been in contact with, or used about, the affected animal. Some of the contagious and infectious causes are still undefined, while others have been demonstrated to be material and recognizable; the cause, for example, of anthrax, glanders, and tuberculosis, foot and mouth disease, pleuro-pneumonia, cattle plague, sheep pox, swine fever is now Known to be in each case due to a minute organism belonging to the large

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	224	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	224

class of fungi. In the horse there are only three or four diseases which have been shown to depend upon a disease-producing microscopic organism, which in each case is distinguished by certain peculiarities of form and modes of growth. The diseases are anthrax, glanders, and tuberculosis. Strangles is the consequence of the introduction into the system of a pus (matter) producing organism belonging to the streptococci. On the basis of the fact that some contagious maladies depend for their existence on a living organism, the pure cultivation of which outside the body will produce the disease when inoculated into a susceptible subject, it has been assumed that all contagious diseases depend on the presence of similar living beings. This, however, remains to be proved with regard to a con- siderable proportion of contagious maladies. Small-pox, scarlatina, rabies, for example, and vaccinia, have not up to the present time furnished characteristic microbes, although the search for them has been pursued for a long time past, and is still being carried on with the utmost diligence by experts in different parts of the world. BACTERIA Although disease-producing micro-organisms take their place naturally among the exciting causes of disease, their life-history has attracted so much attention during the last twenty years, and has been so exhaustively studied during the last ten years, that it is imperative that they should receive special consideration. The discovery of the microscope, which, according to Professor Edgar Crookshank, was an event of two and a half centuries ago, was as a matter of course followed by the detection of organisms in animal fluids and elsewhere, the existence of which previously could only be suspected. Shortly after the microscope was first brought into use, it was found that small living things were abundantly present in all decomposing substances, and Kircher believed that similar organisms could be found in various diseases. His researches were directed to the discovery of such organisms; but the modern microscopist would conclude without hesitation that Kircher's chances of success were extremely remote with the very primitive form of optical appliances which were then at his command. The knowledge of the forms and functions of bacteria advanced along with the progress in the development of the microscope, and a considerable step was taken when Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek devoted his attention to the construction of lenses, and made such improvements in the microscope as earned for him the title of the father of microscopy. In 1675 he described, in a series of letters to the Royal Society, numerous minute organisms in rain water, well water, infusions of pepper and hay,

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			ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE 225

		and also in many vegetable and animal substances. In 1683 the discoveries were illustrated by means of wood-cuts, and Professor Crookshank, from whose historical account in his work on Bacteriology these facts are quoted, remarks that there can be little doubt that the drawings were intended to represent leptothrix filaments, vibrios, and spirilla. In another communi- cation in 1692 Kircher gives some idea of the size of these small organisms by stating that they were a thousand times smaller than a grain of sand. Further observations were made by Nicolas Andre in 1701, Lancisi in 1710, and in 1721 the plague in Toulon and Marseilles was attributed to the presence of animalcules, and the theory began to be entertained, amidst considerable ridicule, that all diseases arose from vermicules. Scientific knowledge of the subject was considerably advanced by the writings of Miiller, who criticised the previous researches, which, he contended, had been too much directed to the finding of new organisms. Miiller devoted him- self to a consideration of the forms, movements, and other biological char- acters of the microbes, and attempted a system of classification. At this time the question of the origin of micro-organisms became paramount, and the theory of spontaneous generation with its alternative, development from pre-existing germs, was widely discussed. Many supporters were found for the theory of spontaneous generation, but the balance of the evidence, obtained by numerous experiments, was in favour of the germ theory. Even as late as 1872 Bastian published an account of his experiments with the object of proving that spontaneous generation actually took place. He found that decoctions of turnip and cheese, which had been filtered and boiled for ten minutes and hermetically sealed during the boiling, con- tained micro-organisms after a time. This evidence was very soon met by the further discovery that in milk, infusions of hay, and other sub- stances the spores of bacilli are present, and that they are not destroyed by boiling. Tyndall further demonstrated that if the method on which Bastian relied was repeated two or three times, all the spores of organisms were destroyed; and thus the last attempt to demonstrate the truth of the theory of spontaneous generation utterly and entirely failed. During the controversy on the subject of spontaneous generation, several investigators, Latour, Schwann, Bassi, Henley, Davaine, Pasteur, and others, were work- ing steadily in reference to the functions of bacteria, the various processes °f fermentation, and production of disease. In 1850 Davaine and Payer discovered a rod-like body in the blood of a sheep that had died of splenic fever (anthrax); Pollender also discovered similar bodies in the same disease, m the blood of cattle. There is no doubt that this rod-like body was the °rganism which is now familiarly known as the bacillus anthracis. It was not, however, until further investigations had been carried on by Davaine,

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		226		HEALTH AND DISEASE
		226

	Pasteur, Burdon Sanderson, Duguid, and others, that the rod-like body, bacillus anthracis, was accepted as the true cause of anthrax; and the demonstration of this important fact may be looked upon as the founda- tion of the doctrine of contagium vivum, as the origin of contagious disease. Morphology of bacteria. � Bacteria have been defined as minute vegetable cells. Their claim to a vegetable origin is based upon the ex- perimental fact that they have the power of obtaining their nitrogen from ammonia, a property which is not possessed by animals. In form these organisms vary considerably: the most primitive is to be found in the extremely minute round or oval cells which are described as cocci (fig. 74),

			Fig. 74.�Bacteria and Bacilli. Highly magnified

a, Cocci, singly and varying in size. 5, Cocci in chains (streptococcus). c, Cocci in masses (staphylococcus). d and e, Cocci in pairs (diplococcus). f, Cocci in groups of four (merismopedia). ff, Cocci in packets (sarcina). h, Bac- terium (Septicemia hcemorrkagicw). i, Bacillus (B. subtilis). k, Spore formation illustrated by Bacillus anthracis. the variation in size being indicated by the prefix mega for the larger and micro for the smaller cocci, hence the terms megacocci and 'micrococci. When two circular or oval cells are joined together they are described as diplococci. When a number of cells are united to form a chain, the organism is termed streptococcus. When there is a combination of four cocci the term tetrad, or merismopedia, is applied. When the packet consists of eight divisions a sarcinacoccus is formed. When irregular heaps like bunches of grapes are found, the mass is called staphylococcus, and if irregular masses of cocci are found imbedded in a gelatinous matrix it is called ascococcus. Some micro-organisms present a rod-like character, varying considerably in length; the very short rods with rounded ends are described as bacteria, the longer ones as bacilli, which term is always

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		ETIOLOGY�CAUSES OF DISEASE 227 used when the length of the rod is more than twice its diameter. There are also other forms, distinguished by the terms vibrios and spirilla (fig. 75), and other filamentous forms. Action of bacteria in the production of disease.�When it was first suggested that diseases were due to the action of minute organisms, the question as to the mode of their action naturally arose, and various theories were promulgated. Some authorities were disposed to refer the deleterious influence of the microbes to the mechanical blocking-up of the vessels by accumulation of large numbers. This view, however, was obviously insufficient to account for the phenomena which were observed. A more reasonable view refers their baneful effects to a fermentative process which it would appear to be their particular function to originate. Some experiments which were made with reference to septic infection by Dr. Hiller went far to prove that the bacteria themselves were perfectly harmless, but were capable of inducing chemical changes in the fluids and solids of the body which led to the formation of animal poisons. Dr. Burdon San- derson, in commenting on this function of bacteria, and particularly on Dr. Hiller's experiments, remarks that having collected a considerable mass of bacterial material, that is, of bacteria obtained from various fluids in advanced putrefaction, on a filter, Dr. Hiller washed the mass, just as one washes a precipitate, a great number of times; then diffused the material ° Fig-. 75 which had been so washed in distilled water, and in- _B _Spiri]lum _undulajected it in repeated doses into the circulating blood ^x chromatic granules. ,. . _m1 ... . ₇ . _n ,� ² Sap vacuoles. oi animals. Ihe injections were entirely without effect. 3 Protoplasm. Hiller next proceeded to inoculate himself with the c, Spirillum rubrum with .-,,.., , polar cilia. same material, and again without effect. The advocates of bacteria at once objected to Hiller's experiment that the bacteria, not being accustomed to distilled water, were so injured by the repeated washings that they had lost their activity. The criticism, however, might just as well have been spared, for it afforded Hiller the opportunity of proving by experiment, which was, of course, easy enough, that the washed bacteria were as lively and as capable of development as ever. It would appear from these observations as to the function of bacteria in the production of septic infection that they are really manufacturers of poison, and that when freed themselves from the material in which they five they are perfectly innocent. This view, which was promulgated ten years ago, is the one which is in favour with advanced pathologists, and !t is a remarkable development of Dr. Hiller's researches that bacteria

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			228 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		are now constantly employed for the purpose of producing toxic fluids, which are used for purposes of diagnosis and even of curing disease, as illustrated by the present use of tuberculin for the detection of tuber- culosis, mallen for the discovery of glanders in horses, a preparation of the bacillus of diphtheria, modified by passing through the system of the horse, for the cure of diphtheria in man, and the use of the modified cultivation of the bacillus of tetanus for the cure and prevention of that disease both in the higher and lower animals. The action of microbes in the production of contagious diseases was demonstrated most perfectly by Pasteur in his researches on chicken cholera and splenic fever (anthrax). In the course of these experiments he proved not only that pure cultivations of the microbe outside the body would produce the disease with absolute certainty in healthy fowls, but also the still more important fact that by modifications in the method of growing the organism the activity of the poison would become diminished until it finally ceased. This discovery has been taken advantage of largely by bacteriologists, with the result of ascertaining that an attenuated or weaker virus may be obtained not only by modifying the method of cul- tivation in certain media, but by passing the virus through the system of an animal belonging to a different class from the one originally attacked. Thus the bacillus of anthrax, after being passed through the guinea-pig, loses its fatal activity on cattle (Sanderson and Duguid); the bacillus anthracis of whatever source, after having been passed through the white mouse, loses its fatal activity on sheep (Klein and Roy); and the same organism, when passed through the South American rodent biscachia, loses its fatal activity on cattle (Roy). That this weakening or loss of virulence does not depend upon the death of the bacilli is proved by the fact that if they are again cultivated in the ordinary way in nutritive media they recover all their former quality�power to injure and to kill. It has been asserted that there are at least three micro-organisms which are without any pathogenic property, and which may, when grown under certain conditions, acquire such properties. Thus the common hay bacillus (bacillus subtilis), according to Buchner, may by cultivation be transformed into bacillus anthracis; a common bacillus which is present in the atmosphere may assume distinct pathogenic properties if grown in an infusion of the seeds of abrus precatorius, and the common mould aspergillus, when grown on alkaline material, assumes poisonous pro- perties according to Grawitz. That these statements are absolutely with- out foundation may be positively asserted on the evidence of numerous experiments; and it may be affirmed, on the contrary, that in no case

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DIGESTION

229

does an innocent or benign organism acquire the power to excite a specific
form of disease under any method of cultivation which has yet been
devised.

The specific organisms which are found in contagious disease to which
the horse is subject, are referred to and illustrated in the description of
those affections.

DIGESTION
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL AND ITS APPENDAGES

The alimentary canal is a tube which, commencing at the mouth, is
continued by means of the pharynx and oesophagus to the stomach, where
it undergoes considerable enlargement. It then contracts again to form
the small intestine, which is a long and coiled cylinder. This is suc-
ceeded by the large intestine, which terminates in the rectum with its
outlet, the anus. The total length of the alimentary canal in the horse
is about ten times the length of the body, and hence may be estimated
at 100 feet, which may be thus apportioned:

Mouth and pharynx
Oesophagus
Stomach ...
Small intestine

! Caecum
⁰ n, rge
Colon, small
Rectum

1 foot.
3 feet.

72 �
26 �

104

The appendages of the alimentary canal are the lips, teeth, and salivary
glands in connection with the mouth, and the liver and pancreas in con-
nection with the small intestine. Each of these parts is deserving of a
short description.

The lips are fleshy, movable organs, possessing a high degree of
sensibility, and adapted for the prehension of food and for its retention
within the cavity of the mouth during mastication. Externally they have
a covering of hairy skin, some of the hairs being very large and long, and
Probably possessing an acute sense of touch; internally the lips are lined
®y mucous membrane, and present the openings of the ducts of many small
salivary glands.

The teeth, more fully described elsewhere, are hard, bony organs, of
^lrnmense importance in cutting, bruising, and breaking down the food.

Vol. i.

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		230


	In the male there are 40, namely 12 incisors, .4 canines, and 24 molars, which are thus arranged in the upper and lower jaw:� I. C. M. 3 3 1_1 6 6 3 3 11 6 6 The mare is not provided with canine teeth or tusks. The teeth are composed of three substances of different degrees of hardness, the softest being named cement, the next harder dentine, and the hardest of all enamel. These wearing away with different degrees of rapidity, leave on the grinding surface ridges and sharp edges admirably adapted for the purpose they have to fulfil, of reducing the food, with the aid of the saliva, to a pulp. Salivary glands (figs. 76, 77).�There are three chief pairs of sali- vary glands, which have received the names of parotid, submaxillary, and

Fig. 76.�Salivary Glands Exposed ¹ Parotid gland. ² Molar glands. ³ Sublingual gland. ⁴ Parotid Duet. ⁵ Masseter muscle. ⁶ Facial nerve. ⁷ Jugular vein. ⁸ Submaxillary vein. ¹⁰ Labial glands. ⁿ Labial ducts. .sublingual, together with several subordinate glands known as the molar, or buccal, labial, lingual, and staphyline. They have a united weight of about 8000 grains avoirdupois, or about 1^- lbs. The parotid gland is by far the largest of the three principal pairs, weighing as much as four times the two others put together. The sublinguals are the smallest. The position of the several glands is shown in the adjoining wood-cuts. In external appearance the salivary glands are of yellowish-white colour, and are easily broken up into small granules named lobules. In their structure they present a remote resemblance to a bunch of grapes (fig. 78), and have hence been termed racemose glands, the stalks of the

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231

DIGESTION

grapes (fig. 79) being represented by the ducts, and the grapes themselves
by the follicles or secreting parts. Many such ducts meeting together

Fig. 77.�Salivary Glands

¹ Submaxillary gland. ² ² Submaxillary duct (Wharton's duct). ³ Cluster of openings of ducts of
sublingual glands. ⁴ Tongue. ⁵ Circumvallate papilla. ⁶ Fungiform papilla?. ⁷ Jugular vein.
Submaxillary vein.

form the principal salivary duct, which is single in the case of the parotid

gland, opening on the inner side
of the cheek, whilst in the case of
the submaxillary gland it opens
on either side of the tongue on

'g- 78.�Section of Salivary Gland, showing a Group
of Lobules

Secreting cells lining a lobule. ² Central space into

Fig. 79.�Section of Salivary Gland, showing the
Connection of the Lobules with the Ducts and
their Resemblance to a Bunch of Grapes

^dei»ilunes of

retion is poured. ³ Dark cells forming the

Giannuzzi.

he floor of the mouth. The ducts of the sublingual gland are numerous,
u discharge their contents into the mouth beneath the tongue.

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			232 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		A section of several of the follicles or grape-like bodies is here shown (fig. 78), and it is seen that they are lined with cells which discharge the saliva they secrete into a central passage, whence it passes on into the duct. This small duct and others unite to form larger ducts that discharge their contents into the mouth. The saliva produced by the several glands differs considerably in its character and properties, in some, as in the submaxillary, being thick and slimy, whence that gland is named a mucous gland, whilst in others, as in the parotid, it is thin and watery, and this gland is therefore termed a serous gland. Occasionally, as in the sub- maxillary gland of man, both kinds of saliva flow from one gland. In all instances the saliva is poured forth in abundance as soon as food is intro- duced into the mouth; and as it is a typical example of the mode in which secretion is effected under nervous influence, and that on which our present knowledge of that process mainly rests, it may be advantageous to describe in some detail, but with as much sim- Fig. 80.�The Nervous Mechanism of Salivary Secretion plicity as pOSSlble, the events that take place. Let us suppose a (fig. 80) represents the surface of the tongue, with the fungiform, and B circumvallate papillae of taste upon it; c a gland opening upon the surface, L an artery ending in capillaries D surrounding the gland. There are three nerve centres implicated in the secretion of saliva, each composed of many cells, here represented by one cell only. Of these three B 9 is the glossopharyngeal, or taste centre; A 5 is the lingual branch of the fifth pair of nerves; 7 is the facial centre, which gives branches to the gland cells and to the artery; lastly, S is the sympathetic nerve, spring- ing from a centre, and supplying the gland cells and artery. When the mouth is empty, and no secretion is taking place, the sympathetic nerve keeps the blood-vessels in a contracted state, and the gland is quiescent. But if sugar, salt, or other sapid substance be placed on the tongue, the nerves in the papillse conduct the impressions they receive in the direction of the arrows to the taste centres 5 and 9. Thence a nervous impulse is transmitted to the motor centre 7, as well as by other fibres to the brain.

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DIGESTION

233

From rr, which is a branch of the facial nerve named the chorda tympani,
it will be observed, two sets of fibres emanate, one going directly to the
cells of the gland, the other to the artery. Those to the artery cause it
to dilate and so allow a
freer current of blood to
circulate in and around the
gland; the other stimu-
lates the gland cells them-
selves to secrete, and thus
leads to an abundant flow
of saliva. These nervous
impulses ceasing with the
swallowing of the food,
the sympathetic centre re-
sumes its supremacy and
contracts the blood-vessels;
then secretion ceases, to be
resumed once more when
sapid substances are again
introduced into the mouth.
The thorough mingling
of the saliva with the food
is termed insalivation, and
the process is of great im-
portance and is very per-
fectly accomplished in all
herbivora. The horse
chews its food leisurely,
^and a large quantity of
saliva is poured forth.
Observations and experi-
ments have been made

which show that this ani-
mal takes from an hour
to an hour and a half
"to eat 6 lbs. of hay, and

Fig. 81. �Abdomen Laid Open

A, Postei'ior or abdominal aorta. V, Posterior vena cava. XJ, XJ,
Ureters. R K, Right kidney. L K, Left kidney. D, Duodenum.
Pa, Pancreas. Sp, Spleen. St, Stomach. LL, Left lobe of liver.
ML, Middle lobe. EL, Right lobe.

more than half an hour
to eat the same weight of oats. It makes about two hundred boluses,
^or separate masses for swallowing, of the hay; and from forty to ninety
boluses of the oats. The weight of the dry hay is increased during
mastication from 6 lbs. to no less than 25 lbs., and of the oats from

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234 HEALTH AND DISEASE

6 lbs. to 14 lbs., the increase being entirely due to the saliva with which
they have become impregnated. The mixed saliva, or saliva resulting from
the mixture of the fluid secreted by the several glands, is an opalescent
liquid with a specific gravity of about 1005; it is alkaline to test-paper,
and contains a special ferment named ptyalin, the properties of which will
be discussed when the process of digestion of food is under consideration.

Deglutition.�After the food has been masticated it is rolled by the
tongue into a kind of ball and pressed back-
ward against the palate till it is seized by
the muscular walls of the pharynx and trans-
mitted to the oesophagus or gullet, by which
it is conducted to the stomach. In this

Peptic Gland

Fig. 82.�Stomach Laid Open

A, ^l Opening through which gas-
tric juice is discharged into the
stomach; ² divisions of the main
duct.

B, ¹ Parietal cell; ² central cells.

A, Left half. B, Right half, c, Cardiac orifice or entrance. D,
Pyloric orifice or exit. E, Duodenum. F, Bile duct and pancreatic
duct opening into the duodenum. G, Lesser curvature. H, Greater
curvature.

course there is a critical moment when the bolus is passing over the
opening of the trachea or windpipe, and the most carefully-regulated
action of many muscles is required to prevent its entry into the larynx
or trachea on the one hand and into the nose on the other.

The Stomach is a well-defined segment of the alimentary canal which
intervenes between the oesophagus or gullet and the small intestine. Seen
from behind it presents the relations shown in the adjoining wood-cut
(fig. 81), having the liver in front, the spleen to the left, and the pancreas
above. Its average capacity is 14 quarts, and it weighs about 3^ lbs. The
food enters by an opening on the left of the middle line termed the cardiac
orifice, and leaves by another on the right side called the pylorus or pyloric

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					PLATE XXII.

. i ■ a**

		■ ^::.il ■ . . : ■ " ■ : ■ ■ "^:-:-- '::'^: ..... ■ ~ " ■ ^:' ■■■■■■' �■'■■■ "� '-:' ■'.;'" '' ■ ': ;� ^:'--

	Mrs. Hope-Johnstone's Shetlands as they appeared in their Highland home

				Photo, by Reid, Wish;

			The same ponies in the hands of Mrs. Hope-Johnstone SHETLAND PONIES

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DIGESTION 235

orifice. It possesses three coats, of which the external is a thin layer of
peritoneum, the free surface of which is extremely smooth and polished,
and is kept constantly moist to permit of movement against the adjoining
viscera with the least possible friction; folds of this layer, named omenta,
keep the stomach in position and attach it to the liver and spleen. The
middle coat or layer is muscular, the outermost fibres of which run longi-
tudinally and the innermost circularly; between the two is a net-work of
nerve fibres. The muscular coat enables the stomach to contract, and by
so doing to accommodate itself to the
quantity of its contents, and it also
propels the food into the intestine.
This it accomplishes by an undulating
or worm-like motion called peristalsis.
The peculiar valve-like arrangement of
the muscular tissue near the oesophageal
opening at which the food enters, as
well as the position of this aperture,
explain the difficulty that horses ex-
perience in vomiting. The third and
internal coat is the mucous coat, which
presents a striking difference in its ap-
pearance in its right and left portions.
That of the left half (a, fig. 82) presents
a white aspect, and is covered with
flattened epithelial cells, which form a

Fig. 84.�Section through the Small Intestine

thick membrane lining the stomach,

beneath which are the numerous small

¹ Villi. ² Lacteal vessels. ³ Muscular
coat. ⁴ Serous coat.

prominences or papillae of the subjacent
mucous tissue. The right half, on the contrary, which commences abruptly
by a sinuous line where the left terminates, is soft, of pink colour, and
vascular, and presents the openings of many thousands of glands, named
peptic glands, which secrete the gastric juice. An example (fig. 83) of
such a gland is here shown. The duct, it will be observed, is wide at the
upper end, where it opens into the general cavity of the stomach, but soon
divides into two or more, which terminate below in blind extremities.

The gastric juice is a clear fluid of acid reaction, which is secreted in
large quantity when food is taken into the stomach. It contains very little
solid matter, the proportion of water being nearly 99'5 per cent, but there
^are in it two constituents which exert a powerful influence on the process of
digestion�one a ferment named pepsine and the other hydrochloric acid.

The small intestine.�The small intestine commences at the

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		236		HEALTH AND DISEASE

	pylorus, which is the strong muscular ring that separates the stomach from the intestine, and it terminates at the point where the alimentary canal suddenly enlarges to form the large intestine. Its length is more than 70 feet, and its width, when undistended with food or gases, about 1^ inch. It is suspended from the vertebral column by a double fold of membrane (peritoneum), which is here named the mesentery. The

			Fig. 85.�Large intestine a, Caecum; h, c, muscular bands; d, ileum, or terminal portion of small intestine; e, e', f, /', large colon ; g, pelvic flexure; A, single colon

blood-vessels, lacteals, and nerves of the intestine reach it by running between these two layers of the mesentery. In structure the small in- testine resembles the stomach in having an outer serous covering of peritoneum, a middle layer of longitudinal and circular muscular fibres, and an internal mucous layer. When closely examined the mucous mem- brane of the small intestine exhibits a velvety or pile-like arrangement, which is most conspicuous when the membrane is floating in water. This appearance is due to the presence of an immense number of small pro- jections about yq of an inch long, named villi (1, fig. 84), between which are the openings of minute glands (Lieberkiihnian follicles), named after Lieberkuhn, a Dutch anatomist, who first described them about 1745.

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		237
	DIGESTION	237
	DIGESTION

The villi number many millions, and are interesting as containing the lacteals, a set of vessels by which the food is absorbed and conveyed into the system. It is sufficient in this place to say that they present a central tube, which commences with a free extremity above, and ends in a net- work at the base of the villus in the wall of the intestine. These lacteal vessels are each invested by a mantle of smooth muscular tissue, and this again by a plexus of capillary blood - vessels. The whole is enclosed by a trans- parent membrane covered with cells that project into the cavity of the intestine. The Lieber- kuhnian follicles are simple tubes very closely set and lined by columnar epithelium. The se- cretion they pour into the intes- tine has high digestive powers for all kinds of aliment. The large intestine con- sists of three parts, the caecum, the colon, and the rectum. The small intestine opens into the first part of the large intestine by an orifice that is guarded by a fold of mucous membrane named the ileo-csecal valve, which prevents the return into the small intestine of the food which has entered the csecum. True 86.-La.ge intestine villi stop abruptly at this spot, _T1 . , ,. . .,. , ,. � ¹ L J ^L ' A, Ileum, or terminal portion of small intestine. B, Csecum. and are not found in the large c, e, Large colon. D, Pelvic flexure. F, Single colon. G, i 1 Eectum. H, Anus. The arrows indicate the course taken ^u " Ci. by the food in the process of digestion. The caecum is a greatly en- larged portion of the intestine. It occupies the right side of the abdomen, and has a capacity of 7 or 8 gallons. The surface is marked by four longitudinal bands of muscle, which being shorter than the other coats, pucker them into great bulging pouches. The upper extremity is curved and presents two openings, one by which the small intestine terminates m it; and the other very narrow, which communicates with the colon, or second division of the large intestine.

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		238 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	The colon is divisible into two parts�the large or double colon, and the small or floating colon. The length of the large colon is about 12 feet, and its capacity about 18 gallons. The length of the small colon is about 10 feet. The csecum and both the large and small colon have the same general arrangement of the coats as the other parts of the intestine. The rectum is a short, straight tube ex- tending from the last and shortest division of the colon. It takes a straight course backward, and ter- minates in the anus or external orifice. The mus- cular layer of this segment of the intestine is very strongly developed. The orifice is surrounded by circular fibres, which form a tolerably well - defined ring; to which the name of sphincter ani has been given. This ring keeps the aperture closed. There is also another muscle con- nected with it, which pulls the posterior part of the bowel forward after de- fsecation, and is known as the retractor ani. The liver.�This or-

			Fig. 87.�Large Intestine, showing its Position in the Abdomen. For description see Fig. 86.
				gan is the largest gland in


the body, weighing from 10 to 12 lbs. avoirdupois. It occupies the fore part and right side of the abdominal cavity, being situated immediately behind the diaphragm. It is kept in position by strong folds of the peritoneum, which extend from it to the diaphragm and adjoining organs. Its colour is reddish-brown. It is divisible into three principal lobes, of which the left is the largest

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			DIGESTION 239

	and the central one the smallest. There is, in addition, a small lobule, named the lobulus Spigelii, connected with the posterior face of the right lobe. The structure of the liver is highly complex, but it consists essentially of a mass of cells separated by connective tissue into small lobules, which are further defined and isolated by the blood-vessels and bile-ducts which surround them. The cells.�These are rounded masses of protoplasm without cell membrane, but containing a nucleus and granules of various kinds, some

		Fig. 88.�The Liver and Pancreas

¹ Right lobe. ² Middle lobe. ^s Left lobe. ⁴ Lobulus Spigelii. ⁵ Right lateral ligament. ⁶ Left lateral ligament. ⁷ Oesophagus. ⁸ Posterior vena cava. ¹⁰ Ductus choledochus or bile-duct. ⁿ Pancreatic duct. ¹² Duodenum, or first portion of small intestine. B, Pancreas. being particles of pigment, others oil globules, and others again grains of glycogen. They are separated from one another by minute blood-vessels, by the capillary bile-ducts, and by lymph spaces. Their functions are to secrete bile, to store up glycogen, and to give that substance up again to the blood when required for the purposes of the economy. The blood-vessels.�Three blood-vessels are concerned in the circu- lation of the liver. Two carry blood to it�the hepatic artery and the portal vein�while the third, the hepatic vein, returns the blood which has circulated through the gland to the posterior vena cava, which it joins just before that vessel perforates the diaphragm to discharge its blood into the right auricle of the heart. The hepatic artery divides and subdivides to form capillaries which join those of the portal vein in the lobules. The portal vein is a large trunk that contains the blood returning from the stomach and intestines, and from the spleen and pancreas. Hav- ing reached the inferior surface of the liver it penetrates into its substance,

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	240 HEALTH AND DISEASE and, as an exception to the usual behaviour of veins, instead of joining a larger vein, which in this case would be the vena cava, it proceeds to break up as if it were an artery, into smaller and still smaller branches, which run between the lobules and are hence called interlobular veins (3, 3, fig. 90). From these, minute branches are given off which enter the lobules and there form a net-work of capillary vessels ramifying among the cells (2, 2, fig. 90), and then, after uniting and reuniting, form a blood-vessel which runs down the centre of the lobule and is known as the intralobular vein (1, fig. 90). From this the blood passes out of the lobules into a set of veins beneath it (sublobular veins), and then enters the hepatic vein. The blood as it

		¹ Hepatic cell. ² Nucleus. ¹ Section of intralobular or central vein. ^s Its smaller ³ Granules of fat, pigment, and tributaries, which receive the blood from 3 and convey it to 1. glycogen. ⁴ Bile capillaries. ³ Interlobular or peripheric branches of the vena porta.

traverses this close net-work of capillaries within the lobules comes into inti- mate relations with the gland cells which occupy the spaces between them. The bile-ducts commence in the form of an extremely delicate net- work of tubes which ramify over and between the gland cells in the lobule, and take up from them the bile they have secreted. After uniting to form larger and larger tubes they at length terminate in the common bile-duct. This opens into the first part of the intestine just beyond the stomach in common with the duct of the pancreas. No gall-bladder is present in the horse. The bile is a glairy fluid of yellow, green, or olive-brown colour, alkaline reaction, nauseous smell, and bitter taste. It has a specific gravity of about l^-030. It has been estimated that a horse secretes about -^-g part of its weight of bile in twenty-four hours, or about 12 or 14 lbs. The flow of bile into the intestine increases about an hour after food has been ingested, and the quantity continues to be large for some hours, when it gradually declines till after the next meal.

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	DIGESTION
		241


Glycogen.�This substance, although especially abundant in the liver, is rather widely distributed in the body, being a constituent of the white cells of the blood, the muscles, and various embryonic or growing and developing tissues. It is a white, tasteless substance resembling ordinary starch, except that on the addition of iodine it assumes a port-wine red instead of a blue colour. It appears that the liver can produce glycogen either from the saccharine or from the nitrogenous group of alimentary substances, but it is not increased when fats are given in excess. The livers of rabbits fed on carrots, and of dogs fed on lean meat, both contain abundance of glycogen. It is a store of easily oxidizable material, which, after being converted into sugar, can be absorbed by the blood at the liver, and being carried to the muscles is there burnt off, giving rise to the liberation of muscular force and to animal heat. It disappears both in muscles and in the liver after prolonged and violent exertion. The pancreas.�This gland, commonly but incorrectly spoken of as the "sweetbread", is deeply seated in the abdomen, lying above the stomach, between it and the spine, and occupies the space enclosed by the loop of the duodenum or first division of the small intestine. It is of pinkish-gray colour, and weighs about 1^ lb. It is a highly important gland, its secretion exercising a powerful digestive action on starches, oils, and proteids. Food.�The natural food of the wild horse is the fresh moist succulent grasses and cereals of the temperate zones. These include many species of the G-raminacese, and plants like the mallow, rumex, and ranunculus from other orders. In the domesticated animals, however, whilst grass forms part of the food for part of the year, many working horses in large towns live on the dried stems, flowers, and fruit of the grasses, with some addition from the seeds of the leguminous plants. The food of an average-sized horse performing a moderate amount of work may be taken in England at 12 lbs. of hay, 10 lbs. of oats, 2 lbs. of crushed maize, and 8 lbs. of chaff, with five or six gallons of water, accord- ing to the requirements of the animal.¹ In considering the changes wrought in the food during the process of digestion, it is to be borne in mind that the main constituents of the various plants eaten by the horse, whether in the open field or in the form of hay, corn, and beans, are reducible to a few groups which are named proteids, farinaceous and saccharine com- pounds, oils, vegetable acids, water, and salts. The proteids constitute the most important of the food constituents because they contain nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. They are repre- In France, in 1885, the omnibus companies supplied each horse with 10 lbs. of oats, 8 lbs. of bruised maize, a'nd about 2 lbs. of f everole, a sort of small bean, the product of Vicia fdba.*

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			242 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		sented by the gluten of wheat, the legumin of beans and peas, and the aleuron grains of many seeds. Chemical analysis shows that they contain, in every 100 parts, 52 of carbon, 7 of hydrogen, 16 of nitrogen, and 24 of oxygen, with about 1 per cent of sulphur. In the animal they exist in two conditions�in the fluid and soluble, as in white of egg, the fibrin and albumen of blood, and the casein of milk; and in the solid and insoluble form, as in the substance of muscle, connective tissue, and the protoplasm of various cells. The starches, sugars, and gum have been classed together under the general term of the carbohydrates, since one of their constituents, carbon, is combined with oxygen and hydrogen united in the proportion to form water. The compositions of several varieties is represented by the formula C¹², H²⁰, O¹⁰, of others by C¹², H²⁴, O¹². The starches are very widely dis- tributed in plants, appearing as the first evident products of assimilation, and being formed by the decomposition of the carbon-dioxide contained in the air and water they absorb. They are sometimes found in solution, as in the case of various sugars, but more commonly in the form of grains occupying the spaces in the interior of cells, and constituting a reserve of nutriment which is drawn upon in the course of the growth and develop- ment of the plant, but which is also a valuable aliment capable of being assimilated by animals. Starch is abundant in many fruits, as in the banana and fig; in seeds, as in those of all the cereals; in rhizomes, as in the arrow-root; in tubers, as in the potato; and in stems, as in that of the sago palm. The process of the ripening of fruit consists in large measure in the change of starch into pectin, dextrin, and sugar, under the influence of light and heat. The particular form of sugar, as cane, grape, beet, maple, eucalyptus, or mushroom, depends on the special activities of the plant, and the several forms differ inter se in their solubility, crystalline form, chemical composition, action on polarized light, and other characters. The oils found in plants are divisible into two groups, the fixed and the volatile. The fixed oils are compounds formed of glycerine united with the fatty acids; thus, palmitin is composed of glycerine and palmitic acid, stearin of stearic acid and glycerine, olein of oleic acid and glycerine. The process of emulsification is simply that of reducing them to fine globules by shaking them up with any glairy fluid. Such emulsions may last unchanged for a considerable period, but as a rule the mist of oil runs together into droplets and these again into drops, which collect together, and the original condition of a layer of oil is recovered. There is no chemical alteration in emulsification. The process of saponification is, on the contrary, attended with a profound change in the chemical composition of the oil or fat. It is effected when the oily substance is intimately

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		243
	DIGESTION	243
	DIGESTION

mixed with an alkaline solution, as of soda or potash. The alkali displaces glycerine and combines with the acid. Soaps, therefore, are oleates, palmitates, margarates, or stearates of soda, or potash, or lime. These salts, as they may be called, are capable of traversing animal membranes, which is not readily accomplished by the oils in their natural state. The volatile oils are very numerous, and give to different plants their peculiar and characteristic odours. Thus the smell of new-mown hay is due to the volatile oil (cumarin) which is contained in the Anthoxanthum odoratum, the odour of mint to the oil of mint, and so on; the quantity being usually small, in mint, for example, not exceeding 1 or 2 per cent of the dried plant. In regard to the salts, they may be divided into two groups�those formed by the so-called mineral acids, such as the sulphuric, nitric, phos- phoric, hydrochloric, and silicic acids, in combination with the bases, sodium, potassium, magnesium, lime, and others; and those formed by the organic acids, which are combined with the same bases, and of which the chief are oxalic acid, found in such plants as the oxalis, dock, rhubarb, and spinach, malic acid in apples, tartaric acid in the grape, formic acid in the nettle, acetic acid in chamomile, propionic acid in milfoil, butyric acid in the pansy, and many others. If we now consider the composition of the ordinary food of the horse in the light of these preliminary remarks, we shall find that whilst such substances as oats and maize can be analysed with great exactness, it is almost impossible to give even an approximate account of the composition of hay, since it varies with the soil, the species forming the herbage, and even with the period of growth of the plants of which it is composed; the saccharine principles being most abundant at the period of inflor- escence, mucilage during the period of the maturation of the seed, and the proteids, saline and bitter substances in the aftermath or later crop. The analyses of M. Boussingault give as the average percentage compo- sition of ordinary hay�Water, from 13 to 16 parts; proteids, 7 to 135; sugars and starch, 44; woody tissue and cellulose, 24; fats, 4; ashes, 5 to 8 parts. A large proportion of the ashes consists of silex, and the remainder is nearly all composed of the salts of calcium, potassium, and sodium. The composition of oats is�Water, 12; proteids, 10 to 14; fats, 5 to 7; starches, gum, and sugar, 50 to 55; woody fibre, 10; and salts, 3. Of maize�Water, 13; proteids, 10 to 15; fat, 4'5; farinaceous compounds, 68'5; woody fibre, 2'5; ashes, 15. It may just be added that the proportion of nitrogen to carbohydrate in the different cereals is as follows:�wheat, 2'29 : 78^-64; rye, 2-17:78-81; barley, 2-06:75-29; oats, 1-90:65-93; maize, 1-81:78-74; ^rice, 1-45 : 88-01; millet, 1-95 : 76-09. In green food the quantity of water

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	244	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	244

in 100 parts is very considerable, but when it is dried the total quan- tity of nitrogen is tolerably uniform, being in peas, 4'69; vetches, 5"57; turnips, 4'76; carrots, 2. It must be remembered that a considerable proportion of nitrogen is contained in other constituents of plants which are not proteids, and that they are not all capable of undergoing digestion. Thus, for example, more than half the nitrogen of lettuces, water-cress, and spinach exists in the form of nitrates, which are useless as flesh-formers; and the same holds with the amides of beet-root, potatoes, and unripe pulse. In giving a connected account of the process of digestion in the horse of its ordinary food, hay and oats, the first point to be noted is, that in the mouth these substances are subjected to mastication and insalivation. The large and uneven surfaces of the molar teeth bruise and break down the stems and fruit of cereals, and the seeds of leguminous plants, enabling them to be more readily acted on by the several fluids of the alimentary canaL Simultaneously with this crushing process, the contraction of the muscles moving the jaws, and the stimulus of the sense of taste, causes an abundant secretion of saliva, the quantity having been ascertained by experiment to amount to between 80 and 90 lbs. per diem, most of which is reabsorbed in its further course down the alimentary canal. The saliva softens the food, enables it to be rolled into a coherent mass, and facilitates its deglutition. In addition, it exerts a powerful chemical action on the starchy compounds, for it contains a ferment named ptyalin which has the power of converting starch, through several intermediate stages, first into dextrin and then into a form of sugar named maltose. This action is termed diastatic or amylolytic, and has for its result the chemical union of water with starch, thus changing it from an insoluble substance into a soluble one; from starch, that is to say, which will not pass through an animal membrane and cannot therefore be absorbed, into sugar, which readily permeates the walls of the blood-vessels and lacteals. The ferment is most abundant, or most active, in the saliva which flows from the parotid gland. It has not indeed been isolated, but it is known to act far more energetically on boiled than on raw starch. The presence of dextrin, mal- tose and a little grape-sugar, after the addition of saliva to boiled starch, is easily demonstrable after a minute or two; whilst with raw starch, especially in the case of wheat starch and potato starch, a much longer time is re- quired. The proteids and oils of the food undergo no change in the mouth. Gastric digestion.�Having traversed the oesophagus or gullet, the crushed and moistened food enters the stomach and is immediately sub- jected to the action of the acid gastric juice. This is a clear fluid which is secreted by the innumerable minute glands in response to the stimulus imparted to the mucous membrane by the presence of food. The acidity of

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DIGESTION

245

the gastric juice is due to hydrochloric acid, which exists in the proportion
of about two parts in 100 of the juice, though occasionally the butyric or
phosphoric acid may be also present. In addition to the acid there is also
a ferment named pepsine, and the acid and the pepsine together are the
main agents in the process of gastric digestion in the adult horse. In the
foal there is a second ferment, which coagulates and acts on the casein of
milk. The action of the ferment and acid is chiefly exerted upon the
proteids or nitrogenous constituents of the
food, which it causes to swell up, dissolve,
and undergo a chemical change into soluble
peptones.

In regard to the oils, the only change
that takes place in them in gastric digestion
is that their cell walls are dissolved and the
oil set free; and although no chemical action
is exerted upon the oil, the constant churn-
ing movements to which the food is subjected

by the stomach reduces it to the condition

C-fe=E=>

of an emulsion. The starches are not acted

D-

upon by the gastric juice, but the food is so
thoroughly impregnated with saliva that pro-
bably the action of that fluid is continued in
the stomach. Solution and absorption of
peptones, salts, and sugars takes place to a

F �

certain extent in the stomach, but a portion

°f these substances mingled with the emulsi-
fied oils filter through the pyloric orifice into
the duodenum, or first part of the intestine,
towards the close of digestion the pylorus

Fig. 91.�Section through the Duodenum,
showing Brunner's Glands

A, Villus. B, Follicle of Lieberkiihn.
C, Muscularis mucosae. D, Brunner's
gland. E, Connective tissue. F, Mus-
cular coat.

or right opening of the stomach relaxes to
^a greater degree, and the remains of the meal enter the intestine.

Gastric digestion in the horse lasts about three hours, but is accelerated
" water is ingested. The observations of Colin show that the successive
Portions of food swallowed retain to a considerable extent the order in
which they have been ingested, and do not mix together much if no water
*^s given.

Intestinal digestion.�As soon as the chyme has passed from the
^stornach into the intestine it excites the flow of bile from the liver, of pan-
creatic juice from the pancreas, and of intestinal fluid from the numerous
J-'ieberkuhnian follicles and glands of Brunner that are distributed through
^tne mucous membrane. All these fluids are alkaline, and hence the reaction

Vol. I. 17

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	246


changes, so that from being acid the chyme becomes alkaline. The bile not only neutralizes the acidity of the latter, but it aids in the enmlsi- fication and saponification of the oils and fats. It also promotes their absorption, and it acts as a stimulant to the muscular walls of the intestine, causing them to contract, and assisting in this way the onward movement of the intestinal contents. It seems to interfere with or arrest the further action of the gastric juice on the proteids. That action, however, is recom- menced by the pancreatic juice, which can form soluble peptones from the insoluble proteids in an alkaline medium, just as the gastric juice did in an acid one. The pancreatic juice is in fact the most important of the digestive fluids. Comparatively small in quantity, coagulating into a solid mass by heat, it is found to contain three ferments, named trypsin, steapsin, and amylopsin. Trypsin converts proteids into soluble peptones, but in a somewhat different way from that in which the change is effected by gastric juice, and it can carry the change one step further by decomposing them into leucin and tyrosin. Steapsin possesses the power first of emulsionizing and then of saponifying the oleaginous compounds, thus aiding in their absorption; and lastly�the amylopsin effects similar changes in the starches to those which we have j ust seen are accomplished by the saliva. The intestinal juice appears to have an action resembling, though less powerful than, that of the pancreatic secretion, acting upon all the organic constituents of the food, rendering them soluble and aiding in their absorption. From the small intestine the now greatly modified food mass passes into the large intestine; and when the enormous capacity of the caecum and colon are considered, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that a still further effort is made to convert the materials that have hitherto success- fully resisted the warmth, moisture, and powerful action of the several digestive fluids secreted by the salivary glands, the stomach, liver, pancreas, and intestinal mucous membrane, into useful nutritive substances, and at the same time to effect their absorption. A considerable development of infusory animalcules, as well as of micro-organisms in the form of bacilli and micrococci, takes place in the large intestine. This subject may be concluded by giving the results of the observations of Colin in regard to the progress of the food through the alimentary canal. He kept the animals fasting for twenty-four hours from solids and liquid, then fed them with about 5-\| lbs. of hay, and about 2\ gallons of water, to which must be added an estimated equal quantity of saliva, and killed them at different periods. Two hours after the beginning of the meal the stomach had passed into the intestine one-half in weight of all that had been ingested; two- fifths of the dry hay had been retained, the remaining three-fifths had

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			STROXTON TOM 15871

		Bay Shire Horse by Honest Tom 5123; dam, 20944 Stroxton Diamond. Winner of the Challenge Cup, S. H. S., 1903, and numerous other prizes The Property of James Forshaw, Esq.

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		DISEASES OF THE LIPS
		DISEASES OF THE LIPS	247
			247

	entered the small intestine, but one-fifth only was contained in the small intestine and caecum, the missing two-fifths having been dissolved and absorbed. There was a great excess in the fluid owing to the addition of the gastric, biliary, pancreatic, and intestinal fluids. In another horse killed under the same circumstances, three hours after the meal a larger proportion of the solids had been absorbed, had entered the small intestine and had been passed on to the caecum. After five hours only half the hay supplied could be recovered from the stomach, small intestine, and caecum, the other half having been either dissolved and absorbed, or transmitted to the colon to be quickly ejected as excrementitious matter. Colin found some remains, though small in quantity, in the stomach after even so long a period as 36 or 38 hours. It would appear, then, that very soon after food is ingested it in part passes through the stomach and reaches the intestine and caecum, in all of which digestion is simultaneously proceeding, the fluid that is added to it by the glands being least in the stomach, very large in the small intestine, and immense in the caecum, and that absorp- tion is taking place of the dissolved material in all these cavities.

2. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM-ITS DISEASES AND INJURIES DISEASES OF THE LIPS The lips may become diseased from a variety of causes. In some instances the disease may be of constitutional origin, in others of a purely local character. Besides common ailments, these organs are also now and again the seat of specific eruptions arising in the course of contagious diseases. In addition to abrasions and other injuries, they are liable to suffer by exposure to such substances as lime or blistering material, used °n the limbs and other parts without adequate precaution having been taken to prevent the animal from rubbing them with his muzzle. Vesicles °r blisters and erosions may in this way be produced on the outer skin, making contact with dry food painful and chewing difficult. v esicles produced in this way generally run into one another, causing the skin to crack and ulcerate and the tissues of the lips to become swollen, ^and in this condition their mobility is more or less impaired and food is gathered with difficulty. Old wooden mangers, splintered by animals affected with the vice of ^crib-biting, are sometimes responsible for sore lips, which are also induced

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			248 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		by improper removal of warts and by indiscriminate use of caustics so much in favour with old-world farriers. On the muzzle and lips of colts at pasture warts will sometimes form in countless numbers, and their proper treatment will come under consideration when speaking of diseases of the skin generally. The angles of the mouth are also sometimes observed to be cracked, ulcerated, and inflamed, as a result of the use of sharp bits and the cruel and foolish practice adopted by breakers of the more ignorant class of placing blistering material upon them with a view to obviating "hard mouths ". No method more calculated to defeat its object could be devised, as the ultimate result is thickening of a permanent nature and reduction of the sensibility of the parts. Oil of vitriol and sugar smeared upon the bit, with the object of producing a glossy coat, is another device of ignorant carters, resulting in sore lips. The mucous membrane covering the inner side of the lips is liable to become injured from without by blows forcing it against the teeth, or from extension of inflammation from the corners of the mouth. In certain forms of inflammation of the mouth, as well as in horse-pox, these organs are the seat of eruptions which may occur on one side or the other or both. Treatment.�In this connection no great difficulty need be antici- pated. Of the troubles we have been speaking, most can be successfully combated by remedies with which the patient himself will assist us. We refer, of course, to the use of warm, sloppy food, as bran mashes, boiled meal, pulped roots, scalded bread, and like emollients, which must necessarily be brought into contact with the parts affected and produce a good effect before the patient can swallow them. To guard against irritation of the injured surface, hay, corn, and chaff should be scalded and rendered soft and easy of mastication. Nature alone will sometimes effect repair with these simple precautions and the rest which they afford to the inflamed parts. Medicaments of the simplest kind should be chosen if any are needed. In alum solution we have almost a specific for sore places of this kind, though more active agents may be requisite where ulceration and indolent wounds require to be treated. It may be necessary to stimulate a pale, languid sore by touching it with a solution of nitrate of silver, or sulphate of copper (blue stone), or some other agent of a similar character, to induce the healing process. A liberal dressing of vaseline or lard, to soften the skin, will afford the patient comfort, and should not be omitted in dealing with a delicate horse which is easily deterred from feeding. The old-fashioned remedy known as Friar's-Balsam has an excellent healing effect, and is a most suitable appli-

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			INFLAMMATION OF THE MOUTH 249

		cation to lip wounds. It should be applied by means of a camel-hair brush morning and evening. INFLAMMATION OF THE MOUTH (Stomatitis) Inflammation of the mouth presents itself in a variety of forms, some- times resulting in an eruption of white raised spots on the tongue, gums, and other parts of the cavity. In this form it is commonly spoken of as aphthae or thrush. Another and altogether distinct variety of the disease is marked by a more intense and deep-seated inflammation, which soon causes death of the part attacked and ends in sloughing and deep- seated ulceration. Simple stomatitis may be the result of a disordered stomach, or arise out of the administration of medicines insufficiently diluted, or the mistaken administration of liniments or embrocations for draughts. It results occa- sionally from the stings of wasps, as also from the irritating influence of acrid plants. In young animals it arises in the course of natural changes going on in the teeth, and in old ones from mechanical irritation and laceration (wounding) which the sharp and irregular edges of their teeth inflict on the tongue and cheeks in the act of feeding, and while the animal is being driven with the bit tightly drawn up in the mouth. Symptoms.�The symptoms exhibited in this form of the disease are very characteristic. The mouth is filled with a thick ropy saliva and emits a disagreeable odour. The membrane lining it is red, hot, tender, and swollen, and in some cases the epithelium (outer surface) peels off from it in thin fragments. Food is taken cautiously, or altogether refused; or it may, after a few turns between the teeth, be cast from the mouth or, as it is termed, " quidded ". Cold water is eagerly sought after, and should an opportunity occur, the patient plunges the mouth into it and finds relief in its cooling effect on the inflamed and heated surface. Should the irritation extend to the throat, as it sometimes will, difficulty may be experienced in swallowing, more especially solid food. Treatment. � Treatment of this form of the disease must depend more especially upon the cause to which it is referred. Where it arises out of stomach derangement a dose of aperient medicine is called for. This may take the form of a suitable dose of aloes, to be given after two or three feeds of soft bran. After the physic has ceased to act, tone may be imparted to the stomach and digestion assisted by the administration of a powder consisting °f common salt, bicarbonate of potash, and gentian root, which should be

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	250	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

given in the food morning and evening. Careful dieting will also require to be observed until the mouth resumes its natural condition, and of course the bit must be withheld from it until this is effected. In all cases of this disease the teeth should be carefully examined, and where irregularities are found to exist, they must be promptly corrected by the free use of the tooth rasp or other means, according to the nature of the disturbance. (See "Diseases of the Teeth".) Inflammation resulting from stings and chemical irritants calls for physic and the application of soothing agents to the injured surface. A suitable electuary for the last-named purpose may be compounded by adding a little extract of belladonna to glycerine and treacle. Of this a small portion may be put into the mouth three or four times a day, or it may be swabbed over now and again w^Tith linseed-oil. APHTHA This form of inflammation of the mouth, occasionally seen in foals and other young creatures, is characterized by an eruption on the tongue and other parts of the membrane, and sometimes also on the lips. It resembles in its main features the malady termed " Thrush" in the human infant, and is believed to have its origin in a similar if not identical cause, viz.: a minute fungus or microscopic plant. In certain states of the system this organism {Oidium albicans), on gaining access to the mouth, finds in the mucous membrane the necessary conditions for its growth and development, as the result of which inflam- mation is produced, at first in numerous small scattered centres, and later over a considerable surface of the cavity. In some cases it may reach the throat and extend to the air-passage, or pass downward along the gullet and invade the stomach. Symptoms.�As we have previously remarked, aphthse is a disease of early life, and seldom seen after the suckling period. Although characterized by an eruption in the mouth it is often attended by more or less constitutional disturbance, in connection with which derangement of the stomach is a marked feature. In some instances, however, it is of a mild character and passes away without attracting particular notice. In the more severe form it is ushered in by general signs of illness, of which dulness, a staring coat, and looseness of the bowels are the more conspicuous. An inspection of the mouth discloses a number of grayish- white spots scattered over the tongue, the cheeks, and other parts. These may be so numerous and closely packed as to run one into the other and spread over a large surface of the lining membrane. Later the mouth

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	APHTHiE
		251


becomes covered with sores, saliva hangs about the lips, and the breath becomes offensive. Where the disease invades the throat there is difficulty m swallowing. Disordered digestion is shown by looseness of the bowels. or diarrhoea, and straining may be present, when the dung is sour and foul smelling. Very young foals when observed to let go the teat without obtaining satisfaction, or when presenting a tucked-up appearance, should be examined as to their mouth. The reader familiar with sucking colts is of course aware that in health they make very frequent visits to the maternal bottle, taking short intervals of rest, varied with gallops, and returning for more nourishment in a few minutes; but a colt with a sore mouth will probably drop his ears and shake his head while trying again and again to lay hold of the teat. Treatment.�In dealing with this disease it is important to remember that any unwholesome condition of the milk of the dam will not only predispose to it, but likewise tend to aggravate it when once it has become, established. Attention, therefore, should be directed to the health of the- mare, and care be taken that the food and water she receives is not only of good quality but suited to her condition as a matron. Should she be at all out of health a little laxative or alterative medicine should be prescribed at once and the diet carefully selected and administered. If the dam is being worked it would be desirable to discontinue her services and restrict her movements to gentle exercise. In addition her teats and udder should be sponged with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid- morning and evening. With regard to the foal, a small dose of castor-oil at the outset of the¹disease, in a little warm milk, will be found of considerable advantage m cleansing the stomach and bowels from the offensive and irritating matters they contain, and aid at the same time in subduing the existing inflammation of the mouth. This may be followed by 10- to 30-grain doses of bicarbonate of potash, morning and evening, in a little of the mare's milk. Although in slight cases the disorder in the mouth may pass off without interference on the part of the attendant, its duration will be shortened ^and the creature's comfort considerably enhanced by the judicious use °f simple remedies�as sponging out the mouth with weak vinegar and water, or a solution of alum, or the application of borax and honey, or ^a mixture of glycerine and tannic acid, to the affected parts. Should the disease of the mouth be severe, and continue to divert the foal from the teat, debility and exhaustion must be guarded against by drenching the little patient with milk from the mare, or it may be encouraged to take small quantities from time to time off the palm of the hand. We have

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	252


known a sponge saturated with milk to prove a useful vehicle for convey- ing it into the mouth when the teat has been refused. These artificial means of feeding, however, should be discontinued as soon as possible, 01 the youngster may acquire bad habits and prove troublesome later on. Weakness and prostration in these cases must be met by the administration of small doses of brandy added to the milk and potash prescribed above. and the little sufferer should be kept warm and protected from draught INFLAMMATION OF THE TONGUE (Glossitis) By glossitis is understood an inflamed condition of the substance of the tongue. It is a disease of seldom occurrence in the horse and usually attended with some danger, not only on account of its immediate effects, but also in consequence of its liability to leave behind chronic impairment of the function of the organ, with attendant difficulties of mastication and deglutition or swallowing. Causes.�With rare exceptions inflammation of the tongue has its origin in some form of direct irritation applied to it from without. Although so favourably situated and guarded it is nevertheless at times exposed to mechanical injury. The reckless use of too severe bits, splinters of wood, nails, and other foreign substances contained in the food, bottles broken in the act of drenching, forcible pulling and tearing the organ in the administration of balls and other operations are now and again accountable for the disease. The most common, but rarely serious, injury to the tongue is that inflicted by the edges of the molar teeth, or, as they are termed, " grinders", which in old horses become very sharp and irregular as the result of wear. A similar injury may befall young animals when shedding their suckling teeth. It does not follow that general inflam- mation of the tongue should necessarily result from any of these accidents. Were it so the disease would be of common occurrence. When, however, the wounds so inflicted become " poisoned ", i.e. inoculated by decomposing organic matter�as likely occurred in the historic Orme case,�then to the primary injury is added a septic or putrid condition resulting in diffused inflammation of the entire organ. In some cases the sting of a bee or a wasp may be the inducing cause, as may also chemical and corrosive substances, accidentally or designedly given. Symptoms.�The tongue is more or less enlarged sometimes through- out its entire substance, and may protrude from the mouth for a con- siderable distance. In this state it is hard, tense, and painful to the touch. At first red in colour, it soon becomes of a dark purple hue as the teeth close upon it and impede circulation. Thick ropy saliva, having

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		INFLAMMATION OF THE TONGUE 253 an offensive odour, falls from the angles of the mouth, the head is poked out, and the face wears an anxious and hideous expression. In very acute cases the throat and neighbouring glands become swollen, as the result of which the breathing is rendered difficult and noisy, even to danger of suffocation. The constitutional disturbance will be in proportion to the severity of the attack. The enlarged and paralysed state of the tongue renders feeding and drinking impossible, save in the milder forms of the disease. Where the disease is protracted, abscesses may form in the substance of the organ, or the surface may become eroded and covered with sores. Treatment.�When the case is recognized in its first stage a dose of physic should be given at once, either as a ball or draught, while it is still practicable. It is dangerous, however, to attempt this when the tongue has become much enlarged or torn, but it may be possible to induce the animal to take an aperient dose of Epsom-salts dissolved in the drink- ing-water or mixed with a sloppy mash. Prompt application of mustard or turpentine liniment to the sides of the throat and between the jaws will assist in checking the progress of the disease; and relief to engorged vessels and swollen tissues may be afforded by scarification, i.e. piercing the organ m several places with the point of a lancet or sharp penknife. When this operation is rendered necessary, care should be taken that the mouth is first washed out with antiseptic solution, and that the instrument employed !s clean, or the mischief may be seriously increased. The mouth should now be syringed out for ten minutes with warm water containing a little nitrate or chlorate of potash. After the lapse of an hour ice-cold water should be substituted for warm, and the injections should be repeated for several minutes four or five times a day. If nourish- ment cannot be taken by the mouth, it must be given per rectum in the form of fine oatmeal gruel and beef-tea, or raw eggs and milk. Where suffocation threatens, an opening will require to be made in the wind-pipe. This procedure, as well as the one already referred to, calls for ^skill and judgment, and should be entrusted to a qualified veterinarian. After the inflammation has subsided, the tongue will continue to be stiff and sore for some time. When feeding becomes possible, therefore, the diet should be of a soft and soothing character. Warm, sloppy mashes, ^Well boiled roots, and steamed chaff are the most suitable fare until the tongue has recovered its normal condition. In all cases a careful inspection of the tongue and teeth should be ^made at the outset for causes indicated above. Foreign agents, if found *° exist, will require to be removed, and any dental disorder corrected ^by suitable means. (See "Diseases of Teeth".)

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	254	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

CONGESTION OF THE PALATE (Lampas) Lampas is a congested state of that portion of the palate situated immediately behind the upper row of front teeth. It is mostly seen in young animals during the period when the teeth are being changed, but adult horses are also liable to it as the result of disorders affecting the stomach and bowels, and as an accompaniment of fever attacks. It is of no great consequence in itself, but has been regarded with ex- aggerated importance for generations past, and has been the pretext for end- less cruelty by ignorant grooms and pretenders to the art of horse surgery. Symptoms.�In this state of the palate the act of feeding is materi- ally interfered with, and the horse is noticed to fail in his appetite .or drop the food from his mouth. Examination of the palate shows the membrane to be swollen and to extend below the teeth. It is red, tense, and painful to the touch, and not infrequently attended with slight fever and general constitutional disturbance. Treatment.�In large numbers of instances swollen palate is of a temporary or passing nature, and subsides without medical or surgical interference; but the severity and continuance of some cases call for special attention. In these it may be desirable to scarify the palate with a sharp, clean lancet or penknife, and remove a few ounces of blood; or, in the case of digestive troubles, a dose of physic, followed by a short period of dieting, will be sufficient to effect a cure. While the pain and swelling continues, the food will be rendered more agreeable to the patient by being damped or scalded. It need hardly be said that the practice of burning the "bars" with a hot iron is bar- barous and useless, and it should be generally known that such acts are cruel and punishable by law. INFLAMMATION OF THE THROAT (Pharyngitis) Sore throat, as this disease is commonly termed, is an ailment of frequent occurrence in the horse, appearing on some occasions in the course of one or another of the contagious fevers to which this animal is liable, and on others as an independent local affection, the result of cold. Young horses suffer most frequently and severely, and especially when transferred from the pure air of the open pasture to the foul atmosphere of the stable. The disease is usually limited to the vascular membrane lining the cavity, and may be of the mildest description. In this case it passes

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	INFLAMMATION OF THE THROAT
		255


away quickly without causing much inconvenience or suffering to the patient. In other instances, however, it extends deep into the tissues of the throat and neighbouring glands, giving rise to the formation of abscess, with its attendant suffering and danger. Causes.�Sore throat often follows upon exposure to inclement weather and sudden changes of temperature, when it appears as part of a common cold. Spring and autumn, while the hair is being shed and a new coat produced, are the times of greatest susceptibility to this form of the malady, and the liability to contract it is materially increased by the depressing influence of over-work and close, foul stables. It may also arise from direct injury inflicted by the lodgment of foreign substances swallowed with the food, or from chemical irritants administered by mis- take or otherwise, and it has been suggested that the throat sometimes becomes irritated and inflamed in the colt as the result of "teething". It almost invariably exists to a greater or less extent associated with " strangles", in which we experience the most severe and dangerous examples of the disease. In certain outbreaks of influenza, catarrhal sore throat is a special feature of the disorder, while in others it is of seldom occurrence. It is difficult to assign a reason for this discrepancy, but probably it may be in some way connected with atmospheric constitution. Inflammation affecting the mouth not infrequently extends to the throat unless kept under control. Symptoms.�The symptoms of pharyngitis or sore throat vary with the severity of the disease, but they are, nevertheless, very characteristic. Difficulty or inability to swallow is the most striking feature of the affec- tion. The food, after mastication, is held in the mouth for a brief period before any attempt is made to swallow, and then it is suddenly bolted, while the head is sharply raised or jerked to one side as the effect of pain. The throat may show some fulness, and pressure applied from without excites pain. The glands are sometimes enlarged and tender, in which case the head will be poked out and carried somewhat stiffly. " here the impediment to swallowing is considerable, some of the water returns through the nostrils in the act of drinking, carrying with it frag- ments of masticated food. In cases where the disease extends to the respiratory passage there Will be coughing, especially with each attempt to swallow. In this dis- ease the mouth contains a large quantity of thick saliva, some of which trickles from the corners and hangs from the lips in ropy lengths. In rare instances the inflammatory action results in suppuration and the formation of an abscess. Here the breathing is rendered difficult and

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	256	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

noisy, the body temperature is raised, the pulse quickened, and marked constitutional disturbance exists. After maturing, the abscess breaks either outwardly or inwardly, in the latter case discharging the matter (pus) through the nostrils, when the patient experiences immediate and obvious relief. Treatment.�The course to be adopted in dealing with this disease will depend very much on the severity of the attack. In a large number of instances a short course of warm, sloppy diet, enjoined with a few days' rest and careful nursing, is all that is required to bring about recovery. If, however, the attack assumes an acute character, then treatment must be of a more active kind. Here applications to the throat, both exter- nally and internally, will be necessary. Outwardly a mustard poultice, or flannel bandages wrung out in hot water and frequently renewed should be resorted to, while hot vapour is conveyed to the inflamed part by inhalation from a nose-bag containing bran, or what is better, sawdust saturated with boiling water. A little electuary, composed of extract of belladonna, nitrate of potash, and treacle, should be deposited on the tongue four or five times a day by means of a stick. The patient will suck it in, and in this way the throat may be anointed and soothed without subjecting him to the annoyance and excitement of drenching. In all cases of this kind the bowels should be gently moved. For this purpose 2 to 4 ounces of sulphate of magnesia may be given in a feed of scalded bran, and repeated at intervals of twenty-four hours three or four times if necessary, or it may be given in the drinking-water if the patient prefers that mode of taking it. Where outward swelling of the throat appears, the part should be freely fomented and poulticed. One of two results may be expected to follow this line of treatment: either the swelling will become resolved and disappear, or an abscess will develop in its substance. The latter will be made known by the appearance of a soft, moist, fluctuating spot on some part of the surface. When this state has been reached the abscess must be laid open and its contents allowed to escape. In the event of its " pointing " inwards the matter will, as we have already indicated, pass out by the nostrils. In either case instant relief will follow, and should no intercurrent drawback arise, a speedy recovery may be anticipated. At this stage of the disease, treatment must be mainly directed towards improving the general condition and re-establishing convalescence, while at the same time tone must be given to the diseased parts. In the first connection a plentiful supply of good food will be needed, but it is most desirable that it should be judiciously selected and prepared. Scalded corn and chaff, with bran, and a little boiled linseed, form a suitable diet

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	ABSCESS OF THE THEOAT	257
	ABSCESS OF THE THEOAT

at this time. It should, however, be given in small quantities and often. Where bodily weakness is very marked, two or three eggs may be added to the diet as many times a day, and an ounce or two of alcohol may with advantage be mixed with the drinking-water morning and evening. Later on, and as the animal recovers appetite and strength, mineral and vegetable tonics in the form of sulphate of iron and gentian will aid in bringing about complete restoration to health. ABSCESS OF THE THROAT The growth of abscess in this situation is of seldom occurrence, except in connection with strangles. Occasionally, however, it results from the lodgment of a foreign body in the throat, as a thorn, thistle- prick, splinter of wood, pin, fine nail, or other similar substance. Pharyn- gitis proceeding from a severe cold sometimes terminates in the formation of an abscess. Symptoms. �These, in the first instance, simulate an ordinary sore throat, and later, according to the situation and extent of the swelling, give evidence of considerable suffering and distress. With the progress °f the abscess swallowing becomes difficult if not altogether impossible. When attempted, pain is denoted by the spasmodic movement of the head to one side as the bolus enters the pharynx, or if water is being taken much of it will return down the nostrils. The head is extended on the neck, and, when turning, is moved stiffly round. More or less general enlargement will appear about the throat, and if the abscess be superficial a special prominence will be observed at the point where it is being formed. In cases where it is deeply seated and " pointing" inward there may be but little outward swelling to mark its presence, and should it break internally and the matter pass down the throat, as is sometimes the case, all evidence of its having existed will disappear, but it will not be overlooked that the patient's pain and suffering has suddenly disappeared with it. The presence and disruption of an abscess will sometimes be indicated ^Dy a copious discharge of matter from the nostrils and a simultaneous ^8ubsidence of the acute symptoms and return of the power of deglutition. t not infrequently happens that these throat abscesses break during a ^suarp fit of coughing, which mostly occurs from time to time during their formation. Slight fever will exist while the abscess is in the process of develop- ment, but this will quickly subside after it has broken and emptied itself. Treatment.*�This must be directed towards maturing the abscess

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	258


and keeping down the fever which attends its development. The former may be assisted by poulticing the throat continuously and allowing the animal to inhale warm vapour from a bran mash at the bottom of a nose-bag. A little electuary of belladonna and treacle rubbed up with a little powdered chlorate of potash will diminish local pain. A small quantity should be put into the mouth three or four times a day by means of a spatula made out of a piece of stick. A dram and a half of nitrate of potash in the drinking-water or in sloppy bran mash may be all that is needful in the way of mediciue. During the formation of abscess in the throat no attempt should be made to give draughts or balls. If the fever runs high 2 ounces of alcohol should be given in the drinking-water three or four times a day and the body should be kept warm by ample � clothing and bandages to the legs. Where the abscess points outwardly it should be freely laid open by means of a clean lancet so soon as it is found to fluctuate under pressure of the finger. Plenty of fresh air and a clean apartment are necessary adjuncts to medical treatment. SALIVATION, OR PTYALISM This disease consists in an excessive secretion of saliva, and may result from various causes�some acting directly on the salivary organs them- selves, others exciting their undue action by irritating remote parts. Injuries and eruptions in the mouth, from whatever cause, will induce it. A knowledge of this fact should lead to an inspection of the mouth on all occasions where saliva is unduly secreted. Nor should it be overlooked that sharp and dirty " bits" may excite the necessary irritation, as may also some chemicals, and acrid plants. In man mercury is a common cause, and the same results follow its repeated administration in the horse. It is frequently present in the disorders above referred to, and occasionally arises from indigestion and gastric irritation. On rare occa- sions it is seen as the result of neuralgia and other forms of nervous disturbance. Symptoms.�Foaming at the mouth while feeding very commonly results from salivation, and in the absence of food, the animal, if watched, will be seen to be repeatedly swallowing, while at the same time saliva drivels from the mouth. Treatment.�Where the disorder is due to some mechanical or .chemical irritant the cause should be removed. Where the edges of the teeth are sharp, the tooth - rasp must be freely applied to them.

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		CLEVELAND BAY, SPECIALITY 1562 By Merryheart 1299 out of Beatrice 932. The Property of Mr. John Lett RiUington, York

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		INFLAMMATION OF THE PAROTID GLANDS
			259


Indigestion must be met by a dose of physic and careful dieting, and in any case the mouth should be irrigated twice or thrice a day with a weak solution of chlorate of potash or alum.

	INFLAMMATION OF THE PAROTID GLANDS (Parotitis) In its local manifestations this disease resembles the human ailment usually described as " mumps", but the two affections are quite distinct from each other. Mumps is a specific contagious fever communicable from person to person. There is no distinct disease of the salivary glands in

H ■ » - - \'e^P Fig. 92. �Head of Horse, showing Positions of the Parotid Gland and Duct A, Temporalis muscle. b, Levator palpebree. c, Orbicularis palpebrarum. D, Supernaso-labialis or Levator laon sup. alseque nasi. E, Supermaxilo labialis or Levator labii snperioris proprius. P, Supermaxilo nasalis or -Dilator naris lateralis. G, Orbicularis oris. H, Mento-labialis. I, Maxilo-labialis or Depressor labii inferioris. J> Zygomaticus. K, Buccinator. L, Parotid duct. M, Masseter muscle. N, Parotid gland, o, Jugular vein. P, Mastoido-humeralis muscle. the horse possessing infectious properties, although they not infrequently become inflamed in the course of infectious diseases of another sort. Causes.�Inflammation of the parotid gland (fig. 93, p. 260), as it occurs in the horse, is mostly a symptomatic affection arising in the course °t an attack of strangles or influenza. In some exceptional cases it results ^r°m cold, and we have known it to be induced by the entrance of foreign Matter into the excretory duct which conveys saliva into the mouth. Symptoms.�Parotitis may be acute, when the inflammatory action severe and sometimes results in the formation of an abscess in the tance of the gland, or it may pursue a chronic and abiding course ending in permanent enlargement and induration of the organ affected. ncucations of the disease in the former case are marked by an enlarge-

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	260


ment extending from below the ear downwards towards the throat. The swelling is hot and painful to the touch; at first hard and resisting, but, should suppuration take place, a soft fluctuating point appears, denoting the formation of abscess. In this condition the head is extended and the nose poked out (fig. 93), there is some trouble in swallowing, and the breathing becomes difficult, and is sometimes accompanied by a loud roaring sound. Should the abscess point inwards instead of coming to the surface, it may be expected to break into the throat. This will be made known by an escape of white matter down the nostrils and a sudden subsidence of the more acute symptoms. The difficulty in swallowing will now disappear almost at once, and any abnormal sound that may have been emitted in breathing is no longer heard. The constitutional disturbance which may have ex- isted will now subside and the general health become re-estab- lished. In less severe attacks the swelling of the gland is incon- siderable, and there is no dis- position to form matter. In these cases the enlargement may altogether subside, or in part re- main permanent in the gland. Treatment.�The object of treatment should be to subdue local inflammation and cut short the disease, thus guarding against those extreme structural changes involved in the formation of an abscess, as well as that too common consequence � roaring. Hot poultices to the throat should be promptly applied, and these may be continued without intermission until the disease subsides. Where poulticing cannot be thoroughly carried out, and frequent changes made, as sometimes occurs, it is better to rely on counter-irritation. This may take the form of a mus- tard poultice, or turpentine liniment, or a mild dressing of the oil of can- tharides�one or the other�repeated thrice or oftener, as may be required. Where swallowing is difficult and the formation of an abscess internally is suspected, the ripening of the abscess will be hastened by repeated fumi- gation of the throat with the vapour of hot water to which turpentine has been added. This may be accomplished by means of a nose-bag containing scalded bran, over which a little oil of turpentine has been sprinkled, or the saw-dust of pine-wood will answer the purpose equally well. A small quantity of belladonna electuary inserted into the mouth two or three times a day will also assist in subduing local pain and add to the comfort of the patient.

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	FISTULA OF THE PAROTID DUCT
		261


Well - scalded bran and oatmeal, with pulped roots, and a liberal allowance of linseed gruel, will form a suitable diet, and the addition of iron and vegetable tonics may also be required to uphold the strength and hasten recovery. Careful search should be made from time to time for the formation of abscess, and so soon as it is found to "point", i.e. fluctuate under pressure of the finger, it must be freely opened and the matter allowed to escape. All that is now required is to keep the wound clean by sponging it with antiseptic solution, and protecting it by a pad of cotton-wool under a bandage. If after the wound is healed the gland still remains enlarged, a cantharides or iodine blister ought to be promptly applied and repeated if necessary. FISTULA OF THE PAEOTID DUCT The parotid duct, or duct of Stenson, is the vessel or canal by which saliva is conveyed from the salivary gland into the mouth. On leaving the gland the parotid duct (fig. 92, p. 259) passes along the inner surface of the lower jaw, and then winds round its lower border in front of the great muscle of the cheek in company with the inferior maxillary artery and Vein, and finally opens into the mouth opposite to the junction of the second with the third molar tooth of the upper jaw. In its course round the jaw-bone and along the side of the face it becomes exposed to injury, ^and as the result of blows from the kicks of horses and other mishaps as ^well as from the ulcerating effects of calculi (stones) which sometimes form Within it. an opening is made through its walls at the seat of injury by ^which the saliva is allowed to escape instead of passing into the mouth. J-he duct may be completely divided, as sometimes occurs from external ^violence, in which case one portion of the vessel is separated from the other, ^0r it may only be punctured. Obviously the former condition is the more serious of the two, since the divided ends draw away from each other and ^are with difficulty brought together under the most favourable circum- stances; and if allowed to remain apart for any length of time that portion connected with the mouth closes up, owing partly to no saliva being able to enter it, but more immediately as the result of inflammation excited in t by the accident. Fistula of the parotid duct may also result from the lormation of an abscess in some part of its course giving rise to ulceration °f its walls. Symptoms.*�The existence of this disease is known when a watery uuid is found to discharge through an opening in the skin at or near the lower border of the jaw (fig. 94). The quantity will depend a good deal Vol. I. 18

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		262 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	upon the size of the opening and also upon the act of mastication. When feeding, the secretion of saliva is most active and the flow is very consider- able, but becomes comparatively slight when food ceases to be taken. Treatment.�The indications here are to close the external wound promptly, and by so doing cause the saliva to flow along and keep open its proper channel and allow the rent in the vessel to heal. Success will greatly depend upon: 1. Whether the vessel is partially or completely divided.

			Fig. 94.�Fistula of the Parotid Duct

2. Upon the period of time which is allowed to elapse between the injury and recourse to treatment. 3. As to the state of the duct itself. When the duct is cut through, or its walls are involved in an ulcerative condition, the prospects of cure are remote; when, however, the duct is simply perforated it is more favourable. Whatever treatment is undertaken, solid food must be altogether with- held for three or four days, or more if necessary, and the patient supported on liquid aliment such as thin oatmeal and maltmeal gruel mixed with eggs, beef-tea, and milk alternately, the object being to keep the jaws at rest and the secretion of the saliva as far as possible in abeyance. The hair must now be removed from -about the wound and the part thoroughly cleansed with soap and water and afterwards freely irrigated with a solution of carbolic acid. With a small needle and catgut-thread the lips of the wound are then to be carefully and completely drawn together, in doing which a sufficient hold should be taken of the skin to guard against tearing out. The part is then to be covered by a thick

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263

SALIVARY CALCULI

dressing of styptic-colloid and covered with a thick pad of antiseptic wool
or absorbent lint.

When necessary both should be renewed but not otherwise, and the
animal is to be so secured that he may not rub or otherwise disturb the
application.

By some, closure of the wound is attempted to be brought about by the
production of a scab, and for this purpose it is freely dressed with caustic,
■such as nitrate of silver, nitric acid, or the hot iron.

In old-standing cases, where the wound has become callous and that
part of the duct near the mouth closed up and impermeable, the salivary
gland should be destroyed, and the formation and discharge of saliva from
it altogether arrested. This is accomplished by injecting some irritant
along the duct into the gland. For this purpose a solution of one of the
following drugs is employed, viz.:�Nitrate of silver, caustic ammonia,
■or tincture of iodine. The immediate effect of this course is to cause in-
flammation and swelling of the gland, sometimes also the production of
an abscess; the ultimate result, however, is that the organ is spoilt, ceases
to secrete saliva, and wastes away. After this has been effected some
little defect in mastication will be observed for a short time, and it may
be that an attack of indigestion may follow, but with care in feeding and

mana

�o'-

ment this will soon cease to be a matter of concern.

SALIVARY CALCULI

Although of rare occurrence calculi are now and again met with in the
course of the salivary ducts, and more especially in that one which conveys
the saliva from the parotid gland into the mouth. Salivary calculi are
°t a grayish-white hue, very dense, and rough on one surface. When
existing alone they are rounded or elongated, but when two or more occur
together in the same duct they present a more or less irregular form owing
"to the friction they exercise upon each other during the movement of the
jaws in mastication. Some specimens are very small while others (fig. 95)
reach several ounces in weight and four or more inches in length. The
monger calculi are usually somewhat concave on the side nearest to the
tower border of the jaw over which the duct passes.

Chemically they are found to consist of carbonate and phosphate of lime
^an(t a small quantity of animal matter. Carbonate of lime is the chief
constituent, and forms from eighty to ninety per cent of the whole.

The formation of these stones is provoked by any obstructive cause
yhich prevents the escape and favours the accumulation of salivary fluid
^ln ^tue duct, or by the entrance into it of small particles of grit or other

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264

HEALTH AND DISEASE

foreign matter such as hay, straw, &c, upon which the salts contained in
the fluid will gather in a succession of superimposed layers.

Symptoms.�It is not until the stone or stones have reached a
considerable size that salivary calculi are recognized. Attention is first
directed to them by a small bulging on the lower border of the jaw, or the
groom's hand is brought into contact with them when the horse is being
cleaned. When of large size a considerable enlargement appears on the
site of the growth, which on manipulation is found to be sharply circum-
scribed and movable on


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the jaw.

In some instances the
skin and underlying tissue
around the growth are
considerably thickened as
the result of irritation
provoked by blows. The
escape of the salivary
fluid being interfered
with, it is made to col-
lect and distend the duct
along its course towards,
the gland.

Treatment.�Where

the stone is discovered,
while still small an at-

tempt may be made to>

Fig. 95.�Two Views of a Salivary Calculus. This calculus measured
four inches in length

force it upward along

the duct and out into'
the mouth, but this will need the greatest care and most gentle manipu-
lation. Large stones, which cannot be so expelled, must be removed
bodily.

Preliminary to an operation the hair must be removed either by close
clipping or shaving, the skin is then thoroughly washed and brushed with
soap and warm water, and afterwards dried and irrigated with a five-per-
cent solution of carbolic acid. An incision is now made through the skin,
and the duct laid open either transversely or longitudinally, just so far as.
to allow the removal of the stone. The divided edges of the duct are then
carefully brought together with catgut sutures, and having thoroughly
cleansed the wound from blood, and freely irrigated it with carbolic
solution, the edges of the skin are brought together and the part covered
with sterilized wool. After the operation is completed the patient should

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			CHOKING
			CHOKING	265

be tied in pillar reins and kept without solid food for from forty-eight to fifty-six hours. CHOKING Choking results when some solid body or substance becomes fixed in some part of the oesophagus or gullet. In this condition swallowing is either imperfectly performed or rendered altogether impossible, according to the size and form of the object, and in some measure also to the position occupied by it. This mishap is of seldom occurrence in the horse, but in the ox, whose food is but imperfectly chewed prior to rumination, it is comparatively common.

		Fig. 96.-Choking in the Throat

	Various substances have been found from time to time to obstruct the gullet. Eggs and onions, given by grooms with the idea of improving the condition of the horse, have on several occasions resulted in choking. -Pieces of carrot, turnip, and mangold, balls, hay imperfectly masticated and hurriedly swallowed, thorns, pieces of stick, wire, &c, are among the more common offenders. The situation of the obstruction varies in different ^Cases. Sometimes it is high up in the throat, at others in the course of the ^neck, and in some instances low down in the chest, near to the stomach. Whether it be in one position or the other it is a state involving con- querable difficulty and danger, and requires to be dealt with promptly ^and deliberately. Symptoms.�The symptoms of choking are not always the same, the ifierence depending upon the seat and nature of the object causing it.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	266


Although certain well-marked signs of the accident are usually present there are cases in which a diagnosis is difficult to accomplish. Where the impediment is in the throat the symptoms are such as may be mistaken for ordinary sore throat. The nose is poked out and the head is carried somewhat stiffly (fig. 96). Kepeated attempts are made to swallow, each effort being attended with marked pain. The jaws are moved restlessly about, and a discharge of saliva issues from the mouth. Food is refused, and should an attempt be made to drink, some of the fluid will pass down the nostrils and some may enter the respiratory passage and provoke an outburst of convulsive coughing. Pressure on the throat causes pain and may reveal the presence of the offending body, These symptoms are specially marked in the case of thorns, sticks, and other pointed substances. Should the obstructing mass be large, and cause pressure on the windpipe, the breathing will be inter- fered with, and may be very difficult and noisy, with heaving at the flanks and general indications of distress. Choking in the course of the neck and in that part of the gullet which passes through the chest is attended by violent retching and attempts to vomit. During the paroxysms or fits, the muscles of the neck are first violently contracted, the chin is forcibly drawn towards the breast, and the crest is sharply arched (fig. 97). At this time the eyes stare, the face wears a painful and anxious expression, and ultimately the muscles of the entire trunk become more or less convulsed. Any impediment lodged between the throat and the lower third of the neck will be readily felt, and in cases of high choking are distinctly recognized as a bulging in the channel of the neck. Should relief be long delayed the body becomes swollen up with gas, and with it abdominal pain occurs as the result of impaired digestion. Treatment.�Here the object is clearly to remove the obstruction. Haste and excitement are to be avoided in dealing with this as with all other accidents, but no time should be lost in devising means for freeing the passage from the object obstructing it. Any suspicion of trouble in the throat must be promptly acted upon�nay, it is good practice in all cases where doubt exists as to the seat of the stoppage to introduce the hand into the mouth and thoroughly explore the pharynx or cavity behind. Should the offending body be found there, careful handling usually suffices to effect its removal. Where the impediment is seated in the neck, an attempt should be made to move it upward or downward by gentle pressure, first in one direction then in the other. This will be facilitated by first giving the patient a small quantity of linseed-oil. Imperfectly chewed hay or straw may be broken down, by careful manipulation from without, and

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		P

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			SHIRE HORSE: LINCOLNSHIRE LAD II By Lincolnshire Lad 1196; dam, Madam by Matchless 1506. The Property of F. Crisp, Esq.

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		CHOKING 267

caused to disperse, but solid substances will require to be bodily removed. If this cannot be accomplished by the means suggested, the probang or " choke rope" must be introduced. In performing this operation the instrument is passed over the tongue and carefully forced along the gullet until the obstruction is reached, when gentle and continuous pressure is to be kept up. Violent and spasmodic movements of the instrument are

	Fig. 97.�Choking in the Neck

to be strictly avoided. In some instances such a mode of procedure has resulted in fatal wounding of the gullet. Should all these methods fail, there is nothing left to be done save to ^cut down on the obstruction when accessible and remove it. Animals relieved of choking should be made to fast for twelve to twenty-four hours, a little thin gruel only being allowed during that time, and. for two or three days afterwards the food should be soft or even Sloppy

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	268	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

VOMITING Vomiting, or the ejection of the stomach's contents by the nostrils and mouth, is comparatively rare in the horse; so much so that many persons believe that it never occurs. In the chapter on choking we have already spoken of apparent vomiting, which was in reality only the ejection of the contents of the tube leading to the stomach. Two reasons are commonly advanced for the rarity of vomition in the horse: first, an insusceptibility to nausea; and second, a peculiar valve-like arrangement of the parts at the entrance to the stomach. The first reason is not an entirely satisfactory one, as nausea is often exhibited by horses; and the second needs more proof. Without arguing the case we will pass on to the known causes and treatment where treatment is possible. 1. Engorgement of the stomach with indigestible food, followed by fermentation, elimination of gases, and consequent distention. This has been known in several instances to be followed by repeated vomition, leaving the patient in a prostrate condition, but not always resulting in death. 2. When the oesophagus at its terminal portion has been permanently dilated�an argument in favour of the valve theory. 3. In cases of rupture of the walls of the stomach or of the diaphragm. The late Professor Kobertson entertained a fourth reason, of which, how- ever, we can have no proof�namely, the closure of the pyloric orifice and consequent prevention of the contents of the stomach passing out into the bowel. Post-mortem examinations have repeatedly proved that vomition may occur when any of the three first-named causes exist. ACUTE INDIGESTION Indigestion presents itself in one of two forms�either it is acute and attended with severe pain and suffering of short duration, or it assumes a less noticeable but lingering and chronic character. To the horse-owner and stableman this form of the disease is better known by the terms "stomach staggers", "sleepy staggers", and "mad staggers"�expressions which, if not classical, serve at least to convey a good idea of the leading phenomena of the affection. They specially indicate the two forms of disturbance which the brain suffers as a con- sequence of acute stomach derangement, in the one case denoted by severe brain disturbance resulting in actual frenzy or madness, in the other by brain torpor or paralysis, with loss of consciousness and volition, and imperfect control over voluntary movement.

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	ACUTE INDIGESTION 269

Causes.�Acute indigestion is recognized by veterinarians as a result of the stomach being gorged or over-crammed with food. In this affection the organ becomes unduly enlarged or distended; its walls are consequently paralysed and incapable of contracting on their contents. The food, there- fore, becomes stagnant, and instead of being digested and passed on in the ordinary way, remains to decompose and further distend the organ with gas. Such a condition is in the highest degree dangerous, and frequently ends in rupture and speedy death. Stomach engorgement or paralysis almost invariably follows upon long fasting, and especially when, in addition, the victim is worn down by

		Fig. 98.�Sleepy Staggers

fatigue. In this state the stomach shares in the general depression and exhaustion, and suffers at the same time by any unreasonable demand that may be made on its powers. Horses are provoked by long fasting to eat to excess, and the mischief is considerably augmented by the imperfect chewing which the food at these times often undergoes. The practice of allowing hungry horses an unmeasured quantity of °ooked food is one not to be encouraged. Given in a small amount Preliminary to the usual feed it is incapable of harm, but when supplied in large rations it not infrequently becomes a means of fatal engorgement °f the stomach. This disease is also observed to follow when horses by ^aceident gain access to certain kinds of grain, as wheat, barley, and maize. Symptoms.�It is impossible to say at the outset of an attack of ^stornach engorgement what particular group of symptoms will arise in the course of the disease. This will most likely depend on the degree of

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	270
	270	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

distension and the more or less complete state of paralysis to which the stomach is reduced. It may, however, be safely predicted that they will begin and end in manifestation of abdominal pain, or, from the first, disorder of the brain will appear, or the one may precede and ultimately give way to the other. In instances of the first kind the patient ceases to feed and presents a dull heavy appearance. He is restless, moves from place to place, looks languidly round to the flank, essays to lie down, and resumes an upstand- ing posture without going to the ground. He paws with the fore-feet, and as the pain increases in severity exhibits an anxious expression of countenance. The body gradually enlarges as the result of fermentation going on in the stomach, and in the fits of pain he throws himself to the ground and rises again to repeat the same after varying intervals of temporary repose. Should the disease continue, patchy sweats bedew the body, the move- ments become unsteady, the muscles of the limbs tremble, gas is belched up from the stomach, and in rare instances attempts at vomiting are observed, but the act is seldom accomplished save as to a little fluid matter. Should the stomach recover its action, as it sometimes will after a free discharge of gas, these symptoms gradually subside, and nothing remains beyond the weakness resulting from the attack, which, with due care, soon passes away. In the absence of relief rupture of the stomach and death may be apprehended. In those cases where the brain becomes affected a different order of symptoms is developed, in some instances assuming the form of what is known as "sleepy staggers" (fig. 98), in others of "mad staggers". In the former the patient, after exhibiting signs of abdominal pain, becomes dull, heavy, and stupid. The head is carried low, the eyelids droop, the lips hang pendulous, and in this drowsy half-insensible condition the horse walks round and round the box with a slow, staggering gait in which the toes are trailed or barely lifted from the ground. After one or two turns the head is forcibly pressed against the wall or rested on the manger, and in this position he sinks into a profound sleep from which he is with difficulty awoke. On being roused the same rotary movements are repeated, and these again are followed by a deep sleep or coma as before. Vision is much impaired and soon fails altogether, and consciousness gradually disappears. The breathing at this time is slow and attended with a stertor or snorting sound, and the pulse also is less frequent than normal. The bowels are invariably torpid, and little or no faeces are

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			CHRONIC INDIGESTION 271

		passed. Such as may be expelled are hard and usually covered with a glairy coating of mucus. The liver in these cases frequently gives evidence of disturbance in the high-coloured urine and yellowish discoloration of the membranes of the eyes, mouth, and nostrils. Sooner or later in the course of the attack dulness or stupor may give place to uncontrollable excitement and delirium (mad staggers). In this condition the animal paws the ground violently and plunges madly about the box. Perspiration bedews the body, and the muscles are thrown into a tremulous agitation over the entire body. Efforts at vomiting may now appear, and a small amount of offensive, sour-smelling fluid escapes from the stomach. In the absence of relief, which is seldom capable of being afforded at this stage of the disease, repeated paroxysms or violent fits of frenzy end in exhaustion, which is frequently followed by rupture of the stomach and speedy death. Treatment.�The prospect of success in the treatment of stomach engorgement will depend in a great measure on the prompt recognition of the disease and speedy adoption of suitable curative measures. The first and most important object is to unload the bowels and relieve the distended stomach. For this purpose a bold dose of physic is the most suitable means and should be administered at once. Food of every de- scription must be withheld and water allowed in any amount. Where the symptoms indicate abdominal pain a little aromatic spirit of ammonia, combined with tincture of opium and peppermint-water, may be given and repeated at intervals of two hours for two or three times. This may be supplemented by friction and fomentations to the belly. A few minutes' walking exercise at short intervals will prove beneficial, but the animal must not be hurried. The rectum should be emptied of excrement by means of the hand, after which enemas of salt and water may be thrown mto the bowel every three or four hours. On the appearance of brain disturbance a little blood taken from the jugular vein will afford relief to the cerebral vessels, and arrest the progress of the disease as it affects the head. Ice-bags to the poll, or a cold-water douche kept up for fifteen minutes ^at a time, will further assist. If the latter course be adopted, cold wet swabs should be applied to the head in the intervals between the douching. CHRONIC INDIGESTION Causes.�This form of the disease may have its origin in a variety °f causes. Some of these refer to faults or weaknesses in the animal itself; °thers are connected with feeding and management. In regard to the

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			272 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		former, we recognize functional and organic disease of the stomach, bowels, and liver; while in respect of the latter, we notice it to result from sudden changes of environment, excessive labour, want of exercise, irregular feeding and watering, hard water, bad food, imperfect mastication either from greediness or defective teeth, excessive numbers of parasites, the habitual use of artificial foods, and the abuse of drugs. Symptoms.�Loss of condition is in constant evidence in this disease, manifested in leanness, an unthrifty coat, hidebound, and dry skin. The appetite is variable, at one time ravenous and at another indifferent or altogether absent. Licking the walls of the stable, grinding the teeth, an occasional cough, crib-biting or wind-sucking also mark the presence of chronic indigestion. When of long standing, it has been observed that the hoofs become brittle and shelly in consequence of the well-recognized sympathy that- exists between the mucous membranes of the digestive canal and the horn-secreting structures of the feet. The excrement emits an unpleasant odour. Constipation is a more frequent symptom than diarrhoea, but a looseness of the bow^rels is a common accompaniment of the disorder with horses of that particular conformation known as "washy". A distended abdomen, and the occurrence of brief attacks of abdominal pain, are symptoms that sometimes attract the owner's attention, though he may have failed to attach special importance to them. Treatment.�Before attempting remedial measures, a searching inquiry should be instituted into every detail of the animal's feeding, watering, exercise, and management; the food being examined and the water sub- jected to the ordinary inspection, and, if need be, analysis. The mouth and teeth should receive special attention, as the whole difficulty may arise out of some disease or disorder in them which renders mastication imperfect. The character of the fseces and urine should be noted, not once or twice, but daily. The former may contain parasites; it may be abnormally pale, indicating impairment of the liver, or it may be coated ■with mucous, indicating derangement of the bow^Tels. Although after the most exhaustive examination and inquiry the cause may not be discovered, yet the symptoms may be ameliorated by a careful regimen, and assistance afforded by the administration of some of those digestive tonics which experience has proved to be so valuable. Though the food hitherto supplied to a subject of chronic indigestion may be sound, and in every way suitable to another horse, change to some other forage may be followed by early and marked improvement. In the case of town-kept horses, long strangers to grass, the cause is often an inactive liver, and a turn out at pasture is found to be the best remedy; but a compromise may be effected in most large towns by the employment

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		273
	GASTRITIS	273
	GASTRITIS

of green meat, beginning with the first cut of rye-grass in April, and ending with vetches in August, or as soon as the seed-pods become developed. An animal that has been once the subject of chronic indigestion should never be supplied with oats kiln-dried, or indifferently-harvested or doubt- ful hay; and the so-called "mixtures" which often contain Indian vetches, or " peas " as they are termed by dealers, should not be admitted into the stable. The want of water has been often proved to be a cause of indigestion, as some horses will only take a very small quantity at a time, and the groom who offers it regularly in a pail does not suspect the fact that a horse is not getting enough. The objections to having water always beside a horse must be made to give way in individual cases, as animals known to be " sippers" will do well if allowed to drink in their own way, i.e. small quantities at frequent intervals, while allowing the bucket to pass them after taking a wholly inadequate quantity. An occasional aperient is found to be beneficial with some animals, and as a preliminary measure in the constipated, an aloetic or physic- ball may be tried. In animals disposed to distension of the belly a small dose of linseed-oil occasionally is recommended, and salt with the food in regular quantities daily will prove beneficial. Calumba or gentian- root powder, combined with bicarbonate of soda, is also found valuable where flatulence exists and the appetite is indifferent. Iron in its various forms is not advisable in those cases where constipation is a prominent symptom, but it is a valuable adjunct to the vegetable bitters above named for those subjects of chronic indigestion with a tendency to loose- ness of the bowels. The detection of worms in the excrement will, of course, point to the use of worm medicines before entering upon general treatment intended to combat the condition brought about by their presence. In addition to a suitable diet and medicinal- agents, the work or exercise should be made as regular in amount as possible, and its effect noted. If the horse too easily perspires, it may be concluded that he is doing more than is likely to benefit him. Eemoval of a heavy winter coat will sometimes prove helpful, while clothing and bandaging and plenty of friction to the skin are recommended. GASTRITIS Definition.�Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach, specially involving the more highly vascular or villous portion contiguous with the intestine. It differs from mere gastric irritation or functional

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			274 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		disturbance both in its severity and in the structural changes which result from it. It may be acute or chronic. ACUTE GASTRITIS Causes.�Acute gastritis is not uncommonly associated with engorge- ment of the stomach, and may result from the presence of a foreign body, or from the action of irritant poison on the lining membrane. It is also shown to arise sometimes in the course of one or another of the contagious fevers. Of the irritant poisons inducing gastritis in a horse, only a few are likely to be taken voluntarily in the food, or from a spirit of mischief or curiosity, or to be given out of ignorance or malice by attendants These are the salts of copper, zinc, mercury, lead, and arsenic; the last named being the most frequently met with, as it is easily obtained in large quantities in the form of sheep " dips " despite the arsenic acts and pharmacy laws, which afford altogether insufficient protection to the stock- owner. Of the poisonous plants, the leaves and shoots of the yew and rhododendron are not uncommonly the cause of gastritis. Symptoms.�In this disease acute abdominal pain continues without intermission, and there is but slight diminution of intensity save for short periods. The pulse is small and hard, the breathing quickened, and the expression anxious and miserable. The mucous membranes of the eyes and nose are intensely reddened, profuse sweats break out, and the animal looks back towards the flank. These symptoms are common to gastritis from any cause, but there are certain others special to inflam- mation of the stomach when induced by irritant poisons. In the case of arsenic, the most common are intense thirst and frothing at the mouth. The lips are sometimes swollen and pendulous; there is restlessness and excitement, hurried breathing, and a small and maybe imperceptible pulse. The muscles quiver, and the body is suffused in sweat, and the breath gives out a foetid odour. Paroxysms of pain recur again and again, and death follows in great agony. When the disease is dependent upon yew poisoning it is usually associated with great nervous prostration and collapse, and a fatal termination quickly follows the ingestion of the poison. Treatment.�To arrive at the cause, if possible, should be our first care, as upon this the treatment will greatly depend. If it is found to result from engorgement of the stomach, or from irritation of foreign bodies swallowed with the food, treatment will consist in the administration of soothing and demulcent remedies, as linseed-tea, barley-water, or milk, together with a mixture of powdered gum-arabic, bismuth, and hydrocyanic

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		275
	GASTRITIS	275
	GASTRITIS

acid; the latter are particularly effective in some cases; and if the acute symptoms abate, a long and careful regime must be observed before a stomach thus injured can take upon itself the digestion of ordinary foods, as hard corn and hay. A gradual upward scale of dietary, from linseed- tea and slops, bread, meal, carrots, mashes, and green meat, may lead to a moderate allowance of steeped or scalded corn, and finally oats and hay. When an irritant poison has been taken and its nature has become known, direct antidotes should first be administered. A list of these will be found in a subsequent chapter, where the individual in search of a remedy has been supplied with information for his guidance until the services of a qualified veterinary surgeon can be procured; and as cases of this descrip- tion require special care and treatment, no time should be lost in secur- ing veterinary aid, while such antidotes as are at hand may be profitably administered pending his arrival. Eggs, with linseed-oil and gruel, may be beaten up and given in the interval of waiting, or in the absence of these, milk, linseed-tea, or a solution of gum-arabic. The rarity of vomition in the horse, elsewhere referred to, and the all but impossibility of exciting it artificially, deny us one of the chief aids available to the human surgeon, who will hasten to empty the stomach of any remaining poison either by means of an emetic or the stomach-pump. In the case of the horse, however, we are compelled to rely on the action of chemical antidotes to neutralize the poison, and on physiological agents to control its action. Abdominal pain, which is a leading feature of the affection, should be met by the employment of hot compresses over the region of the stomach blankets or sheets dipped in hot water (the naked elbow should be the test of temperature) and covered with waterproofs, as loin cloths, to retain the moisture and keep the parts continuously steamed. The intestinal track must be cleansed of the pernicious matter, but not by any heroic remedies; small doses of oil, linseed or castor oil, emulsified by whipping with mucilage, will answ^Ter the purpose. CHRONIC GASTRITIS Chronic gastritis is more frequently met with than the condition Previously described. It may follow upon the acute form as a sequel to ^lrritant poisoning or engorgement, or arise out of a long-continued course °t improper feeding. Horses passing from the hands of dealers and ex- hibitors who have forced them to a state of obesity by the employment °* cooked food are specially liable to gastric disturbance of an abiding

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	276
	276	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

nature when suddenly placed on hard, dry food. Again, coarse, innutri- tious food, such as is furnished by poor hill pastures, consisting of scrub and the coarser kinds of vegetation, after regular, perhaps liberal diet in the stable, is often the determining cause of the disease. The habitual use of drugs may also lay a foundation for chronic gastritis. Symptoms are for the most part those of indigestion. Failure on the part of the stomach to perform its share in the process of digestion results in functional derangement of the bowels, which may declare itself in periodical attacks of colic or more or less pronounced diarrhcea, wasting, and weakness. The appetite is variable, and sometimes the animal refuses food altogether. Treatment.�If the cause can be ascertained much may be done, but, where it remains obscure, treatment can only be tentative and expectant. Where dietetic errors can be distinctly traced, a complete change of food, or the system of feeding, will often result in speedy amelioration and ultimate restoration of the gastric function. A comparative rest to the stomach may be afforded by giving a light- and well-selected diet, including milk, well-boiled gruel, and other things requiring little work from the affected organ. This may be supplemented by antacids in the drinking- water, and the administration of gastric sedatives, as bismuth, hydrocyanic acid, and pepsine, as an aid to digestion. When sufficient progress has been made towards convalescence, more solid foods, as crushed oats, scalded bran, and linseed, may be given, with a few roots. CHEONIC DILATION OF THE STOMACH Dilation of the stomach may arise either from physical or physio- logical causes. In the former case it results from the slow growth of malignant and other formations in or around the pyloric opening by which the food is prevented from escaping into the small intestines. In the latter�the more common form of the affection�it appears more especially in old animals who have led a life of indolence and high living, and are then cast away to subsist on large quantities of coarse indigestible food. Under these circumstances the mucous membrane becomes atrophied, pale in colour, and more or less disorganized, while the muscular coat is thin and greatly stretched, so that the organ is two or more times larger than it should be. Chronic dilation of the stomach and of the intestines also is sometimes seen in old broken-winded animals. Symptoms.�These partake of the character of indigestion, with more or less rapid wasting. At first the appetite falls away, the skin becomes staring and dirty, the belly increases in size, the bowels are irregular�■ at one time constipated, at another relaxed, always distended with flatus.

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277

EUPTURED STOMACH

When the disease has its origin in some obstructive disease, severe attacks
of colic appear from time to time after feeding, during which the stomach
may rupture in the violence of the struggles.

In this disease treatment is of little avail. In the majority of cases
!t is an evidence of general decay, and where it arises from causes which
obstruct the passage into the bowels, as from tumours in and about the
Pylorus, there is little to be hoped for.

EUPTUEED STOMACH

Euptured stomach is rarely met with in young horses except as a
result of extraordinary violence when the stomach has been greatly dis-

Fig. 99.�Ruptured Stomach

tended by food. In many cases the mishap is preceded by structural
changes inducing dilatation and weakness of the walls. These may have
^resulted from a former gastritis, acute or chronic, or from habitual dis-

ension in overfeeding, or from the protracted use of bulky and innutritious

°°d, as is so often the case with farm-horses fed upon indifferent provender
_ ⁿd other unsaleable products of the farm. Severe work on a full stomach

^s ⁿot rarely responsible for this disease. Heavy draught-horses are the
«iore frequent subjects of this lesion, though it may, and does, occur in

orses of all classes. The work of the draught-horse is not so well-

_^egulated as that of the lighter breeds, nor is his attendant, as a rule, as

judic

lous a feeder as that of the hackney or hunter.

Vol. i. ^J

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			278 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		Symptoms.�A correct diagnosis of this lesion during life is seldom possible, even to the most experienced practitioners, as many of the symptoms resulting from the accident are common to rupture of other important parts of the alimentary canal. Although vomition is often a leading symptom, it is too frequently absent to be regarded as a reliable indication of the disease. Experts are not in agreement as to whether rupture of the stomach precedes or follows the act of vomition. While some are of opinion that vomition does not occur while the viscus is intact, others hold that a stomach, rent and permitting its contents to escape into the abdomen, would not be capable of exercising that forcible contraction which precedes the ejection of its contents in an upward direction. When rupture of the stomach occurs as a sequel to engorgement, there are the usual manifestations of acute abdominal pain, such as pawing and stamp- ing, getting up and lying down, rolling, looking round at the flank, &c. (fig. 99). These are soon followed by less active symptoms, when the patient stands with haggard and anxious countenance; the breathing becomes shallow, the extremities cold, the visible mucous membrane blanched, and the pulse fluttering and feeble. There is now a general appearance of impending dissolution, which those familiar with animals may recognize readily if not describe. The temperature, which may have run up quickly, now falls, and with it comes a trembling, tottering gait, sighing, and perhaps sweating. In this stage of the disease the animal soon collapses, but remains on his feet till he falls dead, or dies after a few convulsive struggles. COLIC OR GRIPES There are two kinds of colic, distinguished as spasmodic colic and flatulent colic, both of which are characterized by symptoms of abdominal pain. Spasmodic colic results from morbid contraction or spasm of the muscular structure of the bowel, while flatulent colic arises out of the opposite condition, by an over-distension�or outward stretching�of the gut with gases evolved from the fermenting or decomposing food. Although the symptoms are pretty familiar to horsemen, very vague notions are usually held as to the seat of pain. Stablemen are wont to declare the horse's water is wrong, and they therefore attach undue importance to the act of urination, and in this mistaken view administer agents altogether unsuited to the requirements of the case. Causes.�The disease has for its origin a variety of causes. Indigestion is accountable for more cases than any other cause, and, as we have already seen, assumes a variety of forms.

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		COLIC OK GKIPES
		COLIC OK GKIPES	279

Drinking copiously of cold water on an empty stomach when exhausted by prolonged exertion is another cause. Some springs of water are specially prone to produce gripes, and are avoided by horse-owners for that reason. The presence of parasites when in large numbers, and the existence of calculi (stones) and other concretions, are fruitful causes of the malady. -It also results from the lodgment of foreign bodies in the bowels, and chronic disease of the latter is sometimes its cause. Symptoms.�These are usually very sudden in their onset. AH- at once the horse is seized with pain, which he evinces by pawing and scraping

	Fig. 100.�Spasmodic Colic (1) the ground with his front feet, stamping and striking the belly with the ⁿⁱnd ones, lays back his ears and looks round to his flank. From time to wne he shows a desire to lie down, crouching as if to do so, and again ^aising himself to the upright position. He may repeat these movements ⁵^veral times, and then go down almost recklessly, perhaps to rise imme- lately or roll over from side to side in a violent manner. True or Pasniodic colic is intermittent, and in the midst of his sufferings the Patient may get up, shake himself, and begin to feed as if nothing ailed im. This, however, only marks a brief respite as a rule, for the symptoms Ul again return, and often with increased violence, when the animal will ^ander ^round the box and throw himself violently down in the fits of pain. ^animation of the faeces generally prove them to be small in amount, ^rd, and not unfrequently coated with glairy mucus. It may also be that

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		280


	different portions will vary in consistence, traceable to a sudden change from soft to hard food or the reverse. The quickened pulse and breathing observed during the paroxysms of suffering pass away when the pain has subsided, and in the intervals show little or no disturbance. In favourable cases the intermissions of pain are prolonged in duration and the symptoms less acute. If, however, the severity of the attack increases and the intervals of ease become shorter, it portends danger. Treatment.�The timely administration of a diffusible stimulant is often sufficient to relieve a passing spasm, but it is more to the point in

				Fig. 101.�Spasmodic Colic (2)

these cases to administer a ball of aloes without loss of time. This will have the effect of keeping down the tendency to inflammation and remove offending matter from the bowels. Opium in various forms, as ammoniated tincture of laudanum alone, or in combination with ether or aromatic spirit of ammonia, are most useful in subduing pain and controlling spasm. The repeated administration of opium has the effect of retarding the action of the bowels, however, and many horses have been lost from the want of an aperient to counteract it. This the aloes ball does from the first, enabling us to give bolder doses and to continue them over a longer time. Where drenching is undesirable, morphia or belladonna may be injected beneath the skin by means of a suitable syringe. Used in this manner, morphia is said to have all the good effects of opium without its objections.

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		> H tn X X

	rhoto. by Reid, Wishaw

CLYDESDALE STALLION: LORD STEWART By Castlereagh 10324; dam, Lady Susan 11442 by Callender 4901. The Property of Seaham Harbour Stud Company

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			FLATULENT COLIC
				281


	In an emergency, where, as sometimes happens, drugs are not to be obtained, gin or whisky with a little ginger form a useful draught with warm or cold water. Like the other diffusible stimulants referred to, they serve to distribute the nerve force, which for the time is acting prejudicially on a portion of the bowel, producing spasmodic contraction. An early opportunity should be taken in these cases to empty the posterior bowel of its faecal contents by passing the hand up the rectum. This should be followed by the introduction of clysters, composed of water at about the temperature of the body in which a little soap has been dissolved. A considerable amount of relief may be afforded by repeating the injections at

		Fig. 102.�Spasmodic Colic (3). (Horse rolling in pain.)

intervals of an hour or two, in course of which the action of the bowels may be materially expedited if a little sulphate of magnesia or linseed-oil be added to the soap solution. Stimulation of the abdomen from the outside by means of friction, with wisps of straw or liniments, or rugs dipped in hot water, should not be overlooked. Violent rolling is to be guarded against as much as possible, and some advantage may be derived from short spells of walking exercise, which will assist in promoting the action of the bowels. FLATULENT COLIC Definition.�This is a condition in Avhich the large bowels are dis- tended with gas brought about as a result of decomposition of the food contained in them. It may follow upon spasmodic colic, or result from ^sorne other condition by which the passage of food along the bowel is ■retarded or arrested.

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		282 HEALTH AND DISEASE

Causes.�Among these are food of an improper nature, eating too fast and too much after long abstinence. It is also a result of intestinal obstruction, imperfect mastication arising out of irregularity of the teeth, and of altered structure and disordered function of one or another of the organs of digestion. Potatoes, rapidly-grown clover, and succulent grasses taken after a long fast will also induce it. To know which of these causes is in operation is important, as upon it will depend the course of treatment to be pursued.

			Fig. 103.�Flatulent Colic. The x indicates the point where the trochar is introduced

	Symptoms.�The most striking and characteristic symptom is the drum-like distension of the belly (fig. 103). The manifestations of pain are not so sudden and acute as in spasmodic colic, but come on gradually; moreover, the pain is continuous, and attended with more danger than in spasmodic colic. Abdominal pain is evinced by restlessness and pawing", looking round at the flank, distressful countenance, and it may precede or follow the drum-like condition of the belly. It must, however, be remem- bered that individuals vary very much in their behaviour when suffering from this form of indigestion. To the violence of some patients may be attributed such fatal consequences as rupture of the intestine, while others show great depression of spirits, standing with a pained and anxious look, or wandering fitfully about the box, fearing to lie down, and, when compelled by pain to seek a change of posture, getting down slowly and

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			FLATULENT COLIC 283

		carefully, and stretching out upon the side at full length, with only occasional wistful looks backwards. This attitude gives an even greater- appearance of tympany than when the animal is standing, but the pressure on the under side of the body would appear to assist the patient in breaking off wind. The pressure of the distended bowels in a forward direction, and the pain experienced, cause the breathing to be quickened and shallow, and the pulse frequent and diminished in force. The dura- tion of this disease is variable and uncertain. In some animals relief is speedily obtained by voluminous discharge of wind per rectum, with- out medicinal or other agents; in others it may last for many hours, and as long as two or three days. When flatulent colic has been caused by succulent food, as green clover or lucerne, its duration will probably be shorter than in a case where an animal has eaten excessively of meal or grain or other food requiring greater digestion. Treatment.�To break up or disperse the gases is the primary object of treatment, and a great many drugs have been credited with these powers. Hand-rubbing and wisping the abdomen appears to be agreeable to the patient, and probably affords some relief. Walking the animal about conduces also to breaking wind. The most rapid and effectual method of giving relief is to insert a suitable instrument into the right flank, and by tapping the distended bowel give exit to the confined gas. This operation has not hitherto been resorted to as frequently as it should have been, owing to what now appears to be an unfounded fear of inducing Peritonitis. The insertion of the instrument and the withdrawal of the trochar is followed by a free escape of gas and the rapid subsidence of the distended belly. A marked diminution of pain and a more cheerful expression on the part of the patient are also produced. Owing, however, to the supposed danger of the operation it is frequently postponed until the patient is in extremis. The medicinal agents to be chosen are those which will chemically decompose the gas, arrest further fermentation, and carry away the offending ^lngesta. It must also be our endeavour to restore the power of contractility to the overstretched and weakened walls of the implicated bowel. Of the first class, aromatic spirit of ammonia and the carbonate of ammonia have the best reputation. Linseed or other bland oil, as olive ^0r cotton-seed oils, appear to disperse or arrest the further elimination °* gas, and by their laxative qualities assist in removal of the offending solids. Carbolic acid and the emulsions of creasote, very largely diluted, and weak preparations of chlorine, such as may be produced by agitation of a ^aiu of chlorinated lime with a pint of water, arrest decomposition; while

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			284 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		such stimulants and carminatives as turpentine and spirit of nitrous ether, capsicums, cardamoms, ginger, and the fruits of the pepper tribe generally, are calculated to restore tone to the affected parts. A draught consisting of laudanum, spirit of nitrous ether, and linseed-oil has for long enjoyed a good reputation, and is usually to be found in most large studs. Some relief may be afforded by promptly unloading the rectum of its contents with the oiled hand and afterwards throwing up a clyster, which may be repeated every three or four hours. A fatal result is sometimes precipitated by rupture of the distended bowel or of the diaphragm by reason of the continued outward pressure on the gut. With abatement of the symptoms abstinence for some hours should be insisted upon, and small quantities only of food allowed until restoration appears to be complete. CONSTIPATION Definition.�Constipation is a condition of the intestines in which for various reasons the faeces are too long retained, too hard in consistence, and voided with difficulty in inadequate quantity. Causes.�The causes of this disorder are many and various, the more common being continued feeding upon dry provender, insufficient and irregular watering, woody and innutritious foods, as in the case of forest ponies subsisting on heather, moss, and twigs of trees and bushes in dry seasons. In addition, it is also induced by sudden changes of diet, want of exercise, mechanical obstructions, debility, and imperfect secretion of bile and other digestive juices. In very young foals it is often due to plugging of the rectum with meconium which has accumulated in the bowels during the latter part of fetal life. Symptoms.�It is only in the most pronounced cases that attention is drawn to this ailment�when it is noticed that the faeces are discharged with difficulty, and after considerable straining, during which the back is arched and the hind legs are brought under the body, the act of defeca- tion is completed with a groan. The dung is voided in small quantities, consisting of hard round pieces more or less glazed and dark in colour. It is a common affection of very young foals, and the experienced breeder or attendant, whose observation has been cultivated, will suspect this condition if the new-born foal at frequent short intervals is found to posture as if to pass urine; he may not arch his back in the manner of an adult, but will evince signs of uneasiness, elevating the tail, straining, looking back, lying down at full length and rising again as if suffering abdominal pain.

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	CONSTIPATION
		285


Treatment.�Since a variety of causes contribute to induce consti- pation, they should be fully considered before deciding upon treatment, as the aloetic ball, which may answer well for adults with a sluggish liver, may be quite unsuitable for other subjects. For the young foal, where the rectum is plugged with a hard yellow substance, an oiled finger may be introduced and the obstruction removed, with a careful avoidance of injury to the lining membrane of the bowel by the operator's nails. A simple enema of soap and warm water, or glycerine, or the introduction of lard or vaseline, is usually all that is required, as with each day the intestine is developing greater powers, and the expulsive efforts are soon found to be sufficient to relieve the loaded bowel of its contents. If constipation continues, a small dose of castor-oil may be given, preferably in warm milk; and if the dam is not at grass she should be supplied with a laxative diet, which, acting upon her, will soon be found to influence the colt favourably. Some breeders, more careful than the average farmer, give in-foal mares bran and middlings and pulped roots for a few days before foaling, a practice in favour of which something can be said, both as a milk-producer and for the special purpose to which we have alluded. Constipation in the stabled horse should be guarded against by the bran mash or linseed prescribed by good horsekeepers, and an animal predisposed to hardness of the faeces should be allowed an extra laxative diet, rather than given drugs. Green meat made into chaff with hay or straw, during the summer months, will serve the purpose of keeping open the bowels in costive subjects, who would perhaps eat only the green food if offered separately. An aloetic ball, proportioned to the size and breed of the animal, may be given where an early evacuation of the bowel is imperative, but as a rule the repetition of small laxative doses of linseed-oil, or sulphate of magnesia, is preferable to the administration of one drastic purgative, which is apt to be followed by inaction of the over-stimulated intestines. When debility has been a contributory cause of constipation it may be necessary to give tonic agents and a more liberal diet, but if iron be one of the agents selected there is a risk of further constipation, unless corrected ^Dy more laxative foods. Nux vomica, in small doses, continued over ^a considerable period, may prove one of the most valuable remedies in restoring functional power to the muscular walls of the bowels. As feeding errors are the chief cause, so will the remedy be found ¹¹¹ a more suitable dietary, and each animal should be fed according to ^flis requirements. The practical horseman need hardly be reminded that horses differ so much in the effect of food upon the alimentary

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			286 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		tract that the peculiarities of each should be carefully noted and treated accordingly, instead of insisting upon any hard-and-fast rules regulated by market prices or local prejudice. DIARRHCEA Definition.�Diarrhoea is the expression of an irritable condition of the alimentary canal, sometimes resulting from an excess, or deficiency or impaired quality of one or other of the digestive secretions. It is marked by an increase in the quantity and fluidity of the alvine discharges, and is accompanied by digestive disturbance, and occasionally by inflam- matory changes involving the stomach and bowels. CaUS6S.�The causes that give rise to diarrhoea are improper food, sudden changes from one kind to another, gluttony, eating too fast after long abstinence, imperfect mastication, bad water, chills, overwork, and exposure to vicissitudes of climate. It may also be induced by parasites, chemical irritants, and injudicious drugging, or perverted func- tion of the liver and other organs. Besides these, excessive action of the bowels may be caused by an effort of nature to rid the system of some deleterious agent in the blood. This is not unfrequently seen in advanced lung disease, or where the function of skin or kidney is arrested and impurities which they should discharge are allowed to accumulate in the system. When associated with other diseases, and as a sequel to inflam- matory and wasting disorders, it is a grave condition, and may be the prelude to dissolution; the conditions which bring about like results in the young have often a very different origin and more frequently fatal consequences. In some seasons and in particular situations a mucous catarrh, extending from the mouth to the anus, and especially involving the bowels in certain portions, is sometimes prevalent among foals. Its cause in the majority of instances is some alteration in the character of the milk, or functional derangement of the mare, consequent upon unsuitable food, or it may be a sequel of difficult labour, or parturition troubles. Anything interfering with the well-being of the dam is liable to be reflected in the health of the sucker. A very large proportion of the cases of diarrhoea met with in young foals are to be accounted for by long abstinence while the mares are at work, and the overheating and excessive exertion to which the latter are subjected at a time when nature is making a special demand on the system in the supply of milk. Maternal solicitude under certain circumstances renders mares restless and excitable, and takes more out of them than the work assigned would do at any other time. Without discussing here the propriety or

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	DIAEEHCEA
	DIAEEHCEA	287
		287

otherwise of working mares while suckling, we may remind readers un- acquainted with the details of farming, that foals arrive at a time of the year when the majority of agriculturists have much need of the mare's services, and economic considerations demand that notwithstanding her maternal duties she must contribute to the general work of the farm, -the practice of hand-milking the dam on return from work while she ^ls allowed to fondle her foal over a gate till their mutual excitement has subsided, would appear to reduce the liability to derangement of the foal to some extent, and no serious objection can be made to it; the foal will get a sufficient supply after the more objectionable portion has been drawn off, and possibly that portion which would have proved deleterious. Diarrhoea may be present in the first few days of the colt's hfe, the milk apparently disagreeing with him from the first�those sucking a foster-mother are sometimes upset by their first meal, especially ^l* it happens that the orphan has been put to a mare whose foal was born some time prior to the birth of her adopted one. Here the lacteal secretion is altogether devoid of those aperient properties belonging to the milk of a mare which has recently given birth to a foal, and is consequently less suited to it at this early period of its life. Symptoms.�Diarrhoea is characterized by frequent fluid evacuations; where these are not actually seen the existence of the malady may be gathered from the dirt and stains on the thighs and lower portions of the limbs. In the stabled horse the premonitory rumblings of the bowels and uneasiness usually escape attention, or they may only occur when the horse is called upon to exert himself. Some "washy" horses, whose tseces are pultaceous or normal in the stable, begin to unload the bowel ^as soon as the harness or saddle is taken down, and more or less diarrhoea ¹⁸ the result of every journey undertaken. This is unmistakably due to nervous excitability acting upon a susceptible digestive system; and ^a troublesome condition it is to deal with, since too much work may induce ^exhaustion and loss of condition, while too little will add to the excitement ⁿ each occasion of exercise. In all cases of diarrhoea the ejected material should be examined, when the active cause of the disease may be discovered. it be woody fibre, it will be found in the liquid matter, or occasional Agglomerations of hardened fsecal masses of irregular shape will be observed. ^when a diet of potatoes has induced purging, a very offensive odour Companies the evacuations, and the mouth is sour and saliva tenacious, h^Jle a tendency to abdominal pain may be noted in pawing and crouching ^b m colic, nausea, and an expression of lassitude and dejection, with a ^eakened pulse and inappetence, following upon the ordinary symptoms.

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			288 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		In diarrhcea arising from intrinsic causes, general inquiry into the previous health of the animal, or the presence of excessive quantities of biliary matter in the stools, or the discovery of parasites in great num- bers, &c, may be of use in directing the prescriber. In the case of the sucking colt with the first fluid evacuations there will probably be no general signs of illness, but with its continuation he loses his appetite for play, and then for milk, stretches himself at full length on the ground and remains prone for a long time, and at intervals looks round at his flank, raising his head from the ground and allowing it to fall back again with an appearance of extreme languor. Abdominal pain of a more acute kind supervening, he will get up and strike at his abdomen with the hind feet, stand with all four feet close together, frequently evacuating offensive yellow faeces, which after a time escape almost involuntarily, staining the thighs, and if he is confined to a building, the atmosphere is soon rendered sour and unwholesome. If the mare and foal are at grass and in deep pasture, the character of the evacua- tions may escape the notice of the attendant, and not until the foal becomes tucked up in the flank, or dull and listless, does he discover anything amiss. Foals have not so great a power of resistance to diarrhcea as calves, but succumb often in a very few days, with or without inflam- mation supervening. Treatment.�When affecting adults, or other than sucking colts, a consideration of the cause will determine the measures to be adopted, which in different cases may be of an almost opposite character, requir- ing in some the use of aperients or gentle laxatives, while astringents may be called for in others. The chilled animal, having suffered from exposure to inclement weather, will be removed to suitable environment, efforts being; made to restore the general circulation with stimulants and friction, as hand-rubbing the limbs, pulling the ears, bandaging, clothing, and the provision of a dry bed; such improved circumstances may alone be found to have reduced the severity of the symptoms without the ad- ministration of drugs. The determination of blood to the central organs, which induced diarrhoea, having given place to its proper distribution, as evidenced by increased warmth of the surface and extremities, ameliora- tion of the symptoms will follow in due course. Too early recourse to powerful astringents may lead to an opposite condition, diarrhoea being often a natural method of relieving the body of some deleterious material, and we should be content with astringent foods, as arrow-root and wheaten-flour gruel, with the addition of a little brandy if the pulse continues weak and the extremities cold. Where diarrhcea is traceable to fermented food of a hard and indigestible nature, it may be

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			STJPERPUBGATION 289

		advisable to assist its removal with oleaginous fluids, as a dose of castor- oil in warm milk, or linseed-tea, or the distinctly acid nature of the evacuations may point to the use of alkaline bicarbonates as a preparatory measure. Abdominal pain will need to be combated with opium, and cordial carminatives, as cassia, and cinnamon, and ginger, with such diffusible stimulants as nitrous ether, which may be given in gruel. The necessity for giving some fluid food consists in the irritable surface upon which it will have contact, and as soon as there is good reason to hope that the irritability has subsided a return to dry food is advised, as the majority of horses will continue to be loose in the bowels while confined to a diet of slops. As an intermediate diet between gruel and hard food we may use steeped barley and scalded oats, or oatmeal, with milk and eggs well whipped. A mixture of chalk and laudanum suspended in gum and peppermint-water is an old and efficacious remedy, much used for the young. In the treatment of sucking colts it will usually be advisable to give a moderate dose of castor-oil before administering any of the ordinary diarrhoea mixtures. Bismuth, either as a powder or added to the chalk-and-opium mixture, is much favoured in cases of some duration. Lime-water, or bicarbonate of soda in the drinking-water of the mare, will often materially affect the milk and allay intestinal irritation in the foal. SUPERPURGATION Definition.�This term is used to describe an artificially-induced diarrhoea by the injudicious use of purgative medicines. Causes.�The administration of a dose of purgative medicine too large for the patient, or its repetition in too short a time. It often happens that an aloetic ball is given without due preparation, and failing to have the desired effect within the usual time, the inexperienced attendant repeats the dose, with the result that the bowels are unduly excited. Drinking a great quantity of cold water when the ball has been given on an empty stomach, or calling upon the patient for too Kiuch exertion before the purgative has ceased to act, will also induce ^ in some susceptible animals. Calomel, even in small doses, will some- times provoke superpurgation when given during an attack of influenza ■tever, as is sometimes done where bilious complications arise. Symptoms.�Frequent and excessive evacuation of the fluid contents °i the bowels, loss of appetite, cold extremities, weak pulse, and in ^severe cases, in which there is considerable danger to life, the eyes ^assume a glassy appearance, and the odour of the breath and that of the ^yacuations become very offensive. There is great prostration and weak-

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	290
	290	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

ness; and pain and straining, more or less severe, appear in the course of the attack. Purging may cease on account of loss of power in the gut, or in consequence of a complete emptying of the bowel. With an abatement of the symptoms, laminitis, or "fever in the feet", supervenes in some cases, and adds to the existing trouble. Treatment.�The surface warmth should receive immediate attention, hand-rubbing the legs, pulling the ears, bandaging and clothing with warm rugs; perfect quiet should be maintained, and if necessary the animal should be removed to a box away from the others. A gill of brandy, with an egg and a pint of milk, beaten up together, may be all that is needed in slight cases; but if abdominal pain follows, and the patient gets worse, astringent and anodyne medicines should be given, together with stimu- lants. Ounce doses of chlorodyne, with eggs and milk, or two ounces of laudanum with a wine-glass or two of brandy, may be tried, and repeated in two or three hours. Arrow-root, boiled rice, or corn-flour may be given in frequent doses, together with eggs and brandy, or spirit of nitrous ether. Treatment would be more successful but for the injudicious use of linseed and boiled roots, which would seem to be a common stable practice in some districts. In this disorder food may be dispensed with, excepting such as is described above; the sensitive bowels need rest, and the absence of all forms of irritation is imperatively indicated. When the abdomen assumes a drum-like condition, a wine-glass of spirit of turpentine may be given with milk, or an ounce of aromatic spirits of ammonia with peppermint. Much care is necessary in bringing an overpurged horse back to his regular diet, if that be a strong one; he should be allowed only half- rations for some days, avoiding new, or any, hay or corn the least damaged. It is important, too, that the food be given in small quantities and often. Exercise will not be necessary beyond that to be obtained in a large loose-box. DYSENTERY Definition.�Dysentery is a destructive inflammatory disease resulting in ulceration of the lining membrane of the bowel. It is attended with more or less haemorrhage and a copious discharge of mucus with the faeces. It differs from diarrhoea not merely in the frequency of the discharges and in their character, but also the constitutional disturbance associated with it. It has not been satisfactorily traced to the introduction of specific disease germs, nor are there any decided proofs of its greater frequency in insanitary surroundings;�more often is it attributed to causes of an

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				291
			DYSENTERY	291
			DYSENTERY

	exhausting character, as bad and insufficient food, and exposure to weather without preparation, and it may also arise as a sequel to diarrhoea and as the result of some poisonous matter in the blood. The presence of para- sites in unusual numbers, and drinking-water in which decaying animal matter is present, are said also to be exciting causes. Symptoms.�In some cases profuse evacuations of a fluid consistence mark the onset of the disease, others may exhibit preliminary fever and excessive prostration. Elevation of temperature and rigors may be observed in the commencement, or be continuous in the course of the disease, accompanied by a small and irritable pulse. Abdominal pain

		Fig. 104.�Dysentery-

PriOr to, or immediately following on the evacuation of faeces, is a common ⁸ynrptom, with hidebound, general marasmus, or wasting and loss of ^aPpetite. In the faeces, though fluid, may be found hardened masses as mdicating quite a different condition in some parts of the canal from others, ^while casts of mucus, sometimes mistaken for worms, are commingled with Jelly-like material and bloody shreds of membrane. A particularly offensive °dour characterizes the evacuations. In fatal cases there is an increase of abdominal pain, thirst, exhaustion, and prolonged fever. Only in the stage of collapse is the temperature lowered, and it may then fall below ⁿornial. Dysentery, unlike other bowel affections, does not usually carry °n its victims in a few hours, or days, but may continue for weeks. In

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	292


the later stages only do we see the worn and anxious countenance associated with acute intestinal affections. Treatment.-�More reliance is to be placed upon good nursing and hygienic conditions than actual medicines, a suitable dietary being the chief consideration. Given a warm, dry, well-ventilated stable, we have next to consider the most suitable food, which must be free from irritating properties, easy of digestion, nutritious, and soft. In eggs and milk, gruel and meal, we have these desiderata, and they may be supplemented with port-wine, while some would add beef-tea. When there is much evidence of pain, opium may be given in small and repeated doses. When the evacuations produce a foul atmosphere and the season compels closed doors, it may be corrected to an extent by the internal administration of carbolic acid, as well as the use of disinfectants and deodorizers in the building. If carbolic acid is chosen as an internal agent, it should be dissolved in glycerine, or rubbed up with soft soap and freely diluted in water, or given in gruel. Chlorodyne is extremely valuable in some instances, and bismuth, in powder as trisnitrate, or subcarbonate, is recommended as a means of forming a coating over the broken surface of the membrane. Maintenance of sur- face warmth should not be neglected; the legs should be bandaged with woollen, and the body clothed with warm wraps. Increased circulation in the skin and extremities is a favourable symptom. Despite the most assiduous care many cases terminate fatally, but the proportion of recoveries should be an inducement to strenuous efforts and unremitting care. ENTEEITIS Enteritis, or inflammation of the bowels, is one of the most frequently fatal diseases of the horse with which we have to contend. It may affect the large bowel, the small one, or both. It is the former in which the disease most frequently appears. As to the exact seat of the inflammation, there is no doubt that it commences in the lining membrane, and, with the continu- ance of the disease, extends outward, involving the substance of the bowel. Causes.�We are very much in the dark sometimes as to its causation. It may be a sequel to colic and impaction of the bowel, over-fatigue and exposure to vicissitudes of weather, wading through streams when heated by the chase, chemical irritants, vegetable poisons, strangulation, &c. None of these causes, however, are sufficient to account for all the cases of which the experienced veterinarian can speak; more often does he find, on the most careful inquiry and investigation, no clue whatever to the sudden appearance of the disease.

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			ENTERITIS 293

		Symptoms.�Although often described as simulating colic, there are marked distinctions to the observant. It may be, and often is the case, that abdominal pain, exhibited in the usual manner, first calls the attendant's notice to the patient. Eigors, or shivering, with coat staring, mappetence, accelerated breathing, great depression, and evacuation of ^very small quantities of dung, soon follows. The pulse, which in colic only quickens during the paroxysm of pain, is here persistently small, quick, and hard. The membranes of the eyes and nose are red and congested; the eyelid turned up shows the vessels to be full and standing out. The mouth is clammy and tongue dry; the belly may be distended, but is much more frequently contracted�its altered shape is remarkable m a horse with whose outlines one is familiar, having the appearance of being pressed upwards and outwards. From the stage of dull listlessness the patient passes on to one of excitement, stamping the ground, and striking the belly very much in the manner of colic, with occasional uneasy watching and turning of the head towards the flank. In a great many cases we have watched throughout the attack there has been very little violence, more often an uneasy scraping with the front foot, the attendants ftot being able to realize the gravity of the disease, but supposing it to be a mild attack of gripes. There are no intervals of ease here as in colic, and rarely any desire for food or water; the thirst which accompanies high temperature in man is rarely present in horses. All, except in the stage °f delirium, lie down with much caution, lowering themselves in fear, and ^lri quite a different manner from the griped horse, which may throw himself violently upon the floor of his stall before one can get out of "is way. The skin alternates between hot and cold, and patches of per- spiration break out from time to time. The ears are cold and the legs Variable, one cold and another warm, or three out of four may have a deathly coldness�deathly coldness, we have said, for the experienced uand distinguishes quite different sensations when feeling them, and when leering the legs of, say, a newly-clipped animal, which are cold from ^exposure. The eyes become glassy and insensitive to light, the pupil dilated, lips pendulous, ears dropped, the animal sighs, and with difficulty ^etains his feet, finally staggering and falling, unable to rise again. ' °ustipation is present throughout, and we must not be deceived by the ^formation given at first, that he has had two or three evacuations. In ^e few cases that recover there is amelioration of the symptoms during ^e first few hours, the general surface-warmth is restored, and the bowels ^act somewhat freely; the anxiety of countenance passes off, the patient iiows some interest in surrounding objects, and may partake of a little ash or other invalid diet provided. ^v°l. I. 20

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	294	HEALTH AND DISEASE

Treatment.�While it must be admitted that the recoveries in cases of pronounced enteritis bear but a small proportion to the deaths, we must spare no effort, nor cease to use palliative measures so long as the animal is kept alive. Associated as it invariably is with constipation, it was formerly thought good treatment to administer purgatives. There is a common ground of agreement as to keeping down pain with ano- dynes, and opium or its alkaloids are chosen by most practitioners because the movements of the bowels are best controlled by them. Opium or belladonna in balls or as draughts, or hypodermic solutions of morphia, may be given with advantage. Warm compresses to the abdo- men continuously applied, and enemas of warm water containing a small proportion of glycerine thrown into the rectum now and again, will prove serviceable, as will also small quantities of morphia mixed with lard when inserted into the same channel. An improvement may be noted without any action of the bowels, as they remain in a more or less torpid condition till considerable advance towards recovery is made. It is not advisable during convalescence to give an aperient, but to wait for restored func- tion in the injured portion of the bowel. Soft foods, as bran mashes, pulped carrots, and linseed should be given when the appetite returns, and all dry forage removed beyond the patient's reach, a muzzle being used, if necessary, to keep him from eating his bed. With regard to bleeding, no rule can be laid down; it may be advisable in plethoric young horses in hard condition. If it is done at all, it should be in the first stage, for later on it will only add to the depression. Bread scalded with milk and given nearly cold is an excellent food if the sick animal can be got to take it, and a little sugar may be added as an inducement to him to do so, or a sprinkling of salt may be more attractive. The intestines after death may be found affected in any portion, small or large, but, as we have already pointed out, the latter are by far the most common seat of the disease; a long piece of the canal may be dis- coloured and swollen, or patches of inflammation, with congested portions occurring between them, may be the form in which the disease exists. In certain forms of enteritis a jelly-like matter between the different layers of the intestine is observed, and the latter may be readily separated with the finger, as their natural cohesion is lost. The mortification which in the majority of cases affects the bowel results in poisoning of the blood, and the septic matter acting on the nerve centres causes death in a very short time.

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		ARAB MARE: BOZRA By Pharaoh; dam, Basilisk. In the possession of Lady Blunt

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		295
	KUPTUKE OF THE INTESTINE	295
	KUPTUKE OF THE INTESTINE

RUPTURE OF THE INTESTINE This condition is usually brought about by external violence acting upon a distended or overloaded bowel, or it may result from over- distension alone. The force with w^Thich a horse comes to the ground when suffering a paroxysm of colic is not unlikely to occasion a rent in the diseased gut, and the same may be said of horses thrown for operative purposes while their bowels are loaded with food. If the texture of the intestine is sound it is capable of very great strain without fracture, but in some cases of rupture it has been predisposed by inflam- matory softening. The Symptoms of ruptured intestine are not very definite, it being so often a sequel of other disturbances and not the primary cause of illness. When, as sometimes happens after a full belly, a portion of bowel becomes torn during extra or sudden exertion, there are tolerably certain signs of what is the matter. Here the countenance wears the impress of shock, which differs from the mere expression of pain. There is a look of extreme anxiety and depression, cold extremities, rapidly- falling pulse, hurried breathing, cold, patchy sweats, and the other train of symptoms common to abdominal pain. This accident cannot well be confounded with colic of the spasmodic kind, where there are remissions of pain and restoration of pulse during the intervals. In this case the pain is continuous and severe, and the pulse fails to recover any lost power, even though stimulants be given; all that they do is to give temporary support to the action of the heart. An unusual calm or resignation soon comes over the patient, which is unwilling to move, and persistently stands till the powers of life give out and he falls, either to die immediately or after a few fruitless struggles. This cessation from pain following on a bout of colic, when the animal has been very violent, is misleading to the amateur, who will often assure the professional attendant that the patient is better, though an examination of the mem- branes of the eye, the pulse, temperature, respiration, and handling of the extremities prove the contrary to anyone conversant with horses in health. Sitting on the haunches has been thought by some to be diagnostic of ruptured bowel, but this peculiar attitude may be assumed as the result °f pain from other causes. We have said that with rupture generally eomes a period of relief from acute pain, but this is by no means constant; °n the contrary, all the symptoms may be aggravated, and instead of stupor delirium may follow. Treatment is of course out of the question, and consideration for

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		296 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	the animal's suffering, and the possible danger to attendants and other horses in the same stable, should convince the owner of the necessity of slaughter. INTESTINAL OBSTKUCTION For various reasons presently to be indicated, we do not include this disorder under the title of constipation. Here the food, or whatever else may be the offending body, is arrested in its course along the bowel, and caused to block up the passage. Causes.�The causes which bring about intestinal obstruction can invariably be referred either to some abnormal state of the bowel itself, or to the nature and condition of its contents. As to the former, it is found to follow upon both physiological and structural changes. The first is exemplified in that state termed debility of the bowels. Here the muscular portion of the organ fails to carry on its move- ments with normal activity, and allows the food to accumulate and obstruct the canal. Such

			Fig. 105.�Portion of Intestine impacted with Concretion A, Concretion; B, divided intestine thrown back; 0, mesentery.	cases are most frequently met with in colts which have been

ill-fed and badly nourished from the time of weaning, and in old horses long and luxuriously fed on hard food. It is sometimes spoken of as paresis of the bowels, and the de- scription is not altogether inappropriate to the affection. The second condition is seen to arise in the form of a thickening of the gut, either as the result of inflammatory action or from the growth in or upon it of one or another of the various forms of tumour, or the passage may be obstructed by the gut being twisted, intussuscepted, or displaced. Where obstruction results from matter contained in the bowels, it is attributable to the indigestion of coarse food imperfectly masticated, or to some foreign substance taken in with it. An equally common cause is the formation of calculi and concretions, fig. 105, or, as they are com- monly termed, " stones ". These are especially found in horses engaged in town work and living exclusively on dry food. Symptoms.�The symptoms observed in this disorder are by no means uniform or diagnostic. They may vary from intermittent colicky

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		INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION
		INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION		297

pains observed in debility of the bowels, to the most severe paroxysms of suffering exhibited in the twists and entanglements into which they are sometimes accidentally brought. In all cases, however, the discharge of faeces sooner or later ceases. In order to find out the cause, it is necessary to consider every detail in the history of the case and let in all the side-lights obtainable from every source.

			Fig. 106.�Strangulated Bowel

	Treatment. � There are many causes of obstruction which yield Promptly to purgatives and the method of treatment prescribed under the head of constipation. This is more especially the case with those due to ^unctional impairment of the bowels, but since the cause of obstruction cannot always be definitely ascertained, treatment must sometimes be ^sPeculative and the result consequently uncertain. Oily laxatives, as castor and linseed oils, or aloes, are indicated, and ⁿ all cases solid food should be withheld until the obstruction is caused give way. Some benefit will be found from the repeated injection of ^ernas of tepid water with which a little salt and salad oil* has been mixed. am m_ust be subdued by the administration of sedatives and antispasmo- ^cs- Here tincture of opium, or the extract of belladonna, or the two

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	298	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

combined, will be found most suitable to the case. Where acute pain exists hot fomentations to the abdomen should be applied, or, as an alternative, mustard or turpentine liniment. CALCULI (STONES) Calculi {calx, lime) are masses of crystalline matter of stony hardness formed in the interior of hollow organs, such as the bladder, the bowels, the pelvis of the kidney, the ducts of glands, &c. Their form, character, and even position varies with the organ in which they are produced. As a rule they are mainly composed of salts natural to the secretion of the organ in which they are found. Why the salts of these fluids should crystallize out and aggregate together to form large stones it is not easy to say, but there is ground for the belief that they are induced to do so in part, if not wholly, for one of two reasons�either that they are in excess of the normal quantity, or that they are brought into contact with some kind of matter by which they are attracted and upon which they gather, or both these conditions may be concerned in the action. To what extent, if any, the nature of the food conduces to the formation of stone cannot be stated. It is not found that stone in the bladder, which is chiefly composed of lime, is more prevalent on the chalk formation than elsewhere, and the statement that animals "pastured where lime has recently been laid" become the subjects of calculus requires confirmation. It may, however, be noticed that all conditions which favour the long retention of concentrated saline solutions in an organ predispose to calculus forma- tion, hence it arises that stones or gravel are frequently found to occur where paralysis exists in the bladder or other organs. INTESTINAL CALCULI Intestinal calculi are dense masses of earthy matter derived from the salts of the food, and by their close texture assume the form of stones �a term by which they are commonly known. They usually present a gray or yellowish appearance, and a smooth surface more or less polished. In form they are either round or angular (figs. 107, 108). This difference depends upon the number present. Where they occur in a solitary state they are rounded, but where two or more exist in contact with each other, their constant movement one against the other during the action of the bowels wears away the surfaces of contact, thereby producing flattened facets or concavities and prominent angles. As a rule they are found in a solitary condition, but it is by no means rare to meet with

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INTESTINAL CALCULI AND CONCRETIONS

299

several together, and the writer has removed as many as sixty from the
large bowels of a horse. Where the bowel contains a number, their
rubbing action upon each other prevents them from developing to any
considerable size, but we have known a single one to reach as much as
65 lbs. weight.

The origin of intestinal calculi is clearly shown by dividing them
through the middle with a saw, when it will be found that the centre
is occupied by a nucleus of foreign matter, such as a nail, a button, a piece
of wire, or particles of grit, &c. &c. If the cut surface of the stone be

■HBS¹^

Pig. 107.�Group of Faceted Calculi

Fis\ 108.�Rounded Calculus

examined, and especially after having been roughly polished, it will be seen
to be made up of a number of layers of earthy matter placed one outside
the other in widening circles. Eadiating lines are also seen extending from
the centre to the circumference, marking out the calculus into triangular
Wocks. The outer surface is usually smooth, and in this respect they
contrast with similar formations known as " concretions". Calculi are
^alraost invariably found in the large bowel, where their formation and
retention are favoured by the peculiar pouched arrangement of the organ.
-I heir composition is expressed in the following analysis by Giradin:�

Ammoniophosphate of magnesia
Calcic phosphate ...

Water ......

Animal matter
Soluble salts, &c. ...
Extractive matters
Fatty matter
Loss

48-00

19-00

14-00

�80

6-60

4-00

7-00

�60

100-00

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	300	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

It is generally believed by veterinarians that horses in the possession of millers and bakers are more frequently the subjects of these formations than those employed by other persons. Various reasons have been rendered for this exceptional liability to stone formation. While some attribute it to largely feeding on bran and other offal, others find an explanation in the presence of grit in the sweepings of the mill and bakehouse which the horses of these traders are said to receive. Before special machinery came into use for the removal of foreign matters from hay and chaff a considerable mortality from this cause prevailed in the studs of railway companies, contractors, and other large proprietors. Where this cleansing process is not adopted obstruction of the bowels by calculi is still a common occurrence. CONCRETIONS These formations differ from calculi in the fact that they are made up of masses of vegetable and earthy matter agglomerated together, while the latter consist exclusively of salts which have crystallized out of the fluids of the bowels around a central nucleus. Concretions, like calculi, are rounded in form, but vary in composition, and also in their structure and external character. Two kinds of concretions are found in the horse, known as mixed concretions or dung balls, and oat-hair concretions. The former are composed of earthy - looking masses of salts, such as go to make in- Fig. 109. -Mixed or Conglomerate Calculus testmal Calculi, loOSely incorporated with materials of food�hay, straw, dung, the husk of oats, &c. &c. Mixed concretions (fig. 109) have an irregular, nodulated appearance. They are dark in colour, and much less dense and hard than calculi. When divided they present a rough surface, of loose texture, and in structure resemble calculi in being made up of concentric layers, but of a much thicker and coarser character. Oat-hair concretions are composed of the fine downy hairs which cover the kernel of the oat, and not, as is universally stated by veterinary writers, of the " beard of oats and other grains ". This formation, like the others, is also rounded, but its surface is regular, and of a soft velvety character. It sometimes occurs that the hairy surface of the concretion becomes covered by a layer of earthy

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			INVERSION OF THE EECTUM 301

		matter, the same as that composing intestinal calculi, when like them it is rendered smooth and polished, and presents the same outward appear- ance. It is, however, readily distinguishable by its lightness, and by the woolly texture it displays on section. When a minute portion of this concretion is submitted to the scrutiny of the microscope, it is found to be made up of small slightly curved vegetable hairs, one extremity of which is pointed and the other broad and somewhat square. What are the conditions which lead to the aggregation of these small bodies, in some instances to the almost complete exclusion of other matters, contained in the bowels, it is impossible to say. INVERSION OF THE RECTUM Now and again, in the course of violent paroxysms of straining, the rectum, or posterior bowel, is forced through the anal opening, with the inner or mucous membrane turned outward. The extent to which this extrusion may take place varies in different cases from a few inches to two or three feet. Old animals, brood mares in particular, are more bable to inversion of the rectum than younger ones, and especially those affected with habitual constipation, which appears to act as a predisposing cause. Straining is the inducing factor in the mishap, which some- times occurs during the pains of parturition or in the course of an attack °f colic, or in violent efforts to empty the bladder when the urinary passage is obstructed. It may also arise in the act of straining from severe irritation of the bowels. Symptoms.�Inversion of the rectum is indicated by the protrusion °f a round fleshy-looking mass from the anus (fig. 110). At first it pre- sents a pink or pinkish-red hue, but after having been exposed for some time its colour is greatly heightened by engorgement of the vessels with Wood, consequent upon interruption to the circulation. In prolonged ex- posure the mucous membrane becomes considerably swollen, and black, and softened by infiltration with serum. In this condition the part becomes Painful and irritable, and unless carefully guarded the animal will endeavour to rub it against the wall or stall-posts. Should it succeed, the softened and inflamed gut may be irretrievably damaged. Treatment.�When the bowel has been exposed for some time, and ^s found to be black, soft, and swollen, an attempt to return it should not "^e made until the circulation has been restored and the swelling reduced. ■7°" this purpose it may require to be scarified with the point of a lancet, �^e- punctured here and there lightly with the instrument to give exit to ^ue serum which infiltrates the tissues, and at the same time relieve the

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		302 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	vessels of their burden of blood. This will be rendered more effectual if, after the operation, the protruded gut is wrapped in flannel and well fomented with warm water. It should be strictly observed that the lancet employed for the purpose is thoroughly clean, and that the flannel is well soaked with carbolic solution, and afterwards well scalded before being used. Neglect of these precautions may provoke fatal blood-poisoning. It will very materially assist restoration of the circulation if, as soon as observed, the protruding mass is raised and supported on a level with the anus by means of warm flannel. Before attempting its return the mucous membrane should be freely

			Fig. 110.�Inversion of the Rectum

anointed with carbolized oil, and the hands of the operator should be similarly treated. If the inversion is considerable the attempt must be commenced at the end nearest the anus, where the bowel should be gently pushed forward by applying the fingers on each side of the gut. When a start has been made at this point and a fair proportion of its length has been replaced, the doubled fist of a small hand may be applied to the other end with gentle forward pressure, which will effect its complete return. This done, the hand and arm should be allowed to remain in the rectum for a short time, after which a small quantity of warm carbolized oil may be injected into the passage.

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	DISEASES OF THE LIVER
		303


A full dose of morphia given subcutaneously will prevent straining. J-he animal should not be left alone for twelve hours, and only a small quantity of sloppy bran should be allowed during that period. Should the bowel be again inverted, it must be promptly returned and the morphia repeated. DISEASES OF THE LIVER CONGESTION OF THE LIVER Definition.�-When the vessels of the liver contain blood in excess of the requirements for bile formation and the nutrition of the gland, it is said to be congested. Causes.�Accumulation of blood here may result from various causes. Anything that interferes with its outflow from the gland conduces to its congestion. This is why it so frequently coexists with disease of the valves of the heart, which, by obstructing the onward flow of blood, causes it to 'back" into the vessels of the liver and produce engorgement; the same tttay be said of some cases of chronic lung-disease where the blood is inter- rupted in its course from the right to the left side of the heart. The acute iorm of the disease commonly results from overfeeding on a too stimulating diet, conjoined with insufficient work and too close stabling. It may also arise in the course of an attack of influenza, strangles, and some other febrile disorders. Symptoms are not always of such a pronounced character as to lender diagnosis easy to the inexperienced. The most pronounced indi- cations of the disease are a yellow discoloration of the membranes lining the eye, the nose, and the mouth, and also the urine. The bowels are father constipated, or unduly relaxed, and the fseces are foul-smelling. J-he appetite is more or less impaired, and the animal is dull and heavy ^aud becomes prematurely fatigued. The tongue is furred, and the mouth clammy and emits a sour, unpleasant odour. The pulse and temperature ^fll be increased in proportion to the severity of the attack, and in acute cases deep pressure applied to the right side induces pain. Sometimes there is a tendency to flatulence and an enlargement of the belly. Treatment.�With the object of relieving the organ of its excessive ^a*nount of blood, purgatives are generally employed, and of these the ^ahnes are preferable, and may be given in repeated doses over a con- ^aderable period. The sulphates of magnesia and soda are amongst the uiost serviceable and safe of the class, and many horses will take them tlier in the drinking-water or mixed with the food. Oily aperients are

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	304	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

to be avoided, and aloes should only be given in cases where obstinate constipation exists. Mustard, or some more active counter-irritant, to the right side and over the region of the liver is recommended, and especially in those cases where tenderness in that part is evinced upon moderate pressure. Warm clothing and bandaging, by keeping the surface warm and the skin functionally active, should not be omitted, and gentle walk- ing exercise for a few minutes daily even in bad cases is desirable. The diet should consist as much as possible of green fodder, bran mashes, and carrots, if obtainable, and so long as the disease continues food should be very sparingly given. In the convalescent stages benefit may be derived from the administration of nux vomica and the mineral acids, with in- creased exercise and a slightly more liberal diet. The faeces assuming a natural colour and consistence, and the animal's spirits returning, may be regarded as proofs of ultimate complete recovery. JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, THE YELLOWS This disease is so termed from the yellow discoloration imparted to the tissues of the body by bile, which, in consequence of some functional or structural disorder of the liver, has been allowed to accumulate in the blood. Causes.�It may originate in the growth of tumours or other organic disease affecting the liver, or, as has been observed, it may follow upon some temporary functional disturbance. It should, however, be noticed that jaundice may be absent in animals whose livers have suffered consider- able structural disease, or the tissues may be deeply stained in one whose liver, examined after death, shows no obvious change. In the latter in- stances it may be regarded as arising out of some functional impairment of the gland. Symptoms.�In addition to the yellow tint imparted to the visible mucous membranes, there is also more or less discoloration of the urine. The faeces are pale and clay-coloured, and coated with mucus, or they are periodically thin and watery and foul-smelling. In some patients the urine may be stained before any decided symptoms of ill-health are manifested. There soon appears, however, dulness, with lowering head and indisposition to feed. The mouth is dry, clammy, and emits an offensive odour, the skin is harsh, dry, and dirty, and the coat " stares ". The pulse remains unchanged, or may be slower than normal, and there is a general want of nervous energy and no disposition fo^rwork. Treatment will depend upon the causes out of which the disorder

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	DISEASES OF THE LIVER
	DISEASES OF THE LIVER	305
		305

arises. If we have been led to suspect a condition of congestion of the liver owing to dietetic errors, we shall first require to unload the bowels by means of an aperient dose of aloes, and then readjust the daily allow- ance of food, and afterwards submit the patient to a course of salines. -tlere the sulphates of magnesia and soda may be given, either separately ^0r combined, in doses of two ounces in the morning, in the hope of restoring function and directing the bile into its proper channel. We may further assist the digestive function by providing bile in the form of ox- gall, administered in the form of balls with oatmeal, or the meal of linseed trom which the oil has been pressed. The general health should, as far ^as practicable, be sustained by judicious exercise, ample clothing, friction to the skin, and the administration of vegetable tonics, with which may be combined a small dose of nitrate of potash and common salt, to be given in the food morning and evening. With a decreasing quantity of bile in the urine the mineral acids will be found to hasten convalescence. Animals having once suffered from this disorder should be carefully dieted, guarded against excessive fatigue, and protected from exposure to easterly ^aud north-easterly winds. Four ounces of sulphate of magnesia, given in the food occasionally, will assist in maintaining the normal activity of the hver and in warding off another attack. HEPATITIS (Inflammation of the Liver) Inflammation of the liver may assume an acute or a chronic form. In the former it usually results in the development of one or more abscesses, ^vvhue in the latter it brings about general enlargement and hardening of he organ, and ultimately contraction and abnormal reduction of size. ACUTE HEPATITIS -This disease is of rare occurrence in the adult horse, and more prevalent ¹¹ tropical climates than in Europe. The reason for this difference is no doubt to be found in the much ^Jgher temperature to which horses are exposed in the one as compared ^with the other. ■In foals it is by no means rare in this country as the result of causes Presently to be referred to. �besides the causes named, inflammation of the liver may also arise from \ ternal violence, as from a blow over the region of the organ; and there ⁿ be no doubt that in rare instances it also follows upon exposure to u, especially in animals which occupy warm stables and are overfed and ^derworked.

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			306 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		Symptoms.�In acute hepatitis the patient exhibits a dull, heavy appearance. The head hangs low, the eyelids droop, and the face wears an expression of drowsiness. As a rule the membranes of the eye, the nose, and the mouth are more or less yellow. The urine is dark in colour, emits an offensive odour, and throws down on standing a dirty-looking deposit. In some instances there is diarrhoea, and in others constipation, or both these conditions may exist in the same animals at different times. The motions when hard are glazed, or coated with a layer of sticky mucus. Deep pressure in the right flank may cause the animal to wince, and pain is further manifested by the head being occasionally turned in that direction. The mouth is hot and clammy, and fever is present in propor- tion to the severity of the disorder. Causes.-�As a rule, acute inflammation of the liver owes its origin to disease existing in some neighbouring or remote organ, from which the blood becomes contaminated with septic or putrid matter from some unhealthy wound or abscess. In the adult, ulceration of the bowels, or the stomach, is the more common source of such matter, and from these organs it is readily transferred by means of the blood-vessels into the liver, there to irritate and inflame the gland and provoke the formation of abscess. In foals it is most frequently seen in connection with that destructive malady commonly termed "joint ill". Here the wound at the seat of the navel becomes foul and unhealthy, and organisms of putrefaction gain entrance to the liver by following the track of the blood-vessels connecting the one with the other. Treatment.�Consideration of the nature and origin of the disease affords but little encouragement to hope for the complete success of treat- ment, whatever benefit may be derived from it, and practical experience bears out this view of the question. At the outset it will be necessary to promote a free action of the bowels, and this may be done by the administration of a dose of sulphate of magnesia, to be followed by the daily administration of a quantity sufficient to maintain a reasonable action of the bowels. Ipecacuanha, by promoting the action of the skin and unloading the liver of bile, will materially aid in relieving the affected organ. A sharp blister over the right side of the belly should be promptly applied, and the body should be warmly clad in rugs and bandages. To withhold all food for twenty-four hours will be a distinct benefit to the patient, and so long as the acute symptoms continue he should be restricted to a soft or liquid diet.

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		HACKNEY MARE, OPHELIA Sire, Denmark 177; dam, Jenny Bother 'em by Fireaway 249. The Pioperty of F. J. Batchelor, Esq

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			DISEASES OF THE LIVER 307

		CHRONIC INFLAMMATION�CIRRHOSIS These terms are employed to describe a condition we cannot with any certainty determine during life. It is one of abiding inflammatory irrita- tion of the connective tissue which unites the ducts and secreting lobules of the gland wherein changes of structure occur of a gradually progressive and permanent character. It is more frequently met with than the acute form of inflammatory action already alluded to. At first the liver is increased in volume, as the result of an abiding congestion of its vessels and an excessive growth of connective tissue, which later on undergoes contraction, resulting in wasting and destruction of the gland. As the organ shrinks it becomes hard or cirrhotic, and in this condition its function is greatly impaired. In the more extreme cases of the disease, ascites or dropsy of the belly ttiay result from the contracted state of the liver interrupting the flow of blood from the abdominal organs. Causes.�It is mostly found in aged horses, after a long spell of luxurious living and indolence combined. It is also seen in association ^with the presence of parasites, especially the Echinococcus veterinorum. -out there are many cases which cannot be referred to either of these causes, and for which no special reason can be assigned. Symptoms.�These are mainly concerned with the digestive function, which for some time before the disease has been suspected will have ex- hibited indications of increasing impairment. The insufficient and irregular supply of bile furnished by the gland is accountable for the varying state °i the bowels, which at one time are constipated, at another unduly relaxed, ^and now and again the seat of pain, as manifested by symptoms of colic. J-he mucous membranes, as those of the eyes, nose, and mouth, may or may ⁿot present yellow discoloration as a constant condition, but where this is ⁿot the case observations made from time to time will sooner or later detect ttiore or less bile-staining, not only of the mucous membranes but also of the urine. Evidence of a disordered digestion is further shown by clammi- ness of the mouth, and sour breath, flatulency, and thirst. In addition, the Patient is dull, unthrifty in appearance, and soon exhausted under work, -lameness of the right fore limb may also be present. In extreme cases ropsy of the belly results from the impediment which the disease has put to the circulation of the liver. , Treatment in the majority of established cases is not very hopeful, _ ut as the extent of the disorganization can never be accurately measured the living animal, and comparative health may be enjoyed by horses in

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	308
	308	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

whom a limited portion of the liver has ceased to be of any functional value, we should not condemn a case as hopeless until some remedial measures have been tried. A course of saline medicine, preferably sulphate of magnesia, followed by nitrohydrochloric acid and vegetable tonics, should precede a long holiday in a good pasture. By these means there is reason to suppose that the disease is sometimes arrested in its progress, and a period of usefulness may ensue. The symptom of dropsy in the young is not so formidable as in the stabled animal that has seen service, and with a suitable dietary, medicaments may in such cases prove service- able in restoring the function of the liver and exciting absorption of the fluid which distends the abdomen. Fresh tops of the broom (Scopam cacumina) have the reputation of carrying away abdominal ascites, and failing the plant we may use the decoction prepared according to the British Pharmacopoeia. Tonics, by improving the general health, will afford assist- ance in relieving the local ailment and of preventing further escape of fluid into the belly. Absorbent and diuretic remedies undoubtedly carry away existing accumulations, and should not be overlooked. Here iodide of potassium and nitrate of potash may be employed either separately or together. Tapping the abdomen and removing the fluid bodily is some- times resorted to, but it is seldom of much use beyond affording temporary relief, unless the liver trouble can at the same time be relieved. FATTY LIVER Definition.�Some amount of fat is always to be found in the cells of the healthy liver, but the term fatty liver is used to express a morbid state in which the cells have either accumulated large quantities of fat within themselves from the blood (fatty infiltration), or in which the cell- contents (protoplasm) have become changed into fat (fatty degeneration) (fig. 111). Causes.�Fatty liver has no constant relation with any specific disease, but it has sometimes been noted to follow on those profound congestions which so frequently attend influenza fever. It is more commonly due to unnatural conditions of life. It is not among the poor and overworked that we look to find it, but in the pampered pet, kept artificially warm, overfed on highly stimulating food, and insufficiently exercised. Brewers horses, for some reason or other, are specially liable to it. It is a condition antecedent to and favouring rupture and apoplexy, and in its degenerative form is always to be found in cirrhosis of the liver to a greater or les extent. The indiscriminate use of condiments and spices are indirectly responsible for many cases of this disease in the pampered show animal.

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	DISEASES OF THE LIVER
		309


Symptoms.�It is only when the disease is far advanced that any tell-tale signs appear. In this stage the belly gives evidence of undue distension after feeding, and a good deal of gas is discharged per anum ^as the result of impaired digestion. As structural alterations proceed, ^tne appetite is liable to fail, and the animal passes through short periods °i dulness and becomes prematurely fatigued by work. The faeces are at times offensive and soft, and on these occasions frequently pale in colour. Treatment.�Where idleness is concerned this may often be summed up in one word�work, which should not be violent and unmeasured, but ^a gradual change from idleness to activity, from the pernicious use of cattle ^spices and condiments and artificial stimulation of appetite for rich foods t° a simple diet, in amount and quality only sufficient for the muscular ^exertion required. The frequent em- ployment of purgatives is not to be ^recommended, but unless the food is Judiciously regulated an occasional ^aPerient is most desirable. Epsom- salts, given in 4-ounce doses for two Recessive days, is perhaps the best ^agent to employ. Salt with the food a B should be attended with good results. ^Fi§- m.�Fatty Liver ⁿ speaking of other affections of the ^A> ^Healthy^liver ^eells- ^B>^Liver ^cells containing fat ll'vo ^& i globules, the result of disease. wer we have advocated grass, and it ^niay again be recommended here, but a short rather than a deep pasture,, here the patient will require to take exercise in obtaining it, is most ^aesirable. By this means the tendency to store up fat in the internal °^rgans is overcome. Pathology.�The accumulation of oil-globules in the cells of the liver ^s the effect of interfering with their functional activity. The size of the ^er is not necessarily increased, though such is generally the case, and ^ay be to an enormous extent. Instead of the natural chocolate colour the healthy gland it is of a light fawn hue. The edges become round d the organ generally is soft, and if cut into, the tissue imparts a greasy ^ehng to the finger when touched. RUPTURE OF THE LIVER Definition.* �This condition may involve the gland structure alone, *t may also extend through the fibrous capsule enclosing it. It is usually attended with more or less internal bleeding. More when capsule is torn than when it remains intact. Vol. i. 21

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			310 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		Causes.�These, with the exception of rare examples resulting from external violence, may be said to originate in degenerative changes, by which the gland is rendered soft as the result of its being partly con- verted into fat from repeated attacks of congestion and other causes. Symptoms.�Rupture of the liver and capsule is attended with more or less considerable bleeding. This will be evidenced by the pale, bloodless appearance of the lining membranes of the eye, the nose, and the mouth- Moreover, the eyes present a bright, glassy appearance, and the pupil is widely dilated; the pulse is quickened and feeble, and ultimately becomes indistinct. The skin and extremities become cold, and later on the animal breaks out into patchy sweats. The upper lip is raised from time to time, the patient sighs, obstinately stands, and later becomes unsteady in his movements. The muscles of the limbs quiver, and ultimately fail to support him, and he falls and dies. Treatment.�Treatment is of little avail in these cases. We may, however, prescribe such agents as gallic acid, acetate of lead, and per- ■chloride of iron, turpentine, &c, in the hope of arresting haemorrhage, which is not impossible if the breach has not extended through the capsule. Post-mortem examinations prove that these ruptures may take place without fatal results when the investing membrane of the organ is not broken, and the escaped blood is prevented from passing into the abdominal cavity. ABDOMINAL ASCITES�DROPSY Definition.�An accumulation of serous or sero-fibrinous fluid within the abdominal cavity. Causes.�Although an occasional sequel to peritonitis of a chroni° type, it is in most instances wholly unconnected with it. Young animals,^ when pastured on low-lying marsh land through the cold months ol winter, and compelled, as some are, to live exclusively on the poor, innutritious herbage which such soil affords, are frequently the subjects of dropsy. The deleterious effects of such living are materially aggr&' vated by the absence of shelter and the cold, wet ground on which they lie. These cases are the result of a disproportion between the fluid ana solid constituents of the blood, the ingestion of succulent innutritious food for a long period causing an excess of the former over the latter. ±ⁿaddition to this, a dropsical belly may be the result of chronic disease going on in other organs, as the heart, the liver, and the kidneys. In ^ heart it indicates some obstructive disorder interfering with the passag of blood from the right to the left side, when the blood is thrown back o

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		311
	ABDOMINAL ASCITES�DROPSY	311
	ABDOMINAL ASCITES�DROPSY

the abdominal organs. In the liver and the kidneys it follows upon degenerative changes in their structure. Moreover, any pressure upon or obstruction in the vessels of the liver by which the blood is interrupted ^ln its onward flow may become a cause of abdominal ascites. In old brood-mares it is said to be due to the continued pressure of the gravid uterus upon the large veins of the abdomen. Symptoms.�Until enlargement of the abdomen is apparent, there ¹⁸ little that is diagnostic of fluid accumulating within. The first indi- cation of existing disease has reference to the animal's general condition, the decline of which is marked by dulness, a want of animation, a staring coat, tightness of the skin, and general debility. There will be wasting of the muscles, particularly those along the back, and a diffused swelling may appear beneath the belly. At this time the latter may show more or less general enlargement, and a tendency to drop and become pendulous. On a more minute examination we find the pulse to be small and weak, and a blanching of the visible membranes. With the progress of abdominal dropsy the limbs not infrequently become enlarged, but vary in size from time to time. Palpitation of the heart may exist either as a sign of great weakness or of heart disease; too much importance, therefore, must not be attached to this symptom until its cause has been satisfactorily made out. We are directed to the uver when the urine becomes loaded with biliary matter and the visible Mucous membranes present a yellow discoloration. Indigestion, inappe- tence, a clammy mouth, and bad-smelling faeces are also prominent among the symptoms of dropsy resulting from changes in the liver. The presence °t albumen in the urine suggests changes in the kidney. Some idea of the extent of the dropsy or quantity of fluid within the abdominal parietes 7^lay be obtained by palpation. We cannot take our patient, unless it is a very small pony, as we would a dog, and with hands on either Hank feel the impact of a wave set in motion on one side by a blow ^0ri the other, but this test can be applied in a more or less satisfactory "lanner when an assistant is directed to push the right flank smartly °Wards the left, on which our own hand is placed, or vice versa. Treatment.�From the previous remarks, in which we have endea- °ured to state some of the many causes of abdominal ascites, it will be Pparent that without a correct diagnosis as to the causation of the aiady we cannot hope to benefit our patient, only so far as may result ^01X1 placing him under favourable hygienic conditions. I-he half-starved colt will profit by a more liberal dietary, which will ^estore to the blood its solid constituents, and to this may be added pre- parations of iron and diuretics. The former help to build up red blood

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		312 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		corpuscles and enrich the circulating fluid, while the latter impart func- tional energy to the kidneys and cause the removal of the effused fluid. Much judgment is needed in the apportionment both of rations and medi- cines; a sudden change from semi-starvation to plenty being dangerous, and the exhibition of iron having a tendency to occasional constipation, this should be corrected by laxative foods. In the dropsy of matured and aged animals, where we suspect heart weakness, or where disease of the valves of that organ is made out by auscultation, the treatment will be directed towards regulating the hearts action, and general tonics will be prescribed to strengthen the system- In those patients in which albumen is being voided in the urine, much stimulation of the kidneys with diuretics is to be avoided, and doses of iron, preferably the perchloride in form of tincture, will be found bene- ficial. When dropsy is associated with liver disease, in which the gland becomes hard and contracted, or other structural changes interfere with the hepatic circulation, there is little to be done. Iodide of potassium m three-dram doses twice a day may be tried, with careful dieting, and a three-ounce dose of sulphate of magnesia now and again to regulate the action of the bowels. Paracentesis, or what is properly known as " tapping ", is sometimes resorted to, but is of very doubtful value. When the ordinary measures, as outlined above, wholly fail, it may be assumed that some structural change in one or other of the organs indicated places the case beyond treatment. SPASM OF THE DIAPHKAGM The diaphragm is a muscle which, with its broad central tendon, separates the chest from the abdominal cavity. Under some circum- stances it is excited to violent contraction, which is repeated at shorter or longer intervals, and sometimes continues for several hours. The contractions are sudden and spasmodic, and so forcible as to shake the entire body from end to end. The morbid action is accompanied by ^athumping noise, which might be mistaken for palpitation of the heart, were it not that the sound emanates from a more backward position in the animal's body, and the flanks are considerably agitated at the same time. Moreover, the contractions of the diaphragm and the stroke oi the pulse do not occur simultaneously. The heart, however, is more or less sympathetically affected, but in no case should there be any difficulty in distinguishing between derangement of the one organ and of the other, and especially if the moment of the heart's beat be carefully noted an compared with that of the contraction of the diaphragm.

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PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE LIVER

313

The cause of this morbid action is not very clearly understood, It
!8 known to have followed severe exertion, as after a good burst of speed
m the hunting-field, but the writer has known it to occur in the stable
after days of idleness, and on one occasion to usher in an attack of colic.

The suddenness of its onset and disappearance, and its behaviour while
Present, seem to mark it out as a neurotic affection, in which the pneumo-
gastric nerve is most likely specially concerned.

Treatment.�Diffusible stimulants with anodynes, enjoined with warm
clothing to the body, are measures most likely to subdue the morbid
activity of the muscle. These should be followed by a dose of aperient
Medicine and a short period of careful dieting.

PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE LIVER

These happily are not numerous in the horse. The chief offenders are

the " distomes " or flukes, and the " cestodes " or bladder-worms. Of the

former the Distoma hepaticum, fig. 112,

^ls the particular species which infests the

hver of the horse. Of the latter the

■bchinococcus veterinorum, fig. 113, the

cystic or bladder phase of development

⁰¹ the Taenia echinococcus of the dog,

^ls the principal, if not the only hydatid

Parasite infesting the liver of this animal.

The Distoma hepaticum in its em-

^ryonic condition gains access to the body

y means of food and water, and, having

cached the small bowels, enters the liver

^by way of the biliary duct. Here it

akes up its abode, and in the course of

^s growth and development excites irrita-

^l0n in the bile-ducts, leading to thicken-

g and disorganization of their walls,

. ^0cking up of the biliary channels, and

A B

Fig. 112.�Common Liver Fluke (Distoma
hepaticum)

A, Showing anatomical details. E, Natural
size, c, Ciliated embryo or young distome.

terruption to the proper discharge of the

ne into the alimentary canal. When the parasites exist in consider-

^e numbers the structural changes extend beyond the ducts into the

Parts around, where an active growth of connective tissue is induced.

. ^8a ^c°nsequence of this the blood-vessels are compressed, the circulation

interfered with, the glandular tissue suffers impairment of nutrition,

^llcl its destruction sooner or later follows. Should this destructive

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314

HEALTH AND DISEASE

process continue, the function of the liver becomes impaired, and the
supply of bile for the purpose of digestion is both insufficient in quan-
tity and indifferent in quality.

In these circumstances the general health gives way, there is loss of
strength, swelling of the legs, an unthrifty appearance, and gradual
wasting of the body.

These symptoms offer no evidence of the seat and nature of the

disease, and it may be that re-
liable indications of the organ
affected will not appear until
the last stages of the malady
have been reached. The bowels
now become irregular, the fseces
pale in colour and offensive in
odour, the membranes lining
the eyelids and the nose assume
a yellow appearance, and the
urine is similarly discoloured.
The difficulty of diagnosing
the existence of parasites in the
liver is in some measure a dis-
advantage, but experience has
amply shown that nothing can
with safety be given to our
patient that will dislodge
these distomes from their
stronghold. In view of this
fact, the great object of treat-
ment should be to uphold the
animal's strength by the ad-

Fig. 113.�Liver infested with Echinococcus

A, Liver studded with echinococetis cysts. B, Tumia echinococcus,
tape-worm of the dog. c, Embryo or young taenia. D, Hooklet.

ministration of vegetable and
mineral tonics in a plentiful

supply of good nutritious food.
A small quantity of common salt may also be given daily, and with
these measures good nursing and healthy surroundings should be enjoined.
If the damage inflicted on the liver is not great, the parasites will in the
ordinary course quit the organ, and a return to health may be anticipated.

Echinococcosis of the liver, as it is termed, is the result of the invasion
of that organ by the embryo of a tape-worm (Tcenia echinococcus) which
infests the intestines of the dog. As in the case of the distomes just
noticed, the mode by which the parasites gain access to the body *^s

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	HEENIA OE EUPTUEE	315
	HEENIA OE EUPTUEE

through the medium of food and water. The dog having discharged with his excrement the segments of the tape - worm, charged with eggs, the latter will sooner or later be set free and become accessible to horses and other animals in their food or water. Deposited on pasture land the ova of the parasite would be taken up in grazing, and, having reached the intestine of the equine host, would then hatch out. It is believed that at this point the embryo enters the liver by way of the biliary duct, and, having taken up its position in the structure of the gland, proceeds to develop a cyst (fig. 113), or, as it is sometimes called, a bladder-tv or m. After a period of five months it is said to reach the size of a walnut, and may still continue to increase until it becomes as large as an orange. Water forms the chief contents of the cysts, but from the internal surface new broods of embryo tape-worms are being formed which, should they escape and reach the intestines of the dog, will there mature into the tape-worm Taenia echinococcus, from the eggs of which the cysts were originally derived. One or two, or even more, of these bladder-worms may exist in the substance of the liver without in any way upsetting the balance of health, but where large numbers crowd the organ and forcibly compress the blood-vessels, much of the gland structure is broken up and its functions correspondingly impaired. In the former case the hydatids perish, and become resolved into small pasty or mortar-like masses. In the latter they enfeeble and slowly destroy their host, when many of those which survive, if consumed by the dog, will develop into tape-worms. The symptoms occasioned by these parasites are such as are met with when the liver becomes infested with flukes, and seldom afford any clue to the precise cause of the disease. For a long time they may but faintly uidicate the organ attacked. The measures of treatment therefore recom- mended in the one case may also be followed in the other. HERNIA OR RUPTURE Definition.�Hernia is the protrusion of an organ, or part of an ^0rgan, from its proper cavity, whether as the result of a rent in the tissues, as when the belly is broken, or an escape through a natural or ^lrflperfectly-closed orifice, as in inguinal and umbilical hernia. It is convenient to divide ruptures into two classes, viz., congenital ^and acquired: in the one the defect is present at the time of birth; in ^lle other it is brought about afterwards, by accident or disease. The ^Causes of this latter form of the malady are severe straining, as in heavy

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		316 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	draught, jumping, rearing, rolling, and kicking, or it may follow upon some form of external violence, as kicks from other horses, horning by cattle, or blows inflicted upon the abdomen in various other ways. Hernia is described as reducible and irreducible. It is reducible when it can be returned into its proper place by simple external manipulation or taxis. It is irreducible when its return cannot be effected without a surgical operation. A rupture is said to be strangulated when the orifice through which it passes becomes too small to accommodate the extruded organ without imparting to it considerable pressure, in which case the circulation is interfered with, the blood gathers in the vessels of the escaped viscus, and sooner or later provokes swelling and inflammation in it, which may end in mortification and death of the part. EXOMPHALUS OR UMBILICAL HERNIA

	Definition.�An enlargement of the floor of the belly caused by the extrusion of a portion of bowel or omentum through the navel opening.

			Fig. 114.�Trass for Umbilical Hernia

In foals it is either congenital or occurs very shortly after birth, in con- sequence of the umbilicus being still pervious or imperfectly closed. In older animals it is usually provoked by blows, some form of severe exer- tion, and especially jumping, rearing, and kicking when at play. It seldom occurs after the age of one year.

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HERNIA OR RUPTURE

317

Treatment.�Umbilical hernia very frequently disappears altogether
without being subjected to treatment of any kind. This spontaneous
removal of the gut from its pouch is believed to arise in many instances
from a natural shortening of the membrane (mesentery) by which the
intestines are suspended from the spine. It may also occur as a result
of the opening becoming closed, the bowel being thus dislodged from
its sac and restored to its proper cavity.

Where these natural means of cure do
not come into operation, the early recourse
to and frequent application of blisters over

Fig. 115.�Clamp for Umbilical Hernia

the seat of enlargement will often suffice to
fill in the aperture and restore the parts to a normal condition, especi-
ally if at the same time the patient be put on a spare diet and kept in
quiet confinement. It is most important to the success of any treatment
that distension of the bowels be avoided, since increase of the pressure
from within tends to force them through the opening and prevent its
closure.

Trusses are very difficult to keep adjusted in foals, but when this can
be done they are very helpful if applied over a pad of tow the day

aMWISjrer

Pig. 116.�Treatment of Umbilical Hernia with a Clamp

tollowing the application of a blister. The form and adjustment of a
Citable truss are shown in fig. 114.

Many foals are successfully operated upon by a simple method of
clamping the skin after pushing back the hernia. Before treatment is
^e°mmenced the animal is prepared for the operation by abstinence from
°od for twelve hours, and then cast and secured upon his back. By a little
^Careful manipulation the extruded parts are returned, the skin over them
^ls then pinched up into a fold and held in the fingers by an assistant,
^wtiile a clamp of wood or steel (fig. 115) is placed upon it as close as

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			318 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		possible to the abdomen, and tightly compressed and secured in position by string or a screw. The instrument is allowed to remain, when in the course of ten or twelve days, the inflammatory action excited in the subcutaneous tissue will have closed the opening in the abdominal wall, and the clamp with the dead compressed skin will fall away, leaving behind a dense firm scar. In adjusting the clamp care must be taken not to use so much pressure as to cut the skin or cause its too speedy death, lest it should fall away before the orifice is filled in. Another method having the same end in view is the intro- duction of two metal skewers, or strong needles, beneath the skin of the part, cross-ways (fig. 117), after which a ligature is tightly bound round the skin above Fig. I17.-Treatment of Umbilical Hernia with Needles ^them> ^and allowed to remain Until the integument and skew^Ters fall away. In performing this operation the greatest care should be observed that the skin and the instruments to be passed through it are thoroughly clean and disinfected, and above all that the sac is completely emptied of its contents before the skewers are introduced. INGUINAL HEKNIA�BUBONOCELE These terms are used to indicate the escape and lodgment of some of the abdominal contents in the inguinal canal. Although a common form of rupture in man, it is of rare occurrence in horses, owing chiefly to the horizontal position of the abdomen in the latter, and the slope of the belly throwing the weight of the viscera forward towards the diaphragm, instead of bearing down upon the inguinal region, as in the former. This particular rupture, both in man and beast, is more likely to occur in males than females. In geldings the operation of castration, by inducing wasting of the spermatic cord and contraction of the opening by which the belly communicates w^Tith the inguinal canal, renders the occurrence much rarer in them than in stallions. Causes.�The predisposition to both inguinal and scrotal hernia is no doubt hereditary, and as a congenital condition it is well known to veterinary surgeons and castrators. The very rare occurrence of this form of hernia in geldings seems to furnish a clue to its more common occurrence in stallions, for while in the

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			HERNIA OR RUPTURE 319

		former the abdominal ring through which escape of the gut or omentum is effected is very small, in the latter it is very large. This, however, is not the only reason for the greater liability observed in the one as compared with the other. The habitual upright posture which the stallion assumes in the act of copulation, by relaxing the abdominal muscles and causing the intestines to gravitate towards the inguinal region, favours, as in man, their entrance into the inguinal canal, and especially so when the digestive organs are distended with food. The less frequent causes are severe efforts at draught in deep ground, slipping, rolling, rearing, and kicking. Symptoms.�The inguinal canal being situated in the region of the groin, and practically out of view, the presence of inguinal hernia may be overlooked unless conditions arise in it to provoke pain and draw attention to the affected part. It is by no means a rare occurrence for Veterinary surgeons and castrators to find a portion of omentum or "kell", and even a piece of intestine, in the scrotum while removing the testicles, which was not suspected to exist before the purse was laid open; and one or the other of these structures may be lodged in the inguinal canal at the time of operation, and descend and protrude from the scrotal wound after the testicles have been removed and the animal has been allowed to rise. It would appear, therefore, that both inguinal and scrotal hernia tttay sometimes exist without occasioning symptoms or any inconvenience to the animal whatever. There is no doubt, too, that portions of omentum, and maybe intestine also, which find their way into the inguinal canal during the descent of the testicles, return again spontaneously into the abdominal cavity as the foal acquires strength and age advances. STRANGULATED INGUINAL HERNIA It is more especially in stallions advanced in years, and who have been much used at the stud, that inguinal hernia calls for active treatment. Here the internal abdominal ring having become enlarged, a knuckle of '�intestine is permitted to enter the inguinal canal. If in this confined space it becomes distended with food and gas, as is most likely to occur, the pressure from within and the resistance from without, by interfering With the circulation, ends in swelling and strangulation of the gut at or ^about the internal abdominal ring. It is under these circumstances that symptoms are developed which draw attention to the disease. The animal ¹⁸ restless, paw^Ts the ground, stretches himself out, and gives evidence of abdominal pain by looking back at the flank, crouching and lying down, ^0r he sits on his haunches like a dog. The hind-limbs are moved somewhat stiffly in progression, and the testicle on the affected side in

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	320	HEALTH AND DISEASE

particular rises and falls. Unless relief is afforded inflammation attacks the extruded parts, the pain becomes more severe and persistent, the scrotum and flank are bedewed with perspiration, the pulse is increased in frequency, and the breathing becomes quick and panting. The occurrence of some or all of thesej symptoms in a stallion should always excite suspicion, and no time should be lost in the application of appropriate means of diagnosis. If inguinal hernia exists, the spermatic cord by which the testicle is suspended will be found to be more or less swollen, but the most reliable indication of the disease is afforded by passing the greased hand well into the rectum. If, when this has been done, the hand is directed downward and outward, it will be brought into contact with the internal abdominal ring, where, if present, the imprisoned gut will be felt. Treatment.�From the previous remarks it will be gathered that the treatment in inguinal hernia is not necessarily required save when the hernia is strangulated, or the operation of castration is to be performed. Before resorting to extreme measures, it is always desirable to attempt to extricate the bowel from its abnormal position by ordinary manipulation, in which case the rectum is first emptied of its fsecal contents, and then the hand, having been well anointed with vaseline or oil, is introduced into it and carried as directed above to the internal abdominal ring. By a little careful traction on the imprisoned gut it may sometimes be liberated with- out further trouble. If it cannot be done so, the horse must be cast and put under the restraining influence of chloroform. In this condition he is placed on his back, the hind-quarters are raised by underpacking with straw, and the hind-leg on the side of the hernia is drawn slightly forward and away from the body. In this position the food contents of the dis- placed gut are encouraged to return into the more depending part of the bowel, and by reducing the volume of the hernia its withdrawal from the inguinal canal is facilitated. One hand should now be introduced into the rectum and gentle traction again made on the imprisoned bowel. At the same time an assistant will appose the palm of his hand or hands to the hernia, and while applying gentle downward pressure to the base, will carefully manipulate the neck with the fingers in such a way as to cause the food and gas confined within it to pass out, and by still further re- ducing the size of the imprisoned mass hasten its return. Promise of success will be indicated if the enlargement diminishes in size and the bowel shows a disposition to yield to the traction from within. If, however, no change is perceptible in these respects after reasonable effort, the attempt should cease until the imprisoned gut has been released by surgical operation.

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		HANOVERIAN The Property of His Majesty King Edward VII

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HERNIA OR RUPTURE

321

Where strangulation is known to have existed for some time this should
be resorted to at once without delay.

Under such circumstances the intestine will be inflamed, swollen, and
soft, and may be easily torn or fatally damaged in any attempt to relieve it
by taxis.

the

The operation referred to (herniotomy) consists in enlar

rging

internal abdominal ring in order to remove
the constriction and allow the gut to pass
back into the belly.

For this purpose the patient must be
kept under the influence of chloroform and
strict antiseptic methods observed. The skin
and underlying membrane (dartos) are cut
through and carefully dissected from the
peritoneal sac (tunica reflexa) in which the
gut is contained. A small opening is now
made into the sac, and the finger passed
along it in the direction of the internal ring
m search of the constricted spot. When this
has been found the herniotome is passed into
the opening, and, following the finger, is
brought to the seat of strangulation; the
back of the instrument is then turned towards
the bowel, and the blade towards the outer
part of the ring. It is now brought into

Fig. 118.�Inguinal Hernia

A A, Intestine. B, Internal abdominal
ring, c, Inguinal canal. D, Knuckle of
intestine. E, Testicle, and F its enclosing
sac.

action by opening the handles. A very slight
mcision is sufficient to set free the strangu-
lated bowel, unless, as a result of inflamma-

tion, it has become adherent to the sac.

Should this be found to be the case the adhesions must be carefully
"token down with the finger and the parts returned.

Castration by the " covered operation" should follow liberation of the
§^ut. In this method the tunica vaginalis reflexa and the spermatic cord
^are securely included between a pair of clamps, which must be adjusted as
^filgb up above the testicles as possible. After the wound has been freely
Pressed with some antiseptic dressing the patient is allowed to rise.

Williams, in his Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery, in

eierring to this operation, observes: "I consider this method a very

^undesirable one, and calculated to be succeeded by very unsatisfactory

^results; and even if it were always successful, I fail to see the advantage

dissecting the skin and dartos muscle from the tunica vaginalis, and

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			322 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		making a wound that is sure to suppurate profusely, when a much more simple method, namely, that of including the scrotum in a plain clamp, can be more easily performed". He recommends, then, that when a hernia is present the intestine should be " returned into the abdomen, and the scrotum and its contents on the side of the hernia included in a strong wooden clamp (not a caustic clamp) placed as close to the external ring as possible, and the whole mass allowed to slough". While this destructive process is going on on one side of the instrument a constructive one is going on in the vicinity of the inguinal canal, where the structures above the clams are being united together, and the aperture closed against a recurrence of the mishap. It is most important that measures should now be taken to prevent any recurrence of the accident. Before the animal returns to his stable pro- vision should be made in the stall for raising the hind-quarters by under- packing with peat or straw, or both, so that the bowels may be inclined forward, and so directed away from the enlarged ring. Nothing but gruel should be given for the first twelve hours, and the diet for the subsequent forty-eight hours must contain but little solid matter. Bran scalded with linseed-tea or oatmeal-gruel, and given as sloppy mashes, is the most suitable aliment, to which may be added a little salt and malt meal. SCROTAL HERNIA This form of the disease exists when, instead of being arrested in the inguinal canal, the displaced gut or mesentery descends through it into the scrotum or purse. Scrotal hernia, like inguinal hernia, is sometimes congenital, and especially in weakly foals, in which case it may either gradually disappear as the animal acquires strength or assume a chronic state. It has been observed in many instances to increase in volume during the first few months of the foal's life and then to diminish gradually, the alteration being more or less coincident with weaning, and the substi- tution of food less disposed to distend the abdomen than summer grass. If the abnormality is not naturally remedied during the first eighteen months of the horse's life it may be regarded as established or chronic. Animals affected with congenital scrotal hernia may continue to work for years, and even to the end of their lives, without suffering any un- toward result, but in those cases where it occurs in aged horses the liability to strangulation of the imprisoned gut is greatly increased. This description of hernia is not always detected at birth, but may become noticeable a few days or weeks afterwards.

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			HERNIA OK RUPTURE 323

		As an acquired disease it is most frequently seen in aged stallions, when as a result of progressive relaxation and enlargement of the internal abdominal ring and the inguinal canal the entrance of the bowel into the scrotum is facilitated. It is in this latter form of disease that trouble is to be feared, much ttiore so than where the malady occurs early in life and exists as a chronic congenital disorder. Symptoms.�The presence of scrotal hernia is marked by an increase ^1]i the size of the scrotum on the affected side, but inasmuch as the volume °f this sac may be augmented by other causes than that of hernia, a careful Manipulation of the part and nice discrimination will be required in order to arrive at a correct diagnosis. The presence of a portion of bowel in the purse will be indicated (i) if the enlargement varies in size from time to time, or wholly disappears and returns again; (ii) if the swelling is springy and elastic to the touch, like confined air, or if it is soft and pits to Pressure of the finger, or if these conditions are alternately present at different times; (iii) if pressure applied to the scrotum produces a gurgling sound, and at the same time a reduction in the size of the scrotum; (iv) if when the patient is made to cough by compressing the throat the enlarge- ment increases. Any opinion formed from external manipulation must be confirmed by Passing the hand into the rectum and examining the internal abdominal ^tlVlg as directed for inguinal hernia. Treatment.�In some cases of this disease the hernia will in part °f altogether disappear, and especially after a roll or a long period of tasting, but only to return again. If the escaped gut becomes inordinately distended with food compression and strangulation may result, where ^syrnptoms indicative of suffering, such as were described in speaking of ^lriguinal hernia, will be manifested. Here again in the matter of treatment taxis must precede surgical interference. An attempt must be made to relieve the bowel through the medium of the rectum and by manipulation of the hernia as advised ¹¹¹ the preceding article. For this purpose the horse is cast, chloroformed, ^ttd placed on his back, and underpacked in the manner described for ^lnguinal hernia. Should this fail, then it will be necessary to liberate the gut by dividing the point of constriction. This having been done the animal must be ^Castrated by the covered operation, and after free irrigation of the parts ^Wlth antiseptic dressing he is allowed to rise. If symptoms of acute pain °How the operation, a bold dose of opium may be administered and hot °ths applied to the region of the scrotum.

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324

HEALTH AND DISEASE

In the matter of feeding and general management the patient should be
dealt with as prescribed in inguinal hernia.

VENTRAL HERNIA

In speaking of umbilical hernia we pointed out that the escape of
the abdominal contents took place through a natural opening (navel or
umbilical opening). In ventral hernia it is otherwise. Here the muscular
and fibrous structures of the belly are ruptured by some form of violence.

Fig. 119.�Ventral Hernia

The more common causes of this accident are kicks, horning by cattle,
falling on to blunt stakes or posts while jumping, sudden and forcible
compression in passing through narrow gates, straining in the act ot
parturition, or when cast in a drain.

Ventral hernia may occur in any part of the abdomen, and will vary i°
size in accordance with the extent of the rupture. It may be no larger
than a cricket-ball, or it may extend from the groin towards the girt*¹for a considerable distance. The contents of the sac usually consist ot
intestine or omentum, or both may be present at the same time.

Symptoms.�When of recent occurrence the enlargement may ^bemuch in excess of the actual size of the hernia, owing to the inflammatory

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			IRREGULARITIES AND DISEASES OF THE TEETH 325

		swelling excited in the injured tissues at the time of the accident. The contused part is hot and painful to pressure, and if the structures have been seriously damaged further enlargement may take place in the course of the formation of an abscess. The writer has known several quarts of matter to form around the hernial sac in the region of the flank. It is not until this extraneous swelling has been removed that the precise extent of the rupture may be determined. In an old hernia, when the inflammatory tumefaction has passed away, the hole in the belly may generally be felt by deep pressure along its circumference. When com- posed of intestine it will be found to fluctuate to pressure, and to vary m size from time to time according as the escaped bowel may contain much or little food. Treatment.�Small ventral hernia, like umbilical hernia, may dis- ^appear spontaneously, or undergo more or less reduction in size. When dealt with at the time of its occurrence, the first indication of treatment is to reduce the inflammatory action and swelling by hot fomen- tations and physic, and prevent further escape of abdominal contents by the application of a compress, which may be extemporized out of a thick pledget of tow, and a long broad bandage made out of an old rug. As the inflammatory swelling subsides, the compress should be drawn tighter round the body. At this time, and throughout the treatment, the patient should oe kept on half-rations, which should consist of sloppy bran. Large Quantities of bulky food will tend to force the bowels through the opening ^and prevent its closure. If the rupture is situated backward, the hind- quarters of the animal must be raised by underpacking with litter to Oisplace the weight of the abdominal contents forward. So soon as the inflammation has dispersed, a blister should be applied over and round the enlargement, and repeated again and again. The compress must be allowed to remain on while the blister is acting, and until it is repeated. Old hernia must be reduced by either clams or ligature, as in the case °t umbilical hernia, and under the same precautionary measures. Where ^^ey do not interfere with the animal's services they should not be inter- red with. IRREGULARITIES AND DISEASES OF THE TEETH Since the advent of so-called horse-dentists, and the prominence given ₍° the subject in connection with the illness of the Duke of Westminster's ^Urnie ", the horse-owning public has been awakened to the importance the teeth as affecting health, and more particularly digestion, in horses. "ue not endorsing; all the extravagant pretensions of the dentists, we vol. I. ■ ^e & F >

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		326 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	are inclined to think that insufficient attention and even neglect of the teeth may be held to account for many of those obscure cases of failure in general health which are seen from time to time in our horse patients. Dentition in relation to age is considered in another part of this work, and we wish here only to call attention to those diseases or abnormal conditions which interfere with the proper mastication and insalivation of food, or cause pain and inconvenience to the animal.

Fig. 120.�Lower Jaw of Horse, showing Numerical Excess of Molars on the Right Side Irregularities of the teeth may have reference to the process oi shedding, to numbers, to growth, and to wear. The majority of colts cast their primary teeth without assistance, and it is only when they are seen to dribble or drop their food that they receive any special attention- The inflamed gums or Lampas elsewhere referred to may have its origin in the pushing up of the new tooth while the primary one stiW retains a loose hold upon the gum. In these cases the fang is already absorbed, and the offending crow^rn may usually be removed with ease and without danger. This is done by means of dental forceps. It ¹a simple operation, requiring only that the neck of the tooth be seize by the instrument, while sufficient care is taken not to injure tn growing tooth beneath, or the socket of the jaw in which they are co

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SPECIAL DEFECTS OF THE MOLAR TEETH 327

tamed. Lancing the tumefied gums is sometimes resorted to with good
results.

Numerical Excess and Deficiency of Development of Teeth.

�Many instances occur in which the teeth are too numerous. When this
is so they are usually crowded together or appear out of their proper place.

This irregularity of numbers may occur in the incisor teeth or the
Molars, or both. We have known as many as ten of the former to be
present in the upper row instead of six, and we have seen as few as two.
Seven molar teeth instead of six on one side of the jaw is not of rare
occurrence (fig. 120), and we are aware of an instance where only one
Molar tooth appeared in each jaw. When numerical excess leads to over-
crowding, a good deal of pain is the result; and much inconvenience
invariably occurs where the supernumerary teeth spring up, as they some-
times do, in the middle of the palate, or immediately within or without
the naturally placed row. In the former position they interfere with the
tongue, and in the latter with the cheeks, and in both they render masti-
cation difficult, and in some cases almost impossible.

Where the number of teeth is deficient, grazing and mastication are
tendered troublesome in proportion to the extent of the loss.

SPECIAL DEFECTS OF THE MOLAK TEETH

Disparity Of Length.�In this connection the most common defect
^ls that which results when the first and last molar teeth in the upper and
lower row do not exactly
^Cover each other. The

hpper row may extend
^a little farther back than

^Qe lower one, when a
Portion of the last tooth
⁰¹ the former, and a por-
^tioQ of the first tooth
^of the latter, will be out
the line of wear (fig.

Fig. 121.

^l21), with the result

above from want of Contact

hat the unused parts of

^e^ teeth will grow of inordinate length, and sooner or later give rise to

. Acuity of mastication, and maybe to injury of the gum, or even the

^w-bone. To remedy this defect the projecting portions of the teeth

^Ust either be removed with the rasp, or chiselled off with one or other

the various chisels devised for the purpose.

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328

HEALTH AND DISEASE

Marginal Irregularity.

� The commonest irregu-
larity of the molar teeth is
that in which the outer edge
of the upper molars, and the

inner margin

of the lower

ones,

become ragged and

protrude beyond the corre-
sponding margins above and
below respectively (fig. 122).

Fig. 122.�Undulating Irregularities of Molars

A, Right side of upper
jaw, showing (1) excavation
of the bone and abnormal
wear of the inner surface of
the teeth.

B, Lower jaw, showing
corresponding teeth simi-
larly worn on the outer
side as in fig. c, and exca-
vation of the jaw (1) by the
downward projection of the
upper molars.

aggsesi;

Fig. 123.�Marginal Irregularities of Teeth

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		SPECIAL DEFECTS OF THE MOLAR TEETH 329

	In quite young horses the tables of the molars are practically level, but in course of time they gradually take the direction of inclined planes. The reason why the edges are not kept down by wear is said to be that the upper jaw is wider than the lower one. It has been observed that individuals acquire a habit of grinding their food with a movement almost exclusively from right to left, and irregular wear of

	Fig. 124.-Tooth-Rasp the teeth naturally follows as a consequence. When, from the presence of a decayed or malformed tooth, the motion of the jaw is limited and altered from its normal direction, irregularity is often observed to result ^at the edges. The lower molars invariably wear away faster than the upper, but ^Jt will be remembered that they are smaller to begin with; those in the middle of the jaw are sometimes worn quite low, while those at either end ^appear to have escaped a fair amount of work and remain prominent, the surface altogether presenting an undulating character.

Fig. 125.�Tooth-Shears We cannot alter the animal's manner of eating, but we can reduce the sharp edges of his teeth from time to time, and remove parts that P^roject unduly. The former operation is accomplished with an instrument Known as a tooth-rasp (fig. 124), and requires a considerable expenditure of energy ₀n the part of the operator to perform it effectually. The latter may require the use of tooth-shears. Easping may often be done without ^a §^ag, by simply drawing out the tongue on the opposite side to that pon which the rasp is to be applied. Many horses submit to the pro- ^eeding with less opposition, when secured in this simple manner, than ^ey would do if twitch and gag were called into requisition. When ^e tooth-shears (fig. 125) are to be used, the animal will require to be uer more thorough restraint, and is most favourably placed for the °Peration when cast.

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330 HEALTH AND DISEASE

FRACTUEE OF THE TEETH

The incisor teeth are sometimes broken by external violence, and the
same accident may result to the molar teeth from being brought forcibly
together while a piece of stone, or a nail, or some other hard substance
is interposed between them.

Fracture of the incisor teeth commonly results from the animal falling
forcibly on the mouth. The breakage here is usually in a transverse
direction, while in the molars it extends from the crown towards the
fang. Much less importance attaches to the one than to the other.
Fracture of the latter causes severe toothache, and seriously interferes
with mastication, while at the same time it permits the food to enter
the alveolus, or socket, which gives lodgment to the fangs, and lays
the foundation for further mischief.

In all cases where a tooth is fractured vertically, so as to interfere
with the fang, it should be removed, or failing this, in case of an incisor,
it should be broken off short so that the gum may overgrow the stump.
(See " Minor Operations ".)

Fractured teeth may be recognized by the blackish-yellow discolora-
tion which they undergo, and the offensive odour they give out, as well
as by the accumulation of food in the line of the crack.

CARIES

Decayed teeth are comparatively infrequent.

The causes are said to
external injury, and

chronic inflammation of
contiguous structures, as
gums inflamed by lodgment
of food in the interdental
spaces. It has been observed
that caries is more frequent
in horses having the teeth
abnormally wide apart. De-
cay may commence at the

fang, the neck, or the crown;

the neck is perhaps the com-

Fig. 126.�Caries

monest seat of the disease.
Among the symptoms of this disease are difficult mastication, quidding
the food, slobbering at the mouth, enlargement of the jaw, which may be

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		331
	PARROT MOUTH	331
	PARROT MOUTH

seen and felt from the outside, and in the case of upper molars a discharge of a fetid nature sometimes takes place through the nostrils. The fourth uiolar is said to suffer more frequently from caries than any other. If disease begins at the fang, the life of the tooth is generally short, as nutrition is entirely cut off after a little while. Such a tooth has a dead look, is not quite so high as its fellows, and may be found to be loose. With diseased fangs abscesses are to be feared, and their presence ^ls frequently the first intimation of anything wrong with the teeth. Unless suitable treatment is adopted, disease and disorganization may result and prove very intractable. But little horse - dentistry has been practised beyond rasping and extraction, and there is little doubt that a good deal of discomfort might be saved, and operations avoided, by suitable stoppings being employed. IJecay occurs rarely on the grinding surface, but at the sides; and the tew experiments made have been so successful as to warrant us in clearing °ut a cavity and filling it up with a hard amalgam. This serves to keep °ut particles of food and prevent tetor of the breath; and provided the °avity is made dry at the time the topping is introduced, further decay ^y be for a long time arrested, ^utta percha is a cheap and con- venient stopping, and is worth a trial ^ln mouths where the interdental spaces between the teeth are large and allow food to accumulate and prove a chronic source of trouble. It may also be used to fill a gap left where a tooth has been extracted. PAREOT MOUTH In this deformity the teeth of the upper jaw project beyond those of ue lower one, and are consequently not subjected to any attrition or _ ear (fig_g, \^j _ancj 128). Where the malformation is extreme, horses are capable of gathering their food when turned to grass, or accomplish it ^Jth some difficulty. They are apt, in consequence, to fall away in flesh, ^ should always be provided with dry food to make up the deficiency.

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

332

In some severe cases of this deformity the lower row of incisor teeth are

allowed to come into contact
with the roof of the mouth
and injure the bars or palate.
In such cases the offending
teeth should undergo period-
ical rasping to keep them
down.

CRIB-BITING

A practice in which some
horses indulge has the effect

Fig. 128.�Reversed Parrot Mouth

of wearing down the incisor

teeth, especially towards the

outer edge (fig. 129). It is very seldom, however, that any dental disease

or derangement arises out of it.

WOLVES' TEETH

This term is applied to small conical teeth which occasionally appear
in front of the grinders of the upper jaw. In the early ancestors of the

horse seven molar teeth existed
on either side of the upper and
lower jaw respectively. The first
of the series has long since dis-
appeared from the dental for-
mula, but from time to time it
continues to appear in a rudi-
mentary form as what are known

Fig. 130.�Wolf's Tooth (shown
at a)

Fig. 129.�Teeth of Crib-Biter

as Wolves' teeth (fig. 130). These vestigial remains, also known as Eye-
teeth, were formerly supposed to occasion blindness, and were always
promptly removed.

In some districts this erroneous impression still lingers in the minds

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THE UKINAKY APPARATUS 333

of ignorant breakers, who continue to adopt the same unnecessary practice.
As matter of fact they produce little if any inconvenience, and usually
disappear between two and three years old, when the first and second
temporary grinders are shed.

* 3. THE URINARY APPARATUS

From an anatomical point of view, the urinary apparatus consists of
two kidneys with their ducts, named
the ureters, which open into a mus-
culo-membranous sac, the bladder, and
this again has a tube, short in the
female, of considerable length in the
male, by which the fluid collected in
the bladder is discharged from the
body at convenient intervals, and is
named the urethra. In the male this
tube terminates at the extremity of
the penis, which it traverses along its
whole length. From a physiological
stand-point, the kidneys are organs by
which the excess of water, as well as
the salts and the nitrogen of the body,
^are got rid of, the latter substance
being chiefly in the form of urea, of
^urie and hippuric acids, and crea-
tinine, which represent the waste of
the proteids or albuminous and albu-
minoid components of the tissues.

The Kidneys (fig. 131) are two
^ln number, one being situated on each
side of the lumbar vertebrae, partly
Under cover of the last ribs, and rest-
*ⁿg against the under surface of the

oins, where they are embedded in much
at. T}_le rig]^ kidney is somewhat
^eart-shaped and rather the larger of

Fig. 131. �The Kidneys, Ureters, and Bladder

ek, Right kidney, lk, Left kidney, a, Right
ureter. B, Abdominal aorta, c, D, E, F, I, Arteries
arising from the same. G, Bladder. H, Pelvis.

^th

It reaches to the level of the
"th rib and touches the liver in front; it weighs about 27 oz.

The left

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

334

is more bean-shaped, is situated rather farther backwards than the right,
touching the spleen in front, and weighs about 25 ozs. The external sur-
face of each kidney is smooth, and on its inferior surface is in great part
covered by the peritoneum or lining membrane of the belly. The inner
border is deeply notched to form the hilus of the kidney, wherein is lodged
the pelvis�a small sac or receptacle into which the urine is first received.
Here also the renal arteries enter, the renal veins emerge, and the ureter
begins and continues its course from the pelvis to the bladder. Each
kidney is enclosed in a dense membrane or capsule, which in health can be

easily stripped off the proper substance
of the organ, whilst in some forms of
disease it is firmly adherent. If a kid-
ney be divided by a horizontal cut (fig.
132), into an upper and a lower half,
a difference in colour will be noticed
between the outer cortical portion and
the inner medullary portion. The outer
or cortical portion is of dark reddish-
brown colour and finely granular aspect;
the inner or medullary portion is lighter
in colour and presents a number of fine
lines, converging towards the cavity in
the centre of the kidney named the
pelvis. Both the cortical and medullary

Fig. 132.�Section through Kidney

A, Ureter. B, Renal capsule. C, Cortex.
D, Medulla. E, Renal vessels. F, Pelvis.

zones are chiefly composed of delicate
tubes�the urinary tubules,�together

with many blood-vessels, and the differ-
ence in their aspect is due to the difference in the form and arrangement
of these tubuli uriniferi.

If we follow one of these tubuli (fig. 133) from its commencement in
the outer or cortical substance of the organ to the point where it terminates
by opening into the pelvis of the kidney, we find that it begins with a little
dilatation or bulb termed the capsule of Malpighi (fig. 133, c), about xi^h
of an inch in diameter, from which proceeds a cylindrical and much-
contorted tube that lies in the cortical zone and has a diameter of about
■g-^oth of an inch. The tube then enters the internal or medullary zone,
where, becoming much narrowed, it forms a long loop, the loop of Henle,
and having reascended towards the outer or cortical zone becomes once
more coiled, and finally joins with others to form a collecting tube. These
winding tubes are lined by a layer of cells which secrete or separate the
urine from the blood, after which the collecting tubes convey it into the

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THE URINARY APPARATUS 335

pelvis of the kidney, whence it passes into the ureter, and so on to the
bladder. The cells by which the urine is secreted vary in form in different
Parts. Those lining the little bulb or capsule of Malpighi are flattened;
those in both of the convoluted portions are columnar and striated or
fibrillated; whilst those lining
the loop of Henle are flattened
and clear in the descending,
^and striated in the ascending
Portion. These differences in
the character of the cells seem
to be associated with differ-
ences in function, for, if certain
colouring-matters are injected
mto the blood, they are not
found in the cells lining the
°apsule, but they deeply stain
those parts in which the
striated cells are found.

The arrangement of the
blood-vessels of the kidney
Presents several points of great
mterest. In the first place
they are very large for the size
°f the organ, and consequently
the whole mass of the blood
circulating the body traverses
the kidneys in a comparatively
^short space of time. Now the
constituents of the urine, being
°* a poisonous nature, are

Jealously removed from the
^blood by the cells of the kid-
ney as soon as they enter it.

Fig. 133.�Uriniferous Tubules

a, a, Artery; v, v, vein; c, Malpighian corpuscle. A, The cortex
or cortical substance. B, Boundary layer. C, Papillary portion,

consequence of this rapid

^excretion we find that under healthy conditions very delicate chemical
^xamination is requisite to demonstrate their presence in the blood at all.

Thus, for example, the quantity of urea discoverable in the blood passing
⁰ the kidney by the renal arteries does not exceed 0'016 part in 1000 in
^ealth, and is still less in the venous blood returning from them.

In the next place, there is a double system of capillary vessels which is
°t found in any other organ of the body. The renal arteries entering the

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	336	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

kidney at the hilus break up into arches which are situated at the junction of the medullary with the cortical zone. From this region numerous large branches run to the cortex, where they break up into minute afferent branches, one of which runs to each little capsule of Malpighi, and, deeply indenting the wall, divides into a little ball of branching and intertwined capillaries (fig. 133, a), which unite together again to form an efferent vessel. This efferent vessel (fig. 133, v), which would elsewhere be termed a vein, after a short course again divides, as before, like an artery into a net-work of capillaries which are distributed over the outer side of the cortical and convoluted portion of the renal tubules. These, reuniting, form the proper renal veins by which the blood is conveyed out of the gland. Mr. Bowman pointed out that the peculiar arrangements of the blood- vessels are well adapted for the secretion and excretion of such a fluid as the urine. The little balls or glomerules of capillaries which are formed by the first divisions of the renal arteries are well adapted to permit the escape of the watery parts of the blood, which, if the expression may be used, flushes the renal tubuli through their entire length, and in doing so dis- solves and washes away the urea and hippuric acid and salts which are secreted by the cells lining the convolute portions of the tubules, and which have been separated by them from the blood coursing, under comparatively low pressure, through the second plexus of capillaries which surrounds them. THE ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE RETENTION AND DISCHARGE OF THE URINE The urine secreted by the kidneys enters the pelvis of these organs and then trickles down the ureters (fig. 131, a) to the bladder. It is remarkable that a kind of alternation in functional activity takes place between the two kidneys, so that first one and then the other kidney secretes a few drops of urine and rests awhile. The ureters pierce the coats of the bladder obliquely, a disposition of parts which, whilst it presents no obstacle to the flow of urine from the kidney to the bladder, effectually prevents any influx of fluid from the bladder towards the kidney. The bladder (g, fig. 131) is the receptacle which receives and retains for some hours and then expels the urine which is excreted. It weighs about a pound, and when distended it is capable of containing about four quarts of fluid. It is situated above the pubes and below the rectum, and is covered in front and behind by the peritoneum; inferiorly this coat is wanting. When greatly distended the bladder projects forwards into the abdomen, but in the ordinary condition of being partially filled it is con- tained within the bony pelvis. It is a musculo-membranous bag. The

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		PLATE XXVIIL

	Copyright photo, by Schreiber, igoi CHAMPION STALLION: AMERICAN TROTTER, CRESCEUS

Copyright photo, by Schreiber, zS< PACING STALLION: AMERICAN TROTTER, STAR POINTER

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		THE QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION OF THE UEINE 337 muscular tissue is arranged in several layers, some fibres being longitudinal, others transverse, and others again oblique, and by their contraction the contents of the cavity can be completely expelled through the urethra. Just beyond the point where the bladder and urethra are continuous, one with the other, the muscular fibres are so arranged as to form a strong muscular band encircling the urethra, to which the name of sphincter of the bladder is applied. The office of this muscle, which is in part under the influence of the will, is to close the orifice of exit from the bladder, and it therefore acts in antagonism to the general muscular coat of the bladder. It is necessary that it should relax before any urine can be expelled. If it loses its tone, the urine can no longer be retained, and incontinence of urine occurs. The internal coat of the bladder is the mucous membrane. This is a soft, pale rose-coloured layer, which is continuous before and above with the membrane lining the ureters, and behind and below with that lining the urethra. In the empty bladder it presents folds or rugse, which are obliter- ated as the urine accumulates and distends the organ. It is composed of an external layer of connective tissue, which is in accurate contact with the muscular coat, and of several layers of epithelial cells. The bladder is well supplied with blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. The arteries are derived from the branches of the internal pudic, and the veins return the blood to the internal pudic veins. The lymphatics form a close net- work on and internal to the muscular layers, and discharge their contents into the sublumbar glands. The nerves are derived from the hypogastric plexus, and partly proceed from the spinal cord and partly from the great sympathetic nerve. The nerve centre controlling the act of staling is situated in the spinal cord at the lower part of the lumbar region, as is shown by the fact that after division of the spinal cord in the dorsal region the bladder can be stimulated to discharge its contents by the application of cold to the buttocks; ordinarily, however, the sensation of fulness of the bladder excites consciousness, and impulses proceed from the brain which, on the one hand, cause the sphincter guarding the opening from the bladder to relax and allow the urine to escape, and, on the other hand, cause the muscular tissue forming the walls of the bladder to contract and force it out. THE QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION OF THE URINE The quantity of urine secreted depends, of course, chiefly upon the quantity of water that has been ingested, but it is in part determined ^also by the activity of the skin. With free exercise, and abundant sweat-

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		338	HEALTH AND DISEASE

	ing in dry air and in hot weather, the quantity is diminished, whilst it is increased when the animal is at rest and exposed to cold. The quantity discharged per diem varies under these circumstances, and with the size of the animal, from four or five quarts, which is about the average, to twelve or more, or putting it in another form, from about one-quarter to one-half ounce for each one pound of the body weight of the animal. It is more abundant, as might naturally be expected, in grass-fed animals than in those whose food is confined to such dry matter as oats and hay. When first emitted the urine of the horse is a clear yellowish fluid, but it soon becomes turbid. It has a peculiar and rather unpleasant

odour, and a specific gravity of about l^-042, but varying from 1'030 to 1"055 or more. Its reaction to test-paper is always alkaline in health, the alkalinity being chiefly due to the presence of potassium bicarbonate. When the urine of the horse is analysed it is found that in every 1000 parts there are about 905-910 of water, 55 of organic substances, and 40 of inorganic substances. The organic substances include urea, hippuric, benzoic, uric, and oxalic acids and their salts, w^Tith mucus and epithelial scales from the lining membrane of the bladder and urethra; whilst the inorganic substances are represented by the lactates, carbonates, sulphates, and, in very small quantity, phosphates of the metals, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, with some chloride of sodium and silica. The relative proportions of these vary greatly with the nature of the food, and also according; as it has been examined when taken from the animal in the fasting state or during full digestion. The urine of the horse contains, in addition, a considerable quantity

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THE QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION OF THE URINE 339

of the aromatic substances named phenolkresol and indoxyl combined with
sulphuric acid, as well as the compound named Brenz- or Pyro-catechin,
which is partly free and partly also combined with sulphuric acid.

Pyro-catechin exposed to the air in an alkaline solution absorbs oxygen
^and becomes brown, which is probably the cause of the darkening in
hue which the urine of the horse undergoes after expulsion from the
bladder.

Veterinary Captain F. Smith, in a paper contained in the Proceedings
°f the Royal Society gives the following instructive table showing the
Uiean composition of the urine of the horse for twenty-four hours at rest
^and at work:�


	Rest		Work.
Quantity	8-689 pints.		7-877 pints
Specific gravity	1-036		1-036
Total solids	8-114		8-188
Organic solids	5-115		5-368
Inorganic solids	2-94		2-820
Urea		3-4744 oz.
Ammonium carbonate as urea		�4626
Ammonia ...	�887		�187
Benzoic acid	�23
Hippuric acid			�549
Phosphoric anhydride	�046		�067
Sulphuric anhydride	�375		�539
Other sulphur compounds	�258		�271
Chlorine	1-118		�775
Calcium oxide	�121		�067
Magnesium oxide ...	�105		�093
Potassium ...	1-290		�954
Sodium	�088		�064

The difference in the size and breed of the animal probably accounts for
trie great discrepancies in the analyses of the urine of the horse that have
^een published. In some analyses made by Wessinger, who experimented
P°n animals of Hungarian breed, it was found that the specific gravity
^aried from 1*042 to 1"046, and that the amount of dry residue after
^Vaporation amounted to 6176-5404 grains per diem. The quantity of
°rine varied within wide limits, but it may be taken at 400-500 grains.

^ne quantity of sulphuric acid was 262 grains. The quantity of nitrogen
^aried in health from 994 grains to 1698 grains, the mean being 1193-5
&^rams. It i_s remarkable that the phosphates ingested with the food are
^0I% eliminated in small quantity by the horse in the urine, whilst in
rnivora they are contained in large quantity. In the horse, the pilos-
is ates are discharged from the body by the bowels. The alkaline and

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			340 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		earthy bases are chiefly combined with sulphuric acid, though a portion are in combination with carbon dioxide, and it is the lime carbonate in minute delicate crystals that gives the cloudy appearance to the urine of the horse, sometimes even when quite freshly drawn. A small quantity of nitrogen is eliminated in the form of ammonia and the salts of that alkali, but the proportion discharged from the system in this form, as compared with the total amount of nitrogen, is only as 1 : 214. A few observations may be made upon each of the principal constitu- ents of the urine. The first and most important of the organic constitu- ents is the urea, the composition of which is CO (NH₂)₂. The interest attaching to this substance is that nitrogen constitutes nearly half its weight (466 per cent). Now nitrogen does not enter into the composition of either the fats or the starchy or saccharine components of our food, whilst it constitutes about 16 per cent of the various proteids, such as those which form the greater part of flesh, and are found in blood, milk, eggs, and in the gluten of fruits and seeds of the cereals and leguminous plants. The quantity of nitrogen which is Fig. 135.�Crystals of Urea discharged as urea rises and falls with the quantity of nitrogen-holding sub- stances supplied in the food and absorbed in the intestines, and it thus forms a measure of the amount of proteids that have been ingested. Upon the average 16 grains of nitrogen correspond to 100 grains of dry albumen broken up and consumed in the body. Or, expressing it in another way, every grain of nitrogen in the urine corresponds to the consumption of 30 grains of flesh of the animal, to the manufacture of which it is supposed that all the gluten and albuminoids in the food are applied, and so every grain of urea ( = 0467 N) in the urine corresponds to 13'7 grains of disintegrated flesh of the animal. The quantity of urea in the urine is not materially augmented by muscular work, which is one of the facts relied upon to prove that muscular force is generated, not from the disintegration and metabolism of the muscle itself, but of the starchy and fatty constituents of the body. Just as in a locomotive, the force expended in effecting change of place is derived, not from the wear and tear of the iron framework of the machine, but from the oxy- genation and combustion of the carbon of the fuel. The origin of urea, it is believed, must be sought for in a substance

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THE QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION OF THE UEINE 341

named kreatin, which exists in considerable quantity in the muscles, and
from which urea can be artificially obtained in the laboratory. The kreatin
of the muscles, or possibly some intermediate substance as ammonium car-
bonate, is carried by the blood to the liver, and is there converted into
urea. This is taken up by the blood and carried to the kidneys, w^rhere it is
excreted by the cells of the urinary tubules and mixed with the water of
the urine. That urea is not formed at
or by the kidneys is demonstrated by
the fact that it accumulates in the blood
after the kidneys have been removed
from the body by operation.

Hippuric Acid. � This acid, the

name of which (linros, horse) is derived

from its abundance in the urine of the

Fig. 136.�Hippurio Acid

horse, is closely connected with the
aromatic benzoic acid. It can, in fact, be made to appear in the urine of
man by the administration of benzoic acid with the food. Its chemical
formula is C₉H₉N0₃, and it contains 7'8 per cent of nitrogen. When
separated from the urine it appears in the forms presented above (fig.
136), which represent large, white, four-sided prisms or elongated needles
easily soluble in hot water and in alcohol.

The copious excretion of hippuric acid observed in animals fed on
meadow hay is due to the herbs mixed with the grass, but the precise
plants from which it is derived do not
appear to have been ascertained. It
appears in maximum quantities, 2 ozs.
per diem or more, in animals fed on
wheat and oat straw, but little is found
in the urine of those fed on oats or corn,
or on bean straw. It seems probable
that it is formed in the liver and in-

Kg. 137.�Uric Acid

testines by the union of glycocine with
substances belonging to the benzoic acid series, or this may possibly
occur in the kidney itself.

Hippuric acid, which sometimes constitutes as much as 2 per cent
of the urine of the horse, is usually combined with calcium and sodium,
forming hippurates of those metals.

Uric Acid.�This acid, which has the composition represented by
the formula C₅H₄N₄0₃, only presents itself as a trace in the normal urine
°f the adult horse, though it is found in rather larger quantity in the
ioal whilst it still lives on milk.

VOL. I. 23

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		342


	Kreatin (icpeas, flesh).�This substance, which is found in muscle, is a nitrogenous, very weak base, of bitter taste, having the composition expressed by the formula C₄H₉N₃0₂ + H₂0. When crystallized from its solution in hot water it forms colourless, oblique, rhombic prisms (fig. 138). Liebig obtained about one ounce of kreatin from 100 lbs. of horse-flesh, and it can easily be obtained from "Liebig's extract of meat". The appearance presented by the crystals is here given.

			Pig. 138.�Kreatin Fig. 139.�Kreatinino

Kreatinine is a strong base having the same composition as kreatin, less one equivalent of water, and its formula is consequently C₄H₇N0₃. It is constantly present in the urine, and the crystals present the forms here shown. Urea Ferment.�Shortly after urine is passed it undergoes decom- position, the urea it contains becoming converted into ammonium car- bonate. This change is associated with the appearance of large numbers of a yeast-like micro-organism named the torula or micrococcus ureee, and is believed to be also due to the presence of an enzyme or ferment in the mucus of the bladder. MORBID CONDITION OF THE URINE The tissues of the body are constantly wearing away and being reno- vated from the nutritive substances contained in the blood, and the blood is at the same time constantly taking into itself the worn-out materials or waste resulting from the wear and tear of the body, some of the more important of which are discharged through the kidneys in the form of urine. Upon the efficiency, therefore, of the latter organs to free the blood from these impurities will largely depend the health of the animal. The normal urine consists of water carrying in solution certain organic and mineral salts. In the horse it is a yellowish fluid, having a peculiar odour and an alkaline reaction. Its specific gravity varies more or less according to the nature of the food consumed, work, &c, the average being about

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MOEBID CONDITION OF THE URINE

343

1'042. It is nearly always more or less turbid in appearance, sometimes
actually muddy. If healthy urine be allowed to stand, a copious sediment
of earthy-looking matter falls to the bottom of the vessel. A small
quantity of this placed under the microscope is found to consist of minute
crystals of carbonate of lime (fig. 134).

A few drops of nitric acid added to horses' urine decomposes the car-
bonate of lime and causes the fluid to effervesce, just as when tartaric
acid is added to carbonate of soda. As a result of this, the sediment
disappears and the urine becomes bright and clear.

In disease the urine is liable to undergo very striking alterations in
its physical characters, as well as in its chemical composition, and in these
connections it sometimes
affords valuable assistance,
not only in locating a
disorder, but likewise in
determining its nature.

Colour. �In a healthy
condition the urine pre-
sents a bright yellowish
hue. When, as is some-

times the case, carbonate

of lime is very abundant,
the fluid wears a distinctly

F B C

-Blood Corpuscles and Leucocytes

Tig. 140.

muddy appearance.

A A, Red corpuscles. B, Side view of a red corpuscle, c,
corpuscle seen edgeways. D, E, F, Leucocytes.

Red

Change of colour as the

Result of disease may be
brought about by various morbid conditions of the urinary and other
organs.

In polyuria, or profuse staling, it loses its yellow appearance and
becomes pale and watery in appearance, and the same change is observed
^ln- debility and in some forms of disease of the kidney.

In all febrile diseases the colour of the urine becomes heightened, with
^a tendency to assume a reddish-yellow appearance. This is most notice-
^able after standing for a short time, when the carbonate of lime held in
suspension has subsided to the bottom of the vessel and the turbidity
has cleared off.

Bile imparts to urine a deep brownish-yellow hue, which denotes the
^eXistence of liver derangement in one or other of its various forms.

Blood gives to this fluid a red or smoky-red appearance, and denotes
disease associated with rupture of blood-vessels either in the kidneys, the
bladder, the ureters, or the urethra. Its presence is recognized by

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344 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	microscopical examination, which reveals the existence of small biconcave discs or red blood corpuscles (fig. 140). (See "Blood".) Haemoglobin (fig. 141), the substance contained in the red cells of the blood, is found in the urine in that sudden and fatal disease known as Hgemoglobinuria, and imparts to it the colour of porter. When allowed to stand, the urine in this disease throws down a blackish-brown granular flocculent deposit. If a few drops of nitric acid be added to a small quantity of the fluid, a dense precipitate of coagulated albumen will be formed, and the same result will follow if the urine be heated in a test-tube over the flame of a spirit-lamp. PllS (matter) is sometimes found in the urine, and when existing in considerable amount imparts to it an opaque, milky-looking appearance.

			Fig. 141.�Haemoglobin Crystals from the Blood acid, showing nuclei. c, Pus cells "budding' �

		If a small quantity of the urine be set aside in a glass, and allowed to stand, the pus settles down to the bottom as a creamy-looking sediment. When such a deposit is examined with a microscope it is found to consist of small, pale, nucleated or granular-looking cells (fig. 142). A few pus corpuscles may be frequently found in the urine of old horses and mares, which in other respects exhibit no signs of disease. They are mostly the result of a slight irritability of the bladder or prostate, uterus or vagina. When pus exists in quantities sufficient to impart an opaque appear- ance to the urine, it may be presumed that there exists some active disease in some part of the mucous membrane of the genito-urinary organs, or in the prostate gland, or the kidney. It is mostly derived from the bladder, as the result of irritation excited by a calculus, or from a chronic catarrhal state of the mucous membrane. In abscess of the kidney a large amount of pus is found in the urine.

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	THE ANTERIOR AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES

		16. Axillary artery. 17. Anterior aorta. 18. Posterior aorta. 19. Aorta. 20. Pulmonary artery. 21. Left coronary artery. 22. Pulmonary veins. 23. Posterior vena cava. 24. Heart. 25. Vena azygos. 26. Subcostal artery. 27. Union of retrograde and vertebral arteries. 28. Occipito-muscular artery.
1. Stemo-thyro-hyoideus muscle. 2. Sterno-maxillaris muscle. 3. Thyroid gland. 4. Parotid gland. 5. 5. Trachea. 6. Jugular vein. 7. Carotid artery. 8. 8. (Esophagus. 9. 9. Longus colli muscle. 10. Vertebral artery. 11. Superior cervical artery. 12. Anterior dorsal artery. 13. Inferior cervical artery. 14. External thoracic artery. 15. Internal thoracic artery.

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		THE ANTERIOR AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES

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MOKBID CONDITION OF THE URINE

345

Albumen.�This substance is not a constituent of healthy urine, al-
though it is sometimes found as a temporary contamination. When exist-
ing as a permanent condition it is a matter of serious importance, inasmuch
^as it indicates the existence of organic disease of some part of the urinary
apparatus, most frequently the kidneys.

Albumen is recognized by adding to a small quantity of the suspected
urine, in a test-tube, a few
drops of nitric acid, when the
albumen, being coagulated, falls
to the bottom of the glass
grayish flocculent deposit. Boil-
nig also produces the same effect.

MUCUS.�The whole of the
Urinary channels being lined by
Mucous membrane, it is not re-
markable that mucus should be
found in healthy urine. Some-
times, however, it exists in such
amount as to render the fluid

Fig. 143.�Casts in Horse's Urine

thick and ropy, and to impart to

^at the consistence of thin glue.

A, Mucous oasts. B, Small waxy clear easts, c, Casts with
fat and oil globules. D, Large granular casts

This condition is not neces-
sarily associated with serious organic disease, but rather with a state of irri-
ability of the urinary organs generally. It is most frequently seen in old
animals, and especially mares. When submitted to microscopical exami-
nation the urine in these cases is found
⁰ contain small mucous corpuscles en- ^L
^tangled in a sticky fluid, together with
number of fine filaments studded with
nnnute granules of carbonate of lime,
ne latter are derived from the kidney,
, ⁿd represent casts of the urine tubes
^ln which they have been formed.

vasts.�In addition to mucous casts,
JUst referred to, others of various com-

position are met with as the result of

Fig. 144. �Crystals of Oxalate of Lime from
Horse's Urine

� arnrnatory di^sease ^0I" the kidneys.

these some are composed of epithelial cells in various stages of decay
u from the inner surface of the urine tubes; others are formed of
°d corpuscles either alone or mixed with, or enclosed in, epithelial
^s> while others are structureless and wax-like (fig. 143).

^V°^l- I- 24

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		346 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	Oxalate Of Lime, although frequently occurring in the urine of healthy horses, is now and again found to exist in large quantities, associated with a disease of an obscure character, to which, for want of a better name, " oxaluria" has been applied. In a case recorded by the late Professor Morton the urine was found to contain this salt in con- siderable amount (fig. 144). When first examined, Professor Morton says the pulse was found to be thirty-two in a minute, tone feeble, a peculiarly anxious countenance was observed, and a looking from time to time to the loins, with an ex- pression indicative of pain. The appetite was impaired and capricious, although there was but little loss of flesh. On walking the animal out of the stable, considerable languor and listlessness were evinced, and the slightest exertion produced great fatigue. On his being returned to the stable he immediately placed himself in the position to urinate, and, after making several ineffectual attempts, a few ounces of urine were voided, having a very peculiar smell, and being somewhat viscid. In this case the urine had a light amber colour, and was clear. It gave an acid reaction to test-paper, and its specific gravity was 1 "00045. It did not contain albumen, but when examined microscopically was found to contain a large amount of oxalate of lime, in the form of bright octahedral crystals. The presence of oxalic acid in the urine is believed to arise out of

	some defect in the di		ⁱ&^	stion and assimilation of the food.
	some defect in the di


DIABETES, POLYURIA, OR PROFUSE STALING Definition.-�A morbid activity of the kidneys, resulting in an ex- cessive secretion of urine. Diabetes assumes two forms, distinguished as diabetes mellitllS and diabetes insipidus. The former is characterized by the presence of sugar in the urine, and an increase in the specific gravity. In the latter there is an absence of sugar, and the specific gravity is usually below the normal standard. Diabetes mellitus is rarely seen in the horse. Causes.�Profuse staling, or polyuria, is sometimes associated with indigestion and suppressed skin function. Hay that has been badly harvested, and by excessive fermentation become heated and " mowburnt , is one of the most frequent causes of the disorder, while in other cases the drinking water may be at fault. Foreign oats and hay are more frequently found to affect the urinary organs of horses in these islands than those grown at home. Debility and exposure to great vicissitudes of climate are also considered as a probable cause. The disorder is usually found to exist without any organic disease of the kidneys themselves.

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HEMATURIA OR BLOODY URINE

347

Symptoms.�In addition to the excessive quantity and the frequency
With which the urine is passed, marked thirst is a prominent and lasting
symptom. The pulse is weak, the skin loses its gloss, becomes dirty and
closely "bound" to the parts beneath. The membranes of the eyes and
nose are pale in colour, the appetite capricious, and the breath sour-
smelling. The affected animal rapidly loses condition, and sweats under
comparatively slight exertion. Moreover, the capacity for work is largely
curtailed. The urine, besides being light in colour, has a low specific
gravity.

Treatment.�In the early stage, and before excessive debility is
present, a mild aloetic aperient may be given as a preliminary measure,
^and this should be followed by a demulcent diet, consisting largely of linseed
tea, with scalded oats of the best description, and good sound bran. The
so-called diuretic remedies should in no case be prescribed. Gallic acid
°r powdered nutgalls, with nux vomica and quinine, may be recommended.
I his failing, a course of iodide of iron should next be tried, and upon an
^abatement of the symptoms may be advantageously replaced by a mixture
°f nitro-hydrochloric acid and infusion of calumba. Belladonna, in the
rorm of extract or tincture, is recommended in cases of some standing.
I he food should be of the best, and an unlimited quantity of drinking
Water allowed. The patient will be benefited by a short period of walk-
^lng exercise in the middle of the day. On no account should he be
^exposed to wet, or to cold easterly or north-easterly winds. A warm
out well-ventilated stable should be provided, and the surface circulation
Maintained by ample clothing. With proper treatment a few weeks suffice
to bring about complete convalescence.

HEMATURIA OR BLOODY URINE

Urine may become contaminated with blood from various sources. In
^a'l cases, however, this condition denotes broken blood-vessels, either as
^tae result of disease or accident. As to the precise seat of the lesion,
some sort of opinion may be formed by noting the manner in which the
olood is discharged. When coming from the kidney it is uniformly mixed
^th the urine. If the hemorrhage is from the bladder the blood-stained
Portion of the urine will most frequently be the last passed in the act of

icturition, its greater specific gravity causing the blood to sink to the

^west portion of the organ, and only to be expelled at the final muscular

^c°ntraction of the viscus. When the source of blood arises from injury to

^Ue urethral canal, it is washed out with the first portion of fluid issuing

^tr°m the bladder.

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	348	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

Causes.�Some cases of bloody urine are caused by injuries, the result of external violence; others may be traced to the presence of calculi (stones) in the kidney or the bladder, and occasionally also in the urethral canal. Structural changes resulting from one or other of the various diseases affecting these organs are accountable for a small percentage of cases. Treatment.�When hemorrhage is the result of the presence of stone in the bladder or urethral canal, the offending body must be removed by operation. If it arises in the course of disease of the kidney, cold cloths should be applied over the loins, and small doses of tannic acid, with nux vomica, administered two or three times a day. The patient will require to be kept perfectly quiet, and the bowels maintained in a state of activity by light bran diet and two or three tablespoon fuls of linseed-oil morning and evening. Enemas of cold water will also assist in keeping the bleeding in check. Demulcent drinks, as linseed tea, should take the place of water, but the quantity allowed should not be excessive. DISEASE OF THE KIDNEYS Nephritis.�Inflammation of the kidneys of the horse is much less frequent than in man�a difference which no doubt finds explanation in the absence in the one of those serious dietetic and alcoholic abuses which are so commonly prevalent in the other. Causes.�Chief among these are exposure to cold and wet while the body is heated and fatigued. It is often induced by the habitual administration of cantharides to excite the sexual instinct in travelling stallions. The abuse of diuretic agents, as turpentine, resin, nitre, and oil of juniper, undoubtedly contributes to the number of cases of inflamed kidneys, and it may be accepted as true that the less knowledge carters and grooms possess of the horse, the more frequent will be their use of drugs, and the more powerful those selected. Inflammation of the kidneys may also result from inflammation affecting the bladder, by extension of the disease along the line of the ureters, or from absorption of cantharides into the blood when applied over large sur- faces of the skin for blistering purposes; and it sometimes follows certain forms of blood-poisoning, during which the blood-vessels become blocked* and abscesses develop in the structure of the gland. Severe strains m jumping, and violent efforts at draught, are probably sometimes provo- cative of the disease. Symptoms.�In this affection the patient shows a frequent desire to stale, but the quantity of urine expelled at any one time is very snaall»

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	INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER-CYSTITIS
		349


and the total amount discharged in the twenty-four hours is much less than usual. Attempts to urinate are sometimes made without effect, and the penis is unsheathed and retracted from time to time without any attempt to stale being made. Now and again colicky pains appear, and the animal is restless and essays to lie down. The urine is thick and muddy, and sometimes blood-stained, or it may become charged with pus. Pressure over the loins causes the animal to cringe, and the hind-limbs are moved somewhat stiffly in progression. As the disease advances there is marked constitutional disturbance, shown by the quick pulse, accelerated breathing, increased temperature, hot and clammy mouth, and the occurrence of patchy sweats. Rigors are sometimes present, the face wears a pained and anxious expression, and the mucous membranes of the eyes and nose are intensely reddened. Treatment. � This should be commenced by the administration of aloes sufficient to open the bowels freely. The diet should be reduced to bran, with which a little boiled linseed may be mixed, and the tea from the latter will prove a most desirable drink, to which, if possible, the patient should be confined. Where pain is severe, opium may be administered in small repeated doses. Hot cloths to the loins will exercise a soothing in- fluence, and enemas of warm water in which a little extract of belladonna has been dissolved will materially aid in subduing existing inflammation. Where, as sometimes occurs, there are no conveniences for fomenta- tions, the loins may be stimulated by means of soap liniment and strong ammonia (liquid ammonia). On no account are turpentine and cantharides t° be used as local applications. Their absorption into the blood would ^evitably aggravate the disease. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER�CYSTITIS Definition.�An inflamed condition of the lining membrane, extending Qore or less to the other structures of the bladder. Causes.*�This disease is the result of some irritant acting upon the Mucous membrane by which the organ is lined. The provocative agents ^are sometimes mechanical, at others they are of a chemical nature; of the former, stone in the bladder is the more common cause. Chemical ^lrritation results in those cases where the urine is long retained, either ^as the result of paralysis or otherwise, and in consequence undergoes ^composition. It also follows upon the too-free administration of can- harides and croton-oil, or from their absorption by the skin when applied ^Ver a large surface. In mares, it may be the result of difficult parturi- ^l0n, where much force has been employed in extracting the foetus. In-

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	350


flammation of the bladder sometimes complicates certain forms of influenza, and attends the development of morbid growths. The Symptoms are those of abdominal pain with frequent shifting of the hind-feet. Urine is discharged in small quantities and often, and the affected animal repeatedly extends himself as if to stale, without effecting his purpose. The penis is unsheathed from time to time and again re- tracted ; this symptom is particularly marked when the disturbance is caused by cantharides or other sexual irritants. In mares the vulva is spasmodic- ally everted from the same cause. If the bladder be pressed upon by pass- ing the hand into the rectum the animal evinces pain by looking round towards the flank. The urine is usually turbid or muddy, and may be blood-stained. Unless relief is afforded, the pulse becomes quick and small, the breathing accelerated, the mucous membrane of the eyes changes from a pale pink to a brick-red hue. The countenance wears a pinched and haggard expression, and general prostration becomes marked and severe. Treatment should be directed to subdue existing pain and render the urine as little irritating to the inflamed organ as possible. With the latter object bland soothing fluids, consisting of linseed tea, milk, barley- water, and white of egg, should be given. The bowels must be freely acted upon by a dose of aloes, and enemas of warm water, in which a little extract of belladonna and glycerine has been dissolved, will require to be administered two or three times a day. Nothing contributes so much to the relief of the patient as to guard against the accumulation of excrement in the posterior bowel. In some cases it is most desirable that the bladder be washed out from time to time with a warm antiseptic solu- tion, in the preparation of which carbolic acid or perchloride of mercury will be found the most suitable agents. This, however, being an operation requiring special knowledge, should not be attempted by an amateur. Small, repeated doses of belladonna will be found most useful in reducing the pain and irritability of the diseased organ, and some relief will also be afforded by hot cloths applied across the loins. Horses having once suffered from inflammation of the bladder are liable to a recurrence of the disease, to avoid which they should be afforded frequent opportunities to stale. RETENTION OF URINE Definition.�Partial or complete inability to expel urine from the bladder by the usual natural method. Causes.�It is frequently due to spasmodic constriction of the necJJ of the bladder, and may also be the result of mechanical obstruction i¹¹

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		RETENTION OF URINE
		RETENTION OF URINE	351

	the urethral canal. It sometimes occurs as a result of paralysis following °n abnormal conditions of the brain and spinal cord. Among the Mechanical obstructions may be mentioned enlargement of the prostate gland, the descent of calculi from the bladder into the urethral canal, stricture, morbid growths, swelling of the sheath, &c. Want of opportunity to stale is another frequent cause, as when thoughtless persons drive long distances and neglect to take the animal out of harness. It may be men-

Fig. 145.�Retention of Urine in the Mare�passing the Catheter ^A> Bladder, B, Catheter, c, Valve overlapping entrance to bladder. D, Vagina. E, Uterus. F, Rectum. tioned, inter alia, that while some horses will almost insist upon pulling up °r the purpose of passing urine, others require perfect quietude, and can ^0X1* v be induced to stale by taking them on to a straw bed. It is occasion- ^aUy found that a horse will not relieve himself while on a journey, although taken out of a carriage, unless the bridle is removed or the breeching. ■-he inability to pass water after compulsory retention arises out of a temporary paralysis of the muscular coat of the bladder, the result of ^Undue stretching. Symptoms.�Repeated but unsuccessful attempts to urinate, standing ^Wlth the front and hind legs far apart, straining, grunting or groaning, ^ar°- possibly the passing of a few drops of urine, which seem rather

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		352


	to leak away than to be the result of effort. Eectal examination will confirm the diagnosis if any doubt or difficulty exists in determining between retention and non-secretion of urine. In the former condition the bladder can be distinctly felt to be distended with fluid, and in some cases the pressure of manipulation adds just sufficient force to expel a portion of it. In the latter the organ is more or less empty.

	Fig. 146.�Retention of Urine�Catheter inserted A, Catheter. B, Bladder. 0, Corpus spongiosum. D, Corpus cavernosum. E, Scrotum. F, Testicle. G, Ureter. H, Kidney. I, Aorta. J, Rectum. K, Anus. L, Prostate gland. M, Colon.

Treatment.�If the urine has been long retained, and the bladder contains a large quantity, the catheter should be passed and the greater portion drawn off. Should there be indications of pain afterwards, warm fomentations to the loins, or a large poultice over that region, will have a soothing effect, and this may be increased by the admixture with it of extract of belladonna. The animal should be warmly clothed, and a dose of two or three drams of camphor dissolved in linseed-oil may be given, followed in two or three hours by one or two dram doses of extract of belladonna dissolved in linseed tea. Every inducement to urinate should be offered by placing the patient in a well - bedded loose-box undis- turbed by other horses or their attendants. When retention of urine is

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STONE IN THE BLADDEK 353

connected with swelling of the sheath, the latter should undergo thorough
cleansing with soap and water, and be afterwards lubricated with oil or
Vaseline. In extreme cases scarification with a small lancet may be
called for.

Incontinence of Urine.�Here there is an inability to retain urine,
"^hich is discharged involuntarily, and cannot be controlled by the patient.

Causes.�This may be due to a relaxed or paralytic condition of the
Muscle which guards the neck of the bladder, and ordinarily prevents the
Urine from passing out; it may also result from injuries, morbid growths,
or the partial blocking with calculi.

Treatment.�If caused by a mechanical impediment it may sometimes
be removed by the passage of a catheter into the bladder, or by the
forcible injection of fluids from a syringe into the urethral canal. Where
^a calculus exists in the urethral passage it may require a surgical operation.

STONE IN THE BLADDER

Composition Of the Urine.�At the time of its discharge the urine
°* the horse differs in its appearance on different occasions. In colour it
^varies from a pale-yellow to a deep brownish-yellow. It is usually trans-
Parent, but frequently turbid, and occasionally distinctly muddy and
opaque. It has a strong, disagreeable odour and a saltish taste. When
allowed to rest, a dullish gray precipitate is thrown down, consisting
chiefly of calcic carbonate (fig. 134). Its reaction is alkaline, and on the
Edition of an acid, free effervescence is induced.

The specific gravity varies between 1/015 and 1'050. Microscopically

examined, the sediment thrown down in repose is found to be made up

_ ^lefly of spherical, oval, and dumb-bell crystals of calcic carbonate, occa-

^Sl°nally also octahedra of calcic oxalate, with a few epithelial cells from

^attous parts of the mucous tract of the urinary apparatus.

The following two analyses given by Von Bebra show the composition
^oi the secretion:�


	I	ii
	885-09 ....	.. 912-84
	114-91 ...	.. 87-16
	12-44 ....	8-36
	12-60	1-23
	0-05 ....	0-06
	25-50 .. .	. 18-26
	21-32 ....	19-25
	23-40\ 18-80/	40-00

Water

Solid constituents
Urea

Hippuric acid
Uric acid
Mucus

Alcohol extract
Water extract
Soluble salts
Insoluble salts

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		354


		The sediment obtained after the fluid has been allowed to rest is shown by three analyses to consist of organic and inorganic matter in the following proportions:� i ii in Carbonate of lime ... 80-9 ...... 87-2 ...... 87-5 Carbonate of magnesia ... 12-1 ...... 7-5 ...... 8'5 Organic matter ... ... 70 ...... 5-3 ...... 4^-3 100-0 ...... 100-0 ...... 100-3 It will be seen from the above that urine is a highly complex fluid, comprising organic and inorganic constituents in a state of watery solution. Origin Of Stone.�On the origin of vesicular calculus there is very little of a definite nature to be advanced. It is a well-established truth that under certain local as well as general conditions of the body the renal secretion undergoes various modifications and changes both in its physical state and chemical constitution. Thus, normal constituents may be in- creased or diminished, or altogether disappear, while others foreign to the secretion are sometimes found entering into its composition. These departures from the general standard are in some cases doubtless connected with physiological deviations in the complex processes of assimi- lation, and in some measure also with chemical alterations which the urine undergoes after its departure from the kidneys. In diseased conditions of the system peculiar compounds are not un- frequently formed which are rarely or never produced in the healthy organism, and, being feebly soluble in urine, are immediately deposited in a solid form from that fluid. In this manner oxalate of lime comes to form a part, and in some very rare cases the whole, of the vesicular calculus i» the horse. To what extent the superabundant formation of lime-salts in the economy is referable to food, water, climate, and assimilative disturbance, separately or together, we have at present but little to guide us to a satis- factory conclusion. The fact remains, nevertheless, that some horses eliminate from their systems an amount of calcic carbonate that is simply astonishing. The writer's attention was recently called to a case in which a considerable amount of this salt was periodically removed from the bladder of a mare in addition to that which escaped with the urine in the act of micturition. On this subject the late Professor Morton remarks: "The water drunk by animals has generally been considered as the source of calculi, but it is by no means proved that in those localities where lime is more abundantly met with in water, as Matlock, Scarborough, Carlsbad, and other limestone districts, that in these, calculous affections are most prevalent; whereas

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STONE IN THE BLADDEK

355

we do know that animals kept on any of the lime plants for a long time,
°r pastured where lime has recently been laid, become the subjects of these
accumulations. Nevertheless, excess of lime in water will readily furnish
the requisite calcareous matter."

Why the salts of the urine should cease to be held in solution by the
urinary secretion may be conceived to arise either out of a supersaturated
condition of that fluid or from chemical reactions resulting in the produc-
tion of insoluble compounds, but it is not always so easy to comprehend
the reasons which in certain cases determine the aggregation of small
particles of salts and the development of a distinct calculous formation
°r stone. Such a state of quiescence as is afforded by a paralysed bladder
Would appear to favour the separation and aggregation of the crystallizable
constituents of the urine, as would also its retention for long periods in
the cavity of the bladder, either as the result of habit or by force of
^stricture of the urethra, prostatic enlargement, or other like interferences
With its proper and due discharge, but it cannot be said that stone in
the bladder is specially prevalent under these circumstances.

Experience gives no encouragement to the idea that the tendency to
^stone formation is greater in proportion to the amount of stone-forming
salts secreted by the kidneys.

Composition of Vesical Calculus.�The following table of analyses

°f vesical calculus of the horse and ass is given by Furstenberg:�


	Horse.					Ass.
	Yellowish White.	Brown.	Brown.	White Hard.	Sediment- ary Form.	Yellowish White.	Yellowish Brown.	White Hard.
Specific gravity ......	2-231	2-104	2-017	2-245	2-076	2-213	1-767	2-257
Carbonate of lime ... Carbonateof magnesia Oxalate of lime Phosphate of lime .. Ammonio-phosphate \ of magnesia / Silicic acid ............	87-10 3-63 2-10 5-45 1-721 Trace. /	83-25 5-73 2-60 6^V67 1-75	61-55 8-97 17-57 4-32 5-95 1-64	85-03 3-62 5-81 4-21 1-33	84-30 8-34 5-95 1-41	69-90 6-75 4-44 4-37 12-75 1-79	67-75 9-93 10-25 10-95 1-12	80-3 15-5 Trace. 2-9 1-3
Uric acid............
Organic matter Water and loss
Organic matter Water and loss	ioo-oo! ioo-oo		100-00	100-00	100-00	100-00	ioo-oo	100-0

Calculi, it will be seen, are composed of earthy salts in combination
tth a greater or less amount of organic matter. As shown by reference
^} the above analyses, carbonate of lime constitutes over 80 per cent of

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			356 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		the whole. Vesical calculi in the horse are strikingly uniform in com- position, and in this respect contrast greatly with similar formations in omnivorous man, in whom they are also more frequent. In him the urine contains a greater number and variety of crystallizable substances, several of which, both separately and in combination with others, assume the form of stone. Hence we have calculi of uric acid, urates of soda, ammonia, and lime, as well as others of calcic acetate, triple phosphate, and various com- binations of these renal salts. Symptoms Of Stone.�The symptoms attending the existence of vesical calculus are far from uniform, either in their number, nature, or intensity. In some cases they are few, slight, and dubious, while in others they are many, pronounced, and easy of interpretation. The very slight physiological disturbance sometimes seen in stone disease has, in many instances, disarmed suspicion and frustrated detection, thus serving to sustain the prevailing idea that stone in the bladder is a disease of extreme rarity, a conclusion there is reason to think is too generally accepted by veterinary practitioners. Vesical trouble arising out of the presence of stone is mostly exhibited, in the first instance, by frequent attempts at staling, some of which are abortive, and others more or less imperfectly and with difficulty accom- plished. The urine is discharged in small quantities at brief intervals, and the completion of the act is signalized by a deep grunt indicative of pain. The desire to empty the bladder is more frequent and urgent during and after exertion, and particularly marked when the pace has been quick. Every now and again, while at work, the affected animal dwells in his move- ment and essays to stop. If permitted to do so, the body is at once extended, and a small quantity of urine discharged. Where the calculus is large, rough on its surface, and free to move in the cavity of the bladder, blood appears in the urine as the result of exertion. Whenever, therefore, exertion is immediately followed by the appearance of blood in the urine, the case should be regarded with suspicion, unless some other and more obvious cause is revealed. In some instances the penis is projected from the sheath, and again retracted, at short intervals, and we have seen it remain extruded in a pendulous condition during the whole period of the disease, and to return again only after the operation of lithotomy. The discharge of urine is sometimes effected in a continuous stream, sometimes the flow is suddenly interrupted by the calculus blocking up the neck of the bladder, and occasionally it passes away involuntarily in small quantities. After the bladder has been freely emptied, the anus undergoes a repetition of spasmodic contractions. Now and again the stone becomes impacted in the neck of the bladder, or, if a small one. may escape into and

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			STONE IN THE BLADDEK 357

		be arrested in the urethra, resulting in obstruction and over-distension °f the organ, with the usual train of symptoms indicative of abdominal pain. In some examples of the disorder the gait during progression is wide and straddling, and when at rest the hind-limbs are occasionally raised from the ground as if in pain. The diagnosis is, in the majority of cases, unattended with difficulty where proper methods of enquiry are pursued, but, as we shall presently show, the detection of stone sometimes taxes the resources of the ablest diagnostician. Tumours in the bladder, croupous cystitis, organic disease °f the kidneys, and various other ailments pertaining to the urinary recep- tacle may, and do, occasion symptoms only distinguishable from those °f calculous disorder by a careful and searching exploration of the bladder per rectum, and by catheter or sound through the urethral canal. In ^fegard to this latter part of the enquiry it need hardly be urged that upon *t the diagnosis mainly depends. Exploration of the bladder per rectum seldom fails to reveal to us any decided enlargement occurring within or without it, but the tact and discrimination of the surgeon is often sorely tried in distinguishing between a calculus and certain forms of tumour ^which now and again present themselves there. In searching for stone, the mind, and with it the hand, naturally turns to related organs, and, remem- bering the possible enlargement of the prostate gland, seeks first to deter- mine the condition of this organ in particular whenever vesicular calculus is suspected. Tumefaction of the prostate is fortunately not difficult of Recognition. The backwardness and fixed condition of the swelling, its intimate connection with the neck of the bladder, its peculiar outline of lorru and yielding nature, serve at once to distinguish it from stone. J-uniours in the bladder usually disclose themselves by their diffuse, and maybe also by their lobulated and fixed condition. The bladder should now be explored by means of a long sound passed through the urethra, assisted, in the case of a horse, by the hand of the ^eXaminer passed into the rectum. In searching the bladder for stone the ^0rgan is allowed to become moderately distended w^Tith urine, when, first ¹¹¹ a standing, and then in a recumbent, posture, the sound (after being ^ell oiled and disinfected) is introduced into the urethra, and gently forced °ⁿ until it enters the bladder. It is now moved slowly backward and _°rward with a rotatory action, so as to bring the metal point of the nstrument into contact with every part of the interior surface of the ladder, the operator noting at the same time any roughness or irregu- _^anty of surface or resistance it may meet with, or any sound or impression may convey. If the result is not satisfactory, the position of the patient must be changed by turning the animal first on one side and then on the

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

358

other, and now on the back, until every part of the bladder has been
thoroughly explored. Where the substance felt per rectum is a calculus,
its contact with the searcher will be clearly made known by the rough and
resisting character of the touch, and by the sound emitted when struck.

Even with the exhaustion of all the methods and devices which science
has designed for surgical diagnosis, failure may still attend our efforts

to detect a stone, and although
the existence of something in
the bladder be ever so obvious,
its precise nature cannot always
be clearly and definitely made
out. In those examples of stone,
partially or completely over -
grown by granulation tissue
(proud flesh) (fig. 147) spring-
ing from around an ulcerating

Fig. 147.�Stone Overgrown with Granulation Tissue

surface, or enclosed in false

membrane, the question of stone
or tumour is difficult to divine. Here the stone, hidden away in the
new growth or exudation matter, is sheltered from the sound, and the
instrument, striking the morbid mass, imparts to the hand precisely those
impressions which denote the existence of tumour. In this uncertain and
unsatisfactory condition no time should be lost in opening the urethra at
the perineum, when the bladder may be again explored by means of the
short metal sound, to be referred to later on.

It is not alone by active
changes in the bladder, such
as I have just referred to, that
stone is enabled to evade de-
tection. Passive alterations in
this organ are likewise to be
borne in mind as possible ob-
stacles in the same direction.

Fig. 148.�Stone Erapouched in the Fundus of the Bladder

The most familiar example of

this anomalous condition is met
with in those cases where the weight of the stone, bearing on the an-
terior end or fundus of the bladder, creates for itself a diverticulum or
pouch, in which it becomes lodged (fig. 148). The mucous membrane
in those instances usually constitutes the sac, it having been pushed
between the widely separated and atrophied fibres of the muscular coat;
less frequently all the coats enter into the saccular offshoot. In soffl^e

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		STONE IN THE BLADDER 359

^fare instances, as one recently related to me by Mr. F. Wragg of London, ⁿot only does the stone occupy the pouch, but, enlarging by accretion m the direction of the interior of the viscus, comes also to project into the proper cavity of the bladder (fig. 149). This is an important condition to consider in relation to the success of the operation of lithotomy, as 'will hereafter be explained. Where the stone becomes thus encysted it may or may not be accessible per rectum in a standing posture, or to the sound through the urethra, according to the extent to which it has extended from the ■ pelvis in the direction of the abdominal cavity. If, however, the horse be placed on his back, the stone will be caused to fall towards the spine, and thus be brought within reach of the hand. Referring again to the general symptoms of stone, it may be ^remarked that they undergo ^Various modifications of char- ^aeter and intensity, according to the size, nature of the sur- face, and the relations of the ^ealculus with the general cavity ^of the bladder. Stones of large dimensions ^0eeasion much pain and suffer-
			Fig. 149.�Stone Empouched in the Fundus, and extending into the Cavity of the Bladder
	*ⁿg, especially where the surface


	^ls rough and the stone free to move from place to place with the movements of the body. Here the Mucous membrane suffers much irritation, and, with the muscular coat, ^Decomes considerably thickened. As a result, the walls of the bladder lose ''heir expanding power, and, by failing to open out for the accommodation °± the incoming urine, provoke and render necessary frequent acts of micturition. Inflammation and purulent urine are among the worst con- sciences of a heavy rough calculus. Smooth calculi (which are rare), and such as are confined in pouches the mucous layer, occasion much less disturbance, and may even fail ⁰ excite suspicion of their presence. Treatment.�Various methods, physiological, chemical, and surgical, ^ave in turn been practised and extolled for the prevention and eradi- ^ation of stone, and each succeeding decade, with its larger experience ^d resource, has called forth either the condemnation or modification of ^e one, or the improvement and consolidation of the others. For a con- ¹⁽mrable period belief and reliance in the efficacy of internal remedies was ^argely entertained; but as time advanced, and the teachings of anatomy,

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	360	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

physiology, and physics led to the improvement of surgical methods, sur- gical means, and surgical handicraft, the treatment of stone passed well- nigh altogether from the domain of the physician to the more practical and radical dispensation of the surgeon. Internal Remedies.�The internal remedies which have been recom- mended and employed in this branch of treatment have been selected purely on the ground of their chemical properties and action on alkaline carbonates out of the body. A vesical calculus, it has been argued, con- sisting as it does chiefly of calcic carbonate, should be chemically resolved by the repeated administration of mineral acids, experience in the labora- tory having taught that the decomposition of the former is readily and surely effected by contact with the latter; hence mineral acids were for a long time, and still continue to be, administered for the purpose of bringing about a solution of the stone. Practical experience, however, has at no time done much to confirm this time-honoured dogma, and the teachings of physiology encourage no sort of belief in its therapeutical value. Even in those instances where the operation of lithotomy is for- bidden by the circumstances of the case, we are not warranted by any consideration in relying on so precarious, nay useless, a remedy as the so-called stone solvents. Injection of Stone Solvents into the Bladder.�Acid solutions directly introduced into the bladder stand in a very different position to the calculus from those which, having been swallowed and having traversed the alimentary canal, now enter the blood and circulate the system in a state of extreme dilution. In the former case the solvent and the substance to be acted upon are brought immediately into con- tact with each other without having been exposed to any possible source of decomposition, and in this instance the two chemicals are placed under conditions which invariably yield a definite known result. On the other hand, we have no assurance whatever that the acid which enters the mouth ever reaches the bladder in an uneombined state. On the con- trary, the absence of any therapeutical response to the continuance of the remedy, as well as a knowledge of the chemical reaction of the secretions (salivary, biliary, pancreatic, &c.) with which it must be brought" into contact in its course towards the blood, all go to suggest its speedy neutralization and consequent inertness as a stone solvent. Clear as may be the chemical action of acids on calcic carbonate, and constant as is the composition of equine vesical calculus, there are nevertheless serious objections to the general employment of such remedies in the treatment of stone. In the first place, the strength of the solution injected into the bladder must at all times be so weak as to produce the feeblest solvent

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	STONE IN THE BLADDER
		361


action, or the already irritable, and perhaps eroded, mucous surface will be excited to inflame and lead to renal complications and other untoward results. To be effectual, therefore, a frequent and prolonged application °f the remedy is indispensable. The operation of injecting the bladder is clearly one which cannot be entrusted to lay hands, and if carried out to meet the necessities of the case by a qualified surgeon, must involve considerable outlay, to say nothing of the trouble, risk, and loss otherwise sustained. Obviously then the remedia lithontriptica becomes, for all practical purposes of stone, a dead letter, and must be relegated to the limbo of exploded fables. The Operation Of Lithotomy.�Great and important as have been the innovations and improvements in the course of the development of human surgery during the past fifty years, it must be admitted that operative measures of procedure in combating disease in the lower animals have not kept pace with the tide of progress everywhere revealed in the surgical treatment of man. Nor was it to be expected that animals, whose material services constitute their real worth, could for economic Reasons be allowed those higher considerations in which everything is subordinated to the maintenance of life. Before deciding upon the operation of lithotomy a careful consideration should be given to every feature of the case, and the chances of success and failure well weighed ¹¹¹ the balance. In tutored hands the operation may be said to be a fairly safe and successful one under ordinary circumstances; but whoever undertakes it Uust be prepared to encounter deviations and difficulties, as in all opera- tons, and should command the necessary information and experience y which they may be met and overcome. The very brief and general terms in which this operation is described, ^aid the summary manner in which it is dismissed by veterinary authors, ^re not such as to throw much light on the modus operandi, and no °ubt it is for want of more precise and reliable information in this ounection that lithotomy in the lower animals is so little understood ⁿd so seldom practised. Preparing for the Operation. � Preparing the patient for the P^eration of lithotomy or lithotrity is in all cases more or less desirable. ^lt should ever be borne in mind that the aim and object of extracting a one is _no^ _merely the accomplishment of a surgical feat, but to preserve ^ and, what is equally important from an economic point of view, the ^xty of the patient. Every means, therefore, tending to ensure success ^UW be fully considered and adopted. Voi. I. 25

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

362

In entering upon the operation the bladder should be fairly distended
with urine, when the horse should be cast, as for the operation of castra-
tion. The penis and sheath are now thoroughly cleansed, and all faecal
matter removed from the rectum. The administration of chloroform is

Fig. 150.�Grooved Staff

now proceeded with, and when the animal is fully under its influence
the hind-quarters are raised by under-packing with straw, and the patient,
having been placed on his back, is supported on either side and held
steadily in position. The penis is now unsheathed, thoroughly washed
and disinfected, and a well-oiled grooved staff (fig. 150) is introduced
into the urethra, and pressed carefully onwards towards the bladder by
an assistant, the operator guiding the course of the instrument along the
perineum with the left hand, while the right, which is in the rectum,

directs the point towards
the bladder. By a little

Fig. 151. �Lithotomy Knife (sharp-pointed)

manoeuvring the groove

of the staff is brought to
face the perineum, and

Fig. 152.�Lithotomy Knife (blunt-pointed)

the assistant is instructed

to press the instrument
toward the abdomen, and

Fig. 153.�Whalebone Probe

hold it steadily in position-

A scalpel is then taken in
the right hand, and the skin of the perineum being stretched by the left
forefinger and thumb, is incised along the central line from the pubic
arch to within an inch or less of the anus. The point of the knife
(fig. 151) is now forced through the walls of the urethra into the groove
of the staff, and an opening made according to the size of the orifice
required for the passage of the stone. A bullet-headed whalebone probe
(fig. 153) is now introduced into the groove, along which it is directed
into the bladder.

The staff is then withdrawn, and the disinfected finger, following the
course of the probe, is next passed into the cavity, the probe at th^esame time being withdrawn.

The deeper wound, i.e. the urethral orifice, must now be enlarged
by extending the incision along the same line through the membranous
urethra. This will be effected with the least risk with the probe-pointed
bistoury (fig. 152), the finger in the passage acting as guide and le^eF

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			STONE IN THE BLADDER 363

		m performing the section. In carrying out this part of the operation the knife should be well under control. This incision is made from within outwards, deliberately but with caution, always remembering that the rectum lies immediately beneath, and stands in danger of being cut. Such a result, it need hardly be pointed out, would not only seriously complicate the case, but place the animal's life in jeopardy. Exploring the Bladder.�The urethra having been laid open as far as it is deemed requisite to admit the passage of the stone, an ex- ploration with the finger should be made. While the left forefinger, already in the bladder, explores the neck of the organ, the right hand, acting through the rectum, will, as far as possible, force the bladder backward in order to bring a larger area of surface within reach of the finger. Here a long index finger offers a distinct advantage, and should the operator fall short in this particular, he may take advantage of such nelp as his most practical assistant may be able to afford him. As a rule we are only capable of manipulating the neck and parts immediately beyond it, but by means of the short metallic sound, presently to be described, we are enabled to recognize any marked alteration in the naturally smooth, satin-like surface of the lining membrane. By careful ^exploration we may, for example, satisfy ourselves of the existence of tumour, false membrane, calcareous encrustation of the mucous layer so often found in association with calculous disorder. A knowledge of the presence or absence of these morbid conditions constitutes a distinct advantage in estimating the immediate ^sUccess of the operation and prospec- tive result of after-treatment. Dilating the Urethra and Cer- vix Vesica.�Having devoted a few ttnnutes to the very interesting and mstructive task above referred to, we now proceed to dilate the urethra and ⁿeck of the bladder. It is a great con- solation, when confronted with a large stone, to know that this portion of the Urinary passage is capable of consider- able relaxation and dilation. Sudden fig. i54.-Diiator ^ad spasmodic attempts at dilation is ^bad practice, and should on no account be resorted to. For effecting the °pening out of the urinary channel the three-bladed dilator (fig. 154), instructed on the plan of a human anal dilator, but with longer blades ^Qo with a correspondingly large range of action, will be found effective.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	3te	HEALTH AND DISEASE

This is introduced into the opening made in the perineum and pushed onward towards the bladder. The handles of the instrument are now compressed and the blades caused to diverge steadily until the necessary dilation has been accomplished. The patient is now allowed to rest on the right side. The operator finds it most convenient to occupy the recumbent posture, and places himself on his left side. The form of the forceps to be employed in removing the stone will, of course, depend upon the consistence of the calculus to be removed. Where the superficial portion of the stone is found to be loose in texture, and consequently liable to crumble, the spike-faced forceps (fig. 155) should be employed. This is armed with three spikes on the opposing surface of each blade, which, on meeting the stone, pene- trates its outer weak crust, and gains a firm hold of the more dense parts beneath. Fig. 155.-Spike-faced Forceps Escape from the grip of the instrument during extrac- tion is thus rendered difficult, and disintegration is at the same time avoided. The forceps, held in the left hand, is introduced into the bladder, and the right hand is passed into the rectum to steady and direct the stone, which will now be distinctly felt and heard grating against the instrument. Here the blades must be opened and closed again and again, with a catching movement, being also turned about first in one direction and then in another, until seizure of the calculus is effected. Should any difficulty in securing the stone be experienced in the procedure, the forceps is to be withdrawn, and the calculus brought forward by the hand acting through the rectum and held firmly against the neck of the bladder, while the blades of the instrument are slid carefully over it. A firm hold having been secured, the operator must then assure himself that no part of the mucous membrane is grasped and included with the stone. This may be done by rotating the forceps on its axis, and moving it backwards and forwards, first in one direction and then in the other. If no impediment is experienced it is to be inferred that the bladder has not been laid hold of, and that in this respect all is right; on the other hand, should the movement of the instrument meet with interruption, the blades must be slightly relaxed and the imprisoned membrane liberated. The position of the stone, as it rests in the forceps, is next to be considered. Here we may remark that vesical calculi are almost invariably ovoid in shape, and are frequently seized across the short diameter, in which position

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				plate XXIX

			OPERATION FOR STONE

	, � I- Catheter. 2. Stone. 3. Recium. 4. Knife cutting into the Urethra.

Pi
Pi		Jthotrite. 2. Stone in the jaws of the Lithotrite. 3. Hand in the Rectum assisting in bringing the Stone into the jaws of the instrument ready for crushing.

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	STONE IN THE BLADDER
	STONE IN THE BLADDER	365
		365

it is at all times difficult, and in most instances impossible, to extract them. For this reason it is of the first importance that the long diameter of the stone should be made to correspond with the long axis of the forceps. To accomplish this the calculus is drawn well up to the neck of the bladder, when, with the index finger acting between the released blades of the instrument, it is carefully turned and brought into the desired position. This having been done, extraction of the stone is then proceeded with. The extracting force required to effect removal will, of course, depend upon the size of the stone in relation to the urethral orifice. Large calculi, and particularly such as are rough and catchy, require a considerable amount of traction and careful manoeuvring to bring them away. Before attempting removal, the stone must be firmly gripped and a good hold secured by bringing both hands to bear on the handles of the forceps, whose blades should be so placed that their surfaces are directed right and left, and their edges upward and downward. A steady and continuous pull, gradually increasing in force, is now begun and continued, with a wriggling movement of the hand and an occasional slight alteration in the direction of the traction, at one time pulling slightly to the right, at another to the left, How upward, then downward, and so on. If the wound be not sufficiently large, a touch with the scalpel here and there at the points of resistance may be resorted to as a means of facilitating extraction, or an assistant may be called upon to open the wound by inserting his fingers well within its edges and pulling in opposite directions. Should the stone prove to be too large for extraction by reasonable force, crushing must be at once had recourse to. Where the calculus is loose in texture, and friable, the resist- ance of the edges of the wound to the extracting force may give rise to disintegration of the outer crust, which, breaking away, remains in the blades of the forceps, while the main body of the stone escapes into the bladder. In such an event the offending body must be again secured. Having undergone a reduction of size, less resistance will be experienced in the next attempt at removal. An additional advantage will also be gained m the firmer hold the more compact remains of the calculus allows to the forceps. Having removed the stone, the bladder will now require to be well washed out with warm carbolized water in order to cleanse it of the blood, mucus, and earthy debris, some or all of which it is sure to contain in greater or less amount. This operation is best accomplished by intro- ducing the three-bladed dilator (fig. 154) into the neck of the bladder, ^aild, after moderately enlarging the orifice, forcing into the cavity a fairly strong stream of warm carbolized water out of a small enema syringe. Whether the perineal wound should be closed at once must depend

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	366	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	366

upon the nature and extent of disease existing in the bladder. If there is reason to think that the lining membrane is seriously ulcerated, or covered with false membrane, a distinct advantage will be gained by introducing a lithotomy tube (fig. 156) into the bladder and allowing the wound to remain open until the vesical irritation has been subdued by frequent injections of warm carbolized A water. On the other hand, if no such corn- Fig. 156.�Drainage Tube plications exist there, A, Silver mount and rings. B, Elastic gum tube. the edges of the Super- ficial wound may be brought together at once by three interrupted sutures of flexible wire, and the patient removed to his box. The irritation resulting from the operation naturally leads to much whisking of the tail, during which hairs become entangled with the wire, and the parts about the wound suffer considerable contusion; this must be provided against by tying the tail on one side to a roller or some other convenient arrangement. Under ordinary circum- stances but little is needed in Fig. i57.-Perineai Needle the shape of after-treatment. The skin below the perineum is smeared with lard or vaseline to prevent excoriation by the urinary and other discharges, and the wound is carefully cleansed and carbolized as often as may be required. An enema of warm water occasionally thrown into the rectum affords a good deal of comfort by freeing the gut from feculent matter, and removing all pressure from the sore and sensitive urethra and bladder beneath. Lithotripsy.�The operation of lithotripsy or crushing may be resorted to when the stone, though too large to be moved entire, is yet small enough to be seized and broken up into fragments by means of the lithotrite. In the quadruped it is not performed as in man, through the natural channel of the urethra, but through an artificial opening in the urethral canal as described in the operation of lithotomy. It must, there- fore, always be regarded as supplementary to lithotomy, and depend for its performance on our inability to extract the calculus whole. In the absence of serious complications lithotripsy offers a fair and reasonable prospect of success. If from the first the operation is found to be necessary, the bowels should be freely opened with an aloetic purge, and the diet so ordered &^s

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STONE IN THE BLADDER 367

to avoid undue fulness of the alimentary canal, and facilitate digestion.
An enema of warm water administered once or twice during the twenty-
tour hours before its performance will serve to keep the rectum empty and
soothe the irritable bladder. Small doses of potassic bicarbonate, and
opiates, if necessary, may be given at intervals where pain is indicated.
The Operation.�In performing the operation of crushing, the horse
is thrown as for castration, and when under the influence of chloroform
the urethra is opened
^ln precisely the same
manner and place as
directed for litho-

fl'.iiOLD a SQNl LONDON

tomy. The neck of

the bladder is then

Fig. 158.�Lithotrite

dilated, and the
hthotrite (fig. 158), nicely warmed and smeared with oil, is passed into it.
J-he blades of the instrument are then drawn as far apart as may be
necessary to receive the stone. The next step is to bring the calculus
iairly between them. To accomplish this the lithotrite should be held

one hand applied near the blades, the screw being in charge of an

assistant who will also steady the instrument while the seizure is being
^effected. With the other hand in the rectum the operator now proceeds
to manipulate the stone, and by a little careful manoeuvring directs it
into the jaws of the lithotrite. The assistant, on being instructed, will
then turn the screw until
the calculus is secured.

Having obtained a good
hold of the stone a half-

turn is given to the litho-

Fig. 159.�Forceps for Lithotripsy

twte, first towards the right,
then the left, so as to determine if any portion of the mucous membrane
has been included in the grasp of the instrument. To obviate this it is
Usual in man to operate with the bladder distended with urine, but in
the horse the fluid quickly drains away through the perineal wound, and
°annot therefore be made available for keeping the walls of the organ
away f_rom _tne _cal_cul_us.

When the stone has been satisfactorily secured, the screw is brought
^again into action, and the operation of crushing proceeded with. This
°-one, the broken fragments are freed from the lithotrite and removed with
the forceps (fig. 159) and scoop (fig. 160), aided by repeated injections of
^^arm carbolized water as directed for lithotomy.

Should the operation prove troublesome and protracted, it may be

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		368	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		368

necessary to defer completing the operation to a future day, in which case a light diet should be prescribed for a few days, say from three to seven, when the operation may be again renewed, and, if possible, carried to completion. In the meantime portions of stone may enter the perineal orifice and become arrested in it. These are to be carefully removed, and it may be necessary also to pass the catheter to discharge any debris which may have accumulated in the urethral canal. In addition to this the bladder will require to be thoroughly washed out once daily with -^� - - ^m Fig. 160.�Scoop warm carbolized water for the first two or three days, after which it may be discontinued. On completion of the operation the bladder should be carefully searched with the short metallic sound (fig. 161), and if found free from fragments of stone it only remains to remove the animal to his box. He should then be dealt with according to the rules laid down for the after-treatment of lithotomy. An opiate draught, followed by warm fomentations to the perineum with carbolized water and periodical injections of warm water into the rectum, Avill serve to soothe the injured parts and allay irritation.

				Fig. 161.�Sound

	Vesical Calculus in the Mare.�Mares are seldom the subjects of vesical calculus. This immunity may be referred in part to the short and straight outward course of the urethra, which favours the free extrusion of solid matter with the urinary discharges. Occasionally, however, stone is found in the female organ, but not so frequently as is generally stated. Several instances have been brought to the notice of the writer where intestinal calculi ejected from the rectum have been said to have escaped from the bladder in the act of urination. The form, character, and composition of these concietions, however, were in each case sufficiently marked to enable him to decide to the contrary. The symptoms of the affection are, for the most part, the same as those described in the horse. Removal of vesical calculus in the mare is usually a much more simple and less dangerous matter than in the horse. When the stone is small the operation may in some cases be performed standing. Having made the animal secure with twitch and side-line, the

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			STONE IN THE BLADDER 369

		neck of the bladder is carefully dilated and the lithotomy forceps intro- duced with one hand, while the other, in the rectum, directs the calculus between the blades. Seizure having been effected, and the manipulative precautions already prescribed duly observed, its removal is proceeded with in the manner directed. Where it is found to be of large size, and the extraction of it by this method impracticable, the animal must be cast and placed under the influence of chloroform. By this means the sphincter vesica will be relaxed and its dilation more effectually accomplished. Should the stone be too large to be removed entire, it may be crushed ^and extracted piecemeal in accordance with the rules already laid down. A thick, pasty, yellow deposit of calcic carbonate is occasionally found m the bladder of the male and female as the result of atony or paralysis of its walls. In both instances it may be readily removed by means of the scoop, aided by forcible injections of tepid water driven through the dilated urethra. After the whole has been evacuated, an attempt should be made to restore tone to the vesical walls by repeated injection of cold water, supplemented by the administration of nerve tonics and good living. General Considerations on the Structure and Formation of Calculi.�Vesical calculi are usually ovoid in form, with their surfaces sometimes slightly and unequally flat- tened. If they have been enclosed, ^or partly enclosed, in a pouch or off- shoot from the bladder, they may be ^round, oblong, irregular, or dumb-bell shaped. The majority are of a dark- orown hue; some are palish-gray, others yellowish - brown, and a few ^nitish-gray. All, with rare excep- +� ° ^J ' ^L Fig. 162.�Vesical Calculus ⁱ⁰ns, present a rough asperous surface 162), usually more marked on one side than the other. The side n which the stone rests while in the bladder is smoother, denser, and ^ess rounded than the other surface. In some the asperities are coarse ; ^Q°- rounded, and impart to the stone a distinct mulberry character, but the majority they are finer, closer set, and less prominent. In density ^un vary very considerably in different specimens, and also in different P^arts of the same specimen, but it is rare to find them of that flinty rciness which characterizes some examples of vesicular calculus in man, many instances they present an open spongy texture and are dis- guished by marked brittleness and want of cohesion. As a rule the

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370 HEALTH AND DISEASE

inner portion of the stone is the more hard and compact, while the outer
portion is less consistent, and, in some instances, so soft as to be readily
broken down with the fingers into small rounded or angular fragments.
To examine the structure of these formations the stone should be first cut
with a saw and the divided surface rubbed even and smooth on a wet stone.

If the polished face be now examined it will
be seen to present certain structural mark-
ings, of which the following are the more
common examples:�

1. A regular series of closely-arranged
concentric rings (fig. 163), representing sec-
tions of a succession of layers of earthy
matter. Of these some are narrow, some
broad, some yellow or pale brown, and we

Fig. 163.�Section of Vesical Calculus

gather, by the use of the knife, that they are

soft or hard according as they have been
In this variety the stone, as a whole, is

quickly or slowly deposited.

usually hard and its texture compact.

2. The laminse are irregular and incomplete, sometimes interrupted
by small sinuous cavities or irregular spaces containing free earthy granules
and epithelial debris.

3. Sectional surface irregular, and marked by sinuous fissures (fig-
164). Centre excavated and enclosed by a narrow strong band, from

Fig. 161.�Section of Vesical Calculus

Fig. 165.�Section of Vesical Calculus

which arborescent rays proceed to the circumference and terminate W
asperities on the surface, giving to the section a rough, coarse appearance.

4. Small groups of concentric rings forming rounded, solid - looking
bodies varying from the size of a hemp-seed to that of a bean (fig. 165)-
They are separated from each other by a structureless mass of earthy
matter, usually of less density than themselves, and in which fissures
and cavities are sometimes met with. This variety consists of a number

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PLATE XXX

/**-

fei

>>is*

L^^V-v"

Cystic Calculus having a piece of stick as a nucleus. Bladder of Horse

Renal Calculus. Kidney of Horse
CALCULI

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			INVERSION OF THE BLADDER 371

		°f small laminated calculi, aggregated together and enclosed in an amor- phous deposit. All vesical calculi do not originate in the bladder. Some no doubt have their beginning in the pelvis of the kidney, in which position we have repeatedly found them in their rudimentary condition. Many of these renal formations, on reaching the bladder, are ejected with the Urine, but occasionally such as acquire large dimensions are retained in the vesical cavity and undergo enlargement by earthy incrustation. It is certain, however, that stone formation is not always the direct outcome of the conditions indicated above. Foreign substances, we are ^aware, sometimes find their way into the bladder of the horse, notwith- standing the seeming difficulty of such an event. Some years ago Mr. ** illiam Hunting, of London, brought to the notice of the Central Veterinary Medical Society such where a piece of stick, some four °r five inches in length, and as thick as the little finger, was found stretch- ^lng across the bladder of a horse, with one end projecting through its ^alls into the pelvic cavity. It had evidently occupied this position ^s°me considerable time, as a large calculus had formed around its central portion. Whence the stick had come there was no direct evidence to ^show, and we are left to assume its possible introduction through the ^aMominal walls or through the alimentary canal. Such an accident as that first referred to is quite possible, but for many considerations does ⁿ°t recommend itself to our acceptance. From facts which have recently ^e°rne to light in the human subject, we are more disposed to accept the ^explanation which refers its entrance into the bladder through the medium °* the alimentary canal. INVERSION OF THE BLADDER The bladder of the mare may be turned inside out by spasmodic °ⁿtraction of its walls, when it may be said to evert itself. The mucous Membrane will then be on the outside. The accident is of very rare ^Ceurrence, and is usually brought about by the pains of parturition. It ^ayj however, result from other causes where violent straining is excited, ⁿd the contents of the abdomen are forcibly pressed against the bladder ^a time when possibly the opening into it is abnormally dilated. Symptoms.�A fleshy-looking mass, more or less rounded, projects rough the vulva, varying in appearance according as the accident is _^Cent or of some duration; at first it is a pale pinkish-red hue, darkening ^Jth exposure to a bluish or blackish red colour. The protruding organ ^as been mistaken for the fetal envelopes, and fatally injured by an

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		372


	attempt to remove them. The orifices of the ureters, by which the urine enters the bladder, may be found when carefully sought on the upper and anterior part of the protruding viscus, and these will set at rest any doubt as to the nature of the tumour. "When labour pains are excited, little jets of urine are seen in some instances spurting out of them from the upper part of the extruded organ (fig. 166). Without inversion the bladder may escape through a rupture in the vaginal wall, and continue to fill with urine, which, being unable to escape through the usual channel, rapidly adds to the bulk of" the tumour and to the difficulty of its replacement. The muscular layer alone of the

			Fig. 166.�Inversion of the Bladder

vaginal wall may be ruptured, and in such case the bladder will be feW through the mucous membrane. Treatment.�Before making any examination of the extruded org»ⁿ< our hands and implements should be rendered aseptic. Having dressed the bladder, we proceed with gentle but continuous force to push it bacK into the vagina, seeking there for the meatus upon the floor of the passage* and gradually directing it into place with the fingers or by means of the smooth rounded end of a short stick, which should be first freely dressed with carbolized oil. The congestion and tumefaction which result from long exposui render the task of replacement more difficult, and the greatest cautio will be required in manipulating the viscus lest the swollen and soften^emucous membrane be torn. It may be needful to reduce the congests by the application of warm flannels before reposition is attempted. ^

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		THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM 373

	restlessness of the patient and forceful labour pains are the chief obstacles to a return of the viscus, and some restraint must be exercised to suppress them. The use of cocaine in a four per cent solution has been found helpful in producing more or less local anaesthesia, and removing the dis- position to renewed expulsive efforts which the presence of the operator's hand induces. Subsequent treatment consists in keeping the animal on soft diet and under good hygienic conditions, and the administration of anodyne Medicines if pain is experienced. If a subject of this accident is again bred from, increased risk attends parturition.

4. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The possession of a nervous system is not essential to life, since in the whole vegetable kingdom, as well as in the lower animal organizations, Multitudes of living forms are to be seen, which, although unprovided with nerves, are yet perfectly capable of preserving their independence ^aid of holding their own in the struggle for existence; but wherever it ^ls found, owing to its wonderful sensitiveness to impressions, it fulfils the important purposes of bringing the animal into relation with the °uter world, of enabling it to respond to those impressions by inducing Muscular movements which effect either local or general change of place ^0r form, and finally of linking together, as with a subtle net-work, the Most remote organs of the body, enabling each part to co-operate with the rest for the 'general good, and uniting or integrating them into a ^e°ttimon whole. Originally the nervous system is composed of a soft living mobile ^Substance, termed " protoplasm", from which all parts of the body are ^0ruied; and it is only by degrees that it acquires its special endowment, hat of generating nerve energy, which, like other forms of force, is subject ⁰ laws of its own, and can either be stored up, liberated, intensified, or �Exhausted under appropriate conditions. In the horse, as in all the higher animals, the nervous system presents ^wo parts for examination, one of which, and by far the larger, is named ^le cerebro-spinal, the other the sympathetic system. The cerebro-spinal system* is adapted to respond to various kinds ¹ Mrpressions made upon the organs of sense, as the eye, ear, skin, tongue, Ml nose, to conduct those impressions through cords, which are termed ^erves, to central organs represented by the spinal cord, medulla oblon-

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374 HEALTH AND DISEASE

gata, cerebellum, and brain, giving rise in the first instance to responsive
movements of protection or defence, and then successively, as they affect
higher and higher centres, to sensations of sight, hearing, touch, taste,
and smell, and finally to ideas, emotions, and intellectual operations.

The sensory impressions or stimuli thus carried to the nerve centres
may not be followed by any visible effect, but in most instances, especially
in animals, impulses, which we may conceive to be waves or rapidly^-propagated chemical or molecular changes, start, or are liberated from the
centres, which travel along similarly constituted cords or nerves, and are
conducted to muscles or to glands, exciting the former to contraction

and the latter to secretion. The cords con-
ducting impressions from the organs of sense
to the centres are named " afferent" nerves,
whilst those which transmit impulses from
the centres to the muscles and glands are
termed " efferent" nerves. The terms " sen-
sory", " motor", and " secretory" nerves are,
however, most commonly used.

The sympathetic system of nerves,

sometimes named the nervous system ^otorganic life, is destined to regulate the
supply of blood to each organ of the body
in accordance with its requirements, keeping

Fig. 167.�Ganglion Cells of the Sym-
pathetic Nerve of the Muscular Coat of the
Bladder (magnified about 350 times)

a, a, a, Ganglion Cells. b, b, Their
Nuclei, c, c, c, Axis Fibres, d, d, Spiral
Fibres.

the blood-vessels contracted when the org^aI1is at rest, but permitting them to dilat^eunder the influence of other nerves when in ^
is the active discharge of its functions. Thus

in the fasting state the stomach is pale and
quiescent, but in full digestion it is rosy, and performs active movements-
The sympathetic system thus, by its action on the vascular system, ^m'
directly but powerfully influences movement and secretion. It is compose

of a series of knots or swellings, termed " ganglia ", united to one

another

by nerve cords. The more important ganglia form a chain lying on eithe
side of the spinal column, and extending through nearly its whole leng*

(fig. 168). Other ganglia belonging to this system, termed "collate!*
ganglia ", are widely distributed in the body, and give off branches wh'^caccompany the blood-vessels, and finally enter the muscular tissue ^ltheir walls. The two systems of cerebro- spinal and sympathetic nerv
have intimate relations with each other. Their structure is very similar-
The sympathetic system consists of numerous nerve cords and gang
distributed over the body, and destined to control and regulate the org^a

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		THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 375

	of vegetative life. The main trunks of this system are two in number, one running on either side of the vertebral column, extending from the head backward as far as the tail. Each in its course has upon it a number of small round or ovoid bodies termed ganglia. These consist of a covering of connective tissue, from which small septa pass into the interior. The spaces thus formed m the organs are filled in with small cells, some of which are round, while others have proceeding from them small fibres or poles, by which

Fig. 168.�Diagram of the Ganglia of the Sympathetic System of Nerves Superior Cervical Ganglion. -, ² Cervical Sympathetic Cord. ³ Middle Cervical Ganglion. ⁴ Inferior Cervical ganglion. ⁵ Cervical Portion of Sympathetic. ⁶, ⁶ Dorsal Sympathetic. ⁷ Lumbar Portion of Sympathetic. oaeral Portion of Sympathetic. ⁹ Great Splanchnic Nerve. ¹⁰ Lesser Splanchnic Nerve. ^u Solar Ganglion. ir ^erent Branches from Spinal Pairs. ¹³ Pelvic Plexus. ¹⁴ Branch to Pelvic Plexus. ¹⁵ Spermatic Plexus. Posterior Mesenteric Plexus. ¹⁷ Branches from Posterior to Anterior Mesenteric Plexus. ¹⁸ Lumbo-Aortic exus. ly Superior (Esophageal Branch. ²⁰ Inferior Oesophageal Branch. ²¹ Cardiac Nerves. ^ Branch to ^Vl° Plexus. ²³ Conjoined Cord of Pneumogastric and Sympathetic Nerves. they are connected with nerve-tubes, which go to (afferent) and come irom the ganglia (efferent). Some nerve-fibres also pass through the S^ariglia, and in doing so are brought into contact with the cells. As the sympathetic chain runs along the side of the vertebrae, a small ganglion appears upon it, opposite to each intervertebral gap or hole, out which the spinal nerves emerge. The spinal nerves on passing out of the spinal canal divide into an ^uPper and a lower branch, and from each of the latter a few fibres proceed ⁰ the sympathetic ganglia and reinforce the sympathetic chain. . The different parts of the sympathetic cord are distinguished by terms ^ncbcating the region with which they are connected, hence the terms ^eervieal or neck, the dorsal or back, the lumbar or loin, and the sacral or ^CrouP plexuses or nerves.

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	376
	376	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

Cervical Sympathetic.�The cervical sympathetic consists of two large ganglia united by an intervening cord. The ganglia are distin- guished as the superior and the inferior cervical. Sometimes there are three. The superior cervical ganglion, situated beneath the atlas, gives branches to those nerves in its vicinity � the glosso-pharyngeal, spinal accessory, pneumogastric and hypoglossal, and the lower branch of the first cervical nerve. The efferent branches, or those which pass from the ganglion, are fila- ments to the internal carotid artery, others to the three divisions of the common carotid, and to the guttural pouch and pharynx. The branches which accompany the internal carotid into the cranium form the carotid and cavernous plexuses, and are connected with the fifth cranial nerve. The sympathetic cervical cord passes down the neck in company with the pneumogastric, which it leaves on entering the chest and joins the inferior cervical ganglion. In its course down the neck no filaments are received or given off by it. The Inferior Cervical Ganglion.�As we have already pointed out, this is sometimes double, the two being joined together by a short grayish band. When this condition exists, the portion in front, which is always the smaller, is known as the middle cervical ganglion. The afferent branches, or those which go to the ganglion, are two m number, one resulting from the union of small filaments from the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs of cervical nerves, and the other derived from the eighth cervical nerve. The efferent branches of the inferior cervical ganglion are mainly dis- tributed to the heart. Some very fine filaments may also be seen to enter the anterior mediastinum, or proceed to the branches of the brachial trunk. The Dorsal Sympathetic Chain.�When the inferior cervical ganglion has given branches to the heart, the dorsal sympathetic chain is continued on from it in a backward direction, between the costo-vertebral articu- lation and the pleura. As it passes backwards there appears upon it a number of very small ganglia, one of which is situated against each of the vertebral opening³through which pass the spinal nerves. Each ganglion receives one or two small afferent filaments from the inferior branches of those nerves. In its course backwards it gives off the great splanchnic nerve at ^apoint corresponding to the seventh intercostal space. From this point it proceeds backwards, and in its course receives a small branch from each of the ganglia.

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		377
	THE NERVOUS SYSTEM	377
	THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

It then proceeds to the side of the aorta between the cseliac axis and the large mesenteric artery, where it has upon it the semilunar or solar ganglion. This is a body of considerable size and importance. It is joined to its fellow on the opposite side by a large wide branch and numerous smaller ones, resulting in the formation of a plexus beneath the aorta termed the solar plexus. After receiving some branches from the pneumogastric nerve, this Plexus splits up into several smaller plexuses, which form a net-work round the arteries, and through them the sympathetic is distributed to the several abdominal organs. In this way we get the gastric plexus to the stomach, the hepatic plexus to the liver, duodenum, pylorus, and pancreas, a splenic plexus to the spleen, and also a plexus to the stomach. A large plexus, the anterior mesenteric, surrounds the artery of that name, and is dis- tributed over the organs supplied by it. A renal plexus encircles the ^renal artery and accompanies it to the kidney. The lumbo-aortic plexus passes backward along the under surface of the aorta, and mixes its fibres with the posterior mesenteric plexus. The great Splanchnic nerve leaves the dorsal chain about the ^Seventh intercostal space. From this point it receives a few afferent fibres ^lrom the ganglia, commencing with the sixth, and continues to do so irregu- ^arV up to the sixteenth. Behind, the great splanchnic ends in the solar Plexus. The lesser Splanchnic nerve is made up of two or three small ranches proceeding from the last dorsal ganglion; these collect into a ^ort thin branch, which joins the solar plexus or the renal and supra- ^renal plexuses. Lumbar Sympathetic.�This is a continuation of the dorsal sym- P^athetic, and has upon it ganglia corresponding to the number of lumbar ^erves from the inferior division of which it receives its afferent branches. ^ehind, it is continued by the sacral sympathetic. Its efferent branches consist of short filaments to the lumbo-aortic r exus. The small mesenteric artery receives others, which surround the . ^Ssel and form the posterior mesenteric plexus, in the centre of which ^a ganglion of some size. This ganglion supplies in addition branches the posterior mesenteric vein, and others to the spermatic arteries and ^the rectum. J-wo or three long divisions from each side pass beneath the peritoneum, ^a on reaching the lateral part of the rectum blend with others from the ^erior sacral nerves, forming the plexus from which all the pelvic organs ^are Applied. k&cral Sympathetic.�This region is supplied by a continuation ^Vol- I- 26

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		378 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	backwards of the lambar division. It presents four long ganglia, which communicate with the inferior sacral nerves by a few small filaments. This plexus distributes its branches to the coccygeal artery, and in a somewhat irregular manner to other neighbouring parts. Structure of the Cerebro-spinal Nervous System.�If a fragment of the brain or spinal cord be examined with the unassisted eye, it appears to be composed of a soft curd-like material with red points and streaks distributed irregularly through it, differing a little in colour in different parts, being here almost pure white and there pinkish gray, but every- where so soft and apparently destitute of structure, that Haller, one of the most learned and expert physiologists of the eighteenth century, could only describe it as a uniform pulp with but few indications of structure, presenting only blood-vessels and some obscure fibrous markings. The great improvements that have been made in the construction of the microscope, and in the process of hardening, cutting, staining, and mount- ing specimens for microscopic examination, now enable it to be shown that whilst there is an abundant supply of blood circulating through each part, the essential elements of every nervous system are nerve-cells and nerve-fibres, both of which require careful consideration.

			Fig. 169.�Nerve-Cells A, Nerve-Cell. B, Axis-Cylinder Process, uniting with c, a Nerve.

The Nerve-cells.�The nerve-cells are bodies of rounded, oval, °^rirregular form, varying greatly in size, but always microscopic, and havi^I]» an average diameter of about l-2000th of an inch. Each cell contains & its interior a small but important structure, named the " nucleus", lYⁱⁿ» in a mass of finely fibrillated protoplasm, and itself containing a ^s*^x

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 379

smaller particle, named the " nucleolus". The surface of the nerve-cell is
sometimes smooth, and gives off one or two fine filamentous processes;
in some instances, however, many such processes shoot from it. These
divide and subdivide as they recede from the cell, and either join with
°r enter into very close relation with the processes from other cells. In
niost, if not in all cases, one of the processes is larger and longer than
the rest. If traced for some distance it may be seen to become a true
nerve-fibre, which may terminate in a muscle or in a gland, or in one
°f the organs of sense�ear, eye, nose, &c.�or may serve to bring two
nerve-cells into connection with each other.

The Nerve-fibres.�Nerve-fibres are processes or outrunners from the
cells. At the point where a fibre springs from a cell it is exceedingly
fragile and delicate, but as it travels away from the cell it gradually
^acquires a protective covering or sheath, which calls to mind that employed
to insulate a telegraph wire. It loses it, however, again as it approximates
^Jts destination, becoming reduced to a very attenuated thread. If examined
in the middle of its course, say, for example, in the sciatic nerve, each
nbre will be found to consist of a central core or axis cylinder, believed
t° be the path along which all nervous impressions and impulses are
Propagated. Covering this is a layer of white substance of a fatty nature,
named the medullary sheath, or white substance of
Schwann, and outside this again is a delicate but firm
^and resistant membrane, which is the neurilemma; such
nerve-fibres are named " medullated fibres". The central
core or cylinder axis often runs for long distances without
division, but at times gives off collateral branches, and
°i^ay even divide into a set of branches like a bouquet.

Medullated fibres vary in diameter from 1-1500th to
. "12,000th of an inch. The fibres are bound together ^Ig' ₀f Nerve

ⁿto bundles by connective tissue, and these bundles are a, Nerve-Fibre.
associated into groups, the whole having a strong invest- *; *^^Wlnient of connective tissue and constituting a nerve.

The results of injury to the central parts of the nervous system are

⁰ disastrous that they are everywhere protected from mechanical violence
itn the greatest care. The spinal cord, cerebellum, and brain are con-

^ained in a strong case of bone particularly well adapted to preserve these

°tt parts from blows or pressure. The head bones are composed of an

^uter and an inner layer of compact bone, between which is a layer of

^)se cancellous or spongy bone, the whole requiring great force to cause

^aeture, whilst the solid bodies and projecting spines of the backbone,

too-,

gether with the successive layers of thick skin, fibrous tissue, and muscles

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			380 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		that cover it, are equally competent to protect the spinal cord. The skull will not indeed resist the penetrating power of a bullet, nor will the spine resist the weight and shock of a heavy rider in leaping into a ravine, but they will preserve the nerve centres intact through all the ordinary casualties of life. The bones are not the only means of guarding these parts from injury, for the osseous case is lined by a thick and extremely tough membrane, the dura mater, thin sheets of which dip down between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum, and between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and prevent the former from unduly pressing upon the latter. Within the dura mater is a thin double membrane, named the arachnoid, one part covering the inside of the dura mater and the other the outer part of the brain. These two op- posed surfaces are lubricated with a serous fluid, which permits a slight gliding movement of the brain, such as accompanies the act of breathing and the beating of the arteries, with the least possible friction. And lastly, the whole surface of the brain is immediately invested with the pia mater, which is a membrane of blood-vessels, the branches being so numerous and so closely arranged in it that it may almost be said the great nerve centres rest in every position of the body on a fluid bed. The nerve centres and the nerves receive an abundant supply of blood. The branches of the internal carotid artery and those of the vertebral arteries are distributed to the brain and cerebellum, whilst the spinal cord receives blood-vessels from the vertebral arteries, which run down the upper and lower surfaces of the cord as the spinal arteries, and are rein- forced as they descend by many branches from the intercostals and posterior aorta. The blood thus distributed is returned from the head and spine by the jugular and spinal veins. The nerves of the trunk and extremities receive their blood from the nearest artery, and return it to the nearest vein. The Spinal Cord.�The spinal cord or spinal marrow is a long, nearly cylindrical mass of nerve substance which extends from the head to the sacral region of the spine, and weighs about 10 ozs. It is contained in a canal formed by the successive vertebrae, which is wider than itself, so that there is no danger of any pressure being exerted upon it in the various movements the body is capable of performing. It has the same coverings as the brain, which are named dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. In front the cord enlarges both in breadth and thickness, and is continuous with the brain through the medulla oblongata. Behind it terminates near the anterior third of the sacral region. It does not preserve the same diameter from one end to the other, but presents two

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	THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
				381


swellings, one extending from the fifth vertebra of the neck to the fourth vertebra of the back, and the other situated in the region of the loins. These enlargements of the nervous mass are ren- dered necessary in order to supply the great nerves distributed to the fore and hind limbs respectively. The spinal cord gives origin in the horse to forty- two or forty-three pairs of nerves, each of which arises by two roots, a superior and an inferior. The position and arrangement of the successive pairs are shown in the accompanying diagram. If the cord be divided transversely the appear- ance presented in fig. 173 will be seen. The shaded area is named the gray substance, the light area the white substance, of the cord. The white substance is composed almost exclusively of nerve-fibres; the gray substance, whilst contain- ing many fibres, presents also a large number of nerve-cells. The cord is seen to be divided into symmetrical lateral halves by two fissures, the superior fissure being narrow and deep, and the inferior wide and more shallow. The gray sub- stance of the cord somewhat resembles the letter H, or a pair of inverted commas, placed back to back and united by a cross bar. The extremities

			Fig. 173. �Sections of Spinal Cord

		¹ Superior Root. ² Inferior Root. ³ Ganglion. ⁴ Superior Nerve. ⁵ Inferior Nerve. ⁶ Choroid Plexus. ⁷ Nerve Substance. ⁸, ¹⁰ Inferior C'ornua. ⁹ Superior Cornu. ⁿ Central Canal. ¹² Superior Longitudinal Fissure. ¹³ Inferior Longitudinal Fissure.

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

382

of the comma - like bodies are named the cornu, and there are conse-
quently an upper and a lower cornu on each side. The upper one is
more pointed, and reaches nearer to the surface than the lower cornu.
The isthmus or central portion, which joins the two lateral masses of
gray substance, is perforated by a small hole, which represents the section
of a tube, named the central canal, which runs the whole length of the

cord. If the nerve roots be traced
into the substance of the cord, it
will be found that the fibres of
which they are composed chiefly
end in branches surrounding the
nerve-cells of the superior and
inferior cornu of their own side,
whilst some ascend towards the
brain on that side, and others
cross over to the opposite side.
Each half of the white substance
of the cord is obviously divided
into three regions: 1, an upper,
between the superior cornu and
the superior median fissure; 2, a
lateral, between the upper and
lower cornu; and 3, a lower region,
between the inferior cornu and
the inferior median fissure.

Fig. 174.�Under Surface of Horse's Brain

A, Temporal Lobe. B, Crura Cerebri. c, Pons

Varolii. D, Medulla Oblongata. E, Cerebellum.

F, F, Convolutions of Cerebrum. I, Olfactory Nerve or 1st
Nerve. n, Optic Nerve or 2nd Nerve. HI, Motores
Occulorum or 3rd Nerve. IV, Pathetici or 4th Nerve,
v, Trifacial or 5th Nerve, vi, Abducent Nerve, vii, Facial
or 7th Nerve. VIII, Auditory or 8th Nerve. IX, Glosso-
pharyngeal or 9th Nerve. x, Pneumogastric or 10th
Nerve. xi, Spinal Accessory or 11th Nerve. XII, Hypo-
glossal or 12th Nerve.

In some instances the fibres
constituting these divisions con-
duct impressions forwards, in
others backwards. Some are
chiefly made up of sensory nerves,
whilst others are essentially motor.
Others again are mixed, and con-

vey impulses both upwards to the
medulla oblongata, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and downwards from these
centres to the muscles.

The Bulb, or Medulla Oblongata.�This portion of the nervous

system (d, fig. 174) occupies a position intermediate between the spinal
cord and the pons (c, fig. 174), and is continuous with both. It forms
a kind of capital to the cord, and possesses a highly intricate structure-
It is the seat of origin of some of the most important nerves in the
body, particularly of those which confer sensibility upon the face and

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	THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
		383


head, which perceive sounds, and which are instrumental in carrying °n the function of breathing, and as these last are essential to life, destruction of the medulla oblongata is immediately fatal. The Pons (c, fig. 174) is a broad and thick band of transverse fibres running across from one hemisphere of the cerebellum to the other, it is traversed by the continuation of the columns of the spinal cord. These emerge from the front border of the pons, and form the diverg- ing crura cerebri (b, fig. 174), the fibres of which radiate outwards to the cortex of the brain. Effusions of blood affecting these columns cause paralysis. Above the pons are the four eminences named the corpora quadri- gemina, which are intimately connected with the function of sight, and ^are seen in section just above N in fig. 176. We now reach the great ganglionic masses situated at the base of the brain, shown in fig. 175. These are large, and composed of gray substance, and therefore contain many cells, in which it is probable many of the nerve-fibres in the crura cerebri end, whilst on the other hand they are brought into relation "With the cortex of the brain by radiating fibres. The hinder pair are the optic thalami, and are closely connected with the optic tracts. The front pair are the corpora striata, so termed because the gray substance s traversed by bands of white fibres. These great ganglia are connected ^Dy transverse fibres forming the gray and white commissures, and the ^rest of their opposed surfaces form the lateral boundaries of the third ^ventricle. The Brain.�The large mass of nervous substance which fills the cavity of the cranium or skull, to which the term brain is ordinarily ^aPplied, in reality consists of two parts�the cerebrum or brain proper, ^ard the cerebellum or little brain, the proportion of these organs to ^each other by weight being about as 7:1. Both together weigh in the horse about one pound and a half, which, as compared with the weight °f the body, is about as 1 :600, or about 26 grains for each 1 lb. av. of body weight. The Cerebrum, or brain proper, is divided by a deep fissure running from before backwards into two lateral halves. It consists of an immense ^Dllt thin sheet of gray nerve substance externally, chiefly composed of Qerve- cells, and internally of a mass of white substance composed of ubres proceeding from, or running to, the cells of the gray substance. Externally the brain is covered by three protective membranes, as well ^as by the bones of the skull and skin. These three membranes are the P^l(> mater,* which is closely attached to the brain, and is composed

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384 HEALTH AND DISEASE

principally of blood-vessels; the arachnoid, which is a serous mem-
brane, and is next outwardly placed; and the dura mater, which is a
tough fibrous membrane, and lines the interior of the skull.

The outer layer of gray nerve substance being very much larger than
the surface of the brain, is folded, and, as it were, crumpled, and made
to dip down some distance into the organ. The folds are named con-
volutions (fig. 175 a), and the depressions or grooves between them sulci

(fig. 175 b).

OLF.BULB rrn 1 , � 4-

Aid* iwk J-^ne convolutions appear at

first sight to be quite irregu-
larly disposed, nor will their
arrangement be found exactly
the same in any two brains;
yet by tracing their develop-
ment, and by observing the
effects of injuries, a general
similarity has been demon-
strated in their position, and
the function of each has become
pretty well known.

If the brain be sliced hori-
zontally a little below the level
of the corpus callosum, a cavity

MEDULLA OBLONGATA.

is opened on each side named

the lateral ventricle. These

Fig. 175.�Upper Surface and Horizontal Section of the Brain

A, Ai, Convolutions. B, Bi, Sulci, c, Gray Matter. D, White
Matter. cob. stb., Corpus Striatum. OPT. thal., Optic
Thalamus.

two ventricles are separated by
the septum lucidum, but com-
municate with each other an-

teriorly, and with the third
ventricle by the foramen of Monro. The floor of each lateral ventricle is
formed by the corpus striatum in front, and the optic thalamus behind, and
upon these lie numerous blood-vessels forming the velum interpositum and
choroid plexus. The third ventricle is situated between the two corpora
striata and optic thalami, and is crossed by a gray and two white com-
missures. Behind, it ends in the aqueductus sylvii, which is a tunnel
running underneath the corpora quadrigemina and pons, and opening
behind into the fourth ventricle, which is again continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord.

The cerebellum is situated behind the brain and above the medulla
oblongata. Its convolutions are more numerous than those of the brain,
but present the same crumpled disposition of the gray and white sub-

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

385

stance, the gray forming the external layer and the white the internal.
J-he tree-like appearance presented when the cerebellum is cut in half
has been termed the arbor vitce.

The cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres, and a central portion
named the vermiform process. At its base the white fibres forming its
fibrous substance are gathered together into three great strands, groups,
°r peduncles, on each side; the lowest or most posterior connects it with
the lateral columns of the spinal cord. The middle group forms a great
part of the pons,
and crosses to the
opposite hemisphere,
while the third group
^runs forward to the
cerebrum.

We have seen
that forty - two or
forty-three pairs of
Serves arise from the
^spinal cord. Twelve
**iore pairs arise from
the brain and parts

Fig. 176.�Longitudinal Section of the Brain

A, Cerebral Convolutions. B, Section of the Corpus Callosum. c, Section
of the Fornix. D, Septum Lucidum. e, Internal Extremity of the Hippo-
campus. F, Vena Plena conveying Blood from the Choroid Plexus and Velum
Interpositum. G, Pineal Gland divided. H, Gray Commissure. I, Anterior
White Commissure. J, Corpus Albicans divided. K, Section of Optic Chiasma
or Optic Decussation. L, Pituitary Gland. M, Medulla Oblongata in Section.
N, Valve of Vieussens in Section. o, Aqueduct of Sylvius. p, Section of
Cerebellum. Q, Fourth Ventricle. B, Section of Pons Varolii. s, Section
of Crura Cerebri. T, Foramen of Monro. u, Olfactory Lobule from whence
spring the Olfactory Nerves.

^within the cranium,
^aod are termed cere-
bral nerves. From
the importance of
the p_arts the latter
^SuPply they have
^received distinctive

ⁿames, and appear
¹¹¹ the following order:�1. Olfactory, or nerve of smell. 2. Optic, nerve
°* sight. 3. Motores oculi, nerve of motion to the muscles of the eye.
⁴- Pathetici, distributed to the superior oblique muscle of the eye. 5.
Sensory motor nerve, supplying the skin of the head and face with
^Sensation, and the muscles of mastication with motor nerves. 6. Abdu-
^ntes, supplying the external rectus or straight muscle of the eye. 7.

^acial, supplying the muscles of expression in the face. 8. Auditory,

^fie nerves of hearing. 9. The glosso-pharyngeal, supplying the nerves

taste and some of the muscles ministering to the act of swallowing.

^ The vagus, which supplies the pharynx and larynx, the trachea and

sophagus, the lungs and heart, and the liver and other viscera with

fib

^res> some of which are motor, while others are sensory. 11. Spinal

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	386


accessory, supplying some of the muscles of the neck and shoulder. 12. The hypoglossal, supplying the muscles of the tongue. The Functions of the Nervous System.�Having thus acquired some knowledge of the anatomical and microscopical characters of the nervous system, we may proceed to consider the purposes it fulfils in the body. Of the two constituents of the nervous system, cells and fibres, the cells are regarded as the organs by means of which impres- sions are perceived and registered, and impulses to motion or secretion generated, whilst the fibres are mere conductors extending between the cells and the particular tissues to which the nerve-fibres issuing from the cells are distributed. Those nerves which conduct impressions from one or other of the organs of sense�eye, ear, mouth, nose, skin, &c.�to the spinal cord or brain are called sensory or afferent fibres. Those which conduct impulses from the cord or brain to the muscles or glands are named "efferent" or "motor" nerves. The rapidity with which the conduction of impressions or impulses is effected is very considerable. It is obvious that if the knowledge of the proximity of food or of danger, communicated by the senses, which are the outposts of the nervous system, is to prove of service, it is necessary that the information should be both accurate and prompt. The accuracy is provided for by the special attributes of the several senses. By daylight, the eye affords most of the information required, though in the majority of animals the ears are constantly on the alert against the approach of an invidious foe. At night the faculties of hearing and smell are those which are specially exercised, and in many predatory animals their acuteness rises to a height of which we can form but a faint idea. By whichever of the senses the impressions are conveyed to the cells of the central nervous system, it is important that the muscular responses should be effected with promptitude. At first sight it might appear impossible to acquire any definite knowledge of the swiftness with which sensory impressions of objects affecting the animal, and the motor impulses by which it responds to them, are propagated. The speed of thought is proverbial, yet by the application of electrical currents, the rapidity of which may be regarded as covering short distances and intervals with no appreciable loss oi time, conclusions have been arrived at showing that nervous changes, currents or waves, travel at a much slower speed than the electric current. It has been ascertained that nervous impulses, whether in an afferent or in an efferent nerve, that is, whether sensory or motor, in animal⁸as different as a frog and a horse or man, travel at the rate of about

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	THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM
	THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM	387

^a hundred feet per second, or nearly at the rate of twenty-two miles per hour. The most careful researches into the elements which enter into the chemical composition of nerve tissue afford no insight into the extra- ordinary properties it possesses. In the living state it may be regarded ^as a kind or form of protoplasm, but when dead and submitted to analysis it only presents those elements with which we are familiar in the proteids ' carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus, with salts °i calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Complex substances known as protagon and neurokeratin may be obtained by analysis, but these are but the caput mortuum of the active, living, sentient material, which receives impressions, retains and reproduces them, and can liberate ^lnipulses. We are yet far from being able to predict function from chemical composition or molecular arrangement. It is interesting to notice that the gray substance of the cord and brain, which by common consent is acknowledged to be the active part, contains no less than from eighty-five to ninety per cent of water, whilst the white part, chiefly composed of fibres, contains only about seventy per cent. The reaction °f nervous tissue is alkaline to test-paper. Speaking generally, three parts are recognizable in every nerve-fibre: the origin, which is usually from a cell in one of the nerve centres; the course, which is longer or shorter in correspondence with the part of the body supplied; and the termination, which presents special modifications, ^1X1 accordance with the special organ of sense to which the nerve is dis- tributed, if it be a sensory nerve, or the muscle or gland, if it be a notor nerve. The agent exciting a nerve to action is named a stimulus.* Some stimuli, as electricity and mechanical irritation, seem to be able to excite ^aU nerves to action, but, as a rule, each nerve responds, or responds ^Dest, to its own proper stimulus. Thus the undulations of light excite Pacifically the nerve terminations in the retina of the eye, the vibrations °t sound those in the ear. The change, or information of the change, exciting the nerve endings, say, from blue to red in the case of light, ^s propagated along the nerve-fibre till it reaches a special sensory cell ¹¹ the nerve centre. The cell, if well - nourished and not already ex- isted, is excited, and a wave of force is liberated from it which may _ ^e propagated to a neighbouring cell, and may expand itself through it Producing ideas, or movement, or secretion. The stimuli with which ^e are most familiar, besides those of electricity, light, and sound already entioned, are those of contact or of a mechanical nature, those of a ^ettucal nature, as odours and tastes, those of temperature, and those

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			388 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		proceeding from the exercise of the will. The last always originate within the nerve centre, and the impulses they awaken travel from that centre and expend themselves on muscles or glands. It is possible that some animals may have nerves capable of responding to stimuli of which we have no more conception than a man bom blind has of light, as they certainly have nerves which recognize variations in the intensity ot ordinary stimuli that are imperceptible to us. Thus the presence of water, or the proximity of one of their own species, is recognized by many animals when quite imperceptible to man. A stimulus may be so feeble that it fails to be propagated to the central nerve-cells, and is then said to be insufficient or inoperative; but though our application of the stimulus may not be thus propagated with such intensity as to excite the cell to dis- charge itself, it may awaken its activity if frequently repeated, and cause it to respond, just as a touch which fails to awaken a sleeper, will do so » repeated. This constitutes the summation of a stimulus. The chemical stimuli are represented by the various mineral and vegetable acids, by alkalis, by ethereal and alcoholic liquids. As a rule, any chemical sub- stance that produces sensation when applied to a sensory nerve, will cause contraction of muscle when applied to a motor nerve, but experiment has shown that the motor nerves are more strongly affected than the sensory by alkaline solutions. The spinal cord is primarily to be regarded as formed by the union or joining together of many nerve centres, that is to say, of many groups of cells, which commonly act together or in an orderly sequence, producing purposive actions, without any voluntary effort, beyond perhaps supplying the first incentive or stimulus. Even this may be entirely absent, and the animal may have no consciousness of the nerve stimulus or of the muscular actions that follow it. The complete independence of a segment of the spinal cord is well shown in cases where the spinal cord has been crushed in the region of the back by a fall, or a musket-ball, or a sabre- cut. The voluntary movements of the hind limbs are abolished, the animal can neither move them nor feel any injury inflicted upon them- It is said to be paralysed, yet if the skin of the limb be pinched, °^rtouched with a hot body, it will immediately respond by kicking, or by some other spasmodic movement of the paralysed limb. Similarly, by appropriate stimulation the bladder or the rectum may be made to dis- charge its contents. Such actions or movements are said to be reflet' It can be shown that a stimulus applied to the skin excites a wave which travels up the nerve, enters the cord by the superior root of one or more of the spinal nerves, and reaches one of the nerve-cells in the superior cornu. From this it passes into the inferior cornu and reaches

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	THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM
		389


°ne of the motor cells, and this immediately liberates an impulse, which, emerging by the inferior root, travels down the motor nerve to the ttiuscle. As many sensory nerves are always stimulated, many motor Serves are called into action, and these are so connected and associated together as to produce purposive movements. In the illustration just given, the reflex movements are said to be Without consciousness, and they are analogous to those that are constantly taking place in the uninjured animal in the movements of the intestine, of the heart and blood-vessels, of respiration, and of the ducts of glands; but in ^a large number of cases reflex acts are accompanied by consciousness, as in the case of winking when the eyelashes are touched or the eye is exposed to a bright light, or of coughing or vomiting from tickling the throat with ^a feather, or of micturition from over-distension of the bladder. When the ^amrnal desires to perform one of these purposive and complex movements, \|t does not transmit a separate impulse to the several muscles implicated ¹¹¹ the act, for it knows nothing of them, but by an act of the mind it transmits a mandate to a group of cells which have learned to act together ¹¹¹ a definite order and to produce the required effect. Such centres are framed co-ordinating centres or nuclei, and of these there are many, as, for ^eXample, those governing the movements of the rectum and bladder in the ^a°ts of discharging the faeces and urine; those required for parturition, ^aud for the erection of the penis and the ejaculation of semen, which are ^ehiefly situated in the lumbar and sacral regions of the cord; and finally, fre contraction of the blood-vessels of the abdomen and lower limbs, hich are chiefly situated in the dorsal region. There appears also to be present in the cord, centres that control the f^r°duction of animal heat and of the secretion of sweat, these effects being part due in both instances to changes in the size of the blood-vessels, ⁿd in the case of the sweat secretion to direct action of the nerves on the ^sweat gl_ands. We must regard the cord as endowed to an eminent degree with im- P^ressionability_s and the power of inducing reflex acts without consciousness. ut the cord is not a receiver of nervous impressions and a generator of ^rve impulses only; it is also a conductor transmitting impressions made P°n the skin to the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and cerebrum on the ^e hand, and impulses originating in these parts to the muscles of the ^los and trunk, and to the other organs of the body. J-he medulla oblongata, while it is a prolongation upwards of the spinal dj and transmits impressions both from the cord to the brain and cere- . ' mm, and downwards from these parts to the cord, is also itself a very Portant centre, containing many groups of cells which preside over and

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
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govern the complex muscular movements of mastication, insalivation, deglutition, winking, breathing, with its accessory movements of coughing and sneezing. The corpora striata and optic thalami, or great ganglia, at the base oi the brain, are probably the regions where consciousness first appears, con- sciousness of the different forms and kinds of nervous stimuli, and the place where conscious efforts or muscular movements are made in response to them. These ganglia are particularly connected with the sense of sight- They are relatively large in the horse, for whilst in man their proportion to the brain may be taken as 5 : 100, in the horse it is 13 :100. The outer layer or cortex of the brain is the highest centre of all. It ^lSthe seat of the emotions of judgment, memory, reason, and the will. >^ehave seen that it consists of gray substance containing many nerve-cells, which give off fibres that extend to and from the ganglia below and to the periphery of the body. It has often been exposed as the result of accident, and has uniformly been found to be insensitive to direct stimulation, so that large portions have been cut away without pain being experienced even in man. Evidence has accumulated during the past few years, show- ing that the several convolutions have definite functions, so that one set I^sconcerned with the initiation of movements of the head and neck, another with those of the fore-limbs, and others with those of the trunk and hind- 1 limbs. Special lobes of the brain are also connected with the several senses, the occipital lobes being especially connected with the visual sense, the temporo-sphenoidal lobes with the hearing. The horse appears to be an animal endowed with a remarkable power ot association of definite movements with certain mental stimuli, and with aD excellent memory. It will stop before the customers' doors, the sound °^ltile rider's voice will cheer and direct it, and in military evolutions th^ebugle-calls are quite as well known by the horse as by its rider. ■" will remember events that are long past. It enters into the spirit ^oItrials of speed and strength, and of games, as those of polo and steepl^e' chasing, with the utmost zest and enjoyment. The horse owes his proud position with the dog, as the friend of man, to his docility, his gentleness, his great muscular strength and swiftness-

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			MUSCLES OF THE LIMBS�I
NERVES, ARTERIES, AND I. Inner Dekp 1. Adductors. 2. Obturator externus. 3. Semimembranosus. 4. Biceps femoris. 5. Semitendinosus. 6. Gastrocnemius. 7. Semimembranosus. 8- Adductor magnus. 9. Vastus internus. 10. Pectineus. 11- Sartorius.			MUSCLES OF THE LIMBS�I

				SPECT OP THIGH 12. Tendon common to proas magnus and iliacus. 13. Pectineus. A. Obturator artery. b. Great sciatic nerve. c. External popliteal nerve. D. External saphenous nerve. e. Femero-popliteal artery. F. Femoral artery. G. Deep femoral artery. H. Prepubic artery. r of Fore-Limb 24. Anterior radial artery. 25. Ulnar artery. 26. Brachial artery. 27. Deep humeral artery. 28. Artery to latissimus dorsi. 29. Subscapular artery. a. Subscapularis. b. Supraspinous. c. c. Coraco-lmmeralis. d. Posterior deep pectoral. e. Biceps. r. Extensor metacarpi magnus. g, G. Flexor metacarpi internus. h. Extensor metacarpi obliquus. i, i. Teres major, j. Latissimus dorsi. k. Caput magnum. L. Caput parvum. m. Radial head of flexor metacarpi medius. n. Ulnar head of flexor metacarpi medius. o. Ulnaris accessorius. r. Conjoined tendon of flexor metacarpi interims.

	II. Inner Aspect 1- Suprascapular artery. 2. Circumflex nerve. 3. Ulnar nerve. 4. Roots of median nerve. ⁵- Axillary artery. 6. Musculo-spiral nerve. 7. Nerve to biceps. 8- Prehumeral artery. 9- Median nerve. 10. Musculo-cutaneous nerve. 11- Artery to biceps. 2. Posterior radial artery. 13. Internal plantar nerve. 14. Anterior digital nerve. 15- Oblique branch connecting the internal with external plantar nerve. 16- Internal metacarpal vein. 17. Large metacarpal artery. 18. Small metacarpal arte.y. 19. Large metacarpal artery. 20. External plantar nerve. 21- Ulnar artery. ²²- Ulnar nerve.

		23. Ulnar nerve.

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		NERVES, ARTERIES, AND MUSCLES OF THE LIMBS-1 I. Inner Deep Aspect of Thigh. II. Inner Aspect of Fore Limb,

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			CEREBROSPINAL NERVES 391

	CEREBKO-SPINAL NEEVES THE CRANIAL OR ENCEPHALIC NERVES If we examine the base of the brain, a number of nerves are seen to °ome off from its surface. They vary in size, as they do also in function, ^and among them are numbered the nerves of the special senses of smell, sight, taste, and hearing. The cranial nerves are arranged symmetrically on either side of the base of the brain, and for the most part distribute their branches to parts on the side from which they arise. There is a want of ^agreement in this country between human and veterinary anatomists as to the enumeration of the cranial nerves. By the one they are described ^as nine, by the other as twelve. We need not, however, enter into the pios and cons of this question here, but we give below the numerical designations of each:�

				Veterinary. Human. 1 ...... 1 2 ...... 2 3 ...... 3 4 ...... 4 5 ...... 5 6 ...... 6 1} ...... ' 10[ ...... 8 llJ 12 ....... 9
		Name. Olfactory Nerves ... Optic Nerves Oculomotor Nerves Pathetic Nerves ... Trifacial or Lingual Nerves Abducent Nerves Facial Nerves (Portio dura) Auditory Nerves (Portio mollis) Glosso-pharyngeal Nerves Pneumogastric or Vagus Nerves Spinal Accessory Nerves ... Hypoglossal Nerves


First Pair, Olfactory.�The first pair of cranial nerves is the olfac- tory, a number of fine filaments whose superficial origin is the olfactory bulbs. These bulbous bodies are lodged in the ethmoidal fossse of the ^ethrnoid bone, two depressions in front of the cranium, in which a number °f minute openings appear and allow of their passage out of the cranium nto the superior parts of the nostrils, where they are distributed over the ^Schneiderian membrane. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of special nerves, whose function ^ls that of receiving the impressions of odours, which they carry to the °rain. Second Pair, Optic Nerves.*�These nerves are derived from two thick bands which wind round the crura cerebri in their course from heir deep origin in the corpora quadrigemina. On reaching the inferior surface of the cranium, the two optic bands

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
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combine to form the commissure or chiasma of the optic nerves, which is lodged in a depression at the base of the cranium-�the optic fossa. It is important to understand the behaviour of these nerves on reaching the commissure. To look at, it would almost seem as if the nerves pro- ceeding from the optic tracts had crossed in their course, and had gone to the eye on the side opposite to that on which they first appear before the chiasma is reached, but this is not exactly the case. As a matter of fact, the great bulk of the nerves do cross, but a certain number of filaments continue on the original side and pass into the eye on that side. We find, therefore, that fibres from the left side mingle with fibres from the right, and together form the right optic nerve, and vice versa. It should also be noticed that some of the fibres are believed to cross from right to left in the optic chiasma, and to pass backward through the opposite optic tract to the brain. When the nerve leaves the commissure it passes out of the cranium through the optic foramen, and reaches the orbital cavity to pierce the sclerotic coat of the lower part of the globe of the eye, and after passing through the choroid coat, opens out and forms a thin nervous expansion termed the retina. The function of the optic nerve is to transmit to the brain the impressions made upon it by external objects, or, in other words, it is the nerve of sight. Third Pair, MotoreS Oculorum.�These nerves have their super- ficial origin in the under surface of the cerebral peduncles. From this point they proceed in a forward direction, and enter the orbit through the foramen lacerum orbitale. This nerve supplies the elevator muscle of the upper eyelid, the internal rectus, the superior and inferior rectus, the retractor oculi, and the small oblique muscle. It also gives motor branches to the lenticular ganglion, and through it supplies the ciliary muscle and the circular fibres of the iris. It is essen- tially a motor nerve, and may cause all the parts named to contract. Fourth Pair, Pathetici.�A very thin, long, and slender nerve originating behind the corpora quadrigemina, from which it descends in a forward and downward direction to the supra-sphenoidal fissure. By this it is conducted to the pathetic foramen, through which it passes into the orbit, and thence to its ultimate destination, the superior oblique muscle of the eye. It is a nerve of motion. Fifth Pair, Trigeminal.�This is much the largest of the cranial nerves, and the variety and importance ot its functions imbue it with more than ordinary interest.

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	CEREBROSPINAL NERVES
	CEREBROSPINAL NERVES	393

To commence with, it possesses (l) a sensory and (2) a motor root. The sensory root springs from the anterior part of the pons varolii, and has upon it a large elongated body, the Gasserian ganglion. From this spring three branches, termed respectively the ophthalmic, superior maxillary, and inferior maxillary nerves. The motor root is the smaller of the two, and is situated on the inner side of the longer one, with which it takes origin from the pons varolii. From this point it proceeds forward to unite with the inferior maxillary nerve, which is now both sensitive and motor. The superior maxillary division is the largest of the several branches of this nerve; it leaves the cranium through the foramen rotundum. The ophthalmic, which is the smallest, passes out by the foramen lacerum orbitale, and the inferior maxillary division by the anterior opening in the foramen lacerum basis cranii. On emerging from these openings the ophthalmic branch gives off� 1. The Frontal or Supra-Orbital after emerging from the supra-orbital foramen is distributed to the skin of the forehead and the upper eyelid. 2. The Lachrymal Nerve to the lachrymal gland and the muscles and ³kin of the ear. 3. The Palpebro-Nasal Nerve to the inner angle of the eye, the lachrymal apparatus, and the lower eyelid. It also supplies the membrana mctitans, and sends a branch to the sensitive roots of the ophthalmic ganglion. The Superior Maxillary Nerve emerges from the cranium at the foramen rotundum and enters the superior dental canal. It gives off, ^among others� 1. The Orbital branch to the eyelids and skin. 2. Great Anterior or Palatine Nerve traverses the palatine canal and ^ls distributed to the hard palate and gums. 3. The Staphyline or Posterior Palatine Nerve to the velum palati and ^s°ft palate. 4. Nasal or Spheno-Palatine Nerve to the mucous membrane of the nose. 5. The Dental Nerve to the superior molar, incisor, and canine teeth. 6. The Infra-Orbital Nerve to the nostrils and upper lip, after uniting ith a branch of the facial nerve. The Inferior Maxillary Nerve, as we have already pointed out, stains both sensory and motor filaments. It gives off� !� The Masseteric Nerve, to the masseter and temporal muscles. 2- The Buccal Nerve, to the external pterygoid muscle, to the orbital ^vOL. I 27

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	394	HEALTH AND DISEASE

portion of the temporal muscle, the molar glands, the buccinator muscle, and to the lips. 3. Nerve of Internal Pterygoid Muscle, to the internal pterygoid muscle. 4. Superficial Temporal or Subzygomatic Nerve furnishes small fila- ments to the guttural pouch and the parotid gland. It sends a branch to join the seventh nerve as it passes on to the face. 5. The Gustatory Nerve, the larger of the branches of the inferior maxillary trunk, is distributed to the mucous membrane of the tongue, and the sublingual and submaxillary glands. This is the nerve of taste. It is joined near its origin by the chorda tympani, a branch of the facial nerve. 6. The Mylo-Hyoidean Nerve to the mylo-hyoideus, and the lower belly of the digastricus. 7. The inferior Dental Nerve enters the dental canal in the inferior maxillary bone, and gives sensory branches to the teeth. 8. The Mental Nerve to the lower lip. Sixth Pair, Motores Oculorum.�This is a small nerve arising from the anterior part of the medulla oblongata, just behind the pons varolii. It proceeds in a forward direction in company with the superior maxillary nerve in order to reach the foramen lacerum orbitale, by which it enters the orbit with the ophthalmic division of the fifth. It gives off a small branch to the retractor muscle of the eye, and is then distributed solely to the outer straight muscle of the eye (external rectus). Seventh Pair, Portio Dura or Facial.�Arising from the medulla oblongata immediately behind the pons varolii in company with the eighth. From this point it is directed outward, and, with the eighth nerve, enters at once the internal auditory meatus. Then it passes into the aqueduct of Fallopius, and gives off the chorda tympani nerve to join the lingual, and soon emerges from the stylo-mastoid foramen of the petrous temporal bone. Here it gains the under surface of the parotid gland, from which it reaches the face by passing between the gland and the inferior maxilla below its condyle. It blends with the fibres of the sensory subzygomatic branch of the inferior maxillary division of the fifth nerve and forms a plexus (pes anserinus) on the outer side of the masseter muscle. This nerve supplies the ear and muscles about the poll, the upper belly of the digastricus, the guttural pouch and parotid gland, the stylo-maxillaris, the corrugator supercilii, the orbicularis palpebrarum, the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, and cervical panniculus, and

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	CEBEBRO-SPINAL NERVES
		395


gives its ultimate fibres to the cheeks, nostrils, and lips. A branch from this nerve joins the infra-orbital nerve, and is distributed to the upper lip. Eighth, the Auditory Nerve, arises in company with the seventh nerve from the medulla oblongata, immediately behind the pons varolii. It enters the internal auditory meatus at once, and divides into two branches, one of which is supplied to the cochlea and the other to the vestibule and semicircular canals. This nerve is for the special sense of hearing. Ninth, GlosSO-pharyngeal.�This nerve arises from the outer edge of the medulla oblongata, and passes from the cranium through the back part of the foramen lacerum basis cranii. At this point it has upon it Andersch's ganglion, from which the nerve of Jacobson is derived. It now descends behind the great cornu of the hyoid bone to reach the base of the tongue, where it supplies filaments to the mucous membrane ^and sends others to the muscles of the pharynx. Branches given off in its course:�A very fine filament (Jacobson's nerve), which enters a small foramen in the petrous portion of the temporal bone to be distributed to the tympanum. Two or three filaments to the superior cervical ganglion. A branch which, with some sympathetic filaments, go to the common carotid. A pharyngeal branch. This passes to the upper wall of the pharynx, ^and, with the pharyngeal filaments of the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves, forms a somewhat intricate plexus. Tenth, Pneumogastric or Vagus.�This is a most important nerve, Dot only on account of its wide distribution, but equally so in reference to the variety and complexity of its functions. It is a mixed nerve, and arises from the side of the medulla oblongata ^mediately behind the ninth nerve. It then passes out of the cranium through the posterior part of the foramen lacerum basis cranii, where it Joins the inner division of the eleventh nerve, with which it unites for ^a<X>ut an inch of its course. In the foramen the nerve presents an enlargement�the jugular gan- gbon. This gives off the auricular branch of the vagus, which enters the deduct of Fallopius to join the seventh nerve, and subsequently passes °^ut with it to be distributed to the lining membrane of the external ^auditory canal. Below the occipital artery it becomes united with the ^Cervical sympathetic cord, and joined in this way it passes down the neck _ ^xth the carotid artery as far as the entrance to the chest, where it resumes ^ts independence. From this point it passes onwards above the division

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	396	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

of the trachea, and assists in forming the bronchial plexus. It now gives off the oesophageal nerve, which goes to the stomach and the solar plexus. In its course the pneumogastric nerve gives branches� (1) To the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic. (2) The pharyngeal branch unites with a branch of the ninth pair given off near the termination of the common carotid, and these, together with a branch of the sympathetic, form the pharyngeal plexus, which distributes fibres to the pharynx and commencement of the oesophagus. (3) The superior laryngeal nerve enters an opening beneath the appendix of the superior border of the thyroid cartilage, and supplies the mucous membrane of the larynx with sensibility. It also gives branches to the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue, the pharynx, and oesophagus, likewise to the crico-thyroid, and crico-pharyngeus muscles. The inferior laryngeal differs not only in its point of origin, but likewise in the course it subsequently takes. The right inferior laryngeal or recurrent nerve arises from the parent trunk near to the dorso-cervical artery at the entrance to the chest. It passes round the root of this vessel and escapes from the chest between the carotid artery and the trachea, to which and the oesophagus it gives filaments. It then passes up the neck in company with the former as high as the larynx, and gives its fibres to the pos- terior crico-arytenoideus, the lateral crico-arytenoideus, the arytenoideus, and the thyro-arytenoideus muscle. Before leaving the chest this nerve gives branches to the cardiac plexus, and communicates with the middle cervical ganglion of the sympathetic. (4) The left inferior laryngeal or recurrent nerve is given off from the pneumogastric opposite the root of the aorta; it then courses its way round that vessel, as did the right round the cervico-dorsal artery. Passing out of the chest between the two first ribs, it follows the carotid artery up the neck to reach the larynx. Here it distributes its branches to the posterior and lateral crico-arytenoideus, the arytenoideus, and the thyro-arytenoideus muscles. It is longer than the right nerve, having to pass round the aorta, and when paralysed gives rise to the disease known as " roaring and whistling". A branch of the pneumogastric amalgamates with the middle or inferior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic, and a pulmonary plexus is formed at the bifurcation of the trachea; branches from it follow the divisions of the bronchi along their ramifications, and others enter into the cardiac plexus. Eleventh, Spinal Accessory.�This nerve arises from the whole cervical spinal cord, and passes up the neck between the superior and the inferior roots of the cervical spinal nerves. In its course along the neck

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			CEREBROSPINAL NERVES 397

		it gradually becomes thicker by the addition of fresh fibres from the cord, and enters the cranium through the foramen magnum. It receives some fibres from the posterior part of the medulla oblongata, and then, united with the pneumogastric for about an inch of its course, passes out through the foramen lacerum basis cranii. Beyond this point the nerve is directed backward beneath the mastoido-humeralis muscle, giving branches to the superior cervical ganglion, the sterno-maxillaris, the mastoido-humeralis, and finally terminates in the cervical and dorsal trapezius. It is a nerve of motion. Twelfth, Hypoglossal.�Originating from the posterior part of the medulla oblongata the hypoglossal nerve leaves the cranium through the anterior condyloid foramen and descends between the pneumogastric and spinal accessory nerves on the exterior face of the guttural pouch. Passing over the side of the pharynx and larynx it is continued onwards beneath the mylo-hyoid and hyo-glossus brevis muscles, and distributed to all the muscles of the tongue. Soon after leaving the anterior condyloid foramen the hypoglossal nerve receives a considerable twig from the inferior branch of the first cervical pair, and it is further connected with the superior cervical ganglion on the outer part of the guttural pouch. It is a motor nerve, and excites contraction of the muscles of the tongue during feeding or whenever they are required to move. SPINAL NERVES These nerves differ from those last described, in the fact that each of them arises from the side of the spinal cord by two roots�one sensitive, the other motor. The sensitive root is the upper one and has upon it a ganglion. The motor root is the one below. They pass out of the spinal canal together through the intervertebral opening, and then the two roots join their fibres to form a compound nerve, a nerve having motor and sentient properties. Each spinal nerve now divides into a superior and mferior division, and from the latter sends a branch to the sympathetic. Cervical Nerves.�Of these there are eight pairs. The first cervical nerve leaves the spinal canal through the antero-internal foramen of the atlas. The superior branches accompany the occipital artery and vein to between the rectus capitis posticus and the obliquus capitis superior. At its origin it gives branches to the small muscles about the poll. The mferior branch passes downwards and is distributed to the thyro-hyoid, subscapulo-hyoid, sterno-thyroid, and sterno-hyoid muscles. It sends a small branch to the hypoglossal nerve, and another to the superior cer-

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			398 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		vical ganglion of the sympathetic. It also supplies the skin of the ear on the inner and lower part. The second cervical nerve leaves the spinal canal through an opening at the anterior part of the dentata, under cover of the obliquus capitis inferior. The inferior branches of this nerve are distributed to the mastoido-humeralis and skin of the ears; the superior branches go to the superior and inferior oblique muscles of the neck. The sixth and seventh, and sometimes the fifth, together with a branch from the brachial plexus, form the diaphragmatic nerve. From the second to the sixth they communicate with each other, and then divide into three sets of branches; one set joins the vertebral nerve, and goes to the sympathetic or middle cervical ganglion, another is distri- buted to the mastoido-humeralis, longus colli, rectus capitis anticus major, the scalenus, and to the phrenic nerve, and a third to the skin. The sixth nerve also furnishes branches to the levator anguli scapulae and rhom- boideus muscles, and the brachial plexus receives a twig from its phrenic branch. The superior branches of the last six cervical nerves supply the splenius, trachelo-mastoideus, semi-spinalis colli, and complexus muscles, and the skin in the region of the mane. The seventh and eighth cervical nerves are expended in the formation of the brachial plexus. Each nerve supplies a branch to the middle cer- vical ganglion, the former joins the vertebral nerve, the latter passes directly to the ganglion. BRACHIAL PLEXUS The mixing or joining together of nerves to form plexuses is one of the methods which nature adopts in order to establish a material relation of distant parts, and to some extent a dependency of one part upon another, so that the whole shall be capable of co-ordinating and acting simul- taneously and together. The brachial plexus is a large fasciculus or bundle of nerves resulting from the combination of the inferior divisions of the last three cervical and first two dorsal roots. It is chiefly intended for the supply of the fore-limb with the nerves which animate it. The branches going to make up the brachial plexus converge together after leaving the spine, the dorsal division winding round the front of the first rib and joining the cervical portion to form a broad flat band which passes between the superior and inferior heads of the scalenus muscle, and subsequently breaks up into the following branches:� 1. The Diaphragmatic. 2. The Suprascapular Nerve. 3. Nerves to the Pectoral Muscles.

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				AND MUSCLES OF THE LIMBS-H Aspect of Thigh and Leg 14. Adductor parvus. 15. Pectineus. 16. Adductor magnus. a. Branch of obturator nerve. B. Branch of deep femoral artery. c. Femoral artery. i, Bifurcation of posterior tibial nerve into internal and external plantar nerve. e. Anterior crural nerve, p. Branch of femoral artery to quadriceps, o. Deep femoral artery. h. Prepubic artery.
NERVES, ARTERIES, I. Inner 1. Os innominatum. 2. Gracilis. 3. Rectus femoris. 4. Vastus interims. 5. Sartorius. 6. Popliteus. 7. Plexor metatarsi. 8. Extensor pedis. 9. Flexor pedis perforans. 10. Flexor pedis accessorius. H. Gracilis. 12. Semitendinosus. 13. Semimembranosus.


			II. Outer Aspect of Hind-Limb a. Flexor metatarsi. is. Extensor pedis. c. Extensor brevis. D. Lumbricalis. e. Flexor pedis perforans. F. Flexor pedis perforatus. «. Gastrocnemius. H. Flexor pedis. i. Peroneus.
	1. Anterior tibial artery 2. Large metatarsal arte 3. Internal metatarsal ve 4. Coronary plexus. 5. Digital vein. 6. Digital artery. V. Perpendicular artery. 8. Large metatarsal bon

		9. Small metatarsal bone.

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			,rtf -

		NERVES., ARTERIES, AND MUSCLES OF THE LIMES�11 I. Inner Aspect of Thigh and Leg. II. Outer Aspect of Hind Limb.

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		399
	CEREBEO-SPINAL NERVES	399
	CEREBEO-SPINAL NERVES

4. Nerve to the Subscapularis. 5. Nerves to Serratus Magnus and Levator Scapulae. 6. The Circumflex Nerve. 7. Nerves to Teres Major and Latissimus Dorsi. 8. The Musculo-spiral Nerve. 9. The Median Nerve (two roots). 10. The Ulnar Nerve. 11. The Subcutaneous Thoracic Nerve. The Phrenic or Diaphragmatic Nerve is formed mainly by the union of the sixth and seventh cervical nerves, and sometimes also by a small branch of the fifth. It then enters the chest by passing between the two first ribs, and crossing the pericardium reaches the diaphragm, where it terminates. It is a motor nerve to the diaphragm. The Suprascapular Nerve is short and somewhat thick. It is derived from the sixth, seventh, and eighth cervical roots, and passes between the supraspinatus muscle and the subscapularis. After winding round the anterior border of the scapula it gives branches to the supra- spinatus, and is ultimately expended in the infra-spinatus. The Anterior Deep Pectoral Muscle receives its nerve supply from the seventh and eight cervical nerves, while the superficial pectoral muscle obtains its fibres from the two roots of the median. A branch also passes to the posterior deep pectoral, and another longer and thicker follows the course of the spur vein. Nerve to the Subscapularis.�All the cervical roots of the brachial plexus contribute to form the nerve going to the subscapularis. After crossing the supra-spinatus some of the fibres pass between it and the subscapularis, and the rest are distributed to that muscle. Nerve to SerratUS Magnus is derived from the seventh and ^eighth cervical nerves, which pass through the upper division of the scalenus muscle, and uniting distribute branches to the serratus magnus muscle. Nerve of the Teres Major is a small nerve situated beneath the shoulder on the inner face of the subscapularis. It springs from the seventh and eighth pairs in common with the circumflex nerve, and gives ts fibres to the teres major. Latissimus Dorsi branch,�A long nerve situated beneath the scapula, and derived mainly from the root of the eighth cervical nerve, ^aiad to some extent also from the dorsal roots of the brachial plexus. It crosses the subscapularis and teres major to gain the latissimus dorsi, ^where its fibres are expended. Nerves to the Levator Anguli Scapulae.*�The levator anguli ^capulge, together with the rhomboideus, receive their supply from the

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			400 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		inferior branch of the sixth cervical nerve, and the levator also receives a slight contribution from the seventh. Radial or MuSCUlo-Spiral Nerve.�This nerve derives its fibres from the seventh and eighth cervical pairs, and also from the first dorsal root. It is the largest of the branches furnished by the brachial plexus. From its point of origin it passes downwards, crossing over the inferior part of the subscapularis and the teres major muscles. It then dips down and takes an outward course under the great head of the triceps, winding round the humerus in the musculo-spiral groove to gain the front of the elbow-joint, where it is found beneath the extensor metacarpi and extensor pedis muscles. In its course it gives branches to the great and small heads of the triceps, and to the scapulo-ulnaris muscles, the caput medium, and anconeus. Its terminal branches are destined to the extensor metacarpi magnus, flexor metacarpi externus, the flexor pedis, extensor os suffraginis, and skin. Median Nerve.�The median nerve is formed by the union of two branches: one comes from the sixth, seventh, and eighth cervical, the other from the eighth cervical and the first dorsal. It passes down the limb at first in front of the humeral artery, and continues its downward course in company with the posterior radial artery until a short distance above the knee. Here it divides, the inner branch forming the internal plantar nerve, the outer uniting with the ulnar to form the external plantar nerve. Its branches are distributed to�1, the superficial pectoral; 2, a consider- able branch which passes between the coraco-humeralis, to which it gives fibres, and expends itself in the biceps; 3, a branch which leaves the parent trunk at the middle of the humerus, goes to the brachialis anticus, and sends off a branch to the skin of the forearm; 4, to the flexor metacarpi internus and the flexor pedis perforans and perforatus. The Ulnar Nerve.�This nerve is chiefly derived from the dorsal roots of the brachial plexus. It is less considerable in size than the one just described. Placed behind the humeral artery, it dips down beneath the scapulo-ulnaris, between it and the caput parvum, to reach the posterior part of the inner condyle of the humerus. From this point it proceeds to the back of the forearm, and following the posterior border of the ulnaris accessorius, terminates by joining a branch of the median just above the knee. It assists in forming the external plantar nerve, and gives some twigs to the front of the carpus. The branches given off in its downward course supply the superficial pectoral muscle, the skin of the forearm, and, excepting the external and internal flexors of the meta- carpus, all the muscles behind the radius. Subcutaneous Thoracic Nerve.�A long slender nerve situated

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	CEREBROSPINAL NERVES
		401


on the side of the chest beneath the panniculus and above the spur vein, whose course it follows, to be lost in the panniculus of the flank. It is formed mainly of the dorsal roots of the thoracic plexus, and to a small ■extent from the eighth cervical nerve. In its course backwards it gives ■off branches which anastomose with the second and third perforating intercostal nerves, and forms a net-work over the inner surface of the panniculus. The panniculus extending over the shoulder and arm receives fibres from this nerve. Circumflex or Axillary Nerve.�This is a nerve of considerable ize; it is derived from the seventh and eighth cervical roots, and after crossing the subscapularis soon enters the interspace between that muscle and teres major. It then passes behind the shoulder joint, accompanied by the posterior circumflex artery, and distributes its branches to the teres minor deltoid, mastoido-humeralis, and ultimately reaches the integument in front of the arm. Behind the shoulder it gives small twigs to the scapulo-humeralis posticus. Dorsal Nerves, eighteen pairs.�These nerves on issuing from the spinal canal divide into two sets of branches, as we saw occur in the case of the cervical nerves. The upper divisions, which are the smaller, ascend to reach the dorsal muscles and skin of the back, to both of which they are distributed. The inferior divisions descend, and having gained the intercostal spaces, pass downwards along the posterior border of the ribs beneath the pleura as the intercostal nerves. In their course they give branches to the panniculus and skin, and ^he first seven or eight terminate in the pectoral muscles and skin cover- ing them, and the last ten are distributed to the rectus abdominis, the ^fcransversalis abdominis, and the skin of the belly. The first and second intercostal nerves send branches to the brachial plexus from their inferior 'divisions. Lumbar Nerves, six pairs.*�The lumbar nerves, like the dorsal, divide, after leaving the spinal cord, into a superior and inferior branch. J-he former, passing in an upward direction, ramify through to the muscles °f the loins, and ultimately reach the skin, where they terminate. The inferior branches are variously distributed. Those of the first two, after Applying the psoas magnus, pass over the edge of that muscle, and are distributed to the muscles of the flank, the skin, and some fine filaments ^to the muscles of the thigh. The inferior branch of the third nerve ^Supplies the psoas magnus, psoas parvus, and quadratus lumborum, and ^s ultimate fibres are expended in the skin of the thigh. The fourth, ■kft-h, and sixth lumbar branches contribute to form the lumbo-sacral

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	402


plexus. All the inferior branches of these nerves are connected with the great sympathetic. Sacral Nerves, five pairs. � There are five sacral nerves. The first four pass out of the spinal canal by the sacral foramina, and the fifth by the opening between the last sacral foramen and the first coccygeal bone. After emerging from the spine, they each divide into a superior and an inferior branch. The former of these pass upwards through the supra-sacral openings, and are distributed to the muscles on the side of the sacral spine and to the skin of the croup. The lower branches are much the larger of the two, and pass in a direction downwards and back- wards, to be distributed as follows:�The first and second, by joining with the third, fourth and fifth lumbar, form the lumbo-sacral plexus. The third and fourth pass along the inner side, or even within the texture of the sacro-sciatic ligament, and are joined together by a branch going from one to the other. The third forms the internal pudic nerve, which winds round the ischial arch, and with its fellow on the opposite side gains the dorsal border of the penis, along which it runs, and ends in the mucous mem- brane covering the glans penis. In its course from behind forward it gives numerous branches to the corpora cavernosa and the urethral canal, and while in the pelvis, two small ramuscules go to the perineal region, and hsemorrhoidal branches to the anus. The fourth, together with a branch of the third, innervates the sphincter muscle of the anus and surrounding skin, and the fifth, after giving * branch to the first coccygeal nerve, is expended in the muscles and in- tegument about the base of the tail and the root of the penis. Coccygeal Nerves.�These number five or six pairs, which decrease in volume from the first to the last. The first coccygeal communicates with the last sacral nerve, and then with others passes backwards, and is expended in the muscles and skin of the tail. LUMBO-SACRAL PLEXUS This is a combination of nerves for the supply of the hind-limb. I* corresponds with the brachial plexus of the fore-limb in being formed by the inferior branches of the fourth, fifth, and sixth lumbar, and the first and second sacral nerves. The branches given off from this plexus are as follow:� 1. Iliaco-Muscular Branches.�Small branches given to the psoas magnus, psoas parvus, and iliacus muscles. 2. Anterior or Great Crural Nerve.�This is a nerve of considerable

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				HORSE'S HEAD Fig. II A. Common carotid artery . b. External carotid artery, c. Internal carotid artery. D. Occipital artery. e. Internal maxillary artery. F. Superficial temporal artery. G. Posterior auricular artery. H, H. Right and left submaxillary artery ht. Hyoid bones (divided). i, i. Eight and left submaxillary veins. j. Buccal vein. k. Alveolar vein. l. Buccal plexus. m. Infra-orbital nerve. n. Superior maxillary nerve. o. Inferior maxillary nerve. p. Inferior dental nerve. q. Lingual or gustatory nerve. k. Mylo-hyoid nerve. s. Masseter nerve. t. Ophthalmic nerves and vessels. u, u. Glosso-pharyngeal nerve. v. Submaxillary gland. w. Thyroid gland. x. Section of lower jaw. y. Tempero-maxillary articulation. z. Hypoglossal or twelfth nerve. a. Larynx.
		ANATOMY C Fig. I ^A- Seventh nerve. B- Posterior auricular vein. ^c- Anterior auricular vein. d. Temporalis muscle. e. Corrugator supercilii. r. Orbicularis palpebrarum. Q- Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi. H. Levator labii superioris proprius. i. Dilatator naris lateralis. J- Orbicularis oris. K. Zygomaticus. l. Depressor labii inferioris. H. Buccinator. N. Stenson's duct. °. Submaxillary artery. r. Submaxillary vein. Q. Masseter muscle. R- Temporal vein. s. Maxillo-muscular artery. t. Parotid gland. u. Submaxillary vein. v. Jugular vein. W. Maxillo-muscular vein.

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		«

	B

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S HEAD

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	CEREBROSPINAL NERVES
	CEREBROSPINAL NERVES	403

size formed by fibres from the fourth and fifth lumbar roots, and in part also from the loop between the third and fourth. Descending between the psoas magnus and parvus, it passes downwards at the outer side of the external iliac artery under cover of the sartorius, and after crossing the conjoined tendon of the psoas and iliacus muscles, ends in a number of branches, which pass between the vastus internus and rectus femoris to be distributed to the extensors of the legs. It gives off the internal saphenous nerve, and sends branches to the rectus femoris. 3. The Obturator Nerve is situated beneath the peritoneum on the inner side of the pelvis, and follows the course of the artery of the same name through the obturator foramen to the internal aspect of the thigh. It is derived from the fourth and fifth lumbar roots, and gives branches to the obturator externus, adductors of the thigh, the pectineus and gracilis Muscles. 4. The Anterior and Posterior Gluteal Nerves, also called the ^stttall sciatic nerves. These nerves leave the pelvis by the great sciatic ttotch. The anterior gluteal consists of four or five branches, which are distributed to the gluteus medius, the tensor vagina femoris, vastus ex- ternus and internus, and the gluteus externus. The posterior gluteal nerve ^ls represented by two branches�a superior and inferior. The superior supplies the superficial gluteus, the middle gluteus, and the biceps femoris. The inferior branch, after passing over the outer side of the tuber ischii, is destined to the skin of the thigh, the semitendinosus, and with a branch of the internal pudic nerve to the structures of the perineum. The Great Sciatic Nerve is the largest in the body. It is derived ^lr°rn the lumbo-sacral plexus, and issues from the great sciatic opening ^as a broad white band; thence it takes a downward course between the ^sacro-sciatic ligament and the gluteus maximus. On reaching the thigh ^Jt is lodged between the biceps femoris and semitendinosus, having the ^emimembranosus and great adductor of the thigh supporting it within. On nearing the leg it passes between the two heads of the gastrocnemius Muscle, when it takes the name of the internal popliteal nerve. This is °ntinued on as the posterior tibial, which dividing, forms the internal and ^xternal plantar nerves. In its course down the limb it supplies a slender ^ranch to the obturator internus, pyriformis, gemelli, and quadratus femoris. The External Popliteal Nerve is a branch of considerable size given n from the great sciatic near to the gemini muscles. It then passes °wnward and forward between the biceps femoris and the outer head of .^fte gastrocnemius. On reaching the outer lateral ligament of the stifle it a ' � divides into the musculocutaneous nerve and the anterior tibial.

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			104 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		The Musculo - Cutaneous branch is situated beneath the tibial aponeurosis. It passes down the leg along the union of the peroneus and extensor pedis, and ultimately is distributed to the skin on the outer side of the metatarsus. In its course it gives branches to the peroneus. The Anterior Tibial Nerve, after leaving the one last described, passes underneath the extensor pedis muscle, and having supplied branches to it, the flexor metatarsi, and short extensor of the foot, continues its course downwards in front of the leg as far as the hock joint; it then accompanies the large metatarsal artery, and finally ends in the skin on the outer side of the canon. The Internal Saphenous Nerve.�This is a branch of the anterior crural nerve, from which it is given off at the brim of the pelvis. From this point it passes downwards in company with the femoral artery, and gives branches to the sartorius muscle. About the middle of the thigh it reaches the surface by passing between the last-named muscle and the gracilis, accompanied by the saphenous vein and artery. It divides into an anterior small and a posterior larger branch, which supply the inner and front and the posterior and back parts 01 the thigh respectively. Its ultimate fibres are distributed to the skin on the inner and bac> part of the leg as low as the hock. The External Saphenous Nerve leaves the great sciatic, and passes over the outer head of the gastrocnemius under cover of the biceps femoriSi where it receives a branch of the external popliteal nerve. It then passes down the leg in company with the saphenous vein on the outer and fron part of the gastrocnemius tendon, and continuing its course over the hoc^ joint, is ultimately expended in the skin of the outer part of the metatarsus- The Internal Popliteal Nerve.�This nerve consists of a buncU^e of nerve branches proceeding from the great sciatic. Passing downward and forwards between the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, it gi^vebranches to it, to the flexor perforatus, the soleus, the perforans, and flexo pedis accessories. Finally it gives off a long branch, which passes betwee the perforatus and the inner head of the gastrocnemius as the posteri tibial nerve. , The Posterior Tibial Nerve.�The posterior tibial is a branch ^cthe internal popliteal. In passing down the leg it is situated benea the inner head of the gastrocnemius. It then becomes enclosed in deep fascia of the leg, on the inner side of which it descends, and at hock divides into two parts to become the internal and external plan nerves. These enter the tarsal sheath in company with the plan arteries, and separate from each other behind the hock.

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	DISEASES OE THE NEBVOUS SYSTEM	405
	DISEASES OE THE NEBVOUS SYSTEM

From this point they proceed down the leg along with the perforans tendon, and divide as in the fore-limb to supply the foot. The Anterior Tibial Nerve commences on the outer side of the stifle Joint, and dips down between the peroneus and extensor pedis muscle, Under cover of which it passes down the leg. On reaching the hock it bears outwards, and, together with the large metatarsal artery, passes down the limb to the fetlock joint, and expends itself in the skin on the outer side of the os suffraginis. It gives branches to the extensor pedis ^and flexor metatarsi, and on reaching the front of the hock some twigs to the extensor brevis. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Affections of the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal ^cord, must necessarily be of a very grave character. Physiologists allow that the brain is chiefly concerned with the mental functions, but, in ^addition, it also presides over special movements, some of which are volun- tary while others are of the excito-motor character. Derangement affecting any important part or nerve centre, either in the form of excess or de- ficiency of blood, undue pressure, or structural changes, produces either halted function, or drowsiness going on to stupor, or paralysis. Disease of the cerebellum or smaller brain causes giddiness and failure °t the normal power to regulate the functions of locomotion. The causes of cerebral derangement are numerous. As the brain pre- ^Sldes over many important functions of the body, it is also sympathetically ^aflected when the organs which perform those functions become the seat of structural or functional changes due to accident or disease. The brain is invested by certain membranes which afford protection on ^lhe one hand, and on the other act as a medium through which pass the ^vessels carrying the necessary supply of blood for the nourishment of its ^ls§ues and the exercise of its function. CEEEBRITIS AND MENINGITIS Very early in the history of veterinary science the French writers ^Separated diseases of the brain into two distinct forms, which were desig- ned by different terms�cerebritis when the substance of the brain was ttected, and meningitis when the inflammation attacked the membranes Meninges) which cover the brain. The necessity for the distinction was at one time disputed, but it is °^w quite clearly recognized; in fact, the two conditions of disease are

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		406 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	indicated by totally different symptoms. When inflammation affects the intimate structure of the brain the prominent signs are loss of sensibility and consciousness more or less complete, and various degrees of paralysis. None of these symptoms are present in inflammation of the meninges, of which violent excitement, pain, tenderness, delirium, and convulsions are the chief manifestations. In the case of disease being confined to the brain there is seldom any marked disturbance in the circulatory system, but in meningitis both the pulse and respiration are excited in a high degree. To put the differences concisely, it may be said that in disease of

			Fig. 177.�Sleepy Staggers

the brain substance, diminished sensibility, loss of power of motion, and deranged volition are the characteristic features, while inflammation of tn^einvesting membranes of the organ is indicated by spasms, convulsions, violent pain, delirium, and frenzy. Impaired consciousness may aris^efrom disease of the stomach. The affection which is described as " stomacn staggers " might probably be, in popular phrase, referred to as a sick head- ache due to an attack of indigestion, the brain being sympathetically affected. The symptoms of the disorder are generally observed after a f^ulmeal, which the horse probably swallows rapidly owing to a previous lo^D» fast. The first indication is a slight dulness, the eyelids being drooped, an the nose rested against the manger. If compelled to move, the anim^astaggers; hence the name given to the disease. In very pronounced cases the drowsiness may be followed by delirium or sometimes severe convulsive twitchings of the muscles. Now and the a violent excitement supervenes, and the animal throws himself abou

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	DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
	DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM	407
		407

m various directions in a condition of actual frenzy. In some of these erratic movements the horse may injure himself, or the attendant if he happens to come in his way, but it is evident that there is no intention to do mischief. The treatment of the disease, to be successful, must be adopted as soon as the first indications are apparent. The animal should be removed to a loose-box and freed from all restraint; food should be kept out of his reach, but he may be allowed to drink any quantity of water. In former times the treatment on which the greatest reliance was placed was the immediate employment of the lancet and the withdrawal of a large quantity °f blood. This system, however, has been discontinued for many years Past, and instead it is usual to rely on the administration of a strong aperient, together with antiseptic agents, as hyposulphite of soda. Four to six ounces of solution of aloes, or more, according to the size of the horse, forms a useful purgative; and if the drowsy condition is extremely Marked, aromatic spirit of ammonia in doses of from one to two ounces every two or three hours, while the condition remains, is likely to be effective. Benefit will also be derived from sponging or douching the head with cold water at short intervals, or by the application of ice-bags to the poll. VERTIGO Vertigo, megrims, or giddiness may be associated with organic disease °f the brain, or be occasioned by derangement of the liver or other organs °f the digestive system. A fit of vertigo may also arise from the action of the sun's rays upon the unprotected head, or it may be due to the retention °t blood in the vessels of the brain consequent upon pressure of a tight ^c°Uar. A single attack, which may occur at any time during a journey, is ^s°naetimes difficult of explanation; when a hot sun and a tight collar are both present they will naturally be looked upon as the cause of the fit, but m the absence of either it will be impossible for anyone to decide whether ^lt Was due to some chronic disorder in the brain or to derangement of the ^hgestive organs. In these cases a direct diagnosis is only possible when the history of the animal is known. It may, however, be suggested that a ^Sudden and violent attack, under the influence of which the horse suddenly ^stop_S) raises and shakes his head, and then drops down in a state of partial Consciousness, is most likely to be consequent on some cause which is °ting at the moment, such as heat, pressure on the vessels of the neck, or ^So*ne acute disturbance of the liver. Vertigo which arises from organic disease of the nervous centres, is in ^0st cases a disorder of gradual development. The first attack is extremely

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		408 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	slight, and probably attracts very little attention; the driver may notice that the horse occasionally shakes his head, or turns it to one side as though he were annoyed by something which had entered the ear; after a short time the animal ceases to behave strangely, and finishes the journey with- out any further indication of disturbance. Nothing more may be thought of the matter until the recurrence of the attack after the lapse of a week or

			Fig. 178.�Vertigo or Megrims

more, and even then no suspicion of megrims is probably excited until a more severe attack occurs. Post-mortem examinations have been made of horses which have suffered from chronic vertigo, the fits occurring at intervals of a few^T weeks or months during several years of the animals' lives. The results oi such examinations were in some cases unsatisfactory; in others calcareous nodules and tumours, varying in size from a pin's head to a pigeon's egg or larger, have been found in the plexus of vessels in the lateral ventricles of the brain. Frequently, however, the search for morbid appearances 1° the brain and spinal cord has been attended with disappointment. Attacks of vertigo may sometimes happen in consequence of injur/ to the head; a blow accidentally or intentionally inflicted may produce

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		DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
		DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM		409

slight concussion, or may even result in the depression of some of the bones forming the cranial cavity, in which case stupor will result, and will con- tinue until the depressed portions of bone are elevated by means of a surgical instrument. When the injury is slight, the fit of giddiness which follows generally passes off in a short time and leaves no trace behind; but the rider or driver, being probably unaware that the animal has been struck on the head, is disposed to look upon the attack as a case of megrims of the ordinary kind. The fact, however, of the attack not recurring would be ^a sufficient evidence that the injury is not permanent. Treatment.�As the occurrence at irregular intervals of fits of vertigo ^ls at the least annoying, and cannot be said to be unattended with danger to the rider or driver, it is naturally a subject of enquiry as to what can be done in the way of prevention. If any positive cause, such as a tight collar, ^ls detected, the remedy is of course perfectly obvious. Should symptoms of disease of the liver be present, a dose or two of aloes with calomel may be given with benefit; but if there is no obvious cause, the conclusion will Necessarily be that there is some morbid condition of the central nervous system, and beyond attending to the animal's general health by judicious Ceding and properly regulated work or exercise, nothing can be done. Worses suffering from chronic brain disease should never be hurried or ealled upon to undergo severe exertion. Moreover, they should be fed two ^0r three hours before being employed in any kind of work, and food should "^e given in small quantities and often. ABSCESS IN THE BRAIN A more serious result of a blow on the head is the formation of abscess ¹¹ one of the hemispheres of the brain, or inflammation of the membranes, ^which is usually indicated by violent excitement. Abscess in the brain also ^ecurs not uncommonly when, in consequence of a vessel being punctured ¹¹ the act of opening an abscess, a quantity of pus may get into the blood- stream, causing the condition which is known as pycemia. Abscesses in ^arious parts of the body are the result of this contamination of the blood, ^d the brain is a very favourite situation for the deposit of pus. The , st indication of the occurrence is the appearance of drowsiness, gradually leasing to unconsciousness, in which condition the animal dies. No ^reatrnent is likely to be of any avail.

	Vol. i
	Vol. i		28
			28

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	410	HEALTH AND DISEASE

EPILEPSY Epilepsy, eclampsia, catalepsy, and chorea (St. Vitus' dance) are all disorders of the nerve centres, and are associated with eccentric muscular action, and often with derangement of consciousness, but horses are very rarely attacked by any of them. Epilepsy is a peculiar affection almost unknown in the horse, but not uncommon in the dog. The exact pathological conditions of the brain or spinal cord on which the intermittent attacks or epileptic fits depend are not known. It is even uncertain whether the origin of the malady is centred in the brain or spinal cord, although recent experiments lend considerable force to the view of the brain rather than the spinal cord being the seat of the derangement. Characteristic epileptic fits may be produced in dogs while under chloroform after complete disconnection of the brain from the spinal cord. Injection of a minute dose of absinthe into the circulation in an animal thus_: prepared is quickly followed by all the signs of epilepsy, and dogs utter maniacal cries, which, of course, are purely th^eresult of reflex action, the dog being at the time unconscious. The Symptoms of an epileptic fit are well known. Usually there is no marked premonitory sign of an approaching attack. An animal in ^astate of health, apparently, may suddenly reel and fall over on its side, in the case of a dog uttering cries which soon cease, while the whole muscular system is in a state of convulsive action. Urine and faeces are involun- tarily discharged; a quantity of foam collects about the mouth. In ^ashort time the convulsions cease and the animal regains consciousness, and is soon restored to its ordinary condition, showing no further symp' toms of illness until the sudden occurrence of another fit. Considering the great difficulty of disconnecting severe forms °* megrims in the horse from epilepsy, it is not remarkable that som^cwriters record cases of equine epilepsy. It is, however, rarely if ever tn^ecase that the horse suffers from this disease, and certainly not in tb5 typical form in which it is seen in the dog. Several forms of epilepsy are described by writers, for example, spoD' taneous, symptomatic, traumatic, and reflex epilepsy, and in all these th® attack may be serious or benign. Spontaneous epilepsy is the result ° functional disturbance of the brain, amounting to general irritability, whi°^ disposes the subject to an attack under trifling influences, such as fear ° any kind of mental excitement. Horses are said to have suffered when alarmed by a display of fireworks, or the passing of a train, or li°° suddenly passing from a subdued to an intense light. Symptomatic ep¹lepsy is the form of the disease which is associated with structural chang^e

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	DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
	DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM	411
		411

in the central nervous system, as thickening of the membranes of the brain, deposits of pus, or the presence of parasites. Traumatic epilepsy is due to injury, as, for example, blows upon the cranium causing compression of the nerve structures from effusion of blood or the depression of the bony boundaries of the cavities in which the brain and spinal cord are contained. Reflex epilepsy may occur in consequence of irritation affecting the terminal branches of nerves in remote parts. Such irritation depend- ing upon pressure exercised by foreign bodies, irritation caused by parasites in the digestive organs, affections of the mouth due to the changes which occur in course of dentition. All the above forms of epilepsy, when con- nected with special liability to nervous excitement, may be considered as hereditary. ECLAMPSIA This disease borders so closely upon the one previously considered, epilepsy, that its manifestations are allowed to be identical with those of reflex epilepsy. It is also stated that eclampsia may be transferred into true epilepsy; the main distinction appears to be that the convulsive spasms affect chiefly the extensor muscles, and appear without any disturb- ance of the mental conditions and independent of any structural alterations. In fact, the disease is really one of pure motor-nervous excitability. CHOREA (ST. VITUS' DANCE) This disease is perfectly well known as it affects the dog. It is fre- quently one of the results of distemper; its chief manifestation is constant rhythmical contraction and spasm of some of the muscles of the neck or ^extremities, usually the fore extremities. Animals which suffer from this disease frequently retain their health for a considerable time, but when °horea affects dogs which have recently recovered from distemper, the ^eoiistant excitement arising from the incessant muscular spasms interferes ^with the complete restoration of the animal, and occasionally ends in fatal Paralysis. Cases of localized muscular spasm have been described in the horse under the name of chorea, but it must be allowed that the disease ¹¹¹ that animal, if it occurs at all, is extremely rare. STRINGHALT This condition, which is very well known to horsemen, is another of the ^-defined affections of the nervous system. The condition is indicated by pasrnodic movement of the muscles of one, sometimes of both hind-legs, ^and occasionally one or both of the fore-legs. The effect of the spasm is to

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			412 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		cause an extraordinary jerking upwards of the affected extremities, after which the foot is brought forcibly to the ground. The disease differs from chorea, as the symptoms are only developed during pro- gression, whereas in chorea the muscular spasms are constant even during sleep. In some cases stringhalt is only exhibited occasionally and under special conditions, as when the horse is made to turn sharply round, or when observed while quietly moving in his box, but it generally becomes more pronounced as the animal advances in age or when he is excited. No treatment has been found to be effective in controlling the muscular movements. APOPLEXY In very hot seasons horses which are called upon to undergo violent exertion are likely to suffer from cerebral derangement due to determina- tion of blood to the vessels of the brain. This condition is correctly described as sunstroke. According to the duration of the active causes the final consequences will vary. In the first instance, symptoms will consist of dulness, general depression varied by periods of excitement. If the causes continue, the voluntary movements of the animal may be interfered with, and finally it may fall in a state of unconsciousness. The worst consequence which is to be apprehended is the rupture of some of the overcharged vessels 01 the brain and escape of blood into the tissue of the organ. If the hemorrhage is sudden and considerable the result will be an apoplectic fit, which may be immediately fatal. The fit will probably be preceded by an irregularity in the animal's movements, trembling, turning round or backing, ending in a sudden fall, loss of consciousness, and possibly death in a few minutes. A partial recovery may, however, take place, and the animal may live for some days or weeks, but a fatal result ^lSalmost certain to follow. When the hemorrhage is slight the symptoms will be those which have previously been described, i.e. irregular movements followed by drowsiness, from which the animal will gradually recover, but in such instances a smal clot of blood may be left in the substance of the brain and lay the founda- tion for future mischief. Treatment.�On this subject a great difference of opinion exist⁸' bleeding and cold applications are advocated, or, on the other hand' stimulants are suggested in order to overcome the drowsy and depresse state into which the animal has fallen. It is probably the case that i^cbags to the head and bleeding would be beneficial when the animal ^l

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			DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 413

		suffering from an apoplectic fit, while the use of stimulants might be resorted to when the more urgent symptoms have ceased. In all cases where the power to swallow exists, a strong dose of physic should be promptly administered. CRIB-BITING In connection with diseases of the nervous system it is necessary to refer to certain abnormal actions commonly described as nervous habits, which are not usually recognized as diseases, but which, as they are not normal, i.e. are not in accordance with the rule as applied to the actions of healthy animals, must be classified as abnormal. "Cribbing" or "tic", "wind-sucking", and "weaving" may be taken as examples of diseases which are more or less connected with some ill-defined derangement of the ner- vous system. Tic or cribbing has been carefully studied in its various forms by Continental veterinarians. Friedrich Berger and Frohne, in their work on the pathology of the domestic animals, allude to the causes of cribbing as being complex and variable in their nature. Idle- ness is said to be one cause of the acquirement of the habit. Horses, Fig. i79.-Throat-₈tra_P for crib-biting like other creatures, are supposed to invent some kind of pastime when left alone in a stall or box, and the manger, drinking-trough, or piece of chain or rope lends itself to this kind of indulgence. In the case of some animals it seems that no assistance from external objects is necessary, as they succeed in per- forming the actions of a crib-biter without seizing the manger with their teeth or obtaining any other support. By contracting the muscles °f the neck they contrive to keep the head in a fixed position, and can ttiake the peculiar noise which is common to crib-biters. Among the causes of cribbing heredity is referred to as having con- siderable influence. Horses it is said become crib-biters and wind-suckers ^aPparently from imitation, although it would seem that a certain amount °f nervous excitability is necessary as a predisposing cause, as it may be that only one animal out of a very large number which are exposed to the same temptation acquires the habit. The habit of cribbing or wind-sucking has somewhat fancifully been

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			414 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		attributed to the use of a curry-comb in the act of cleaning, as when the instrument is used with much force it causes a good deal of irritation, which the animal indicates by biting at anything within its reach; and it is supposed that the habit of biting and making spasmodic movements of the lips and other parts at the same time might finally lead to cribbing. Cribbing and so-called wind-sucking induce occasional attacks of colic from the quantity of air which is developed in the stomach, and both are associated with an irritable condition of the mucous membrane of the digestive organs, which we believe to be a cause of these remarkable acts. In a legal point of view cribbing and wind-sucking would amount to unsoundness if that term is construed strictly, and in some parts of the Continent the habit is recognized as sufficient to constitute a breach of warranty. In any case, a horse addicted to crib-biting or wind-sucking, or both, can hardly be said to be as useful for its intended purpose as an animal which is free from such defects. If there were no other objection to be urged, it would be sufficient to point to the well-known fact that the animal loses flesh and becomes thin. Treatment.�The owner of a crib-biter or wind-sucker is very anxious to find out some means of cure, and various mechanical appliances have been suggested for the purpose. The plan of using movable mangers and troughs, and avoiding all projecting posts on which the animal may place his teeth and get a point of support, has been said to be successful in cases of crib-biting, but it is obviously of no use in the case of a wind- sucker, which does not require such assistance. In most instances of crib- biting and wind-sucking the ordinary throat-strap (fig. 179), which is arranged to be buckled round the throat, acts as a preventive, but to be effectual it must be constantly employed while the animal is in the stable. The other habit which has been referred to under the term weaving, consists in swaying the head and fore part of the body from side to side like a bear. Although perhaps less objectionable than wind-sucking, it is, nevertheless, a serious fault, since the animal which is addicted to it is constantly using his legs when he should be resting them. Weaving is most commonly seen in horses which are tied to the manger by means of two side-ropes fixed to the head-collar and carried through rings on each end of the manger. At the end of each rope a perforated w^Tooden block is fixed on purpose to prevent the removal of the halter-ropes from the rings. The habit of weaving may sometimes be corrected by keeping the animal in a loose-box without any head-collar or halter-ropes. This, ho^-

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		OEDEMA OF CHOROID PLEXUS

			BRAIN TUMOUR

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	DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
		415


ever, is not always successful, as in some cases the animal continues the lateral movements of the head even when it is left altogether without any means of restraint. TUMOUES IN THE BRAIN AND CRANIUM Tumours in the brain are not of rare occurrence in the horse, although they are very limited in variety. Moreover, they are seldom found to exist save in the lateral ventricles or cavities within the hemispheres. They are almost invariably of that variety termed " psammoma", a structure comprising a quantity of fibrous tissue, in the mesh-work of which are found granules of earthy matter, fatty particles, and thin glistening plates of cholesterine. These tumours are developed in the fringe of vascular membrane, termed the "choroid plexus", which is situated on the floor of the lateral ventricles. They vary in size from a pin's head to a hen's egg, and frequently occur in both ventricular cavities. Being slow in their growth they seldom produce any obvious disturbance in the conduct of the animal until they have reached considerable dimensions, although in the course of their development the ventricles become much dilated, and a consider- able amount of brain matter is caused to be absorbed by the pressure which they make upon it. They are usually ovoid in form, of a bluey- gray appearance, smooth on the surface, and firm to the touch. Brain tumours in the horse are mostly found in the adult and later periods of life, although the writer has removed them from the ventricles of so young a horse as a four-year-old. Cause.�As to the origin of these formations, nothing definite can be said; inasmuch, however, as they are more prevalent in harness horses than others of the riding class, it has been suggested that the pressure of tight, ill-fitting collars on the jugular veins may, by interrupting the circulation from the brain, be the means of causing their development, and it is very likely this may be a predisposing or even an exciting cause. Symptoms.�The symptoms developed as the result of the continued growth of these formations may be of a chronic or an acute and fatal character. In the former the animal suffers periodic attacks of loss of power and unconsciousness for some time, the intervals between each attack becoming shorter as time goes on, and the attacks more and more severe. They ^are specially excited when the horse is worked on a full stomach, or urged

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	416	HEALTH AND DISEASE

too freely uphill when the pressure of the collar is increased, or driven in face of a hot sun. The frequent occurrence of these symptoms in the early spring and during the summer is mainly on account of exposure to the last-named cause. The attack comes on without warning. The animal stops and suddenly falls to the ground, the muscles quiver or are rigidly set, the eyes roll, there is loss of consciousness, and for a time also of feeling and muscular power. After a brief period the stricken beast regains his lost powers and is able to rise, but for several days he remains dull, feeble, and stupid, and altogether unfitted for work. In other cases the animal hangs his head, and presents an expression of drowsiness and an indisposition to move. In less severe attacks he will suddenly stop while being driven, lay back his ears, shake his head violently, or throw it up and down without any obvious reason, and in a few minutes resume his journey as if nothing had happened. In the more severe attacks the patient is stricken down paralysed and unconscious and quickly succumbs. Treatment in these cases is of no avail, and although something may be done to ward off the attacks by a judicious system of general manage- ment and feeding, horses affected with brain tumours are dangerous beasts to possess, and should be destroyed. (EDEMA OF THE CHOROID PLEXUS This is a condition in which the choroid plexuses of the ventricles are infiltrated with fluid which has escaped from the fine net-work of veins of which they are mainly composed. So far as is known it is of somewhat rare occurrence. It may, however, be more common than is generally supposed, were post-mortem examinations more frequently made of the brain in those cases where death follows upon sudden and complete coma. The causes of oedema of the choroid plexuses is not well established^ but in the case of which an illustration is here given (see Coloured Plate) the horse had been the subject of influenza, and appeared to be making & good recovery. He was, however, suddenly seized with dulness, followed by deep coma, and death occurred twenty-four hours later. Post-mortem examination showed clots of coagulated blood obstructing the veins leading from the plexuses into the veins of Galen. There was nothing either in the history of the case, or in the post- mortem inspection, to show why the blood should have clotted and obstructed the circulation in these veins. A blow on the head in such

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			DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 417

		circumstances might have caused it, or it may have resulted from some change in the blood consequent on the disease. Where, as in this instance, the choroid plexuses were torn up, treat- ment could be of little avail. EXOSTOSES OR BONE TUMOURS Hard ivory-like growths from the petrous temporal bone sometimes extend into the cavity of the cranium and occasion pressure upon and absorption of the brain substance. These tumours, developing very slowly, afford the neighbouring parts an opportunity to accommodate themselves for a time to the altered state, but sooner or later the pressure they impart to nerves and vessels produces various forms of structural and functional derangement, among which may be mentioned deafness, paralysis of the muscles of the face, loss of motor power, unsteady movements, convulsive fits, followed by apoplexy and death. Exostoses or bone tumours sometimes occur on the floor of the cranium as the result of a blow on the poll or back of the head, such as would be inflicted by a horse falling backward or striking the head violently against some fixed object. In these cases blindness may follow as a con- sequence, from pressure on the optic nerves at their bifurcation; or the muscles of the eye may suffer paralysis, and disorders of some of the other nerves issuing from the base of the brain may result. THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANES Professor Williams, in his Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine, refers to a case in which the dura mater or outermost covering of the brain attained a thickness varying from one inch at the base to several inches at the anterior part of the cranium, causing absorption of the frontal and ethmoid bones, and closing the frontal sinuses. The horse in which this was discovered had presented signs of brain disease, sleepiness, partial paralysis, blindness, and paralysis of the muscles of mastication for a considerable period before its death. "It is very probable", Professor Williams remarks, "that this condition was the result of an injury, such as a blow upon the head, causing chronic inflammation."

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		418 HEALTH AND DISEASE DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD AND ITS MEMBRANES ACUTE SPINAL MENINGITIS�INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES OF THE SPINAL CORD Acute inflammation of the coverings of the spinal cord is of seldom occurrence, and mostly involves the two innermost membranes�the pia mater and arachnoid. The causes which give rise to this disease are for the most part the result of injury, but it may also follow upon exposure to cold easterly winds and wet, especially in the case of a horse that is heated after a fast run with hounds and much jumping, or after a period of heavy draught. Tumours in the spinal canal, and the bursting of abscesses into it from disease of the vertebrae, may also occasion it. Symptoms.�These will vary in severity, according to the intensity of the cause. They may either be sudden and severe in their onset or slowly progressive. In the former case the disease is ushered in by rigors or shivering, followed by paroxysms of pain in the course of the spine, exhibited more especially when the animal is made to move. Later, sudden and repeated fits of spasmodic contraction of the muscles of the limbs appear, causing them to be suddenly jerked upward and forcibly brought to the ground. The movements become unsteady and the fet- locks knuckle over, the patient loses the power to stand, and sooner or later becomes completely paralysed. When on the ground he makes repeated attempts to rise, during which there are violent fits of struggling and painful spasms of the muscles of the limbs and back. During these paroxysms the face wears a drawn and anxious expres- sion, deep groans are emitted, the breathing becomes hurried, the pulse quickened, and sweat covers the body. Short intervals of ease follow the convulsive seizures, but growing muscular weakness, followed by complete paralysis of both motion and sensation, sooner or later ends in disablement or death. ACUTE MYELITIS�INFLAMMATION OF THE SPINAL CORD The causes which give rise to inflammation of the membranes of the cord are also responsible for inflammation of the cord itself, and mostly affect both structures in varying degrees at the same time. Symptoms.�At the onset of the disease more or less stiffness is ob- served in the spine. The animal, when made to turn, does so in a wide circle. Firm pressure over the spine occasions pain. The hind-limbs are

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	PARALYSIS
		419


repeatedly moved and sometimes strike the ground, or they are shaken as if to detach something objectionable adhering to them. Sensibility becomes diminished, and a rolling movement behind is observed when the animal attempts to walk. Muscular paralysis of the parts behind the seat of disease soon follows, and the patient falls to the ground unable to rise. The bladder now may fail to empty itself and become distended with urine. The faeces escape involuntarily in consequence of paralysis of the muscle (sphincter ani) which closes the anus. The bowels are con- stipated, but there is little, if any, rise of the bodily temperature. The farther forward the disease exists in the cord the more extensive will be the paralysis. When in the region of the neck the fore-limbs as well as the hind will become disabled, and the muscles of respiration will at the same time be involved, and occasion great difficulty of breathing and more or less disturbance in the action of the heart. These affections of the spinal cord and its membranes usually become complicated with some rapidly destructive lung disease, or with inflamma- tion of the bladder or kidney disease, to which the victim sooner or later succumbs. Should he escape these immediately fatal affections he remains paralysed and useless. Little, therefore, is to be expected from treatment of an animal so affected, and both humanity and economy will be best served by his immediate destruction. PARALYSIS By paralysis is understood a loss of power in the muscles to contract, and consequently greater or less impairment of voluntary motion. There is also a second form of paralysis, by which a part may be deprived of the sense of feeling. The former constitutes paralysis of motion, the latter paralysis of sensation. They frequently occur together, but when this is so the loss of power usually exceeds that of sensation. Each may exist alone. The more common of the two as separate ailments is paralysis of motion. Paralysis is not a disease, but a symptom of some disorder going on either in the brain or spinal cord, or the nerves connecting them with the paralysed part. If for any reason the brain fails to develop and to give out voluntary impulses, the influence of the will ceases to act upon those parts over which it ordinarily exercises control. The nerves, although healthy in themselves, receiving no nervous force from the affected centre, become incapable of exciting muscles to contract. On the other hand, the brain or nerve centre may be perfectly free from disease, but owing to some pressure or disease in the course of the nerves

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	420


the impulses developed by the healthy brain fail to travel along the dis- eased nerves, with the result that paralysis ensues in the part to which they are distributed. The nerve centres and the nerves are liable to become disabled from a number of diverse causes. Lack of nourishment, the consequence of in- sufficient blood supply; certain poisons introduced from without or formed within the body, such as lead or the accumulation of urinary or biliary pro- ducts in the blood; mechanical injury or pressure; rupture of blood-vessels in or upon the brain; the formation of tumours; inflammation and its con- sequences, are all found to produce paralysis at one time or another. From what has been stated it will be seen that paralysis may originate�(1) in the brain (cerebral), (2) in the spinal cord (spinal), (3) in the nerves con- nected with the one or the other (peripheral paralysis). Hence it follows that the disease presents a considerable variety of forms, of which only those of the more common kind will be considered here. HEMIPLEGIA In this form of paralysis one lateral half, the right or the left side of the body, is involved. It is a rare affection in the horse, but in man it is one of the most common forms of the disease, and usually appears suddenly in what is commonly known as a " stroke". The parts affected in hemi- plegia are the fore and hind extremity, the muscles of the face, especially those of mastication, and the tongue on one side. The loss of power may either be complete or incomplete, according to the intensity and extent of the cause, which commonly arises out of rupture of the vessels of the brain, with more or less escape of blood into the tissues of the organ. Symptoms.�Hemiplegia is usually sudden in its onset. The affected animal falls to the ground in a more or less unconscious condition, and the limbs on the paralysed side are incapable of movement. In a case quoted from M. Gerard by Percival the sensibility of the left, the affected side, proved extremely acute. The lips and alge of the nose were drawn to the right side, the contrary to that to which the head and neck turned. A blowing noise was made by the air in its passage through the nostrils. The left ear was paralysed and the tongue distorted. When oats were laid before the horse it seized them with the right side of the mouth, the left remaining motionless. There was great difficulty in masti- cation, and some of the food was not swallowed, but became lodged between the cheek and the molar teeth. In feeding, the horse plunged its muzzle into the middle of its food and opened its mouth wide. In drinking?

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	PARALYSIS
	PARALYSIS	421
		421

its mouth was thrust deeply into the water. It could walk, but could hardly sustain itself after but a short exercise. On the fourth day the animal was unable to stand, sank down, and after several ineffectual struggles to rise, rolled over and lay upon its right side. Its pulse and respiration remained undisturbed. It died on the seventh day. PARAPLEGIA�SPINAL PARALYSIS Paraplegia indicates some disorder of the spinal cord, and consists of paralysis of the posterior half (more or less) of the body. The extent of the disablement will depend upon the seat of the disease, being greater in proportion as it is situated in a forward direction. Injury affecting the spinal cord in the region of the back or loins would paralyse the hind- quarters equally or unequally, but if it occurred in the neck, the fore and the hind limbs also, and the rest of the trunk behind the damaged cord, would also be deprived of the power of motion. Paraplegia in the horse is most commonly the result of injury inflicted on the dorsal or lumbar portion of the cord or its membranes, as when from some cause the latter become thickened and unduly press upon the former, or when they contain large quantities of fluid as the result of injury. Bony growths projecting inwards from the spine sometimes press upon the cord and cause paralysis, or the same results may follow dislocation of the vertebrae. Earely spinal paralysis is due to causes originating in organs quite away from the spine, as when mares suffer during oestrum, or foals in consequence of worms in the bowels. This is termed "reflex paralysis", a form of the disease from which animals affected frequently recover. Here uterine irritation in the one case, and intestinal irritation in the other, is the cause of the failure of the spinal cord to innervate the muscles. Symptoms.�In paraplegia there is more or less complete paralysis of the hind-quarters. When it is complete the animal occupies a re- cumbent posture and is unable to rise. When the skin of the paralysed region is pricked with a pin there is usually no sign of feeling, but in some instances the paralysis may be almost exclusively that of motion, while sensation remains intact, in which case the prick will be felt and expressed by the animal's movements in front. The urine may be dis- charged involuntarily, and the fasces too may escape in consequence of paralysis of the sphincter ani. In incomplete paraplegia the hind-quarters roll from side to side, the animal crosses his hind-limbs, sometimes trails the toes, or knuckles over

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422 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	with the fetlock joints. Movement aggravates the symptoms, and may cause the animal to fall, when more or less difficulty or complete inability will be experienced in rising. Paraplegia in the horse, save when arising out of reflex causes, offers very little encouragement to treatment. Injury to the brain or cord of a paralysing nature seldom yields to medicine. In cases of a slight character it may be desirable to administer a dose of physic, to apply hot cloths over the loins, and to place the animal in slings or on a good bed of peat-moss, and later to administer iodide of potassium and nux vomica for two or three weeks and apply a blister along the back; but these are cases which should be promptly placed under the care of a qualified person. PERIPHERAL OR LOCAL PARALYSIS When paralysis is confined to muscles supplied by a particular nerve it is said to be " peripheral". The most common example of this form of the malady is that in which the seventh nerve is involved. The seventh nerve after leaving the brain emerges from the cranium through a canal in the

		Fig. 180.�Facial Paralysis, a, Partial. B, Total.

	petrous temporal bone, and on reaching the surface passes underneath the joint formed by the lower jaw and the temporal bone, and then over the cheek, where it gives off branches to the muscles of mastication, the nostrils, and the lips. Injury to this nerve gives rise to paralysis of the muscles of the face, hence it is termed " facial paralysis". It may occur on one side, as is mostly the case, or both nerves may be simultaneously affected. Causes.�Facial paralysis may result from injury to the nerve as it

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			CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS 423

		passes through the canal in the temporal bone. This may be the result of disease of that bone, or of some effusion into the sheath of the nerve from inflammatory conditions. Injury to the nerve after leaving the canal is the more common cause, such as blows beneath the ear when rolling, or being cast, or from other causes. Pressure from tumours or abscesses, or inflammatory swelling in its course, will also produce it. Symptoms.�Where a nerve is paralysed the angle of the mouth on the sound side is drawn upward, while that on the paralysed side is lowered. The lips hang loose and pendulous, the eye cannot be closed, the nostril of the affected side cannot be dilated, the cheek is flaccid and has lost its firmness to the touch. In feeding, the patient seizes his food with the teeth instead of gathering it up with his lips. In drinking, the mouth is pushed into the water for some distance, and during mastication food falls from the mouth on the paralysed side. Treatment.�When due to abscess or inflammatory swelling hot fomentations and poultices should be applied to the affected part. If possible the abscess should be laid open and emptied, so as to remove the pressure on the nerve. This should be followed by iron tonics and nux vomica to restore the lost power to the muscles, and, if necessary, the �application and repetition of iodine blisters. Where a tumour or inflam- matory swelling exists, a purgative followed by iodide of potassium in full doses should be given. CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS A fatal affection among horses implicating the spinal and cerebral membranes appears to have been known for a long period in various parts of the world. In the United States of America cerebro-spinal meningitis is recorded to have been investigated in 1850. In Germany it was known in 1865, and in Egypt ten years later. About the year 1881 a fatal form of paralysis attracted notice in this country, and Professor Axe described ■outbreaks which occurred almost simultaneously in Essex, London, and Norfolk. A peculiarity of the disease at the time was its limitation to certain parts of the year, the majority of cases occurring between the end of February and the beginning of May. Mares seemed to be more sus- ceptible to the affection than horses, and animals of all ages were attacked. Climatic conditions did not appear to have any marked influence on the progress of the malady. When it was first recognized in 1881 the weather "was cold and wet, but since then cases have been observed in the latter Part of the summer during hot bright weather.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	424	HEALTH AND DISEASE

On the first appearance of the affection it was looked upon as a totally new malady which had probably been introduced from America. Percival in his Hippo Pathology refers to a form of epizootic paralysis occurring on cold wet pastures in spring and autumn. Professor Axe mentions an article by Mr. Small in the Veterinarian for 1857 describing outbreaks of paralysis occurring in his district in that year. Other writers have also mentioned cases of the periodical occurrence of a form of paralysis in different parts of the country, and there is very little doubt that these cases were of the same character as those which have been recently designated cerebro-spinal meningitis. With regard to the propagation of the disorder Professor Axe notices the communication of the disease to other animals than the horse. On this part of the subject he says:�" At the time when the disorder prevailed in the county of Essex, Mr. Ellis, veterinary surgeon of Maldon, resolved upon trying the efficacy of venesection. Several horses were consequently bled, and the blood removed from them was, contrary to instructions, thrown down in a yard adjoining the stables. During the day large numbers of sparrows were observed to partake freely of the clot, and after a short period to become paralysed in their wings, and unable to rise from the ground. On the following day a sow and a dog, which had also consumed some of the blood, were similarly affected, the latter so much so as to lead to his destruction. Several young pigs, offspring of the sow referred to, were at the same time seized with convulsive twitchings of the voluntary muscles, accompanied by a greater or less degree of paralysis. These latter animals, it should be mentioned, had not partaken of the blood of the horse, but were at that time subsisting exclusively on the milk of the dam." Symptoms.�Indications of the disease in the majority of instances appear suddenly, but in other cases before there is any appearance of paralysis the animals show some premonitory signs of drowsiness, unsteadi- ness in their movements, catching the toe in the ground in walking. More commonly, however, without any warning the affected horse is found down and almost incapable of moving. In many cases the loss of power is apparent in the posterior half of the body, and during the progress of the affection nearly all the muscles of motion are involved. Sometimes the loss of power is particularly marked in muscles connected with swallowing, so that the animals cannot take fluid or solid; in other instances the power to eat and drink remains, while paralysis gradually extends over the body- In the advanced stages of the disease excitement is frequently present, alternating with spasmodic contraction of some of the muscles. The excitement may be followed by total loss of consciousness, or it may be

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^A- ^P°nio� _of _spinal _cord _showing _engorgeme�t of vessels and hemorrhagic points and patches in

Arteritis.�

o-spinal meningitis.

Portion, of aorta laid open, showing patches of arteritis. T^irra-vtes in

»"»�iransverse section ot artery mnmateu �, �_?» ..-- , . _coat_

tunica adventitia or external coat. (*) Leucocytes infiltrating tunica mea a
_n M Leucocytes causing irregular thickening of tunica intima or internal coat.

^U- Arteritis. -Longitudinal section of inflamed artery, (a) Leucocytes infiltrating vessel wall.

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		THE ABSOBBENT SYSTEM
		THE ABSOBBENT SYSTEM	425

exaggerated and end in frenzy. These symptoms usually indicate that a fatal termination is at hand. During the course of the disease the temperature is but little affected, and, excepting when complications arise, the pulse and respiration are nearly normal. On post mortem examination it has been found that the membranes of the brain and spinal cord are charged with blood, and effused blood and serum are frequently found on the brain and spinal cord. The digestive and respiratory organs, and also the spleen and kidneys, show considerable changes in their texture. No satisfactory explanation has been given of the origin of the disease. It has been looked upon as infectious, and recent experience of the malady goes to prove pretty conclusively that it is so. The fact of its recurrence occasionally and under very different conditions is sufficient in itself to prove that it is not due to any of the ordinary causes. Whatever the cause may be, it is quite certain that it only exists at intervals, and also that it affects a considerable number of animals in the district in quick succession. The cessation of the disease is sometimes as sudden as its appearance. Treatment.�Of the different plans of treatment which have been tried none has proved so successful as to claim any pre-eminence. Laxa- tives, cold applications to the head, and in cases where muscular spasms in the neck, for example, are present, injections of morphine have been tried with partial success. For the prevention of the spreading of the affection it is desirable to remove healthy animals from the immediate neighbourhood of the sick. Efficient cleansing and disinfection of the stables in which sick horses have stood must on no account be neglected, and a complete change of food is also desirable.

	5. THE ABSOEBENT SYSTEM This important system is composed of two parts, of which one is Specially connected with the alimentary canal, whilst the other is widely distributed throughout the body. The former is named the lacteal system, the latter the lymphatic system. Both are composed of vessels presenting ^a general resemblance to those which convey the blood, and both ulti- mately discharge their contents into the thoracic duct, a tube which lies beneath the vertebral column and opens directly into the anterior vena ^eava. Both are interrupted in their course by glands�the lymphatic glands�of which those in relation with the lacteals are chiefly situated Vol. I 29

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		426 HEALTH AND DISEASE in the abdomen at the root of the mesentery, whilst those connected with the lymphatics are found in the axilla, groin, neck, thorax, &c. The purpose of the laeteals, which have their origin in the intestine, is to absorb or take up the constituents of the food, in which they are assisted by the blood- vessels, whilst the lymphatics, which are everywhere distributed through the tissues of the body, reconduct to the larger blood- vessels the plasma of the blood which, having passed through the walls of the smaller blood- vessels, is in excess of the requirement of the tissues, and contains some of the products of their disintegration. As there are some dif- ferences between the lacteal and lymphatic vessels it will be expedient to describe them separately, though it must be borne in mind that they are only parts of the same system. The Lacteal System.�It is justifiable in common parlance to say, when an animal has eaten a hearty meal, that it has got its food inside it, but from a physiological point of view the food is still in reality outside the body, and no matter what quantity has been ingested it is unavailable for the nutri- tion of the tissues, or the production of heat or of nervo-muscular force, until it has been absorbed and assimilated. The starches, oils, and proteids which form the staple of the typical foods such as oats, barley, wheat, and other cereals are, in the raw state, in- capable of passing through the walls of the intestine. In order that they may do so it is necessary that they should be rendered soluble, and this duty devolves on the various digestive secretions, that we have Fig. 181.�Sketch of the Lymphatic Vessels ° of the Fore-Leg (inner aspect) seen are poured forth from the numerous glands connected with the alimentary canal. By these juices starches are converted into sugars, oils into very fine emulsions or into soaps, and proteids into peptones, being in each case so modified that they are rendered capable of permeating the intestin^a' walls and the vessels ramifying upon them, and thus truly entering

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THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM

427

the body and becoming first assimilated to and then incorporated
with it.

The process by which the solutions of sugar, oil, proteids, or salts
penetrate the wall of the alimentary tract is termed "osmosis", and can
easily be shown by immersing a bladder filled with thick syrup in a
jar of pure water, when a double current is immediately established.
Some of the sugar solution escapes into the surrounding water, whilst
a much larger proportion of pure water passing through the membrane
to the syrup enters the bladder, dis-
tending it to the utmost and even to
bursting.

The lacteal system may be said to
commence in the delicate velvet pile-
like processes or villi which line the
whole of the small intestine, and which
are shown in the accompanying wood-
cut (fig. 182, 1).

Each villus contains a net-work of
minute blood - vessels, not here de-
picted, surrounding a vessel of larger
size (2), which is the lacteal. The
latter, commencing near the summit
in a blind extremity or a loop, passes
down to the base of the villus, where
it joins with others to form a net-work.

Fig. 182.�Section through the Small Intestine

¹ Villi. ² Lacteal Vessels. ³ Muscular Coat.
⁴ Serous Coat.

These, after meeting together, emerge
from the intestine as vessels of con-

siderable size (2, 2), which accompany
the blood-vessels of the mesentery, and, gradually uniting to form larger
and larger trunks, terminate beneath the spine in a kind of sac or
bladder (receptaculum chyli) which represents the hinder end of the
thoracic duct. Whilst still contained within the villi, the lacteals are
surrounded by muscular fibres, and when these fibres contract, the villi
are changed in form from long finger-like processes into short projections,
and the fluid they have absorbed, to which the term chyle (Greek chulos,
juice) is applied, is consequently driven into the underlying net-work of
vessels. The villi thus constitute small force-pumps which, though in-
dividually feeble, yet as a result of their numbers become important agents
^lri the onward movement of the lacteal fluid. The vessels forming the
net-work are provided with valves in their course which do not allow any
backward current, but compel the fluid absorbed to move on towards the

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			428 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		receptacle into which it is to be poured. During fasting the lacteals only contain a clear fluid, and were on this account long overlooked. It is only after the consumption of oily foods or of some such fluid as milk that they present the white appearance which has led to the name of lacteals (Latin lac, milk) being applied to them. Although the lacteals are highly important agents in the absorption of the soluble constituents of the food, the part played by the blood- vessels which ramify on the wall of the alimentary canal must not be overlooked. In the lower Vertebrata, as in fishes, no lacteals exist, and therefore all materials absorbed must be taken up through the walls of the blood-vessels in these animals, while it is obvious that the presence of a swift current of a thick fluid like blood on one side of the vascular wall must constitute a favourable condition for the absorption of a thinner and more diffusible fluid from the other side. The Lymphatic System.�This system commences in the skin, and in the little spaces between the elements of the tissues in almost all parts of the body. It can be easily demonstrated by means of injections, for if a needle with a fine bore be plunged into the skin or into the muscles, and mercury or warm solution of gelatine holding some colouring material in suspension, as vermilion or Prussian blue, be forced through it with syringe, a beautiful and very close net-work of channels comes into view, which is quite distinct from the blood - vessels, and has no direct communication with them. The minuter blood - vessels, although they come into very close relation with the cells of glands and the fibres of muscle, do not actually touch them. There is always a layer of fluid, named lymph, between the two, so that, separating the blood from the actual constituents of every tissue, there are the wall of the blood-vessel and the layer of lymph outside that wall, as well as the walls of the vessels in which the lymph is contained, which indeed consists only of very thin cells. It is in the irregular spaces that are thus formed that the lymphatics arise. The spaces thus lined by flat cells soon, instead of being irregular, become tubular. The Lymphatic Glands. � These bodies may be likened to oval or rounded masses of sponge, into which the lacteals convey chyle and the lymphatics lymph. Fig. 183 represents the structure of one of these glands. The gland has an investing coat or capsule (7) which completely surrounds it. From the capsule fibrous strands (6) pass into the gland, dividing it off like partitions into spaces. The spaces round the circumference (or cortex) ot the gland are of considerable size, and are more or less oval (3), while the spaces towards the centre (or medulla) are irregular in shape, and

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THE ABSOEBENT SYSTEM

4i!9

smaller. The spaces are almost completely filled with masses of material,
consisting of a net-work of very delicate connective tissue, in which
white cells (4) of various sizes are entangled. This sort of tissue is called
" adenoid", or gland tissue, from the Greek, adeen, a gland. But the
masses of tissue do not quite fill the spaces. Between the outer surface
of the mass and the wall of the space are channels (5), and the channel
round one mass communicates with that of another, and those round the
edge communicate with those in the centre, so that the gland might be
looked upon as a mass of gland tissue broken up into numerous little
clumps by a series of irregularly winding and communicating channels.
The channels, moreover, are
not perfect fair-ways. They
are crossed and recrossed by
spans of the delicate tissue of
the gland, so that the whole
structure becomes not unlike
that of a sponge. Now the
lacteal vessels join the mes-
enteric gland at the margin
or outside (l), and pour their
fluid contents into the chan-

nels there. From them the
fluid filters its way to the
channels of the centre, bath-

Fig. 183.�Section of Lymphatic Gland (diagrammatic)

¹ Afferent Lymph Vessel. ² Efferent Lymph Vessel. ³ Cor-
tical Substance. ⁴ Lymphatic Tissue. ⁵ Lymph Path.
⁶ Trabecule sent in from ⁷ Fibrous Capsule.

ing and penetrating the gland
tissue in its course, and finally joins other vessels (2), by which it is
carried away from the gland. Through these comparatively free channels
the chyle or lymph makes its way, easily entering the gland by the
afferent, and escaping by the efferent vessels, and it then carries away
from the gland but few leucocytes. When, however, the pressure of the
fluid entering the gland is augmented, either by the process of digestion
and the contraction of the villi in the case of the lacteals, or by active
niuscular movements in the case of the lymphatics, the lymph then per-
colates the substance of the gland and carries off with it by the efferent
vessels large numbers of white cells, which are swiftly poured into the
Mood, and are believed to constitute one of the sources from which the
blood corpuscles are recruited.

The main agents in effecting the movement of the lymph along its
vessels are: (l) The force of the heart, which drives the plasma through
the walls of the blood-vessels into the tissues; (2) the muscular move-
ments of the body, generally aided by the valves present in all lymphatic

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		430	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		430

	vessels and the minute muscles surrounding the lacteals in the villi. The pressure under which the lymph moves is very low, and it is dis- charged from the thoracic duct into that part of the blood vascular system where the pressure is lowest, namely, into the veins just before their entry into the right auricle of the heart. When the outward movement of the lymph towards this point is impeded it accumulates in the vessels beyond the obstruction. This condition is more marked, and appears earlier if the obstruction be of such a nature as to affect the venous system as well as the lymphatic. The conditions known as oedema and dropsy are then established. The composition of the lymph is very similar to that of the plasma of the blood, but it contains more water and less proteid matter. In the case of the horse there are about ninety-five to ninety-six per cent of water, and four or five per cent of solids, of which about three parts are albuminous or proteid substances, the remainder consisting of salts, the most abundant of which is common salt or sodium chloride. The composition of chyle, consisting chiefly of the digested materials contained in the alimentary canal, varies with the nature of the food and the period of digestion at which it is examined. In the fasting animal it does not differ materially from the lymph, but, with an oily diet like milk, the proportion of fat undergoes great increase, and the lacteals become conspicuous by their white colour. After passing through the lymphatic glands, the lymph and chyle alike acquire the power of coagulating or clotting, though in both instances the clot is feeble and soft.

6. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION THE BLOOD From the earliest ages the blood has been held to be one of the most important constituents of the body, for it was natural, when death was seen to follow alike in animals and in man the infliction of a small wound (providing it opened a large vessel), to believe that as the blood drained away, the life itself was leaving the body. The practice of strict Jew^Ts of all periods of their history, acting up to the command: " But flesh, with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat", is evidence of the strong impress the constant association of loss of blood and of life has made on the mind of man. In many points of view it is indeed the river of life, for its flow supplies to all parts of the body the materials requisite for their

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				THE BLOOD 431

	development, maintenance, and repair, whilst it is in addition charged with the vivifying oxygen it has absorbed at the lungs. On the other hand, it carries away from each part the products of disintegration and decay, and conducts them to the organs by which they may be severally eliminated from the system, the most important being the carbon dioxide, which is discharged at the lungs, and the urea, which is excreted or thrown off by the kidneys. The blood of the horse, like that of other mammals, is of a deep-red colour, but brighter in the arteries than in the veins. The taste is mawkish, the odour faint but peculiar, and its reaction to test-paper invariably alka- line. Its specific gravity is about 1'061. It is clammy or slippery to the touch, and is remark- ably opaque, transmitting but little light even in thin layers. It is in con- stant movement in the body. The quantity of the blood contained in a horse of average size is estimated to be about one- eighteenth of its body weight, or from 40 to

		45 lbs., and it is con- sidered that one-fourth is contained in the heart and	-Blood Corpuscles A, Coloured Blood Corpuscles adhering together in Columns (rouleaux). B, Coloured Corpuscle, showing concave surface, c, The same seen edgewise. D, E, F, Colourless Corpuscles.

larger blood-vessels, one- fourth in the muscles, one-fourth in the liver and intestines, and the remaining fourth in the other organs of the body. To the unassisted ^eye, the blood as it issues from a wound appears to be perfectly homo- geneous, but when examined with a microscope of moderate power it is seen to be composed of a transparent fluid named the plasma, in which ^are suspended a large number of corpuscles (fig. 184). The existence of corpuscles in blood was first noticed in the hedgehog by the celebrated Italian physician and anatomist Malpighi in the year 1661, who thought they were globules of fat. They had previously been seen, in 1658, by the Dutch anatomist Swammerdam in the frog, but this investigator lost the credit of the discovery in consequence of his failing to publish his observations. The real merit of recognizing the corpuscles as constant ^arjd essential elements of the blood is due to another Dutch microscopist framed Leeuwenhoek, who in 1673 observed and described them in man ^aiid many other animals. Great attention has been bestowed upon them

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			432 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		by numerous observers, and three chief forms of corpuscles have been distinguished, named, respectively, red corpuscles, white corpuscles, and blood platelets. The red corpuscles are pale-yellow circular discs, each resembling a coin, with edges thicker than the central part, and they are hence said to be biconcave. Their consistence is like that of moderately firm jelly. They have no nucleus. The transverse diameter is about ~~₃J₀₀~~ inch, and their thickness about y^wo inch. They are a little heavier than the fluid in which they are suspended, and consequently have a tendency to fall to the bottom of the vessel when blood is removed from the body. This disposition to gravitate may be observed in the living animal, since if blood be gently drawn with a small syringe from the upper and lower parts of a large horizontal vein�like the external jugular or neck vein when the animal is recumbent�the number of the corpuscles contained in the specimen taken from the lower part of the vein will be found to be much greater than in the specimen taken from the upper part. The number of the corpuscles in the body of a horse is inconceivably great, but they may be counted in small quantities of blood which have been diluted with water, and it has been ascertained that there are no less than five or six millions in a cube -%j inch on the side, which would be represented by a very small drop. In every hundred parts of the red corpuscles there are about seventy parts of water and thirty parts of solids, and if the solids be examined after the water has been evaporated, every hundred parts are found to consist of eighty-eight parts of haemoglobin, ten parts of proteid substance of the nature of globulin, and two parts of lecithin and cholesterin. The haemoglobin then is the most abundant, as it is the most important, constituent of the blood. It is to it that the blood owes its colour, and it possesses several remarkable properties. In the first place, it is one of the prime factors in the process of respiration, being the carrier of oxygen between the air and the tissues, combining with this gas in the lungs, but holding it with so weak a grasp as to surrender it to the tissues during the brief period that it is in proximity with them whilst traversing the more minute or capillary vessels. It is possible, although it has not as yet been proved, that haemoglobin presents similar relations with carbon dioxide, taking up that gas in the tissues, in exchange for the oxygen with which it parts, and permitting its escape at the lungs in exchange for the oxygen it there absorbs. In this case it would serve as a carrier for both oxygen and carbon dioxide, its relations to each gas being governed by the degree of chemical affinity between the haemoglobin and the gas and by the tension of the gas at the moment of exposure to it- Experiment has shown that every ten grains of haemoglobin is able to

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	THE BLOOD	433
	THE BLOOD

absorb about a cubic inch of oxygen gas. Its relation to carbon dioxide is less accurately known. Another peculiarity of haemoglobin is its capa- bility of forming crystals (fig. 185), some of the forms of which are here shown. The shape of these crystals in the horse is prismatic, as is usual in mammals. They are soluble in w^rater. When by various means, such as freezing and again thawing, or by the addition of a little chloroform or ether to fresh blood, the haemoglobin is rendered soluble in the plasma, the blood retains its colour, but becomes transparent like port wine. It is then named laky blood. The chemical composition of haemoglobin is extra- ordinarily complex, one of the latest Observers giving the formula----- Fig. 185.-Crystals of Hemoglobin Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen. Iron and Salts. 712 ... 1130 ... 214 ... 245 ... 2 The coloured corpuscles of the blood are constantly undergoing destruc- tion, whilst new ones take the place of those that disappear. If such a renewal did not occur, every large loss of blood would inflict permanent injury on the animal, whereas experience shows that recovery soon takes place, even from abundant hemorrhage, temporary weakness being followed by perfect restoration to health and strength. As much as a gallon of blood may be withdrawn from the veins of a horse every month for several months together without impairing its health. The seats of formation, or the factories as they may be called, of the coloured corpuscles, appear to be the absorbent glands and their tributaries; the cancellous or spongy tissue in the heads of the long bones; the liver; spleen; thymus and thyroid bodies, and the gland-like tissue forming the sub-mucous coat of the alimentary canal. This difference in their place of origin may account for minor differences observed in the size, form, and colour of both the red and the white corpuscles. As the red corpuscles grow old they seem to enlarge, to lose their coloured contents, and either to break up in the vessels or to be seized upon in the spleen or other organ and consumed by large colourless cells named phagocytes. Additional reasons for believing that their term of life is not a long one are, first, because great numbers of colourless corpuscles, some of which become coloured, are added to the blood after every meal; and, secondly, because if the blood of one animal be injected into the vessels of another,

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		434		HEALTH AND DISEASE

		the corpuscles, if capable of being distinguished, do not long persist in their new host. The white or colourless corpuscles, named also leucocytes and lympho- cytes, are present in the blood in much smaller number than the red. The proportion that they have to each other is not, however, a constant one, owing to the fact just stated, that a large accession to the numbers of the white corpuscles occurs after every meal. In the fasting state there is about one white corpuscle to every fifteen hundred red corpuscles, whilst after food the proportion may rise to one white to three hundred red, or even higher. Perhaps, taking the average, the proportion is about 1:500 or 1:1000. The white corpuscles are spheroidal in form, dotted or granular in aspect, the granules they contain being in some instances coarse, in others fine, indicating in all pro- bability a difference in their place of ori- gin. By the action of various chemical substances a nucleus is brought into view, and sometimes two or three appear with Fig. 186.�Colourless Blood Corpuscles, showing successive changes of outline preat distinctness during a period of ten minutes ^ Their diameter is about ~~as^o~~ inch. Their most remarkable character is the power they possess of undergoing changes of form and of moving from place to place (fig. 186). They act, in fact, as if they were parasites, living in the blood, but not necessarily confined to that medium. If a drop of blood be received upon the warmed stage of a microscope, and evaporation be prevented, they may be seen to exhibit perfectly independent move- ments, thrusting out little processes in this or that direction and with- drawing them again, exactly as an amoeba would do if placed under the same conditions. By this means they are able to pass through the walls of the smaller blood-vessels and then wander freely through the outlying tissues, a process that is termed diapedesis. The small corpuscles known as platelets are flattened, disc-shaped, or irregular particles, in regard to the nature of which little has been ascer- tained. The plasma of the blood, in which the corpuscles are suspended, is a. clear fluid having a specific gravity a little less than that of the corpuscles, which, therefore, when the blood is at rest, have a tendency to fall to the

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THE BLOOD

435

bottom of the vessel. It contains a large proportion of nutritive material
in the form of albuminous constituents, amongst which fibrinogen, serum-
globulin, and serum-albumin are the most important, and it is also the
solvent of many other bodies on their way to the tissues, or which result
from the decay and disintegration of the various organs. Thus sugar,
fats, urea, uric and hippuric acids, cholesterin and lecithin, and many
salts are constant constituents. The following table shows the results
obtained from the analysis of the blood-plasma of the horse by two excel-
lent chemists, No. I being the result obtained by Professor Hoppe Seyler
and No. II that of Professor Hammarsten.

Hoppe Seyler only examined the blood-plasma of one horse; Professor
Hammarsten of three, of which he took the mean.

No. I. No. II.

908-4 ...... 917-6

Solids

Total albuminous bodies

Fibrin ......

Globulin
Serum albumin

Fat .........

Extractives ...
Soluble salts ...
Insoluble salts

91-6 ...... 82-4

77-6 ...... 69-5

10-1 ...... 6-5

� ...... 38-4

� ...... 24-6

1-2^1

1-7 J

The Coagulation of the Blood.�When the blood is withdrawn
from the body, it sets, coagulates, or clots, becoming converted from a fluid
into a jelly. This process occasionally occurs in disease, whilst the blood is
still contained within the vessels. It takes place in different animals with
various degrees of rapidity; thus in the blood of birds less than a minute
suffices to complete the change, while a quarter of an hour or twenty
minutes may elapse before the blood of the horse becomes a solid mass.
Violent muscular efforts made by the animal before the blood is drawn, or
the rapid cooling of the blood, effected by surrounding the vessel into which
it is drawn with ice, retard coagulation almost indefinitely. If the process
of coagulation be carefully watched, it will be seen that on account of the
corpuscles being heavier than the plasma, they sink through that fluid,
tl, eir descent being aided by their disposition to adhere together by their
broad surfaces, forming rouleaux (see fig. 181), and so presenting their
edges to the fluid. The white corpuscles, though heavier than the plasma,
are lighter than the red, and hence form a thin layer on the surface of the
latter, the whole being surmounted by a moderately thick layer of plasma.
Whether this separation of blood into layers have taken place or no, the
whole mass becomes first viscous and then solid, the difference resembling

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	436


that seen in the white of egg before and after boiling, or in gelatine before and after setting. The consistence of the clot is about equal to that of red- currant jelly. After the lapse of a few minutes a further change may be seen. The clot contracts, and minute drops of a clear fluid begin to exude from the surface. This is the separation of the serum from the clot; and, as the contraction continues for many hours, the clot is ultimately covered and surrounded by a layer of clear fluid of considerable depth. When the separation of the freshly-drawn blood into three layers has taken place, the contraction of the upper layer of plasma, being unhindered by the presence of corpuscles, causes the upper surface to be much depressed in the centre, and its colour being yellowish, such clot is spoken of as being " buffed and cupped ". It is, of course, not observed when clotting has taken place too quickly for the corpuscles to sink through the plasma. Coagulation of the blood is believed to result from the breaking up into two parts of a proteid substance named fibrinogen, naturally existing in solution in the plasma. One of these parts is a globulin which, under the influence of a ferment existing in the white corpuscles, remains in solution; the other is fibrin, which immediately solidifies, forming a delicate net-work in the meshes of which the corpuscles are entangled, and which, subsequently contracting, squeezes out the serum. The calcium salts also play an important part in the process. THE MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION The blood, the characters of which have just been considered, circulates through the body by the agency of the heart and blood-vessels. The heart is a portion of the vascular system, consisting of a compact but hollow mass of muscle that acts rhythmically as a pump, and, owing to the presence of valves suitably placed, drives the blood in one constant direction through the body. It is placed in the thorax or chest, and is protected from injury by the breast-bone and the firm but elastic ribs and spine, and also owing to its being enveloped to a large extent by the spongy tissue of the lungs. It is enclosed in a tough membranous bag named the pericardium, lined internally by a serous membrane, the smooth and polished surfaces of which, moistened with the fluid they secrete, reduce friction to a minimum. The general course pursued by the blood is from the heart, through the arteries and their ramifications, named capillaries, onward to the veins, by which it is again conducted to the heart. Although in appearance single, the heart is really a double organ, the two parts being united for the sake of economy of space and material, and also to enable them to work eqjably and simultaneously-

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		THE MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION
		THE MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION	437
			437

	One of these hearts, the right, forces the blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, from whence, by the pulmonary veins, it returns to the left heart. The right heart is therefore called the pulmonary heart,

^aid is the effective agent in the lesser or pulmonary circulation. The left heart is by far the stronger of the two hearts, and drives the blood through the aorta and its branches over the system at large, from whence t is returned to the right heart by two large veins (venae cavae). Hence

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		438		HEALTH AND DISEASE

	it has been named the systemic heart, and is the main agent in effecting the greater or systemic circulation. The right heart forces dark or venous blood, charged with carbon dioxide, through the lungs, where, becoming aerated by losing that gas and absorbing oxygen, it returns to the left heart as bright or arterial blood, and is distributed to the body generally. The heart as a whole weighs about 7 lbs. Its length is about 10 inches, and its width at the base about 7 or 8 inches. It is of conical form, the base being directed to the spine. The capacity of each cavity is estimated to be about lj pint. The heart is composed of a form of muscular tissue intermediate between the striated and unstriated. The

			Figs. 189 and 190.�Diagrammatic Views of the Heart, showing Valves open and closed

A, Pulmonary Artery, b, Posterior Vena Cava, c, Anterior Vena Cava. B.A., Eight Auricle. * Auriculo- Ventricular Opening (open in the first figure and closed in the second). R.v., Right Ventricle. ■»�► Course of Blood. s.v., Semilunar Valves (closed in the first figure, open in the second). external or superficial layers run obliquely over both ventricles; the inner or deeper layers are confined to the right and left ventricles respectively- Each heart presents two cavities, an upper one, named the auricle, and a lower one, named the ventricle; so that there are two auricles and two ventricles, or four cavities in all. The right auricle receives the two venae cavse or large systemic veins above, and opens by a wide orifice into the right ventricle below, the aperture being guarded by the tricuspid valve. From the upper part of the right ventricle the pul- monary artery arises, the orifice of which is also guarded by the three semilunar valves. A similar arrangement exists on the left side. The pulmonary veins have no valves. They open into the left auricle above, and this communicates by a large orifice, guarded by the bicuspid valve, with the left ventricle below. From the left ventricle arises the aort»>

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THE MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION

439

the orifice of which is also guarded by three semilunar or sigmoid
valves.

The heart of the horse beats in health about forty times in the minute.
The order of succession in the contraction is that the two auricles beat
simultaneously, and then the two ventricles. Then there is a pause. The
duration of the contraction is nearly the same as the pause. The con-
traction of the heart is named the systole. During the systole the whole
heart becomes shorter and more conical in form, and twists a little upon
its long axis towards the right. This contraction of the heart commences
above at the opening of the great veins, which, being here surrounded
by muscular bands, nearly close, and thus greatly impede, but do not
altogether prevent, the backward
flow of the blood from the heart
into the venous system. From
the great veins a wave of con-
traction instantly spreads over the
auricles, driving the blood they
contain through the auriculo-
ventricular valves into the ven-
tricles, which, already containing
a little blood that has gravitated
into them, are now distended to
the utmost. There is no appreci
able interval between the contrac-

tion of the auricles and that of
the ventricles, but the wave of
contraction continuing, without

Fig. 191.�Section of the Heart, showing the Valvular
Apparatus

A, Aorta. B, Pulmonary Artery, c, Mitral Valve.
D, Tricuspid Valve.

stay or stop, to spread from the
auricles, makes the ventricles close upon their contents. The first effect
of this is to raise the auriculo-ventricular valves and approximate their
edges, and thus to prevent any return of blood into the auricles. The
next is to propel the blood contained by the ventricles into the pulmonary
artery and the aorta, for distribution through the lungs in the one case and
over the general system in the other. In so doing the blood forces open
the semilunar and sigmoid valves in these vessels and compels the whole
mass of blood to move onwards. But as the column of blood resting on
the valves just before they are forced open is quiescent, a brief period is
required to overcome its inertia, and a remarkable provision against the
J&r that would otherwise be felt through the body, from the vigour and
suddenness of the heart's systole, is found in the elasticity of the coats
°f the large vessels. Whilst, then, a part of the heart's force drives the

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	440	HEALTH AND DISEASE

blood forwards, a part is expended in dilating the arteries. As soon as the contraction is completed, relaxation immediately follows, and the heart passes into the state of commencing dilatation. The great vessels into which the blood has been forced now retract, and the first effect is to close the semilunar valves, and thus to prevent the return of the blood into the ventricles, whilst the next is to compel the onward move- ment of the blood in the vessels; the elastic reaction of the stretched walls restoring to the circulation during the diastole the force temporarily borrowed from the heart. The wave which is produced by the injection of blood into the vessels when the heart contracts is the pulse, but the closure of the semilunar valves is so sudden, and follows so immediately upon the contraction, that a reflex wave from the valves succeeds the main systolic wave and forms a part of the pulse. This is known as the dicrotic wave. If the ear be applied to the chest two sounds may be heard to accom- pany the action of the heart; the first is dull and prolonged, the second is shorter, sharper, and ends abruptly. The first sound owes its origin mainly to the sudden tension of the auriculo-ventricular valves in the right and left hearts, but is almost certainly intensified by the muscular sound of the contracting ventricles. The second sound is exclusively due to the sudden tension of the aortic sigmoid, and pulmonary semilunar valves which guard the orifices of the aorta and pulmonary artery respectively. Both sounds are therefore valvular, and any rent, or inequality, or imper- fection in the valves, permitting the blood to flow in the wrong direction, or causing friction, as in heart disease, causes alteration in the characters of the sounds easily recognized by the practised ear. The frequency of the beats of the heart is increased by exercise, by food, and by mental emotions. They are more frequent in the morning than at night, in the young than in the old, and in the female as compared with the male. The Nerves of the Heart.�The heart continues to beat in an orderly and regular manner even when quite removed from the body, and in the process of development the speck which represents it in the young begins to beat rhythmically long before any nerves are formed. These circumstances show that its action is to a large extent independent of the great centres of the nervous system, whilst on the other hand the readiness with which the heart responds to disturbing conditions of the general system, in regard alike to the frequency and the strength of its beats, clearly indicates that it is under the control of certain nerves which can be demonstrated by anatomical as well as by physiological evidence to have intimate relations with it. The nerves distributed to the heart are derived from the spinal cord and medulla oblongata, as well as from

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			THE MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION 441

		the sympathetic nerve. They have been divided into the accelerating and the restraining or inhibitory nerves. The accelerating nerves leave the spinal cord at the fore part of the dorsal region, and pass to the first dorsal ganglion of the great sympathetic chain, and after a short course are distributed to the heart. Stimulation of these branches causes the heart to beat more frequently. The inhibitory or restraining nerves of the heart are derived from the medulla oblongata, and run in the vagus nerve. Their peculiarity is that, instead of causing contraction of the muscle to which they are distributed, they induce relaxation, so that when stimulated they stop the heart in diastole, that is, in a condition of relaxation; whilst when less strongly stimulated they cause it to beat more slowly. The effect is not, however, persistent, for even if the vagal branches continue to be strongly stimu- lated, the heart after a time recommences to beat more quickly and more strongly than before. The administration of belladonna, or of its active principle atropine, prevents the inhibitory effect from manifesting itself when the vagus is stimulated, and a similar action is exerted by curara and by nicotine. On the other hand, muscarin, a poison obtained from a mushroom (Amanita muscaria), seems to stimulate or intensify the inhibitory influence. The heart is in unceasing movement day and night. Yet it has, like other muscles, its period of rest; for expenditure of force is only taking place during contraction, which occupies about one-half of the whole cycle of its action. It differs, therefore, from the ordinary muscles that are under the control of the will only in the circumstance that, instead of long spells of greater or less activity occurring alternately with the complete rest of sleep, its periods of work and rest have only short intermissions. The force it exerts is immense. If we estimate that the quantity of blood driven out of the left ventricle at each contraction is the low amount of 1 pint or pound, and that it is raised about 10 feet, which represents the blood pressure, the work done is 10 foot-pounds per beat. Taking the number of beats at 40 per minute, we have 400 lbs. raised 1 foot per minute, or 1 lb. raised 400 feet. If this be multiplied by the number of minutes in an hour, and of hours in the day, the surprising number of 576,000 foot-pounds, or more than 257 foot-tons, raised in twenty-four hours is obtained, which represents the work done by the left ventricle. The work of the right ventricle is estimated at one-third of this amount. The duration of one complete circulation of all the blood is about 27 seconds. The Blood-vessels.�The first vessels into which the blood is driven by the beat of the heart are the arteries. These are tubes which conduct Vol. I 30

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	442 HEALTH AND DISEASE it from the heart to all parts of the body. Of large size where they commence, the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle and the aorta from the left ventricle, they divide and subdivide almost always at an acute angle till they terminate in the capillaries. They possess three tunics or coats. The outer one, sometimes named the adventitia, is thin, strong, and resistant, and is composed of connective tissue, with some elastic fibres; in it run the small vessels and nerves which supply the walls of the vessels themselves. The middle coat differs according to whether a large or a small artery is under observation. In the larger arteries it is chiefly composed of elastic fibres, with a few unstriped muscular fibres interspersed amongst them. In the smaller arteries the elastic tissue becomes progres- sively less and less marked as they diminish in size, being replaced by the muscular tissue, which at last forms almost the whole thickness of the middle coat, the fibres for the most part running in a circular direc- tion. The internal coat is composed of a sheet of elastic tissue with large apertures in it. It is lined by a layer of flat, endo- thelial cells, which are therefore in contact with the current of blood traversing the vessels. The nerves of the arteries form net-works in the substance of the vessel

		Fig. 192. �Transverse Section through a small Artery and Vein	wall. The several coats of the arteries

				endow them with strength to enable them

A, Artery. V, Vein, a, Endothelial Cells with Nuclei. b, Elastic Layer of Tunica Intima. c, Tunica Media, d, Nuclei of its Muscular Fibres, e, Tunica Adventitia, show- ing Connective-tissue Fibres and Corpuscles.
			to resist the pressure of the blood, and also with elasticity and contractility. The elas- ticity is best marked in the large arteries,


the contractility in the smaller ones. Both properties fulfil very important purposes. With each beat of the heart a pint or more of blood is suddenly injected into each of the great arteries. The shock and jar that this would produce through the entire system is almost entirely abolished by the great elasticity of the walls of the pulmonary artery and aorta. These vessels yield, and, greatly widening, receive the new column of blood with facility. But on the instant of the heart ceasing to deliver the last drop of its contents, they immediately recoil. The first effect of the recoil is to close the semilunar valves, the next to cause the blood to move onwards and distend the next part of the artery in front. This having expanded, though to &

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	THE MECHANISM OF THE CIBCULATION
	THE MECHANISM OF THE CIBCULATION	443
		443

less degree (for part of the blood in the arteries is escaping into the capillaries), now retracts on the blood within it, and as the arteries at each division present a larger area, and therefore a broader stream, whilst more and more blood is entering the great capillary sea, the inter- rupted current observed in the larger vessels, due to the intermittent action of the heart, is gradually converted in the smaller vessels into a uniform, steady, and continuous stream. Thus the pulse, which is very perceptible in the larger vessels, becomes imperceptible in the smaller ones. Subsidiary purposes for which the elasticity is useful are that it enables the limbs to be freely bent and stretched and otherwise moved without risk of rupture. It also enables the arteries to accommodate themselves to the considerable variations that occur in the absolute quantity of blood in the system. Lastly, the elasticity of the vessels reduces the chances of death by hemorrhage, partly by retracting the cut artery in its sheath, and partly by diminishing its calibre. The elas- ticity of the vessels is not a new or active force in effecting the circulation; it is passive, and represents the stored-up energy of the heart, which, during contraction, is expended in dilating the large vessels, and is given out again by them during the period of quiescence or relaxation of the heart. The Pulse.�The pulse is the wave-like movement which traverses the arteries with each beat of the heart, and which is perceived when a vessel is slightly compressed with the fingers against an unyielding surface. The arteries, in health, are always distended with blood, as shown by the spurt which takes place when one is divided, and when a fresh quantity "is injected into it by the heart. The Contractility Of the Arteries, unlike the property of elasticity, is feebly marked in the larger trunks and their primary branches, whilst it becomes more conspicuous in the smaller vessels. It is the means by which the supply of blood to the several organs is regulated in accordance with their condition of activity or repose. To take an example amongst many that might be given, the stomach during fasting receives a supply of blood sufficient to minister to the nutrition of the tissues of which its walls are composed. The vessels in this condition are contracted, and the colour of the organ is a pale pink; but after a hearty meal, when the process of diges- tion is in course of active performance, when gastric juice is being poured forth and absorption is proceeding, a much larger supply of blood is needed. Under the influence of certain (dilatator) nerves, by means of which the muscular tissue of the wall of the vessels is caused to relax, their calibre enlarges, a freer current of blood passes through them, and the whole organ becomes congested and of a deep rose-red hue. When the digestive process

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			444 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		is completed, and the blood-supply is no longer required, the contractility of the vascular walls comes into play again under the influence of another set of nerves (constrictor), chiefly proceeding from the sympathetic system. The vessels now contract, the mucous membrane becomes pallid, secretion and absorption cease, and the organ resumes its normal condition in the fasting state. A similar succession of events may be observed in every organ of the body that undergoes variations in functional activity, as in the brain during mental effort, and in the muscles during exercise. Blood Pressure.�That when the skin is cut the blood spurts out is a proof that it is subject to pressure within the vessels. The Rev. Stephen Hales, the rector of Faringdon in Hampshire, was the first, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, to estimate what the degree of that pressure is in the living animal, and the animal he selected was the horse. He caused a mare to be tied down on her back, opened the main artery of the thigh, inserted into it a brass pipe the bore of which was ^ inch in diameter, and to this, by means of another brass pipe, which was accurately adapted to it, he fixed a glass tube, of nearly the same diameter, which was 9 feet in length. On untying the ligature previously placed on the artery, he observed the blood to rise in the tube 8 feet 3 inches perpendicular above the level of the left ventricle of the heart. This experiment was an original and a highly instructive one. It has often been repeated, not only in the horse, but in many other animals. The result of many observations has been to show that the pressure of the blood in the vessels is equal to that of a column of mercury 150 to 200 millimetres, or from 6 to 8 inches in height. But Hales pushed his experiment a step farther. He proceeded to investigate the effects of loss of blood on the general blood pressure. He measured the blood as it ran out of the artery, and after each quart of blood had escaped he refixed the glass tube to the artery " to see how much the force of the blood was abated ". This he repeated to the eighth quart, and then, its force being much lowered, he applied the glass tube after each pint had flowed out. He noted several remarkable circumstances. First, that as each quart of blood was removed the blood pressure sank consider- ably, but after the lapse of a minute, more or less, it again began to rise, and although it did not rise to its original level, yet it ultimately attained, on each occasion, a level higher than that to which it had previously fallen- This, there can be no reasonable doubt, was mainly due to the vessels accommodating themselves by virtue of their elasticity and their con- tractility to the reduced volume of their contents. Again, it was found- that the decrease in the blood pressure was not strictly proportionable to the quantity of blood withdrawn; indeed, it sometimes rose above the level attained during the previous emission, which was probably due to variations

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	THE MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION	445
	THE MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION

in the degree of contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the walls of the vessels, and in the strength of the contraction of the heart. The blood pressure immediately rose when the animal strained its muscles to get loose �an effect that was due to the muscular contractions, especially those of the abdominal muscles, forcing much blood towards the heart. In this cele- brated experiment about a quart of blood was lost in making the several trials, and Hales estimated that about 17 quarts were lost in all before the animal died. Taking into account the blood that was obtained from the vessels after death, he considered that 44 lbs. was a low estimate of the total quantity of blood in the horse. The cause of the blood pressure is twofold. On the one hand the heart is always engaged in driving into the vessels, which are already distended, or more than full, an additional quantity of blood; and on the other the current of the blood experiences great resistance to its onward passage in the smaller vessels, owing to their reduced diameter and the great friction that it consequently experiences in traversing them. The blood pressure would be much greater than it is were it not that, owing to the large number of the capillary vessels, the channel is greatly increased, the united area of the capillaries having been estimated to be eight hundred times greater than that of the aorta. The rate of movement of the blood through the arteries is estimated to be about 1 foot 8 inches per second. Prevention of Death by Hemorrhage.�Several circumstances concur to prevent the loss of life that would certainly occur, owing to the fluidity of the blood, when even a small vessel is divided. The first and most important of these is the almost complete closure of the opening of the tube by the contraction of the muscular tissue forming its walls. This tissue, as has been already stated, is most abundant in the small vessels which are chiefly exposed to such injuries. The closure of the. vessel is of course aided by the elastic coat, which, being less and less distended, recoils as the blood pressure falls with the escape of blood from the system. Then the arteries are enclosed by a loose sheath, and when cut their proper walls retract to a considerable distance within it, leaving a narrow and tortuous passage, which impedes the exit of the blood. Again, the innermost coat of the artery is highly elastic, and has a tendency, when divided, to roll up within the artery, and thus to form a kind of valve, which is an additional obstacle to the escape of the blood. The coagulation of the blood of course plays an important part in arresting hemorrhage; a clot speedily forms in the loose tissue near the arterial or venous wound, which gradually stops up the opening and forms a plug for some distance up the vessel. Moreover, when much blood has been lost

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	446	HEALTH AND DISEASE

the heart beats more rapidly, indeed, but much more feebly; and with faint- ness and loss of consciousness the current of blood almost ceases. Finally, the convulsions that are the precursors of death drive the few remaining drops to the heart, and, by stimulating it to contract, afford the last chance of life being preserved. The Capillaries.�As the arteries proceed to the proper tissues of the body, they divide and subdivide till they are no longer visible to the un- assisted eye, and they finally break up into minute vessels named capillaries, the size of which is tolerably uniform for each organ. These communicate freely with each other and form a mesh or web, the arrangement of which presents variations corresponding to the structure of the organ in which they exist, being ladder-like in muscle, tuft-like in the kidney, and basket- like round the lobules of fat and of glands. The wall of the capillaries is formed of a delicate basement membrane with a lining of flattened cells (endothelium), or even of the cells alone. Through this thin wall the white corpuscles of the blood seem to be able to bore without leaving any rent behind them, just as a needle may be thrust through the wall of a soap-bubble and withdrawn without causing the bubble to burst. The corpuscles then become free, and can move about in the interspaces of the adjoining tissues; but whether they die there or re- enter the vessels is unknown. This process, in which the white corpuscles pass out of the vessels, is named diapedesis. The current of blood is not always the same in the same capillary vessel, the direction being dependent upon the increase of pressure behind, that is, on the arterial side, or the relief of pressure in front or on the venous side. In examining the circula- tion in the capillaries it will be seen that they are not large enough in many parts to admit two coloured corpuscles abreast, and they consequently follow each other in single file; but in the somewhat larger vessels the red corpuscles occupy the centre of the stream, whilst the white corpuscles roll lazily along at the margin in close contact with the inner surface of the wall of the vessel. It is in the play of the fluids within and without the capillary vessels that an important part of the processes of nutrition is transacted, the blood surrendering to the fluid which moistens their external wall the soluble materials for the nutrition of the tissues, whilst it takes up from that fluid the soluble products of the degeneration and decay of the tissues. The capillaries of the lungs are very large, and form a close net-work. Those of the brain are minute and less close. The average diameter of the capillaries may be taken to be & little larger than the diameter of the corpuscles of the blood of the same animal. The pressure of the blood in the capillaries is considerable, being capable of supporting a column of mercury about 1 inch in height. The

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	THE MECHANISM OF THE CIECULATION
		447


blood flows through them at the rate of about one twenty-fifth of an inch in a second. The veins have thinner walls than the arteries, are more numerous than they, and have much greater capacity, containing, according to the estimate of Haller, about twice as much blood. They communicate with each other by large branches very frequently in their passage to the heart, and in structure very much resemble the arteries. The principal instance where veins do not convey the blood directly to the heart is the great portal vein, which conducts the blood from the intestines to the liver, and there breaks up into a second system of capillaries, which unite together again to form the hepatic vein; a similar arrangement occurs in the case of the kidney. In the veins of the neck and limbs, however, differences are found in the form of numerous valves, usually arranged in pairs, and at tolerably regular distances from each other. These valves are composed of a reflexion of the inner coat, strengthened with some connective-tissue fibres, and near their base have also a small amount of involuntary muscle. The function discharged by the veins is to convey the blood back to the heart. The veins collectively, though there are a few exceptions, convey the blood to the heart, and run side by side with the arteries after which they are named. The radial artery is thus accompanied by the radial vein or veins, the brachial artery by the brachial veins. There are often two or more veins to one artery. The veins are more exposed than the arteries, as is seen in those of the neck, face, body, and limbs. Their capacity is greater than that of the arteries, and the blood flows through them with a uniform and continuous current, but more slowly, the velocity of the current being about 1 foot per second. They communicate freely with one another, and hence obstruction in any one vein is of less importance than in the case of an artery, since the flow of blood hindered or arrested in one channel of the former easily finds escape by another. The Chief Arteries and Veins.�We may now, with advantage, take a short survey of the chief vessels that have their origin in the heart, and which are engaged in the distribution of the blood through the system. The large arteries rarely join each other as do the veins, and the blood which traverses them always pursues the same direction. The capillaries, on the other hand, freely anastomose or unite together, and the blood they contain sometimes runs in one, sometimes in the opposite direction, through them; and as many arteries open into the same capillary net-work, this arrangement effectively prevents the serious consequences that would result in the case of obstruction or division of an artery, unless, indeed, the artery injured is a very large one, and is the parent trunk of the several arteries which open into the same capillary plexus. If, for

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	448


example, the aorta in a rabbit is tied above its division into the two iliacs, thus depriving the lower limbs of their whole supply of blood, the legs soon begin to drag, and become permanently paralysed, though even then, if the limbs are kept warm and preserved from injury, by placing the animal on cotton-wool, a secondary circulation through collateral vessels above and below the point of ligature may in course of time become estab- lished, and the power and action of the limb be restored. The pulmonary artery is a great trunk which arises from the upper and left side of the right ventricle. Its orifice is guarded by three semilunar valves (fig. 191, d), which are forced open at each contraction of the heart, but close during its relaxation, and then completely prevent the return of the blood into the right ventricle. It conducts the blood to the lungs, and after a short course divides beneath the trachea into a right and left branch, which accompany the respective bronchi to the lungs, where they break up into many branches, and terminate in the capillary net-work that surrounds the alveoli or air-cells. The pulmonary artery conveys impure or venous blood to be aerated at the lungs from whence it is returned, charged with oxygen and freed from carbon dioxide, by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle. Just before the pulmonary artery divides, an oblique cord (fig. 187, da) runs from it to the posterior aorta. This is an obliterated blood-vessel named the "ductus arteriosus Botalli", which before birth transmitted the impure venous blood mainly returning from the head and fore extremities to the trunk and hind-limbs. Immediately after birth, and as a result of the change in the circulation and the entrance of air into the lungs, this vessel ceases to convey blood and undergoes atrophy, becoming an impervious band. DISTRIBUTION OF THE SYSTEMIC ARTEKIES Excepting as regards the lungs, all the arteries distributed over the system have their origin in the aorta (fig. 193). This vessel, the largest in the body, arises from the base of the heart, where it is continuous with the left ventricle, from which it is separated by the semilunar valves. It receives the blood discharged from that cavity at each contraction. The Aorta is a very capacious but short vessel, measuring only from 2 to 3 inches in length. After leaving the ventricle it soon divides into two unequal parts�the anterior and the posterior aortse; but before doing so it gives off two vessels, whose branches enter the substance of the heart for the nourishment of its tissue. These are the right and left coronary arteries. Anterior Aorta.�This vessel, the smaller of the divisions of the

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	DISTEIBUTION OF ARTERIES�I

		Anterior Mesenteric Artery

				1. Posterior aorta. 2. Anterior division of anterior mesen- teric artery. 3. Right division of anterior mesenteric artery. 4. Artery of the arch of the csecum. 5. Superior csecal artery. 6. Ilio-cascal artery. 7. Bunch of arteries to small intestine 8. First artery to single colon. 9. Right colic artery. 10. Left or retrograde colic artery.
a. First part of colon. b. Suprasternal flexure. c. Second part of colon. d. Pelvic flexure. E. Third part of colon. F. Diaphragmatic flexure. 0. Fourth part of colon. h. Caecum. i. Ilium. j. Great mesentery, K. Small intestine. 1. Duodenum. Arteries of Stomach, 1. Left lobe of liver. 2. Middle lobe of liver. 3. Right lobe of liver. 4. Vena porta. 5. Hepatic artery. 6. Right sac of stomach. 7. Left sac of stomach. 8. Gastric splenic omentum. 9. Anterior gastric artery. 10. Posterior gastric artery. 11. Gastric artery. 12. Right gastro-omental artery 13. Left gastro-omeutal artery 14. Spleen. 15. Splenic artery. 16. Pyloric artery. 17. Duodenal artery.

			Spleen, Liver, Kidneys, &c. 18. Duodenum. 19. Right kidney. 20. Suprarenal capsule. 21. Right renal artery. 22. Ureter. 23. Left kidney. 24. Left renal artery. 25. Left suprarenal capsule. 26. Left ureter. 27. Anterior mesenteric artery. 28. Cceliac axis. 29. Posterior aorta. 30. 30. Circumflex iliac arteries. 31. 31. External iliac arteries. 32. 32. Internal iliac arteries. 33. Posterior vena cava.

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		Arteries to stomach, spleen, liver, kidneys, &c.
Anterior mesenteric artery.


	DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES�1

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	DISTRIBUTION OF THE SYSTEMIC ARTERIES
		449


common aorta, is about 2 to 2\ inches in length. On leaving its parent trunk it passes in a forward direction beneath the trachea or windpipe, and soon divides into two unequal branches, one passing to the right and the other to the left. The right one is the arteria innominata, and the left one the axillary artery. The right branch is much the larger of the two, for in addition to giving blood to the fore-limb and the anterior part of the trunk, like its fellow, it also supplies the head by means of a large branch, the cephalic artery. Each of these vessels, on leaving the anterior aorta, gives off eight branches of considerable size, as follows:� 1. Dorsal. 5. External Thoracic. 2. Superior Cervical. 6. Inferior Cervical. 3. Vertebral. 7. Supra-scapular. 4. Internal Thoracic. 8. Subscapular. These vessels divide and subdivide in their course, and furnish blood to the withers, the neck, the shoulders, and the walls of the chest. The vertebral artery requires special notice, inasmuch as it courses along the neck, partly enclosed in small bony canals in the transverse processes of the six anterior cervical vertebrae. In its course it supplies many branches to the deep cervical muscles, and others which enter the spinal canal and are distributed to the spinal cord. After giving off the arteries above-named, the axillary descends along the inner aspect of the upper arm, where it takes the name of the brachial or humeral artery. Brachial or Humeral Artery.�This vessel descends on the inner aspect of the humerus and distributes branches to the muscles of the upper arm and other adjacent structures, the larger and more important of which a,re� 1. Prehumeral, or Anterior Circumflex. 3. Ulnar. 2. Deep Humeral, or Humeralis Profunda. 4. Artery of the Biceps. On nearing the upper extremity of the radius or forearm the humeral artery divides into two unequal branches, the anterior and posterior radials: one, the smaller anterior radial, passes in a forward direction, and after distributing several small vessels to the extensor muscles, courses its way down the front of the leg as far as the knee, to which it furnishes numerous small branches. The Posterior Radial, much more voluminous than the anterior, descends on the inner side of the radius or forearm, where it is covered by the flexor metacarpi internus muscle. In its course along the limb the posterior radial gives off branches to the elbow-joint, the flexor and extensor muscles, the skin, and also to the knee-joint. On reaching

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

450

the latter it divides into two: (1.) The small Metacarpal Artery. (2.) The

large Metacarpal Artery. The former,
superficially placed at first on the
inner side of the knee, dips clown
behind the head of the canon-bone.
It crosses to the outer side by pass-
ing between the suspensory and the
subcarpal ligament. Here it anasto-
moses with a branch from the supra-
carpal arch to form the subcarpal
arch, which then proceeds to give off
the anterior and posterior interosseous
arteries, which supply blood to the
structures behind and in front of the
canon-bone, to the bone itself, to its
periosteum or covering, and to the

5-fe

flexor tendons.

The large metacarpal artery de-
scends on the inner side and some-
what in front of the flexor tendons
until it reaches the sesamoid bones,
where it divides into two parts, the
internal and external digital arteries.
These vessels pursue a downward
course over the fetlock-joint, giving
off branches before and behind to
the tissues in the region of the pas-
tern, and finally, entering the foot,

Fig. 193.�Diagram of Circulation

A, A, Posterior Vena Cava. B, Anterior Vena Cava.
C, Pulmonary Artery. D, Hepatic Veins. E, Vena
Porta. F, Renal Vein. R, Spermatic Vein.

H, Posterior Mesenteric Vein. ² Pulmonary Vein.

² Anterior Aorta. ³, ⁴ Posterior Aorta. ⁵ Splenic
Artery. ⁶ Hepatic Artery. ⁷ Gastric Artery.

⁸ Anterior Mesenteric Artery. ⁹ Renal Artery.

¹⁰ Spermatic Artery. ⁿ Posterior Mesenteric Artery.
L.K., Left Kidney, r.k., Right Kidney. DIA., Dia-
phragm. E.L., Right Lung. L.L., Left Lung.
E.V., Right Ventricle. L.v., Left Ventricle.
stom. , Stomach. sp., Spleen.

they break up into a number of
vessels and supply the frog, the coro-
nary cushion, the sensitive laminae,,
the coffin-bone, and other parts con-
tained within the hoof. This artery
is situated between the plantar nerve
behind and the internal metacarpal
vein in front.

Cephalic Artery.�This vessel,

as we have previously pointed out,
is a branch of the right axillary and runs forward beneath the trachea
until it reaches the entrance to the chest, where it divides into a right
and left carotid artery.

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		DISTRIBUTION OF THE SYSTEMIC ABTEEIES 451 Carotid Arteries.�These vessels ascend the neck, one on the right and the other on the left side of the trachea, in company with two important nerves, the vago-sympathetic and the recurrent. On reaching the larynx, they each divide into three vessels�the external carotid, the internal carotid, and the occipital. 1. The External Carotid supplies on each side the external parts of the head. It runs beneath the parotid gland, behind the angle of the jaw, and distributes its branches to the muscles of mastication, the submaxillary and sublingual salivary glands, the tongue, the -palate, the pharynx, the lips, the ear, the teeth of the upper and lower jaw, and parts of the eye and membranes of the brain. 2. The Internal Carotid ascends on the outer side of the guttural pouch and enters an opening (Foramen lacerurn) at the base of the skull; while on the floor of the cranium it unites by a cross branch with its fellow on the opposite side, and forms with it an arterial circle (Circle of Willis). It sends branches upward into the substance of the brain at different points, and thus ministers to its nourishment. The chief vessels of the brain are: The Anterior Cerebral. Middle Cerebral. Anterior Communica- ting. Posterior Cerebral. Posterior Communicating. Anterior Cerebellar. Posterior Cerebellar. 3. Occipital Artery.�This artery, given off by the carotid, is the third division. It passes up to the atlas or first bone of the neck, and after giving off the retrograde, mastoid and occipito-muscular branches to the small muscles of the poll, enters the spinal canal by an opening in the first vertebra, and divides into the cerebro-spinal and occipito-muscular branches. The former on entering the spinal canal divides into two branches, one passing backwards along the spinal cord, and the other, going into the cranium, joins with its fellow on the opposite side to form the basilar. Posterior Aorta. � This is a large vessel of considerable length situated immediately beneath the spine, along which it runs from the seventh or eighth dorsal vertebra as far back as the sacrum. It is the largest division of the common aorta, and in the first part of its course describes an arch backward, termed the aortic arch. The anterior portion of the vessel is situated within the chest, and is hence distinguished as the thoracic aorta, while the posterior segment occupies the abdomen, and is known as the abdominal aorta. It is, however, one continuous vessel, and these different terms are only used to denote its anatomical relations. As it proceeds backwards it passes from the chest into the abdomen through the hiatus aorticus, an opening between the two pillars of the diaphragm. The posterior aorta in its course beneath the spine gives off a number

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	452	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	452

of branches, some of which are distributed to the walls of the chest and abdomen, while others go to the various organs they contain. The former set include: (l) 13 posterior intercostal vessels, which run downward between the ribs and give off branches upward to the muscles of the back and to the spinal cord. The first intercostal artery is derived from the superior cervical artery; the second, third, and fourth from the subcostal branch of the dorsal. (2) The phrenic, a branch going to the diaphragm or midriff. (3) Branches to the muscles of the loins. The second group comprise: (1) The bronchial arteries to the air-tubes and oesophagus or gullet. (2) The cseliac short thick vessel, which, after leaving the under surface of the aorta, divides into three unequal branches ^ _The _Spi_enic ^ _The Gastric. (c) The Hepatic The first goes to the spleen, the second to the stomach, and the third to the liver. A little farther back it gives off (3) the great mesenteric artery, a short vessel of considerable size, whose branches are distributed to the large and small intestines. The next to appear are (4) the renal arteries, two short thick vessels, which spring from the sides of the aorta and enter the substance of the kidney. Still farther back come (5) the spermatic vessels. These arteries, two in number, are of considerable length, and take a peculiar winding course downward to reach the testicles. In the female the uterine and ovarian arteries spring from this point, and, as their names imply, supply the uterus and the ovaries. Then comes the small mesenteric, whose branches are distributed to the posterior part of the large bowel, which is not supplied by the large mesenteric. Finally, the posterior aorta divides into two pairs of vessels, one pair going to the right and the other to the left. These are distinguished as� 1. The Internal Iliac Arteries. 2. The External Iliac Arteries. The Internal Iliac Artery breaks up into several divisions, which convey blood to the organs within the pelvis�the bladder, rectum, prostate gland, as w^rell as parts of the uterus and vagina in the female and the penis in the male. They are: (l) the two last lumbar arteries; (2) the internal pudic artery; (3) the lateral sacral artery; (4) the ilio-lumbar artery; (5) the gluteal artery; (6) the ilio-femoral artery; (7) the obturator artery. The External Iliac Artery, on leaving the aorta, runs down the inner side of the pelvis in an oblique direction backwards and outwards. On reaching the anterior border of the pubis it enters the thigh and takes the name of the femoral artery. In its course it gives off the circumflex iliac artery, which is distributed to the flank and to the thigh. A small

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DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES�II

Arteries of Male Pelvis

1. Retractor penis.

2. Suspensory ligament of rectum.

3. Sphincter ani.

4. Rectum.

5. Vesiculse seminales.

6. Urinary bladder.

7. Ureters.

8. Prostate gland.

9. Cowper's gland.

10. Vesico-prostatic artery.

11. Erector penis.

12. Suspensory ligament of penis.

13. Penis.

14. Posterior dorsal artery of penis.

15. Anterior dorsal artery of penis.

16. Vas deferens.

17. Epididymis.

18. Testicle.

19. Spermatic artery.

20. Subcutaneous abdominal artery.

21. External pudic artery.

22. Posterior abdominal artery.

23. Deep femoral artery.

24. Prepubic artery.

25. Obturator artery.

26. Umbilical artery.

27. Posterior aorta.

28. Second last lumbar artery.

29. Internal iliac artery.

30. Last lumbar artery.

31. Lateral sacral artery.

32. Gluteal artery. -

33. Ueo-femoral artery.

34. Internal pudic artery.

35. Artery of the corpus cavernosum.

36. External iliac artery.

Arteries of the Brain

1. Anterior cerebral artery.

2. Middle cerebral arteries.

3. Anterior communicating arteries.

4. Internal carotid arteries.

5. Posterior communicating arteries.

6. Posterior cerebral arteries.

7. Bifurcation of basilar artery.

8. Anterior cerebellar arteries.

9. Basilar artery.

10. Posterior cerebellar arteries.

11. Cerebral branches of cerebro-spinal

artery.

a. Cerebral hemispheres.

B. Cerebellum,

c. Olfactory bulb.

D. Optic commissure.

e. Pituitary body.

F. Corpus albicans.

G. Olfactory tract.
H. Crura cerebri.
I. Pons varolii.

j. Medulla oblongata.

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			Arteries of the male pelvis

		Arteries of the brain DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES-II

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			DISEASES OF THE HEART 453

		branch goes to the spermatic cord, which in the mare goes to the uterus, and the prepubic artery, a vessel which divides into the posterior abdominal and the external pudic arteries. The Femoral Artery extends from the os pubis above to the lower part of the femur, where its name changes to the popliteal. In its course downward it gives off several considerable branches, which are distributed to the muscles of the thigh. The Popliteal Artery, a continuation of the femoral, lies behind the femoro-tibial articulation or stifle-joint, and in front of the popliteal muscle. After distributing small branches to the structures around, it divides into two parts�the anterior and posterior tibial arteries. Anterior Tibial Artery.�This is the larger of the two, and, as its name implies, is situated in front of the tibia or second thigh, down which it passes beneath the flexor metatarsi muscle. On reaching the tibio-tarsal articulation or hock-joint it takes the name of the great metatarsal artery. In its course down the leg it gives off a number of branches to the tibio- femoral articulation and to the muscles in its course, especially those in front of the tibia. Pedal or Great Metatarsal Artery.�This vessel is a continuation of the anterior tibial. It commences in front of the hock-joint, and passes obliquely outwards beneath the peroneus and the short extensor of the foot, to reach the furrow formed by the large canon and the outer splint-bone, along which it runs until nearing the fetlock-joint, where it passes inwards between the suspensory ligament and the large metatarsal bone, and divides into two branches�the right and left digital arteries. These traverse the sides of the phalanges or pasterns, and are ultimately destined to the foot. The Posterior Tibial Artery lies deeply situated behind the tibia, and besides furnishing branches to the deep muscles of the leg it also supplies the nutrient vessel of the bone, and furnishes branches to the hock-joint. Finally it divides into the two plantar arteries. DISEASES OF THE HEART GENERAL CONSIDERATION OF THE PATHOLOGY OF HEART-DISEASE It seems to be agreed among veterinary writers that diseases affecting the heart of the horse are either not so numerous as those which attack the heart of the human subject, or that they pass to a great extent unnoticed until an opportunity is afforded for a post-mortem examination. Going back to the work of Gibson, who wrote in 1751, it will be

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			454 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		observed that after a description in detail of the structure and functions of the heart and large vessels, he dismisses the pathology of the organ in a short paragraph. " I have seen ", he says, " the hearts of horses frequently opened; sometimes there happens, as in the human body, collections of matter within the pericardium. I have seen pollipusses in the great vessels, sometimes a mass of slippery fat, especially within the left ventricle of horses that have died suddenly, and sometimes the heart itself is preter- naturally large." Since the time of Mr. William Gibson, surgeon, knowledge has ad- vanced, but even at the present day the subject of disease of the heart and large vessels is dealt with by veterinary writers in a very cursory manner. In the last edition of Mayhew's work on the horse, edited by Mr. James Irvine Lupton, it is remarked that disease of the heart is characterized by various names in scientific books, as carditis, pericarditis, hydrops-pericardii, inflammation of the pericardium, &c. All such conditions, the writer observes, in the horse were discovered by examination instituted after death, when, unfortunately, all opportunity of observing symptoms had ceased. Veterinary science cannot distinguish one state from another while life exists. Mayhew goes on to state that " diseases of the heart in horses are incurable", and suggests that it is possibly on that account that "apparently little attention has been paid to the diagnosis and treatment of them". Remarking on the absence of characteristic symp- toms, he adds that auscultation affords the surest means of detection. Any unusual sound, he says, being audible, the examiner may conclude that the heart is diseased. In further description of symptoms it is stated that " the visible signs are sometimes sufficiently emphatic to admit of no doubt"; the eye is expressive of constant anguish, the countenance is haggard, the pulse is feeble and irregular, and the heart-throbs are visible and frequent; they are to be seen as plainly on the right side as on the left. Eegurgitation within the jugular veins is nearly always excessive, the blood often reaching almost to the jaw." The difference between the estimated importance of heart-disease in man and the lower animals is emphasized by Mayhew, and indeed is urged in explanation of the comparative indifference with which these diseases have been regarded by the veterinary surgeon. The veterinarian is seldom called upon to treat heart-disease, and has not the same experience of dis- eases affecting this organ as has the physician, for the reason that man, even when suffering from an incurable ailment, must be treated, but the horse in a similar state is usually sent to the knacker; consequently it is from human medicine that the most valuable information has been received. These remarks are strictly correct, and fairly estimate the circumstances

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			DISEASES OF THE HEART 455

		which have enabled the members of the veterinary profession to recognize the clinical symptoms of some of the diseases of the heart of the lower animals, which they can now diagnose with almost absolute certainty, although it still remains true that the physician has enormous oppor- tunities and facilities in the examination of the heart of the human subject which are not, and cannot, under any possible conditions, be possessed by the veterinary surgeon. The heart of the horse and other large mam- malians is so perfectly covered by the bones and muscles of the upper part of the fore extremities that it is absolutely impossible to apply the stetho- scope or the ear over every portion of the organ, as can be easily done in the human subject; further, the instrument cannot be employed with the same advantage as it possesses in the hands of the physician. Even in those parts which can be reached, the covering of hair interposes an ob- struction which considerably alters and obscures the sounds which can be recognized, and it is on this account that the majority of veterinary surgeons content themselves with the application of the ear to the part of the animal which they wish to auscultate instead of using the stethoscope for the purpose. In this connection, however, it may be observed that the ear is a very poor substitute for the stethoscope when the latter is in a practised hand aided by an educated ear. Of the fact that the heart in the lower animals is subject to most of the diseases which are well known in the human subject, the experience which has been gained by post-mortem examination has afforded abundant evi- dence, and the veterinary pathologist has no difficulty whatever in recog- nizing the true characteristics of the various morbid conditions which are exhibited after death. His difficulty is confined entirely to the detection of each special form of disease in the living animal, and while he would not be content to accept Mayhew's imputation, that veterinary science cannot detect one state from another while the animal is alive, he would without hesitation admit the great difficulty of arriving at a satisfactory conclusion from symptoms which may be present at the time of his examination. Certainly it is the case that some of the most marked symptoms which Mayhew describes would not necessarily suggest to him the existence of any disease of the heart. In connection with the subject of clinical symptoms it is fully recog- nized by the physician that the evidences of disease, or evidences which may be construed into signs of disease, of the heart, may be present in parts of the system remote from the organ itself. There is nothing at all remarkable in this proposition when it is remembered that the heart is the organ which distributes the blood over the whole of the body, and is there- fore connected more or less directly with every other part of the system.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	456	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	456

The natural result of this is, that diseases of remote structures or distant organs may so adversely influence the heart as to lead to indications which may easily, although incorrectly, be ascribed to derangement of the central organ itself; on the other hand, disease of the heart expressing itself by detectable alterations in its own sounds and movements is responsible for various forms of disturbance which occur in the digestive organs, liver, kidneys, or lungs, or some other parts. At the same time, it is thoroughly well recognized, as a fact about which there is no question, that grave structural and functional disturbance may affect the heart without leading to any manifestation at all which can be recognized as relating to that organ. In other words, an animal may die suddenly from heart-disease the existence of which had never been suspected during its life. Among the symptoms which are frequently referred to disease of the heart are those which are described as subjective�that is to say, sensations which originate in the consciousness of the individual, such as pain, either continual or spasmodic, oppression in the chest, momentary stoppage or disturbance in the movements of the heart, dizziness, palpitations, and sinking. That these sensations, which are realized by the patient, are usually attended with extreme distress and apprehension will be readily understood, although it is a fact that all these clinical signs common in heart-disease may be experienced without any disease of the heart itself being present. From the risk of error due to the existence of subjective symptoms, which would be usually classed under the head of extreme nervousness on the part of the subject, the veterinary surgeon is absolutely free. His patients either have no nervous apprehensions in regard to the state of their hearts or other organs, or, if they have, do not possess the means of expressing them in an intelligible manner. Admitting, as must be the case, that disease of the heart of the horse is not so uncommon as it has been considered to be, the important question arises as to the best method of examination, for the purpose of detecting any obscure symptoms, which may be sufficient to direct the attention to the condition of the heart and the vessels immediately proceeding from it. At the commencement it must be distinctly understood that while the veterinary surgeon is not subject to the risk of making an incorrect diagnosis in consequence of subjective symptoms or sensations which the horse cannot declare, he has to incur an equally prominent risk of arriving at a wrong conclusion in consequence of the derangement of the heart leading to disturbance of some other organs. The respiratory organs are, of course, most likely to be acted on. Any serious derangement of the central organ of circulation must necessarily interfere with the cir-

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			DISEASES OF THE HEAET 457

		culation of blood through the lungs; anything which leads to excessive contraction of the right ventricle, by which the blood is forced into the lungs directly, or any interference with the action of the left side of the heart arising from deficient contractile power or mechanical obstruction in the passage of blood through the left auricle or ventricle, would naturally induce a state of engorgement of the vessels, or congestion of the lungs, which would be indicated by symptoms which the veterinarian recognizes without difficulty. The breathing would become rapid and oppressed, the surface of the body would very quickly become cold, and from other signs the examiner would very quickly diagnose congestion of the lungs. The affection may be sufficiently severe to justify him in calling it pulmonary apoplexy. Such a diagnosis would be in effect strictly correct, although it may leave out of consideration altogether the real cause, viz.: the blocking up of the vessels of the lungs with stagnant blood, not on account of any derangement of the respiratory organs themselves, but entirely owing to the circumstance that the heart is in such a condition that it is incapable of carrying on the pulmonary circulation. It does not follow that the congestion of the lungs arising from defec- tive action of the heart should take place suddenly to such an extent as would lead to any serious disturbance in the breathing, or justify the diagnosis of pulmonary apoplexy. Any mechanical difficulty affecting the circulation of blood in the lungs, whether arising from some impaired action of the heart or from any other interference, would lead to attacks of difficult breathing, cough, sometimes rupture of small vessels followed by bleeding from the nostrils, noises in respiration when it becomes at all hurried, sudden attacks of spasm, and in some cases a condition of the breathing which may lead to the impression that the horse is suffering from broken wind. Attacks of indigestion, and even gradually increasing emaciation, representing that state of the system which is expressed by the horseman's term " bad condition ", are all indications which may be really consequent upon functional or structural derangement of the heart, al- though there may be no symptoms which specially direct attention to it. As disease advances, more striking symptoms become evident. The wasting may be associated with dropsical effusions in the lower extremities and also along the inferior part of the abdomen, and there may be also more serious forms of dropsical effusion into the heart-sac (pericardium), the cavities of the chest, and abdomen. Chronic derangement in the central organ of circulation also leads to nervous derangement, in which the brain is commonly implicated. In the human subject, under these circumstances, the symptoms are easily recognized. The patient complains of frequent or even constant headache, with a feeling of fulness and heat Vol. I 31

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	458	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

about the head, rushing noises, throbbings, flushing of the face, giddiness, sleepiness, irritability, impairment of the intellectual powers, or actual mental derangement, disturbance of vision, movement of bodies before the eyes, twitchings in the extremities, and attacks of faintness. It will be perceived that the majority of these symptoms would not be recognized in the lower animals, and the few that would be apparent, such as unsteadiness of movement, attacks of vertigo (megrims), or twitching in the extremities, would possibly not be attributed to disease of the heart, and would probably not be in any way connected with disturbance of that organ. Under such conditions it is evident that a diagnosis must neces- sarily be of an uncertain character, unless by some accident suspicion of the true cause be aroused, and a careful examination of the heart lead to the detection of certain morbid conditions. Physical Examination Of the Heart and its larger vessels can only be undertaken by an expert who is familiar with the anatomy and physi- ology of the organs of the circulatory system, and on this part of the subject the reader is advised to consult the sections on the anatomy and physiology of the heart. Armed with the knowledge thus obtained, even the tyro will be able to realize the importance of constant experience in the use of the instruments which are employed for the purpose of the exami- nation of the heart and vessels, even if he does not contemplate devoting himself sufficiently to the subject to obtain the necessary skill. In the first place, the examination which will be required will have regard to what can be ascertained by the use of the hand applied to the cardiac region, and also to certain of the most superficial arteries. The amount of force exercised by the heart in its contraction produces a distinct impres- sion to the hand of the examiner when placed upon that part of the walls of the chest against which it strikes or beats, and the impulse communi- cated by the heart to the blood which passes through the arteries produces a beat as nearly as possible at the same time as the contraction of the heart. This is described as the pulse, and upon its character and frequency some opinion may be formed as to the general condition of the central circulatory organ, as previously described in the section relating to the symptoms of disease. In the next place, percussion over the cardiac region, performed by a light but sharp stroke with the points of the fingers, will make the examiner acquainted with any alteration in sound as compared with that emitted from the chest of the perfectly healthy subject. For example, where dulness of sound is found to extend beyond the area of the healthy heart, enlargement or hypertrophy of the organ would be suspected. Next to percussion, auscultation is employed by the use of the stetho-

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			DISEASES OF THE HEART 459

		scope in human practice, by the application of the ear to the part where the lower animals are concerned. The object of this form of examination is to distinguish any abnormal sounds which may exist in connection with the beats of the heart. These sounds can only be distinguished by the expert who is familiar with the healthy sounds, which may be described as far as it is possible to describe them in words as follows:�First, there is a sound which is believed to be produced by contraction of the ventricles. This is called the systolic sound, and it is also distinguished as a long sound, the term being used, of course, comparatively. This systolic sound is followed by a short interval of silence, which is succeeded by the second, described as the diastolic sound, which occurs when the ventricles cease to contract, and the valves guarding the pulmonary vessels and the aorta close. The diastolic sound is followed by a rather longer silence than that which succeeds the first, and then the systolic or first sound recurs. The duration of the sounds and intervals is expressed by dividing the whole period occupied by the series into ten parts, and then subdividing as follows:� Systolic sound -fe, first interval yo, diastolic sound -fy, and second interval -_x%. The actual character of the sounds as they strike the ear has been expressed by Dr. C. J. B. Williams by the words "lub-dup". Very little difficulty would be experienced in rendering the ear accustomed to the normal sounds of the heart, but it must be clear that an acquaintance with the abnormal sounds and their meaning could only be acquired by long practice with the assistance of a competent instructor. The most that the tyro could hope to achieve in this direction without such assistance would be the recognition of a change from the normal sound of the heart or its large vessels, and he would arrive at the knowledge simply from the observation that the normal sound with which he had rendered himself familiar had undergone certain modifications. The expert, in making an examination, not only realizes the fact that there is a change from the normal sounds to the abnormal, but he dis- tinguishes also the seat and cause of the abnormal murmurs; for example, variations as to the intensity of sounds, whether increased or diminished, alteration with regard to pitch and clearness of the systolic sounds, will inform him as to the condition of the valves and walls of the heart. A very clear, sharp, high-pitched, systolic sound will be more commonly heard in cases of anaemia, or extreme debility; again, alterations in the duration of the sound give important information as to the condition of the heart. In dilatation of the ventricles, with increase in the thickness of the walls, the systolic sounds will be prolonged, and the diastolic sound will probably be much shortened and very much obscured; whereas, in dilata-

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	460


tion of the cavity, without any alteration in the thickness of the walls, the diastolic sound is longer than normal, while the systolic is shortened. The pathologist also obtains a great deal of information while examin- ing his patient by comparing the sounds which are heard in different parts of the chest, especially over those parts which correspond to the lower part or apex and the upper part or base of the heart. If the sounds are weak at the apex and louder at the base, the evidence is accepted as serving to distinguish effusion into the heart-sac (pericardium) from dilatation of the cavities or fatty condition of the heart. Intense sound at the right apex over and above that at the left may indicate either displacement or enlargement of the right side of the heart; it also occurs when a portion of lung unduly distended with air (emphysematous) is interposed between the heart and the walls of the chest. A murmur or, as it is commonly called, " bruit" is generally taken to indicate friction at some point over which the blood is passing, and in the majority of cases it is allowed that the murmur depends on some morbid condition of the valves which guard the orifices of the heart. There are certain situations in which the murmurs relating to different parts of the heart are most readily heard. Thus murmurs connected with the mitral valves (fig. 191) are described as loudest just above the apex beat, while the murmurs which are connected with the valves of the aorta are most marked at the base of the heart. In the descriptions which are given in works on pathology a much more intricate and extended account of the different sounds in different positions is given, but sufficient has been written to indicate to the reader the very abstract character of the subject, and the enormous difficulties which attend a critical examination of the heart with a view of making a correct diagnosis of any existing disease. Indeed, with all the facilities which the physician possesses, including the use of the most elaborate and perfect instruments, the power to place his patient in any position which he thinks most convenient, and of regulating the character of the respirations with regard to their depth and frequency, or of arresting the action altogether for a short period, so as to obtain absolute silence in the respiratory organs of the chest, there is still a considerable difference of opinion existing among experts as to the cause and meaning of certain sounds which can be recognized. Diseases of the heart and its connections are for convenience divided into those which affect the membranes enclosing and lining the organ, and those attacking the muscular structure of which it is chiefly composed. Thus we have acute or chronic inflammation of the membranous sac in the double layer of which the heart is completely invested, and similar affec-

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			DISEASES OF THE HEART 461

		tions involving the fine membrane which lines the cavities of the heart, and these two morbid states are designated by different terms according with the position occupied by the structures. Where inflammation affects the former it is spoken of as pericarditis, or inflammation of the investing membrane; while the term endocarditis is used to indicate inflammation of the membrane which lines the cavities of the heart and contributes to the formation of the different valves. Inflammation of the valvular structures is also distinguished by the term valvulitis. Inflammation, acute or chronic, of the muscular structure of the heart is described as myocarditis, which is commonly associated with inflammation of the membrane investing or lining the heart. PERICARDITIS�INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART SAC Inflammation of the pericardium may occur under a variety of circum- stances, sometimes in connection with rheumatism, strangles, and influenza, or any low form of fever or specific blood disease. It may also arise from injury, such as a wound inflicted from without, or from the passage of some foreign body from the digestive organs, through the diaphragm into the pericardial sac. This cause is comparatively frequent in cattle, but is extremely rare in the horse. One case is recorded in which a sewing- needle had passed through the oesophagus into the pericardium, and subse- quently reached the right auricle of the heart. As in other cases of disease connected with the central circulatory organ, pericarditis, especially the chronic form, may exist for a considerable period without any symptoms being present which would lead to the suspicion of its existence. This is particularly the case in reference to what is called traumatic pericarditis in cattle. These animals, when at pasture, frequently swallow various extraneous substances which come in their way, and among foreign cattle kept by small owners, and fed very much about the dwelling- houses, it used to be extremely common to find in the rumen of the animals, which were sent to this country for slaughter, various domestic articles, such as brushes, tin or other toys, hair-pins, shawl-pins, skewers, knitting- needles, and even portions of wearing apparel. In post-mortem examination it frequently happens that a needle, or piece of wire, or a skewer, is detected in the heart sac, and its path can be traced through the second stomach (reticulum), which lies close to the diaphragm, and from that organ into the pericardial sac, and sometimes into the muscular structure of the heart. In other cases, where the body which has inflicted the injury has been lost in the course of the examina- tion, the path which it has taken can be distinctly followed from the

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			462 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		second stomach into the heart sac. This condition of things has not un- commonly been observed in animals in good condition sent to the slaughter- house without any suspicion arising that they were subjects of such severe injuries. Symptoms.�The symptoms of pericarditis of the acute form are very often complicated with those of ordinary inflammation of the lungs and pleura (pleuro-pneumonia), and indeed, in fatal cases of the latter disease, it is quite usual to find indications of inflamed pericardium. In such cases as the above there would, of course, be great difficulty in separating the symptoms belonging to each set of organs, but it is generally allowed that the character of the pulse, the irregularity of the heart's action, and the presence of a venous pulse in the jugular vein may be taken as indications that the heart sac is implicated in the inflammatory condition. In pericarditis resulting from injury it is certainly the case that the disease may advance to a considerable extent before any symptoms of illness are apparent; in some cases there may be no particular signs of derangement until the foreign body, needle or skewer, reaches the heart. It has been noticed at the termination of these cases, when the fact of the existence of the disease has been made patent by a post-mortem examina- tion, that the animals for some time before death have been subject to frequent attacks of indigestion, associated with elimination of gas into the rumen in the case of cattle, and into the single stomach of the horse. As a result of the disease, a quantity of fluid, clear or turbid, is usually found in its cavity, with adhesion of a portion of the membrane perhaps to the heart, and sometimes considerable thickening of the structures. Pericarditis which is independent of the passage of any foreign body or other injury is distinguished as idiopathic, a form which seldom occurs unless in combination with pleuro-pneumonia, and, as previously stated, it is scarcely likely that it would be distinguished at once as a distinct disease in the presence of inflammation of the lungs and pleural membrane. In the event, however, of any suspicion being excited which would lead to an examination of the heart by the application of the ear to the left side, over the cardiac region, it would be discovered that the normal sounds of the heart are less distinct, and if fibrinous exudation has taken place between the two layers of the pericardium, friction sounds might be detected in the early stages of the disease. Treatment of the idiopathic form of pericarditis may be attempted with some hope of success. It would include the administration of a saline aperient, and in some instances, when the symptoms are very marked, and the heart is affected with palpitations, digitalis is recommended. Fomenta- tions, or the hot pack, or counter irritation to the region of the heart, may

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	DISEASES OF THE HEART
	DISEASES OF THE HEART	463

also be employed. The body should be well clothed and the legs bandaged, while the strictest quietude should be insisted on. ENDOCARDITIS�INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE HEART This disease is said to be more frequent in the horse than the one which has just been referred to. When it occurs in association with rheumatism, it is more likely to end fatally in a short time than ordinary inflammation of the pericardial membrane, in consequence of the liability of the valves to undergo thickening, and the blood to coagulate upon them and upon the surfaces of the heart's cavities. Symptoms indicative of endocarditis of the ordinary kind have been differently described by different observers. The physical signs of the disease are: excited action of the heart, and the presence of certain sounds which are described as endocardial murmurs. The friction or rubbing sound which is recognized in pericarditis will not usually be present. It is somewhat remarkable that little or no pain is manifested during the progress of the malady. The pulse at the commencement is frequent and full in its beat, afterwards becoming feeble and irregular. Fever is sometimes very pronounced, and at others it tends to assume a low subdued form. The results to be apprehended are deposits within and upon the valves and round about some of the orifices, thus interfering with the passage of the blood, and leading to obstruction and the formation of large fibrinous clots. These are not unfrequently broken up into small frag- ments by the movements of the heart, some of which are carried along the course of the circulation, and may thus lead to fatal obstruction by blocking up vessels in important organs. The malignant forms of the disease, associated with the formation of abscesses and ulcerations, have only now and again been recognized in the horse. Treatment.�When the disease is complicated with an attack of rheumatism, salicylic acid and its salts must be resorted to and persevered with to check the progress of the disease. Perfect rest must be enforced and every form of excitement avoided. The bowels should be gently acted upon as required by the administration of small doses of sulphate of mag- nesia, and any manifestation of heart weakness must be met by the careful employment of digitalis and ammonia.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	464	HEALTH AND DISEASE

MYOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART This disease occurs very rarely in the lower animals, and most probably when it does happen it is connected with other diseases which have been described, i.e. pericarditis and endocarditis, in both of which the inflamma- tion may extend to the muscular structure. Continental writers refer to myocarditis as an infectious disease associ- ated with aphthous fever, septicaemia, tuberculosis, and contagious pneumonia of the horse. The alterations which are occasioned in the muscular structure will depend upon the activity of the inflammatory condition. Among them may be mentioned softening, and different degrees of degeneration, which weaken and impair the functions of the organ. In its chronic form the disease tends to the development of hypertrophy or enlargement, hardening of the muscular structure, and different forms of fatty and fibroid degeneration, and in some instances small abscesses are formed in the muscular walls. Symptoms of myocarditis are not of a sufficiently definite character to lead to a correct diagnosis. In the majority of cases the pulse is weak, sometimes hardly detectable, generally increased in frequency, and the respiration is rapid and carried on with difficulty. Sometimes, when caused to turn, the animal grunts, and deep pressure over the region of the heart causes pain. There is also weakness, incapacity for work, a fastidious appetite, and occasional attacks of vertigo, especially in the advanced forms of the disease. There is an absence of the morbid sounds which are observed in cases of pericarditis and endocarditis, and in valvular disease. DISEASES OF THE VALVES OF THE HEART Endocarditis in the chronic form may be expected to lead to a certain alteration in the valves which guard the openings leading to and from the different cavities of the heart. The alterations of structure may consist of thickening of the valves, adhesion of one to the other at their edges in particular, and to the walls of the cavities. In some cases they develop large excrescences, or, as they are sometimes called, cauliflower growths, which occupy a considerable space in the cavities of the auricles or ventricles. (See Coloured Plate.) Among the domestic animals the pig appears to be most subject to these growths, which have been constantly found in the post-mortem examinations of animals which have died or been slaughtered in consequence of swine fever.

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PLATE XXXI

* """^"^jsigfe

-'y^^*^

A, A. Valves of the Heart much thickened as the result of Valvular Disease

r . ^N

1 .mm

y^'^:\

Calcareous degeneration of the mitral valve

a, a. Fibrous tissue

B, B, B. Calcareous degeneration

Fibrous vegetation of the mitral valve

VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART (Endocarditis)

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			DISEASES OF THE HEART 465

		Many years ago Youatt referred to the common presence of these vegetations in the heart of the pig, and he noticed in particular that the animals in which the disease was detected in the slaughter-houses had given no evidence whatever of the existence of such tumours during life. Valvular disease in the heart of the horse is, according to Professor Nocard, more common than it is suspected to be. He has given a table of the relative frequency of the different valvular affections in that animal. Of forty-two subjects it was found that thirty-eight had disease of the valves of the aorta. In the other four, disease both of the aortic and mitral valves was detected. In some cases one of the normal sounds is obliterated, or may be reduplicated, or it appears every other or every second beat. The character of the morbid alteration varied considerably. In some cases the valves were merely thickened and hardened, in others they were contracted, sometimes they were indented or perforated, and in others they were covered with fibrinous deposits. In the cases referred to, the diagnosis had been made during the life of the animal, and in almost all of them a blowing noise, which occurred during what would ordinarily be the interval between the normal sounds, was detected by auscultation. It is remarked by Dr. W. L. Zuill, in his translation of the work on pathology by Drs. Freidberger and Frohner, that the first symptoms of this chronic inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart is the marked weakness of the animals while at work. They will stop, refusing to advance, and do not respond to the voice or to the whip. Treatment is not likely to be attended with any great advantage. The recommendation to avoid excitement and any active exertion is tantamount to proposing to keep the affected horse in the condition of useless idleness. For the purpose of temporary alleviation of the most marked symptoms, the use of iodide of potassium with digitalis is recommended, but, excepting where some special value is placed on the patient, economy, and humanity too, would be best considered by having him destroyed. HYPEKTKOPHY�ENLARGEMENT OF THE HEART The different forms of disease and deformity affecting the valves, which have been adverted to in the preceding remarks, necessarily cause obstruc- tion to the circulation, attended with regurgitation of the blood and increase of pressure in some of the cavities of the heart. Any obstruction arising out of disease of the valves is likely to occasion enlargement of the heart in one or another part of the organ according to the particular valves affected.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
466		HEALTH AND DISEASE
466

	Obstructive disease of the aortic valves gives rise to thickening of the walls of the left ventricle, while the same condition of the pulmonary valves would similarly affect the right. Enlargement of the heart may arise from increase in the development of the muscular structure (hypertrophy of the muscular walls), or from dilatation of the cavities from extra pressure from within. But it is pretty generally recognized that the same obstruction which gives rise to hyper- trophy will also occasion dilatation of the cavities, hence it is found that both conditions usually exist to a greater or less extent at the same time. The heart of the horse, which in a normal condition weighs about seven or eight pounds, may be increased in this disease to twelve or more pounds. Hypertrophy and dilatation are much more common in the left ventricle than in the right, for the reason that the valves of the former are more liable to sprain and disease than those of the latter. It will be remem- bered that the left ventricle sends the blood over the entire body, while the function of the right is confined to distributing it over the lungs. The work entailed in the former act being so much greater than that of the latter, the chances of obstruction to the blood flow are correspondingly increased. Thus the aorta, the vessels of the kidneys or the liver, or those of one or more of the various organs of the body, may by disease become narrowed, and tend to obstruct the circulation, which in time the heart would attempt to overcome, and its increased effort would have the effect which follows all muscular work, of sooner or later causing thickening of its walls. If the obstruction continued, or for any reason became worse, dilatation of the heart would follow hypertrophy. In these cases the valves which guard the orifice are required to stretch in order to fill up the still larger opening, or they sprain and become diseased. It does not necessarily follow that because the heart is enlarged its walls should be thickened. This will frequently depend upon the amount of dilatation which it has undergone. In some cases the walls are much thinner than normal owing to the hypertrophy not having kept pace with the dilatation. Symptoms Of Enlarged Heart.�It is certain that very considerable changes may take place in the muscular structure of the heart without any symptoms at all being apparent. When, however, the changes are such as to disturb materially the function of the organ, the disease is rendered apparent by very obvious signs, afforded in the first instance by a physical examination of the chest. If the enlargement be due to hypertrophy, the impact of the organ against the walls of the chest will not only be increased in intensity, but it will be felt over a much greater area than normal when

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			DISEASES OF THE HEART 467

		the open hand is placed over the region of the heart. Moreover, the area of the dull sound commonly invoked by percussion is extended in proportion as the heart is enlarged, and this is the case whether the enlargement arises from hypertrophy or from dilatation, or both combined. There is, besides, more or less palpitation, especially under circumstances of exertion and excitement. The usual recommendations to avoid excitement and fatigue are given when the disease is diagnosed, but as a matter of course, unless it is in such a stage that the rest that would be necessary need only be temporary, the animal is rendered perfectly useless, and might as well be destroyed. In fact, this alternative appears to be the reasonable one in all cases in which the disease is indicated by marked symptoms. For example, when an animal affected with a large heart�whether it consists in simple hyper- trophy or only dilatation, or of the two conditions together�suffers from increased respiration when at rest, and to a greater extent during exertion, with the addition of staggering, attacks of vertigo, trembling, sometimes convulsions, and frequently derangement of the digestive organs, leading to loss of condition, emaciation, and anaemia, it may be concluded that the chances of recovery are so remote that it is not worth while to attempt any treatment. ATKOPHY OF THE HEART This condition, which refers to a diminution in the size of the organ owing to wasting of the muscular tissue and a general failure of its con- tractile power, is much less common than the enlarged state, hypertrophy and dilatation. The characteristic symptoms are those which would be expected from the anatomical changes. The circulation becomes extremely feeble, the pulse is small and weak, and general failure of the supply of blood to the whole of the system leads to passive congestions in different organs and rapid emaciation, which would terminate fatally if the end were not anticipated, as it usually would be, by slaughtering the animal. FATTY DISEASE OF THE HEART Two perfectly distinct conditions are included in the term fatty disease of the heart. One consists in mere infiltration of the fatty material among the muscular fibres of the heart, which may be observed in animals when overfed (fatty infiltration), and the other consists in the actual conversion of the muscular structure into fat (fatty degeneration). In the former, the cells in the connective tissue between the muscular fibres become filled with fat, and there is an excessive deposit of fatty material outside the

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			468 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		heart and round the base, and in the grooves in the walls of the organ, along which the blood-vessels pass. In connection with this deposit of fat the muscular structure becomes pale and flabby. Symptoms.�-Fatty infiltration is found to exist in the case of animals which spend an idle life or do very little work, and are supplied with an undue quantity of food. Such animals are usually referred to by stable- men as being in soft condition, and it is recognized in reference to them that they are incapable of active work, rapidly becoming exhausted and suffering from shortness of breath and palpitation of the heart on slight exertion. The circulation is necessarily weak and languid, the extremities are cold, and an examination of the heart would reveal the characteristic symptoms of feeble impulse and much- diminished intensity in the normal sounds; when the deposit of fat is ex- cessive, it may happen that no sound can be detected at all. The condi- tion is modified by the circumstances under which the fatty infiltration takes place. In horses which have been fed to be brought into what is known as dealer's condition, a process which has probably only occupied a few weeks, regular exercise and change -Muscle Fibres (healthy). > Fat Corpuscles. ^1H the character of the food Will, in the majority of cases, restore the animal to a healthy condition. It is only after the excessive feeding, with in- sufficient exertion, have been continued for a long period that the diseased state is likely to become permanent, and even in such cases considerable improvement in the animal's condition may be effected by persistent employment of the ordinary measures, which would come under the head of physical training, including carefully-regulated exercise, the avoidance of food containing a large proportion of fattening material, and the careful adjustment of the food given to the quantity of work performed. Fatty Degeneration.�This condition of the heart may be associated with long-continued fatty infiltration, or it may follow an attack of inflam- mation (Myocarditis), or arise in the course of some wasting disease, or as a result of one or another of the acute specific fevers. It is mostly found to exist in old animals, and the progress of the malady is consider- ably favoured by a sedentary life; in fact it may occur in an exaggerated form in animals which are not plethoric, although it appears that want

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	DISEASES OF THE HEART
	DISEASES OF THE HEART	469
		469

of sufficient exercise conduces very much to the progress of the malady. The anatomical changes resulting from the disease are extremely marked, and very easily recognized by the use of the microscope. The muscular walls are, as in the case of fatty infiltration, commonly paler in colour than the normal structure, and often present a faded yellow or pale-brown tint; the muscle is easily torn or broken down, and has been compared in texture to wet brown paper. Under the microscope the muscular fibres, instead of being well defined with perfectly distinct transverse markings, present a granular appearance owing to the presence of minute granules of fat in their structure, and in some advanced cases every trace of the fibrillated appearance of the normal fibre has become obscured, and only a mass of fat granules can be recog- nized. Symptoms.�It is well known to pathologists that fatty degeneration may advance to a considerable extent without any symptoms becoming ap- parent. An animal may die suddenly from the disease the existence of which has not been suspected during its life. This will be quite intelli- gible to the veterinarian, as the oc- casional unpleasant sensations which . , . . . Fig. 195.�Fatty Degeneration of Muscle are recognized by the human patient ,, ,. . , , _n , ¹ Muscle Fibre (healthy). ² ² Muscle Fibres infiltrated over the cardiac regions would find with fatty granules. no expression in the horse. Occa- sional attacks of what in the human subject is described as " angina pec- toris" may occur in the horse, but would either be, as is usually the case, unnoticed, or, if observed, would be referred to an attack of colic or probably a spasm of the diaphragm. Williams, in his book on The Practice of Veterinary Medicine, records one case which came under his notice, which he considered to be an in- stance of angina pectoris in a well-defined form. The animal was an aged cart-horse, which for twelve months had done very little work, owing to the fact that when he was excited by work or exertion, he suffered extreme pain in the left fore-limb, the muscles of which, with the muscles of the chest (pectorals), became violently convulsed. The paroxysm seldom occurred when the animal was at rest, but there was a continual twitching of the muscles, and the animal appeared to dread being approached. On examination by auscultation, a loud cooing or blowing sound was heard

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			470 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		over the region of the heart, and there was a strong impulse indicative of hypertrophy. There was also observable a distinct regurgitation of the blood in the jugular vein or jugular pulse. No opportunity in this case was afforded for a post-mortem examination. In some cases of this disease the pulse is remarkably slow, the beats of the heart are generally feeble, irregular, and intermittent, and while exer- tion increases the frequency of the pulse, it also renders it more irregular, any severe effort soon brings about exhaustion, sighing, and giddiness. Examination of the heart during life reveals certain signs which are said to be characteristic: the impulse is feeble, but is at the same time well defined; the sounds are weak, in the case of the first sound almost inaudible, and in very advanced cases the sounds may be altogether absent; and it is noticed in regard to the feeble pulse that there is some- times only one pulsation to two beats of the heart. RUPTURE OF THE HEART The various alterations in the structure of the heart, arising out of acute myocarditis and the different kinds of degeneration, naturally lead to a weakness and a diminution in the resisting power of the muscular walls, which favours the occurrence of rupture. The determining causes are: violent exertion, falls, excessive excitement, tympanitis, an overloaded condition of the stomach or intestines, &c. Any one of these causes, by obstructing the passage of blood in the larger vessels, increases the pressure on the Avails of the heart beyond its power of resistance. It is stated by Zuill that the tear is usually located in the walls of one of the auricles. In our experience it has most frequently occurred in the left ventricle. The occurrence is usually almost immediately fatal; it is said that in falling at the moment of the rupture the horse sometimes utters a piercing cry. When the rupture is slight the ordinary symptoms of internal hemorrhage are exhibited. The animal staggers, and, if not sup- ported, falls, the visible mucous membrane of the nostril, mouth, and eye become white and bloodless; there is difficulty of breathing, loss of con- sciousness, and convulsions, and death occurs at varying periods, from a few minutes to several hours. Obviously treatment even in prolonged cases is not likely to be of any use, although it is sometimes effectual in cases of internal hemorrhage from rupture of the vessels of the liver. Here large doses of opium, with gallic or tannic acid, has sometimes arrested the flow of blood, and the animal has partially recovered, but a rent in the walls of the heart is necessarily irremediable.

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			DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES AND VEINS 471

		DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES AND VEINS Certain structural changes occur in both arteries and veins owing to inflammatory attacks and certain forms of degeneration and injuries occasioned by the presence of parasites, &c. ARTERITIS Arteritis, or inflammation of the walls of an artery, is by no means a rare disease in the horse. It is usually the result of some irritant acting upon the vessel from within. In man the causative agent is commonly found to be some granulation or vegetation occurring in the structure of the aortic valves. These, when sufficiently large, repeatedly strike the wall of the vessel during the movement of the valves, and excite inflammation in the part struck; or it may result from a portion of blood clot liberated from the interior of a large vessel being carried away and arrested in a smaller one, producing a plugging of the vessel, or embolism. In the horse the disease is most commonly seen in the anterior mes- enteric artery and in that part of the aorta in immediate proximity to it. It is the result of irritation excited in the vessel by the presence of worms. The parasites Strongylus armatus frequently take up their abode here, and by their presence induce inflammation in the vessel wall. The vessel, which is at first thickened, becomes soft and very much like a piece of wet wash-leather. Its elasticity is impaired or altogether lost, and in consequence it gradually yields to the pressure of the blood stream, and ultimately becomes dilated and forms an aneurism. On the internal surface there is frequently to be found a quantity of coagulated fibrine, in which the parasites are embedded. Symptoms.�The chief symptoms of this disease are wasting, and diarrhoea, and periodical subacute abdominal pain. The animal is dull and listless, tucked up in the belly, feeds indifferently, and sometimes refuses food altogether. If a sharp look-out be kept, small red worms will be found in the excrement. In these cases the partial plugging of the mesenteric artery diminishes the quantity of blood flowing towards the intestine. The function of that organ is therefore imperfectly performed, resulting in periodical attacks of diarrhoea, colic, and a general unthriftiness of the affected animal. The patient sometimes brightens up and appears to have recovered, when recrudescence of the disease occurs, and he goes back in condition, and may succumb to the disease.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	472	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	472

Treatment.�In all cases of this kind the treatment will succeed in proportion to the injury done to the vessel, and the amount of obstruction to the blood-flow resulting from the degree of dilatation, and the extent to which the vessel has been narrowed by the coagulation of fibrine within it. Very many cases are hopeless, and if they do not die it would be real economy to have them destroyed at once. Some recover, only, however, to be a future trouble to whoever may possess them. These facts should be present to the mind of all persons who are called upon to treat cases of this kind. As we have already indicated, the treatment of this disease is very uncertain. The affected animal should be placed in a well-littered box, and everything should be done to keep up the strength of the body. Food easy of digestion is of the first importance here. Malt meal and linseed, crushed oats and bran, with a very small quantity of sweet chaff, all well scalded, will be found for the most part suitable. It is no use trying to destroy the parasites; they are beyond our reach, and cannot be influenced by medicines; but they may sooner or later leave the vessel of their own accord and pass into the intestine. When pain appears it must be combated and controlled by the administration of repeated small doses of opium. A little bicarbonate of potash with chloride of sodium may be administered with the food, and repeated small doses of turpentine and aromatic spirits of ammonia should be given in combination with tincture of cinchona as a stimulant and tonic. ATHEROMA (ENDARTERITIS DEFORMANS) This is a disease most commonly seen in the arch of the aorta, or at a little distance posterior to that point. The early stages of the disease are marked by the appearance of small greyish-white spots and patches which are noticed scattered over the interior of the vessel, slightly raised above the surface, and somewhat irregular in size and in form. The inner surface of the aorta is perfectly smooth, but somewhat irregular over the seat of the patches. The endothelium lining the vessel remains for the present quite intact, but the inflammatory new growth situated beneath it raises the endothelium in the direction of the interior of the vessel. In the second stage the cell proliferation, or growth, to which the patches are due, undergoes a process of fatty change or degeneration, and becomes soft, yellow, and cheese-like, or assumes what is known as an atheromatous condition (aOr/prj = meal).

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			DISEASES OF THE AETERIES AND VEINS 473

		The degenerative process may extend to the cells lining the vessel, when they break down, and expose the underlying pasty matter. Should this occur, the blood in its course backwards washes up the degenerated inflammatory product and carries it away, leaving the middle and external coat exposed. In the third stage of the disease the pasty mass, instead of being thus removed, becomes more or less calcified, in which case small bone-like spicules are seen ramifying through the structure of the vessel wall, in some instances completely surrounding it and giving it the appearance of a bony tube (see Aneurism, fig. 196). The effect of this disease on the wall of the vessel is seriously to spoil its elastic reaction, and so interfere with the circulation. When the inflammatory products have undergone the softening process, and become exposed to the blood current, the vessel yields to the pressure from within, causing it to dilate still further, and in consequence an aneurism is formed, or the blood may insinuate itself between the coats of the vessel and cause them to separate, when a dissecting aneurism is the result. When the vessel becomes thin, as is sometimes the case in this form of the disease, its walls may rupture, and death take place more or less suddenly, or the fibrine of the blood coagulated on the diseased surface may fill up the vessel and form a thrombus. If in the second stage of the disease the pasty mass or some adhering clot of fibrine becomes exposed to the current of the blood, and carried away, some portion of it may be arrested in a distant small vessel, estab- lishing the condition of embolism. If this should occur in the lungs, or the brain, or the kidneys, organs specially predisposed to embolism, further, and perhaps fatal, mischief may be the result. THROMBOSIS Both arteries and veins are liable to become more or less completely obstructed during life by the coagulation of blood within them. When this condition occurs it is described as " thrombosis", and the obstructing clot is spoken of as a "thrombus". In the present day, thrombosis in the horse is only of seldom occurrence. Formerly, when blood-letting was resorted to in every conceivable ailment, it was a common affection of the jugular vein, and frequently gave rise to permanent obstruction and obliteration of the vessel. Causes.�The causes of thrombosis are chiefly injuries in one form or another, such as wounds, severe contusion, and stretching; indeed anything Vol. I. 32

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		474 HEALTH AND DISEASE which will excite inflammation in the vessel wall or diminish its vitality may determine the coagulation of blood within it. It is also a consequence of degenerative changes in the structure of the vessel, and of arrest of the circulation from aneurism (fig. 196), or any other cause which induces the blood to stagnate. ILIAC THROMBOSIS The most notable example of thrombosis in the horse is that which is seen now and again in the iliac arteries�the vessels into which the abdom- inal aorta breaks up beneath the lumbar spine, and whose branches are distributed to the hind-quarters and extremities. Causes.�For the most part thrombosis of the iliac vessels is the result of sprain inflicted upon them by some violent backward stretching of the hind-limbs, such as would result when a horse falls short in jumping and slips down the bank of a drain, or when his legs fly back from under him, or " spread-eagle", while drawing a heavy load over a slippery surface, or out of deep heavy ground. The writer has also known it to be occasioned in the course of the struggles of a horse while cast in a railway box, and in another instance the disease followed upon a hunter being " hung up" across a gate. In all these positions there would be sudden and severe stretching of the vessels and injury to their coats. Symptoms. � The symptoms of iliac thrombosis will vary with the stage of the disease, but, when well established, they are very diagnostic. At first the patient displays slight stiffness of one or both hind-limbs, more especially on rising from the recumbent posture, or when first led out of the stable. This, however, will pass away with a little exercise, to re- appear again from time to time in a more and more marked form. It may be accompanied by slight swelling of the limbs. As the arteries become more and more blocked, and the circulation obstructed, the legs are found to be cold, and the large veins are distended. This distension of the veins results from the absence of force to move on the blood within them, con- sequent upon the blocking up of the arteries, and is most strikingly seen during rest. When the animal is made to move, the blood disappears from the veins, and returns but slowly. The horse's movements are observed to be somewhat unsteady behind, especially during work. In the more advanced stages of the disease exertion brings on a rolling gait behind, and, if continued, results in paralysis of the posterior part of the body At this time the animal breaks out into a profuse perspiration, the breathing is hurried, the muscles quiver, and the pulse is much acceler- ated. In some cases the affected animal strikes the belly, looks round to the flank, and shows signs of acute pain, as if the subject of colic.

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		Plate XXXII

	THROMBOSIS

Fig. i. A. Circumflex artery of ilium. B. External iliac artery, c. Internal iliac artery with Thrombus in situ. D. Thrombus. Fig. 2. Jugular Vein. A, A. Phleboliths in situ. B, B. Phleboliths removed. C. Phlebolith in section.

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			DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES AND VEINS 475

		After a short period of rest the symptoms subside, and the horse resumes his normal condition, and will most likely continue in apparent good health until the exertion is again repeated. Although the symptoms described are very indicative of iliac thrombosis, the diagnosis may be rendered still more complete by a careful manipulation of the affected vessels. In this connection it will be remembered that the iliac arteries are to be found striking off right and left beneath the lumbar spine, and quite within reach of the hand when pushed well forward into the rectum. In carrying out this examination the hand and arm must be well anointed with oil or vaseline, and after entering the bowel the arm is turned so that the palm is presented upward; the fingers are then directed to that part of the spine where the loin joins on to the quarters, immediately beneath which the great iliac vessels�two on either side�will be felt branching off right and left from the posterior aorta. When healthy, they are found to pulsate forcibly with each beat of the heart, and to be distinctly compressible, though always tense. When, however, they are filled with coagulated blood and rendered solid, as in this disease, the pulsation is no longer felt, and the vessels become hard and unyielding. If they are not completely blocked a slight pulsation may be felt, as a thin stream of blood passes over the clot, but the affected vessels in any case will have lost their pliancy, and will offer very decided resistance to deep pressure. Treatment in these cases is of no avail. The fibrinous matter plastered over the inner surface of the vessel in successive layers, or free within it and occluding the passage of the blood, cannot be removed, and the animal should therefore be destroyed. THROMBOSIS OF THE JUGULAR VEIN (PHLEBITIS) As already noticed, thrombosis of the jugular vein was a disease of common occurrence in the days of indiscriminate blood-letting and unclean surgical practice as pursued before the advent of antiseptic surgery when phlebitis frequently followed the operation. In more recent years, since the lancet and the fleam have been laid aside, it has become a rare and exceptional ailment. As in arteries, so in veins, thrombosis is the result of degeneration or injury inflicted on the wall of the vessel. It also results when the vessels become varicose or abnormally dilated. In the particular instance under consideration it follows upon the operation of bleeding, or the accidental opening of the jugular vein. But the immediate cause is not perhaps the injury alone, but the introduction into the wound at the time, or

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	476
	476	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

subsequent to its occurrence, of some septic or decomposing matter. A dirty fleam or lancet, a dirty pin, or dirty tow employed to bring the edges of the divided vessel together, are the most likely media by which to infect the wound. Inflammation of the vessel having been thus excited, the blood circulating within it is induced to coagulate, and to be deposited on the inflamed surface layer after layer until the passage becomes com- pletely obstructed and the flow of blood along the neck on the affected side is arrested in its course towards the heart. Symptoms.�The lips of the wounded vessel are more or less tumefied and separated from each other, and the parts around are swollen and painful to the touch. The plugging of the vessel invariably proceeds in an upward direction, where it may be felt for some distance as a hard, cord- like thickening in the channel of the neck. Subsequent changes in the condition of the vessel and its contents will depend upon circumstances. In some instances the wound heals, the plug becomes organized, still re- taining its position in the vein, with which it unites to form a solid cord. Here the general health of the patient is but little impaired; since, how- ever, the jugular vein is no longer able to convey the blood back from that side of the head to the heart, the vessels of the face will be inordi- nately distended, the brain will be somewhat surcharged with blood and liable to slight functional disturbances, especially when the head is held in a depending position. This danger will be materially modified after a time, when compensating enlargement of the jugular vein of the opposite side and its tributaries takes place, and their carrying capacity becomes thereby increased. It must be understood that with one jugular vein spoilt the conveyance of blood from the head to the heart will have to be done for the most part by the other, which, in course of a little time, will widen out and accom- modate itself to the task imposed upon it. Animals having suffered from this disease should not be turned to grass or allowed to eat from the ground. The downward position of the head under the altered conditions of the circulation tends to an accumulation of venous blood in the vessels of the head, resulting in swelling of the lips and tissues of the face, dizziness, and vertigo. Instead of being organized, the plug in the vein may soften and break up into a pus-like matter, resulting in the formation of one or more abscesses in the upward course of the swelling. These may break, empty themselves, and heal, perhaps to form again and produce deep sinuous wounds in the track of the vessel. The most serious consequences re- sulting from jugular thrombosis occur when matter from the softened and disintegrated clot finds its way into the circulation. Thereby the blood

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		477
	DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES AND VEINS	477
	DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES AND VEINS

becomes poisoned. The septic particles are distributed over the body, and, settling down in some of the more important organs, produce destructive abscesses or a condition known as " pysemia". Treatment.�Any appearance of thickening in the course of the jugular vein, such as we have described, should be met by prompt measures of treatment. A dose of physic will first be called for, and at the same time all hard corn is to be knocked off and replaced by sloppy mashes of bran and scalded chaff. The wound should be repeatedly irri- gated by carbolic solution and covered with antiseptic gauze. Hot fomentations applied over the injured vein will aid in reducing inflam- matory action and checking the progress of the disease when permissible. Should abscesses form, they will require to be opened, and to be well syringed out with antiseptic dressing from time to time and packed with antiseptic wool. Some practitioners recommend a blister to the swollen vein, and place complete reliance on this form of treatment. There can be no doubt that in some subacute and slowly progressive cases such a course might prove beneficial, but in the more active and severe attacks the course recommended above would be more appropriate. ANEURISM Under certain conditions arteries are liable to undergo dilatation in certain parts, so that the cavity of the vessel is more or less enlarged. Such a state is known as an aneurism. This form of disease is more especially seen in foals and young horses, as a result of the presence of parasites in the large vessels which supply blood to the bowels. It may also be brought about by sprain or any injury which may induce inflam- mation and consequent softening of the vessel. Aneurism is sometimes seen in the aorta, as it courses beneath the spine, and more rarely in some other of the smaller vessels. In some instances the presence of the tumour does not seem to give rise to any disturbance in the circulation which can be recognized during life, and is therefore only discovered after death. Where, however, the dilatation is considerable, it may very seri- ously incommode the circulation, and by causing obstruction lead on to hypertrophy, with dilatation of the walls of the heart and embarrassment in the breathing. In the horse, aneurism most frequently occurs in the anterior mesenteric artery as the result of injury done to the walls of the vessel by parasites (Strongylus armatus). How these creatures gain access to the vessel is not exactly decided, but most likely by boring their way through the tissues

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	478
	478		HEALTH AND DISEASE
			HEALTH AND DISEASE

		of the bone. When in the vessel they excite irritation in the walls, resulting in inflammatory softening, and the pressure of the blood from within acting upon a yielding surface results in dilatation or aneurism. At the same time the existing endarteritis provokes fibrinous deposit on

				Fig. 196. �Aneurism of the Aorta

the inner surface of the vessel, tending to its more or less complete closure. As a result of this, the intestines fail to receive their proper amount of blood, on account of which diarrhoea is induced and prostration follows. ANEMIA Anaemia is a term employed to denote a condition of the blood in which there is a deficiency of iron, an element essential to the formation of red blood cells, deficiency in which results in poverty, weakness, and general malaise. The causes of anaemia are numerous. Chief among them may be mentioned insufficient or improper food, close confinement, impure air, specific disease, chronic discharges, hemorrhage, the action of lead and other deleterious agents in the food or water, and parasitism. In the case of young horses at grass, the first and last named are perhaps the more frequent, while stabled animals suffer greater risks from bad hygienic

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	ANAEMIA	479
	ANAEMIA

conditions. The anaemic state may be very gradually acquired where bad hygienic conditions exist, or it may follow more quickly upon diarrhoea, influenza in any of its many forms, glanders, and parturient troubles in the mare, and the multiplication of parasites within the body. Symptoms.�There is pallor of the membranes lining the eyelids and the nasal cavities; the tongue has a limp or soft feeling not imparted to the hand in a healthy animal, and conveys an impression of coldness to the touch; emaciation and debility coexist with a harsh, dry skin, and dropsical swellings appear from time to time, especially in colts at the end of the winter, when the fare has been poor and the season cold and wet. Low, marshy, water-logged land is especially conducive to anaemia in young animals. Persistent or pernicious anaemia results in great weakness, loss of spirits evinced by drooping head and listlessness, nervous irritability and palpitation of the heart when suddenly disturbed, a want of co- ordination of the voluntary muscles, and, in mares or fillies, suppression or absence of the cestrual periods are sometimes induced, and a peculiar murmur or ripple is heard near the region of the heart. The pulse is irregular, feeble, and intermittent, and sudden attacks of palpitation of the heart come on now and again, when its contractions may be heard at a considerable distance. As the heart grows weak, and nervous prostration increases, respira- tion becomes shallow, digestion is impaired, and the desire for exercise diminishes. Abdominal pains, of the nature of mild attacks of colic, and a distended or tympanitic abdomen are not unfrequently noted. Treatment.� Since the causes are so many and varied, they should be carefully investigated before a remedy is prescribed. It would be useless, for instance, to rely solely upon a blood restorative if the maintenance of a host of parasites within were the cause. In colts at grass the little worm Strongylus tetracanthus infests the bowels in some seasons to such an extent as to destroy the life of its victims without for a time producing other marked symptoms than those of anaemia. Anthelmintics combined with tonic remedies will here be indicated. (See Parasites.) The anaemia which follows upon specific diseases, such as influenza, strangles, &c, will be combated by mineral and vegetable tonics and a diet at once nutritive and easy of digestion. In the case of colts which have suffered from the inclemency of the winter, and pasture of inferior quality, a careful process of building up of the system is advised, and it has to be borne in mind that animals in this state must not be too hastily supplied with a full ration of nutritious diet, because the power of digestion and assimilation has suffered in common with all the other functions of the body. At first milk and then gruels should be given in conjunction with

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	480	HEALTH AND DISEASE
		HEALTH AND DISEASE

a moderate allowance of more solid food. Crushed linseed and malt flour are valuable adjuncts to the food allowance at this period, and should be given in small but frequent portions. A good deal may be done by supplying medicines from both the vege- table and mineral kingdoms, bitter tonics, as quinine, gentian, calumba, and chamomile, the sulphates of iron and copper. As iron is the element most wanting in the blood of the anaemic, and necessary to rebuild the red corpuscles, it enjoys a reputation as being almost a specific for this form of the malady. In the case of horses it has to be given with caution, as, with the extremely debilitated, it is too irritating and astringent to be borne in full doses. For the very weak and emaciated the saccharated carbonate or the ammonio-citrate is preferable to the more commonly employed sulphate. PLETHORA This abnormal condition is now seldom described in works on veterinary medicine, and some authorities have even denied its existence. The better management of horses has greatly reduced the number of cases met with, but the condition can scarcely be forgotten by anyone who has witnessed it. It is an almost precisely opposite state of the blood to that described under the heading of anaemia. The subject is usually fat, or else has been so suddenly placed upon a too liberal diet that the circulatory fluid has become rapidly loaded with red corpuscles, and what has probably more to do with the symptoms presently to be described is the accumula- tion of effete material in the blood which the emunctories fail to eliminate. Urea and other deleterious products of combustion circulate in the blood stream, producing effects varying with the quantity, and the idiosyncrasy of the individual. Causes.�Idleness conjoined with over-feeding upon highly nitro- genous food. Close stabling and want of exercise. Inactivity of the liver, kidneys, and skin; but these latter are usually secondary and dependent on bad hygienic conditions. Symptoms.�Trembling and blowing are sometimes present, but closer inspection shows, in addition, engorgement of the vessels of the conjunctiva and more or less cerebral disturbance, denoted by excitement, followed sooner or later by a dull, heavy expression. The pulse is full and hard at one time and quick and irritable at others. The extremities are variable as to temperature, but the ears are commonly hot and the appetite fastidi- ous or altogether in abeyance. Treatment.�This is one of the few disorders for which the veteri- narian may, with advantage, resort to venesection. It is attended with

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	SEPTICAEMIA
		481


immediate relief of the more pressing symptoms. Where the disorder is not of an urgent character, bleeding will be dispensed with, and reliance placed upon an aloetic ball, a spare diet, and, as soon as permissible, exer- cise followed by regular work. There can be little doubt that this malady is often mistaken for pulmonary congestion. A horse that has once suffered from plethora should receive special care as to diet when his services are not in demand, and laxative foods, as bran, more frequently given; for in keeping the bowels active safety is found. SEPTICEMIA The term septicaemia is employed to indicate certain forms of blood- poisoning which result from the entrance into the circulation of disease- producing bacteria or their products. All the various contagious disorders, such as glanders, strangles, &c, are so many special forms of septicaemia, in addition to which there are others commonly originating in wounds. When septicaemia results from the entrance of bacteria into the blood, it is termed septic infection. If the blood of such an animal be inoculated into a healthy subject the disease is communicated by the bacteria which it contains. In this form of the affection, therefore, bacteria are the direct inducing factor. But septicaemia may also result from chemical poisons formed by certain kinds of bacteria, as when organisms of putrefaction set up de- composition of the tissues in wounds, and the poisonous products resulting therefrom are absorbed into the blood. This form of septicaemia is known as septic intoxication, and is not transmissible by inoculating the blood into healthy stock. Pyaemia is also a form of septicaemia, but distinguished from all the rest by the development of abscesses in various parts of the body. The organisms by which this disease is excited have the peculiar property of inducing the formation of matter (pus). Symptoms.�Blood-poisoning in any form is a dangerous and com- monly fatal affection. It is ushered in by a fit of shivering, which may be repeated again and again. There is a marked rise of temperature, attended with great prostration, a quick feeble pulse, and increased re- spiration. Muscular pain and weakness is shown by the weight of the body being constantly shifted from one limb to another. The mucous membranes of the eyes and nose are of a yellowish-red hue, and in severe cases blood spots or blotches appear upon them. The mouth is clammy, the tongue furred, and food is altogether refused.

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		482	HEALTH AND DISEASE

	In pyaemia there is, in addition to these symptoms, the formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, sometimes on the surface, at others, in one or more of the internal organs. The lungs, brain, liver, and kidneys, in some instances the joints of the extremities, are the parts- most frequently invaded. The duration of pyaemia is more protracted than in the other forms of septicaemia, and although very fatal, it is not so generally destructive. Treatment.�In dealing with this form of disease it is of the first importance that the strength of the patient should, as far as possible, be upheld. If the appetite fails, as is usually the case, eggs and milk should be freely given three or four times in the course of the day. The flagging heart must be stimulated by the administration of brandy,, whisky, or gin, with which quinine should be given three or four times,, or more, in the twenty-four hours. Where wounds exist they should receive prompt attention. The hair should be removed from about them, and the surrounding skin and the wounded surface must be thoroughly washed with well-boiled water and then freely irrigated with some antiseptic solution, after which it should be enclosed in antiseptic wool, and be carefully dressed as occasion requires.

7. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY PROCESS The act of breathing is so intimately associated with the continuance of life that we commonly speak of the " first" and " last" breath as terms synonymous with the beginning and end of existence. Yet that which is referred to in this sense is really only the outward movement or visible mechanism of respiration, that is to say, the means by which the intro- duction and expulsion of air is effected, and takes no heed of the changes that take place in the air, in the blood, and in the tissues of the animal. These, however, represent the true end and aim of the respiratory process, for experiment has shown that the persistent manifestation of life is invariably associated with the absorption of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide, that the exchange of these gases is properly termed the process of respiration, and that it is accomplished in all parts of the system. Every tissue, but, above all, the muscular, develops carbon- dioxide in its substance, which, by means of the capillary circulation, is brought into relation with the blood which has taken up oxygen

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		THE OEGANS OF KESPIRATION
				483


at the lungs. In obedience to physical laws, an exchange of gases is immediately effected; the blood rendering up the oxygen it contains to the tissues, which in turn give up the carbon dioxide they have formed in their substance to the blood. This process constitutes "internal or tissue respiration". The blood, now deprived of part of its oxygen and charged with carbon dioxide, passes by the veins to the right heart, and from thence to the lungs, where it surrenders its carbon dioxide to the air, as well as some watery vapour, and in return takes up oxygen from it. This constitutes " external respiration". The great muscular vigour and

			Fig. 197.�The Lungs in their Natural Position A, (Esophagus. B, Trachea. c, The Heart.

	the activity of the horse are necessarily associated with a voluminous and highly-developed respiratory apparatus, by means of which the re- quired large exchange of gases can be effected. Accordingly the thorax, or chest, which is of great size, is chiefly occupied with the lungs, which are composed of a spongy tissue presenting an enormous surface of con- tact for the air, a surface that even in man has been estimated at 81 square metres, or more than 54 times the superficial area of the skin, and that must be many times greater in the horse. The air enters the lungs through the nostrils, which are the true com- mencement of the respiratory tube, and then traverses successively the larynx, trachea, large and small bronchial tubes, reaching ultimately the air-cells of the lungs. The nasal cavities present a large and very irregular surface, covered with a mucous membrane that is constantly moist and

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

484

is highly vascular. The upper part is supplied with the olfactory nerve,
which is the special nerve of smell, whilst the lower part is supplied with
branches of the fifth pair of nerves, which confer upon it a high degree of
common sensation. Several objects are gained by the inhaled air passing
over this surface. The impressions received by the sense of smell, and
conducted to the brain, serve to place the animal on guard against enemies,
whilst they inform it of the proximity of food, water, or other objects of
desire. The acuteness of their perception in these respects is well known.

But it does more. It
warms and moistens the
air as it is inspired, and
thus prevents cold, raw,
and dry air from acting
directly on the delicate
tissue of the lungs.
Having reached the back
of the nose, the current
of air crosses the pharynx
and enters the larynx,
shown in side view in
fig. 198, and looked at
from above in fig. 199.
The larynx is a cartila-
ginous chest or box con-

Fig. 198.-The Larynx

A, Long Cornu of Os Hyoides. B, Short Cornu. c, Thyroid or

Heel-like Process. D, Spur Process. E, Epiglottis. p, Glottis.

o, Cricoid Cartilage. H, Thyroid Cartilage. I, First Ring of Trachea.
J, Arytsenoid Cartilage.

taining the organ of voice.
Continuing its course
the inspired air travels
through the trachea or

wind-pipe and the bron-
chial tubes, the divisions of which penetrate, and indeed form, a large
proportion of the substance of the lungs. In the act of expiration the
air passes through the several passages just named in the opposite direc-
tion.

The Lungs.�When full of air the lungs are two voluminous soft
elastic organs of pink colour, which occupy with the heart nearly the whole
of the thoracic cavity. In old animals they are more or less mottled
with black. The right lung is rather larger than the left, and each is
covered with a thin sheet of a serous membrane, named the pleura, which
also lines the inner surface of the ribs and walls of the thorax. The
opposed surfaces of this membrane are polished, and at all times lubricated
with a watery secretion, so that in the acts of respiration the gliding

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THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION

485

movements that occur between the lungs and chest wall are allowed to
take place with the least possible friction.

The Larynx (fig. 198) is a chamber of irregular form externally,
which is connected with the hyoid bone or bone of the tongue (a, b, c)
above and in front by means of a small ligament, and is continuous with
the trachea behind. The chief of the cartilages composing it is named the
thyroid (h), from its resemblance to a shield. It consists of two wing-
like portions, joined at an angle in front, but open behind. To its fore
part is attached the epiglottis (e) (fig. 199),
a tongue-shaped body which covers the
entrance to the glottis when food is swal-
lowed, thus preventing the passage of any
portion of it into the larynx or trachea.

Behind the thyroid cartilage is the cri-
coid cartilage (g), which resembles a signet-
ring with the wider part above (fig. 198).
Articulating with this wider part behind
are the two arytsenoid cartilages (fig. 198).
These are of pyramidal form, and the vocal
cords or organs of voice extend from their
inferior angle to the internal surface of the
thyroid cartilage.

The larynx possesses many muscles
which effect the movements of the several
cartilages on one another during respiration,

Fig. 199.�The Larynx, seen from above

A, Cricoid Cartilage. B, Long Cornu of
Os Hyoides. c, Short Cornu. D, Spur
Process. E, Epiglottis. F, Glottis.

and by tightening the vocal cords determine
the pitch of the notes which the animal is
capable of emitting.

The Trachea is a long wide tube occu-
pying the middle line of the neck, and separated from the spine by the
oesophagus or gullet. It extends from the cricoid cartilage of the larynx
to about the fourth dorsal vertebra. It is about 3 feet in length and
2 inches in width. It is composed of about fifty C-shaped pieces of car-
tilage, each of which is converted into a ring by a strong muscular and
elastic band stretching across from one side of the cartilage to the other.
Elastic and fibrous membranes also extend between the edges of the rings,
so that a continuous tube is formed, and this is lined by a mucous mem-
brane the innermost layer of which is composed of epithelial cells having
upon them fine hair-like processes termed cilia.

Towards the lower part of the trachea the rings are replaced by irregu-
larly shaped fragments of cartilage (fig. 200). The cartilaginous frame-

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		486 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	work effectually prevents the trachea from being closed by any moderate pressure that may be exerted upon it, and air is consequently always capable of reaching the lungs without interference. The entrance of food or of any foreign body into the trachea is jealously guarded against, and it is only when these parts are, so to speak, taken by surprise that such an accident can happen. In the first place the mucous membrane of the whole of this region is rendered extremely sensitive to touch by the distri- bution of the superior laryngeal nerve, which is a branch of the vagus. Then in the act of swal- lowing, the whole larynx and trachea are drawn close up behind the tongue by muscular ac- tion, whilst at the same time the epiglottis is drawn downward to meet them, and in this way the opening into the larynx is closed against the en- trance of food. At the same moment the vocal cords are brought to- gether and the space between them reduced to a mere chink; whilst lastly, if, in spite of these precautionary arrange-

			Fig. 200.�The Lungs and Bronchi	ments, a fragment of food
			Fig. 200.�The Lungs and Bronchi

should by chance enter the larynx or trachea, it is immediately expelled by a violent expiratory effort or cough. The Bronchi.�The trachea on reaching the chest divides into the two bronchi, one going to each lung. As seen in fig. 200, they then divide and subdivide again and again till the tubes are scarcely larger than a hair, when they are termed bronchioles. These, after a short course, suddenly change their character, becoming dilated into sack-like ends, and presenting depressions, cups, or pits on their walls as shown in fig. 201. The Air-cells.�These cups constitute the air-cells, alveoli, or vesicles

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EFFECTS OF EESPIEATION

487

of the lungs. They are surrounded by a close net-work of minute blood-
vessels (capillaries), and it is here that the aeration of the blood takes

place. The air vesicles have a diameter of from

inch, and

100

200

their number has been esti-
mated to be 750,000,000 in
man, whilst it must be at least
three times as many in the
horse. Their walls are com-
posed chiefly of elastic fibres
loosely interwoven, which con-
fer upon the lung tissue the
great elasticity it possesses, and
the epithelium lining them is
no longer columnar and ciliated,
as in the bronchioles, but flat
and thin, thereby permitting
the free passage of gases
through them.

The distribution of blood
through the lungs is effected

Fig. 201.�Sack-like Ends of a Bronchiole
A, Bronchial Tube divided. B, Infundibulum or Terminal

-, ,-. . -i . -i , -i -i Dae. (J, ivir-ceus. l), A

by the right heart and pul- around and between E, Air-cells.

monary artery, which contain

dark venous blood. As the blood traverses the pulmonary capillaries
around the air-cells it gives off carbon dioxide to, and takes up oxygen
from, the air in the alveoli, and is then returned to the left heart as
aerated blood by the pulmonary veins.

EFFECTS OF RESPIRATION

Composition Of the Air.�The composition of the atmosphere has
been proved, by the analyses of many chemists, to be nearly uniform in
all parts of the world, excepting in regard to the quantity of watery
vapour it contains, which is, of course, far less in cold dry regions than
in those which are moist and warm. Pure, dry air is a mixture of 21
parts of oxygen, 79 parts of nitrogen, and a small proportion of carbon
dioxide, amounting to 1 part in every 2500 parts of this mixture. In
addition to the constituents above mentioned, smoke, containing com-
pounds of sulphur as indicated by the tarnishing of silver, and ammonia,
with accidental impurities derived from factories, are found near towns;
and in the country at certain seasons of the year, and in certain localities,
the pollen of plants and micro-organisms also impair its purity.

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

488

Air is 773 times lighter than an equal volume of water, and 14"47
times heavier than the same volume of hydrogen. For each degree centi-
grade of increased temperature it expands -gy-g of its volume. The pressure
of the atmosphere on each square yard of surface is about 20,000 lbs.,
and as the horse presents between 5 and 6 square yards of surface, it
supports a pressure of 100,000 lbs., or 50 tons.

The air is rarely or never saturated with aqueous vapour, but the
quantity rises with the temperature, and is greater therefore in hot climates
than in cold, and in summer than in winter. It is greater also on plains
than in mountainous regions, by day than by night, and where there is
much vegetation than in arid districts. In moist tropical regions it may
rise to 3 volumes in 100 of air, whilst in middle Europe it does not usually
exceed 1*3 per cent, and may perhaps in this country be regarded as con-
stituting between 1 and 2 per cent by volume.

Air after Respiration.�When air that has been once inspired is
examined, it is found to have undergone considerable alteration. The
proportion of nitrogen, indeed, is not materially altered�it still remains at
about 79 in 100 parts,�but about 5 parts of oxygen have been abstracted,
leaving the percentage of oxygen at about 16 per cent, while the quantity
of carbon dioxide is increased from 1 part in 2500 to 112 "5 parts in 2500,
or to 4"5 per cent. The air is, in addition, rendered warmer, providing,
of course, that when it was inspired it was not higher in temperature than
that of the body. When this occurs, as it sometimes does in hot climates,
the air inspired may actually be co led by passing through the lungs. As
a rule, the temperature of the expired air is raised to nearly 98°. More-
over, it is saturated with watery vapour which has evaporated from the
moist mucous tracts of the nose, trachea, and alveoli of the lungs. It is
also freed from all particles of dust and from all living or dead germs,
which adhere to the moist surface of the respiratory tract, to be tossed
outwards by the wave-like movements of the cilia of the ciliated cells
lining the air-passages, and ultimately to be coughed up. Finally, some
volatile gases or oils are added to it, as is proved by the peculiar odour
of the breath characteristic of each animal, and especially observable after
the use of certain articles of diet, such as garlic.

Putting the changes in the air in a tabular form, they may be thus

represented:�


lieu:� Oxygen ...... Nitrogen ... Carbon dioxide		Before inspiration. 21 79 0-04	After expiration. 16 79 4-5
Aqueous vapour ... Temperature	.. 1 More	Variable ..... or less germ-laden .....	Saturated About 98° Germ-free

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	EFFECTS OF RESPIRATION
		489


It has been found that in the case of man, and probably therefore also in the horse, climate materially affects the absorption of oxygen. Thus, under ordinary conditions of respiratory activity in the hot climate of Madras, a man absorbs in one month 177 lbs. of oxygen, in the drier air of London or Brussels, 192 lbs., in the still drier atmosphere of St. Petersburg or Barnaul in Tomsk, 199 lbs., and in the latter place in winter, when the quantity of moisture in the air is at a minimum, as much as 218 lbs. These differences in some measure account for the languor experienced in hot climates, and for the briskness and great heat-producing power ex- hibited by the body in cold climates. Air-changes in the Blood.�We may now enquire into the nature of the changes that take place in the blood from the time that it leaves the lungs in an aerated state, or in the condition of arterial blood, till it is returned to the heart in a venous condition after having traversed the various organs of the body. The results that have been obtained by those chemists who are the best qualified to deal with this difficult subject show that from 100 volumes of blood about 60 volumes of gas can be abstracted. The gases consist of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and a little nitrogen, the proportion differing considerably according to whether arterial or venous blood is examined. In both kinds of blood the carbon dioxide is in great excess. Thus in 100 volumes of arterial blood there are: oxygen 20, nitrogen 1 to 2, carbon dioxide 40 volumes. In 100 volumes of venous blood there are: oxygen 8 to 10, nitrogen 1 to 2, and carbon dioxide 46 volumes. The nitrogen may be dismissed from consideration at once, for it is known that it presents no special affinity for any of the constituents of the blood, that it is absorbed as water would absorb it, and that its volume consequently remains un- changed. It is different with the other two gases. The oxygen introduced into the lungs by the process of inspiration rapidly diffuses through the delicate walls of the air-cells and the blood-vessels around them, and at once enters into a feeble chemical combination with the haemoglobin con- tained in the red blood corpuscles. By these it is distributed through the system, and in less than ten seconds reaches the capillary vessels, where the blood is brought into close relation but not in actual contact with the tissues. These have a stronger affinity for oxygen than the heemoglobin of the blood; it therefore leaves the red corpuscles, and, passing through the thin walls of the blood and lymph vessels, finally attacks or is seized upon by the tissues, muscle or nerve or gland, as the case may be. The quantity of carbon dioxide that is generated in the tissues, to be taken up by the plasma of the blood and to be discharged from the body at the lungs, is dependent upon many circumstances. To liberate the force Vol. I. 33

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			490 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		by which such an animal as the horse is able to accomplish its wonderful feats of locomotion, often under the disadvantage of having to drag a weighty load or to carry a heavy rider, something must be oxidized. At first sight it might reasonably be supposed that this something is the substance of the muscle itself, and this was long supposed to be the true explanation; but if this were the case, then nitrogen, which is an essential constituent of muscle proteid, ought to appear in the excreta after exertion in augmented quantity, either free or combined, as one of the products of the disintegration of that tissue. Careful chemical research, however, made both upon man and animals shows that exercise, even when violent and prolonged, does not materially increase the discharge of urea from the kidney, which is the chief channel by which nitrogen leaves the body. Hence the conclusion has been arrived at, that just as locomotion is effected in a steam-engine, with little wear-and-tear of the machine itself, the force being derived from the latent energy stored up in the fuel, so in the case of muscle the tissue itself is only the machine which utilizes the force set free by the combustion of some organic substance within it in which carbon is predominant. This substance, there is reason to believe, is glycogen, which is present in muscle at rest, but disappears after exercise, a substance that is in constant course of formation by the liver, and is stored up in the cells of that organ until it is again used up either by long fasting or after pro- longed muscular exertion, and which, lastly, is a compound containing much carbon, whilst the oxygen and hydrogen in its composition are in the pro- portions to form water. During exercise more blood traverses the muscles, and therefore more oxygen is brought to them, the glycogen they contain is oxidized, carbon dioxide is formed, and water set free. The carbon dioxide is carried away by the blood, and is discharged partly by the lungs and partly by the skin; the water passes off by the kidneys. But other circumstances besides exercise affect the production of carbon dioxide. The quantity thrown off by the body is always increased after food. It is increased when the temperature of the surrounding medium is lowered, for since the temperature of the body is nearly 100° F., the oxidation of oil, of glycogen, and of proteids is necessary in order that it should be maintained. When, therefore, the external temperature falls, more of these substances must be ingested and oxidized to develop the required heat. The culmi- nation of this is seen in the Esquimaux, who keep up their temperature during the severity of an Arctic winter by consuming large quantities of oily substances, the oxidation of which produces more heat in proportion to lbs. in weight than any other kinds of food. In warm climates the amount of heat required to maintain that of the body is comparatively small; hence the propriety of reducing the quantity

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	THE MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
	THE MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION	491
		491

of food supplied under these circumstances, and using the carbohydrates rather than the hydrocarbons. Young animals eliminate more carbon dioxide than old ones in pro- portion to their weight, their tissues being more watery, disintegrating more rapidly, and being more amenable to oxidation. Females, on the other hand, making, as a rule, little muscular effort, give off less than males of the same age and weight. The proportion of carbon dioxide that is eliminated, as compared with the quantity absorbed, is termed the respiratory quotient, and in the horse CO ... . . CO is -~ = 09, whilst in carnivora the proportion is �~ =* 0"77. The amount of water that is expelled from the lungs during respiration is considerable. The average quantity of water contained in air at mean temperature and pressure is about 1 to 1"5 per cent, but the air which is expired is raised to a temperature only a degree or two below 100° F., and it is saturated, containing therefore about 7 per cent of water vapour. It has been estimated that in man about 600 litres of water vapour, weigh- ing 720 grammes, are given off daily, and the quantity given off by a horse may be taken at at least five times that amount. THE MECHANISM OF KESPIRATION The mechanism by which the respiratory acts are accomplished con- sists of the partly fixed and partly movable bony and cartilaginous frame- work of the chest and of the muscles, which form a large part of the walls of that cavity. The lungs themselves are passive agents, and only contribute to the movement of expiration by their elasticity. They accurately fill and fit the thoracic cavity, except in so far as room is afforded for the heart and great vessels. The principle on which tranquil respiration is accomplished is that the cavity of the chest becomes enlarged by muscular effort. As the diaphragm descends, and as the ribs are raised, air rushes in to equalize the pressure, and inspiration is effected. Then the muscular effort ceases, the diaphragm becomes more arched, the abdominal parietes, chest, and lungs retract by virtue of their elasticity, and expiration results. The thorax, or chest, is a conical cavity, narrow and compressed from side to side in front, and expanded behind. It is formed of the strong and unyielding back-bone above, and the sternum, or breast-bone, below. Be- tween these two parts extend the ribs, which number eighteen on each side, the first eight, or true ribs, being attached by their heads or upper ends to the spine, and by their lower ends, with the intervention of a piece

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			492 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		of cartilage, to the sternum or breast-bone. The remaining ten, false or asternal ribs, whilst attached above like the true ribs to the vertebrae, end below in cartilages which are only indirectly connected w^Tith the sternum. The first and last ribs are the shortest, the ninth is the longest. They form a series of highly elastic arches, the sharpness of the curvature being greatest in the first and diminishing to the last. The articulations formed by the heads of the ribs with the vertebras permit a slight degree of motion upon them. In complete expiration the ribs of the opposite sides of the thorax fall towards one another, and at the same time approxi- mate to those of their own side by their edges, thus diminishing the capacity of the chest; whilst in full inspiration the ribs are raised, form wider curves, separate from those of the opposite side and from each other, and thrust the sternum forwards, in this way effecting enlargement of the chest both from side to side and from before backwards. The move- ments of the ribs are effected by muscles placed between them, named the intercostals. These consist of two layers of short muscular fibres which extend between the edges of adjoining ribs, the external running down- wards and backwards, the internal running downwards and forwards, the former serving to raise the ribs, and thus to effect inspiration, which is aided by those fibres of the internal intercostals which extend between the cartilaginous portion of the ribs. The front aperture of the thorax is occupied by the trachea, oeso- phagus, large vessels, and nerves, together with firm connective tissue. The posterior opening of the thorax is very wide, and is closed by the great muscular arch of the diaphragm or midriff This important muscle divides the thorax from the abdomen. Its posterior concave surface is covered with the peritoneum or lining membrane of the belly, and is in contact with the liver, stomach, and organs of the abdomen; the anterior convex surface is covered with the pleura or lining membrane of the chest, and is in contact with the lungs. The diaphragm is the most powerful muscle of inspiration, for in the act of contraction the arch it naturally forms falls back and tends to become a plane surface, and thus the cavity of the chest is enlarged from before backwards at the expense of the abdomen. In forced respiration the chest is acted on by many muscles which are attached to its outer surface, and which tend to raise the ribs and effect inspiration. On the other hand, the muscles of the abdominal wall tend to pull down the ribs, compress the abdominal organs, and force forward the diaphragm; they consequently cause expiration. The enlargement of the chest during tranquil respiration is smaller

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			THE MECHANISM OF KESPIBATION 493

		than might be expected, for if a tape be passed round the animal, just behind the shoulder, it will be found to enlarge only about -§� inch, at the twelfth intercostal space about 1 inch, and at the last intercostal space about \ inch. It is estimated that the diaphragm moves back- ward towards the belly about 5 inches, lengthening the chest to that extent. The quantity of air inspired and expired at each respiration varies within wide limits. In tranquil respiration it may amount on the average to about 2 quarts with each respiration, or about 5 gallons per minute, when the number of respirations is ten, but after violent exercise the number of respirations may increase to one hundred or more per minute, with a corresponding increase in the volume of air breathed, amounting in one case to 97 gallons. In the horse the act of inspiration is much more prolonged than that of expiration, the proportion being sometimes as much as two to one, and there appears to be a very short interval between the end of the one act and the beginning of the other. The air that is used in respiration has been divided into four portions. First, there is that portion taken in during quiet breathing (tidal air), which may be estimated at from 200 to 300 cubic inches. But it is manifest that during exertion the animal can take in an additional amount over and above what it inspires in ordinary breathing. This is termed complemented air. Under these circumstances it also gives out with each expiration much more air than when an expiration has been made during rest; that extra quantity is named supplemental air. And these three portions�tidal, complemental, and supplemental air�are spoken of col- lectively as the " vital capacity". In young and strong animals, with free movement of the chest walls, the vital capacity is large; in old and weakly animals, when the cartilages of the ribs are ossified, and the lungs and thorax are less elastic, it is small. Finally, there is a portion of air termed the " residual air", which cannot be dislodged by the deepest expiration, but which is still subservient to the respiratory process in the air-cells of the lungs. If in a healthy living animal the walls of the chest be cut through, as, for example, by a sabre cut, or be perforated, as by a stake or by a rifle bullet, so that the cavity of the chest is opened, or even if this be done in a dead animal, the lung immediately collapses and retracts from the wall of the chest, and the hissing of air entering through the wound can be distinctly heard. If one side of the lung only be punctured, respiration, though greatly impeded, is yet capable of being performed, but if both cavities are opened suffocation quickly ensues, for with each expansion of the chest the outside air enters the pleural cavity more easily through

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	494


the wound than through the trachea, in consequence of which the lungs become compressed and cease to perform their office. The Nerves and Nerve - Centres of Respiration.�The nerve- centres which are implicated in quiet respiration are situated in that part of the brain termed the medulla oblongata, at the point where the vagi nerves take their origin. The destruction of this very small spot causes immediate death by arrest of the respiratory acts. It was accord- ingly named the " nceud vital", or vital spot, by Flourens. Nerve fibres run to and from this point. Amongst those which convey nervous im- pulses to it are the fibres of the vagus nerve which pass up to it. Those which conduct impulses away from it are fibres which pass down the spinal cord for some distance, and then emerge at the lower part of the neck and along the thorax to form the phrenic and intercostal nerves distributed to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles. When at rest, the horse breathes ten or twelve times per minute, and there is a general relation between the number of respirations and the number of the beats of the heart, the proportion being about 1:4 or 1:5, but the frequency with which the acts of respiration are performed is subject to great variation. At rest, or during sleep, the number is about ten or twelve in the minute, but after vigorous exercise, such as galloping for ten minutes, it may rise to fifty, sixty, or more in the same time, gradually subsiding as the animal becomes quiescent. In two horses, after a run of about 7 miles, the pulse was observed to rise from 40 to 132, and the respirations from 12 to 102, in the minute. After being at rest for three-quarters of an hour the pulse had fallen to 66 and to 54, whilst the respirations in each animal were 60 per minute (Arloing). The depth of the respirations greatly augments with increased frequency, so that a much larger volume of air enters, and is expelled from, the lungs at each inspiration and expiration. This constitutes forced respira- tion. ASPHYXIA This term, which, etymologically speaking, signifies pulselessness, has been erroneously applied to that condition in which there is great deficiency of oxygen, and, as a rule, increase of carbon dioxide in the blood. The amount of oxygen entering the lungs may be reduced rapidly by strangulation, or by closure of the mouth and nostrils, as in smothering, or by sudden closure of the glottis, as by choking, or by exposure to irrespirable gases, such as carbon dioxide and chlorine, or to such a gas as carbon monoxide, which, though respirable, replaces oxygen in the blood corpuscles, or by plunging the animal into another medium,

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			VENTILATION 495

		as into water or mercury, which is drowning, or by the simple withdrawal of oxygen from the air; or it may be induced more slowly by closing the air-tubes with the products of secretion, as in diphtheria or croup and laryngitis, or by paralysing the muscles of respiration, as by the action of curara, or by opening both pleural sacs simultaneously, thus preventing the lungs from following the expansion of the chest walls, or, lastly, by loss of blood. It is usually divided into three stages, the first of which, in rapidly-induced asphyxia, lasts about a minute, and is characterized by violent inspiratory efforts. Then the abdominal muscles contract power- fully, and strong expiratory efforts occur, which are succeeded by irregular spasms of the limbs, chiefly affecting the flexor muscles. The blood pressure rises to a great height, owing to the stimulation of the smaller vessels by the non-arterialized blood. In the second stage, which also lasts about a minute, the convulsive movements cease, the expiratory movements are hardly perceptible, the pupil dilates, and touching the eyeball excites no reflex movement of the lids. The blood - pressure gradually falls, and the muscles generally are relaxed. In the third stage, which lasts two or three minutes, the inspiratory efforts become more feeble, and only take place at long intervals spasmodically, the extensor muscles are convulsed, the head is thrown back, and death closes the scene. VENTILATION It may be taken for granted that air which has been once breathed is unfit for further respiration. Such air, we have seen, contains about 4\|- per cent of carbon dioxide, and experiment has shown that a far smaller proportion is poisonous, and it is generally admitted that a disagreeable or stuffy sensation is perceived by man when the air in a room contains about 1 per cent of carbon dioxide in 1000 of pure air. It is probable, however, that the feeling of closeness is not altogether due to the carbon- dioxide, but is in part owing to the exhalation from the skin and to the volatile products resulting from chemical changes in the body that are discharged from the lungs. M. Boussingault has estimated that a horse of average size eliminates 4800 litres, or between 8000 and 9000 pints, of carbon dioxide per diem, from which it is clear that a very large quantity of pure air must be supplied to prevent the proportion of the C0₂ from rising above 1 per cent. The object of good ventilation is to effect this renewal of the air without creating a draught, or, in cold periods of the year, causing a sudden inrush of air at a low temperature. In the case of the human subject it is held that to preserve the air in a fit state of purity, with ordinary or natural ventilation, at least 2000 cubic feet

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			496 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		of space should be allowed for each individual, and a much larger space, as might be expected, is required for the horse; but as a set-off to this it may be remarked that it has been found that the horse can bear without injury a larger percentage of C0₂ than man, and secondly, the construction and arrangements of stables are more favourable to natural ventilation than are the majority of human habitations. So if the space occupied by stables be somewhat smaller than those built for man, the renewal of the air is more effectually accomplished. The term " natural ventilation" has been suggested by Pettenkofer, who has shown that, besides the interchange of air and gases that takes place through open windows and doors, or through the cracks and inter- spaces of boards and ill-fitting frames of windows and doors when these are closed, the walls of most dwelling-houses, when composed of brick or sandstone and mortar, allow air to pass through them with much greater facility than is usually believed. Thus it is found by experiment that the natural pores of such walls allow of the passage of 2000 cubic feet of air through� 42 square feet of a free wall of sandstone. 30 ,, � ,, quarried limestone. 25 � � � brick. 19 � ,, ,, tufaceous limestone. 14 � � � mud. Two circumstances are of great importance in regard to the activity of natural ventilation�the relative temperature of the air within and without, and the presence of moisture in the walls. Moisture, by filling up the pores, greatly obstructs, if it does not altogether prevent, the passage of air through walls. It is present in large quantities in new buildings, in which, therefore, no natural ventilation takes place, and which are proverbially unhealthy. Pettenkofer found that in a room 14 feet square and 14 feet high, with a difference of temperature of 34° F. (66° F. inside, and 32° F. outside), the contents changed once in an hour; with a good fire in the stove it increased 25 per cent, and even when all apparent apertures and crevices were closed it only diminished 28 per cent. A stable built of mud is capable of permitting the entrance of a considerable volume of fresh air by natural ventilation, and can thus afford shelter to more animals than one built of sandstone. The activity with which the exchange of air is secured by natural and wholesome ventilation in a stable does not depend upon its cubic capacity, but upon the extent and nature of its ventilating walls and appliances, and hence a small stable built of porous material may secure better ventilation than a large one, partly because for each

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	DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS
	DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS	497
		497

animal there is more ventilating surface with equal cubic space, and partly because the air permeates the walls more readily. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS CATARRH OR COLD Definition.�The term catarrh is generally used to describe an inflam- matory condition of the lining membrane of the upper portion of the air- passages, commonly spoken of as "a cold", the special feature of which is a discharge of varied character from the nostrils, and sometimes the eyes also. Causes.�The popular term�cold, or a cold�correctly points to the origin of many cases of this disorder, but it should be understood that there are other causes of catarrh with which cold has no concern. For the most part it results from lengthened exposure to inclement weather under conditions of exhaustion and inadequate food, sudden change from an overheated and usually badly ventilated stable to the outer cold, and it is the general experience among horsemen that the opposite conditions to the latter frequently cause it. It would seem paradoxical that an animal should take cold on coming from a cold atmosphere to a warm one, and from nakedness to clothing and comforts. The explanation is probably to be found in the unwholesome and irritating nature of the stable atmos- phere upon the sensitive membranes of the air-passages. A horse requires a very large amount of air space, and the inadequate amount usually allowed is only tolerated when he has become acclimatized to close quarters. The advantages of pure air as a curative agent, when catarrh is established, are so well recognized among horse-dealers that some adopt the heroic though imprudent course of turning them out in a field. When the skin of a weak perspiring horse is suddenly exposed to a cold wind, the surface circulation receives a check of which the cold is a reaction or local mani- festation. The animal's condition at the time of exposure would appear to have much to do with his susceptibility in this respect; indifferent health and fatigue are unquestionably predisposing conditions. The horse in hard condition, sweating but not exhausted, will bear a cold shower- bath without taking cold, but his vital powers are sufficiently great to produce a healthy reaction. Infection.� An infectious form of catarrh is now generally recognized, and as such the disease periodically visits most large establishments where a great number of horses are stabled. Young horses, fresh from the country and drafted into town studs, seldom escape an attack, but their susceptibility to further infection would appear to be materially reduced as a consequence.

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			498 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		Symptoms.�Slight shivering fits usually usher in the attack, which more often than not pass unobserved. Then follow yawning and listless- ness, hanging the head and general dulness, staring of the coat, which feels harsh to the touch. The temperature of the extremities is variable, while that of the central parts of the body is increased, the thermometer introduced into the rectum indicating a rise more or less marked according to the severity of the attack. In some individuals sneezing is a prominent symptom, but it cannot be described as general. The nasal membrane is dry and the colour somewhat heightened, this symptom being followed by a watery discharge, in which the eyes also may participate. The watery fluid changes in a few days to a thick mucus or muco-purulent discharge. The appetite is usually impaired during the febrile stage, while a painful cough is a frequent concomitant later on. Treatment.�With good nursing, pure air, and suitable food a com- mon cold is not difficult to manage. Danger in these cases mostly results from neglect in giving timely attention to the case, or in putting the patient to work too soon. A fortnight should be allowed in which the disease may run its course. There is no remedy that will cut it short, but such agents as are selected will be given with a view to ameliorate the symptoms and enable nature to throw it off as soon as possible. In the early stage salycine in one or other of its combinations appears to hasten the discharge and lower temperature, spirit of nitrous aether being given with the same object. Acetate of ammonia has also been long in favour. When the discharge has become thick, and provided there is no cough, the sulphates of iron and copper are calculated to impart tone and arrest a tendency to a chronic discharge. If cough accompanies the disease, a smart liniment may be applied over the region of the throat, and a mixture of paregoric and glycerine, with some of the sweet spirit of nitre, may be found beneficial. Where a difficulty in swallowing points to an inflamed condition of the pharynx a gargle of chlorate, or nitrate, of potash is recommended, there being no objection to its being swallowed. Where debility and languor continue after the acute symptoms have abated, carbonate of ammonia with bitter vegetable tonics are prescribed. The nostrils should be sponged with warm water to which a little permanganate of potash has been added, and the edges anointed with vaseline to facilitate the discharge of nasal mucus. The food should be moistened and easy of mastication: linseed-tea, mashes, and carrots, with chaff and hay steamed, and the drinking-water should have the chill taken off in winter. If grass is available it may be given freely, nor need the attendant be alarmed if it imparts some of its colour to the discharge escaping from the nostrils.

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		CHRONIC NASAL CATARRH�NASAL GLEET 499 CHRONIC NASAL CATARRH�NASAL GLEET Definition.�-A lasting discharge from the nasal chambers, of varying quantity and character. When accompanied by an offensive odour it is known as ozoena. Causes.�Chronic discharges from the nostrils are usually the sequel of catarrh, in some cases resulting from cold, in others from influenza or strangles, from which the patient has been brought low in condition and made but a tardy recovery. The membranes high up in the facial cavities have entered upon a chronic low form of inflammatory action, by which an unhealthy secretion is formed, which, when retained, appears to aggravate the condition. If the disease is confined to the nasal chambers only, the prospect of restoration to a healthy state is much greater than when the sinuses of the face which communicate with them are the seat of unhealthy action. When this is the case, the matter may accumulate and become so thick as to make removal only possible by a surgical operation. In coal-mines the habitual inhala- tion of dust and unwholesome air is said to cause nasal gleet, as does also the foul conditions found on shipboard. Quite a large proportion of sea- born horses suffer from catarrh, and a greater proportion of cases of chronic nasal discharge are found among these horses than result from catarrh con- tracted in the usual way. In addition to the causes stated, nasal gleet not unfrequently arises out of a diseased condition of the fangs of the teeth and of the bones of the facial region. Symptoms.�When of recent date the discharge is thick and opaque, as in the later stages of catarrh or common cold, but as it becomes a settled condition it is subject to great variations, not only in respect of its con- sistence and character, but also as to the amount discharged. In the former connection it undergoes some remarkable changes, being at one time a thin, transparent, glutinous fluid, and at another thick, white, or even curdy-looking matter. Where structural changes have taken place in the diseased membrane, the discharge may be streaked with blood, and in some instances largely mingled with it. The outflow is much greater at some times than at others, and especially when the head is depressed or lowered to the ground. Where the matter is long pent up in the cavities of the face it acquires an offensive odour, which may continue or pass away, to return from time to time at varying intervals. More or less constitu- tional disturbance is remarked in cases of some standing, and where a disagreeable odour is attached to the discharge. The coat becomes un- thrifty and staring, there is general loss of condition, and the animal is easily fatigued. The submaxillary glands may become enlarged and hard-

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	500


ened, and the membrane lining the nostril assumes a leaden hue, symptoms which are also associated with glanders, and sometimes give rise to much anxiety and indecision in the matter of diagnosis, even among experts. Treatment.�It will prove a safe plan in every case of nasal discharge and glandular swelling of a chronic kind to isolate the patient and keep for his particular use one set of stable utensils, harness, &c. Both local and constitutional measures of treatment should be adopted. Good sound food and a liberal allowance of it, exercise but not work, and good sanitary surroundings. Internal agents of the astringent tonic class are found to be very beneficial, and the salts of different metals may be administered and changed from time to time, the one for the other, with advantage. A course of arsenic and iron may be tried first, and should it not prove successful, then a change to the copper salts may be made. It is probable that all tonics are help- Fig. 202.-insufflator it is decided to give arsenic, Fowler's solu- tion should be chosen and given in the food in doses of from 1 to 2 ounces twice a day. Local treatment of various kinds is recommended, and the agents employed are both wet and dry. The injection up the nostrils of astringent or styptic lotions with the aid of a syringe is not to be recommended, but the insufflation of iodoform by an instrument made for the purpose, and known as an insufflator (fig. 202), may be tried for a short period. It consists of an india-rubber ball, with a long vulcanite nozzle. The lotions most favoured are those in which the sulphates of zinc, copper, and iron form the principal part, and in some severe cases a solu- tion of chloride of zinc is used in the shape of Burnett's fluid. The patient is naturally alarmed by the use of nasal injections, and the success of the treatment depends largely upon the efficiency of the operator. There are cases that defy all treatment of this kind, owing to the in- accessibility of curative agents to the seat of disease; here the sinuses of the face may have to be trephined and the semi-solid matter removed (see "Operations"), after which the cavities will require to be repeatedly washed out with astringent and antiseptic solutions. Fumigation of the nostrils (fig. 203) with warm vapour impregnated with volatilized carbolic acid or turpentine should be tried. This may be done by means of a nose-bag containing warm, moist bran or saw- dust, over which a little of one or the other or both the agents named has

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	HEMORRHAGE
	HEMORRHAGE	501
		501

been sprinkled. The application should be made three times a day for not less than an hour on each occasion. In all cases of this kind the patient should be made to eat hay from the ground, so as to encourage the downward flow of matter from the cavities of the face. Where no benefit is derived from these several methods of treatment it may be desirable to wash out the sinuses of the face, but before this can be done one or more openings will require to be made into them by removing portions of bone, or, as it is termed, trepan- ning. HEMORRHAGE When blood escapes from the vessels into an open space, whether it be into one of the cavities of the body (chest or belly, &c.) or on _Kg ₂₀₃.__Fumigation _of _the _Nostrilsto the surface, it is described as hemorrhage. for Catarrh If, instead, it passes into the tissues, as in the case of a black eye or a " corn", it is spoken of as extravasation. Bleeding may occur from an artery or a vein, or both at the same time. In the first case it is distinguished as arterial hemorrhage, in the second as venous, and in the third mixed. For convenience of description different terms are employed to indicate the particular organs from which bleeding takes place. Thus bleeding from the nose is known as epistaxis (eVio-Ta^, to distil), from the lungs as haemoptysis (at/xa, blood, and Trrveiv, to spit), from the stomach as hsema- temesis (ai^a, blood, and e^eew, to vomit), from the ear, ottorhsegia, &c. &c. Causes.�Hemorrhage may be the consequence of either disease or accident. In some animals it originates in a congenital weakness of the vessels, in which case their walls give way under very trifling causes, as when bleeding from the nose comes on in the course of a gallop, excitement, or effort in draught, or when hemorrhage from the lungs is provoked by coughing. Cases have come under the notice of the writer where, without any apparent cause, blood would ooze through the vessels of the skin and hang in drops from the hair at numerous points. This form of the disease is termed hsemophilia (ai^a, blood, and (piKew, to love). Hemorrhage as a result of disease is exemplified where the walls of the capillary vessels are weakened by fatty degeneration and fail to resist the pressure of the blood within them. The larger arteries sometimes become

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			502 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		dilated and ulcerated, and break, from the same cause. Sloughing ulcers of the bowels, stomach, and other organs may lay open the blood-vessels and lead to serious or even fatal extravasation. The accidental causes of hemorrhage are wounds and blows, the former resulting from cuts, stabs, and lacerations of the flesh. Symptoms.�Hemorrhage from the surface of the body is obvious, but internal bleeding is not always so. When it takes place into the lungs it may be evidenced by its escape from the nostrils; but when the escape is into the chest or belly, or other closed cavities, the outward indications of its occurrence must be sought for in certain manifestations of disordered function and physical signs. Of these the more suspicious are a pale or blanched appearance of the membranes lining the mouth, the nostrils, and the eyelids. The pupils of the eyes become dilated, and the eye itself presents a bright, glassy appearance. The breathing is deep and sighing, the extremities become cold, and patches of cold sweat appear on the body. The upper lip is raised from time to time, and if the head be elevated by placing the hand under the jaw, the animal staggers. As the blood drains away, and supply to the brain fails, the muscles twitch and quiver and finally undergo general relaxation, when the body staggers and falls. Death from loss of blood is preceded by convulsions. Treatment.�The course to be adopted in dealing with hemorrhage will depend upon the organ affected, and in external bleeding in some measure as to whether the flow is from an artery or a vein, or from smaller and less important vessels. If an artery be laid open through an external wound, the blood flows from it in jerks corresponding to the beating of the heart, and it is, besides, of a bright scarlet hue. If it proceeds from a vein, it passes from the wound in a continuous stream, and the colour is dark red or purple. Where veins and arteries are divided at the same time these two colours are blended together, giving a colour intermediate between the two, or a light and dark streakiness, to the stream. If the vessel from which the blood escapes is of considerable size, and can be made accessible, the bleed- ing may be arrested by ligature, i.e. by tying it round tightly with a piece of clean carbolized silk or string. If it is an artery, the ligature should be applied to that side of the opening in the vessel nearest the heart, from which direction the blood is coming. If it be a vein, that side farthest from the heart will be selected. Pressure on the bleeding part, by means of the finger or a bandage, may suffice to stop the flow. Where the blood proceeds from a number of small vessels, a little cotton-wool applied to the broken surface will sometimes have the desired effect. Should it not do so, the part may be freely irrigated with cold water, or dressed with a solution

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		BLEEDING FEOM THE NOSE�EPISTAXIS 503 of perchloride of iron, alum, or sulphate of copper. The application of the actual cautery (hot iron) may be made in some cases where the divided vessel is not large. The internal administration of turpentine, lead, opium, or tannic or gallic acid will increase the coagulating power of the blood and assist in filling up the breach. BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE�EPISTAXIS In race-horses and hunters, when highly strung and in a plethoric condition, bleeding from the nose frequently occurs in the course of a race or the chase, and many a brilliant performer in either capacity has had his career cut short, and the hope and aspirations of both owner and trainer levelled to the ground, by the occurrence of this mishap. Bleeding from the nose may be quite accidental, and it is by no means the case that its first occurrence should be followed by a repetition of the event. Where, however, this does occur, and the mishap is repeated from time to time, the existence of some structural weakness of the vascular system may be reasonably inferred. It does not, however, follow that it should continue throughout life. Several instances are known to the writer where bleeding from the nose at two or three years old has repeatedly occurred, to disappear altogether at four or five; but it is poor consolation to an owner of promising and highly engaged youngsters to be told that the capacity for winning races will be reached when all the best opportunities have passed and the stakes safely landed by others. Causes.�That weakness of the vascular system is hereditary is well affirmed in certain families of horses, no better example of which could be given than the descendants of that famous sire Hermit, several of whom were hopelessly afflicted horses. Bleeding from the nose is usually determined by some severe exertion, sudden effort, or excitement acting upon a naturally weak or over-distended state of the vessels. The latter condition is found in plethora, in con- gestion of the lining membrane of the nostrils, attendant upon cold and certain specific fevers. Sometimes it arises out of a superficial ulceration of the nostrils of a benign character, but more commonly in the destructive ulceration of glanders. It is also a prominent feature in that form of blood disease known as purpura hsemorrhagica. Symptoms.�The discharge of blood may not be more than a few drops, or it may flow in a large and continuous stream. In the one case it is a matter of little moment, save as a warning of its possible recurrence, while in the other it may lead to serious mischief and give

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	504	HEALTH AND DISEASE

rise to symptoms of an exhausting and threatening character, which we have fully described under the head of "Hemorrhage". Treatment.�Perfect quiet and a cold stable are the first requirements in the treatment of epistaxis. In the choice of remedies the great object will be to cause the blood-vessels to contract and to hasten the formation of a clot of blood at the seat of rupture, and thus effect a stoppage of the escapement. These indications are most likely to be met by irrigating the face with ice-cold water from the poll downwards, or applying a bag of powdered ice over the entire region of the nostrils. Should this fail to meet the purpose, the injection of astringent solutions into the nostrils, or the insufflation of fine astringent powders, may be resorted to. The salts of iron, acetate of lead, or gallic or tannic acid will be found to answer the purpose best. Plugging the bleeding nostril with cotton-wool soaked with one or another of the astringent solutions referred to may be tried in severe cases, but its adoption requires care. For internal remedies see " Hemorrhage ". Prevention.�Horses given to bleeding from the nose should not be put to severe work, neither should they be highly fed, and it is most desirable that food and water be given them two or, better, three hours before going to work. With the object of imparting tone to the vessels a dram of sulphate of iron should be given in the food twice daily for a fort- night or three weeks now and again. PUS IN THE GUTTURAL POUCHES The guttural pouches (fig. 204) are two somewhat capacious cavities situated between the base of the skull above and the pharynx and larynx below. The inner walls of the sacs are in apposition with each other, while their outer walls are for the most part covered with the parotid glands. They communicate with the pharynx by two openings�the eustachian tubes, and their function would appear to be in some way connected with the sense of hearing, and at the same time to allow the free expansion of the pharynx in the act of swallowing and of the larynx in breathing. They are lined by mucous membrane which is continuous with that lining the throat. It occurs, therefore, that inflammatory affections of the latter sometimes extend to the former, as is now and again the case in strangles, influenza, and pharyngitis, with the result that one or both guttural pouches become more or less distended with pus. Symptoms.�Here there is a chronic discharge from one or both nostrils, generally of an intermittent character, sometimes constant, but always variable in amount. The flow of matter is greatly increased under

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PUS IN THE GUTTUKAL POUCHES

505

Fig. 204.�Transverse Section of Horse's Head, showing the Guttural Pouches

a, Brain. B, Maxillary Condyle. c, Sphenoid Bone. D, D, Guttural Pouches. e, Great Cornu of Hyoid
Bone. F, F, Eustachian Tubes. G, Oesophagus. H, H, Parotid Glands.

certain conditions, notably when the head is held low, as in eating and
drinking from the ground. During mastication coughing is induced in the
act of swallowing, when
the pellet of food is some-
times expelled from the
mouth into the manger.
In some cases of this kind,
where post-mortem ex-
amination has been made,
the pus has been found
to have formed itself into
numerous solid concretions

varying in size from a pea

Fig. 205.�Concretions of Pus from the Guttural Pouches

to a walnut, some being

rounded, others angular and faceted masses (fig. 205).

In structure all

are laminated or formed in layers.

Vol. I. 34

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			506 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		The presence of angular specimens shows them to have existed some considerable time, and, by rubbing one against another, to have worn down the original rounded surface into a number of facets. The disease may be confined to one pouch, or extend to both. The affected side of the throat in the region of the parotid gland is full or distinctly swollen. Pressure applied to this part induces pain, and if deep pressure be made, matter is sometimes caused to flow from the nostrils in large amount. If the escape of pus be prevented by partial or complete closure of the escape holes in the eustachian tubes, the accumulation of matter becomes so great as to interfere with swallowing, and pressure on the larynx induces a noisy or roaring sound in breathing. Under these circumstances the outward swelling would be very considerable and marked by distinct fluctuation. Treatment.�It is frequently the case that this abnormal condition of the guttural pouches is in existence for a considerable time before it is recognized. The continuous discharge from the nostrils following upon strangles and influenza is generally regarded as the result of a catarrhal state of the nasal membrane, and it is not until some interference with swallowing, or breathing, or some enlargement in the region of the throat takes place that the actual state of affairs becomes recognized. Before proceeding to any heroic measures of treatment, it may be desirable to try the effects of a run at grass and a blister to the throat. As the downward position of the head assumed in grazing favours the discharge of the matter, and the emptying of the sac, this may have the desired effect. Should it not do so, then the distended pouch or pouches will require to be punctured and their contents evacuated. This is an opera- tion that calls for expert assistance, as there are numerous important vessels and nerves in the region of the throat which it would be dangerous to injure. The operation consists in cutting through the skin behind the posterior edge of the parotid gland, about 4 to 5 inches below the ear, and over the seat of the most fluctuating point. This having been done, a hole is made into the pouch either by dissection or, what is safer, by carefully thrusting a blunt-pointed instrument something like a pen-holder, but having a wider base, through the tissues into the sac, and then cautiously enlarging the opening upward and downward with the knife. When the sac has been emptied, it should be thoroughly washed out with a weak solution of carbolic acid. This should be done, if possible, while the horse's head is inclined downwards, which position he may be made to assume by feeding him on the ground. As a repetition of the injection will require to be made on the two following days, the aperture should be kept open

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			DISEASES OF THE LARYNX 507

		by introducing into it a piece of india-rubber tubing and keeping the patient tied up by the head. The subsequent injections can then be made through the tubing. DISEASES OF THE LARYNX Diseases of the larynx more especially involve the mucous membrane by which it is lined. Of these the more common are: (l) Laryngitis or inflammation; (2) ulceration; (3) oedema or effusive swelling. In addition, it is also liable to disorder of the nerves, by which its movements are regulated. These neurotic disturbances are represented by (a) paralysis, (b) spasm. Morbid growths, in the form of tumours or polypi, are also now and again accountable for laryngeal trouble. Laryngitis, or inflammation of the larynx, although by no means a common disorder in the horse, is nevertheless of serious import when it assumes a severe or acute character. In some instances it proves rapidly fatal, as the result of asphyxia or suffocation following upon swelling of the inflamed membrane and consequent narrowing of the breathing aperture. In others it runs a less acute course, and when the disease subsides leaves behind a more or less lingering irritation, attended with chronic cough, and maybe difficulty of breathing. Causes.�Laryngitis is more especially seen in stabled animals, and frequently results from exposure to cold and wet after severe exertion, or from sudden changes of temperature in animals occupying hot, badly- ventilated stables. It may also arise out of a common cold, or may appear in the course of an attack of influenza, or strangles, or as the result of the specific poison of glanders, or purpura hsemorrhagica. Operations on the larynx for roaring are sometimes followed by it, and we have known it to be induced by the lodgment of foreign substances in the laryngeal cavity. Air charged with irritating vapours is also capable of exciting laryngitis in susceptible subjects. Symptoms.�The symptoms of the disease will vary with the severity of the attack. When it arises out of cold, it is commonly preceded by the ordinary symptoms of that ailment. Usually its onset is marked by general indications of illness, evinced by slight dulness, impaired appetite, increase in the body temperature, quickened pulse, and maybe more or less soreness of the throat. Where no such premonitory symptoms appear the disease is ushered in by a severe and painful cough, which comes on in paroxysms. In character the cough is harsh and coarse, and the painful nature of the act is denoted by the effort which the patient appears to make to suppress it, and the restlessness and excitement it induces. Pres-

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			508 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		sure on the throat gives rise to pain, and its soreness is further shown by difficulty in swallowing, the food being altogether refused, or dropped from the mouth after partial mastication. The nose is protruded, the breathing is much interrupted, each act of inspiration being prolonged and laboured, and attended by a coarse, hissing, wheezing, or roaring sound, sometimes loud enough to be heard at a considerable distance. Intervals of relief occur now and again, when the symptoms of distress subside and the breathing becomes less noisy. As the disease progresses the face wears an anxious expression. The membrane of the eye and nose is of a dark- red or livid hue�denoting imperfect aeration of the blood, which leads the animal to seek for air and turn to the door whenever it is opened. The pulse is quick, full, and firm, and the legs are cold. In the paroxysms of threatened suffocation the animal paws the ground with the fore-feet, shakes the head violently, and breaks out into patchy sweats. Treatment.�In the treatment of laryngitis it is of the first import- ance that the patient be provided with a thoroughly clean stable, and that the air be kept free from contamination with the products of de- composition and irritating substances, both solid and gaseous. Nothing tends so much to aggravate the disease as an atmosphere charged with ammonia and other products of putrefaction. It is equally important to keep down the dust of the stable, which, in passing over the larynx, serves to provoke coughing and add to the breathing trouble. Ventilation should be free, but it is at the same time desirable that the temperature of the stable should not be allowed to fall beyond 55°, or, better still, maintained at 60°, and it is to the advantage of the patient if the air be kept moist. This may be done by introducing pails of boiling water into the stable, from which warm vapour will be given off. These provisions having been carried out, the surface warmth is to be maintained by ample clothing. The food should be warm, soft, and succulent, and given in small quantities, and often. Bran scalded with hot linseed-tea and mixed with boiled carrots or roots, and given while warm, is the most suitable diet. As a change a few creed oats may be added, or a little boiled oatmeal. Or the patient may be allowed to pick a little scalded hay from a pail while it is still hot. With regard to medicines, it should be borne in mind that where difficulty of swallowing exists the forcible administration of draughts and balls must not be attempted. Small quantities of an electuary, composed of belladonna, chlorate of potash, and treacle may be inserted into the mouth on a stick every three or four hours, when the animal will suck it in. In the act of swallowing it will be conveyed to the throat, and there exercise its soothing influence on the inflamed part. Considerable relief will be afforded by causing the

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	DISEASES OF THE LAKYNX
		509


animal to inhale warm vapour from scalded bran contained in a nose-bag. Outwardly, hot cloths, or a linseed-meal and bran poultice, should be applied to the throat, or mustard may be employed instead, or a weak cantharides blister. When, as sometimes occurs, the breathing becomes difficult and attended with a loud roaring noise, the operation of tracheotomy should be promptly performed. This consists in cutting a hole into the windpipe, through which the patient is made to breathe by means of a tube inserted into it (fig. 206). Instant relief follows the operation, and on the sub- sidence of the disease the tube is removed and the wound allowed to heal. Tracheotomy should not be attempted by any but a qualified veterinary surgeon. Where, as usually occurs in severe attacks, solid food is altogether refused, the strength must be upheld by a liberal supply of eggs and milk, or even beef-tea in lin- seed or oatmeal gruel. If prostration and weakness are marked, a little spirits of wine may be added to the gruel twice or thrice a day. Acute attacks of laryngitis not Unfrequently leave behind _Fig. 206.-Tracneotomy Tube inserted in the Windpipe chronic changes in the mucous membrane. It may, for instance, become thickened and irritable, in which case the breathing will be interfered with and a troublesome cough remain for a longer or shorter period. Ulceration of the larynx, beginning in the glands of the mucous membrane, paralysis of the muscles of the organ, ending in roaring, and, lastly, small tumours, are also consequences of this disease. A course of iodide of potassium and mineral tonics should always be resorted to after the acute symptoms have subsided, in anticipation of one or the other of the changes noted, and an iodine blister to the throat, repeated two or three times at suitable intervals, will also assist in re- establishing a healthy condition in the diseased organ.

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

510

Roaring and Whistling.�Eoaring and whistling are defects of
respiration, arising out of a diseased condition of some portion of the
air-passages, whereby one or the other of these sounds is produced,
according to the nature and degree of the obstruction. As usually met
with, it is a chronic and incurable disease, resulting from paralysis of
the dilator muscles of the larynx. Less frequently it arises from other

causes of a temporary character.

?jli?^

Causes.�Perhaps no equine affec-
tion has attracted more attention from
veterinary authorities than this, and
the opinion is universally held by them,
that in a large measure heredity is re-
sponsible for its wide prevalence.
Most people, whether interested in
horses or not, have had the subject

D--

forced upon their attention from time
to time in connection with turf cele-
brities, and if the hereditary character
of roaring had been more generally

-C

accepted in the early days of horse-
racing there is no doubt that both our
thoroughbred stock and their half-bred
produce would have been less subject
to the malady than they are now known
to be. So many celebrated roarers,
have gone to the stud that persons,

Roarer'

Fig. 207.

best acquainted with the stud-book

tell us it is difficult to find a thorough-

A, Thyroarytenoid Cartilage. B, Arytenoid
Muscle. c, Crico-arytenoid Muscle. D, Left
Arytenoid Muscle (atrophied). E, Left Crico-

arytenoid Muscle (atrophied).

bred horse whose progeny are abso-
lutely free of roarers. Be this as it

may, the race-horse of to-day is so
susceptible that the slightest cough in a favourite animal spreads dismay
among owners and trainers, and a large section of the general public
not unfrequently share in the alarm. Chronic roaring is generally
referable to wasting of the dilator muscles of the larynx, following upon
a cold, an attack of influenza, or strangles, or some affection of the chest_rall of which appear to have the effect of causing paralysis of the nerve
of supply to the parts affected; or it may, and does, come about while an
animal is in the best of general health. Numerous dissections prove that
the left side of the larynx is almost invariably diseased, and the theory is
suggested that this nerve (the left recurrent branch of the pneumogastric)

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	DISEASES OF THE LARYNX
	DISEASES OF THE LARYNX	511
		511

is rendered specially liable to derangement, in consequence of its having to wind round one of the larger vessels (aorta) emerging from the heart before ascending the neck. This conclusion may or may not be the correct one, but the fact remains that the right nerve, which does not take this course, is seldom or never affected. Microscopic examination of the nerve trunk has failed to elicit any information as to the intimate cause of the paralysis, as no change in the structure of the fibres is observable, and we are left to assume that whatever interruption there may have been in the nerve current during life it was not of this nature. In its chronic form roaring prevails in males to a much greater extent than in females, and more frequently in stallions than geldings. It is seldom or never seen in ponies under 14 hands, and the liability to the disease increases with the height of the animal and the length of neck. Acute Roaring.�We have hitherto spoken of the one principal cause of roaring, but, as we have already pointed out, there are others of a less serious character, and some of them amenable to treatment. It will be understood that any obstruction to the free ingress and egress of air in the respiratory passage, and especially that portion of it which extends from the nostrils to the lungs, may have the effect of producing a roaring noise. A horse will roar when any tumour or obstructive thickening- exists in the nasal chambers, or from any undue pressure on the wind- pipe. Roaring may also be induced by pressure on the larynx, by an accumulation of "matter" in the guttural pouches, by an enlargement of the glands of the throat, or by a spasmodic contraction of the muscles. Moreover, it may, and does, too frequently result from distortion of the larynx following the abuse of the bearing rein, but whether this is the explanation or not it is difficult to say. Symptoms.�That grunting is a common accompaniment of roaring is so well known among horse-dealers that they may be seen, in auction sale-yards and other confined places, threatening the animals with a stick to see if they grunt with fear, and pinching the throat to provoke a cough, the quality of which is in a certain measure, and to an experienced man, a guide to the existence of the disease. Though roarers very frequently have this deep cough, which is a mixture of groan and cough, there are many horses only moderately affected with the malady, who do not, and will not, cough when the larynx is pressed, as there are also whistlers who do not grunt on a feint being made to strike them. It has also to be borne in mind that many horses of nervous temperament, and others when out of condition, will grunt on being threatened with a stick, although perfectly sound in the wind. In this affection the patient, while at rest, shows no symptoms, nor

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	512 HEALTH AND DISEASE

are any awakened, save in bad cases, in the slow paces, and it is not until the animal is galloped, or, in the case of a harness-horse, compelled to draw a load uphill, or move at a quick pace, that the respiratory trouble becomes apparent. Paralytic roaring usually comes on gradually, and shows but little variation in its severity, and in this respect it differs from spasm of the larynx, which is sudden in its onset, remains only for a brief period, and as suddenly disappears. Treatment.�If roaring is the result of paralysis of the laryngeal muscles treatment is not hopeful, and to steady its further progress and palliate the symptoms is as much as we may look for. Various attempts, surgical and otherwise, have been made to afford relief to the disabled organ. The most recent of these consisted in the removal of that part of the larynx (arytenoid cartilage) over which the muscles had ceased to exercise control, and whose displacement constituted the immediate cause of obstruction to the ingress of air in the act of breathing. Although the operation referred to cannot be said to have been followed by an encouraging measure of success it cannot be regarded as an unqualified failure, as in the hands of the writer it has had the effect in several instances of restoring useless animals to a state of usefulness. The method most commonly adopted for aiding respiration in these cases is that of inserting a tube into the windpipe about one-third of the distance down the neck. Through this artificial channel respiration can be effi- ciently carried on without the objectionable noise and premature distress resulting from the disease, and by its use the animal's services may be considerably prolonged and his comfort under exertion very materially enhanced. It is, however, at the best an unsightly expedient, and not altogether unattended with pain, while sooner or later the irritation in- duced by the tube will provoke an outward or inward growth of " proud flesh", rendering a further operation necessary, or maybe the destruc- tion of the animal. All horses suffering from this disease should be kept in high condition. Throwing them out of work and " letting them down" adds considerably to the embarrassment of the breathing, if it does not also expedite the disease. In those cases where the breathing is left defective after an attack of cold, influenza, or strangles, no time should be lost in applying a counter-irritant to the throat, such as mustard or turpentine liniment, and a repetition of the application should be made at intervals for several times. Moreover, paralytic roaring should be anticipated by the early administration of full doses of nux vomica.

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