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		THE HORSE ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

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			SKIN MARKINGS�I

		Black, White Snip on Nose Brown, White Face Skewbald Bay, White Blaze Chestnut, White Star

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/1�>U

°3

THE HORSE

ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

WITH A COMPLETE GUIDE TO BREEDING
TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT

Edited by

Prof. J. WORTLEY AXE, M.R.c.v.s.

Ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons

Late Lecturer at the Royal Veterinary College, and at the Agricultural Colleges of Downton and Wye

Chief Veterinary Inspector to the Surrey County Council

Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the British Dairy Farmers' Association

Author of " The Mare and Foal" "Abortion in Cattle" " Anthrax in Farm Stock "

" Examination of Horses as to Soundness " " Glanders, its Spread and Suppression "^ " Swine Fever

" Lithotomy or the Removal of Stone from the Bladder of the Horse"

VOLUME III

THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY

34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND

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	CONTENTS

		VOLUME III

Section IV.�THE HOESE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE {Continued) Medicines {continued)�........... 1 Drugs and their Uses, Drugs and their Doses, Medicines and their Thera- peutical Action, Prescriptions, Administration of Medicines Nursing.....-.......- 23 The Nurse, The Sick-Box, Invalid Food, Poultices and Poulticing, Mustard Plasters, Back-Baking, Washing, Bandages and Bandaging, Blistering, Slings and Slinging, Gargles and Mouth-Washes, Suppositories, Liniments and Embrocations, Lotions, Ointments, Plasters or Charges Poisoning.............43 Introduction, Corrosive or Irritant Poisons, Narcotic Poisons Veterinary Hygiene - -.........64 Ordinary Conditions of Health, Stables, Food, Examination of Air, Indi- vidual Hygiene, Hygienics Applied to Diseased Animals, Signs and Symptoms of Disease, Prevention and Suppression of Infectious Diseases Operations.............156 Means of Eestraint, Neurotomjr, Neurectomy, Unnerving; Firing or the Actual Cautery, Tenotomy, Castration, Passing the Catheter, Ovariotomy in Troublesome Mares, Castration of Eigs or Cryptorchids Section V.�EQUINE LOCOMOTION The House Standing - ....... 191 Speed.............. 193 The Walk............. 194 The Trot ... -......... 195 The Amble..... ....... 195 The Canter.....-....... 195 The Gallop -------...... 198 V

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		vi CONTENTS

			Page Leaping and Jumping ---__.. 199 Taking-off, Landing over a Jump Section VI.�BREEDING The Stud.............205 General Requirements of the Breeding-Stud Food - .........208 Water Stocking and Overstocking..........210 Foundation Stock -.....- . . . ' . - 211 Early Mating of Mares..........213 Management of In-Foal Mares -........215 Feeding, Work, Stabling. When Foals Should Fall - ........ 219 The Foal at Birth ............ 220 Foals Prematurely Born - - - - - '..... 221 Hand-Rearing of Foals.......... 222 Use and Abuse of Cow's Milk......... 224 Weaning Foals............ 225 The Mare after Foaling .......... 226 Sterility-............... 229 Artificial Insemination -......... 231 Sires ---�-.........234 Condition in the Sire Telegony ------.......239 Generation - - - - - - -.....- 245 Impregnation, The Ovum, Changes in the Ovum after Impregnation, the Development of the Embryo Evolution and Generation........ - 257 Alternate Generation Physiology of Gestation and Parturition ------ 261 Impregnation, Care of the Mare during Pregnancy, Accidents Incidental to Pregnancy, Parturition, Difficult Parturition, Mechanical Aids to Delivery, Application of Force in Delivery, Care of Mare and Foal after Parturition The Rate of Growth in the Horse........286

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CONTENTS

Section VII.�HORSE TRAINING

The General Training and Preparing of Horses - - - 301

^^ndividuality> ^Whip and Bit, Training for Hard Work, Water, Grooming,
lne Stable Accommodation, System, Food, Companionship

Training the Thoroughbred........ - 304

Trials

Schooling the Hunter -.......... 307

First Mount, Jumping, Treatment in Summer
Prepar_INg the Show Horse and Harness Horse - - ³¹⁰

The Show Hunter

Training the Trotter .".....---�- ³¹³

The Yearling, The Training of the Made Trotter, The Autumn and Winter
Treatment of Adult Horses, Beginning a New Season, Food

Section VIII.�STABLES

The Buildings and Fittings- -......" ' ³¹⁹

The Fittings, Drainage, Ventilation, Harness-Room, Fodder-Room, The
Coach-House, Tool-House, The Yard, Water-Supply, Stables for Cart-
Horses, Tramway Stables, Racing Stables

Stable Management ...---"----" ³³⁹

The Importance of Complete Supervision, Stable Vices, Food, Bedding,
Harness, Clipping and Singeing, Ventilation of Stables, Temperature ol
Stables

Section IX.�EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS

Introductory -......._ ... 365

366
367

Preliminary Observations - - - - -

Examination of the Eyes, Nose, and Mouth -
Examination of the Head --------

General Examination -------

Eruptive Diseases -----------

Action............. - 374

Defects of Conformation and Deformities

Examination of the Legs and Feet ------

385
386

Examination of the Wind -------

Removal of the Shoes ...... -

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			CONTENTS
V1U


		Section X.�THE TEETH OF THE HORSE Page Number and Arrangement - - - -......- 389 Temporary Dentition, Eruption of the Permanent Teeth, Changes in the Form of the Teeth from Wear, Evidence of Age after Ten Years

	Section XL�WARRANTY Definition ......... - 405 General Warranty, Qualified Warranty, Special Warranty Representations that do not Amount to Warranty � �■ - 407 Fraud.............. 409 Patent Defects -411 Dealers and Private Persons and Others - - - - 414 Soundness....... .....419 Vices............ . 494 Section XII.�HORSE-SHOEING History of Horse-Shoeing.......- - 429 Anatomy and Physiology of the Foot.......433 Internal Structure of Hoof, Growth of Hoof, Cartilage, The Frog Preparation of Feet for Shoeing........438 Shoes - -...........441 Material, Weight, Thickness, Width, The Foot Surface of Shoes, Ground Surface, "Calkins", Toe-pieces, Nails and Nail-holes, Prepared Bar-iron, Machine-made Shoes Fitting Shoes.......- - - - - 446 Care in Fitting, Circumferential Fitting, Surface Fitting, Hot and Cold Fitting, Clips Nailing On the Shoe - .......450 Roughing.............451 Injuries from Shoeing........... 452 Nails, Clips, Uneven Pressure of the Shoe, "Cutting" or "Interfering", Over-reach, Clacking or Forging

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		CONTENTS ix Section XIII.�THE TRANSIT OF HORSES Page Sea Carriage......_...... 461 Diet, Medicines, Horse Boats Land Carriage ------ - - - - - - 464 Section XIV.�THE HORSE AND ITS POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD The Horse of the Present and the Past ------- 471 Special Features in Structure.........484 Bony Framework. Muscular System, The Head, Colour, Size, The Ass, Zebras Skin Markings and Callosities of the Horse - - ... 497 Skin Markings, Callosities (Chestnuts and Ergots) False Nostrils and Guttural Pouches.......508 Fossil Ancestors of the Horse.....- 509 Section XV.�THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE Horses of the Past........... 517 The Grecian Horse........... 521 The Horses of Rome - ........ ₅₂s The Horses of Asia and Africa.........₅₃₁ The Arab and the Barb --........«gi The Horse in Britain...........₅₃₅

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			ILLUSTRATIONS

		VOLUME III FULL-PAGE PLATES Skin Markings�I (colour) . ^Page Frontispiece Medicinal Plants�III . ......6 Poulticing �.....32 Simple Slings - .....40 Patent Slings . 42 Poisonous Plants�I (colour) . Poisonous Plants�II (colour) . Food Plants�I (colour) - Food Plants�II (colour) ... _n9 Horse Hobbled�Horse Cast . - 156 Vinsot's Operating-Table .... . . 158 Neurectomy�The High Plantar Operation - - - - - - 164 Horse Cast for Firing - ..... - 166 Horse Cast for Castration.......... 172 Castration............. 176 The Walk............. 194 The Trot.............. 196 The Canter............. 198 The Leap: Approaching and Taking-off....... ²⁰⁰ The Leap : Suspension, Landing, and Recovery...... ²⁰² xi

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	xii ILLUSTRATIONS Pony Stallion Sir George (colour)........ 220 Shire Mare and Foal (colour)........- 268 Mr. Walter Winans' Trotters - - - � - - - - -314 A Modern Stable (colour)......... - 324 Dentition of the Horse at Various Ages�I ------ 390 Dentition of the Horse at Various Ages�II --.--- 394 Dentition of the Horse at Various Ages�III - � - - - - 396 Dentition of the Horse at Various Ages�IV...... 400 Dentition of the Horse at Various Ages�V...... 402 Hackney Mare, Lady Keyingham (colour) - - .... 444 Mr. Armour's Team of Dappled Greys�Dappled Grey Gelding - - 498 Skin Markings�II (colour)...... - 502 Microscopic Structure of Plantar Pads, Chestnuts, and Ergot, - - 508 Skeleton of Phenacodus�Skeleton of Protorohippus - - - - 510 Comparison of the Fore and Hind Feet op the Horse with those of some of its Ancestors.......... 512 Skulls of some Ancestors of the Horse....... 514 Prjevalsky's Mongolian Wild Horse�Restoration of the Four-toed Ancestor of the Horse - ..... 520 Assyrian Horses�Greek Horses......... 524 The Darley Arabian�The Godolphin Arabian ... - 534 Eclipse�Flying Childers � 538

		TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS

			Page Poulticing one side of the Head - - 30 Poulticing the Throat - - - 31 Poultice applied to the Withers - - 31 Poultice applied to the Breast - - 32 Method of Rolling a Bandage - - 36- A Simple Apparatus for Rolling Ban- dages ------ 36 Bandaging a Fore-leg, showing the
Administering a Ball - - - - 19 A Horse-Gag ----- 20 Balling-Gun - - - - 20 Syringe and Needles - - - - 21 Making a Subcutaneous Injection in the Neck ----- 22 Poultice-Boot ----- 30 Poulticing the Head 30

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ILLUSTRATIONS

xin

Clippers for Trimming Legs - - 138
Toe-tip for Horses turned to grass - 139
Clothing for Sick Horse - - - 143
Points for Feeling the Pulse - - 146
Feeling the Pulse - - - - 147
Sphygmograph Diagrams of the Pulse
(after Sanderson, Dudgeon, and
Steell) - - - - - 148

Twitch applied - - - - - 156
Fore-leg strapped up - - - - 157
The Travis - - - - - 158

Side-line......159

Hobbles ------ 159

Cross Hobbles - - - - - 159

Spring Hook for Hobbles - - - 160
Tenotomy and Neurectomy�Localities

of the various Operations - - 162

Neurotomy Needle - - - - 163

Neurotomy Needle and Knife combined 163
High Plantar Neurectomy by Trans-
verse Incision- - - - - 163

Low Plantar Neurectomy � Raising
Digital Nerve by Aneurism Needle
threaded with Carbolized Silk or
Gut ------ 164

Low Plantar Neurectomy�Severing
Digital Nerve held out by Carbolized
Silk or Gut ----- 164

Median Neurectomy - 165

Neurectomy of the Ulnar Nerve - - 165
Firing Irons - - - - - 166

Spavin-punch - - - - - 167

Cunean Tenotomy�Scalpel inserted,

forceps holding away fascia - - 168
Tenotomy. Tenotomy knife inserted
beneath Tendon�Skin cut away to
show position of Blade beneath Ten-
don�Forceps holding Sheath - - 169
Tenotomy Knife - - - - 169

Tenotomy of the Perforans Tendon,
showing position of Hands and
Knife ------ 170

Castrating Knife - - - - 173

method of applying the bandage
over a pad of cotton-wool
Bandaging a Fore-leg, showing the
bandage completed and tied -

Neck Cradle.....

Yew (Tazus baccata) - - - -
Rhododendron (B. hybridum)
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)
Indian Pea (Lathyrus sativus)
Spanish-Fly (Cantharis vesicataria)

Sting of Bee.....

Wasp Sting.....

Colchicum autumnale -
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
Starwort (Stellaria Holostea)
Aconite (Aconitum Napellus)
Direction taken by Air-currents with

the Windward Windows open
Direction taken by Air-currents with
Windward and Leeward Windows
open - - - -
Double Currents from opposite Win-
dows ......

Direction taken by Air-currents when

opposite windows are half-open
Direction taken by Air-currents when

Doors and Windows are closed
Section from Upper Lobe of a Collier's
Lung ------

Wrought-iron Open Gutter

Covered Surface Drain -

Brick with Drainage Channel for Stable

Floor -.....

Drain-pipe with Flap -
Iron Gully -
Stoneware Gully -
Underground Drain for Stable -
Actinomyces Bovis -
A Sewage Fungus, Beggiatoa alba
(Sulphur Bacterium)

Blanket-weed.....

Blue-green Algse -

Chlorophyll-green Alga (Faucheria ses-
silis ------

Volvox globator (colony) -
Stonewort (Chara fragilis) -

Curry-comb.....

Scraper ------

Dandy Brush.....

Barton-Gillette Clipping Machine
Horse-clippers - - - - -

77
84
84

84
85
85
85
86
103

126
127
127

128
128
129
134
134
135
137
138

Castrating Iron - - - - - 173

Clamp for Castration by Firing - - 173
Fixing Forceps for Castration by Tor-
sion ------ 174

Torsion Forceps - - - - - 174

Clamps, and Forceps for holding the

same......175

" Reliance " Castrator - - - - 176

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		ILLUSTRATIONS
	XIV	ILLUSTRATIONS
	XIV

Page Ecraseur...... 177 Retention of Urine�Catheter inserted 178 Insertion of Female Catheter - - 179 Guarded Knife - - - - - 182 Cystic Ovary - 183 Dressing Forceps and Artery Forceps - 185 Equilibrium in the Gallop - - - 192 Action of the Flexor Muscles and Tendons of the Fore-Limb - - 193 The Canter - - - - - 196 ' Trails (Footprints) of the Various Paces 197 A Shiverer ----- 214 Inseminator - 231 Artificial Insemination: Gathering the Semen...... 232 Artificial Insemination: Passing the Inseminator into the Uterus - - 233 The Ovum lying in the Graafian Vesicle 247 The Development of the Ovum - - 250 Development of the Embryo, eighteenth Day ------ 251 Development of the Human Ovum - 252 Embryo of Horse at Seven Weeks - 253 Foal about Fourth Month - 254 Examples of Multiplication by Division and by Budding - - - 258 Alternate Generation - 259 Natural Presentation - 270 Neck Presented, Fore-legs directed backwards - - - . - 272 Head and all Four Legs presented . 273 Head presented, Knees doubled back - 274 One Fore-limb displaced backwards . 275 Porte-cord ----.. 276 Breech presentation, Hind-legs in Pass- age -----. 276 Breech and Hocks presented - - 277 Breech presentation, Legs extended beneath Abdomen .-�-''. 278 Neck presented, Fore-limbs in Passage 280 Neck presented, Legs directed back- wards ------ 280 Legs and Breast presented - 281 Hooks or Crotchets - - - - 283 Gowing's Parturition Instrument - 283 Pollock's Obstetric Forceps, with double Hooks ------ 284 Horse Embryo (five weeks) - - 289 Mare and New-born Foal - - - 290 Hind-limbs and Tail (four weeks) - 291 Hind-limbs and Tail (six weeks) - - 291			Page Hind-limbs and Tail (eight weeks) - 291 Fore-limb (twenty-three weeks), natural size .---.- 293 Fore-limb (twenty-three weeks), front view, natural size - - - - 294 Key Bit - - - - - - 307 Cavesson - - - - - - 307 Lunging Tackle ----- 308 Plan of Stable-buildings for Twelve Horses - - - - - - 321 Plans of L-shaped Stables - - - 322 "Self-fixing" Base for Cast-iron Stall- pillar ------ 324 Stall-division with Shifting piece in Sill for taking out and replacing the Woodwork - ... - 325 Section through Stable and Hayloft, showing Drainage and Ventilation - 326 Manger, Hay-rack, &c. - - - 327 Musgrave's Horse-tying Arrangement- 328 Musgrave's Patent Open Surface-gutter 329 Combined Window and Air-inlet - 330 Pad Bracket for Single Harness - - 332 Saddle-holder - - - 332 Saddle-bracket for Lady's Saddle - 332 Collar-holder ----- 332 Whip-rack- - 332 Saddle-airer ----- 333 Side Rod...... 342 Plain and Easy Snaffle - - - 358 Chain Snaffle - - - - - 358 Twisted Snaffle ----- 358 Pelham Bit 358 Double Bridle, The Weymouth - - 358 Guard Bit - - 359 Liverpool Bit ----- 359 Recurrent Ophthalmia - - - 368 Examination of the Eye - - - 368 Interior View of the Eye - 369 Section of Eye - - - - - 369 Cloudy Cataract - 370 Examination of the Nostril - - 370 Examination of the Mouth - - - 371 Permanent and Temporary Incisors of Horse ------ 390 Permanent Incisor, showing sections at various points - 391 Incisors of Colt at Birth - - - 394 Incisors of Colt at two months - - 394 Incisors of Colt at six months - - 394 Incisors of Colt at one year - - 394

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	ILLUSTRATIONS
												xv


							Page 395 395 396 397 397 397 398 398 399 400 400 400 401
											Page 447 448 448 448 451 452 454 455 455 456 457 466 476 486 488 488 489 490 492
Molar Teeth of Colt at one year - Molars of Colt at two years Incisors of Cart Filly at two years Incisors of Horse at three years - Molars of Horse at two years and seven months --...._ Molars of Horse at three years and eight months- - Incisors of Horse at four years - - Incisors of Horse at five years - - Incisors of Horse at six years - - Incisors of Horse at seven years- - Incisors of Horse at eight years - - Incisors of Mare at ten years - - Groove at the side of TT� n Incisor at ten years **" " ^G C⁰orLT^hinS ^half-^Wa^ ^wn the" Uwr Incisor at fifteen to sixteen Groove extending the" whole length of years ^InCiS°^r ^at twenty-one Groov_e gro^ down'from the'gunj �P^he«PPer part of the tooth smooth at twenty-six years - - _T°°^Ve ^nearly ^Worn ^out- "PPer part of inwsor round and smooth, at thirty years ' ' Wvers Shapes of Shoes - - '. formal Foot: front view - - - ^A*e Wall of the Foot: Hoof showing Insensitive Lamina,, &c. - - ine Sensitive Foot: Side View - _T ^ne ^Sensitive Foot: Sole and Frog - {ff¹ ^rtilages, &c, of the Foot - Under Surface of the Coffin-Bone, showing its Position within the Hoof . Overgrown Foot ^"Proportioned and Ill-proportioned ^A Pared-out Sole ^A "Seated" Foot Surface - ^ Bad Foot Surface - JJodway Iron Shoe with Double Grooves A " Concave " Ground Surface - Calkins . Nail-holes - JVrongly-pl_ace_d Nail-holes - "tch for Nail-holes for Quarters J'lteh for Nail-hole for Toe -
								Shoe Fitted Short at the Heel - An " Eased " Heel - Shoe with Level Bearing - Shoe Imitating a Worn Ground-surface Frost-nails ------ Steel Sharps to be Screwed into Shoes when retpuired - - - - Three-quarter Shoe - Sand Crack, showing Method of Paring the Crust..... Shoe for Cutting, showing Position on the Foot - Shoes for Cutting - Over-reaching, Forging, and Clacking - Bartrum's Tethering Apparatus - Bones of the Foot of an Odd-toed and an Even-toed Animal Comparative View of Skeletons of Man and Horse - Section of Finger of Man - Section of Foot of Horse - Foot of Man and Foot of Horse Com- pared in Natural Positions Foot of Man and Foot of Horse Com- pared (positions reversed) Side View of Skull of Man, with the bone removed so as to show the whole of the teeth - Side View of the Skull of the Horse, with the bone removed so as to show the whole of the teeth and nasal bone ----- Section of Unworn Incisor of Adult Horse ------ Glyptodon reticulatus, restored from the remains exhibited in the Natural History Museum, South Kensing- ton ..... Plantar Surface of the Foot of�A, Man; b, Dog; and c, Horse A large chestnut from a cart mare� Ergot from same animal�Bare patch from fore-leg of an ass�Bare patch from foetus of mare - - - Sections of Chestnut and Ergot of Horse and Bare Patch of Ass Upper Molars of Fossil Ancestors of the Horse..... Short- and Long-crowned Molar Teeth Radius and Ulna of Fossil Ancestors of the Horse

						401

					402

				402

			402 431 433 434 435 435 437

										493 495 498 503 505 507

		437 439 440 441 443 443 443 443 444 444 445 445 445

									511 511 512

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			Section IV.-HEALTH AND DISEASE-^�

		23. MEDICINES-c�ta* DKUGS AND THEIR USES _a Acetate of Lead.-A powerful ^^^m^t I dysentery, and to arrest bleeding from the lungs. ^ ^ applied to "wrung" shoulders, and as a dressing in sk ^as eczema and pruritis. _VPeicant Used for removing Aeetic Acid.-Astringent, corrosive, and vesicant. ^Warts> ^&c- � ₊- _nt the bowels and colic. As Aloes.-Pur_gative; useful in constipati on rftheb _iftines, an alterative it is given in swelling of the legs and general Aloin.�See Aloes. Antidote in lead-poisoning. Alum.�Astringent, antiseptic, caustic, a injection is Given in diarrhoea Externally applied to wounds and as^an J ^ployed in foetid discharges from the vagina^ an ^^ _Given . Aniseed.-Stomachic, carminative, and aroma ^ _tion _witn ^th saline and other purgatives it prevents griping. ^^ ^ ginger it causes the expulsion of gas from the stomac flatulence, and assists digestion. Kvnkps and sprains. Arnica.-Mostly employed as an application J° �^ ^ _it It stimulates the skin and increases the activity of the circul possesses no special advantage over other stimulan s. _ ^ Arseniate of Iron.-An esoellent ton* and «�a � ^ i» W condition. Usefnl also in obstante skin diseases debility. . . ��j alterative. Arsenious Oxide.-Internally it is a tonic ^a^f ^troublesome Given in indigestion, general debility, and some o ^ administered skin diseases, as eczema, psoriasis, impetigo, &c. % in the form of " liquor arsenicalis ". 66 Vol. in. ¹

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE

		Arsenic, even in medicinal doses, if administered regularly over a long period, may accumulate in the system and prove injurious. An interval of a week should be allowed after each course extending over a fortnight. Outwardly it is a powerful caustic and antiseptic. As the former it is sometimes applied to morbid growths and fistulous wounds, as quittor, poll evil, &c, but its employment for these purposes requires the greatest care and judgment, or serious injury may result to parts beyond those to which it is applied. Asafcetida.�Useful as an expectorant in chronic bronchitis, and as a -carminative in flatulent distension of the stomach. Bael Fruit.�In combination with alkalies and aromatics it arrests diarrhoea in foals. Belladonna.�As a local sedative it is applied to surface parts in the form of a liniment to relieve itching, and the pains arising out of rheumatism, inflammatory action, &c. It checks lacteal secretion when applied to the udder of the mare. A few drops of the solution dropped into the eye causes dilatation of the pupil. Benzoic Acid. �Stimulant to wounds, antiseptic and diuretic. Exter- nally applied in the form of "Friar's Balsam". Bicarbonate Of Potassium.�Useful in rheumatism, and, combined with vegetable bitters, relieves flatulence and promotes digestion. As an out- ward application it is employed to suppress itching in irritable skin diseases. Bicarbonate Of Sodium.�See Bicarbonate of Potassium. Black Pepper.�Chiefly given as a condiment in virtue of its stimu- lant stomachic properties. Bluestone.�Externally, sulphate of copper is a mild caustic and astringent; applied to the edges of indolent wounds it promotes healing. It also checks the formation of proud flesh, and in weak solution arrests mucous discharges from the vagina and other surfaces. Internally it is given as a tonic and astringent in chronic nasal gleet, &c. Borax.�As a disinfectant it destroys low organisms and prevents their reproduction. Applied to the skin it allays irritation in urticaria, pruritis, and other forms of skin disease. As a mouth-wash it is useful in aphtha in foals. Boric Acid.�Antiseptic. Used either in solution of 1 part to 20 of water or as an ointment. Cotton-wool, when soaked in a saturated solution and dried, forms antiseptic cotton-wool. Bromide of Potassium.�A powerful sedative, whose special action is on the nerve centres. Used to suppress cerebral excitement, and convul- sive movements due to irritation of the spinal cord.

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		DRUGS AND THEIR USES 3 Camphor.�In r>nmt»_n ■ stimulant to sprained T ^Wlth °^ther ^&gentS ^�t ^k ^&Pplied ^aS ^a to arrest catarrh and c T' ^gam6ntS) ^and ^j°^intS- ^Internallv ^{t* ^is ^useddistension of the abd ^C°^Ug ' ^t0 ^clleck diarrhoea, ^ancI ^to relieve gaseous Cantharides.__As skin over the r * ^counter-irritant and vesicant it is applied to the enlargements rl + °l ^°^m^^s> tendons, and ligaments to remove chronic disease of infl, i ^le �roat, sides of the chest, and other parts in acute mteinal organs. Carbolic Acid �n «. and deodorizer TT ^stro7^s low organisms; antiseptic, disinfectant, of stables stall ^1U ^^le ^treatment ^0I* wounds and the disinfection it proves servi ^ J^^ei?^Slls' ^surg^ical appliances, &c. Inhaled from a nose-bag, CarbonatefA¹¹ ^naSal.^catarrh' strangles, and influenza, tonics, it i_s . f °i ^mm°nia.�As a stimulant, combined with vegetable expectorant i^^ ^ ^lnfl.^uenza> strangles, and other specific fevers. As an serviceflM* � � ^glVen ⁱⁿ bronchitis and broncho-pneumonia. It is also It is used " ^1S ^a ^mixture of lime-water and olive or lmseed oil. Catechu!?¹^⁰¹¹¹⁰ ^burns ^or ^scalds- combined witl 1 ^P°^Werful stringent. Very efficacious in diarrhoea when Chalk (p � � °^pium' ^and ^aromatics- an astrino-ent ^reC1Pitate^'~^Useful ^asan ^antacid ⁱⁿ indigestion, and as Chloral" _H^m, ^racea- Usually combined with opium and aromatics. Prevents dec ^"^ra^^e-�As an antiseptic it destroys low fcrganisms and brain and s 3' ^mp°^Sltlon' but its chief action internally is exercised on the It is given it ^^ ^by ^wnich it produces sleep and arrests convulsions. Chlorat ^anus> chorea, spasmodic asthma, and colic. aphtha aix^ ^^otassium.�Used mostly as a gargle or wash in in catarrh 1 ^SUpCrficial ulceration of the mouth, and as an electuary bsemorrl c/ ^S°^re"^tnroat- It is sometimes given in strangles, purpura the r>₀''^la81Ca' ^and °^tller ^sP^ecific f^evcrs, under the idea that it destroys Chlorie^fiT ^bl°°^d -^by ^giving ^up ^its °^^gen- ohili t ^her.�Stimulant; antispasmodic and anodyne, useful in ^d^h* colic, asthma, shock, &c. cat ^^e °f Ammonium. � Administered internally in bronchial Wit}T ^ ^C°^ngfcstion ^of the liver, and in rheumatism. Dissolved in water ! 1 saltpetre and alcohol it forms a cooling application to the legs of Chloride of Mercury (Calomel).�Calomel is used as a cathartic in combination with aloes. It should, however, be given with care, lest super- Purgation be induced. It is also given in small repeated doses as an a terative in chronic skin diseases, and in long-standing enlargement of

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			4 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		the hind legs due to lymphangitis or "weed". As a dry dressing to " thrush" it sometimes proves serviceable. Chloride of Zinc.�A powerful caustic, used for the purpose of destroying warts and other morbid excrescences, and as an application to fistulous wounds and unhealthy sores. In weak solution it hastens the healing of indolent wounds. Cinchona Bark.�See Sulphate of Quinine. Cocaine.�This drug is used as a local anaesthetic, to destroy sensation in the part to which it is applied and allow of operations being performed without exciting pain. It is used in solution of the strength of 2 to 20 per cent, according to the part operated upon. Cod Liver Oil.�Useful as an alterative and tonic in debility affect- ing young rapidly-growing foals, especially in cases where there is a tend- ency to diarrhoea or looseness of the bowels. In combination with iron it hastens convalescence from influenza and strangles, and sustains the strength and vigour of old stallions. Corrosive Sublimate.�Corrosive, antiseptic, and disinfectant, applied externally as a caustic to indolent wounds, especially quittor and poll evil, and to fungating sores. In weak solution it is employed as an antiseptic dressing in the treatment of surgical wounds, and for the purpose of dis- infecting surgical instruments and the hands of the operator. Creasote.�Useful in diarrhoea in foals resulting from fermentation, which it prevents. Externally it is astringent and antiseptic, and is some- times used in weak solution as a parasiticide in mange, and as a dressing for lice. Digitalis.�Heart tonic and stimulant, as well as diuretic. Useful in heart diseases. Given in conjunction with salines it promotes the absorption of dropsical swellings and effusions into the chest and belly. Epsom Salts.�Given to the horse in two- to four-ounce doses, it exercises a gentle action on the liver and kidneys, and is useful in regu- lating the bowels in the course of an attack of influenza or strangles or other specific fever. Given once a week to hard-worked horses, it prevents weed (lymphangitis) and azoturia. Gentian.�Much used in horse practice as a general tonic and stomachic in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, and general debility. Ginger.�Ginger, acting as a carminative, causes the expulsion of gas from the stomach and bowels. Mixed with aloes and other purgatives, it prevents griping. Glycerine. �As an emollient glycerine is used to soften and lubricate the skin in chapped heels and mud-fever, sore teats, &c. It is also useful in

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		DRUGS AND THEIR USES 5 aphtha and superficial ul or tannic acid "deration of the mouth when combined with borax Gum Acacia__tt i in cases of m-jf. +"� ^as ^a demulcent in coughs and sore throats, also Hydrochlori ° A � ^ ^stomacn ^and the intestines, secretion of th t ^C1(* (Diluted).�Useful in indigestion where the acid it arrests disch \|^nacn is deficient. Given in combination with quinine, tonic and astr' n^& '^ ^¹⁶ ^nose ⁿ ^cnronic ^nasal gl^eet> ^and ^^s ^an ^exceU^ent P^ain and r>,. i ^v ^be ^used in painful neurotic affections to deaden Iodid ⁶ ^Sleep- ^tlle proporti ^^ercury (Red).�Counter-irritant and vesicant. Used in splints and °tl, ^^ ^t0 ⁸ ^of ^lard ^as ^a ^blister ^to ^tlie ^leS^s ^of ^norses ^forligaments °i ^ °^Ssific diseases, as well as chronic sprains to tendons, application +■ ^enlarged joints. Milder preparations are also employed as Iodid* p P g^andular enlargements and other chronic swellings. glandular t ^P°^tassium.� When administered in full closes it causes such as' ₁^Utt0urs ^to disappear, and arrests the formation of exostoses, ^s°nretim h "^ ^Dones' ^&c- ^In ^acute and chronic rheumatism it is Iodid* ⁶ⁿ ^a^' ^aQd as a diuretic it disperses dropsical effusions. ^ei'uptio � Sulphur.�Sometimes used as a dressing in chronic skin Iod'^&* ^m ^the P^roP^ortion ^of 1 Part to 10 of glycerine or lard, enlarov ^G" ^In ^solution it is applied externally for the removal of chronic parasif ^^nt-°^f ^ ^Joints ^and glandular swellings. It is also used as a iodine i* V** ^ ^treatment ^of ringworm, and inhalation of the vapour of e as been successfully used in chronic nasal catarrh. an � ^aeuanha.�In the form of Dover's powder it is sometimes used as ^mi ^ctorant and diaphoretic. into tl ⁰¹!^anC^"�ⁿ ^smai1 doses it causes the removal of dropsical effusions tim ^le ^St ^anC ^aDdominal cavity. It also produces sweating, and some- cons' 1 i?^S ^ ⁱⁿ ^Droncnial asthma. It has not been employed to any aerable extent in the treatment of the lower animals. _eru .^me-Water.�Mixed with olive oil or glycerine it is applied to skin van? ^10nS -^and ^abrasions ^to allay pain and soreness. Injected into the _or f ^Xt. ^LS ^beileficial in leucorrhcea. Given to foals in small doses three it f ^U1 ^es ^a ^dav ^ arrests diarrhoea. Mixed with linseed or olive oil nis carron oil", commonly used for burns and scalds. inseed Oil.�It is aperient, laxative, and emollient. Two tablespoon- th .-f ^^1Ven ^1D ^t'^le ^^0od ^^s ^an ^exceU^ent alterative when given to poor, un- ni ty animals, and to horses after an attack of influenza, strangles, &c. �Morphia.�The salts of morphia are derived from opium, and possess ^ery much the same therapeutical properties. As an efficient close of the

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	6	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	6

former does not exceed a few grains, it is in some circumstances more convenient to inject it under the skin than to give it by the mouth. Moreover, when administered by subcutaneous injection, it is more rapidly absorbed into the circulation and more prompt in its action than when given by other means. Mustard.�Mustard is a counter-irritant, sometimes rendered more active by the addition of turpentine or ammonia. It is useful in sore- throat and laryngitis, or as an application to the sides of the chest in pleurisy, bronchitis, and pneumonia. It is sometimes used as a condiment with aniseed, coriander seed, turmeric, &c, but otherwise it is seldom prescribed in veterinary practice. Myrrh.�In the form of tincture, myrrh is sometimes applied to wounds to facilitate their healing, but beyond this it is of little practical use. Nitrate of Potassium.�Febrifuge, diuretic and alterative. Useful in influenza, strangles, purpura, and other specific fevers. It removes temporary enlargement or " filling" of the legs, and, com- bined with sulphur and antimony, forms an efficient alterative. Nitric Acid.�A powerful caustic, used to destroy warts and other abnormal growths, and to bring about a healthy action in spreading ulcers. Nitric Acid (Diluted).�Astringent. When combined with dilute hydrochloric acid it is an excellent liver tonic, especially after an attack of hepatic congestion in the course of influenza, or in fat and idle horses. Oil of Turpentine.�Given fasting, turpentine is a valuable remedy against intestinal worms. It is also useful as a diuretic, and to check bleeding in capillary hsemorrhage. In conjunction with opium, it is given in spasmodic and flatulent colic. As an outward application it is usually employed as a counter-irritant, for which purpose it is sometimes mixed with mustard, or with ammonia and linseed oil. In both these forms it is serviceable as an application in sore-throat, or as a counter-irritant in diseases of the organs of the chest and belly. Opium.�Internally administered, opium is one of the most useful antispasmodic and anodyne medicines employed in veterinary practice. It overcomes the spasm of tetanus and colic, affords relief in enteritis and pleurisy, and arrests the course of diarrhoea and dysentery. In com- bination with ammonia and squills, it is also useful in bronchitis. Ex- ternally, it is applied to sprains and bruises. Nux Vomica.�A powerful nerve tonic. Specially stimulates the motor centres of the nervous system and restores muscular power in paralysis. Combined with bicarbonate of potash or soda it is useful also

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		MEDICINAL PLANTS�III 1. Aniseed (Pimpinella Anisum): a. Flower enlarged. b. Fruit enlarged. c. Section across fruit. d. Star Aniseed (IUicium verum) partly open. e. C'arpel. 2. Ipecacuanha (Gepha�lis Ipecacuanha): a. Corolla enlarged. 6. Calyx and pistil enlarged. c. Piece of root. d. Section of �'oot enlarged. e. Section of stem enlarged. 3. Aloes, Barbados (Alo� vulgaris): a. Flower. b. Section of flower. e. Anthers. d. Section of ovary. 4. Eed Pimento (Pinienta ojficinalis): a. Bud enlarged. b. Flower enlarged. c. Fruit. d. Bottom and top and seed. e. Cross section of fruit enlarged. �. Bottom, top, and seed of Grey Pimento \Pimenta acris). 5. Catechu (Acacia Catechu): <>. Flower enlarged. b. Pod. c. Seed.

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			PLATE XLVII

		MEDICINAL PLANTS-III

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		DRUGS AND THEIR USES ₇ in imparting tone to the stomach and bowels in general debility from age or disease. Old stallions are benefited by a short course of nux vomica and nitro-muriatic acid at the commencement and daring the service season. ^to Pepsin.�Given to foals in ten- to fifteen-grain doses, pepsin assists digestion and arrests diarrhoea and looseness of the bowels. Pimento.�As a stomachic and carminative it is useful in slight arrangements of the function of digestion, and especially so when com- bined with capsicum. Prussic Acid.�Allays irritation of the skin in prurigo and eczema. been largely used to subdue spasm in tetanus, but with no lasting result. ^& Salicylate of Sodium.�See Salicylic Acid. oalicylic Acid.�Lowers the temperature in fevers, strangles, and influenza, ^and as salicylate of soda it is found useful in acute rheumatism. Solution of Acetate of Ammonium.�Combined with spirit of mtric ether it promotes activity of the skin, and with plenty of clothing induces sweating. It is useful at the outset of infectious fevers, and in the course of colds, bronchitis, &e. Solution of Ammonia (Strong). � Counter-irritant. Commonly seel in conjunction with turpentine and oil as a dressing for sore-throat and sprains to tendons, ligaments, and joints. It is administered in flatulence, and as a stimulant in debility. Neutralizes the poisons of some insects, and allays pain and swelling resulting from sting. Solution of Chloride of Zinc�See Chloride of Zinc. Solution of Chromic Acid.�Disinfectant. Deodorizer and caustic. Sometimes employed locally to destroy morbid growths and dress fun- gating wounds and indolent ulcers on mucous surfaces. It is also useful in solution as an application to greasy legs, and mixed with tar is beneficial in thrush and canker of the foot. Spirit Of Nitrous Ether.�A diffusible stimulant, antispasmodic and diuretic. Serviceable in chills, fevers, colic, and cedematous swellings of the legs following upon debilitating diseases. Sublimed Sulphur.�Useful as an alterative in conjunction with nitrate of potash and antimony. Mixed with linseed oil and oil of tar, or formed into an ointment with lard, it destroys lice and other skin parasites. Sulphate of Iron.�Tonic, astringent and styptic. Given in debili- tating and wasting disease it enriches the blood and imparts tone to the general system. It arrests mucous discharges in nasal catarrh, and sup- presses bleeding in capillary haemorrhage.

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		8 HEALTH AND DISEASE

			Sulphate of Magnesium.�See Epsom Salts. Sulphate of Quinine.�As a tonic quinine is administered in general debility, following upon an attack of one or other of the specific fevers of the horse. Given in large doses during the course of the fever, it acts as an antipyretic and reduces temperature. Sulphate Of Sodium.�Administered as a preventative against con- tagious diseases, but with doubtful efficacy. Sulphate Of Zinc.�It is only as an external application that sul- phate of zinc is used in veterinary practice. In this connection it is applied to wounds and ulcers to keep proud flesh down and promote the healing process. It is also useful as an injection in leucorrhcea in mares. Sulphocarbolate Of Sodium.-�Sometimes used in flatulence arising out of indigestion. Sulphurated Antimony.�As an alterative it is serviceable in some skin diseases, swelling of the legs, and general unthriftiness. Sulphurated Potash.�Chiefly employed as a remedy against skin parasites and some chronic skin diseases. In weak solutions (1 grain to the ounce) it has been used as an injection to destroy ascarides in the rectum. Sulphuric Acid.�A powerful caustic. Useful in the removal of warts and proud flesh from wounds. Sulphuric Acid (Diluted). �Useful as an antidote to lead-poison- ing. Sometimes given as a tonic in combination with vegetable bitters. Sulphuric Ether.�Inhaled in the form of vapour, it reduces sensi- bility to pain. Given internally, it is a powerful diffusible stimulant and antispasmodic. Useful at the outset of a chill, and as a remedy in colic in conjunction with opium. Sulphurous Acid. �In solution in glycerine it is useful for ring- worm. In its gaseous condition it is employed for disinfecting stables, &c. For this purpose sulphur is burnt on charcoal with closed doors and windows. Tannic Acid.�Astringent. Used as an outward application in skin diseases, impetigo, and eczema. Internally in diarrhoea and intestinal haemorrhage, and in catarrhal affection of the larynx. Vinegar Of CantharideS.�Useful in splints, spavins, and chronic sprains to tendons, ligaments, and joints, and for other purposes.

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		DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES

	DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES

			Dose. I to 1 dram. 3 to 10 grains. 10 to 40 grains. \ to 2 drams. 20 drops to 1 dram. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 2 to 8 drams. 1 to 3 drams. 2 to 4 drams. 1 to \\ ounce. \ to 1 ounce. 1 to 2 ounces. 5 to 10 grains. 1 to 2 ounces. 3 to 4 drams. 1 to 3 drams. \ to \\ ounce. 2 drams to 1 ounce. 1 dram. 1 to 2 drams. \ to 1 ounce. 2 to 5 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 5 to 10 grains. 10 to 40 grains. 1 to \\ ounce. 2 to 4 drams. 1 to 8 drams. 1 to 2 ounces. 10 to 30 ounces. 1 to 4 drams. 1 to 1^ ounce. 1 to 4 drams. ^ to 1 ounce. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 2 to 4 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 4 ounces. \ to 1 dram. 1 to \\ ounce. 10 to 40 minims. 10 to 20 minims. 2 to 4 drams. 10 to 30 grains.
Name. Acetate of Lead ... Acetate of Morphine ..... Acid, Carbolic (Liquid) ... Acid, Hydrochloric (Diluted) Acid, Hydrocyanic (Prussic Acid) Acid, Nitric (Diluted) ..... Acid, Sulphuric (Diluted) Aloes ........... Aloin Alum Aniseed Areca Nut ... Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia Arseniate of Iron ... Arsenic, Solution of ..... Asafoctida ... Benzoic Acid ........ Bicarbonate of Potassium... Bicarbonate of Sodium ..... Black Pepper ........ Boric Acid........... Bromide of Potassium Calumba Root Camphor ... Cantharides Capsicum Fruit Caraway Seeds Carbonate of Ammonium... Carbonate of Iron... Carbonate of Lime Castor Oil ... Catechu ... ... Chloral Hydrate ... Chlorate of Potassium Chloride of Sodium Chlorinated Lime ... Chloroform Cinchona Bark, Red Citrate of Iron and Ammonium . Citric Acid... Cod-Liver Oil Colchicum Seeds ... Copaiba Creasote Croton Oil... Cubebs Digitalis

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	HEALTH AND DISEASE

Name. Ergot ...... Ergotin Ether ...... Ether, Chloric Ether, Nitrous (Sweet Spirit of Nitre) Ether, Sulphuric ... Extract of Aconite Extract of Belladonna Extract of Gentian Extract of Hemlock Extract of Henbane Extract of Indian Hemp Extract of Jaborandi Extract of Male Fern Extract of Nux Vomica Gallic Acid Gentian Root Ginger Gum Acacia ... U Hydrated Peroxide of Iron Hydrochlorate of Morphine ...... Iodide of Potassium Iodine Ipecacuanha Linseed Oil Mercury with Chalk Nitrate of Potassium (Saltpetre)... Nitrate of Silver ... Nux Vomica Oak Bark ... Oil of Juniper Oil of Peppermint Oil of Turpentine ... Opium Oxide of Zinc Perchloride of Mercury ... Phosphate of Calcium Pimento Potassio-Tartrate of Antimony (Tartar Emetic) .. Rectified Spirit Resin Saccharated Carbonate of Iron ... Salicine Salicylate of Sodium Salicylic Acid Santonin ... ...... Soda, Hyposulphate Solution of Acetate of Ammonium Solution of Ammonia ......... Strychnine Subchloride of Mercury (Calomel)
		Dose. J to 1 ounce. 10 to 20 grains. 1 to 2 ounces. 1 ounce. 1 to 2 ounces. 1 to 2 ounces. 3 to 10 grains. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 2 drams. J to 4 drams. 20 to 70 grains. 2 to 6 drams. 3 to 10 grains. J to 2 drams. \ to 1 ounce. 2 drams to 1 ounce. 2 to 3 ounces. 1 to 2 ounces. 3 to 10 grains, 2 to 6 drams. 10 to 50 grains. 1 to 2 drams. 10 to 20 ounces 1 dram. 2 to 8 drams. 5 to 10 grains. \ to 2 drams. 2 to 4 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 20 drops. J to 2 ounces. \ to 2 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 2 to 8 grains. 1 to 3 drams. 2 to 6 drams. 1 to 2 drams. 1 to 2 ounces. 2 drams to 1 ounce. 1 to 2 drams, \ to \\ dram. 2 to 6 drams. 1 to 3 drams. 15 to 60 grains. 1 to 2 ounces. 2 drams to 1 ounce. 2 drams to 1 ounce. \ to 3 grains. \ to 1 dram.

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DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES

Name.

Sublimed Sulphur

Sulphate of Atropine

Sulphate of Copper

Sulphate of Iron

Sulphate of Maeneirfmv, /t?' c", >

Sulphate of qE ^(EpS°^m ^

Sulphate of Sodium

Sulphate of Zinc

Sulphurated Antimony '"

Tmcture of Aconite (BP)"

Tmcture of Aconite (Fleming's).'.'.'
Tincture of Belladonna

Tincture of Cantharides......

Tincture of Capsicum

Tincture of Cardamoms (Comp.).'."

Juncture of Cinchona

Tmcture of Colchicum Seeds ...

Imcture of Digitalis

Tincture of Ergot...

Tincture of Gentian (Comp) '.'.'.

Tincture of Ginger

Tincture of Hemlock

Tincture of Henbane

Tincture of Indian Hemp

Tincture of Iodine

Tincture of Nux Vomica.......

Tincture of Opium

Tincture of Perchloride of Iron

Vinegar ......

Dose.

1 to 4 ounces.

J to 1 grain.

1 to 2 drams.

1 to 4 ounces.

15 to 60 grains.

1 to 2 ounces.

1 to 2 drams.

1 to 3 drams.

1 dram to 1 ounce.

.', to 2 drams.
20 to 50 minims.
5 to 15 minims.
\ to 1 ounce.

1 to 4 drams.

2 to 6 drams.
1 to 2 ounces.
1 to 2 ounces.
1 to 4 drams.
1 to 4 drams.
1 to \\ ounce.
1 to 3 ounces.

4 drams to 1 ounce.
\ to 2 ounces.
\ to 2 ounces.
\ to 2 ounces.

1 to 6 drams.

2 to 6 drams.
J to 2 ounces
2 to 6 drams.
1 to 3 ounces.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Fluid Measure

60 minims
8 drams
20 ounces
8 pints

one fluid dram,
one fluid ounce,
one fluid pint,
one gallon.

j., ^or ^au practical purposes a minim may be regarded as the equivalent of a drop,
°^ugh Ae latter is liable to slight variation according to the nature of the material
^ea with and the form of that part of the vessel from which it is made to fall.

Grains in an Ounce and a Pound

1 ounce
16 ounces

437i grains.

7000 grains or 1 lb.

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12 HEALTH AND DISEASE

Spoons as Fluid Measure

one fluid dram,
two fluid drams,
half an ounce.
1J pint.

A tea-spoon holds ...
A dessert-spoon holds
A table-spoon holds
A wine bottle holds

Doses According to Age

-J- that for an aged horse.
� that for an aged horse.
| that for an aged horse,
f that for an aged horse.
Full dose.

For a yearling
For a two-year-old ...
For a three-year-old
For a four-year-old ...
For a five-year-old ...

Coins as Weights

weighs one scruple (20 grains),
weighs two scruples (40 grains),
weighs 80 grains,
weigh one ounce,
weigh one ounce.

A threepenny piece .........

A sixpence ...
A shilling piece

3 J sovereigns ... .........

Three penny pieces and a threepenny piece

The above are approximately correct, but should not be used for active drugs as
strychnine or morphine.

MEDICINES AND THEIR THERAPEUTICAL ACTION

Examples.

Arsenic, iodine and its
salts, linseed oil in small
doses, antimony, chloride of
sodium.

1. Locally. Cold, cocaine,
carbolic acid, ether spray.

2. Generally. Chloroform,
ether.

Bromide and iodide of
potassium, camphor, digi-
talis, purgatives.

1. Locally. Cold, warmth,
aconite, belladonna, opium.

2. Generally. Belladonna,
chloral, hyoscyamus, opium.

Potassium bicarbonate,
sodium bicarbonate, chalk.

1. Those infesting the rectum.
Injections of solution of com-
mon salt, infusion of quassia,
eucalyptol, catechu, &c.

2. For Nematodes or round
worms. Santonin.

Class of Medicine.

Alteratives.

Action.
Improve the general condition of
the body without exercising any
perceptible local action.

Destroy sensation.

Anaesthetics.

Anaphrodisiacs.
Anodynes.

Antacids.
Anthelmintics.

Diminish the sexual appetite.

Subdue pain.

Neutralize excessive acidity in
the stomach and bowels.

Destroy or remove intestinal
worms.

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MEDICINES AND THEIR THERAPEUTICAL ACTION

Action. Examples.

Destroy or remove intestinal 3. For tape-worms. Male
worms. fern, kousso, areca-nut, tur-

pentine.

Class of Medicine.
Anthelmintics.

Diminish secretion of sweat.

Mineral acids, belladonna,

Antihydrotics.

Antiperiodics.

Antipyretics.

Antiseptics.

Antispasmodics.
Aphrodisiacs.

hyoscyamus, mix vomica,
quinine, strychnia.

Quinine, cinchonine, ar-
senic, salicylic acid, &c.

Salicylate of soda, cam-
phor, quinine, alcohol, nitrous
ether.

Carbolic acid, calcium
chloride, chinosol, oil of
eucalyptus, thymol, &c.

Alcohol, ether, bromide of
potassium, camphor.

Cantharides, strychnine,
alcohol.

Acids, alum, ferric chlor-
ide, copper sulphate, chalk,
gallic acid, tannic acid.

Aniseed, capsicum, cara-
way seeds, mustard, pepper,
oil of peppermint.

Silver nitrate, mineral
acids, the hydrates of potash
and soda.

Prevent the recurrence of certain
diseases whose nature it is to return
periodically.

Lower the temperature of the
body in fever. Also called Febri-
fuges.

Destroy the organisms of decom-
position, or so far weaken their
vitality as to arrest putrefaction.

Prevent or cause muscles when in
a state of spasm to become relaxed.

Increase sexual appetite.

Diminish the secretion from
mucous membranes and excite con-
traction of the tissues to which they
are applied.

Increase the peristaltic movement
of the stomach and bowels and drive
out superfluous gas.

Destroy morbid excrescences on
the skin and other free surfaces, and
impart a healthy action to fungating

Astringents.

Carminatives.
Caustics.

Chologogues.
Demulcents.

Diaphoretics.

Disinfectants.
Diuretics.

Ecbolics.
Emmenagogues.

sores.

Effect the removal of bile from
the body.

Soothe and guard parts to which
they are applied against irritation.

Increase the secretion of sweat
in the form of vapour. They are
called sudorifics when perspiration
appears in distinct drops.

Destroy the virus of contagious
diseases.

Cause the removal of water and
worn-out material from the body by
stimulating the action of the kidneys.

By exiting the action of the uterus
cause expulsion of its contents.
Stimulate the return of aestrum.

Aloes, calomel, podophyl-
lum

Linseed tea, starch, glycer-
ine, oil, Fuller's-earth, cotton-
wool.

Warmth, spirit of nitrous
ether, solution of acetate of
ammonium, tartar emetic,
ipecacuanha, camphor.

Carbolic acid, thymol,
mercuric chloride, boracic
acid, sulphurous acid.

Potassium nitrate, potas-
sium chlorate, sodium chlo-
ride, alcohol, turpentine, and
cantharides.

Ergot, savin.

Iron, strychnine, ergot,
cantharides, savin, quinine.

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

Action.

Give suppleness and softness to
the parts to which they are applied.

Cause the free discharge of secre-
tions from the air-passages.

Examples.

Poultices, oil, glycerine,
paraffin, lard, vaseline.

Iodide of potassium, tar-
tarized antimony, ipecacu-
anha, ammonium chloride,
squill.

Opium, morphia, chloral
hydrate, bromide of potas-
sium.

Liniments of ammonia, tur-
pentine, croton, iodine, bin-
iodide of mercury, canthar-
ides.

Class of Medicine.

Emollients.
Expectorants.

See Antipyretics.
Induce sleep.

Febrifuges.
Hypnotics or Sopori-
fics.

Jrritants and Counter-
irritants.

Irritants increase the circulation
in a part and restore it to a normal
condition. When applied to one part
of the body with the object of arrest-
ing disease in another part they are
called counter-irritants.

Soften the fseces and cause a
more frequent evacuation of the
bowels.

Cause the pupil to dilate.
Cause the pupil to contract.

Increase the action of the bowels,
promote secretion of intestinal fluid
and cause intestinal evacuation.

Produce slight congestion and
redness of the part to which they
are applied.

Diminish the sensibility of a
part, or of the entire body.

Bran mashes, linseed and
linseed cake, green food,
small repeated doses of castor
oil, linseed oil.

Atropine, belladonna.

Calabar bean, eserine,
jaborandi, morphine, opium.

Aloes, croton oil, linseed
oil, castor oil, sodium sul-
phate, magnesium sulphate,
calomel.

Soap liniment, &c.

Laxatives.

Mydriatics.
Myotics.

Purgatives.

Rubefacients.

Sedatives.

Local sedatives. Aconite,
belladonna, carbolic acid,
chloral, opium, and morphia.

General sedatives. Hydro-
cyanic acid, aconite, bella-
donna, chloral, opium, and
morphia.

Local. Mustard, ginger,
mineral acids.

General. Compounds of
iodine and mercury.

Mineral acids, alum, ferric
chlorides, tannin, actual
cautery.

Salts of iron, strychnia,
mineral acids, quinine, nux
vomica, &c.

Stimulate the salivary glands and
increase the secretion of saliva.

Sialogogues.

See Hypnotics.

Stop the flow of blood from
divided vessels.

Strengthen the body as a whole,
or parts composing it.

See Anthelmintics.

Soporifics.
Styptics.

Tonics.

Vermicides and Ver-
mifuges.

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v-i°-

PRESCRIPTIONS

PKESCRIPTIONS

HORSE BALLS

ALTERATIVE


	Powdered Ginger ......	1 dram
	Powdered Gentian	1 dram
	Powdered Fenugreek	1 dram
	Powdered Caraway Seeds	1 dram
	Linseed Flour	2 drams
	Soft Soap, sufficient to make a	Ball.
	COUGH
	Powdered Squill ...	1 dram
	Powdered Liquorice	1 dram
	Powdered Ipecacuanha ...	1 dram
	Powdered Aniseeds	1 dram
	Linseed Flour	2 drams
	Soft Soap, sufficient to make a	Ball.
	or Powdered Gum Ammoniacum ...	1 dram
	Powdered Belladonna Leaves	1 dram
	Powdered Carraway Seeds	1 dram
	Powdered Camphor	1 dram
	Linseed Flour	2 drams

Nitrate of Potash
Sublimed Sulphur

Powdered Aloes......

Linseed Flour ...... 1____________

1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

Powdered Fenugreek ...... 1 dram

Chloride of Sodium ...... 1 dram

Black Sulphur ......... 2 drams

Linseed Flour ......... 3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

ASTRINGENT

Powdered Cassia Bark
Powdered Opium
Powdered Catechu
Linseed Flour

1 dram
\ dram
1 dram
3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

Nitrate of Potash ... ... 2 drams

Powdered Digitalis Leaves ... 10 grains

Linseed Flour ... ... ... 3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

DIURETIC

Nitrate of Potash ... ... 1 dram

Powdered Resin ... ... ... 2 drams

Oil of Juniper .........30 drops

Linseed Flour ... ... ... 3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

Powdered Catechu
Powdered Cinchona Bark
Prepared Chalk ...
Powdered Aniseeds
Linseed Flour

1 dram

2 drams

1 dram

2 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

BROKEN WIND

Calomel ...

Powdered Digitalis Leaves

Powdered Opium

Powdered Camphor

Linseed Flour ... ... ^^^^

20 grains
20 grains
20 grains
20 grains
3 drams

Venice Turpentine

i oz.

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball
To be given once or twice a week

^Aloes ...... ^H ... I dram

Linseed Flour, sufficient to make a Ball.

FEVER

Powdered Camphor
Powdered Epsom Salts ..
Nitrate of Potash
Powdered Liquorice Root
Linseed Flour

CORDIAL

Powdered Aniseeds
Powdered Gentian Root ...
Powdered Pimento
Linseed Flour

1 dram

2 drams

1 dram

2 drams

1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

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16 HEALTH AND DISEASE

Quinine ............15 grains

Powdered Gentian ...... 1 dram

Powdered Caraway Seeds ... I dram

Linseed Flour ... ... ... 3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

J dram

Emetic Tartar

Bicarbonate of Potash ... ... 1 dram

Powdered Camphor ...... 1 dram

Linseed Flour ... ... ... 3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

PHYSIC

Barbados Aloes ... ... ... 5 drams

Ground Ginger ... ... ... 1 dram

Linseed Flour ... ...... 1 dram

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

TONIC

Powdered Sulphate of Iron ... 2 drams
Powdered Gentian ... ... 1 dram

Powdered Aniseeds ... ... 1 dram

Linseed Flour ... ... ... 2 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.


	WORM
	Barbados Aloes ...	1 dram
	Powdered Sulphate of Iron	... 2 drams
	Santonine ...	... 12 grains
	Linseed Flour	3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

Tartarated Antimony
Powdered Gentian
Powdered Sulphate of Iron
Linseed Flour

1 dram

2 drams
1 dram

3 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.

Worm balls should be given in the morn-
ing on an empty stomach.

Powdered Nux Vomica ... ... 1 dram

Powdered Ginger ... ... 1 dram

Powdered Caraway Seeds ... 1 dram

Linseed Flour ... ... ... 2 drams

Soft Soap, sufficient to make a Ball.


'	POWDERS
ALTERATIVE		or
Powdered Gentian	1 dram	Powdered Opium ...	.. J dram
Black Antimony ...	1 dram	Powdered Charcoal	2 drams
Nitrate of Potash	2 drams	Tannic Acid	. 10 grains
Powdered Aniseeds	1 dram	Powdered Gentian	."". 1 dram
Mix: for a dose.		Mix: for a dose.
or Chloride of Sodium	1 dram	or Powdered Sulphate of Copper .	.. 1 dram
Black Sulphur .......	1 dram	Powdered Oak Bark	2 drams
Powdered Epsom Salts ...	.. 2 drams	Powdered Cinnamon Bark	1 dram
Powdered Aniseeds	1 dram	Powdered Aniseeds	1 dram
Mix: for a dose.		Mix: for a dose.
ASTRINGENT		CONDITION
Prepared Chalk.......	.. 3 drams	Nitrate of Potash	1 dram
Powdered Cassia Bark ...	1 dram	Chloride of Sodium	1 dram
Powdered Catechu	1 dram	Black Sulphur	1 dram
Powdered Calumba Root	1 dram	Powdered Caraway Seeds	1 dram
Mix: for a dose.		Mix: for a dose.

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PRESCRIPTIONS


	DIURETIC
	Nitrate of Potash	... 2 drams
	Powdered Resin ...	1 dram
	Powdered Juniper Berries	1 dram
	Mix: for a dose.
	FEVER
	Powdered Camphor	\ dram
	Nitrate of Potash...	1 dram
	Tartarated Antimony	\ dram
	Powdered Liquorice Root	1 dram
	Mix: for a dose. or

Powdered Fenugreek
Powdered Resin ...
Nitrate of Potash
Flowers of Sulphur
^Mi*: for a dose.

1 dram

2 drams
1 dram
1 dram

Powd_ered Liquorice Root

�lack Antimony .

Powdered Caraway Seeds
Quinine

^Mi*= for a dose."

CORDIAL

^ered Aniseeds

Powdered Coriander Seeds
Pondered Pi_mento

^dered Gentian
^MlX: for a dose.

^vdered Liquorice Root
Powdered Gentian
Powdered Ginger
Powde_red Cinnamon Bark'
^Mlx= for a dose.

2 drams
1 dram
1 dram

15 grains

Powdered Epsom Salts ...
Powdered Belladonna Leaves
Nitrate of Potash
Powdered Aniseeds
Mix: for a dose.

TONIC

1 ounce
1 dram
1 dram
1 dram

1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
1 dram

Quinine

Ground Ginger ...
Powdered Gentian
Mix: for a dose.

Powdered Sulphate of Iron
Powdered Nux Vomica ...
Powdered Aniseeds
Powdered Liquorice Root
Mix: for a dose.

WORM

Santonine ...

Powdered Sulphate of Iron

Powdered Aniseeds

Mix: for a dose.

Emetic Tartar ......

Powdered Calumba Root
Powdered Sulphate of Iron
Powdered Coriander Seeds

Mix: for a dose.

10 grains

30 grains

2 drams

1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
^ dram

1 dram
\ dram
1 dram
1 dram

COUGH

Powdered Camphor
Powdered Squill ..
Powdered Aniseeds
Powdered Belladonna Leaves
^Mlx= for a dose.

Powdered Fenugreek
Powdered Gum Ammoniacum
Powdered Squill
Powdered Liquorice Root
^M«: for a dose.

1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
\ dram

15 grains
2 drams
1 dram

1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
| dram

1 dram
1 dram
1 dram
1 dram

^vol. in.

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18 HEALTH AND DISEASE

DRAUGHTS

DIURETIC

ASTRINGENT

\ ounce

1 ounce

10 drops

Spirit of Turpentine
Sweet Spirit of Nitre
Oil of Juniper

J ounce
1 ounce

1 dram

2 drams
2 drams

Tincture of Catechu
Tincture of Opium
Powdered Cinnamon Bark

Prepared Chalk......

Powdered White Sugar ...

Mix. To be given in a pint of linseed tea.

FEVER

Spirit of Nitrous Ether ... ... 1 ounce

Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia ... 1 ounce
Mix. To be given in a pint of cold water.

Mix as a draught in a pint of warm water.

COLIC

Laudanum

... 1J ounce

PURGATIVE

Compound Tincture of Cardamoms J ounce
Tincture of Aconite ... ... 15 drops

Mix. To be given in a pint of cold water.

1 pint

Linseed Oil

Barbados Aloes ... ... ... 5 drams

Tincture of Ginger ... ... \ ounce

Oil of Peppermint ... ... 10 drops

Dissolve the aloes in a pint of warm water
and add the other ingredients when cool.

TONIC

Compound Tincture of Gentian ... 1 ounce
Tincture of Calumba ... ... 1 ounce

Tincture of Cinchona ... ... \ ounce

Mix. To be given in a pint of cold water,
or
Compound Tincture of Cardamoms 1 ounce
Nitric Acid ... ... ... 1 dram

Tincture of Nux Vomica ... \ ounce

Mix. To be given in a pint of cold water.

Spirit of Turpentine ... ... 1 ounce

Oil of Peppermint ... ... 15 drops

Tincture of Ginger ... ... 1 ounce

Glycerine... ... ... ... J ounce

Mix. To be given in a pint of warm
linseed gruel.

CORDIAL

Compound Tincture of Cardamoms
Compound Tincture of Gentian ...
Tincture of Calumba
Tincture of Ginger ......

� ounce
1 ounce
\ ounce
i ounce

Mix. To be given in a pint of warm ale.

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

The action of medicines will be found in another part of this work
(pp. 1 and 12 of this volume), and it is proposed in this chapter to deal with
the various methods of administering them which custom or convenience
requires in the treatment of our patient the horse.

Medicines are conveyed into the body by one of several channels.

They may be given by the mouth as draughts, boluses, or electuaries, or
by the rectum in the form of enemata, or they may be injected beneath the
skin (subcutaneous injection), or directly into one or another of the super-
ficial veins (intra-venous injection). In the form of vapour they are also
inhaled, and in particular instances are injected into the trachea or wind
pipe (intra-tracheal injection).

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			ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES
				19



		very old " r-^iuc of giving medicines in a ball or elongated pill is a f__ � , ' ,^nc ^as much to recommend it. Many nauseous agents, as loi exaniDle alnoo �_rA ,-, . , , i �,, �we tnus conveyed to the stomach without causing just to the patient. They are usually wrapped in gelatine capsules. The paper wrapper is the more
	_______ p


Fig-. 437.� Administering a Ball. The manner of 1 oMinq- the ball is shown at A convenient to hold, and the gelatine capsule the less likely to be broken. ^ln the act of being administered. A ball weighing from one to two ounces is more convenient to ad- minister than one smaller or larger. It is a matter for regret that so few stablemen and others in atten- dance upon horses acquire the comparatively simple art of giving a ball. ^ln the absence of this qualification there are several instruments recom- mended for the purpose, but none so good as the human hand properly directed. To give a ball, the animal should be turned round in the stall and quietly approached with the bolus between the thumb and two first fingers of the right hand, which may be placed on the face to steady

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20 HEALTH AND DISEASE

his head, while the left is employed in seizing the tongue firmly
but gently across its middle (fig. 437). Two or three inches of tongue
should project beyond the hand and be turned up to the tush on the
horse's right side. The ball is then quickly carried along the mouth and

dexterously placed high upon the back of
the tongue, and the hand withdrawn; the
tongue is then released, and the free end
of the halter quickly wound round the jaws,
while the operator takes a step to the
right to watch the downward course of the
ball along the channel of the neck. If it
is not seen to pass, it is well to wait for
a moment or two, as some old stagers will
appear quite quiet until released and then
cough up or quietly drop the ball from the
mouth when unobserved. If it does not
appear to have been either swallowed or
ejected, water may be offered, and, if taken,
one may be pretty sure that the bolus has
reached the stomach.

A gag (fig. 438) or "balling iron" is

sometimes used to fix the mouth open. If

Fig. 438.�A Horse-Gag

the reader will try to swallow with his own

mouth open, he will realize that it is not

a desirable instrument to employ for this purpose, although it has its uses,

as will be seen elsewhere.

The same difficulty of deglutition applies when the improved mouth-gag
or speculum of Mr. Huish is used.

A simpler and safer instrument is the balling-gun (fig. 439), made on
the principle of a child's pop-gun, with an enlarged end to contain the

Pig. 439.�Balling-Gun

bolus. Another, with a spring and a trigger, sometimes forms a mural
ornament in the veterinary surgeon's establishment, but is rather a
dangerous implement in the hands of a novice, while unnecessary in the

and secure himself from injury by holding the tongue in the manner
already Jeserihed. Where malignant disease is suspected, but not

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			ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES
				21


	determined, the use of instruments is desirable to avert risk to the attendants. The Drench or Draught.�Liquid medicines are commonly given in the form of drenches or draughts, so diluted with water, oil, or gruel as to exercise no baneful influence upon the structures over which they pass to reach the stomach. Persons accustomed to give medicine in this form often prefer to do so without any assistance or restraint beyond holding the head up by placing the left hand under the chin, but where the patient cannot be controlled by this means he must be subjected to restraint by one of the methods prescribed elsewhere. (See Means of Restraint.) A horn is a safe and suitable means of administering a drench so far as the patient is concerned, as it may come in contact with his grinders with- out being broken. The tin bottle with a long neck and flat sides is more easily grasped, but the contents can- not be seen in either of these vessels, and _____ perfect Cleanliness is Fig. 440.-Syringe and Needles not so well assured as when using glass bottles of the champagne type. These being strong at the shoulder, and conveniently tapered at the neck, are generally preferred, the

		r
isk of breaking in the mouth when properly handled being very slight. Draughts should be given slowly to horses, and if a disposition to cough is observed, the head should be immediately lowered, and, although some ot the medicine may be lost it is better than forcing k the " wrong way . Liquid medicine should never be given with the horse's head towards the manger, as some of it will almost certainly fall into that receptacle and give the patient a distaste for his food. Electuaries.�In cases of sore-throat, where there is difficulty in swallowing, or of injuries to the mouth, where it is not desirable to open it forcibly, medicines may be made up to the consistence of ordinary jam and smeared upon the back parts of the tongue by means of a paper-knife i smooth, flat piece of wood. . These are known as electuaries, and are several times referred to m the section treating of diseases of the respiratory system. _ Intra-tracheal InjectionS.-Remedies intended to have immediate contact with the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes are administered by the hypodermic syringe (fig. 440), by puncturing the windpipe at a

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		22 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	convenient spot about half-way between the throat and the chest, and propelling the contents of the syringe into the passage. The skin over the portion selected should be rendered tense with the fingers of the left hand, while the right is employed in inserting the needle and directing it in a forward and downward direction. Horses commonly submit to this operation without much restraint, the slight pain caused ceasing when the needle has passed through the skin. Subcutaneous Injection.�The instrument alluded to in the fore- going paragraph is also employed to introduce medicines into the circula-

			Fig. 441.�Making a Subcutaneous Injection in the Neck

tion by injecting suitable solutions of active agents into the loose tissues beneath the skin (fig. 441). The position chosen for the purpose is of no great importance, but safety to the operator and convenience alike suggest the loose folds behind the elbow. Intra-venOUS Injection is another method occasionally employed, and consists in injecting medicines directly into one or another of the superficial veins of the body. The vessel most commonly used for this purpose is the jugular vein. The operation, however, is one which should only be performed by the expert veterinarian.

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	THE NURSE
	THE NURSE	23
		23

24. NURSING THE NURSE The medical attendant anxious to enlist the good-will of the unpaid nurse may often be heard to say that the welfare of the patient depends largely upon her good offices. If this is so with the patient who can and does freely express complaints in respect of these "ministering angels", how much more necessary is it that sick animals, unable to voice their wrongs, should have in an attendant an individual at once faithful and assiduous in his duties. There is nothing more disheartening to the veterinary practitioner than to feel that he has heedless and incom- petent persons to carry out his instructions; and such arc the majority of persons to whom sick animals are entrusted. In a work dealing with the ailments of the horse it will therefore be well to consider a few of the conditions that make for recovery, and the means used in the treatment of the sick and lame. THE SICK-BOX With few exceptions a loose box is recommended for a horse that is ill, and for several reasons. To begin with, it should be light and cheerful, and a temperature of about 55° Eahr. will in most cases be. sufficiently high. It should be well ventilated, but free from draught. Where the menage will permit, the sick-box should be wholly detached from all other stables, as a disease about which there may have been doubt at first even to the expert, may at any time prove to be contagious. It should, of course, be properly drained. Horses are of necessity kept in some places where these conditions cannot be provided. In such circumstances special attention should be given to ventilation, and the sanitary state of the stable should in every particular be made as com- plete as possible. In cases of lameness or injury, where no possible harm to others can result a horse may remain in sight and sound of his usual companions with advantage, as his gregarious instincts are offended when condemned to solitary confinement unless he is too ill to care about his surroundings. In a state of nature a sick animal leaves the herd, an instinct which may be accounted for in several ways, but the injured one tries to keep up with his fellows. The door of the sick-box should always open out- wards, or the attendant may be unable to enter when the patient is prone and cannot rise.

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		U		HEALTH AND DISEASE
				HEALTH AND DISEASE

		There should be as little furniture as possible, and that should be capable of easy removal for cleansing and disinfection; after recovery or death of the patient the whole of the stable should be whitewashed before introducing another animal into it, while other and more effectual measures of sanitation must be resorted to where an infectious disease has been treated. (See Disinfection.) Special circumstances will have to determine the bedding to be employed for invalid horses. For example, a case of laminitis, in which poultices or wet swabs are not still in use, may be benefited by the employment of peat-moss rather than straw, which, when not frequently turne'd and changed, soon becomes offensive; or saw-dust obtained from deal or pine. In pulmonary diseases, where dust is objectionable, peat-moss and saw-dust are both unsuited to the sick-box. In cases of paralysis, long straw gets heaped up or scraped together by the patient's ill-directed movements, and the skin covering the most prominent points is liable to injury from the bare floor. Straw in trusses may be cut through with a hay-knife in these cases, and when short is less liable to be collected about the animal's legs. Whether straw, hay, or ferns are used, the bedding should be constantly forked over, and if the patient is unable to rise, he should be made comfortable by being turned over at least once in the twenty-four hours, and assisted to maintain a reposeful attitude by suitable packing placed under the withers and elsewhere. A convenient posture is of course conducive to sleep, the necessity for which appears to be too often overlooked in regard to equine patients, because it is well known that in health they require comparatively little of "nature's sweet restorer". Clothing.�Where practicable it is desirable to keep up the tempera- ture of the stable by artificial means rather than overload the patient with clothing, which may become a burden and annoyance if he is not accustomed to it. Exception may be taken to this in cases of pulmonary congestion, where a pure cool air is desirable. Here the surface warmth must be kept up by rugs, bandages, and hoods. The clothing chosen should be light and warm, frequently changed, shaken, and, if necessary, dried before replacing it. All clothing worn by an animal suffering from a contagious disease should be well washed and disinfected, after which it may be dried in the open and then baked. Water.�With a few exceptions elsewhere mentioned, the sick horse should have an abundant supply of pure water, which should not be warmed as is sometimes done by allowing it to stand in the stable, but, if the season is such as to require it, by adding to it some that has

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		INVALID FOOD ₃₅ been artificially heated. Horses will seldom drink water that approaches the temperature of the animal body, and when the word "warm" is mentioned, a temperature of about 80° Fahr. is understood. INVALID FOOD One of the most important duties, and probably the least understood oy the average groom, is the preparation of food out of the usual routine. ^s with human patients, so with horses, recovery may be often said to ^e f^rom the first tempting meal the sufferer can be induced to eat. ^c is a matter of common knowledge that horses in health are often ^atklious about food, and will reject it when offered in a bucket or other enicle that is not perfectly clean; much more is this the case in sickness, ^a we have too often seen cooked food offered that has been burned ^r °therwise spoilt in the preparation. The invalid should be tempted y variety, no great quantity offered at one time, and what is left should ^e scrupulously removed before the patient has "blown" over it and ^become disgusted. >\ here no food whatever is voluntarily taken it is sometimes necessary introduce aliment in other ways, as by drench and enemata, and this ■' louJd be done as quietly and gently as possible; a golden rule, to be ^served in all dealings with sick horses, as unnecessary noise and excite- ^ment is at all times prejudicial to an animal so highly nervous as the horse. ■The f_00ci _use(j �_Qr _gj_ck j_10rses should always be of a nourishing or sustaining character, and in some instances it is an advantage if it pos- sesses laxative properties. In the first class we include eggs, milk, biscuits, bread, meals, beef- j and the popular forms of alcohol, as wine, spirits, and malt liquors, °nie of these the patient may be induced to take voluntarily, and others have to be given with more or less coercion. In the second class ⁶ ^lneluded some foods that are of nutritive value, but whose chief ^l;u'acteristic *^s ^tneir ^ent>ect ⁱⁿ keeping the bowels in a lax condition reducing the tendency to constipation and fever. Eggs and milk are frequently given together, by whipping both the y°iks and the whites, and adding the milk gradually. If the patient n be induced to drink such sustaining and easily assimilated food, it ^may be mixed in the proportion of half-a-dozen eggs to a gallon of new ^mnk, but some horses will be found to take separated or skim milk- though refusing the " whole". If it has of necessity to be given in the orm of a drench, it is desirable to reduce the bulk and give as much as

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		₂₆ HEALTH AND DISEASE three eggs whipped with a quart or less of new milk and at-J^ intervals than would be allowed where a greater quantity of nutriment is taken at one time. -, -.-u It is always more or less distressing to the patient to be coerced w food either in liquid or solid form, and when this ^^mM "^^^ temperament of the individual should be considered. One horse wi a fluid from a bottle more readily than in the form of a ball, another that has been carefully handled may be sustained with balls mac of oatmeal and treacle, or linseed, or capsules containing concentrate foods, as bovril, Brand's essence, or hard-boiled eggs carefully mmcec. The 'Laxative Foods include green meat of all kinds, as grass, lucerne, vetches, sainfoin, clover, carrot-tops, green maize, wheat, oats, barley an rye, parsnips, beet, mangolds, turnips, kohlrabi, apples, linseed gruel, oatmeal and linseed mashes, linseed oil, linseed tea, bran mashes, ana hay tea, sugar, molasses, and boiled grain. The Green Foods cut and carried to the sick-box should not be cast down in a heap to ferment and become stale, but a small quantity only should be given at a time; neither should such fodder be served with a heavy dew upon it, but should be spread out for a little while in the fresh air until the surface moisture has been for the most part removed. � If rye grass and clovers have been grown very fast and are ot a watery nature, they should be chaffed with a little hay, which serves the double purpose of ensuring perfect mastication and correcting too laxative action. In the tropics, bamboo and sugar-cane are used as green fodder, and boiled moong, urud, and kulthee. Bran Mash.�No one connected with horses could be found who would admit his incapacity to make bran mash, yet how often do w find it given scalding hot on the top, and dry and cold at the bottom, sometimes causing an impatient horse to paw, and maybe strike nis Knee against the manger. In this way an invalid " put off his fancy" for the time often declines to eat when the food has sufficiently cooled. The proper way to prepare a bran mash is to scald the vessel in which it is to De mixed, pour into it three pints of boiling water, add three pounds of bran and a dessert-spoonful of salt, stir well with a clean stick, cover over for half an hour, and offer it to the animal when cool enough to place one's naked elbow in it. A Bran and Linseed Mash should be prepared by boiling slowly __simmering, as cooks describe it�for two or three hours. Half a pound of linseed, one pound of bran, a dessert-spoonful of salt, and three quarts

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		INVALID FOOD ■ 07 ^maJOrity ₀f^US] ^wil1 ^make ^a jelly-like mash more acceptable to the P^r°portion of ^^ ^ ^if ^made ^sloppy ^b-^v ^tlie ^addition ^of ^a greater ⁱⁿ order t ^ ^"^eie ^tbe ^seed ^sll0ldd ^De "simmered" for a long time, ^]isWnts t) ^eXtract ^tJle ^fu]1 ^value from it. In some well-ordered estab- ⁰¹¹ the h h ^ ^ln^^ended f°^r evening consumption stands in readiness suitable n ^ ^Half a pound of linseed to a gallon of water is a ^&s " tea " u ¹⁰ⁿ" ^ i'^s> °f course, a misnomer to speak of boiled foods '"fusion V ^Ut ^We ^may ^W^ P^roP^riet7 ^use ^tIie ^term ^wlien ^maki»g an Pourino- � 77 P^erfectly clean bucket being chosen and warmed by ^ftay and ^m ■. .ⁿ& ^water and throwing it away, we choose the best old ^boi]in₀. ^ ** ^^uickI7 and tightly into the vessel, fill the latter with ^tea shoul 1 T ^C°^Ver ^cioS(d7> ^and allow & to remain until cold. The over. ° ^De carefully decanted, so that the seeds do not pass ^uentiy ^S ^sP^oken °f as a food as well as a medicine, and is fre- tw₀ _0r P^lesenbed as such. As a laxative it is given in quantities of ^eUiploy_e] ^^e ^taDie"^sPoonfuls in the food morning and evening, and so ^Wi^ tak -^1S ^tile ^^eSt ^SUDstitute for green meat. The majority of horses fatteni_no, tV ^S°^me P^Tefei* Unseed cake, which is more nutritious and ^to acqui^ T ^Xt ^IS ^iaxative, but may serve as a bait to enable the animal Root⁶ ^a ^g ^for ^the ^exP^ressecl ^oiL ^aild man ' U ^W"cb. ^t,ie carrot and beet are the most nutritious, the turnip ^lnay be t^g° ^tlle ^m°^St ^]axative, are usually given raw. The sick horse ^sb'^ces of ^empte(1 ^s°uietimes by scraping a carrot under his nose and cutting ^amUsemeV^0nVement ^Siz6; ^ln ^this ^wa^ ^he* ^is ^afforded ' certain amount of ^e"ed. j. ' . ^tbe appetite which has been in abeyance may be reawak- ^0r other ^ ° ^ff'^cutter ^may be utilized for these vegetables, and oatmeal ^tJle addit^SUStaining ^f°°^d ^sP^rinkIed ^over the slices and made appetizing by foiled ⁿ ^Sa^ °^r ^SOme °^^tbe many condiments now in the market. ^tIley are f °^T ^COoked ^roots ^are sometimes prescribed for sick animals, but fatulenc °^m<^ ^t0 ^b(? ^undesirable in health, having a tendency to produce ^inelucWl � ^an ^d7^spepsia generally. For the same reason potatoes are not Gr_u j" ^a ^sick ^diet tion_s _as _t '~~^ⁿis food is often recommended without any specific instruc- °atmeal ° ^ g^rmh* and unless linseed or other descriptive name is used, ⁱⁿ ^tfle p/ ^Understood- It is best prepared by adding the meal to cold ^Y;lter ^a quick fi°^P°^rtl0n °^f ^one P^ound ^t0 ^the gallon. It should be placed over ^to fue botT' ^and ^COntinua]]7 stirred to prevent dry particles from adhering °^m ^and sides of the sauce-pan. As it approaches boiling-point

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		₂₈ HEALTH AND DISEASE the cook should be more assiduous than ever with his wooden spoon, as there is no food more easily spoilt. As soon as it begms to thicken it should be removed from the fire and emptied into another vessel, and allowed to cool before being offered to the patient. Oatmeal and water is sometimes spoken of as gruel, and is given to horses when severely taxed, or on long journeys when time cannot be spared for a " square meal. It is both sustaining and stimulating, and when properly prepared very acceptable both to the sick horse and to others when fatigued with a hard day's work. _ Boiled Barley.�When barley or other gram is boiled, the bulk 01 water should be twice that of the grain, unless it has been previously swelled up by soaking for many hours. Cooked in this way it absorbs nearly all the water, and comes out plump but not broken up. Salt is always recommended with cooked foods as rendering them more digestible. Pearl Barley.�This is employed to make a cooling drink, the grain itself being usually rejected. A pound may be allowed to each gallon of cold water, and it should-be permitted to remain at a gentle heat for several hours, as recommended for linseed tea. POULTICES AND POULTICING: Although not a fine art, there is a right way and a wrong one in the apparently simple operations of making and applying poultices in the treatment of disease. Poultices are made of a variety of materials, and require a certain amount of care if not skill for their proper preparation, and still more in their application to different parts of the body and limbs. To maintain them in position is often a matter of some difficulty, and requires of the attendant a considerable amount of tact and nice judgment, as we cannot look to our patient for assistance in these matters, but may expect more or less opposition. He will tread them off his feet, and often enough eat them, if in any convenient position to be got at. The materials in most general use are bran, linseed meal, ground linseed, and bread, but any substance that will hold water and retain its temperature may be employed so long as it contains no objectionable properties. In country districts poultices are often prepared from turnips, potatoes, carrots, or other roots, Swedes being specially favoured in some parts. The custom of using cold poultices has so far fallen into desuetude that we need only consider those employed to maintain warmth and moisture, with others to which certain medicaments are added for special purposes.

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		POULTICES AND POULTICING ₂<> agents connection it is sometimes found necessary to employ such °pium, &_e J^Ustard' ^carkolic acid, charcoal, chlorinated lime, belladonna, course' o-^- ° ' -^ ^⁶ P^rescriber who may desire to use them will, of ^also as f^1VG ^^reciSe ^instructions, not only as to the agent to be used, but ^uPon it ° ^er * ^is to be mixed with the poultice, or merely placed ^reQuiri -° ^reS* ^UP^on ^a particular spot, as in the case of certain wounds "\yj ^g ^SP^eciaI agents in application with one part and not the whole, first r � ^1S ^lntended to apply a poultice, the necessary materials should not br ^ ^attent^^on>' the novice too often finds himself with a mass of Prepare 7 f ^P ^and nothing to hand with which to apply it, or he has To °fc ^mUCh °^r ^t0° ^littIe ^for ^tbe P^ulP0sc prefer 1 ^ Bran Poultice.�A clean bowl or basin is always to be with TV, ° ^a ^staDl^e-°ucket, unless a very large quantity has to be dealt added b i ^amount ^0I bran required is put into the bowl, and boiling water ^Way th ^y ^V ^degrees ^and ^with constant stirring. Unless it is done in this ^to° thi ^G ^^e P^ortions almost dry or caked together, and the remainder each st' � PPy- Bran takes up a large amount of water, and with ^Sciueez_e "^ ^ receive more until thoroughly saturated. It is better to Poultie t ^superfluous moisture through a cloth than to apply your ^to beco °° ^Wet' ^¹⁶ ^raP^ evaporation and tendency on the part of bran ^c°nimo 1 ^S°^Ur ^1S ^an °bJ^ection to its use alone, and it is for this reason very better ^ ^COttlbmed with an equal portion of linseed flour, or, what is still _A J^^rUshed linseed which has not been deprived of the oil. bably +i ^8ee ^and"bran poultice prepared in the manner referred to is pro- ^Wamth ^e/ⁿ°^St ^serviceable of any, as it has the merit of retaining its ^eniolb_e t ^moisture for a long time, while the oil it contains renders it ^Crush d^nd ^COmfortinS ^t0 tbe patient. desired f ^imseed ^is used alone as a poultice where it is particularly Vg _ag °5 ^lts ^S0I"tening and emollient effect, but it does not retain heat so Bread � ""^ ^With ^hvm' ^and ^fails ^to ^adhere ^so ^welLPrepar_eci tl^ ^& ^conveiuent substitute for meals, and can be more quickly Weed ^- ^an^ °^tIler cataplasm. It has just the opposite objections to ^with d/ft^i ^at ^sticks ^to ^tne ^skin ^to° persistently, easily dries., and is Acuity removed. ^^eeP it m ^ ^lmproved by the addition of glycerine, the effect of which is to T_re , ^S . ^or a longer time and prevent it becoming sour. ^as ttiore _�A^miXed ^witb linseed makes it more adhesive, and what is known Tumi ^Win�"'ⁱⁿ ^ effects. ^S(i^ezed^PS ^and °^tller ^roots ^are boiled until thoroughly soft, mashed, and P^ared the "* ^& ^^ ^t0 ^gefc ^rid ^of ^suP^ei'fluous moisture. When first pre- y are very much too hot to be applied with safety, and cool down

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

so rapidly that they are at best poor substitutes for
t\^ bran and linseed meal. They are, however, useful

I I substitutes when the latter are not to hand.

The Application of Poultices or Cataplasms.�

M Since these may be required on any part of the animal,

1 W from the sole of his foot to the top of his withers, and

from his face to the end of his tail, it follows that many

i� 'j and diverse methods must be adopted to retain them

'I in the desired position. The first-named part is perhaps

j � . ■ J the easiest of all on which to fix them securely.

If the whole foot has to be included in the treat-
ment, a considerable amount of material is required,
and a poultice-boot (fig. 442) or leg-bucket is to be
preferred to anything else; but as this is a luxury
not in the possession of the average horse-owner a sub-
stitute must be sought for, the most suitable material

______being a piece of sacking or old rug. The pieces m-

Fig. 442.�Pouitice-Boot tended for use should be formed into a bag sufficiently

large to receive the foot, and long enough to reach the

middle of the cannon-bone. Some of the poultice should then be put into

the bag, which is now drawn over the foot, and the remainder packed well

Fig. 443.�Poulticing the Head

Fig. 444.�Poulticing one Side of the Head

xound the outer side of the foot as high as the pastern. Whatever may
be the disease for which the application is made, it should be borne in
mind that the inflammatory action will extend beyond the seat of the

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POULTICES AND POULTICING 31

injured part, and the greatest benefit will be obtained by thoroughly
enclosing the foot in the poultice.

J-0 secure the bag to the limb, tape or strong cord may be used.

The importance of having
plenty of material under the
binder should be impressed
"Pon the beginner, so that
be may make the poultice
Perfectly secure without the
danger of excoriating or
otherwise injuring the skin
beneath.

A more workmanlike plan
^of retaining a poultice on the
^foot is that of bandaging

°^Ver it from the coronet up-

Fig. 446.�Poulticing the Throat

wards. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

liie Heel is perhaps as convenient a situation as any for adjusting a

. ^u ^tlce, nothing but a bandage being needed to keep it in position, but it
a highly sensitive portion of the horse's skin, and a good nurse will sup-
P°^rt his cataplasm on some soft
material. A piece of tow spread
^0ut to the desired breadth serves
t be purpose well. It has been
elsewhere remarked, and its im-
portance permits of repetition
^flei'e, that no application to the
integument of the horse should
be hotter than will be found com-
fortable to the bare elbow of the
attendant. Many bad heels are
made worse by neglect of this
precaution, and the same remark
applies to those cases where poul-
kces are allowed to become stale
before being changed.

The Fetlock presents but one

Fig-. 446.�Poultice applied to tin- Withers

difficulty in the retention of a

Poultice, and that is its roundness, and the tendency of the latter to slip
down. To prevent this a long bandage is first rolled round the pastern below
to form a support, and then continued lightly but firmly over the poultice.

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

Any other portion of a front leg, including the knee, may be dealt with
in the same manner. In the absence of a bandage, an old stocking from
which the foot has been removed may, by being drawn over the leg, serve
the purpose, but it fails to keep in the heat as does a flannel bandage.

The Hock is a most difficult joint upon which to retain a poultice.
The movements of this joint are so extensive, that a special bag must be
made of such a size and form as to embrace the whole of the joint and
allow of its being securely fastened above and below. In adjusting the

poultice, the stocking should first
be drawn into position, then tied
below with tape or bandage, and,
lastly, the material composing
the poultice should be introduced
and well packed round the joint.
The Head.�When poultices
have to be applied to any part
of the head or face, it is usual
to make the leather head-collar
serve as a support, while a hood
may also be utilized to retain
them in such positions as the
poll, the eye, the face, &c. In
poulticing the throat, nothing

Fig. 447.�Poultice applied to the Breast

serves better for adjustment than
, ... a couple of flannel bandages;

but if it is required to embrace the space behind the jaws, the throat
bandage (fig. 445) must be employed.

The Withers and back can be poulticed by means of portions of strong
flannel, or, what is better, old rugging, cut to suitable shapes and tied as
illustrated m fig. 446.

The Sides of the Chest and Belly.�Nothing serves the purpose

ol justing a poultice to these parts better than the arrangement depicted
in Wate XLV11I where a broad sheet of rugging is suspended by six
bands, two of which from either side are tied over the loins and back
respectively, and two others to a collar-band in front. A seventh may be
employed to attach the collar-band to the sheet between the fore limbs, to
prevent its backward movement.

The Breast.�A suitable bandage for this region is that given in
fig. 447. ° to to

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			PLATE XLVI�

Method of applying a Poultice to the Abdomen

	Method of applying a Poultice to the Chest

		POULTICING

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	MUSTAED PLASTERS
	MUSTAED PLASTERS	33
		33

MUSTARD PLASTERS Tli ^claest a d^ ^t0 ^Wl"^cb ^mustard piasters are most frequently applied are the the «,viⁿ ^abdomen> the throat, the windpipe as far down as the breast, and \|^ld_b^e_o^SJ^Ver the surface of the ribs. ^aecesso '^W °^r ^basm' ^a ^wooden spoon, and a jug of warm water are all the ^ratio_n f^GS ^rectUlred- Boiling water is not only unnecessary in the prepa- ^drivi_no- ff ^fflUstard Poster, but positively objectionable on account of its ^nless^fl ^t]l6 ^aCtiVe P^rinciP^]e ^and educing the potency of the mustard. ^tbe Pro ^ P^atlent ^bas ^a ^]o"g ^coat, mustard may be mixed with water in be ren^⁰¹?⁰¹¹ ^USed ^for ^the table, but where much hair exists it must either in r»M° °^r ^tbe Piaster must be made thinner, and more time expended ^eilce ₀^^ISe"^bred Worses are usually less susceptible to the stimulating influ- of _wate^mUStard' ^and its effects may be increased by using vinegar instead turpent"¹' °^T' ^W]lere ^a ^severe application is intended, a table-spoonful of The" Th¹¹¹^' ^be ^added ^t0 ^eveiJ 1^uarter P^ound ^of tbe dry powder, be ]_leIc\| ."fO&t�When this part has to be treated, the basin should not §'^ently ^lttlrnediately under the animal's head, and the head should be ^bateve T^ ^bj ^&n ^assistant while the plaster is steadily rubbed in. ^eoi&moni^r ^gl6e ^of ^friction is used should be equal on all the parts. It is ^be take_n⁷ ^PreSCribed ^f°^r ^a ^t]iroat ^alread7 ^verY ^sore ^within> ^iwd ^care ^shouWttiovemej t^t0 ^USe ^H0 ^unneeessar7 force, either in restraining the patient's A h₀ * .^S °^r ^m ^maJcing the application, one of _w^^8ej^thns treated should not be immediately left to his own devices, ^9lld Perl^ ^1S ^t0 ^Pub ^blS tbi'oat on the manger or other convenient fitting, ^takillg eff¹^ °^aUSe ^a ^]astinS blemish. When the mustard is seen to be ^atld Perh ^6Ct' ^aS ^evidenced ^>y the animal shaking his head, swishing his tail, °f corn_pa^apS ^striking with his front feet, he should be spoken to in terms ^m^n_ev jj^S8l°J' ^and prevented from doing himself any injury. When his The W^ '^)6COme ^ca]m' arid not until then, should he be left. The e.¹?*"^⁶-�The directions given above apply equally to this part, tion of _m ^es ^of the Chest.�A standing position favours the applica- ^intendecl ^^ ^t0 ^the ^sides' ^which ^shoukl ^be ^aPP^lied equally all over the ^6lbovv; ne>T^faCe' ^avoiding' the loose thin skin immediately behind the ^tbe ^ribs ij¹ ^f ^Wi]J ^it; ^serve any useful purpose to go above the arches of The B I? ^Upward (direction, or down to the breast-bone below. ^b<%> must {~^^In ^S°^me ^inflammatory diseases affecting the organs of the Part of th ^ °^V ^SOme °tber counter-irritant is applied over the greater ** _m ^e ^abdomen. Here, care should be exercised to avoid the loose 68

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		34 HEALTH AND DISEASE skin of the flank, the sheath of the horse or gelding, and the teats o ^ mare, as the inclusion of these parts causes unnecessary pain at tie application, and possibly obstinate sore places afterwards. The Liver.�Where an application of mustard is advised over tne region of the liver, it is understood to refer to the right side, to whichit, e organ is more especially inclined, and it will be most effective it applied a space of four or five inches behind the back ribs.

			BACK-RAKING AmOng the many services the attendant on the sick is called upon o perform may be mentioned such minor operations as the admmistra 1 clysters and enemata. These are often preceded by the operation of un- loading the rectum with the hand, vulgarly known as "back-raking may be as well to describe the process first. Very little knowledge of horse ailments will be necessary to convince the reader of the importance of this performance. There are many ' which this operation is followed by relief, especially in colic, impac the bowels, and in diseases of the urinary apparatus; in inflammation o testicles in stallions, parturition in mares, and in those febrile an conditions in which the animal is too languid, or enduring such pam as to preclude the necessary posturing and exertion to defecate. b enumerate a great many other cases in which such aid would prove valu- able, but the examples quoted will be sufficient. To perform this task it is required that the fingers of the operator should be free from rings, and the nails closely paired. The horny of a person accustomed to manual labour should be previously softened y washing in hot water. Although the majority of horses submit to this performance without display of temper, it is well for a right-handec m to have the left fore-leg held up by an assistant, while the operator stands somewhat to the near side of the quarter, or, if the left arm is used, the reverse order will best serve to protect from a kick. There is practically no danger so long as the tail is held firmly erect, as a kicker always depresses the tail before " lashing out". As a preliminary, the hand and arm should be well smeared with some vaseline, lard, or butter (free from salt), an ^ little may be introduced with the finger into the rectum before proceeding to unload it. In introducing the hand into the rectum the fingers are o-athered together, and by gentle and persistent pressure made to enter t e anal opening. At first a good deal of resistance will be met with from the muscle encircling the orifice (sphincter muscle), but by steady perseverance it will soon be overcome, and the hand and arm allowed to enter.

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		WASHING 35 T] Pessary to Tcf ^T^ ^U0W ^he removed with no more than sufficient force from time ^accomP^llsn the end in view, and the operation may be repeated to time, as may be required. WASHING ^as a sanita - "^ ^1S ^uno-^erta^^en ^as ^a curative measure in skin diseases, or t effectual ^ ^P!°^Cess' there are certain precautions to be observed to make Parasiti V ^^* ^t0 ^prevent ^tlie animal ^from taking cold, cations to th ^IS6ases' ^as ^mange, may have to be treated with greasy appli- ^for ^aPpea � ^& ' ^wJlicJl ^must be afterwards removed by soap and water ^skin p_ren ^G ^a comfort, or washing may be prescribed to cleanse the Anab'¹⁹]⁰¹^ ^t0 ^ ^aPP^Iication of remedial agents, t^e op_erat- ^SUPP^7 ^0I* warm water should be secured before commencing ^anc* a sun ^S ^a '.'^water" ^or "dandy" brush, a sponge, scraper, straw wisps, ** is well !^\^mornmg should be selected if possible. In nearly every case living _p , . ^eS^m ^with the face and head, as in any skin affection due to ^and ey_e]iJ\|^aSlteS ^Jt ^iS ^essential that no "cities of refuge", such as the ears ^H the^ ^aff°^rd' ^sllou]d be left unassailed. If the washing begins at the ^are wash_ecf ^aiJ^Sltes ^are ^forced backwards and are effectually cut off, or they ^anc* brus] ? body. The forelock and mane require to be weU soaked ^U-groo down to the roots of the hair, as there is always, even in ^accuni_u]_at ! ^an]mals, a good deal of desquamated cuticle and other debris ^a^ali_; _m ⁶ ^ere ^to harbour the offender. Soft soap, with its excess of ^tllis Purn ⁶ ^reac^^ " lifts " this material than the ordinary soaps. If, for ^Wth War ⁶' ^S°^aP ^S ^rubbed in first, there must be very cojjious rinsing ^reiQark_s ^Water afterwards�and a free use of the brush. The same ^Washed <J � ^ ^t0 ^^le ^ta^- The neck, shoulders, and front legs are partially ing Wett ^ ^^me ^^ie ^mane is receiving attention, the back and loin k^e% and ^ ^t0 ^aV°^id ^unnecessary exposure of the body to cold. The ^SatuJated K ^ ^re<^^u"'^e the least manual labour, as they have become ^eIeaQsino- ^y ^th° ^Iatber running down them from other parts. When the ^'^Ven and ?^Cess ^^as keen efficiently performed, a cold douche should be ^greater part ^S°^raper ^freeI^ applied, to relieve the coat quickly of the Zeroise _sh* i ^ ^fluid>' then the sponge should continue the work. ^sll°ulcl fin'�hi! ^til6n ^^e &^ven ^to establish a glow, and the dry wisps °^]otiing sho 1 °^peration ^when tbe horse is brought back to the stable. °^u d not be replaced until the skin feels warm as well as dry.

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36 HEALTH AND DISEASE

BANDAGES AND BANDAGING

Bandages are used for a variety of purposes: to give support to or
restrain a limb, to maintain splints and dressings in position, to restrain
bleeding, exert pressure, promote healing, and remove swelling. To effect
the three last-named purposes a good deal of pressure may be necessary,
and while the bandage has to be applied tightly, a considerable amount of
care should be exercised to make the
pressure even and avoid interference
with the circulation.

Preparation and Application

Of Bandages.�There is no small
amount of art in the proper applica-

Fig. 449.�A Simple Apparatus for Rolling Bandages
1, Wood framework. 2, Screw fixing to table
or weight. 3, Bent stout wire crank. 4, Wire
to guide and flatten bandage.

Fig. 448.�Method of Rolling a Bandage

tion of bandages, as the reader may see for himself if he will compare
the performance of the novice, whose bandage will not remain in position
on a horse at rest, with the work of the expert which will continue intact
when galloping and jumping have put it to every test.

Both woollen and linen bandages are employed for horses, the latter
being suitable only in those cases where evaporation from their surface and
cooling of the part is the chief object desired.

Woollen bandages are used for a very great variety of purposes, and
practice alone can render the attendant expert in their application. A few
hints may here be given that will be found to bear fruit.

In preparing a bandage for application to the limb, the tapes attached
to one end will require to be gathered together and the bandage rolled
round them so as to make a small cylinder, which is to be held between the
thumb and middle finger of the right hand, whilst the free portion of the
bandage rests upon the index finger of the left hand (fig. 448). Thus held

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BANDAGES AND BANDAGING

common p₀ y � ^1S ^ro^^ed ^UP ^int0 ^a hrm regular cylinder. The most

k^ee and h ^h� ^ ^whleil ^a bandage is required to be applied is below the

*ⁿ ^tfle p_erf ' ^V6r^ ^*^^e P^ractice is needed to render a person efficient

^Stdb and _a f^lmanCe °^f ^this ^simP^]e operation. With the patient standing

^ma7 proceed ^ ^ °^f ^ab°^Ut ^twelve ^inclies ^of ^tlie bandage unfolded, we

^upon the 1 ^t0 ^make ^a ^Cast ^round ^the ^limb> ^TJie ^free ^end ^is ^first ^placed^eg and the bandage unrolled over it. The bandage held in

"'§-� 450.

-Bandaging a Fore-Leg-, showing

the

Fig. 451.�Bandaging a Fore-Leg, showing
bandage completed and tied.
A, End of bandage with tapes

°^e Method

^Pad°f cottonwool ^yiDg ^thS ^baDdage °^Vera

fight h j �
^hole i_s ^ls then carried round the limb again and again until the

ⁿ°^w set _fr^Payed ^0ut It is then secured by means of the tapes which are

^^eeP the J⁶⁶' ^Tlle ^Chief ^P°^int ^t0 ^be ^observed ⁱⁿ S^oinS ^down ^e hmb ^is ^to^be ^slack- fT�^edgG °^f ^tlle bandage tight, while permitting the lower edge to

^rt

Til

*" mann <■

reverse conditions being necessary in coming up again

nd the

tape^_are ®* �e hollows and the eminences receive equal pressure, and the

^be °hjeeti₀ fc ^UP°ⁿ ^& ^double portion where their pressure is not likely to

^t0es> but t/^ 7 ⁶' ^If ^bandaging the leg of a dog we should begin at the

^bandaa_P � ¹⁶, ^orse having an unyielding hoof (so far as the pressure of a

-gin

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		3₈ HEALTH AND DISEASE the fetlock, but do not put any great pressure on until we reach the pastel and begin to ascend the leg. tarch or Starch Bandages.-To give support in cases of fracture, sx ^ glue bandages are sometimes employed. The former are either ^mll a basin of freshly-made warm starch and then loosely rolled ^bet°^l* * applied, or spread upon a table and pasted over with a brush. ^ue^ .^ be employed in the same manner, but the fingers need to be dipp ^ warm water to prevent them from sticking, as the liquid quickly coo s. starch bandage is more easily dealt with when the time comes to remove ^ but olue sets more quickly at the time of application and may be pre e with a restless patient. , A better bandage than that formed of either starch or glue may ^ made by mixing the white of eggs with flour in such proportion as to 01 a paste that will readily spread upon a strip of calico or other sui a material. It requires no heat and quickly sets, remaining nrm softened by warm water when it is desired to remove it. Plaster Of Paris Bandage.�This form of bandage affords a greater degree of support than any other, but its rigidity necessitates more pr tions against the production of sores when it has to be retained lor a g period on the limb. It is essential that the plaster should not have been exposed to the air, and tins containing it should be sealed or it may found to have lost its "setting" power when required for use. lo ca y the plaster a loosely-woven material is to be preferred. When this has unrolled, dry plaster of paris is rubbed into it by an assistant. It is slowly rolled again and each fold carefully filled. Before wetting it, the part of the animal to be bandaged should be covered by a plain banclag , or be padded with cotton-wool, wood-wool, tow, or spongio-piline. Jiivery thing being ready, the plaster bandage is dipped in water, and as soon a it is wet through, applied as quickly as possible, consistently with uniiormi y and neatness. The outside is smeared all over with more plaster oi consistence of cream. A dry roll of bandage is made to cover the whole, and the patient restrained from all movement for half an hour, by which time it should be set and quite hard. BLISTERING Blistering is an operation frequently resorted to in the treatment of horses, and many permanent blemishes result from the use of improper materials and the neglect of simple after-precautions. As a preliminary measure the hair on the part to be blistered should be first closely clipped and the scurf brushed out of the skin.

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		BLISTERING 39 If f the stall and ^1S ° ^ ^treatech the animal should be turned round in brino- b;_s ° both pillar-reins in such a manner that he cannot ^en ,S ?J ^C°^ntaCt ^With ^an ^uplifted ^leg-** short P, � ^m ^ls ^to be blistered, the animal should be racked up front who _ff .^1IS P^0si^¹⁰ⁿ some irritable horses will injure themselves in one _Unc\|_e i ^eilng pain behind, and it may be necessary to keep such a °^np7 one¹]⁰ f^erVation ^for ^a ^few hours after the application is made. If bandaa-_e f ^1S °P^erated upon, its Mhw may be enveloped in a soft ^to Tnh tl ^r P^rotection of both, for the patient is sometimes disposed 0_n]_y ^ ^^uffen»g member against the other leg. ^slippina T ^ent bedding should be used to prevent the patient from ^br°Ught ' + ^Vn' ^ ''^00Se ^straw causing unnecessary annoyance when ^be Prefer ⁿ_f)° ^C°^ntact ^witn the blistered surface. Damp used straw is to ^Surfa_Ce a^ -° ^m°^SS ^^tteV ^0r ^saw-^^ust>* which gets upon the blistered HorsesV^S ^V6rJ ^obJ^ectionable- ^sP^eeiall_y^e_s^S ^posed ^to " fiUing " of the legs, and mares " in season ^:', are ⁱⁿ strenoti^U8Ceptible ^to ^tIle ^action of vesicants, and these should be modified ^ⁿ ^unne r 1 °^ther ^reasons prevent the postponement of the application. ^]leel aho^WI ■ k⁰^ ^s]lould ^on ^no account be blistered. The hollow of the ^sbould b" ^C_fll^ln ⁿ° ^Case ^receive any portion of the blister, and the space Abo f "^P ^Witb ^Iard P^revious ^to the application being made, desired w^ ^minutes ^of hand nibbing is usually sufficient to produce the affording ^6Ct' ^ ^the ^moming should be chosen for this operation, as besides ^b _]°^pportumties to watch the patient and keep him out of trouble, the niffbl ^^ ^m°^re ^aCUte ^Stage ^wdI ^be P^ast before leaving him for ^UP°n th ° ^appllcation has proved effectual, there will be vesicles or bladders ^0f ^e p⁶;^Part ^neXt ^da7' ^witl1 some swelling of the limb though abatement ^SoaP, an] ' °ⁿ ^^e ^tbird ^da^v * ^is ^usual ^to ^Datlie ^witn ^warm ^water ^alld It _m ^ ^en ^dr7 ^aPplj some emollient ointment or sweet-oil. ^result_s, S i- ^doubte(l whether this is a desirable course to pursue. Better ^and renj⁶ !!^nk' ^W°^Uld ^be °btained by allowing a hardened scale to form the sirff_e^ai11' humane considerations make most of us desire to relieve down. ^Ul8 ^St ^as ^soon ^as possible and give him the opportunity to lie T app_arat^P ⁶^^ent the patient from gnawing the member when released, an ^man«eras ^Wn ^M ^& "^cradle" (% ⁴⁵²) ^is P^ut ^on ^his ^neck ⁱⁿ ^SUch ^ato injure * � ^glVe ^him ^the ^maximum amount of liberty without the power Pieces of "^f^elf' ^If a horse is turned out to grass with a cradle on, the aothino- _s7 °^f ^Which ^the ^cradle is composed should be held together with ^to ^ronger than "fiJIis " as fatal accidents have occurred through an

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	40
	40		HEALTH AND DISEASE
			HEALTH AND DISEASE

animal getting a hind foot caught up when trying to scratch the parts covered, a risk which is increased if the shoes have not previously been removed. SLINGS AND SLINGING Horse life is frequently saved by the timely use of slings. These differ in construction, and are often extemporized out of very crude appliances. Country veterinary surgeons, accustomed to all sorts of shifts and ex-

		Fig. 452.-Neck Cradle Pedients will make a farm cart or a pair of wagon shafts serve the purpose m the_ absence of more suitable means. The improved slings (Plate L), by their great strength and the endless chain and pulley, make it possible to raise a heavy horse from the ground with the assistance of but few men, while the old-fashioned ropes and pulleys need much more power. The method of adjustment, presuming that the patient is down, is to get the middle piece or suspender first under the body. To accomplish this, one or two men will elevate the head and neck, while two others are employed in passing the suspender as far as possible under the shoulder. The fore limbs are now raised by means of a cord applied to the under one, and while m this position the sling is forcibly drawn in a backward direction

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			PLATE XI.IX

		SIMPLH SLINGS

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GAKGLES AND MOUTH-WASHES

°Wards the middle of the body. The pulleys are now hooked on to the
j11° ' ^an<^ ^^ie ^J ^Demg slightly eased off the ground, the breastplate
weechings are buckled on by raising the legs in the manner above
described.

a 1 ^rses ^ln ^simgs require constant vigilance to prevent undue pressure

_aJ*^C j^¹⁶ P^roduction of sores on particular parts of the body with which they

^re brought into contact. A careful survey of the apparatus should be

^e ^two or three times a day, and, if necessary, a hole or two should be let

^^Ut ^laere> »?d one taken up there, so as to distribute the weight as equally

oth^P°^SSlble' ^If ^the ^animaJ' ^owinS ^t0 ^the nature ^of ^his �J^uries ^or ^from

^ler ^ca«ses, persist in resting heavily upon one particular portion, that

P^ai>t should be padded or stuffed with hay, or a sheep-skin or pieces of rug

_r ^ ^be ⁱⁿterposed between the body and the suspender; but hay will, as a

" ^e> be found the best stuffing, since it permits of more or less circulation

air.

GARGLES AND MOUTH-WASHES

Liquid preparations intended to act upon the mucous membrane of the
^lroat by contact are commonly spoken of as gargles, although it is not
^suPposed by anyone that horses can perform the act known to human
I ^Uents as gargling. Advantage, however, is taken of the horsed reluc-
^an°e to swallow, and small quantities of the medicine are poured into the
^ack of his m_outb_; _and _when it has been retained there for a short period
^le bead i_s lowered and the fluid allowed to escape. It may be remarked
_if^lat ^rghs are seldom composed of any ingredients that would be hurtful
carried into the stomach.

applications intended to produce their effect upon any part of the

^0uth are frequently described as mouth-washes, and the directions gener-

_b J, ^require the affected parts to be dressed with a soft sponge. If the

� f ^of the mouth has to be so treated, the sponge may be attached to

ⁿ ^fle_Xib

te cane.

SUPPOSITORIES

These are substances introduced into the rectum for medicinal purposes.

^lhe7 usually take the form of a cone-shaped mass, and are compounded

^Wlt* such agents as cocoa-butter. This substance is solid at ordinary

^temperatures outside the body, but slowly becomes liquefied by the heat of

^tJle Part. Suppositories are more particularly employed as anodynes and

^antisepties, and occasionally for their astringent properties.

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		42 HEALTH AND DISEASE LINIMENTS AND EMBROCATIONS These are prescribed for application to certain parts with different decrees of friction � according to their strength, and the purpose for which they are employed. There are few medicaments more often mis- applied by the amateur than popular embrocations, which unscrupulous advertisers recommend with equal confidence for a broken knee or an inflamed tendon. When used, the friction to be applied over the surface to be healed should be equally distributed, and not applied vigorously at one part and lightly at another. LOTIONS Under this term is included almost any outward application that is not used with friction. The methods of application differ according to the purpose to be served. An eye lotion may have to be simply dropped on the affected part, a wound lotion to be applied on lint, an evaporating lotion may be most useful when freely and repeatedly applied to the surface either by simple irrigation or by means of a bandage. The full effect of an anodyne bandage is best obtained under oiled silk, and the value of remedies prescribed in this form very largely depends upon the intelligent use of them by the nurse. OINTMENTS There are many agents of value in medical treatment which by their nature are unsuitable for application except in the form of unguents. These, however, are much less in vogue now than was formerly the case, and the bases used by the advanced pharmacist are no longer the same; lard and goose-grease have given place to vaseline and lanoline, which do not become rancid. Whenever an ointment is prescribed, except for application to a wounded surface, it is generally understood to require gentle but con- tinuous inunction for several minutes. PLASTERS OR CHARGES Mustard plasters or poultices have been already spoken of under the heading of poultices. Plasters or charges are either simple or medicated. The former are used to afford support to an injured or weakened part.

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		PLATE XLIX

	'#V

SIMPLE SLINGS

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			POISONING 43 Th ,,_ ^a ^er' besides performing this service, are intended to effect the ernovn] r»-P i 01 enlargements, especially in connection with the legs. k ^lam°is-leather adapted to the leg, and neatly sewn on with stitches stalT" ^t0 ^IadieS ^aS "herring-bones", are often called plasters in racing es, but they do not properly belong to that order of applications. Pitch ^ ^medicaI Peters employed in veterinary practice have a base of ^ ^e , resin, wax, or a mixture of these substances, with which the drugs to ]_atfc^USed ^are incorporated by first melting the former and stirring in the bei Z ^Until ^the ^whole ^is ^c°^o1 ^enoug^]l ^t0 ^he applied to the skin. Instead of dir ^§l ^Spreacl ^on ieather, as is often done in human practice, they arc _is ectly applied to the part by means of a spatula or knife, and then tow War^Ut ^lnt° ^len�^ths ^of ^about ^ha]f ^an ^inch ^md ^stuck ^on ^t0 ^the ^plaSter ^wMeis f"¹' ^Tll6J ^ma^ ^be ^empioyed upon any part of the body, but their use p_Ur.^0r ^the ^most P^arfc confined to the limbs, where they are used for the ^rP°se of giving support to sprained and weakened tendons, joints, and ^aments, or to fractured bones.

		25. POISONING INTRODUCTION in t ^P°^iSOn ^is ^a ^substance which in small quantities is capable of impair- § health and destroying life. Animals in the feral state would appear to , ^largeiy endowed with an instinct which teaches them to avoid poisonous C^nts ^and other deleterious substances. The fox, lynx, and all the tnem- safl ^the ^feline ^tribe ^are suspicious to a degree in ail that concerns their <%, and by the highly-developed sense of smell and taste they readily the J ^P°^iSOn ^When ^introduced ^into ^flesh'' ^thouS^h ^it; ^be ^the "^m " °^V ^CarCaSS^e7 have reserved for a future meal. Ag_es of domestication would appear to have so blunted these senses w ^ ^rse« that they will voluntarily take in their food many medicines which . ^are accustomed to regard as extremely nauseous. (See Methods ^Ministration.) It occasionally happens, therefore, that horses arc l_Q ^ls°ned, either by accident or personal malice, by the consumption of some ^Xl° agent to which they have access in the stable or pasture, svn, f^neraI Symptoms Of Poisoning.-Sudden and serious illness, witt ^Ptoms _rapid] _inereasing _in _severity and without obvious reason. **k apparently in good health up to the moment of seizure,* is incon- ^SlSte»t with the majority of well-defined diseases, and affords sufficient cause

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		44 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		to suspect some extraordinary or poisonous influence at work. Taylor, Stevenson, and others, famous by their special study of poisons, warn us that, though indicating a direction in which to make enquiry and search for the cause, such acute illnesses are not inconsistent with certain rare, but nevertheless well-known, causes for sudden and painful disease and death. The rupture of some large blood-vessel or abdominal organ, as the stomach, may lead to symptoms very similar to irritant poisoning. Suspicions of poisoning may be justly entertained, and investigation pursued, although it might be unwise to express them, and at the same time calculated to defeat the object in view, especially where foul play has been practised. Wilful poisoning is happily infrequent in the present day, and its rarity tends rather to disarm suspicion. Moreover, sudden deaths among horses without-previous "complaint" are quite common in large studs. What 10 do in Cases of Poisoning.�A comparison is again forced upon us, and we have to lament that as horse doctors our opportunities of combating fatal doses of drugs are very much fewer than those of a medical man. Our patients do not commit suicide, or drink carbolic acid by mis- take, and seldom indeed do they get drenched with a poisonous liniment intended for outward application. The mistake is seldom discovered in time when accidental poisoning takes place in horses, and the wilful poisoner has less to fear from the dying depositions of the patient, who can only tell his wrongs by symptoms which may be difficult to distinguish from those of disease otherwise induced. For a variety of reasons the veterinarian has not the same chances of counteracting poisonous doses as the medical man. The human patient can tell his attendant the mistake, and the most suitable treatment may be instantly adopted, while the veterinary surgeon has to wait for the effects before he can ascertain the possible cause. In nearly all cases the poison is taken into the stomach, and thence passes into the circulation. If we are fortunate enough to be early on the scene we may employ a stomach-pump and evacuate the contents of the organ, in the hope of removing the remaining unappropriated poison therein contained. As such an instrument is not likely to be found in possession of the ordinary horse-owner, it is the more necessary to seek the aid of a qualified veterinary surgeon. Again, we are at the disadvantage in regard to this animal that we cannot freely excite vomition, as in the dog or cat, so that it nearly always happens in cases of poisoning that reliance must be placed upon chemical or physiological antidotes, and such general measures as may be indicated in order to combat particular conditions.

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		POISONING
	Since
			45
			45


^er by _a _pu^ ^seaVG^y hope to evacuate the contents of the stomach _8t ^eff°it to _arrL * J°^mition, we have usually to begin the treatment by ^ Ottiach. j_f _q ^tJle action of the toxic agent upon the walls of the ^a]l«e bicarbonat"¹¹^ ^1S ^dU° ^t0 ^an ^acid ^irritanfc' ^coP^ious draughts of ^Jil»e b_ei ** are administered, those of potash, soda, magnesia, ^ducts _we _m& °^&. suitable; and in the absence of such pharmaceutical _r^eiJltl§s or walls %vu ^^ °^V ^whitinS> or the scrapings of whitewashed _d^esoi>t to diJ_ute ac'd ^ ^CaUStic alkalies have produced the mischief, we _D °^Sf^s- In adr?,v^aCI ^S' ^aS ^vinegar or lime-juice in small but oft-repeated ftClrlo ^luc'ltlOn tn 4-1* _of ^us °r alkalies _w J ■ agents calculated to neutralize chemically ^ ?tilk, linseed / ^& ^ister ^coPious draughts of bland fluids in the shape _of^^]e these mea_Sn ^WhIpped ^eSS^s> °^a» butter, g�, barley-water, Ac _t] ^ile ^stomach f_r ^10S ^are ^calculated to save the mucous membrane and walls _of^leJ" wil] _not _in^°^m destruction by an irritant poison, and retard its effects, _u ^tbe blood W^Uei]^Ce ^that ^wbicb bas already entered into the circulation _ar^SUa% entered th ] ^ ^th&t ⁱⁿ ^the ^case ^of ^Lorses' ^tlie P^oison ^haS^^eother g_ates _b ^le ^bod7 by means of the mouth and stomach, but there and ^been PoinT 7 ^toxic ^ag^ents ^may have gained access. The skin, suff ^l0°^aJ applic f � °^Ut ^ ^connection ^w&h the subject of kidney diseases W₀ ^6d injury J?' ^maj ^llaVe ^been ^the ^mean» ^by which the body has 111! ^ °^r Passed ^- ^deJeterious agent may have been absorbed by a ^ ^may h_ave "f ° ^ ^circuiation* ^b7 subcutaneous injection, while the if ^r°«i the fo_r � ^the P^ois°nous gas of mine or factory. ?^sio]e, the ^e,^g01f^g ^remarks the importance will he seen of ascertaining, t]_le *^mi(Otes** ( ^l/°^k0JX ^t0 ^be dealt with. ea_Q J¹⁰'⁰¹¹ of _p^_s °^t0S'* ^a ^remedy) are agents which neutralize and arrest kn ^tbis _eff_ect °^nS' ⁿ tbe stomach and some portion of the* intestinal eli_e°^Wl1 ^a&d _a suit"?!⁷ ^he ,^connted on where the nature of the poison is dee^^1Cal antidot ^anfcidote soon enough administered. In the case of _Ve °^Positi_0n _ai?' ^tbeir ^act^ion on the poison frequently results in it* giv^^ Mention r ^f°^rmatl0n ^of ^a harmless compound. As an example of ?? ^to an anim T "^ °^f ^&ggS ^&S ^forming ^an ^soluble albuminate when ins /^C^°^ride ₀f ^& ^M"^h°^Se stomach has been the receptacle of an overdose pr_e° ^U'^)Je in lik ^merCUr^ (corrosive sublimate). Arsenic may be made des?^ Vdratld¹¹¹^¹¹⁶¹"- ^hy ^d°^sing ^the P°^isoned P^atient with freshiy- ₀f ^^U°^tive poiso⁶ .^Per°^xide ^of iron. Other chemical antidotes-convert a h^V)tri°^])> which ^m°* ^barm]ess salts, as in the case of sulphuric acid (oil J^eaa sulph ^ ^be ^deeomP°sed by an alkaline carbonate producing chj ^mPies of ^a f ^and ^]iberating carbonic acid gas. ^0rof°rm or _ch]^P ^ysioloS^ic^ antidotes may be seen in strychnia and oral. The tetanic spasms resulting from the former are

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		46 HEALTH AND DISEASE

			allayed by the directly opposite effect upon the spinal cord which the two last-named drugs are so well known to produce. The veterinarian is at a disadvantage throughout the treatment of poisoning, as he cannot evacuate the stomach of the horse at first, as has been already mentioned, and is further unable to get rid of any new compounds formed by the administration of antidotes; they must pass through the intestinal canal. He cannot provoke vomition, and repeated washings of the stomach are scarcely practicable, except in a few instances and under specially favourable circumstances. In addition to the use of antidotes there are other aids to restoration from the shock and particular symptoms resulting from poisoning: suit- able hygienic conditions, fresh air, cold douches, friction to the skin, bandaging and clothing, bedding and protection of the patient from his own violence by bolsters of straw, and the usual methods of restraint. In a case of narcotic poison it may be necessary to rouse the animal to muscular effort and compel him to walk about. Suitable treatment in cases of poisoning by each of the chief toxic agents known to affect horses will be found briefly stated farther on in this chapter. Poisonous Food and Water.�On the question of ptomaine poison- ing in horses we have no experience as yet, but disease and death from the ingestion of food and water in certain unwholesome conditions are by no means rare events. CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS To this group belong many symptoms in common, and it is therefore convenient to consider them together. The following list comprises all of the class of substances whose compounds are likely to be the cause of poisoning in horses:� ^^rsemc- ^Lead. Antimony. Mercury. ^°PP^er- Silver. Carbolic Acid. Phosphorus. CrotonOu. Zinc. Creosote. Gamboge. Caustic Potash or Soda. Spanish-fly. Caustic Ammonia. Elaterium. Hydrochloric Acid. Oxalic Acid. Nitric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Symptoms common to this class of poisons are the result of their irritating or caustic action upon the membranes of the digestive tract, in some cases beginning with the lips, and in the majority affecting the stomach and intestines. The mouth and gullet, although first (after the lips) to have contact with the irritant, are frequently less affected, as it will be remembered that some parts of the digestive tract are provided with

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		thi_ck COfifiOSIVE OB IREITANT POISONS 47 7^faCG ^ Pme^eTlt ^ref^tant ^C°^Veri^^S- ^TJie ^ton§'^ue ^on ^ite "Pi� ras or g_u]j_et _ig j "" ^a ^de«se membrane of epithelium, and the ceso- ¹ ^resisting p_Unct_Ul! 7^1Se ^lined ^With ^a ^thick ^and ^t0US'^h ^memb� capable ^Co«iire_y. _Tj]e _& ^le ^±r°m such prickly or spinous plants as gorse and ^ .^t]le bowels with v ^g ^IeSS §'^uarded> ^more frequently suffer irritation, ^6a(% acted up V ^lnner ^and more highly vascular walls, are more , ^Wh^ the sv , ^P°^1SOnS °^f ^the ^class we are considering. ^f(estroy_e(} hv /^mpt°^ms ^are the result of pain, the tissues are damaged or Though our ^ICaI ^action- ^aQg^ish h_e _feeJ_s ^e^^iUme Parent is not able to state in words the burning ^Usitiess to Jearn' T�) ^ ^& ^an�^ua�^e ^of P^ahi which it is the veterinarian's ° ^Oa who und' ^fc j ^& ^arge ^vocaDulary, with many shades of meaning ^S0ileitud_e ^erstands it by intimate association with the objects of his Tl ^poison_s _of yj^⁰¹³ ^s^^mPtom�loss of appetite�will hardly be observed, as ^laVe been nan- °i ** ^ ^S0 ^raP^id ⁱⁿ ^their effects that the last meal may � ^A°JT °^f ⁱⁿ P^erfeet ^hea1^ ^Co^cky _pa^to_iflg ^ earliest symptoms are rigors and fidgetiness, staring coat, °^0icing round afTf ^ ^StamPⁱⁿg ^and scraping the feet, crouching and gating _prof ^tile ^tianK trembling of the body and shaking of the tail, \|°^Ing down recklf T** ^SCattered P^atclles, staggering, and either falling or _t, ^6Qa ttiay i_Ssu ,^6SS ^' The frp^s are sometimes swollen, and from between p^lG ^eorners ₀f^ef?^reat ^quantifcies of frothy saliva, which hangs in ropes from J^11InS membr t ^mouth- ^Inside> the tongue may also be swollen, the of?^PJe V with ^8C°^l0Ured' ^the S^ums and mouth generally being of a _a . ^Qsiv_e ^ * ' "J certain cases, patches of sloughing tissue and a most ^1JII^al _ean ^r" The cavity seems filled with sticky mucus, and the °«gu_e. ^ntx* difficulty close his mouth owing to the swelling of the Tl _t/^1- Tj_lere � ° ^e7^es and anxious countenance bespeak intense pain and h j ^resu^t of r^D ^agonized l°oh of such intensity as is seldom observed as V ^sQiall and /^aiy ^illn6SS' ^EesP^iration ^is hurried, nostrils dilated, the ^ition, _So _r ^alm°st indistinct, the extremities having an icy coldness. ^assing throat⁶ f^D ^t]le ^llorse' ^ia sometimes effected, the stomach contents ^d> «rine v^ ^ ^110striJs- ^Tlle ^b°wels may be either purged or consti- . ®^ueh are th ^ ^gll"^coioured, and evacuated with groans. common to this group of poisons, but they vary th ^S°^me Poiso ^ ^ag6nt ^aS ^We]I ^aS ⁱⁿ ^individuak ^Jesion_s of f}!^S ^decJare themselves by their odour, as in carbolic acid, or ^S ^tJle Partie il ^ ^m°^ut]l ^ma7 point to corrosive sublimate or a mineral acid ^UJar poison.

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		48 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		Irritant poisons are not all corrosive, in the sense of quickly destroying and perforating the tissues. Ammonia is an example of an intense irritant, and corrosive sublimate the most immediately destructive of living tissues. The mineral acids show some difference in their local action. A yellow staining results from nitric acid, sulphuric acid whitens the membranes, and hydrochloric acid imparts a whity-brown appearance to the injured parts. Carbolic acid, we have said, leaves a tell-tale odour, but it and the caustic alkalies also make a white, drawn, or puckered surface of the membrane with which they come in contact. Patches thus injured become presently detached, pr slough, leaving a raw surface and the expectoration of blood- stained mucus. In dogs and other animals the vomit indicates to some extent the amount of mischief in the stomach, but with the horse vomition is uncertain and accomplished with so much difficulty that we are unable to place any great reliance upon the appearance of ingesta ejected via the nostrils, and probably stained in the effort to get rid of it. If death does not follow irritant poisoning in a few hours, the animal may pass into a condition of fever with variable results. If the toxic agent was of the corrosive class the patient may die of perforated stomach or intestine when a general improvement in his condition has raised false hopes of recovery in those interested. Gradual recovery is probable when a week has passed, in the case of merely irritant poison, but not in those of a corrosive nature. Permanent constrictions in the oesophagus, stomach, or bowels may result from the healing scars where large areas of tissue are destroyed. ARSENIC This drug is employed in agricultural operations of various kinds, and is a frequent cause of poisoning in horses and other animals. Ignorant carters and grooms persist in using it to destroy worms and produce a glossy coat, with little regard to its dangerous properties. Teamsters often give it with antimony, and without causing any mischief at the time. Arsenic, however, is one of the cumulative poisons, and ill consequences may follow long after its habitual use has been discontinued. Cases of wilful poisoning by the drug are found recorded in veterinary literature, but many occur also from the careless employment of sheep- dipping compounds and "weed-killers", which in various ways gain entrance to the food and drink of animals. These preparations, composed of arsenic, with caustic alkalies to facili- tate their solution, have a saline taste attractive to horses, and particularly to cattle, which will lick an open packet of arsenical powder with evident

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_re]ish CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS I

^being left withiifth ^PaSS6S ^With°^Ut ^deaths ^suiting ^from ^such compounds

^and earriag_e-(j_rj_v ^eU' ^reaen- Weed-killer is poured upon garden-paths

^e ^weeds "before ^ ^anima^^s have been known to succumb after eating

Gaining emerald^ ^^ ^h&S ^washed ^it; ^into ^the ^soiL ^Eefuse P^aints'
P°ⁿ pasture l_and ' ^^reen' ^cheele's green, Brunswick green, where cast

A|^eath °f some v ] "I J^nanme» ^are sometimes followed by fatal results. The
^Uld beine- ,_mo�f , ? ^]l0rses ^was caused in one instance by a tin of this

corn. Arsenic is used also

T ^a ^sstgfo, "!^d ^becomi«g mixed with the

^CUre for wath-c ^W -f⁹^' ^and ^a Poison for vermin, and less frequently as

WIT⁸ "^ ^f°^0t-^rot _______________________

^anil»al_s _as ' Enough there is much difference in the susceptibility

_t^^d others,' the act" ^ ?° ^eXperiments ^of Hertwig, Percival, Gerlach,
^le ^stom_ae|_a _ag ¹⁰ⁿ °* ^tnis poison is largely governed by the condition of

¹⁶ ^stomaeh

has also

^presence ^or absence of food. The quantity of food in

^dr_u

in ^g' ^Jn one of P ^& ^^&t ^influeilce ⁱⁿ delaying the toxic effects of the

§ daily ₍j_0se ° R

³80 ar._Q,v ^

experiments upon a glandered horse an increas-
ih food until, on t
making a total of 7 ounces in all. Even this large

^H failed^¹¹⁸ ^^^^^^�^^^^^^_

¹⁶ ^fatal eff_enf.₀ *° P^roduce any physiological effects. On the other hand,

th ^r8es wh; 7° ^mUCl1 ^sma^^er quantities were seen in the case of eleven
tejT ^had Previo .i^Were ^P°^isoned ^at ^Edg^are by drinking out of a bucket
ea^j ^^iQl,tes, _a°d ^^ "^ ^f°^V ^slieel^>diP> ^one ^of ^the animals dying in

th° * ^ll0r,Se in tV ^SeVeral ^more ^within the hour. The quantity taken by

^at the em_Pt_v^HS ^CaSe ^musfc ^bave ^been small, but there is reason to think

^^ble of iu ^COndition of the stomachs had rendered them more sus-

. °^isoni_nl ^aCtWn-
ehj.^f^Ve; _t^ ^arsenic is sometimes very sudden, and at others slow and
of i°^lllG °^v cum_uj °^ne ^beirig spoken of as acute poisoning, the other as
� P^r°Ved tn_nQ ^1V°' ^ⁿ ^tne chronic there may be an appearance at first

that ■ ^ed by wh ⁷ ^C°^at' ^strong P^uise, and good spirits; these being
" - * * invol_u t ^W6uId ^be ^called ^the "arsenic habit" but for the fact
^aPpet°^f ^effect» and «T °ⁿ ^the ^part ^of ^the ^animaL ^After ^usi"g ^ft ^for ^a ^time ^ifc

�fcijjo � -j "- �- uviiip^u Ut-Z UIl/1 CaOQ U110 UVOl/) ujam ^^"------^

^coliei>

ym₆i^° ^set i_D

^ultimately lost, the coat stares, shivering-hts follow,

p *-^«e «,+ ^aild ^are succeeded by purging, prostration, imper-

thog ^tIlere is ?f ^iDg' ^mnS> ^and ^death" ^In ^tlie ^acute ^form °^f ^thG^aPp^Se ^GVei1 ^wllo _a^SU " ^and ^desperate illness without premonitory sign^

l^^G}l of deofi⁹? ^qUlte "^accustomed to animals recognizing the rapid

-ggaiu countenance, quick breathing, and violent
general distress. The skin is bathed in sweat,

C^bl^of_th\^^the%

v^ars and Je ^J' ^and g_______

■m.

^V°^llTI ^GgS ^are ^very cold, the eyes are protruding and bloodshot;

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_5Q HEALTH AND DISEASE .Wt, the face the lining membrane of the nostrils is intensely tears run down the race, uue g, ^ red, and a watery fluid or vomited matter flows from them In instances the lips may be greatly swollen, the gam-.Bw �^ tongue so enlarged as to be contained m the mouth with *^\ J saliva of a ropy consistence and offensive odour hangs ^tU^* patient will frequently throw himself down m his agony but towa rds end he will endeavour to stand, and when no longer able to keep he falls and dies with a few painful struggles. _{ Treatment and Antidotes.-In the chronic or accumulative oim arsenical poisoning not much can be hoped of antidotes, as theMttog already absorbed or out of the reach of chemical agents which mi_bi counteract it. Attention should therefore be directed to mmimmng�te effects and sustaining the patient with suitable nourishment until the pu is eliminated from the system. Milk and eggs, gruel, linseed, barley-watei and alcoholic stimulants may all be employed to support the animal unt the vis medicatrix naturae can assert itself. Iron in combination with nux vomica, given in small repeated doses, will aid in bringing about this muc - desired result. In the acute form of the disease a dose of the peroxide o iron should be promptly administered. This agent is most effectual when precipitated from a solution of persulphate of iron by the addition o ammonia, and afterwards washed with warm water and given at i^re1^uenintervals until enough has been taken to neutralize the poison. I he pio portion of peroxide of iron required to produce this effect is estimated by Mr. Finlay Dun to be twelve times the amount of the arsenic taken. ,,. Epsom salts in solution, mixed with liquid caustic potash \^hciⁿpotassse), produce a gelatinous hydrate of magnesia, which greatly re - the solubility of arsenic, and may therefore be given with advantage. e yolk of eggs, linseed and other fixed oils, charcoal, clay, and starch all help to hinder mechanically the effects of arsenic upon the walls ot tie stomach and intestine. Long and careful nursing is needed,^ and the tem- perate use of diuretics is calculated to assist nature in getting rid o poison by the natural channel of the kidneys.

		ANTIMONY

	This potent drug, which has played so great a part in ancient an modern times as a poison to human beings, is comparatively innocuous horses. Its uses are referred to in another chapter (see Alteratives, pao-e 12), but poisonous doses have rarely been given, and when this a happened it has been from drenching by mistake with the liquid chloride

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		CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS 51 ^0r " butter "of rosive characte T j⁷' ^as ^{t ^is ^called- The effects then are of a cor- ^Sym_Ptoms?--¹Th ^OCWOf^iC ^addheinS ^the ^active mgredient. Prostration lw ' ^10S6 ° ^corrosi^ve poisoning, sweating, purging, and Treatment^ ^m°^St ^marked" ^If a suffi ■" ' t ^ ^^e ^t^^le ^same as for corrosive or irritant poisons. k°^r8e, the tr f- ^ °^f ^antimony ^w«re taken to prove poisonous to a ^would f_orm Wh¹⁶¹^ ^W°^Uld ^COnsist ⁱⁿ g^ivirjg tannin and gallic acid, which °^r ^elm bark \ ■ if ^ZnSoluble ^and harmless compounds. Decoctions of oak Principles the^ 1 ^C°^ntain ^tannin> may be used in the absence of the active _T LEAD ^Pastures o °^1SOnm§' ⁱⁿ animals is usually the result of feeding on tainted ^Paired A f ^g ^the ^fumes of chemical works, and manifests itself in ^by ^nstipafi⁶^¹⁰"' ^CaP^ricious ^aPPetite, colicky pains in the bowels, followed ^aPpear_S; ¹⁰ⁿ". ^After ^a variable lapse of time, the diagnostic symptom ^Jt ^is <%,_0i ^^ ^or blue discoloration along the margin of the gums. ^SuIPhid_e i^TT ^lead' ^whieh becomes more or less blackened by hydrogen - ^CramP and ^mout]l' ^or by the administration of sulphur in the food. ^ments> and ^PaiaIysis ^of ^the muscles, followed by wasting, choreic move- death. ^convulsions, ending in blindness (amaurosis), commonly precede T ^VeiT Serion ^Gn ^f ^lead poisoning or plumbism is diagnosed before any ^dilute suljf ^Wastlng bas occurred, an effectual antidote will be found in ^°^Ses, as tl ^1UI1C ^aCid' ^an^ ^sub?bate of magnesia, given in repeated small ^SulPhate ^T ^baVe ^tlle ^effect ^of converting the lead into harmless insoluble ^Wbich, as w ^ ^SulP^liate °f magnesia assists also in regulating the bowels, ^ailc* Potass"⁶ ^la.^Ve ^SeeD' ^are disposed to constipation and to cramps; sulphur ^at ^short inf^Um ^I0(^^e ^are ^aIso employed as eliminants, given separately and ^Subphat_e _of^6rVals- ^An occasional laxative dose of oil is advised when the

	°f lead .«usal		^ts ^excreted into the bowels. OXALIC ACID	ed, as this hastens the removal
	°f lead .«usal


borses eati ^&J ^^ ^Caused ^b7 the wilful administration of this acid, and by fermentati_o^ng ^ ^]eaves ^of mangel-wurzel, in which it is generated by P^r°duced IT ^Wlllle.^]^ⁱⁿg" ⁱⁿ beaps. The symptoms are similar to those ^CiU'diac rl_Q ^y ^Corrosive mineral acids (p. 46), and it is besides a powerful ^uepressant. ^ater, _or _w]^ent'~~^Fre(l^uent closes of saccharated carbonate of lime, lime- ¹¹ ^ewasb. These are chosen because they form insoluble salts

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		52 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		with oxalic acid, while those alkaline bicarbonates recommended for poisoning by other acids are forbidden because combining to form soluble oxalates, which are little less injurious than oxalic acid. Oleaginous aperients and alcoholic stimulants to counteract symptoms of collapse are desirable. Friction, bandaging, and clothing to keep up the superficial circulation should be resorted to. ACETIC ACID Concentrated lotions containing a large proportion of this acid have been given in error, with poisonous results. Symptoms.�Unless somewhat dilute, the symptoms are those of corrosive acids (p. 46), when colicky pains, inflammation of the tongue and buccal membranes, sore lips and gums are manifested, and occasion inappetence and refusal of food, and discharge of saliva from the mouth. Treatment.�Solutions of alkaline bicarbonates should be given inter- nally, and a soothing wash of glycerine, myrrh, and borax applied to the mouth three or four times a day. CAUSTIC ALKALIES Of these ammonia, in the form of strong liquid, given in mistake for aromatic spirit or solution of acetate, is the only likely form of poisoning to occur m horses. This mistake has frequently happened in the careless dispensing of ammonia compounds. Symptoms.�Blistered lips and mouth, patches of epithelium slough- ing off m ragged shreds. Ropy and offensive mucus dribbling from the mouth and from the lips, and hanging in ropes more or less straw-coloured or tinged with blood, swelling of the tongue, sore throat, difficulty of deglutition, coughing, and dyspnoea. Intestinal disturbance with loose eructations and apparent soreness throughout the canal. Pained expression and listlessness. Treatment-Copious draughts of dilute vegetable acids, as lime- juice, citric or tartaric acid, vinegar and water. These should be given at frequent intervals to neutralize the caustic ammonia, and form harmless combinations. Inhalation of steam to relieve the irritated air-passages and soothe the inflamed mouth; where suffocation threatens, tracheotomy will require to be performed. Linseed-tea, barley-water, thin gruel, bran mashes, and soft food only for several days should be allowed, as any dry, hard substance is calculated to injure the abraded surfaces of the mouth. Where the patient refuses all sloppy food, he may be cautiously drenched

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		M �al J CORROSIVE OR IRRITANT POISONS 5J ^Wlfca ecff_S _De . S^IVen, but relianc V* "^k' ^f ^c°nstipation follows, aperients must not be ^eQema admimV ^ ,V^Ced ^on ^tlle nature of the diet, and at most, a glycerine ^ered ^lr°ffl time to time. NITRATE OF POTASH -AJthouajx ;_n i neverthelest _a " ^general ^use among stablemen, nitrate of potash is Symptoms* V^Ve ^lrr^tant P⁰i^son in excessive doses. ^c°nvul_s- i ^rembling, more or less abdominal pain, restlessness, T»« ^d ^eo]iapse. ¹ batmen t �Th � J-ne same as for irritant poisons generally. NITRATE OF SODA death of _sev ^a?^Ce !^S ^not ^used in equine medicine, but has occasioned the ^tUres a8_an] ^la .^aniraals through being injudiciously spread over the pas- ^m° drinks ^anUnal ^a^^ent, and given in mistake for salt, and allowed to get _s^Qtang-water. ^treatmenf ⁽?^nS_li^are ^tllose ^of uritant poisoning, and the same line of ^ent ^s»ould be adopted (p. 46). IODINE ^C°^mPounds ^P°^1SOning ^USUally ^occurs ^by the accidental administration of Sy^Pto^PleSCriDed ^for external application, as a medicine. ^Convulsi_0m ^DlS₁^are ^t]aose of an irritant poison, with sighing, trembling, T , ' ^and eollapse. ^W]lite of eo-_o^ent'~~^Tllere ^is ⁿ° ^direct ^antidote to this drug. Starch and ^tlle offend ^ ^retard ^absorPtion, while an oily purge may be given to expel ^ng ^material through the bowels. PHOSPHORUS Tli ^Q Carele_8s h °^yment* ^of ^tnis element for the destruction of vermin has led, ^0f Phosph₀ ^S' ^t0 ^horses being seriously injured. A very small quantity ^a 8^ros_s fee ]^US ^^ ^coneeaIed in forage may be taken into the mouth by ^W°^uid c]J^C ?^r' ^although it is such an offensive substance that most horses Sympt ^and ^reject ^iL V ineffe_et⁰¹f^S"~~^ADdominal pain, simulating ordinary colic, is followed ^tendeney _t(Jr ^efforts ^at vomition, and subsequent purging. There is a ^outh, _rec° ^9emori'hage from the natural outlets of the body, either nose, dera_Dg_ec] ° ^Um' ^or urethral canal. The liver is invariably more or less

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	54	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	54

Treatment.�Although this drug is of the nature of an irritant poison, we are precluded from giving oily substances, phosphorus being readily soluble in fixed oils. Solutions of gum-arabic or tragacanth and small doses of turpentine are reputed to have beneficial effects in alleviating suffering from this form of poisoning. Post-mortem Appearances.�These are fairly constant, but ditter in decree. A large amount of foul-smelling gas is released when the abdomen is opened, and the stomach, especially in its villous portion, is reddened, much softer than when the organ is healthy, and considerably thickened. Inflamed patches and areas of extravasation are observed extending mto the small intestine, and maybe into the large bowel. The air-passages and lungs are congested, as are the urino-genital organs. It is remarked that in phosphorus poisoning a lardaceous or fatty infiltration of the liver, brain, and other organs appears to take place m a short time after administration of the drug, a pathological condition usually associated with other causes of an enduring nature. Rodents and ' other small animals do not, when killed by phosphorus, undergo the ordinary processes of putrefaction, but dry up. Whether such effects would follow with horses is not at present ascertained. " NARCOTIC POISONS The next group of poisons are spoken of as narcotic, but there are toxic agents having both irritant and narcotic effects, the classification being more or less arbitrary, and followed only as convenient for reference. General Symptoms.�Some of these are common to the class, and such as are occasioned by Indian hemp may be taken as typical. With this drug, given in Excessive quantity, there is often some nervous excite- ment, but not invariably. This is followed by drowsiness, which passes on to stupor, and the standing posture is maintained with difficulty, the knees and hocks giving way from time to time. The animal under its influence becomes dead to external objects, and can only be awakened with difficulty. Sudden noises rouse him with a start, but he lapses into a state of lethargy again the next moment. The head hangs low, the eyes are half-closed, and the ears pendulous. Snoring sounds are emitted in breathing, the extremities are cold, altogether indi- cating the effects of a poisonous dose of a narcotic drug, of which further evidence may be found in the reduced force and frequency of the pulse. A symptom peculiar to Indian hemp is a galloping movement when compelled to walk; the power of controlling the muscles of locomotion is

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		POISONODS PLANTS-I A. Yew. i. Male. 2. Male flower. 3- ^Fruitl B. Aconite. 1. Plant. 2. Koots. 1- t i- u , \r.,i.. , Female 3- Kemale flower. 4- ''ruit. 5- Male flower, C. Indian Hemp. 1. Male. 2. remaic. j- D. I'-'oxglove.

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NAKCOTIC POISONS

, � limbs as Captain Rutherford has
partially lost, and the patient uses his limbs, a

said, like an animal " going upstairs ". _be _followed by delirium,

Opium and belladonna in poisonous doses ^maJ _and _finai stupor are

but the condition of intoxication, the staggering g
common to all drugs of this class.

YEW

- i killed by this evergreen, one

Having regard to the number of animals.Jam J^ ^ ^ _by _some"right ask if its place in arboriculture coul no
dually beautiful and less deadly plant. ^ ^^ _aS _tne result o

No season passes without fatalities to
^eating it. A tree may have been \U A

^left untouched for years by animals
pastured in its vicinity, until the
^stock-owner is lulled into a sense
^of security, and finally forgets its
Presence; or animals may bethought
^safe in a paddock, free from noxious
Plants, when a neighbour sets about
lopping his overgrown yews, and the
fatal branches fall within reach of
animals, whose curiosity prompts
^tQem to eat the leaves. There is
reason to believe that in certain con-
ditions and circumstances yew may

be partaken of with impunity, while ₄

₅3__Yew(r^"^s6ffia<lto)

at other times its effects are rapidly _Jf

fatal The green shoots have been ^ _very indefimt ^

experimentally fed to animals, and ^the _woUld seem to be m

taken upon a full stomach, its toxic influence _guccumbed. Whetn

less neutralized, while hungry animals hav *Pj consume^

tMs latter result has come about from the large q^ ^ _combmed,
from the empty state of the stomach, o ^^^H

cannot be definitely stated. :-ritant po^lson- j lowing

Symptoms are those of a narcotic ^ '| _d and how g
found dazed, and stumbles when made to mo ^ ^ ^^ ^ pulse ^
tne ordinary signs of intoxication. ^KeSP _ion _would appear t _

Pressed, and the extremities are cokL * _less _tyn;pany F ^

ordered or arrested, and, as a result, mor ^ ^ _fer ^ _lt rev
Post-mortem examination is satisfactory

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

presence of twigs and leaves of the plant; there is, however, invariably
more or less congestion of the stomach and bowels, sometimes more espe-
cially marked in the former, at others in the latter. Beyond this there is
seldom any noticeable change referable to the poison.

Treatment.�No direct antidote is known, but the symptoms of
collapse may be combated by diffusible stimulants, as alcohol and ammonia,
while friction to the skm, bandages to the legs, clothing to the body, and
every effort to restore the circulation should be attempted.

An aperient is essential to
get rid as quickly as may be
of any portions of undigested
poison, linseed- or castor-oil
being the most suitable.

Liability for yew poisoning
has been tested in the High
Court of Justice, and Mr.
Justice Charles decided that
it is the business of an owner
to prevent his animals from
eating yew when growing on a
neighbour's land.

RHODODENDRON

The effects of this plant
{Rhododendron hybridum) are

Fig. 454. � Rhododendron (R. hybridim)

much the same as those of yew

(see Yew Poisoning), save that
minent symptom and slio-U v , tempts at vomition are a pro-

* the belly wS; I htnl Lt. ⁷ ^ "* ^ **»* * *****
-case iTvTrl¹;! ^m°^re ^hkely ^t0 ^be ^attended with success here than is the

carbonates, while an IrienfoTl ""f" ^M,*°¹ ^hj °^^m ""* ^^
the bow* and ^^^j^L""⁷ "* -*** ^t0 *" -

FOXGLOVE (DIGITALIS PURPUREA)

This well-known drue is Wo^Nr , j �

^e^occasioiudlyMowon^S^;¹¹ T� ^^ ^ ^
j w on tne administration of excessive doses. When

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NARCOTIC POISONS

fatal el t 1 ^CUt ⁱⁿ mistake for comfrey and given to horses, with

of Ex t ^death °^f ^h°^rSeS ^from ^dig^italis ^is recorded by Mr. Pauer

natural � ^SUmmer ^of ¹⁸⁹6- In this case the animals were led by

of it �^^nStl?^Gt ^t0 ^refuSe ^the P^lant ^wIlile ^ was whole, but readily partook
» when chopped and mixed with corn.

tati₀₁f^mf^P!i^0niS'~^TheSe ^aie ^general ^stuP^or> swelling of the eyelids, dila-

contr«i° P^uP^l]> enlargement under the jaw, dry mouth, and loss of

jonfcol oyer the hind extremities.

^le P^se increases up to 60 or 70

sol, i ^Pei' ^minUt6' ^but ^the ^hearfc

dist ^me ^m°^re ^or ^less ⁱⁿ"

met, or one becomes inaudible

merged into the other. The
_T eathmg i_s _nurried _and _difficult

ton^ ^1S ^SWe]linS ^of ^the head and
conf^Ue' ^Whidl ^latter ^caimot be

cCt^d i\^the ^mouth- ^Insome

tl_lr ^ody temperature rises

othel °l ^f°^Ur ^degrees' ^while ⁱⁿ

m_Uc ^ls ^normaL ^The ^visibIe

i_tlJec°^^S ^membranes are red and
tion i ^Post-mortem examina-
with d i ^the ^lungS ^t0 ^be ^fiIled

^a*ncle J TT ^bl°^0d' ^the ^right

tended \ ^art ^is ^aIso ^dis"

_Up ^ ^and ^a gelatinous fluid fills

under- ti ^l0°^Se ^connective tissue
«r_e _n J ^G ^throat ^Tlie kidneys
imt_1Ceably congested.

a_Conit^Peatment--^In this disease

Fig. 455. �Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)

logi_Cai^e ^1S ^the ^most suitable physio-

^digitali_s^an \i°^t(? ^aS ^itS ^action ^uP^on ^the ^lleart is opposed to that of
^diluted _Q ^Alcohollc stimulants, as the aromatic spirit of ammonia, freely
' ^are also recommended.

NUX VOMICA AND STRYCHNIA

malicious ad°^rSeS ^ ^P°^isoned ^b^ strychnia it is either the result of

accidental _ad^ministratiom or brought about by an overdose, or by the

^f°r the destr ^miXtUre ^of ^some preparation with food, which was intended

^iG ¹⁰ⁿ °f ^rats and other vermin on infested premises. Horses

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		58 HEALTH AND DISEASE

			vary in their susceptibility to strychnia, some being acted upon by very small doses, which others take with impunity; this being so, the greatest care should be observed in its use, and none but the professional man should undertake to prescribe it. Again, indifference to plainly printed instructions or written labels is so common, and not confined to the wholly illiterate, that entire packets of " vermin-killer" have been given in a mash in lieu of alterative powders, some of which are very similar in colour and appearance. Symptoms.�Unless the stomach is quite empty, and the drug taken in solution, its effects are not manifest for some twenty minutes. Rest- lessness and excitement, with an exalted sense of hearing and vision, are observed in the first instance, the movements of the animal are spas- modic and involuntary, suddenly terminating in fits of tetanic spasm, in which the animal falls to the ground and becomes perfectly rigid; relaxa- tion of the spasm and a state of quiet may follow, but if touched ever so lightly a new paroxysm is commenced. After a variable period, according to the amount and intensity of the poisoning, the spasm is relaxed, and beyond the hurried breathing and appearance of having undergone some recent extraordinary excitement, the patient appears to be nearly well, the remission is, however, but temporary, similar seizures follow again and again, and m one of them the animal may die, or, the intervals between them becoming longer, and the paroxysms less violent, recovery follows. Treatment�The most potent antidote to this form of poisoning is chloroform, inhaled to the point of insensibility, and repeated with the recurrence of each spasm. It may be truly said that there is absolutely no danger of overdoing it until complete relaxation of the spasm indicates its withdrawal. In the intervals, if practicable, large closes of animal charcoal and tannic acid may be given in the form of a drench, with water, and alter- nated with bold doses of chloral and bromide of potassium. It is quite possible with these remedies at hand to effect a cure even when a fatal dose has been taken, but it seldom happens that skilled professional assistance can be soon enough obtained. Soot and water may be used in place of charcoal, and absolute quiet enjoined until a veterinary surgeon arrives. INDIAN PEA. DOG-TOOTH PEA _ We have employed the popular term for this dangerous food-stuff, but it is not a pea; it is a vetch, and its botanical name is Lathyrus sativus. In India this seed has been used as a food-stuff among the lower-caste

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	POISONOUS PLANTS-II

		Seed.
A. Nux Vomica. i. Section of fruit. 2. B. Rhododendron. C. Belladonna. 1. Fruit. D. Indian Pea. 1. Fruit.		Seed.

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NARCOTIC POISONS

natives, among whom it has produced from time to time considerable
mortality; but when thoroughly cooked it is consumed in moderation
without producing any deleterious effects.

It does not appear to have been known in this country until the year
1889, but is now generally recognized by veterinary surgeons as a highly
dangerous grain to form any part of
a horse's diet. In shape it somewhat
resembles a tooth without the fang,
having two flat sides and a serrated
edge, hence the name "dog-tooth" pea.
Very serious losses among large studs
of horses have occurred in Glasgow,
Liverpool, Bristol, and other places as
a result of mixing this Indian vetch
with oats and other horse food.

Symptoms.�The injurious effects
of this grain are not immediately ap-
parent, and this has frequently led to
the real cause of the malady being
overlooked. In the case of the Bristol
tramway horses the drivers were at
first blamed for the number of horses
that fell and broke their knees, the
real cause being vertigo produced by
the food. Where the poisonous grain
had long been in use, some of the
animals fell in their stalls, but, as a
rule, they appeared to be well until
taken out, when they were seized with
paroxysms of difficult breathing and

threatening suffocation, roaring, stag-

Fig. 456.�Indian Pea (Lathyrv.s salivas)

gering and falling, some few dying

on the spot, while others became paralytic and the subjects of chronic-
roaring. The effects in some instances were not observed until eight weeks
after the food was discontinued.

Treatment.�The cause being discovered will of course suggest a dis-
continuance of the grain, but no antidote or even palliative has been so
far discovered. Many of the horses referred to above were only saved
from immediate suffocation by opening the windpipe and inserting a
tracheotomy tube.

Laxative food and medicine to clear the bowels, and rest in a loose-box^

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

followed by a run at grass, have in some cases effected a cure. In others,
however, permanent paralysis or want of control of the muscles has resulted,
rendering the animals worthless.

The heavy damages given against vendors of this poisonous grain
will, it is hoped, deter shippers in the future from importing it into this
country.

CANTHARIDES OR SPANISH-FLY

This substance was formerly in more general use by veterinarians than
is the case at the present day, and many horses have shown symptoms of
poisoning through its agency, both by internal administration and through
absorption by the skin when injudiciously employed in the form of blisters.

(See Kidney Diseases.)

Entire horses entrusted to ignorant leaders are
sometimes made ill by the administration of this
drug with the intention of exciting the sexual
instinct. Mares refusing service have also been
injured by its use.

Symptoms. � Purging and bloody urine,

Fig. 457.�Spanish-Fly (Canthans
vesicaloria)

1, Fully-developed insect.
2, Larva, much magnified.
The measuring line at side
shows natural size.

arching the back, and nausea; colicky pains,
frothing at the mouth, restlessness, and fever.
In the case of stallions and of geldings, frequent

protrusion of the penis, and with mares, erection
of the clitoris and elevation of the tail. Fatal
doses may be preceded by delirium, convulsions, or paralysis.

Treatment.�Mucilaginous drinks, as a solution of gum-arabic, or
tragacanth, barley-water, white of eggs, milk, and linseed-tea may be
given. Poultices over the loins, injections of warm water with belladonna
extract, and repeated small doses of opium in the shape of draughts are
also beneficial.

TURPENTINE

Turpentine, although sometimes administered in large doses without
any bad effects, may also become a poison when given in excess.

Symptoms. � The effects of a poisonous dose of turpentine are
intoxication and those more generally described under the head of narcotic
poisoning. (See Opium.)

Treatment.�Mucilaginous drinks, eggs, milk and barley-water, and
a saline purgative.

Pain may be relieved by poultices over the loins, and some of the
irritant effects upon the kidneys mitigated by belladonna. (See Can-
tharides.)

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NAECOTIC POISONS

POISONING BY THE STINGS OF BEES AND WASPS

By the accidental upsetting of, and disturbing of, nests of wasps or hives
°i bees, horses are occasionally attacked by the rudely-evicted tenants, and
there are several instances on record where death has resulted from this
cause. The face, head, and neck are chiefly selected by the infuriated

insects, and the pain and shock re-
sulting from the attack may be very
ereat.

Treatment.�Where possible the
stings should be removed with fine
pointed forceps, but this is very diffi-
cult of accomplishment on the hairy

Fig. 458.�Sting of Bee
!» General view. 2, Extremity of dart.

> tectum through sheath and darts,

PG,

Mem-

Fig. 459.
1, General view.

�W.sp Sting
2, Section of sheath to

Poison gl_and

I'S, Poison sac. M,

bra

^ne joining sting to abdomen. L, Levers

^^ remove darts, sh, Sheath, v, Vulva.

> feting palpus. d, Darts. b, Barbs.

show situation of darts. 3, Extremity of
sheath with darts. 4, Front view of sheath.
E, Eppygium. H, Hypopygium. PG, Poison
gland, p D, Poison duct, s, Sheath. D, Dart.

°. Poison channels.

Opening for poison

^eseape into wound.

be t ^animals. Bearing in mind the chemical reaction of the poison, the
_of" , ^antlclote is to be found in alkaline bicarbonates. A wash of carbonate

° a or ammonia may be repeatedly applied to the injured part, and in

Mu i °^rvals> soothing applications of glycerine, belladonna, and borax.

oi the suffering is caused by the inflamed and tense state of the skin

affo - 1 i ^In°^St ^c^^ose*y adheres to bony prominences, and some relief may be

^v ed to these parts by the free use of oily applications,
rem \ ^Symptoms ^of ^sll0ck are best treated by diffusible stimulants and

QostrT °^f ^the ^patient ^t0 ^a <l^uiet> ^dark ^box- ^In ^one ^or ^tw0 instances ^the
3 ^and lip_s have been so much swollen that death from suffocation

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62 HEALTH AND DISEASE

has only been averted by the introduction of a tube into the trachea (see Tracheotomy). The stings of most poisonous insects have an acid reaction, and treatment on the lines above indicated will usually be found successful. HAY Cases of poisoning due to hay feeding, crop up from time to time. Now it is Dutch, and next Canadian, but mostly foreign food-stuffs that cause illness in horses in this country. The deleterious in- gredient has not always been traced, but it would seem that animals bred upon a particular pasture gain im-

		Fig. 460.�Colchicum autumnale
		Fig. 460.�Colchicum autumnale	Fig. 461.�Alfalfa (Medieago sativa)
			Fig. 461.�Alfalfa (Medieago sativa)

	munity from the effects of herbage which causes illness in others, or else develop a power of selection which enables them to reject certain poisonous plants even when compressed in form of hay. In the low pastures of Flanders we have seen much colchicum (fig. 460) growing, and observed that native stock carefully avoid it, but when made into hay and imported into this country it may be that animals in our great cities, drawn from all sorts of sources, are not able to distinguish it. The dry, hard grasses, chiefly alfalfa (fig. 461), upon which American

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NARCOTIC POISONS

horses are fed, are not acceptable to home-bred animals until the taste is
acquired, but horses imported from the United States and Canada eat it
■and thrive upon it. The presence of a large portion of Starwort (Stellaria
Holostea) (fig. 462) in imported hay has been said to occasion poisoning in
�a number of cases of horses fed upon it.

Symptoms.�There is much resemblance in the symptoms of poison-
ing arising out of deleterious legumes or
grasses, the commonest being staggering
or want of co-ordination of the muscles,
particularly of the hind-limbs, weakness
amounting to prostration, swelling of the
lower portions of the limbs, fever, redness
of the membranes, sweating, and an
inability to walk straight or endure any
exertion.

Treatment.�Beyond change of diet
there is little to be done in these cases, as
we have to deal with an unknown quan-
tity and can only attempt the amelioration
of symptoms. It is good practice to give
a mild aperient, with the object of getting
rid of the offensive matter contained in
the alimentary canal, and to follow it up
with stimulants and tonics. In this con-
nection nux vomica is especially indicated
when inco-ordination persists after appetite
returns and febrile symptoms have dis-

Fig. 462. �Starwort (Stellaria Holostea)

appeared.

In these cases the hay in use should
be subjected to the closest scrutiny in order to determine, if possible, the
actual ingredient giving rise to the trouble.

ACONITE POISONING

Preparations of the plant Aconitum Napellus, or Monkshood, are much
^usecl in veterinary medicine, both internally and for outward application,
and mistakes occur now and again in consequence of an overdose being
given, or a liniment intended for external application is administered in
mistake for a draught, with fatal consequences to the patient. The plant
grows freely in wayside gardens, and has produced poisonous effects on
torses nibbling the leaves and flowers even in small quantity.

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64 HEALTH AND DISEASE

Symptoms.�Frothing at the mouth from excitation of the salivary
glands, champing and movements of the head suggesting the burning
sensation in the throat which is a well-known effect on human sufferers,
purging, frequent and violent attempts at vomition. The heart's action
is so depressed as to make
the pulse almost imper-
ceptible, paralysis of the
hind extremities super-
venes, and the animal reels
and falls about until he
abandons the attempt to
stand or an amelioration
of his condition follows.

Treatment and Anti-
dotes.�Perfect quiet and
freedom from all causes
of excitement should be
provided. Digitalis, the
action of which is directly
counter to that of aconite,
affords a valuable antidote,
and should be promptly
administered. Diffusible
stimulants, as for example
alcohol and ammonia, may
be given alternately with

the above, and a laxative

ig". 463.�Aconite (Acomlntn Napellus)

of linseed-oil early in the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
attack, despite the usual symptom of purging. Linseed-oil is said to
allay the violent attempts at vomition above mentioned.

26. VETERINARY HYGIENE

Everything which relates to the maintenance of health in the animal
body is included in the word "Hygiene", or in the term which the late
Dr. Chas. J. B. Williams preferred, " Hygienics". A perfectly accurate
definition of health can hardly be formulated in words, at least, which
will convey the exact idea existing in the mind of the physiologist. A
sufficiently clear view of the condition is, however, present to the common

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	VETERINABY HYGIENE	65
	VETERINABY HYGIENE

intelligence without the verbal formula. Every horse-owner, for example, knows whether his animals are well or ill, and usually he will be able to give an intelligent explanation of his reasons. In general terms health may be said to consist in the regular performance of the functions which are relegated to the various structures and organs of the body; these are simple or complex according to the position which the living being occupies in the animal world, and it is interesting to note that a vast number of organisms only visible with the aid of optical appliances live in a condition of ceaseless activity and perform their functions of respiration, circulation, nutrition, and locomotion � in fact everything "which contributes to the completeness of organic life�in the most perfect Way by the aid of very simple apparatus, so long as the conditions in which they are placed remain favourable to their existence. For example, myriads of living organisms, animals and plants, are found in stagnant "Water, and so long as the medium in which they live remains unchanged their activity continues. Should any serious alterations occur in the conditions of the medium on Avhich their life depends, they become mert, all their functions cease, and the simple tissues of which they are composed become shrivelled, and the once active, living creatures are to all appearance dead. It is only necessary, however, in a large number °f instances, to supply, to apparently dead creatures, the medium, water, which is favourable to their life, to enable them to resume their form and functions. The illustration is one of the most simple that can be offered of the physiological maxim that life depends upon the correspondence of the organism with its environment; when the corre- spondence ceases, either from failure on the part of the organism, or on the part of the environment, then life or health, or both, can no longer he maintained. The science of Hygienics may be shortly defined as the maintenance °t the relation which exists between the organism and its surroundings, ^and the important question arises in the case of the higher animals: hat are the conditions which have to be maintained in order that the ^0rganism may perform its functions? In considering the surrounding circumstances or environment in _ nich an animal lives, it has to be borne in mind that the organism ^Self may be at fault, while the conditions of life may be in perfect ^er- When, therefore, it is assumed that if the conditions of life are Maintained in perfect order the organism will remain in health, it must ^} be possible to affirm, with equal reason, that the organism was in Perfectly normal state to begin with. It is hardly necessary to add in the greater number of cases this perfect correspondence does not Vol. m. ^r ₇₀

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		₆₆ HEALTH AND DISEASE exist, and, to use a common expression, there may be faults on both sides. It becomes necessary, therefore, to take into consideration the fact that what may be called perfect surroundings absolutely adapted for the preservation of health in one animal may prove to be quite in- sufficient to secure the same results in the case of another. Indeed, the favourable conditions in the first case may have a tendency to induce disease in a subject which, from previous habit, or as a consequence of the influences of heredity, may be predisposed to contract certain dis- orders. - A single illustration will make this proposition clear. In the case of one animal, the power to sustain extreme cold or extreme heat without suffering may be developed in a high degree. In another animal the system may be particularly obnoxious to cold or heat, and such an animal may suffer from catarrhal diseases which the first animal would entirely escape. ORDINARY CONDITIONS OF HEALTH Hygiene, although especially concerned with the maintenance of health, by a liberal interpretation may be made to include the means of prevention of certain diseases. It is, however, considered to be more convenient to apply the word " prophylaxis" to the science of pre- vention, although it is impossible to escape the conviction that every care that is taken to keep an animal in a healthy state necessarily in- cludes the adoption of precautions to prevent the inroads of disease, whether common or specific. Starting with the presumption that the science of Hygiene is to be applied to animals in a healthy condition and with the object of preserv- ing health�in other words, prolonging the animal's life and keeping it in the highest state of efficiency for the work it is called upon to per- form,�the question arises: What are the ordinary means by the agency of which this desirable end may be secured? The first thing which suggests itself relates to the function of nutrition. Even in a state of perfect animal idleness the ordinary physiological processes continue; oxidation, that is to say destruction, of tissues is always going on. Every movement of the animal, whether voluntary or involuntary, causes an appreciable amount of tissue waste; the waste products have to be ex- creted, as many of them are of a poisonous character, and the waste has to be replaced by new material. This repair of tissue demands a regular supply of solid and liquid food, containing the necessary materials for purposes of nutrition. Pure food and pure water in appropriate quan- tities are among the first essentials for the maintenance of life and health.

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			ORDINARY CONDITIONS OF HEALTH 67

		Closely connected with food and water, both being free from im- purities as far as possible, is the air which the animal breathes. Even for the life of the most simple organisms air is necessary, and in the case of the higher organisms its withdrawal would be immediately fatal. And even when supplied in sufficient quantity it is capable of carrying with it deleterious constituents, some of them quite inappreciable by the senses under ordinary circumstances, but deadly in their influences to the animal's vital functions. The supply of a sufficient quantity of pure ^air at a proper temperature, and at the same time the elimination of stagnant air, is absolutely essential to the maintenance of health. Be- cause, just as the process of nutrition implies the deposit of new material m place of the worn-out structures, which, if they had been allowed to accumulate in the system, would have poisoned the animal; so, on the other hand, the function of respiration is associated with the introduc- tion into the system of fresh vitalizing air, and excretion of effete materials ¹¹¹ a gaseous form, which, mixed with the air in the lungs, are exhaled at every expiration and discharged into the external atmosphere. These Products of the respiratory process are poisonous, and if, owing to the absence of any means of escape from the building in which an animal ¹⁸ kept, they were permitted to accumulate, they would soon render the ^air contained therein effete and incapable of maintaining life and health. ^feo it appears that food, water, and air, in proper quantity, and, so far ^as possible, in a state of purity, are the three primary conditions for the iealthy environment. It must be evident that the conditions above referred to are essentially concerned with the functions of organic life, and for the purpose of keep- ⁿg a horse in the state of usefulness it may be further necessary that _t ^rtam special organs should receive particular attention. The animal Squired for purposes of locomotion. It is, therefore, indispensable ^at the feet should be kept in perfect condition; in other words, they not be left, as other parts of the organism may, to be maintained in orrnal state under the influence of the ordinary reparative processes, ause in domestication they are subjected to an excessive degree of ' m ^a ^tear' fr°^m which in a state of nature they would be exempt, he feet are protected by a covering of dense, but elastic, horny ance, which grows in proportion to the amount of wear which takes under natural conditions, when the animal's movements are under ^Wn control. In domestication, however, the experiment, which has repeatedly tried, of working horses without some additional protec- j ° ^tne hoof has invariably failed, and the early practice of protect- ee soles of the feet, or some portion of them, with iron plates or

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		68		HEALTH AND DISEASE
		68

		rings, is still continued with certain modifications, or, as they may be called, improvements. Still, the admitted value of the artificial protection is vitiated by the necessity for the use of nails as the means of fastening. The feet of the horse are, therefore, placed at a disadvantage in com- parison with the rest of the organism, in consequence of the unavoidable application of artificial protection in the form of shoes which are attached to them by nails driven through a considerable portion of the hoof. Added to the necessarily injurious consequences of shoeing are those which arise from the hardness of the roads; and the two adverse con- ditions will account for the failure, to a greater or lesser extent, of the feet during some period of the horse's life, in spite of all the care exerted for their preservation. Under exceptional circumstances it has not unnaturally been con- sidered that the feet require exceptional treatment, and numerous de.vices in the form of " stoppings" and hoof-dressings have been employed at various times for the purpose, it is alleged, of keeping the feet in a healthy condition. Of most of these appliances it may be said that the feet may be very much better without them. Moisture is very necessary for the maintenance of a healthy condition of the horn, and this is naturally absorbed by the horn tubes, of which the hoof is composed, when they are kept in a natural condition. But if the tubes are blocked by sticky or greasy substances, they cease to be able to absorb the moisture on which their elasticity depends. The hygienics of the foot demands that the organ should be left, as far as may be, in a natural state; the evils which are attendant on the application of shoes are in some measure unavoidable, and under the present improved state of the farrier's art they are reduced to a minimum. For the rest, it can only be said that the less the horny covering of the foot is interfered with the better. Next to the feet the legs, or, as they are termed, lower extremities, as far as the knees and hocks, deserve consideration. These parts are exposed more than other parts to contact with irritating grit and dust and mud in the ordinary course of travel. Cracked or chapped heels or "grease" and other eruptive diseases are the consequences of this exposure, and some animals are susceptible in a high degree to influences which would leave other less-susceptible subjects untouched. The skin over the whole of the body requires special attention in the horse to keep it in a healthy state, and the difference between a sensitive and insensitive skin has to be recognized in relation to a horse as much as in the case of the human subject. Peculiarities of temperament have also to be taken into account as

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		09
	STABLES	09
	STABLES

predisposing causes of disease of the nervous system, the digestive organs, and, in fact, the organs of the body as a whole. Some kinds of food, again, tend to induce disorders of the integuments, and others to disturb the kidneys. To detect and remove the various and often unsuspected causes which act in upsetting the balance of health in various ways is a task which necessitates close observation, and generally an amount of energy which is exhibited constantly by sanitarians in regard to the public health, but is rarely exerted for the benefit of the lower animals. STABLES CONSTRUCTION The owner of the horse has often no voice whatever in the structure and general arrangements of the stable in which his horse is to be kept. In those cases, however, where the owner of the horse builds the habi- tation for the animal, he may select, within certain limitations, the site on which the stable is to stand and the materials which are to be used in its construction. The principal points to be observed are dryness and cleanliness. To secure dryness the building must not only be weather-tight, but damp must be prevented from rising through the walls and floors; an impervious damp-course must therefore be laid in the walls at the floor- level, and it is a good plan to spread a layer of brick or stone rubble under the flooring. The use of iron for stable fittings, and, as far as possible, m the construction of the partitions between stalls and boxes, in substitu- tion for timber, is certainly desirable. The material is non-absorbent, and lends itself readily to processes of cleansing and disinfection. The timber which is absolutely indispensable should be well-seasoned, hard material, and be rendered as little absorbent as possible by being saturated with some of the tar products, or by a coating of paint or varnish. Bricks should be of the best quality, and for the inside of the walls bricks with a salt-glazed or with an enamelled surface are to be preferred. The salt- glazed bricks, which are of a reddish-brown colour, are more suitable for those walls which may be liable to damage, but at the heads of stalls, and ^above the level of the mangers in boxes, enamelled bricks or tiles may be used. Bright colours and pronounced patterns must be avoided; a grayish- green colour is the best, and an "egg-shell" glaze is better than a bright glossy surface. The question of material for the flooring is rather a diffi- cult one. It is easy to see that certain conditions must be complied with� the flooring must be sufficiently hard, non-absorbent, and, above all things,

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	70	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	70

of a kind to afford a good foothold. Blue Staffordshire bricks, and buff adamantine clinkers, grooved in various ways so as to assist in the drainage of the surface, are commonly used for the purpose, but a good floor can also be made with Portland cement and granite chippings laid by expert workmen on a bed of brick or stone rubble. The division of the stable into stalls or boxes will be arranged according to the number of animals to be kept, and the necessity which may arise from the limitation of space. There is no doubt at all of the advantages of boxes where space and cost are not paramount considerations. From 12 to 14 feet square are the ordinary dimensions, but smaller boxes down to about 10 feet square are often used; they must be large enough to allow the animal to alter its position as much as it chooses. The animal may be tied by the head, as in a stall, whenever necessary. Stalls from 6 to 7 feet wide and 10 to 11 feet long are economical in space and cost, and it is usual in the case of small stables to have one or two boxes for special use, and three or more stalls, as may be required. One or more sick-boxes, enclosed with walls and entirely disconnected from the other stalls and boxes, are necessary in all large stables. In connection with the construction of stables, lighting, ventilation, and drainage are matters of supreme importance. LIGHTING The arrangements for lighting will depend upon the aspect of the stables and their surroundings. Stables which are built on to houses, or in proximity to them, commonly have very little choice in the matter. When it is possible to choose, the south would generally be preferred, but some authorities prefer east, and others west, and certainly there are many very good stables with a northern aspect. In arranging the windows, care should be taken that every portion of the stable is well lighted; means of cutting off the light from any part to some extent may be considered necessary, but nothing can be lost by having sufficient light to commence with, and windows are supplied now with special arrangements for ventila- tion, on which subject more has to be said in another place. (See chapter on Stable Architecture.) Probably the best position for stables is one in which the front of the building has an aspect between south-west and south-east; the back wall forming the heads of the stalls will thus face between north-east and north-west, and the amount and brilliance of the sunshine admitted through the windows over the mangers will be very small, and will not injuriously affect the eyesight of the horses. An ample measure of sunlight will be admitted through the windows

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		71
	STABLES	71
	STABLES

in the opposite or front wall, and will assist in keeping the stable bright and sweet. The importance of having windows on both sides of a range of stables cannot be overestimated. VENTILATION AND AIR SPACE It will not be questioned that a supply of pure air is absolutely essential to health, and accordingly the subject of ventilation has always attracted a large amount of attention from sanitary authorities. In theory ⁿ⁰�^mg can be more simple; it is only necessary to provide openings through which Pure air may pass in at one point, and other openings, in a^ different position, out of which the contaminated air may escape. This is, un- doubtedly, the true principle of ventilation, but in practice it has been found extremely difficult to attain the results which are desired. The pure air is commonly found to enter with sufficient rapidity, and often m sufficient quantity, not only at the point through which it was intended to ^enter, but also at the opening which was intended for the escape of the contaminated air. The down-draught, as it is called, is the great trouble of the sanitary engineer, and it has not up to the present time been found Possible to avoid this and to create an upward current with perfect cer- tainty and regularity except by the use of machinery, or the employment ^of heat to rarefy the air at the intended point of exit, so that the air con- tained in the building may be induced to rise and escape as required. Some interesting experiments were performed by Veterinary Colonel ^Pred. Smith of the Army Veterinary Department, and described by him in his work on Veterinary Hygiene. The object was to ascertain the direction of ^CUrrents, after entering a building by the means of windows, tubes, shafts, Perforated bricks, or holes in various parts of the walls. The first thing ^which was noticed was the diminution in the rate of motion of a current of ^air in the act of passing through a shaft or tube, owing to the friction ^against the sides of the passage. It follows, therefore, that the loss ot Motion in the air will be considerably less in a wide than in a narrow Passage. A further cause of diminution of velocity and interference with escape of air exists in the bends or angles in the passage, and it is impor- tant to remember that in such bends accumulation of dust is inevitable, and that when bends are unavoidable some method must be devised for the Purpose of keeping them clean. , , .,, ^A very common device for ventilating a building is that of the sha ^d^ided into two by a diaphragm running down the centre. By this method ^xt is presumed that one side of the shaft will act as an inlet, and the other ^S1de as the outlet; but in practice the operation is by no means always satis-

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

factory. The same may be said of a somewhat similar arrangement, the
double tube: a large one for the outside, and a small one passing through
it. In this plan the larger tube is intended to act as an inlet, and the
smaller one as the outlet. But it is very commonly found that the result
is a down-draught always in full action, while the outlet either has the
opposite to the intended effect, contributing to the down-draught, or other-
wise does not act at all.

It must be obvious that the
force and direction of the wind
must always be powerful factors
in ventilation, and one difficulty
which is not easily overcome arises
from the frequent changes which
they undergo, at one time a super-

-Direction taken by Air-currents with the
"Windward Windows open

Fig. 464.

abundance of air being driven

forcibly into the building, while at
another a scarcely calculable quantity will pass in. To meet this diffi-
culty, to some extent, the author of Veterinary Hygiene is in favour of
openings being made on opposite sides of the building; and lie insists
that to get the full benefit of such an arrangement the buildings must
not be more than from 25 feet to 30 feet wide. He found that a
current entering through an inlet will cause the air in the stable to set in
towards it in a direction more or less at right angles; and if the velocity of

the incoming current is great, it
may pass out again at the opposite
opening before it has properly mixed
with the air in the stable. The
results of the experiments made by
the author of Veterinary Hygiene
w^Till be best understood with the
aid of the accompanying diagrams,

which are taken from his work.

ward and Leeward Windows open

In the first illustration the wind
is supposed to enter at a window which is opened to windward (fig. 464).
Soon after entering, the current is described as spreading out fan-shaped
and passing towards the ground; and in the case of a powerful current
it may be measured 18 or more feet from the point of entry, but under
ordinary conditions its speed rapidly decreases owing to the pressure of
the air in the stable at about 6 or 8 feet from the inlet. The current
is further described as striking the ground on the opposite side of the
stable, much of it escaping by the leeward side of the ridge, or by the

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STABLES

opening by which it entered. The windward side of the ridge opening-
is also presumed to act as an inlet. In the next illustration (fig. 465)
the windows on opposite sides of the building are shown open. With this
arrangement the air which rushes in
at the windward side was observed
to proceed very much in the same
^way as in the first instance. Some
°f it, however, is driven straight
across to the leeward window and
escapes at once.

Sometimes the movements in-

Fig. 466.�Double Currents from opposite Windows

dicated in fig. 465 are disturbed by

a backward current suddenly coming in through the outlet window, meet-
ing the current which comes from the windward window (fig. 466). The
two currents then spread out towards the centre of the stable, strike the
ground, and then rise to escape at
°ne side' of the ridge. This con-
dition is one which, as a matter of
^c°urse, depends on a change in the
direction of the wind, and is, there-
fore, only temporary.

A different set of movements

OCCUrg When the Opposite Windows ^* 467.�Direction taken by Air-currents when opposite
av.� i ij. . ., . Windows are half-open

^dre naif-open in such a way (fig. 467)

tot the current of air is directed upwards. By this arrangement the
entering air is delayed sufficiently long to allow it to mix with the air in

e stable before it escapes from the leeward window. It was observed
^nat if the windward window re-
gains half-open, and the leeward
°ne fully open, the air escapes from

^e stables without mixing properly.
A further change was noticed

ien the windward windows were
half-open and the leeward entirely
'Closed. The

Current passed Upwards ^Fig- ⁴⁶⁸-�Direction taken by Air-currents when Doors
to tVlf> n₀;i;� n ,i i t n and Windows are closed

wie ceiling, and then descended

^ Wv,^Xed ^With ^the ^Stable ^air~~^tlie ^rid§^e ⁱⁿ ^this ^case constituted the outlet.
^ When all the windows were closed, and the door opened, the ridge
^Ppearecj to act as a regular outlet; with both the doors and windows shut

e ridge openings acted as inlets and outlets, as shown in fig. 468.
J-fos summary of the description given by Colonel Fred. Smith will

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	74	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	74

convey to the reader a fair idea of the influence which the opening of doors and windows can be made to exercise upon the distribution of air throughout a stable. The great value of these observations lies in the fact that they refer to the very simple appliances which are at everyone's command, consisting merely of ordinary doors and swing windows, placed opposite to each other in walls not more than 30 feet apart. Writers on ventilation describe artificial ventilation as distinct from the " natural" ventilation obtained by ordinary appliances such as doors, windows, and holes in buildings. Artificial ventilation may be arranged to operate in one of two ways, namely, (l) by "extraction" of the air which is already in the building, and (2) by "propulsion", which consists in the driving out of contaminated air by the forcible introduction of fresh air. Extraction is effected by heat, by steam-jet, or by fan or screw. The most simple instance of "extraction" by heat is that of the common fireplace, with its open chimney, in which the upward current is in proportion to the amount of heat and the area of the chimney. Dr. Parkes refers to a room which he frequently examined where the area of the chimney was 1 � 5 square foot. There was no down-draught, but a constant upward current of 4 feet per second; the discharge per second was then 6 cubic feet, or 21,600 cubic feet per hour. The capacity of the room was 2000 cubic feet, so that a quantity equal to the total air in the room passed up the chimney nearly eleven times per hour. Notwithstand- ing this, the room became close when shut up with two or three persons. The explanation given is, that when the windows were shut the fire was chiefly fed with air which entered below the doors, and, flowing near the ground to the chimney, was never properly diffused through the room. It was found that the current near the ground moved from T6 foot to 2-6 feet per second, and chilled the feet. A few feet above the ground no move- ment could be discovered. No better example than this could be given of the great importance of arranging for the proper entrance and distribution of air as well as for its exit. When a fire is lighted, all places in the room through which air can pass act as inlets, and as the necessary result currents in various directions come from places which were meant to be outlets, causing what are so very much dreaded by people in general, so-called draughts. The common remedy for this state of things is the blocking up of all the cracks in doors and windows which can be reached, and the plugging of any ventilating tubes or shafts by the aid of dusters or any other material at hand. In a stable a mass of hay forms a convenient plug for any hole through which the air passes too freely for the comfort of the persons employed about the stable. In a room so treated, it is noticed that when all the openings through

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	STABLES	75
	STABLES

which air can enter are plugged, the chimney itself becomes an inlet at intervals, and consequently sudden rushes of downward currents occur, bringing with them a quantity of smoke; but when the inlet of air is properly regulated and provided for, the open fireplace with its chimney is undoubtedly a very useful method of ventilation. It may be urged that the method is not generally applied to a stable, but in the case of new constructions there certainly is no reason why it should not be, provided that a suitable wire screen is placed around the hearth to prevent any risk of straw, &c., catching fire. Extraction of air by a steam jet requires apparatus not in common use, and is not likely to be employed for the ventilation of stables. Extraction by means of fans is a method which has been employed successfully in the ventilation of mines, and to a smaller degree in buildings, but the plan involves cumbersome machinery, and can hardly be called a practical method of ventilation for stable use. The place of the fan may be, to some extent, supplied by means of different forms.of cowls, the chief objection to which is their uncertainty, owing to changes in the direction of the wind, and in perfectly calm weather the absence of any currents in the outside air. These appliances, however, form part of the apparatus used in so-called " natural" ventilation. Ventilation by propulsion, although a powerful method of delivering ^a quantity of air, is not one which is likely to be generally used in stables. According to Dr. Parkes, the plan is an old one, invented indeed by Desaguiliers in 1734. The machinery consisted of a fan or wheel, enclosed in a box. The air passed in at the centre, and was driven by the vanes of the fan into a conduit leading from the box to the building to be ventilated. The principle of this system, which is now generally known as the " Plenum" system, is that of pressure from behind, the external air being forced in at a pressure proportionate to the speed °f the revolution of the fan, thus driving out the fouler air through the openings provided for the purpose. Where expense is no object the plan is no doubt an effective one, as air can be passed through water and thus washed, or through heated tubes and thus raised to any temperature which may be desired, but in practice its use has hitherto been confined to yery large establishments, town-halls, hospitals, &c. Where electric current is available, an electric fan, which can be installed at a trifling cost, is the ^S1uiplest method of applying the system. ft must be admitted that all methods of ventilation which necessitate the use of special apparatus are encumbered by the objections that they ^are costly and in various ways inconvenient. Among others is the ^very important one, that skilled attendance is necessary.

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		76		HEALTH AND DISEASE
		76

		For practical purposes the method of ventilation which has been described, by the aid of openings at opposite sides of the building and at the ridge, is the most simple, and, if properly arranged, the most effectual. A certain quantity of fresh air is absolutely indispensable for the maintenance of life. A horse requires something over 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour. But the question is not one of quantity only; there can be no doubt at all that the exact amount of air which a horse requires may be fully provided and yet be in such a condition as to destroy the animal in a short time. The difficulty of ventilating a stable is increased by the objection which the groom'entertains to a current of cool air, which, however pure, will make his horse's coat rough, or cause the warmly-clothed animals, which have been habitually kept in hot stables, to shiver. This is a fact which the groom will demonstrate without any difficulty, to ensure conviction in the mind of his master, by opening a window behind one of his horses and causing the animal to shiver forthwith as soon as the unaccustomed cool current touches its skin. After this demonstration, with which stablemen are perfectly familiar, the question is settled at once, without any further argu- ment, and the owner of the animal, if not convinced, is at least silenced. The demonstration, although utterly fallacious, contains a valuable suggestion, to the effect that the air of the stable should, by some means, be properly regulated to a moderate temperature, so that the horses should not be subjected to either hot or cold currents of air. If open fire-places with warm-air chambers are not provided, perhaps the most satisfactory way is to heat the stables (or the air entering them) by means of a low-pressure hot-water heating apparatus. Contamination Of Air.�A very large number of causes of contami- nation of air by physical and chemical agents are given by Dr. Parkes in his work on practical hygiene. Among the mineral substances which are suspended in the atmos- phere are particles of coal, sand, steel or other metal, and everything which is included in the term dust, flocks of cotton, flax, hemp, all of which may be either inhaled or swallowed. It is perfectly well known that many trades are distinguished as unhealthy in consequence of the inevitable mixture with the air of various products which are connected with manufacturing processes. The effect of the air of mines appears to be particularly deleterious to the health of the miners. It was stated many years ago, by the chief medical officer of the Privy Council, that 30,000 miners in England break down prematurely every year from pneumonia and bronchitis. At that time one exception only was given: the colliers of Durham and Northumberland, where the mines were well

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STABLES

ventilated, and the miners did not suffer from pulmonary affections,
excepting in an ordinary degree. The evidence of the extent to which
the air of mines is contaminated with coal-dust is of a very emphatic
kind. In the next illustration a specimen of a miner's lung is given,
showing the enormous accumulation of coal-dust in the lung structure.

Stone-masons and metal-workers, also workmen in potteries, grinders,
button-makers, cotton-spinners, match-makers, and others have all been
mentioned as suffering from the effects of the contaminated air which
they habitually breathe.

Horses are often looked upon as
animals which, to a great degree,
^are exempt from the action of air con-
taminated in the manner described,

but the evidence in proof of this

A--

belief is extremely meagre, in fact it
^ls mainly negative; indeed it does
ⁿ°t seem to have occurred to any-
body that the condition which we
^nave just illustrated of the coal-
ttiiner's lunar would be found in the

1 o

^Ungs of the horses working in the
^same pits if it were looked for, and

Fig. 4C9.�Section from Upper Lobe of a Collier's Lung

A, Deposits of coal dust in the air-vessels
(highly magnified).

ere cannot be any doubt whatever

^lat horses working in positions

here the air is largely mixed with dust, or otherwise contaminated with

Mechanical impurities, would exhibit traces of injury from these causes

their pulmonary organs on post-mortem examination.

'Occasional outbreaks of disease have occurred among horses grazing

the neighbourhood of brick-kilns and smelting-works, and chemical

vestigation has demonstrated the existence of poisonous products in

^ae ^ai^r which the animals had to breathe, and also in the pasture on

uch they were feeding, and it is quite possible that in many instances

. ^Unexplained outbreaks of affections of the respiratory organs the cause

g^t be found in the condition of the atmosphere, the presence in it of

i her mechanical or chemical matters.

Substances of a much more deleterious character than ordinary dust
oubtedly obtain an entrance into the air; these come under the head of
^0rganic impurities.

organic Impurities.�Contamination of the air constantly occurs,

to some extent at least is inevitable; the process of respiration, for

sample, has the effect of charging the atmosphere with carbonic acid

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		78		HEALTH AND DISEASE
		78

		(carbon dioxide), as well as various organic impurities or products of decomposition given out with the expired air. How deadly these mixtures of the products of respiration may become is illustrated by the con- stantly-quoted case of the Black Hole of Calcutta, in which, out of 300 men who were imprisoned, 260 died very quickly from the poison which they breathed from their own lungs. Carbon dioxide, which is one of the products of combustion, is extremely poisonous, and contamination of the air with more than 1 per cent is rapidly fatal to animals. Sulphuretted hydrogen, a gas set free in the decomposition of organic matter, is highly deleterious to animals. Ammoniacal vapours, which are constantly present in badly ventilated stables, exercise an irritating effect on the sensitive membrane of the eyes, and the comparative rarity in the present day of ophthalmia and other serious diseases of the eyes among horses is ascribed to the improvement which has taken place in the methods of construction and ventilation. Admixture of sewage gas with the atmosphere is probably responsible for the occurrence of many forms of derangement of the digestive organs which may often be attributed to other causes. Emanations from marshes were for a long time regarded as being the immediate cause of certain specific fevers in man and animals, but while marsh lands are undoubtedly unhealthy, it has now been demonstrated that malaria is caused by inoculation with the germs of the disease through the agency of mosquitoes. A somewhat similar case is that of the disease following upon the bite of the tsetse fly in South Africa. The most dangerous forms of organic contamination are undoubtedly the minute organisms, which under certain conditions produce specific diseases when introduced into the bodies of animals, including man. The different disease germs are active in different ways; thus, the germs of phthisis (pulmonary consumption) may produce disease when inhaled; the bacillus of enteric (typhoid) fever when swallowed; and the tetanus (lock- jaw) bacillus when received into a wound or scratch. Pure air and water, cleanliness and sunshine, are important weapons against these invisible foes. It may be observed that while air charged with disease germs may be inhaled with impunity by the perfectly healthy animal, it may prove fatal to the animal which is in bad condition. Cases of the injurious effects of contaminated atmosphere might easily be multiplied, but enough evidence has already been advanced to prove the necessity for a sufficient supply of pure air as one of the factors in a condition of perfect health. Cubic Air-Space.�It has already been stated that each horse will require something over 15,000 feet of pure air per hour, but this by no

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STABLES

means implies the necessity for large cubic space in the stable, as any
quantity of air may be passed into and out of a space which is only suffi-
cient to allow the animal to stand in it. Colonel Fred. Smith remarks
that a very common error is made in considering that cubic space will
�supplant ventilation, and consequently too much stress has been laid on the
importance of a large cubic capacity. In illustration of the error included
in this assumption he takes examples of two stables�one of 600 cubic feet,
and the other of 1500, a variation which is by no means uncommon.
Obviously a horse stabled in each of the two spaces would require the same
amount of air; and, in order that this might be supplied to each of the
animals, it would be necessary that the whole of the air in the former should
be changed a little over fifty-four times per hour, while in the 1500-cubic-
feet space the air need not be changed more often than a little over twenty-
one times per hour. The advantage, therefore, of a large cubic space is that
it does not necessitate so frequent a change of air. So far as the contami-
nation of the atmosphere included in either space is concerned, the value
of a large cubic capacity is comparatively trifling, being only the difference
of time which will be necessary for the contamination of the air it contains
in each case, and it is hardly necessary to observe that when the air is
equally contaminated the effect would be precisely the same on the animal
organism, whether the stable contains 600 or 6000 cubic feet.

The following table is given to illustrate this point, and shows exactly,
^at a glance, the result of the mixture of the products of respiration with the
air in cubic spaces of different dimensions:�


Breathing space for one horse in cubic feet.	Ratio of C0₂ per 1000 at the end of first hour, if there has been no change of air.	Amount of air necessary during the first hour.	Amount necessary every hour after the first.
600	5-03	14,400	15,000
700	4-38	14,300	15,000
800	375	14,200	15,000
900	3-33	14,100	15,000
1000	3-00	14,000	15,000
1100	2-72	13,900	15,000
1200	2-50	13,800	15,000
1300	2-30	13,700	15,000
1400	2-13	13,600	15,000
1500	2-00	13,500	15,000
1600	1-87	13,400	15,000
1700	1-76	13,300	15,000
1800	1-66	13,200	15,000
1900	1-57	13,100	15,000
2000	1-50	13,000	15,000
3000	100	12,000	15,000

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			80 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		The cubic space for army stables has been fixed at 1605 cubic feet per head, and for infirmary stables at 1900 cubic feet per head; these dimen- sions render it necessary, in order to provide the horse with the 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour, to change the air in the first stable (1605 cubic feet per head) about nine and a half times per hour. These dimensions suggest the necessity for very complete and perfectly controllable means of ventilation. It is not probable that a space of more than 1000 cubic feet will be allotted to each horse in ordinary stables when only a few horses are kept, and this, with proper ventilation, will prove to be quite sufficient. Where new stables'are being built under the control of the owner, the common plan of placing living rooms or lofts over the stables may advantageously be abandoned. Great height is not at all desirable, and where the roof is carried up, and ventilators are put in the ridge, a height of 10 to 12 feet to the eaves may be taken as a standard height. The most violent advocate of fresh air and free ventilation will not deny the stableman's assertion that in a warm stable the animals' coats are rendered fine and glossy, and the horses do better on a smaller amount of food than they would in a large, cold stable, in which, whatever is done to protect them, they always put on a half-starved appearance, as the groom will designate it. The problem of how to provide a sufficient quantity of pure air in a reasonable cubic space, without keeping the animals too hot or too cold, is one that cannot be solved without incurring the expense of a somewhat elaborate system of warming and ventilation. Where the cost of warming the air required for ventilation is pro- hibitive, the best method is to provide windows on opposite sides of the stables and perhaps also in one end, the windows themselves being of the "hopper" type, so that the air enters the building with an upward current. Triangular side-pieces or cheeks should be fixed to the frames so that, when the windows are open, the air cannot enter except at the top. The windows at the rear should be well above the horses' heads. As windows are provided on opposite sides of the stable, it will always be possible to open some of them, without creating excessive draughts, whatever the direction of the wind may be. If the ceiling is flat, these windows will in many cases serve adequately for inlets and outlets, but where practicable it is better to provide one or more outlets at a higher level. The continuous ventilator along the ridge, with louvre boards on both sides, is certain to prove draughty, and cannot fail to admit air when the wind is blowing strongly against it. There are many different cowls or exhaust ventilators which are more suitable for the purpose. Much of the coldness complained of in stables is due to defective

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		STABLES
		STABLES		81
				81

construction; for example, the roof tiles may not be laid in mortar or "torched" with mortar underneath, and the ceiling may be neither plastered nor boarded. The result is that the warmth given off by the horses is rapidly dissipated, and in winter the stable is much too cold while m summer it may be too hot. Tiles laid in the way described above do indeed allow a constant passage of air, and are therefore useful for ventilation, but the ventilation is not (as it ought to be) under control. J-he windows which have been recommended can be opened and closed at will, and the exhaust ventilators are fitted with valves, operated with cords and pulleys, and by these means the inlet and outlet of air can be controlled. According to the table, T.5,000 cubic feet of air are required by each horse per hour. If the velocity of the air entering the stable is 2 feet per second, the size of the inlet opening must be ��g?y�gTw = 2^- sq. feet. ■This area would be provided by a window 3 feet wide, opening to the extent of about 8 inches. If the windows on the opposite sides of the building�that is to say, two for each horse�are of this size, the required amount of air will be admitted when only one is open. To prevent excessive velocity in the inflowing air, the top of the opening of the hopper ^ls sometimes covered with finely-perforated zinc, but this necessitates a larger opening, as the effective area is reduced about one-half by the metal gauze. A higher velocity may be allowed for the air escaping through the exhaust ventilator, (say) 5 feet per second, and on this basis the area ^requi_reci for each horse will be f sq. foot. A ventilator with the internal encular shaft 20 inches in diameter would, therefore, serve for three horses. In practice the areas of inlets and outlets are often less than those given above, as a certain amount of ventilation takes place through the Walls and roofs and through open doors, and somewhat higher velocities a^e considered to be admissible. When all is done, however, there are many days in our variable climate nen it jg impossible with safety to provide by the system of " natural" entilation the full amount of fresh air which is theoretically required. ⁿe cold draughts which would follow the attempt would be dangerous to any animals, and the choice must be made between the two evils of cold ^c ^raughts and insufficient ventilation. In nine cases out of ten the latter will be considered to be the less of the two.

	Vol. hi.
	Vol. hi.		71
			71

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
82		HEALTH AND DISEASE
82

	DRAINAGE In applying the principles of drainage to the habitations of the domestic animals there are on the whole fewer difficulties to be overcome than in the case of the human being. The effectual removal of solid and liquid excreta is the object sought in all cases; but while the sanitarian, in dealing with houses inhabited by human beings, is compelled to devise some method, not only for the removal of excreta, but also for destruction or disposal of it in such a manner that no nuisance may arise from its accumulation, the solid and liquid excreta of the horse have a commercial value as fertilizing material or manure, and are not therefore destroyed or deliberately allowed to pollute rivers and water-courses, as it pays better to store them for use. The difficulty in dealing effectually with solid and liquid excreta from the lower animals arises from the fact that the quantity voided by the larger quadrupeds is considerable, and, in respect of the solid manure, the act of excretion or expulsion is frequently� performed, rendering it almost impos- sible to keep a large stable in a condition of even moderate cleanliness. Emanations from animal excreta are not likely to contaminate the air of a stable or cow-shed to any serious extent while in a fresh state, but both solids and fluids rapidly undergo decomposition, the result of which is to set free certain compounds of hydrogen and other gases, which are not only offensive, but, some of them at least, poisonous�sulphuretted hydrogen, for example, arising from the solid excreta chiefly. Urine very quickly changes its state, and sets free a quantity of am- monia in a gaseous condition. Ammoniacal gas has an intensely pungent character, and causes severe irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes and nostrils, to an extent which can only be appreciated by those who have entered a badly ventilated or unventilated stable in which a large number of horses are habitually kept, or the holds of cattle-ships immediately after the cargo has been landed. A little experience of this kind should suffice to convince a horse-keeper of the great importance of making proper .arrangements for the removal of excreta from the stable at once, no matter how often it may be necessary, to some convenient place of storage at a distance from the stable, so that the gases from the manure-heap may not be driven by winds into the stable or shed. Stables in large towns are generally situated in rows in a long mews, and the dirty straw, with the excreta, often form a conical heap outside the stable door. Usually the sanitary authorities insist on the removal of the heaps at short intervals, so that very little opportunity is allowed for putre- factive fermentation to go on; but the same system is often adopted in the open country, where there is ample space for proper storage. The real

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	STABLES
		83


difficulty is that the space outside the stable door is the most convenient spot for the attendants to heap the manure temporarily, or until enough has accumulated to justify the use of a cart or wagon for its removal. In London the regulations concerning receptacles for dung are now somewhat stringent. The capacity of the receptacle must not exceed 2 cubic yards, unless " the whole of the contents . . . are removed not less frequently than every forty-eight hours"; the bottom must not be below the level of the ground; one of the sides must be readily removable to facilitate cleansing; and the receptacle must be so constructed as to prevent rain or water from entering it, and the escape of the contents, or any soak- age therefrom, into the- ground or into the wall of any building, and it must also be freely ventilated into the external air. If the dung is removed from the premises not less frequently than every forty-eight hours, a metal cage may be used as a receptacle, but the ground beneath it must be ade- quately paved to prevent soakage into the ground, and if the cage is placed near a building, the wall of the building must be cemented " to such an extent as will prevent any soakage from the dung . . . into the wall". Calculations have been made of the amount of solid and liquid excreta voided by different animals in a given time, and the results have proved useful, not only in physiology but also in practical farming. The late Professor Varnell, in the course of his observations at the Eoyal Veterinary College, found that a horse discharged from the body 49 lbs. of dung and 29 lbs. of urine in twenty-four hours. Col. Fred. Smith, from his own investigations, practically confirms Professor Varnell's estimate. We also records that a cow voids about 160 lbs. of dung and 18 lbs. of ^Urine in twenty-four hours. In different animals the consistency of the solid excreta varies very much in proportion to the amount of water it contains. Fortunately the clung of the horse in health is fairly dry, and may often be lifted from clean straw with the stable-fork or shovel, leaving hardly a trace behind it. ^orae horses, however � animals of an excitable temperament,�void a quantity of soft dung from time to time, and in some the habit of evacuat- ing watery dung in small quantities at frequent intervals is maintained ⁿ spite of treatment. Such animals can hardly be considered healthy, though no other symptoms of derangement may be observed. In the matter of the mechanics of stable drainage simplicity is all-im- Portant. The main object to be kept in view is the single one of perfect ^Clency ; so long as that is attained, the means employed are of secondary ^c°nsequence. kome differences in the system of drainage employed for stables in ^0wns, as compared with those in the country, is not only permissible, but

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

may in many cases be desirable. A town stable has, for instance, to be
connected with the sewerage system, for which purpose advantage is taken
of the sewer which is nearest to the stable, and the principal points to be
considered are the best method of connecting the stable drain with the
sewer, and whether the stable drain shall consist of an open channel or

Fig. 470.�Wrought-iron Open Gutter
(St. Pancras Ironworks Co,

Fig. 471.�Covered Surface-drain

a closed one in the form of a pipe sunk a short distance underground, and
running to the outside of the stable into a trap.

The object of trapping is to prevent the passage of gases from the sewer
back into the stable, and it will be understood that, in the attempt to
attain this very essential object, the disconnection of the stable drains by
this means, whatever form they may assume, should be as complete as pos-
sible. Undoubtedly the most simple and sanitary method is the surface-
drain, which may be a mere open channel
running from the front of the stall back-
wards, or it may be provided with a
movable cover, so as to admit of the
necessary cleansing and prevent obstruc-
tion. The two illustrations above show
the two systems of the open and covered

Fig. 472.-

surface-drain (figs. 470, 471).

Stable Floor

In applying the system of surface-
drainage, whether covered or uncovered, it is necessary that the floor
should be inclined in such a manner as to allow a sufficient fall for the
escape of the sewage. In the case of stalls the fall is necessarily from
before backwards. In the box it is commonly made to converge towards
the centre, to which all fluid matters are conveyed by grooves in different
parts of the flooring (fig. 472), and thence, by means of an underground
drain, to the outlet; but with a little ingenuity surface channels can be
used in boxes as well as in stalls, and are certainly better, as a drain-inlet

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STABLES

within the building is a possible source of danger to the animals and
also to the men employed.

Various methods may be adopted, according to the size of the stable.
tn the case of a large one the separate channels in each stall or box run
into a Ions channel at the foot of

the stall, the outlet of which is at
either end of the stable. When
^only two or three stalls or boxes
nave to be provided for, the urine
niay be conveyed from each by a
^Separate channel to the outside of

WiivvriB

Kg. 473.�Drain-pipe with Flap

Fig. 474.�Winser's Iron Gully.

the stable; in fact, so long as the true principle is maintained, it is a
"natter of indifference how the details are arranged.

The channels in the stables must be disconnected from the drains out-

ide by being made to discharge over trapped gullies. The liquid passes

'°ni the channel through a short

smmn.

^u'°n pipe built into the wall, and

it i

^ls a good plan to fit on the

°^uter end of this, pipe a brass or

^lr°n flap hinged at the top to

°P^e_n outwards (fig. 473), so that,

^Ue the liquid can run out

^acluy, the flap prevents to a

^arge extent the inlet of more or

^b ioul air. Two good forms of

S|% are shown in figs. 474 and
475

� °ne beins: of cast-iron and

havino-

er of stoneware, and each

Winser's Stoneware Gully

*§ a grating at the top and

Gainer below to retain solid matter. The stoneware gully has a side

Tf u ^which the drain from a grid under a water-tap can be connected.

, ^e ^se"\vage is conveyed by the drains into a manure-tank, cesspool, or

, ^c ^sewer, aerial communication between these and the drain must be

°PPed by an intercepting trap, which is most conveniently placed in an

ground chamber or manhole provided with an air-tight cover. The

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		86		HEALTH AND DISEASE
				HEALTH AND DISEASE

	drains must be ventilated by means of a grated opening a little above the surface of the ground (for preference near the intercepting chamber), and by a 3\|- or 4-inch stout pipe of lead or cast-iron fixed to the wall of the building at the highest point of the drain and carried up to such a height and in such a position as to afford a safe outlet for foul air. Stoneware pipes jointed with Portland cement and laid on a bed of concrete are commonly used for drains, but cast-iron pipes are more durable and more permanently water-tight. In the next illustration (fig. 476) a very good method of draining by the use of underground pipes, where that system is already in use or is at any rate determined upon, is shown.

			Fig. 476.�Underground Drain for Stable

In this drawing a, a represent the walls of the stable, b, b the stable drain-pipe starting from the manhole g outside one end of the stable, and running under the stable to the manhole at the other end in which the siphon-trap c is placed. Into this drain the gullies P, f, inside the stable, discharge. The siphon contains water the level of which is shown by the interrupted lines. In theory at least the water is a barrier against the passage of foul air from the outlet drain d back into the stable pipe, as such air will take its course through the clear opening of the ventilating pipe E rather than attempt to force the guarded part of the siphon c, which protects the stable pipe. As will be seen in this drawing, the drain is ventilated through pipes passing into the manholes at either end. These manholes are covered with air-tight iron covers, and provision is made for easy access for the purpose of cleaning out the drain by means of a brush with jointed cane handle. A trap similar to C must be placed between the outlet drain and the sewer or cesspool. It is of course essential that the gullies and the drain should be kept well flushed. Automatic flush-

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FOOD

tanks are now made for fixing at the highest points of drains, and can be
regulated to discharge a fixed quantity of water periodically�(say) once
or twice a day. They require no attention, except for cleaning and repairs,
and are useful for keeping drains clean, particularly in flat districts where
the drains are laid with very little fall. The automatic flush-tanks may
be supplied from an overhead rain-water tank, but a supplementary supply
of water should be laid on for use in dry weather.

FOOD

Nutrition may be defined as the process by which the waste which
IS constantly going on in the animal's system is compensated by the
deposit of fresh material derived from food, solid and liquid. To under-
stand exactly what is required it is necessary to know something of the
constitution of the body, and it may be stated, in the first instance, that
four elementary substances, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, are
the principal constituents of the important tissues of the animal body,,
muscle, nerve, and the solid particles of the blood.

Constitution of the Body.�Organic bodies include albuminoids or
proteids, gelatine, horny matter, and fats (composed of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen, nitrogen being absent). All these constituents are combustible.
Besides the combustible constituents there is a considerable proportion
°f incombustible, and when burned with those which are combustible they
^are left as ash, of which bone ash forms the largest proportion. Bone ash
consists chiefly of phosphate of lime and magnesia, with a small quantity
°f the carbonate. The ash obtained from the burning of muscle or flesh
contains a considerable proportion of the phosphate of potassium. The
whole of the constituents of the animal body are combined with a very
large proportion of water, which, however, varies in different animals, and
^a^ different ages, from a little over 40 per cent to nearly 70. The follow-
^lng table will show the proportion of water, nitrogenous matter, fat, and
^ash in the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs:�

Percentage Composition of Whole Bodies of Animals

Extra

Fat

Sheep.

Store
Sheep.

Fat
Sheep.

Store
Pig.

Fat
Calf.

Half
Fat Ox.

Fat
Lamb.

Fat Ox.

Fat Pig

Water

Nitrogenous

� Matter

Fat

Ash

37-1

11-5

48-3
3-1

56'0

18-1

20-8
5-1

61-0

15-8

19-9'

3-3

46-1

13-0

37-9
3-0

58-1

14-5

24-6
2-8

43-0

11-4

43-9
1-7

65-1

15-7

15-3
39

48-4
15-4

32-0

4-2

52-2

13-5

31-1
3-2

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
■88		HEALTH AND DISEASE
■88

	The Functions of Foods.�The fact that food contains albuminoids, which correspond to the constituents of flesh, and hydrocarbons, which represent fats, and also mineral constituents, which have been referred to, has led physiologists to adopt certain theories in reference to the function of each class of food in the animal body. The nitrogenous constituents and albuminoids have had ascribed to them the function of flesh-formers. They are distinguished from other nitrogenous constituents by the presence of a small quantity of sulphur and phosphorus, which constituents are absent from gelatine. Fats and also carbohydrates, such as starch and .sugar, are considered to represent the combustible materials or heat-forming substances which are consumed in the process of respiration, the excess being deposited in the form of fat. It is stated that animals cannot subsist on a diet composed exclusively of flesh-forming materials, nor on one from which carbohydrates are entirely excluded. On the other side there are instances recorded of animals having lived in perfect health for a considerable time on nitro- genous and also on non-nitrogenous foods. These exceptional cases need not be taken into account in practice, as there is sufficient evidence that the animal to-day requires for its support a food in which are combined all the constituents which are found in the organism. Experiments have shown that nitrogenous food can be used for the formation of fat, and it is admitted that all the fat which is found in the body could not have been obtained from the amount of fatty matters which have been consumed as food. And the fact of animals having lived and been maintained in health on purely nitrogenous diet, is sufficient in itself to show that a considerable proportion of the material must have been consumed in the process of respiration. Assuming that albuminoids are chiefly concerned in the formation of flesh and the development of force, only contributing in a minor degree to the formation of fat, it must also be allowed that fats have for their principal function the production of heat as a result of oxidation, and in this they are assisted by other carbohydrates�starch, sugar, and gums. But it is certain that they do not in any way contribute to the formation of nitrogenous constituents. An important point is to be considered in reference to the respective value of each article of diet and its digestibility. A food may contain a considerable proportion of albuminoids which are comparatively useless to certain animals, on account of the digestive organs being incapable of appropriating the nutriment they afford. Bean straw, for example, contains 8 per cent of nitrogenous substances, but its structure renders it comparatively indigestible as food for the horse, in which animal digestion

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FOOD

is quickly performed, while it may be valuable diet for cattle, with their
prolonged process of digestion, including rumination, which is really
remastication. The following table from Warington's Chemistry of the
Farm indicates the amount of water, nitrogenous substances, fat, soluble
carbohydrates (starch, sugar, gums), fibre, ash, and albuminoids in the
foods which constitute the provender of farm animals, and most of these
foods are employed for feeding horses:�

Percentage Composition op Ordinary Foods


	Nitrogenous
	Substance.		Fat.	Soluble Carbo- lydrates.	Fibre.	Ash.
V at6r.	Albumin-	Amides,	Fat.	Soluble Carbo- lydrates.	Fibre.	Ash.
	oids.	&c.
8-2	43-2	1-8	13-5	20-8	5-5	7-0
12-5	20-7	1-3	5-5	34-8	20-0	5-2 6-7 7-7
11-7	26-9	1-1	11-4	33-2	9-0
10-4	28-1	4-6	9-8	29-1	10-3
11-5	45-1	1-9	8'3	23-1	5-2	4-9
14-3	22-6	2-8	1-5	48-5	7-1	3-2
14-0	20-0	2-5	1-6	53-7	5-4	2-8
13-4	10-7	1-3	1-9	69-0	1-9	1-8
13-4	10-5	1-0	1-7	69-5	1-9	2-0
13-0	10-6	0-7	5-4	57-3	10-0	3-0
14-3	10-2	0-4	2-1	66-0	4-5	2-5
110	9-8	0-6	5-1	70-0	2-0	1-5
100	16-6	7-1	2-2	44-1	12-5	7-5
13-2	12-1	2-0	3-7	56-0	7-2	5-8
76-2	4-9	0-2	1-7	10-7	5-1	1-2
9-5	19-8	0-8	7-0	42-3	15-9	4-7
10-3	11-3	1-0	12-0	47-8	8-6	9-0
14-5	3-5	0-5	2-0	37-0	36-8	5-7
14-2	3-2	0-3	1-5 1-3	39-1 39-4	36-0 37-1	5-7
13-6	3-3		1-5 1-3	39-1 39-4	36-0 37-1	5-3
13-6	9-0		1-6	33-7	35-5	6-6
18-4	8-1		1-1	31-0	36-0	5-4
76-7	2-9	1-1	0-9	10-9	5-2	2-3
81-0	2-6	0-8	0-7	8-0	5-2	1-6
16-0	10-5	2-5	2-5	37-2	25-0	6-3
15-0	10-2	1-8	2-3	39-5	24-0	7-2
15-0	8-0	1-2	2-2	42-0	25-4	6-2
14-0	6-3	0-5	2-0	41-1	31-0	5-1
67-0	3-3	1-5	1-5	13-2	9-7	3-8
67-0	3-3	2-7	2-2	10-5	11-9	2-4
79-1	1-0	0-7	0-8	11-0	6-0	1-4
75-0	1-2	0-9	0-2	21-0	0-7	1-0
85-7	1-7	0-8	0-7	7-1	2-4	1-6
87-0	0-7	0-5	0-2	9-3	1-3	ro
89-0	0-4	0-8	01	7-7	10	1-0
87-0	04	0-6	o-i	10-2	0-8	0-9
89-3	0-7	0-7	0-2	7-2	1-1	0-8
91-5	0-5	0-5	⁰²	5-7	0-9	0-7

Food.

Cotton Cake (decorticated)
Cotton Cake (undecort.) ...

Linseed Cake ......

Rape Cake.........

Earthnut Cake ......

Beans

Peas

Wheat

Oats

Barley

Maize ... fH^HH

Malt Sprouts

Wheat Bran

Brewers'Grains ...

Brewers' Grains (dried). .

■race Meal......' .

Oat Straw ...
Barley Straw

Wheat Straw
Pea Straw...
Bean Straw-
Pasture Grass
^ over (bloom beginning)
Uover Hay (medium) .
Meadow Hay (best)
^eadow Hay (medium)
Meadow Hay (poor)
wass Silage (stack)
^°yer Silage (stack)
Maize Silage
Potatoes ...
Cabbage ...
Carrots

Jgangels (large) '.'.'. \
f angels (small) .
Swedes ...
Turnips .[[

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

Digestibility of Foods.�Experiments to determine the digestibility
of the different kinds of food, a matter of the greatest importance to stock-
owners, have not been carried on to any extent, if at all, in this country,
and the author of The Chemistry of the Farm remarks that our know-
ledge concerning the digestion of food by farm animals is derived almost
entirely from German investigations. He quotes from the work of Dr.
E. Wolff, Die Erndhrung der landtvirthschaftlichen Nutzthiere, and as-
the information is exceedingly valuable it is desirable to give a summary
of it here.

The experiments were chiefly conducted, in the first instance, with
oxen, cows, sheep and goats, but Dr. Wolff carried on special investigations,
on the digestive powers of the horse, in comparison with those of the sheep,
the same food being supplied to each animal. The general results are shown
in the two following tables, which indicate the proportion of each constituent
digested out of 100 parts of each kind of food supplied:�

Experiments with Horses


	Proportion of each constituent digested
		for 100 supplied.
Food.
	Total	Nitro-		Soluble
	organic	genous	Fat.	carbo-	Fibre.
	matter.	substance.		hydrates.
* Pasture Grass ...	62	69	13	66	57
Meadow Hay (very good)	51	62	20	57	42
Meadow Hay (ordinary)	48	57	24	55	36
Red Clover Hay	51	56	29	64	37
Lucerne Hay (very good)	58	73	16	70	40
*Oats ............	68	86	71	74	21
* Beans ...	87	86	8	93	69
*Maize............	91	78	63	94	100
Experi	ments w	ith She*	P
* Pasture Grass ...	75	73	65	76	80
Meadow Hay (very good)	64	65	54	65	63
Meadow Hay (ordinary)	59	57	51	62	56
Eed Clover Hay	56	56	58	61	49
Lucerne Hay (very good)	59	71	41	66	45
*Oats ............	71	80	83	76	30
* Beans ...	90	87	84	91	79
* Maize............	89	79	85	91	62

* Mean of Several Experiments.

On comparing these figures it is evident that a horse digests meadow
grass and hay less perfectly than a sheep does, and the difference between
them is apparently as great when the food is young grass as when the

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			FOOD 91

		ordinary hay is employed. There is little difference in the proportions °f albuminoids assimilated by the two animals, but the divergence becomes considerable when we come to the carbohydrates, fibre, and fat. Of the carbohydrates the horse digests 7 to 10 per cent, of the fibre 21 per cent, and of the fat and waxy matter 25 to 52 per cent less than the sheep. On the whole, the horse digests about 12 per cent less of the total organic matter of grass hay than the sheep. With red clover hay the results with the horse are better. With Lucerne hay of good quality the digestion of the horse is still better, and (save as regards the fat) practically equals that of the sheep. The smaller digestive power of the horse for vegetable fibre is plainly connected with the fact that it is not, like the sheep, a ruminant animal, ^and it is thus unprovided with the same means of attacking an insoluble food. In a trial with wheat-straw chaff, the horse digested 22^-5 and the sheep 47-6 per cent of the total organic matter. With the corn the digestion of the horse is apparently quite equal to that of the sheep. No stress must, of course, be laid on the digestion co- efficients found for ingredients of the food present in small quantity, as the tat and fibre of beans and the fibre of maize. In French experiments on dorses, in which maize or beans were consumed alone without the addition of hay, it was found that with maize 94-5 per cent of the total organic matter and 87^-l per cent of the nitrogenous substance, and with beans 90'4 per cent ^and 89-3 per cent respectively were digested. Of potatoes 93 per cent, and oi carrots 87 per cent of the organic matter were digested by the horse. A difficulty which attends all experiments of this kind, in which special kinds of foods are given exclusively, is that their digestibility will be neces- sarily affected more or less when they are mixed with other foods. This is Proved by the following facts, recorded by the same authority. ft to a diet of hay and straw, consumed by a ruminant animal, a pure ^a ouminoid, as wheat gluten, be added, the added food is entirely digested ^ithout the rate of digestion of the ordinary food being sensibly altered. ^e same result has been obtained in experiments with pigs fed on potatoes which variable quantities of meal-flour were afterwards added. The Uttunoids of the meal were entirely digested, while the proportion of the Potatoes digested remained unchanged. An addition of oil (olive, poppy, and rape oil) to a diet of hay and aw is also apparently without unfavourable influence on the rate of ^estion; indeed, some experiments with small quantities of oil (^ lb. of oil frli ^Per ¹⁰⁰° ^^s- ^live ^weight) show an improved digestion of the dry er; oil supplied in moderate quantities is itself entirely digested. A-n addition of starch or sugar to a diet of hay or straw will, on the

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	92


contrary, diminish its digestibility, if the amount added exceeds 10 per cent of the dry fodder. The albuminoids of the food suffer the greatest loss of digestibility under these circumstances. The fibre also suffers in digesti- bility if the amount of carbohydrate added is considerable. When starch has been added, it is itself completely digested if the ratio of the nitro- genous constituents of the diet is not less than 1 in 8. These facts are of considerable practical importance. Nitrogenous foods, as oil-cake and bean-meal, may be given with hay and straw chaff without affecting their digestibility, but foods rich in carbohydrates, as potatoes and mangels, cannot be given in greater proportion than 15 per cent of the fodder (both reckoned as dry food) without more or less diminishing the digestibility of the latter. This decrease in digestibility may, however, be counteracted in great measure by supplying with the potatoes or mangels some nitrogenous food. When this is done, the proportions of roots or potatoes may be double that just mentioned without a serious loss of digestibility. Potatoes exercise a greater depressing effect on the digesti- bility of hay than roots, starch being more potent in this respect than sugar. The cereal grains are rich in starch, but contain also a fair propor- tion of albuminoids. They may be added to a dry fodder without seriously affecting its digestibility if the ratio of the nitrogenous to the non-nitro- genous constituents of the diet does not fall below 1 in 8. Common salt is well known to be a useful addition to the food of animals. It is stated to quicken the conversion of starch into sugar by the saliva and pancreatic juice. When sodium salts are deficient in the food, salt supplies the blood with a necessary constituent. Sodium salts are tolerably abundant in mangels and small in quantity in hay; they are absent in potatoes, and generally absent in grain of all kinds. SYSTEM OF FEEDING Quantity and Quality.�It is recognized as a principle in feeding animals that the quantity and quality of the food should bear a distinct relation to the purpose for which the animal is intended. With reference to the horse, it is always the case that the immediate object is to preserve the animal's health and condition, so that he may be able to do the largest amount of work without injury. With cattle, sheep, and swine, the atten- tion of the feeder is directed towards the attainment of as much fat and flesh as it is possible to derive from the food with which the animal is supplied. With this system of fattening animals for the purpose of food the horse-owner has absolutely no concern, and the system, therefore, is considerably simplified, as the horse-owner is only required to exercise his

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			FOOD 93

		judgment in determining what amount and what quality of food is neces- sary to keep the animal in the best working condition. In the chapter on stable management the details of ordinary practice are described, and it will be seen that the quantity of food which a horse can advantageously con- sume varies in proportion to the amount and character of the exertion which the animal has to perform; the materials employed remain the same �for example, oats, hay, wheat, straw, and bran, with occasional small quantities of carrots or turnips, and, at certain seasons, grass. In ordinary work a horse will consume daily, on the average, three quarterns of oats, with a small quantity of bran, and the addition of what is roughly calculated as a double handful of chaff composed of chopped hay and straw. A truss, and a half of hay in the rack per week is a reasonable allowance. The very wide limits which are permissible, and, indeed, advantageous, in regard to quantity may be gathered by reference to the feeding of a brougham horse in the most active part of a London season, during which comparatively short time a number of horses are worked out, as it is called, in spite of the amount of food which they consume, and are disposed of at the end of the time, often in a very feeble condition. A cab horse, again, in constant work in a large town, consumes an amount of provender which varies with the animal's appetite and the opportunities which may be afforded for taking food. Usually the nose-bag is put on every time a journey is, ended, and an interval is therefore allowed to the animal for refreshment. Notwithstanding the amount of provender which hard-worked horses will consume, it is evident that the exhausting effects of excessive exertion are not prevented by excessive feeding; but it is, on the other hand, quite certain that horses which are called upon to perform excessive work do better with a practically unlimited allowance of food�by which is meant supplying as much food as the animal is disposed to take�than they do when the quantity is limited. Food and Work.�While excessive work, even with a liberal dietary, produces more waste in the system than can be compensated by the food which is taken, it is equally true that rest with a liberal dietary would be more injurious than excessive labour, and the typical system with regard to the proportion of food to the amount of work would be one which exactly supplied the amount of nutritive material accurately adjusted to the waste going on in the system. There are no means, however, of calculating this with absolute precision, and the matter is, therefore, necessarily left to experience. Arrangement of the Diet.�Under ordinary conditions, particu- larly in small establishments, the arrangement of the horse's dietary is left to the groom or coachman, and so long as the animals are performing the.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	94


amount of work required of them, and do not suffer from any particular illnesses that interfere with their work, the owner does not feel called upon to interfere. Nevertheless, it would be advantageous in many cases if an intelligent interest were manifested in the condition of the animals, and it is more than probable that in many cases it would be found desirable to make changes to meet the peculiarities of certain horses. For example, some horses, like some human beings, suffer from bad appetites, or, as the groom would express it, do not eat their rations clean. This fact is ascer- tained by merely observing that a certain portion of the food supplied is left in the manger, while another portion is probably found lying under the horse's nose. To remedy this condition of things a change of food by the addition of some compound which will add to its flavour will have a very excellent effect. An extra sprinkling of salt will be very grateful to some horses, while others would prefer some spicy additions in the form of tur- meric or some one of the advertised foods, which contain different condi- ments, mixed Avith meal, and have the advantage of inducing an animal to consume the provender, and at the same time stimulate the digestive powers. The horse-owner is often puzzled how to arrange a system of feeding for a horse which remains in poor condition notwithstanding the fact that he eats a considerable quantity of food. The story told will commonly be to the effect that the horse eats as much again as any other animal in the stable, and remains a perfect skeleton all the time. Such animals, it may be remarked, are often possessed of a highly nervous temperament and feeble digestion, and considerable difficulty is often experienced in arrang- ing the food to suit their particular case. Sometimes the addition of some new kind of diet will be found very effective�a small proportion of crushed oil-cake (linseed or cotton), malt meal, the wetting of the food when it is put in the manger, or the addition of an extra quantity of bran, will produce good results. In other instances, which are not benefited by this treatment, the addition of a certain proportion of animal food to the daily ration may have the desired effect. Some little care is required in pre- paring such food, and there may be some difficulty at first in inducing the animal to take it. A plan which has been found to answer is to make fairly strong soup from any coarse pieces of meat, and to pour the liquid, when cold, on to some bran, to make a mash. A small quantity to begin with of this mixture may be placed in the manger and covered with a sprinkling of oats and a little dry bran. Frequently this device is sufficient to induce the animal to take the mixture, of which he shortly becomes extremely fond. If the ration should be refused, however, and left uneaten at the end of an hour, the next thing is to clean the manger entirely and leave

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			O*

	FOOD PLANTS�I

Vheat (Tritieum vulgare). ²- Oat (Avena sativa). ³' ^Barley (Hordeum distichura). / ^Crested ^Dog's-Tail(Cynosuruscristatus). ^Meadow Cafs-Ta� or Timothy (Phleum pratense). ^S'"ooth Meadow-Grass (Poa pratensis).
		7. Cock's-Foot (Dactylis glomerata). 8. Hard Fesoue (Festuca duriuscula). 9. Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis). 10. Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina). 11. Meadow Fox-Tail (Alopecurus pra- tensis). 12. Rye-Grass (Loliura perenne).

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		FOOD PLANTS�I

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		FOOD 95 the animal without food for several hours, and then make some of the mash into small balls and place one after another into its mouth. In this way the creature shortly becomes accustomed to the flavour, and will offer no objection to the compound in future. GREEN FOOD The practice of turning horses out to grass during a certain period of the year is adopted with the idea that the animals will be materially bene- fited thereby. It is affirmed that the succulent herbage is cooling to the system, that the animals' legs and feet are considerably improved by the change of position and diet, and, in short, that the practice is altogether advantageous and free from objection. Experience, however, teaches that the effects of a run of grass very commonly fall short of the owner's antici- pations. Everything, indeed, depends upon the circumstances in which the animal is placed, and the provisions which are made for shelter. In addition, the character of the soil and the quality of the herbage will have to be taken into account. In dry seasons, hard ground and scanty herbage are by no means conducive to the improvement of the animal's condition, and certainly the legs and feet are not likely to benefit by the violent exercise in which the animal commonly indulges when first turned into the pasture. Again, animals which have been engaged in hard work and been supplied with large quantities of concentrated food are likely to suffer from the sudden change to a diet containing a very large proportion of water, necessitating the consumption of a large quantity in order to make up for the deficiency of concentrated nutriment. The distention of the stomach and intestines by the amount of food consumed leads to pressure upon the diaphragm, which is injurious to the respiratory organs; and at the time when it was customary to turn hunters out to grass as soon as the season was over, it was not uncommon for a considerable number of the animals to be brought up in the autumn suffering from "broken wind". To get the full benefit from a change of diet from stable food to the meadow grass there should be proper arrangements for the animal's shelter, - so placed that he can take advantage of it, should he feel inclined, to escape from wind, sun, or rain; and a moderate allowance of dry food, oats, bran, and hay should always be insisted on. This system has the advantages of giving the animal complete rest and change of position, with the addition of a proportion of succulent diet to the ordinary stable rations, and it is decidedly to be preferred to the haphazard system of turning a horse out to grass for several months and leaving him to take his chance.

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96 HEALTH AND DISEASE

METHODS OF CALCULATING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF
DIFFERENT ARTICLES OF DIET

For ordinary purposes the horse-owner will be content to refer to what
has already been stated for the purpose of deciding what article of diet will
be most useful and economical, but the German and French investigators
have not been content with this general knowledge, and we are indebted to
them for a number of interesting and important experiments, the outcome
of which is to enable the curious in such matters to calculate with almost
mathematical accuracy the exact relation which the food bears to its digest-
ibility and to the waste of the system.

It appears that the power of assimilation in different animals varies
very considerably in reference to the various constituents of food; thus a
horse will digest, out of every 100 parts of mixed diet, 69 parts of albumi-
noids, 59 of fatty matters, 68 of the carbohydrates (starch, sugar, and
gum), and 33 of cellulose and fibre. The annexed table will show the
difference in these respects of the digestive powers of the ox, cow, and
sheep:�


	Horse.	Ox.	Cow.	Sheep.
Albuminoids	69	65	57	57
Fatty Matters	59	64	65	61
Carbohydrates	68	66	70	73
Cellulose and Fibre	33	60	61	58

A further analysis indicates that the above proximate principles are
differently digested in different articles of food, as shown by the table on
p. 97, which relates to the digestibility of the proximate principles of
different kinds of food by horses.

Various circumstances appear to modify the digestibility of different
articles of diet. Age and mode of growth and preparation are among the
modifying influences. Young plants are more digestible than mature ones,
and the digestibility of old hay is less than that of new. It is also stated
by the authorities which have .been referred to that the digestibility of food
is not affected by the amount which the animal consumes, neither is it
altered by the amount of labour which the animal performs. According
to Wolff, however, the addition of one food will alter the digestibility of
another. Thus starch or sugar added to a diet of hay or straw in a larger
amount than 10 per cent lessens its digestibility, especially in regard to the
albuminoids which the food contains.

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FOOD 97

Digestibility of Food-stuffs, showing the Proportion Digested for

100 supplied


Food.	Animal.	Total Organic Matter.	Proteids.	Cellulose.	Fat.	Carbo- hydrates.
Green Grass ... J	Horse	51	59	41	20	59
Green Grass ... J	Ox	77	75	75	66	78
I	Sheep	62	60	61	52	66
	Horse	48	57	36	24	55
Hay ......J	Ox	60	57	58	49	62
[	Sheep	59	57	56	51	62
(	Horse	51	56	37	29	64
Clover Hay ...1	Ox	57	55	45 '	51	65
[	Sheep	56	56	50	56	61
	Horse	58	73	40	14	70
Lucerne ... ... -	Ox	62	78	42	33	70
1	Sheep	59	71	45	41	66
	Horse	23	19	27		18
Wheat Straw ..A	Ox	46	17	56	36	39
1	Sheep	48		59	44	37
Oats ......J	Horse	67	79	20	70	74
	Ox	70	78	20	83	76
	Sheep	71	80	30	83	76
Barley ... ... -j	Horse Ox	87 86	80 70	10.0 50	42 89	87 92
Maize ... ...J	Horse	89	77	70	61	94
Maize ... ...J	Ox	91	72	77	85	94
1	Sheep	89	79	62	85	91
Beans ... ... J	Horse	87	86	65	13	93
	Ox	89	88	72	86	93
	Sheep	90	87	79	84	91

Uil in small quantities appears to increase the digestibility of hay and

raw, but a large amount causes loss of appetite. Potaboes, owing to the

^ount of starch they contain, prevent the digestion of hay. Roots have

^ess depressing effect, owing to the sugar which they contain.

^ol. Smith remarks that in some of his own experiments the addition

_n ^J lb. of oats to 12 lb. of hay increased its digestibility by more than

P^er cent. He adds that, in calculating a diet to ascertain its suitability

for

^an animal, it is necessary to obtain from the tables given a proportion

principles digested, and then to find out the nitrogenous, fatty, and

. ^Phite nutritive ratios. In illustration of this method of calculation, it

^S turned that a horse receives as a daily ration 12 lb. of hay of medium

quality and 10 lb. of oats. It is required to know the ratio of this diet

^0re and after digestion, and the proportion of proximate principles

^<llgested.

Tl * " r

"is information is conveyed in the following table, referring to the
constituents of hay and oats. It will be seen that the fat in the hay is

^s oi. III.

^j ^j

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m HEALTH AND DISEASE

imperfectly digested, the fatty ratio falling from 1:4^-1 to 1:12 after diges-
tion. Otherwise the nutritive value of the food is raised, as the cellulose is
excluded from the calculation.


Hay: Analysis Per Cent.	12lb. Hay contains	Digestive Co-efficient.	Amount Digested.
Water ...... 14-3 Albuminoids ... 8^-2 Fat ...... 2-0 Carbohydrates ... 41-3 Cellulose...... 30-0 Nitrogenous Ratio, 1:5-3 Fatty � 1:4-1 Complete � 1:9	lb. 1-70 �98 �24 4-95 3-60	58 19 52 37	lb. �568 �045 2-574 1-33 Nitrogenous Ratio, 1 Fatty � 1: Complete ,, 1:	4-6 12 7


Oats: Analysis Per Cent.	10 lb. Oats contains	Digestive Co-efficient.	Amount Digested.
Water ...... 14-7	lb. 1-47		lb.
Albuminoids ... 12-0	1-20	87	1-04
Fat ...... 6-0	■60	78	�468
Carbohydrates ... 56-6 Cellulose...... 9-0	5-66 ■90	76 25	4-30 �22
Nitrogenous Ratio, 1:5-2 Fatty � 1:2 Complete ,, 1:6			Nitrogenous Ratio, 1 Fatty � 1 Complete ,, 1	4-5 2-2 4-7

In the above table it is clearly demonstrated that only a certain amount
of the digestible matter is appropriated by the animal's system; thus the
total diet contained: albuminoids 2-18 lb., fats -84 lb., carbohydrates
10"61 lb., cellulose 4^-50 lb.; while the system of the horse only appro-
priated: albuminoids 1"6 lb., fat '5 lb., carbohydrates 6'9 lb., and cellulose
1-5 lb. In other words, only 10-5 lb. out of the total of 18-13 lb. was
assimilated.

Comparing the feeding values of different foods, the method of estab-
lishing a nutritive equivalent is adopted. Taking one typical food as repre-
sented by 100, every food containing the same amount of nitrogen as the
typical food is considered to be equal to it, i.e. 100. A food, however,
which contains twice the amount of nitrogen would have for its nutritive
equivalent 50, because half the amount would be equal to the typical food;
but if it possessed half the amount of nitrogen, its equivalent would be
200, as it would take twice as much food to contain the amount of the
typical food.

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FOOD

Hay is taken as the standard of comparison, and the following table by
Boussingault gives the relative values of the different articles of food in
comparison with hay:�


Hay ... ......	.. 100	Barley	48
Lucerne Hay	.. 90	Maize	45
Trefoil ......	95	Bran	60 to 150
Lucerne Green	.. 420	Linseed	30
Trefoil Green	.. 420	Linseed Cake	25
Oat Straw ...	.. 280	Peas ...	40
Barley Straw	.. 350	Beans	40
Oats ...	.. 60	Carrots	290
Wheat ......	45

In reading the table, the numbers must be taken to indicate the
number of parts of each article which will represent the 100 parts of hay.
*�& 45 parts of wheat, 30 of linseed, 350 of barley straw, and so forth, are
equivalent to 100 parts of hay. However interesting this information may
be, its true value can only be realized by taking it in connection with the
fact that the animal's temperament and digestive capacity have a dominant
concern in the appropriation of the different articles of diet. It is quite
conceivable that the table might be found absolutely correct for a certain
number of horses, while in an equal or possibly greater number of animals
°f different constitution, and under different circumstances, the nutritive
equivalents given would have to be considerably modified.

All the elaborate experiments which have been performed by a large
number of investigators have been mainly directed to the important object
°f discovering the influence of different foods in producing heat and force, or
working power. The amount of heat evolved from the oxidation of certain
foods is readily converted into its equivalent of mechanical energy. It was
found by Frankland that when a dried food mixed with a powerful oxidiz-
^lng substance, such as chlorate of potash, was placed in an apparatus sur-
rounded with water, and burned, the heat developed raised the temperature
°f the water. 1 gramme (15"432 grains) when raised 1° C. (l^-8° Fahr.) is
ealled a heat unit. 1 lb. of albumen when oxidized raises the temperature
°f 4263 lb. of water 1"8° (Fahr.), while 1 lb. of fat raises the temperature
°f 9069 lb. of water to the same extent (l^-8° Fahr.). Joule of Manchester
demonstrated that the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of
ater 1° (Fahr.) was equivalent to the power required to raise the weight
1 lb. 772 feet high. The foot-pound is, therefore, the unit of work, and
'2 ft.-pounds is the mechanical equivalent of 1° (Fahr.). Knowing the
umber of heat units each substance is capable of producing, its potential

mechanical value may be calculated; and the author of Veterinary

Vgiene suggests that the most simple way of doing this is to multiply

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100 HEALTH AND DISEASE

the actual amount of food digested by certain numbers which represent the

comparative heat-forming value of fat, albumen, and starch.

The co-efficients are: fat 100, albumen 47^-4, starch 43^-l; and he gives
the following example in answer to the question: "What is the com-
parative heat-forming value of the following foods?"

1st Food


■568 x	47-4	= 27
�045 x	100	4-5
2-574\ 1-330/ ^X	43-1	= 168-2 199^T7
)D 1-04 x	47-4	= 49-3
�468 x	100	= 46-8
4-30 j �22 J	43-1	= 194-8

Albuminoids

Fats ...........

Carbohydrates ...
Cellulose

2nd Food

Albuminoids

Fats .....

Carbohydrates ..
Cellulose

290-9

This second food is obviously about one and a half times as heat-
producing and work-producing as the first food; the two foods together
represent° the typical average food of a horse, the first being equivalent to
the 12 lb. of hay, the second to the 10 lb. of oats. To find out the
number of foot-tons produced by this diet, it is necessary to go back to
Frankland's table, and, having found the number of heat units for the
article of diet in question in albumen, fat, starch, or sugar, deduct four-
fifths, as not more than one-fifth of the whole potential energy of the food
will be converted into work. Thus the typical diet of 12 lb. of hay and
10 lb. of oats will have their potential and actual energy expressed as
follows:�

Ft.-tons of

Lb.

12 lb. of Hay.

Potential

Energy.

= 1,572

272

= 8,620

Deducting four-fifths from the
total potential energy leaves
2093 foot-tons for external
work.

Albuminoids
Fats

Carbohydrates
Cellulose ...

�568

�045

2-574\

1-330/


		10,464
10 lb. of Oats.	Lb.	Ft.-tons of Potential
Albuminoids Fats ..... Carbohydrates Cellulose ...	1-04 �468 . 4-30 \ ■22 J	Energy. = 2,879 = 2,830 = 9,980

Deducting four-fifths from the
total potential energy leaves
3138 foot-tons for external
work.

15,689

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FOOD

101

Colonel Fred. Smith states that from some careful experiments of his
own he found that horses might be kept in perfect health without loss
°t body weight on 12 lb. of hay per diem, of which not more than about
°ne-half was digested and assimilated by the system. Assuming that
nearly 5 lb. ₀f assimilated food possesses the same digestive co-efficients
^as those of the 12 lb. of hay given in the table marked "First Food",
fche horses received:


		Lb.
	Albuminoids ...	�656^N]
	Fat .......	�100
	Carbohydrates	2-574
	Cellulose	1-330
	Salt.......	�150J

The potential energy being
equal to 11,041 foot-tons.

4-810

Presumably the animal referred to as having been kept in health
"without loss of weight on 12 lb. per day did very little, if any, work,
out the writer does not give any information on this point. He, how-
ler, remarks that it is difficult to fix the number of foot-tons of daily
work which can be performed by a horse without loss of condition and
^ eight, but he adds there are many circumstances which lead him to
believe that 3000 foot-tons per day is the quantity.

FOOD AS A CAUSE OF DISEASE

Very little reflection is required to make it perfectly evident that
good food of unexceptionable quality and free from any contamination
with objectionable substances may, nevertheless, induce disease, as the
^0nsequence of variations in quantity and character.

-L*^r- Parkes remarks that so great is the influence of food on health

^aat the diseases connected with food are probably the most numerous

^any which proceed from a single class of causes.

Excess of Food.�When more food is introduced into the stomach

^an ^can be readily digested, the ordinary action of the gastric fluids is

^eeked, and chemical changes, including fermentation, advancing to

1 refaction, result. This final change is more likely to occur among

feeding animals than among those which live on grain or herbage. A

&etable food is also of course capable of undergoing decomposition and

aucing considerable derangement in the alimentary canal. In cases

^re ^any of the products of decomposition are absorbed into the blood,

f= s ol blood-poisoning may result, with a possibility of a fatal termi-

⁰ⁿ- Short of this, however, excess of food may only produce more

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			102 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		or less serious indigestion, ending in recovery under appropriate treat- ment. But the habitual consumption of excessive quantities of food, by horses which are thrown out of work without having the quantity of diet materially reduced, will result in the deposit of large quantities of fat in and upon various organs of the body, some of it on the surface of the heart, in the cellular structure of the liver, and in other organs. In the first instance fatty material may be merely laid up as a deposit in the texture of an organ, or the cells and fibres composing it may undergo complete degeneration, by which its natural structure is con- verted into particles of fat. Insufficient food, on the other hand, produces extreme debility, and predisposes an animal to many diseases. If the deficiency is chiefly in regard to nitrogenous materials, the muscular structures suffer most, and fatal results may follow. This is especially the case when a horse is compelled, notwithstanding the in- sufficiency of food, to continue its ordinary work. Quality Of food has also a considerable influence on nutrition, and foods grown on certain soils are known to be extremely poor in this respect. Where food of inferior quality is supplied on the assumption that it is of good quality, the nutrition of the body will fail to be sus- tained, and wasting results. On certain soils the herbage produced, and even the hay made from it, exercise an injurious influence on the animals which partake of it; at the same time it may not be possible to decide what changes have occurred to render the food deleterious. The scour- ing lands of central Somerset are a case in point, and although investi- gations have been made repeatedly, including analyses of the soil, herbage, and water, the cause of the disease which attacks animals feeding on the pastures has never yet been accurately determined. There are many cases in which there is no doubt at all of the fact that weakness results from a diseased condition of the food. It is gener- ally understood that plants suffer from a large number of diseases, many of them being easily recognized, but there is every reason to believe that there are others the exact nature of which has not been determined. Among the diseases which are known, those depending upon animal' or vegetable parasites are most marked in their character. Plants are attacked by numerous fungi or moulds, which are not only injurious to the plant, but in many cases to the animals which partake of them. Mouldy hay, for example, produces derangement of the digestive organs. Ergotized grain, taken in large quantities, has an extraordinary action upon the animals which consume it, including nervous derangement, associated with mortification of the lower extremities, and occasionally

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FOOD

103

sloughing of the extremities about the region of the fetlocks. A curious
fungus, which is known as actinomyces, or rayed fungus (fig. 477), attacks
certain grains and grasses, especially in river valleys, which, on being
consumed, sets up centres of disease in different parts of the animals
which feed on the infested plants. Sometimes it gets an entrance to the
alveolar cavities by the side of a loose or decayed tooth, penetrating into
the sinuses of the head and the cellular structure of the bones, causing
enormous swellings, giving rise to the disease which is known in America
^as_f " Lumpy jaw". In other situations it causes large tumours in the
neighbourhood of the throat, in the stomach,
and also in the intestines.

Besides the vegetable parasitic fungi
which attack food plants there are numerous
animal parasites, and animals supplied with
food so attacked suffer in various ways; in
the first place from the damage done to the
fodder by the ravages of the parasites, and
m the second place from the direct attack
of the parasites themselves, some of which
produce irritation of the skin. An unfortu-
nate circumstance connected with the effects
°f damaged food invaded by animal or vege-
table parasites is the difficulty of connecting
the disease of the animal with the disease

°f the plant. The tendency undoubtedly is
to exonerate the food from suspicion, even
to ignore it altogether as a possible cause
°i disease, until a considerable fatality has

Fig. 477.�Actinomyces Bovis

1, The fungus on cow's tongue; 2, Cell
or group of cells with actinomyces; 3,
Clubbed filaments and centre filaments
of the fungus; 4, Filaments from the
centre enlarged.

torced the owner to conclude that some
common cause must be at work to produce it, and even then it frequently
°ccurs that the investigation which is made is directed into the wrons;
channel by the history of the case which is presented to the investigator,
who is very likely to be informed that exactly the same articles of food have
°een, and are still being, supplied to other animals on the same premises,
^which have not suffered in consequence. This is a source of error which
^ls particularly likely to occur when the food which is suspected is some
Kind of cake. It is quite possible that a cake contaminated with mould
may be part of a lot which was supplied at the same time as the cake
⁰n which other animals are feeding with impunity, and that the animals.
nich are poisoned are the only ones which have eaten the fungus-in-
ected food. The investigator, therefore, should not be satisfied until

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			104 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		he has made an exhaustive enquiry into the origin and quality of the food which has been supplied, and the particular animals which have suffered in consequence. Some plants have distinctly poisonous qualities, e.g. the yew, horse- chestnuts, the Colchicum autumnale, acorns, and potatoes in the raw state (see " Poisoning "). It is a curious circumstance that some of these poisonous plants may be eaten . for a considerable time with perfect impunity. The yew, for example, only manifests its poisonous quality on certain occasions, and the same thing is true of potatoes, the poison of which seems to lie chiefly in the skin, and horses which have consumed large quantities of them uncooked have died rapidly with symptoms of poisoning. Potatoes, or potato skins, however, appear to be perfectly harmless when boiled. Some foods become injurious in consequence of defective modes of pre- paration; for example, hay which has been highly dried or burnt in the making. Foxy oats, so called on account of the red colour which they assume as the result of having been exposed to moisture and subsequently dried in kilns, assume a decidedly poisonous character, acting chiefly on the kidneys. Numerous cases of the poisoning of cattle have been traced to the consumption of large quantities of frozen turnips. Of the rapidly poisonous action of the yew under certain circum- stances there is no doubt. Many instances have occurred where yew clippings have been thrown over a fence, and a considerable number of animals which had partaken of it have been found dead, or seen to be in a dying state, with the symptoms of narcotic poisoning. Yet horses have been known to graze for years in pastures the hedges of which were mainly composed of yew, and nothing has happened; when sud- denly the introduction of one or two strange animals has been followed by the death of them from eating a small quantity of yew. Perhaps in the majority of cases the animals which remain unaffected in the pastures do not eat the yew at all, and it is certainly the case that in experiments which have been made, some of them lately, the greatest ■difficulty has been met with in persuading the horses to eat the yew which was supplied to them, and it was always necessary to keep them without other food for a considerable time. In some experiments which were performed a few years ago a sheep, after being kept without food for two or three days, ate, in the course of twenty-four hours, 14 oz. of the dried leaves of the yew, and two days later it ate 6 oz., yet no effect was observed. A yearling heifer ate in twenty-four hours 2 lb. 6 oz. of half-dried leaves and twigs without effect. Three calves, about seven months old, consumed in two hours 3 lb. 6 oz. of half-dried leaves and

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	FOOD
		105


twigs without effect. Three days later the same calves ate 10 oz. in two hours, and two days afterwards one of the calves was noticed to be ill, and in half an hour it died. A donkey ate in twenty-four hours 5^ oz. of half-dried leaves without effect, and two guinea-pigs consumed l\|- oz. of dried leaves in seventy - two hours without suffering any inconve- nience. In another instance experiments were tried with the yew leaves, some of which had been eaten by a valuable filly on the first night of entering the pasture, and which was found dead on the follow- ing morning. Some of the leaves from the plant of which the filly partook were given to three guinea - pigs, mixed with bran and oats. Ten days afterwards, the feeding being continued during the whole time, °ne of the guinea-pigs died. On the following day a second one died, and four days after, the third guinea-pig died. On post-mortem exami- nation it was found that the stomach in each case was perfectly empty, the lining membrane of the intestines much congested, and the tube was nlled with well-digested leaves of yew. Two sheep and a horse were hurdled on the same pasture and supplied with the yew leaves, but they steadily refused to touch them. The horse was subsequently placed in nis stable and a quantity of yew leaves, finely chopped, were mixed with the ordinary food and placed in the animal's manger, where it re- mained for the whole of the day without being eaten. On the foliow- ^lng morning, however, the animal was found dead, and its manger was empty. It would" appear in this case that the particular plant, the ■eating of which led to the death of the valuable filly, did possess actively poisonous qualities, at least for horses and guinea-pigs. The sheep which ^ere made the subject of the experiment escaped by refusing to eat the Plant, Acorns are well known to be a useful article of diet under ordinary Circumstances, and in places where they are abundant. On common Jands they are carefully collected and sold by the collectors as food for norses, cattle, and sheep. Pigs thrive upon them, and the passage ^rights in forests where oak - trees are abundant are valued on account °t the opportunities which the owners of pigs have to turn them into cue forest when the acorns are falling. Sheep and cattle also take acorns ^reely, usually, if not invariably, when mixed with other food; but several ^Serious outbreaks of acorn poisoning from time to time have occurred, attended with fatal results, when, owing to a long drought, the herbage as been extremely scanty, and the animals have, therefore, been in- deed to live on the acorns almost exclusively. The disease from which ^ae cattle have suffered is not in any way due to the indigestible aracter of the food. Occasionally, in seasons when acorns are very

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	106	HEALTH AND DISEASE

abundant, cattle and sheep, and even pigs, have suffered from a too free indulgence of a favourite food, and some of the animals have died from the impactment of quantities of the nuts in different parts of the diges- tive system; but this is not what is intended by the term acorn poison- ing. On the contrary, in the true disease the most marked symptoms are not present until a considerable time after the acorns have been digested, and no trace of them is to be found on post-mortem exami- nation. Of course this fact might be interpreted to mean that the animals have not died from the consumption of acorns, but the evidence is too clear to admit of any question. In 1868, when the malady was first recognized, a large herd of cattle, which were feeding in a park where acorns were very abundant and pasture very scanty, became affected, while other cattle on the same estate, sepa- rated from the diseased ones only by an iron fence, which shut them off from the acorns, remained perfectly well. The symptoms were not at all violent in their character. In the first instance, after a week or ten days' feeding on the acorns, instead of improving in condition, the animals began to waste, and presented a remarkably listless and dull appearance. The appetite in the worst cases was entirely lost, and it was remarked that when the disease got to that stage the animal never recovered, but lingered on for some time, and was ultimately found dead on the pasture. Careful analyses were made, but no special organic poison was dis- covered�nothing, in short, which could be suggested as a possible cause of injury except tannic and gallic acids. It may be observed in this connection that the detection of an organic poison is extremely difficult; in fact, the failure of discovery is by no means evidence that it does not exist. Since 1868 several similar outbreaks have occurred, usually under the same conditions, i.e. a hot, dry summer, deficiency of grass, and the prevalence of high winds in the autumn, causing the fall of a quantity of acorns before they are perfectly ripe. On the other hand, these climatic influences have prevailed in many years when no outbreak of acorn-poisoning has occurred. SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF FOOD Generally the horse-owner is content to leave the selection and prepara- tion of the horses' food to his coachman or groom, leaving them to arrange with the dealers as to the quality of the oats, hay, and other articles of fodder which will be supplied. This system has the advantage of saving a good deal of trouble, and in small establishments it would not be possible to appoint a responsible

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	FOOD
	FOOD	107
		107

person to examine samples of provender before the purchase is made, and to see that the bulk corresponds with the sample. But the owner would very often find it economical, as well as advantageous to his animals, to examine the samples himself, and to see from time to time if the quality is maintained. It is true that this presupposes a certain amount of know- ledge which the owner may not possess, but it is certain, on the other hand, that a good many who do possess the necessary knowledge do not take the trouble to apply it to a useful purpose. The ordinary articles of food of the horse are oats, bran, and hay, straw being employed only in admixture with the hay to form chaff. Oats are placed first, as the most important, and there is no article of provender which differs more in quality. Between the best and the worst it is not difficult for even a tyro to distinguish. Anyone can recognize bright, plump grains, having a sweet odour, containing no shrunken or bi'oken grains, free from dust and other foreign matter, firm to the touch and also to the pressure of the teeth, and weighing not less than 40 lb. a bushel. It is also an important character of a good sample of oats that the grain must vary very little in size. In judging a sample, the observer has to note particularly that the oats have not been artificially dried by heat after they have become damaged by water. Dark-coloured oats, and those which have a peculiar odour, are always open to suspicion. At the present time, however, the methods of preparation to disguise the colour, as well as the taste and smell, of kiln-dried oats are so skilfully applied that damaged oats may very frequently pass muster, unless the observer has the skill which is only to be acquired by practice. In some private stables it is customary to give a feed of oats entirely unmixed; but there are certain disadvantages attending this procedure Horses are disposed to swallow rapidly or bolt oats which are given alone, ^and the quantity ordinarily given would be insufficient in itself to satisfy the appetite of a hungry animal. A similar quantity, 3 peck of good chaff and a handful or two of bran, combined with the feed of oats, will torce the animal to masticate the mixture and avoid waste. Crushing oats ^ls undoubtedly a useful mode of preparation, and certainly facilitates digestion, and especially in the case of ravenous feeders which " bolt" their food without sufficient mastication. Although oats constitute the staple food of a horse, other grains are occasionally given. Barley is very rarely employed as food for horses, and *t is admitted, by those who are disposed to favour its use in mixture with other food, that it should be boiled previously to being given. Brewers' grams are also occasionally used for horse food in moderate quantities. J-hey are the refuse of malted barley left after the brewing of beer.

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			108 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		Grains and malt sprouts�the latter containing nearly six times more nitrogenous matter than exists in the grains themselves�are exceed- ingly useful for horses when given in small quantities mixed with other food. They constitute a grateful change and stimulate the appetite of delicate feeders; and as they contain a considerable quantity of carbo- hydrates, besides some fatty matter, they are likely to prove beneficial to horses in poor condition, whether in consequence of excessive work or from an attack of a debilitating disease. Dried grains have recently come into use, and they, as a matter of course, having got rid of a large proportion of the water, of which between 70 and 80 per cent exists in the grain, may be looked upon as a somewhat concentrated food. Maize.�When first introduced into this country it was used somewhat extensively by omnibus companies and in other large horse establishments, on account of its low price in comparison with that of oats, for which it was substituted. By the Paris Omnibus Company it is reported to have been found to be equal in digestibility to an equivalent quantity of oats. Experi- ments made in the army, as recorded by Colonel F. Smith, were not altogether favourable, as it appeared that in whatever proportion it was substituted for oats, there was a diminution in muscle and energy. Five thousand two hundred army horses were fed, in Austria, partly on maize for six months, and it is stated that, although they improved as regards their coats, they lost energy and sweated profusely at work. It is said to be largely used in America and South Africa for feeding purposes, and it does not appear that in those countries the objections which have been raised to its use as a substitute for oats exist, at least they have not been mentioned. Maize contains less nitrogenous matter than oats, but it is extremely rich in fat and also in salts. It is difficult to masticate on account of its extreme hardness, and it is, therefore, absolutely essential that it should be submitted to some sort of preparation before being used, even if it is intended to be mixed with other food. The difficulty of mastication is, to some extent, disposed of by crushing. This process is certainly indispens- able. Without it it is hardly possible that maize could be digested, even by ruminating animals. An opportunity occurred lately of noting the con- dition of this grain in the digestive organs of some deer, which were fed on mixed food in addition to the grass which they consumed. The mixture consisted of chaff, with chopped roots and maize uncrushed. A considerable number of the animals died during the season, after wasting. There was no reason, however, to suspect that they had suffered from indigestion; in fact, it was ascertained that they died from parasitic disease; but it was noticed that the maize, even in the fourth stomach, had escaped the action of the

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	FOOD
		109


digestive fluid, as well as the action of the teeth, and remained as perfectly intact as though it had been brought from the store, instead of being taken from the stomach. In fact, a portion of it, after being washed and dried, presented quite the ordinary appearance. The test may be taken as a crucial one, as the grain had been macerated in the first compartment of the deer's stomach, re-masticated during the process of rumination, passed through two other compartments of the stomach, and finally, in the fourth compartment, had been subjected to the action of the gastric juice. Wheat appears to be a favourite article of diet with horses, and it is stated that they will, if allowed, gorge themselves with it, with serious consequences. Colic, tympany, and other ailments are the result of taking too large quantities. It has also been accused of being the cause of laminitis, or fever in the feet of the horse. Recently experiments by Dr. Voelcker have shown that, at its present price, it may be used with economy for feeding sheep. Bran is constantly used in horse provender in mixture with oats and chaff. It is extremely rich in nitrogenous matter, and contains also a con- siderable quantity of carbohydrates and fatty matter. Formerly it was used as a food for horses in some parts of the country much more extensively than it is at present. It is stated that, as an exclusive food for horses, it is absolutely useless; but the writer remembers one establishment where all the cart-horses were fed upon bran alone, of course in unlimited quantity. The animals were all of them fat, and had remarkably glossy coats. Whether or not they would have borne an average amount of work cannot be stated, as the owner of the horses was a conspicuous member of the Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and took great pride in treating his horses with the greatest consideration. They were never consequently called upon to do any hard work, but of the fact that they lived exclusively upon bran and looked remarkably well there is no doubt. For practical purposes, bran can only be used with advantage to a limited extent in mixture with other food, as has already been pointed out. It is largely used in the sick stable in the form of mash, which is Kiade by pouring over it a small quantity of boiling water, and allowing it to remain until it is cool. It is also the custom in many stables to give horses a bran mash once or twice a week, and the practice has very much to recommend it. It has already been suggested that a handful or two mixed with the regular rations has the effect of inducing an animal to ftiasticate the whole of the food with which it is mixed, and is, therefore, particularly desirable as an adjunct to the rations of the horses which are known as gross feeders. If the digestive organs of grain- and herb-feeding

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

110

animals were adapted for the digestion of bran, it would be a most valuable
article of diet for horses, as the following table will indicate:�

Analysis of Bran.


	Payen.	Millon.	Kiilm.	Grandeau.	Warington.	Wolff.
Water ... ......	13-90	13-90	13-40	12-80	14-0	13-6
Nitrogenous matter ...	18-77	14-90	14-00	13-82	14-2	13-6
Fatty matter ...	4-00	3-60	3-80	3-59	4-2	3-4
Carbohydrates	48-26	51-00	45-00	55-91	50-4	54-9
Cellulose	8-78	10-49	18-30	8-65	11-1	8-9
Salts	6-29	5-70	6-19	5-23	6-1	5-6

It will be seen that the results of analyses by different authorities are
given, showing certain variations in the amount of nitrogenous matter,
cellulose, and carbohydrates, but they all agree sufficiently to show
that bran, chemically speaking, contains all the requisites for nutrition.
The nitrogenous ratio varies from 1 : 2^-8 to 1 : 4^-3. Among the total
salts are represented potash, soda, magnesia, lime, phosphoric acid, and
silica.

Hay.�Although the term hay has a general signification as being
grass which has undergone the process of drying, it really includes several
varieties of fodder which have different degrees of feeding value.

The best hay, it is allowed, is that which is grown in the uplands.
There is, besides, the ordinary meadow hay, and the hay from, water
meadows, and there is also hay which is made from various artificial
grasses, such as the different varieties of clovers, vetches, lucerne, and sain-
foin, all of which have a highly nutritive value.

Different specimens of hay vary considerably in their nutritive value,
according to the character of the soil in which the crop is grown, the time
of mowing, and the care which is taken in making it. It is hardly neces-
sary to add that a very great deal depends upon the state of the weather
during haymaking time. Hay of good quality should not be less than
one year old, should retain some of its greenish tint and be perfectly sweet
in, smell. The slightest trace of mouldy odour should lead to its rejection.
Burned hay has a dark colour, powerful odour, and pungent taste, rather
suggestive of tobacco, and, as a rule, horses, unless forced hy hunger, object
to eat it. It is said, however, that some horses will eat burned hay, when
it is not too much damaged, with avidity, for a time, and after a while
reject it. It is, however, always injurious to the animals which partake
of it for any length of time, causing excessive thirst and serious loss of

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FOOD 111

condition. The following table shows the constituents of hay according
to the different authorities named:�


	Boussingault.	Sanson.	Grandean.	Garola.	Wolff.	Voelcker.	American Farming.
	Boussingault.	Sanson.	Grandean.	Garola.	Wolff.	Voelcker.	Full Bloom.	After Bloom.	Before Bloom.
Albuminoids Carbohydrates Lignin and Cellulose Fat ......... Salts ... Water	7-20 44-20 24-20 3-80 7-60 13-00	8-50 38-30 29-30 3-00 6-02 14-30	10-11 40-90 25-52 2-34 6-54 14-59	8-40 41-00 26-80 2-90 6-70 14-20	9-5 41-7 28-7 2-6 5-8 14-3	9-88 48-09 31-80 299 7-24 14-30	8-63 36-11 31-21 4-22 4-66 7-45	9-44 41-40 24-18 4-55 6-19 7-13	11-63 36-01 20-10 4-31 5-30 7-79

Hay which is made from artificial grasses may be looked upon as an
altogether more concentrated food than any kind of meadow hay, as the
following table will indicate:�


	Red Clover, full bloom.	White Clover in bloom.	Crimson Clover.	Hop Trefoil.	Lucerne just in bloom.	Sainfoin just in bloom.	Vetches in bloom.	Furze.
Water ... ...... Proteids Carbohydrates Fat ......... Cellulose Salts .........	80-4 3-0 8-9 0-6 5-8 1-3	80-5 3-5 7-2 0-8 6-0 2-0	81-5 2-7 73 0-7 6-2 1-6	80-0 3-5 8-2 0-8 6-0 1-5	74-0 4-5 9-2 0-8 9-5 2-0	81-4 4-2 7-3 0-7 5-2 1-2	82-0 3-5 6-6 0-6 5-5 1-8	48-7 5-3 18-1 1-1 24-0 2-8


	Red Clover Hay.	White Clover.	Swedish Clover.	Italian Clover.	> o O :> o <u c* 16-7 14-6 36-5 3-3 26-2 6-0	Vetches.	Lucerne.	Sainfoin.
Water........ Albuminoids ... Carbohydrates Fat ........ Cellulose Salts	16-7 13-4 29-9 3-2 35-8 6-2	16-7 14-9 34-3 3-5 25-6 8-5	16-7 15-3 29-2 3-3 30-5 8-3	16-7 12-2 30-1 3-0 33-8 7-2	> o O :> o <u c* 16-7 14-6 36-5 3-3 26-2 6-0	16-7 14-2 35-3 2-5 25-5 8-3	16-7 19-7 32-9 3-3 22-0 8-7	14-2 14-8 35-7 3-3 26-4 6-2

The second table shows the composition of hay made from various
�artificial grasses; the high proportion of albuminoids brings their nutritive
"value nearly up to that of oats. All the artificial kinds of hay, therefore,
require care in their use. Various disturbances of the digestive system are

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

112

attributed to excessive indulgence in them. In its ordinary use as fodder,
hay is given both long and chaffed. It has already been stated that hay,
when used as chaff, is mixed with sweet straw, as a rule, but chaff of good
quality should have at least a double proportion of hay to straw, and hay
is sometimes passed through the chaff machine and used alone.

Long hay is placed in the rack which is generally above the horse's
head, and it may be looked upon as absolutely essential for animals which
stand much in the stable, not only on account of its nutritive value, but
for the further reason that it gives them a certain amount of occupation
during a portion of the day which, in the absence of the rack food, the
animal would probably occupy in consuming the bedding.

Straw.�For the purpose of feeding cattle, straw may be looked upon
as a staple article of diet. It is also eaten in considerable quantities by
horses which are turned into the straw-yard, and also by others in the
stables, where they occupy some of their idle time in eating the straw which
is used for litter. Indeed, it is often found necessary to apply the muzzle
in order to prevent the indulgence of this somewhat dangerous habit. The
principal and most profitable use of straw is when it is converted into chaff
along with hay; there is no doubt that it very much assists in the prepara-
tion of food by compelling the animal to masticate it thoroughly. The
following table shows the composition of different kinds of straw, of which
wheat and oat straw are considered the best as food for horses:�


	Wheat.	Oat.	Pea.	Bean.
Water Proteids Fat ......... Carbohydrates Cellulose Salts.........	13-55 3-03 MO 40-90 37-48 3-94	13-63 4-55 1-64 36-95 37-97 5-26	14-28 7-56 2-17 29-39 42-47 4-13	17-28 12-01 1-31 31-80 30-67 6-39

It may be remarked here that barley straw is generally considered to
be very indigestible, and quite unfit for food for horses.

Pea and bean straw may be placed in the same category. It is true
that they contain a large quantity of nitrogenous matter, and according to
the analyses they would be estimated as possessing a high feeding value,
but they contain a large quantity of woody fibre, which renders them
indigestible, and, excepting in emergencies, they should be excluded from
the diet of the horse.

Peas, beans, and lentils are very useful articles of food of the
concentrated order, containing a very large proportion of nitrogenous.

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	FOOD PLANTS�II

		4. Horse Bean ( Vicia faia). 5. Bean Pod closed. 6. Bean Pod open.
i= Clover (Trifolium pratcns�). 2. Grey Pea (Pisum arvense). 3. Vetch (Vicia sativa).

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113

FOOD

matter. The following tables show the constituents of peas, lentils,
vetches, and beans from the analyses made by different authorities:�


	Peas.	Gram.
Water	14-4	10-80
Proteids	22-6	19-32
Fat	1-9	4-56
Carbohydrates Cellulose	53-0 \ 5-4 J	62-20
Salts	2-7	3-12


	Pigeon Pea.	Common Pea.	Lentils.	Vetches.
Water ...... Nitrogenous matter ... Fatty matter Carbohydrates Salts.........	10-77 20-19 1-32 64-32 3-40	12-70 25-20 1-10 58-38 2-53	12-70 24-57 1-01 59-43 2-29	10-10 31-50 �95 54-26 3-19


	Beans.	Bhoot.	Oorud.	Moong.	Mote.	Cooltee.
Water.........	14-4	8-12	11-0	9-20	11-22	11-30
Proteids	25-0	40-63	22-48	24-70	23-80	23-47
Fat .........	1-6	17-71	1-46	1-48	0-64	0-87
Carbohydrates	55-8	29-54	62-15	60-36	60-78	61-02
Salts.........	3-2	4-00	2-91	3-26	3-56	3-34

On account of the large quantity of nitrogenous matter which peas and
beans contain, they are used for animals which are required to undergo
severe exertion, and then they are only given in moderate quantities of
3 or 4 lb. daily. In selecting them, it is highly important to notice that
they are perfectly sound, quite free from any trace of mould or unpleasant
odour. It is not uncommonly the case that a hunter, after a long run,
will have a handful or two of beans put into his food on his return to the
stable, under the impression that this will help to restore his exhausted
energies. It would be impossible to commit a greater dietetic blunder.
Immediately after excessive or prolonged exertion, the digestive powers,
in common with the other organic functions, are enfeebled and therefore
incapable of appropriating food which is from its mechanical condition
difficult of digestion. A very moderate diet of good gruel or a small
quantity of crushed oats with chaff and bran, the gruel by preference, is

Vol. III. 73

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114 HEALTH AND DISEASE

all that the animal's system is capable of taking with advantage. Beans
and peas will be useful later on, when the animal has recovered from its
exhaustion.

Beans and peas, which would seldom be given until they are at least
a year old and, therefore, make a very decided call upon the energy of the
masticatory organs, are likely, to some extent at least, to escape even from
the powerful grinders of the horse. They should consequently always
be crushed and given mixed with the ordinary rations in the quantities
previously mentioned.

Linseed.�Excepting for sick horses, or animals in poor condition,
linseed is not employed as an article of diet. Its occasional use in the
form of linseed mash is a favourite device of the stableman for improving
the appearance of an animal's coat. When given for the purpose of
restoring lost condition it will be mixed with other food to the extent
of about 1 lb. per day.

Linseed is always ground, soaked, and boiled before being mixed with
other food. The best plan is to boil it for a short time, as in making
linseed tea, and when cold to mix it with bran or other articles of food.
Linseed cake and the meal into which it is ground are sometimes used for
sick and tired horses, either made into gruel or sprinkled over the food. It
is obtained by crushing the seed and removing a large proportion of the
oil for manufacturing purposes. It is consequently relatively richer in
nitrogenous matter than are the seeds from which it is derived, as the
two following tables will show.

Linseed yields the following analysis:�


	Water ...						. 12-3
	Proteids Fat ...... Carbohydrates Cellulose Salts ...						. 20-5 . 37-0 . 19-6 . 7-2 . 3-4
		iseed oelcker).	Linseed	Dake ticated.	CO T3 .a a ¹³ ~K	Rape	ut Cake.	Nut	"Til"
		Sb	Cake.	s 3	s '■§	Cake.	fc	*a	Cake.
		0, CD		O Oi	-8 o		s	3 a c M

		P4Q		op	ofl		PM	OO
Water ...		10-29	11-8	10-6	8-9	10-4	10-2	9-8	11-1 '
Proteids		28-59	28-7	24-7	43-6	30-7	16-1	31-0	37-2
Fat		12-66	10-7	6-6	14-9	9-8	9-5	8-9	12-8
Carbohydrates		34-85	32-1	26-0	19-7	30-1	41-9	20-7	20-5
Cellulose		8-07	9-4	24-9	5-7	11-3	18-3	22-7	7-5
Salts ...		5-54	7-3	7-2	7-2	7-7	4-0	6-9	10-9

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			FOOD 115

		In reference to linseed cakes, it may be remarked that the purchaser should carefully guard himself against the great risk of adulteration, ■feeding cakes are of such great value to the agriculturist that the object °i supplying them at a price which will attract custom could only be gained in a remunerative manner by adding to the genuine article a con- siderable proportion of useless material; and what is much worse, it has occasionally happened, whether accidentally or not can hardly be deter- mined, that castor-oil beans, mustard seeds, and other highly objectionable ^and sometimes poisonous substances have been discovered on analysis. Roots.�Mangels, swedes, turnips, and carrots, and also potatoes, which may be placed in the same group for convenience, are extremely useful articles for admixture with other articles of food, and they afford an opportunity of varying the diet from time to time. It has already been remarked that raw potatoes in certain conditions are poisonous, ^aild especially is this the case in regard to the skins; consequently potatoes, when used for horse food, should always be boiled. The same Precaution should also be taken when swedes are used. Mangels some- times are used for horse food, and carrots are extremely valuable and are also very favourite articles of food with horses. In consequence of the exceeding fondness of horses for carrots, even in their dirty condition, it ^ls desirable that they should be washed. Usually they are given whole, a few being thrown into the animal's manger. Now and then a case of onoking has resulted from a horse swallowing large portions too greedily. -¹-⁰ avoid this it is suggested that the carrots should be either sliced or grated; the latter process, however, is far too troublesome to be generally _ oopted, and in regard to slicing, unless it is very carefully done, some ^rregularly shaped pieces may escape the teeth and become impacted in ^t}le oesophagus. �Ensilage.�Some years ago the question of the preservation of green ' °P^S in pits or silos attracted an extraordinary amount of attention, u a commission was appointed, in which the present writer was °ncerned, to consider the question. The advantages which were most ^vious in this method of dealing with grass and other crops which might too poor to be worth harvesting in the ordinary way, were the indepen- ⁿce of weather, increased facilities for storing in wet seasons, and the ^reater portability of the food obtained, as, under the effects of the pressure ployed, a cubic foot of grass might be made to represent nearly the ^Weight of an ordinary truss of hay. -uie method of preparation is extremely simple, although in the first ance a large amount of capital was expended in the construction of ^ei receptacles, or silos of wood or bricks, either sunk into the ground

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			116 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		or raised above it. Later on it was ascertained that very excellent results could be secured by merely cutting the green crop irrespective of the weather and stacking it in the ordinary way. It was found advisable to have large stacks in order to ensure sufficient pressure, and it was necessary also to cover the top of the stack with planks, close together, and to place on the planks any available heavy articles, pieces of machinery, large blocks of stone, and, in fact, any articles which might be encumbering the farm premises uselessly. The added weight, however, to the top of the ensilage stack, whatever might be its amount, did not appear to affect the density of the mass more than 4 or 5 feet down, and some very fair stacks of silage were made without any added pressure at all; but there is no doubt of the advantage of pressure in preventing mould at the upper part of the stack. It was calculated during the enquiry that the process of preserving green crops in this way, in the silo and by stacking under pressure, was extremely economical. It was found that grass preserved in this way yielded about five times the weight of the same grass made into hay. The other crops which were used for preservation by converting them into silage were rye, oats, millet, maize, barley, and sometimes wheat. And if these crops were in condition for cutting before the middle of June, before the seeds began to get hard, the land would be cleared in time for a second sowing. Silage was intended to be used chiefly for cattle, but in reference to its use for horses also the commissioners reported as follows:� " Strong as the evidence has been of the advantage of ensilage for keeping all stock in healthy condition, farm horses have by no means been excepted. We have received highly satisfactory accounts from several quarters of the health of working teams when given a limited proportion of silage, mixed with food. Among the plans of silos which have been submitted to us, those which consist of external walls, either above or below ground, whether of concrete or of stone, brick or clay lump cemented within, appear to be the most efficient; but in all cases, the absence of air depends upon two conditions: first upon its expulsion from the mass of forage ensiled, and, secondly, upon its exclusion when this is covered. Whatever may be put into a silo, it should be thoroughly well trodden in, and rammed down at the edges into a compact mass; with this object the advantage of rounding off the corners has been impressed upon us by some witnesses. To ensure the exclusion of the outer air it has been found useful to cover the mass with close-fitting boarded lids or shutters in one or more divisions, with a layer of bran, saw-dust, or earth above them. Weights being required above this layer, to keep the mass compact, may be applied either in the form of any convenient dead-weight,

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																	117
				FOOD


such as bricks, boxes or baskets of stones, or of mechanical pressure exercised by means of various systems of chains, screws, or levers. Instances ^are known of silos being successfully weighted without the use of boards, ^Dy simply covering the ensiled material with rushes, ferns, or other waste substances, and above these with dry earth or sand to the depth of 9 inches or a foot. "As in the case of all important innovations, it is not surprising that "the introduction of the system of ensilage into this country has been met by a considerable amount of prejudice and incredulity. During the progress of our enquiry we have endeavoured amply to discount all exaggerated estimates of its merits. After summing up the mass of evidence which has reached us, we can without hesitation affirm that it has been abundantly and conclusively proved to our satisfaction that this system of preserving green fodder crops promises great advantages to the Practical farmer, and if carried out with a reasonable amount of care and efficiency should not only provide him with the means of ensuring himself to a great extent against unfavourable seasons, and of materially improving the quantity and quality of his dairy produce, but should also enable him to increase appreciably the number of live stock that can be profitably kept upon any given acreage, whether of pasture or arable land, and propor- tionately the amount of manure available to fertilize it." Two kinds of ensilage are recognized: sweet and sour, but the sour silage is most commonly in use. This is made by filling the silo as quickly ^as possible, or stacking the grass as the case may be, and putting weights °u the top in order to check the rise of temperature which always occurs ^when the silage stack is made slowly, and results in the formation of sweet silage. In reference to the changes which grass undergoes during the Process of conversion into silage, the following tables will afford the rnforrnation in a condensed form. The analysis on ensilage is the mean ^result of thirty -seven analyses made by Dr. Voelcker and published in the Field. The analysis of grass is that of Kuhn and Grandeau.

									Carbo- hydrates.
							Fatty Matter.
												as "a 2,
													Salts.
		Water.





					ZS
																%A

	Meadow Grass (Grandeau) ... Meadow Grass before flowering Meadow Grass at the end of " flowerino- Meadow Grass (Kuhn) ".'..' merent Sweet Grasses (Kuhn)
															1-2 1-4-3 1-6 1-4-1 1-4-7
			78-35 75-00 69-00 72-00 70-80							9-66 12-10 14-30 12-10 11-70	3-72 7-00 11-50 10-00 12-10			2-07 2-10 2-00 2-00 2-10
						5-24 3-00 2-50 3-10 2-60		0-96 0-80 0-70 0-80 0-70

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	118 HEALTH AND DISEASE Analysis of Ensilage. 71-42

		Volatile acid (calculated as acetic acid) Non-volatile acid (calculated as lactic acid) Albuminous compounds ... Indigestible woody fibre ... Digestible cellular fibre ... Soluble carbohydrates, extractive matter, &c. Mineral matter ...
			■28 �42 3-17 9-33 10-39 2-53 2-46

100-00 Both ^tables may be usefully compared with the table showing the analysis of hay at p. 111. DIGESTION Selection and preparation of food will be materially assisted by the knowledge of the physiological processes connected with the digestion of different kinds of provender. Very interesting experiments were per- formed by the celebrated French physiologist Colin, and Colonel Fred. Smith remarks that some of them he can fully bear out from his own observations. To avoid any mistakes, it will be advisable to quote the statements as they occur in the description which is given of the results of these experiments by the French physiologist. No details are given as to the methods which were adopted, and the critical reader may be expected to wonder how some of the facts given could have been ascer- tained. The time occupied in digestion by the stomach of the horse is in proportion to the amount of nitrogen contained in the food � if hay be given before oats the hay will occupy one part (greater curvature) and the oats another part (lesser curvature) of the stomach. If the oats be given first they are deposited in the greater curvature, and the hay in the lesser curvature of the stomach. The two foods in both cases remain distinct until the mass reaches the pyloric end of the stomach, from which the intestine arises. According to Colin's experiments it is best to give the hay first and then the corn, otherwise the corn is sent into the intestine before being fully acted upon in the stomach. The arrangement of food in the stomach in layers is disturbed by the swallowing of a large quantity of water. This disturbance does not occur, however, by the taking of a small quantity of water. Assuming this statement to be true, and it certainly seems to be perfectly reason- able, it affords a strong argument in favour of the usual practice in the best stables of always having water in the trough within the animal's reach.

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	FOOD
		119


The above results were obtained by giving different articles of food separately, but it appeared that when the foods were mixed, as they usually are�oats, chaff, roots, &c, being given together,�the different ioods remained in the mixed condition in the stomach and passed into the intestines together, that containing the most moisture passing in first. The conclusion from this series of experiments was the very obvious one, that it is not desirable to mix foods of different degrees of digesti- bility, as they all pass into the intestines together, whether they have been acted upon by the gastric juice or not. Most horsemen are aware of the common impression, which is un- doubtedly true, that the digestion of the horse is extremely rapid�a necessary provision, indeed, to compensate for the smallness of the stomach compared with the animal's bulk. Colin found that very early after the commencement of a meal the stomach begins to get rid of the food; in fact, as soon as the stomach is distended to a certain point a portion of the food begins to escape into the intestine, and in a quantity proportionate to the amount which is being eaten by the horse. This circumstance naturally leads to the suggestion that the rations should be small in bulk, and given frequently, and that water should be given before feeding. It was also ascertained that the conformation of a horse exercised a considerable influence upon the function of assimilation. Horses with narrow chests, badly ribbed up, and of a light mealy colour, animals which, are known as bad doers, require great attention to their diet; in short, all the food which is given to them should be of the best quality, ^anu the rule respecting small and frequent rations must be carefully observed. That the results of the experiments undertaken by the French Physiologist are highly instructive will not be questioned. The probabili- ^les» however, are that they will not be estimated by horse-owners in general as of sufficient importance to cause any interference with the ordinary routine of the stable; nevertheless cases may occur in which strict attention to the principles which have been deduced from the acts discovered will be highly advantageous. WATER When it is known that something like four-fifths of the animal body sists of water, no argument will be necessary to prove the impor- ce of a constant supply of the fluid in a proper condition for appropria- tion.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	120	HEALTH AND DISEASE

By the process of evaporation which is constantly going on from the skin, through the respiratory organs, and in other ways, water is constantly being excreted from the body, and when there is no supply from with- out to repair the loss, it must ultimately happen that all the animal tissues would become perfectly dried, which means that an animal weigh- ing 100 lb. would be reduced to a mass weighing something under 30 lb. To compensate for the amount of water which is constantly being thrown off, even when in perfect rest, and to a much greater extent when undergoing exertion, it has been calculated that an adult man w^rould require every twenty-four hours from ^ to -^ oz. of the fluid for each pound of his body weight. A man weighing 140 lb., therefore, will require from 70 to 90 oz. daily, and in ordinary English diet about 20 to 30 oz. of this is taken in the so-called solid food, and the remainder is drunk as liquid of some kind (Parkes). The horse, it is calculated, will require 8 to 12 gallons daily, a cow or small ox about 6 to 8 gallons, sheep or pigs ^ to 1 gallon (Parkes). Colonel Fred. Smith states that from experiments made in 1866 the War Office fixed the daily supply for cavalry horses at 8 gallons, and artillery at 10 gallons per horse. This quantity, however, was to include all water used for stable purposes, and in the artillery w^ras to include washing carriages. From Dr. Parkes's observation, how^rever, this quantity would be quite insufficient, as he came to the conclusion that 16 gallons per day per horse for all purposes was not an excessive amount. Colonel Fred. Smith also remarks that in a stable of cavalry horses, doing very little work, and at a cool time of the year, the amount per horse was found to average 6^- gallons; and from experiments which he made in India he found that during the month of February a horse consumed on an average 8\|- gallons daily, w⁷hich was made up as follows: Morning water, 1*9 gallon; mid-day, 3"4 gallons; at evening, 3"15 gallons. It does not appear to have been ascertained how much water a horse would consume daily when water is kept constantly in the trough in the stable or box, but it is generally believed that a less quantity is taken than when the animal has the water supplied to him at intervals three times daily. Granting that a very considerable quantity of water is absolutely essential to keep the animal organism in a perfectly healthy condition, it must also be allowed that it is quite as necessary to obtain pure water as it is to supply the system with pure food. The latter requirement can be complied with without much difficulty. The food of the horse is so simple in its character, and undergoes so little preparation, that a very moderate amount of care will secure the animal perfectly whole-

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	FOOD
	FOOD	121
		121

some provender; but in the case of water the circumstances under which !t is collected are so varied, and the sources of contamination are so numerous, that it is recognized by the experimental chemist as a fact beyond question, that when he requires pure water for scientific purposes be can only obtain it by the application of heat to convert the fluid into a vapour, which he is bound to convey through perfectly sterilized cold pipes, from which it will fall in the condition of water deprived of all foreign matter. In this condition of purity, however, it has lost ■all the flavour which makes it grateful to the palate, and at least certain products which are beneficial to the system. It becomes, therefore, most important to ascertain what impurities may be safely or advantageously ■admitted. Water in its absolutely pure condition consists of oxygen ■and hydrogen, and in this condition it may be obtained, theoretically, by the process of vaporizing under conditions which render contamination impossible. As it occurs, however, in seas and rivers, it holds in sus- pension or in solution various substances which it obtains from the earth �and air through which it passes. Eain-water is sometimes referred to ^as the purest form in which water can be obtained naturally, but this implies that the rain shall fall and the water be collected in a place quite remote from habitations of all kinds, otherwise the various gases with which the atmosphere is charged, from the gaseous products of manu- factures or living beings, are necessarily mixed with the falling rain, contaminating it sometimes to an extent which renders it poisonous or utterly unfit for use. Under ordinary conditions it is estimated that rain-water, even in rural districts, contains about 2 grains of solid matter "to the gallon. In towns, particularly where large industries are carried en, the quantity of solids is necessarily much larger. The gases which contaminate rain-water are, in addition to carbonic acid, ammonia, sul- phurous acid, and the emanations from drains and sewers. Other im- purities are added as the rain passes over the roofs of buildings and along the gutters which are arranged for carrying it to the drains. Decaying ^Vegetable and animal matters are frequently washed from the roofs of uiiclings, and when the water is carried along lead gutters, or stored in ^ead tanks, the sulphurous acid contained in the fluid, in addition to the Products of decomposing vegetable matter, leads to the solution of the ^ead and renders the water poisonous, or at least highly injurious to the animals which drink it. When the water reaches the ground it becomes ^at once exposed to other sources of contamination. There is, first, the Presence of putrefying substances on the surface, animal and vegetable, hieh leads to contamination with ammonia nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, ^and other constituents of natural and artificial manures, and in passing

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122 HEALTH AND DISEASE

through the soil it meets with various soluble salts of lime, magnesia,
and soda, all of which tend to make considerable modifications in the
quality of the fluid, to what extent may be gathered from the analyses
of several specimens of water which are given by Professor Axe, pub-
lished in the fourth volume of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal,
December, 1893. Three samples will suffice, and it will be observed
that the first one is most remarkable for the amount of solid constituents,
especially common salt, which it contains. " At Woodhall Spa, in Lin-
colnshire, a water said to possess valuable medicinal properties yields
no less than 1542 "2 grains of saline matter per gallon, as follows:�

Grains per gallon

1330-0

111-0

91-2

10-0
1512-2"

" Chloride of sodium (common salt)
Chloride of calcium
Chloride of magnesium ...
Carbonate of sodium

Total.........

The next sample is drawn from the wells in the chalk at Croydon,
and is noteworthy for the large amount of carbonate of lime it contains.

Grains per gallon.

¹ Silica

Carbonate of calcium
Carbonate of magnesium
Chloride of sodium
Sulphate of sodium
Total

1-2
17-8

1-4

2-0

0j9

23-3"

This is a very hard water.

The sample which gave the following analysis is from Sudbrook Springs
under the Severn:�


	G	rains per gallon
" Carbonate of calcium		.. 13-6
Carbonate of magnesium ...		5-4
Sulphate of magnesium		.. 3-2
Nitrate of magnesium		.. 0-6
Chloride of magnesium		0-8
Chloride of sodium (with a little	potassium)	3-5
Total ......		.. 27-1"

Besides a considerable amount of chalk, this water is noticeable for
the number and variety of the salts of magnesia it contains. It is there-
fore classed with the magnesian waters.

On the other hand, water collected from formations which are mainly
composed of insoluble rock, are naturally remarkable for their freedom
from saline constituents, as the two analyses of Woodland and Holm-
firth waters will show.

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FOOD

12.3.

"Manchester Water (Woodland)


		Grains per gallon.
	Silica	0-30
	Carbonate of calcium	1-70
	Sulphate of magnesium ...	... 1-66
	Chloride of sodium	... 0-91
	Total .........	... 4-57
	Holmfirth Water
		Grains per gallon.
	Sulphate of calcium	... 0-8
	Sulphate of magnesium ...	... 0-6
	Chloride of sodium	... 0-8
	Nitrate of sodium or potassium ...	... 0-2
	Total.............	... M"

The above specimens of water are obviously extremely soft, and under
ordinary conditions of water-supply the fluid is divided into two kinds,
hard and soft water, the hardness being due always to the lime salts�-
chiefly carbonate of lime or chalk, with the addition of a small quantity
°f the sulphate. Specimens of water containing large quantities of a
great variety of mineral matters are properly classed as medicinal waters,
which, however valuable in dealing with certain forms of disease, are
Got fit for use for dietetic purposes.

The question of the influence of hard water upon health has been
frequently debated, and various opinions have been given in reference
to it. There is no doubt that hard waters are constantly used for drink -
^lng purposes without any harm being suffered by the persons who take
them, but it is asserted, by the author of the article from which we have
quoted, that horses drinking hard water suffer from derangement of the
°^rgans of digestion, indicated by attacks of colic and other intestinal
disorders. The skin is also said to lose its polish and become dull and
scurfy, the coat stares, and a general state of unthriftiness is induced.
J-hese results, however, suggest a very abnormal degree of hardness in
the water which produces them. They are certainly not observed among
horses which are living in chalk districts, where the use of hard water
^I0r men and also for the lower animals can hardly be avoided. Gene-
rally where hard water is distributed by the water companies it under-
goes a preliminary process of softening by the addition of lime, which
converts the soluble bicarbonate of lime into the insoluble carbonate or
ialk, which is precipitated, and in this manner a considerable quantity
°t the lime is got rid of. The process, however, cannot be adopted on
small scale, where hard water is stored in tanks or ponds.

Hard water has occasionally been referred to as a cause of diseases of

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

124

bone and the formation of calculous concretions. It may be remarked,
however, that the hardness of water is chiefly clue to carbonate of lime,
and would not, therefore, be likely to be very largely concerned in the
formation of bony tumours, in which the phosphate of lime is the chief
constituent; but there is no doubt that lime salts would be likely to
contribute to the formation of calculous deposits in the digestive system
■or in other parts of the body.

It has already been stated that water forms a very large proportion
�of the tissues of the animal body�from 70 to 80 per cent,�and in the
lower forms of living beings it may reach as much as 90 per cent. Pro-
fessor Axe, in his articles in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal,
has given the following table, showing the amount of water contained
in 1000 parts of the various organs and structures:�


Kidneys	. 827	Brain	. 750	Fat .....	. 299
Heart	. 792	Skin	. 720	Bone	. 216
Nerve	. 780	Bone marrow	. 697	Ivory	. 100
Spleen	. 758	Liver	. 693	Enamel of tooth .	2
Muscle	. 757	Cartilage	. 550
Sweat	. 995	Gastric fluid	. 973	Bile	. 864
Saliva	. 995	Milk	. 891	Blood	. 791
Tears	. 982

The supply of water to the system is introduced in various ways, but
the larger proportion is taken in the form of liquid or solid food, and there
is also a certain quantity of water formed in the system by the oxidation of
the various organic substances, resulting in combinations of oxygen with
hydrogen and carbon producing water and carbonic acid.

Considering the important uses to which w^rater is destined in the animal
organism, it is remarkable that there is so little positive evidence of the
injurious results attending the consumption of water which is polluted with
animal and vegetable matter in various states of decomposition, with leak-
age from drains, with constant admixture with animal excreta, with the gases
which are given off from decomposing bodies, and also with the organisms
of specific diseases. It is quite true that every now and then the public is
startled by a record of a great outbreak of typhoid fever or other fatal
disease in consequence of some accidental contamination of the water-
supply; but, as a rule, polluted water is about the last thing which is
thought of as a possible cause of the outbreak of disease. This indifference
probably arises in a great degree from the knowledge of the fact that
people and animals continue to use the water of wells which are so placed
as to be open to the entrance of the overflow of cess-pools; or, in cases of
great scarcity, water from roadside ponds or ditches which are open to

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	FOOD
		125.


every possible source of contamination, not only from causes which have been referred to, but from the addition of various kinds of offal not merely from healthy animals but from those which have died of anthrax, swine- lever, tubercle, and various other maladies. In addition to these sources of serious pollution there are the products of various kinds of manufactures. In mining districts the streams become contaminated with various poisonous substances; such manufactories as linen and jute works, starch factories, cloth works, tanneries, paper factories, and, in short, all kinds of manufactories which deal with organic substances in any form and discharge their refuse into ditches, or ponds, or rivers, or even on to the surface of the ground, through which they soak, contaminate the water springs at their sources. A great deal has been said and written about the infection of ponds, ditches, and even of small pools or puddles, as some of them may be called, With the germs of parasites which are easily swallowed by animals grazing: °n grounds where such contaminated pools exist. While this fact is fully recognized by stock-owners, it is remarkable that they seem to prefer to trace an outbreak of parasitic disease among their lambs, sheep, and calves to any cause rather than the one which lies before them. From the cir- cumstances of the case it is much easier to point to the sources of contami- nation of water, and to reason from the disastrous results which are occasionally traced to its use, and to those equally disastrous results which ^are referred to other causes than the right one, than it is to suggest means, tor rectifying the evil. The difficulties which stand in the way of provid- ing a pure water-supply are in many cases absolutely insurmountable and ^ln all cases extremely difficult. The celebrated engineer, the late Mr, bailey Denton, spent a considerable portion of his life in trying to force Public attention to the importance of water-storage. He constantly pointed ut the very liberal quantity which was supplied every year in the form of ^ain, every inch which fell during a shower representing nearly a hundred °ns of water to an acre, the whole of which amount is in the majority of ases allowed to soak into the ground wastefully, at least so far as its ¹etetic use is concerned. It may contribute to the growth of herbage, but may, on the other hand, saturate the soil which is already useless on count of its marshy character. With a proper system of storage, such ter, which is in excess of the immediate requirements either of the land the animals upon it, could be preserved for future use; the only reason 7 it is not so preserved would seem to be the indifference of the authori- ^s to the benefits which would be secured by such a course. ⁿ the neighbourhood of large towns the system of water-storage is ^aliy carried out by the means of reservoirs, but in rural districts the

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

hardships of a water famine have constantly to be endured in consequence
�of the absence of any means of storing. Presumably the question is one of
cost, and it unfortunately happens that those districts which suffer most
from scarcity of water in dry seasons are least capable of supplying funds
for the formation of the required reservoirs.

A due recognition of the importance of a liberal supply of water for
hygienic purposes in thinly populated districts as well as in populous would

be naturally followed by the adoption of a proper
system of inspection for the purpose of ascertaining
the quality of the water, including its degree of
hardness, whether arising from excess of carbonate
of lime or from other lime salts which cannot be
got rid of, and the employment of the proper
means for the purpose of correcting any objection-
able characteristics prior to the distribution of the
fluid.

Means for these purposes are easily applied under
the circumstances referred to, but they are abso-
lutely impracticable so long as the supply of water
is drawn from ponds or from wells which in many
places are open to pollution which can neither be
prevented nor corrected.

Fig. 478.�A Sewage Fungus,
Beggiatoa alba (sulphur bac-
terium)

Natural Processes of Purification of

Water.�Water in its most polluted form under-

a, In a medium rich in sul-
phuretted hydrogen. J, Almost
depleted of sulphur granules by
twenty-four hours' immersion
in water free from sulphur.
-c, Sulphur disappeai'ed; trans-
verse walls now visible, after
forty-eight hours' further im-
mersion, d, Decaying through
lack of sulphuretted hydrogen.

goes certain chemical and physical changes which
have a distinct tendency to restore it to a wholesome
condition. Under all circumstances water contains
air, the oxygen of which acts with energy on septic
boclies, causing them to undergo a new form of
decomposition, resolving them into compounds of

carbonic acid and ammonia. Further and even
more destructive processes, the nature of which is not clearly understood,
also take place under the influence of oxygen. It has been observed, for
example, that water highly contaminated with sewage, so as to be quite
turbid, if left entirely at rest for a long period becomes absolutely odour-
less and perfectly transparent; and what is more remarkable, this change
is not the result of the subsidence of solid particles, but of the oxidation
and conversion of solid material into soluble compounds. It does not,
of course, follow that water under such circumstances will be fit for
drinking purposes, but the instance is a remarkable illustration of the
changes which are effected under the influence of oxygen.

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127

Stagnant pools undergo a considerable amount of purification owing to
the presence of living vegetation, particularly when the plants belong to
the flowering order. It can be observed,
even in so small a space as that furnished
by an ordinary aquarium, that bubbles of
gas are constantly being emitted from
growing water plants or weeds, as they
are called. In addition to the action
of plants in furnishing oxygen, aquatic
■animals also contribute very largely
towards the destruction of organic bodies.
Myriads of minute creatures belonging
to the infusoria spend their lives in the
assimilation of organic substances; in
fact, the presence of these animalculee
and plants may be accepted as a proof

Fig. 479.�Blanket-weed

1, Anabajna flos-aquse. 2, Ccelosphasrium
Kutzingianum, with detached cells.

that the water is capable of supporting
animal and plant life. On the other

hand, however, it has been observed by
Bennett, Eafter, and other writers referred to by the author of Water
^ln Relation to Health and Disease, that there are numerous living beings
contained in water which tend rather to add ^

to its pollution than to remove it. It would
appear that nearly all the varieties of aquatic
fungi derive their sustenance from decompos-
^lng substances, and their presence in water is
Proof in itself of the existence of septic material.
Such organisms as live on decomposing bodies
are described as saprophytes. The sewage
lungus (fig. 478) is a notable instance of an
^organism of the class referred to, and it is
ftrost easily recognized in the description which
^ls given of it as "a dirty-looking, jelly-like
^layer covering the bottom and sides of the
^water-course in which it occurs". Its presence

^ay always be taken as proof of the existence

Fig. 480.�Blue-green Alga?

1, Spirulina Jenneri. 2, Oscillaria
insignis.

sewage contamination.

Besides the various fungi which are found
in t �

streams, and water-courses, and drain-pipes, there are numerous algse,

° which the blanket-weed (fig. 479) is a well-known example. Mr.

^ennett describes algae in two distinct forms, the blue-green alga (fig. 480),

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128

HEALTH AND DISEASE

and the chlorophyll-green alga (fig. 481). The first gives off a small
amount of oxygen insufficient to exert any useful oxidizing function, while
both excrete fetid gases during their decomposition; consequently, when
found in water, they may be taken as an indication that it is unfit for
use. Of the second class, one family (Conjugatae) is distinguished by the
peculiarity of extreme sensitiveness to the influence of decomposing sub-
stances. They can only live in water which is charged with oxygen.
Their presence, therefore, in a flourishing condition may be accepted as

Fig. 481.�Chlorophyll-green Alga
(Vaucheria sessilis)

1, Plant. 2, Portion of filament en-
larged. 3, Swarm spore. 4, Portion of
the same enlarged.

Fig. 482.�Volvox globator (colony)

1, Antheroid. 2, Oosperm (mature). 3, Oogone.
4, Peripheral cells. 5, Antherozoids. 6, Mode of
division of parent cell of a zoosporange.

proof that the water is free from any large amount of objectionable organic
constituent. It may be further noted of these plants that while they
demand a large quantity of oxygen as a condition of their own life, they
give off a considerable quantity of the same gas, to the manifest benefit
of the water in which they reside.

An illustration of the purifying influence of plant-life on water is quoted
as having occurred in India some years ago, when, by some accident, all the
aquatic plants were removed from the water-tanks. The consequence was
that the previously wholesome water quickly became unfit for consumption.
According to Rafter, writing in the transactions of the American Society of
Civil Engineers, the well-known and extremely beautiful alga, the Volvox

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129

FOOD

globator (fig. 482), has on certain occasions appeared in enormous quantities
m the reservoirs which supply Eochester in the State of New York,
imparting to the water a fishy taste and odour, and apparently causing
sickness and death among the cattle which drank it. The stoneworts
(fig- 483), so called from becoming coated over with an earthy deposit,
when existing in large quantities give off sulphuretted hydrogen, which
is a highly poisonous gas. A variety of fresh-water sponge has been iden-
tified as giving a nauseous odour and taste to water, owing to the presence
°i ammonia. Its removal from the places in
which it grew was followed by the restora-
tion of the water to a wholesome condition.

Mr. Francis, of Adelaide, records that
*n 1878 the lakes which form the estuary
°i the Murray contained a plant which he
believed to be allied to the Protococcus,
which formed a thick scum like green paint,
some 2 or 3 inches thick, on the surface of
the water, and when swallowed by cattle,
which drank of it, it rapidly caused death.

Numerous other instances might be re-
ferred to in proof of the fact that while
certain plants, probably without exception
^an flowering plants, and to a large extent
^aW the high order of green plants which
nourish in water and give out oxygen, par-

ticularly during the daytime and when the
^8t>n is shining, exercise a purifying influence
^uP»n water, there are others, including a
number of aquatic fungi, which either exer-

Fig. 483.�Stonewort [Chara fragilis)

1, Plant. 2, Sporangium and anther-
idium. 3, Valve of antheridium. 4,
Enlarged branch. 5, Section of spor-
angium. 6, End of a filament.

^lse an injurious influence or indicate by
^leir presence that the w^rater is unfit for use. It is, therefore, a matter

considerable importance that the very common procedure of weed-
cutting should be exercised with discrimination. All the aquatic plants
,. are beneficial, as well as those which are injurious, to water, are

inguished by botanical characteristics which can be readily identified by

expert. There will be no real difficulty, therefore, in determining, at

y rate within certain reasonable limits, what plants should be as far as

Possible extirpated and which of them should be allowed to flourish.

. Examination of Water.�In works on hygiene which are exclu-

^ev intended for professional readers it is usual to describe the processes,

¹ chemical and physical, for the analysis of water for the purpose of

^VOL. III.

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		130 HEALTH AND DISEASE ascertaining what constituents are present which may exercise any injurious action on the animal which drinks it. By the mere physical examination the general character of the water is determined by the unaided eyesight, but it must be understood that this kind of examination does not justify any conclusion as to the qualities of the water which may render it fit or unfit for use. It has been proved that some of the brightest water may be charged with deadly material. In one of the outbreaks of cholera which occurred in London, a certain pump, to the water of which several serious outbreaks of cholera were traced, was so noted for its bright, and sparkling, and palatable character that all the people within a reasonable distance round it came regularly to obtain, at any rate, sufficient water for drinking purposes, and as a consequence the disease was widely spread. As a matter of course, as soon as the character of the water was discovered, the pump was closed, and the spreading of cholera from that source was arrested. An illustration in the opposite direction was afforded by an examination of the porter-coloured water which is so commonly noticed in ponds near straw-yards, such ponds being the ordinary drinking-places for horses and cattle. The brown-coloured water is commonly said to suggest the presence of sewage, but the water referred to in the farm ponds was repeatedly examined by Dr. Augustus Voelcker, and found by him to be singularly free from organic contami- nation, the brown colour being due to the formation of humic and ulmic acids which did not appear to exercise any deleterious influence on the animals which drank of it. There can be no doubt that the water of these farmyard ponds, into which the drainage from the straw-yards is constantly running, must have received large quantities of organic matter; but, being at the same time perfectly open to the constantly moving atmosphere, the organic matter must have been oxidized into comparatively innocuous com- pounds. It is not suggested, of course, that porter-coloured water is a desirable fluid for horses or cattle, nevertheless it is an undoubted fact that it was in former times the habitual drink of those animals year by year; and in one case in the writer's knowledge it continued for a dozen years on a large farm, where the stock remained during the whole of that time in a remark- ably healthy condition. It was during this period that the two circum- stances, i.e. the remarkably healthy condition of the stock on the farm and the habitual use of porter-coloured water for the horses and cattle�in the case of the latter the invariable use of it for the reason that there was no other water within the animals' reach,�attracted Dr. Voelcker's attention and led to the analyses referred to. The story itself suggests that a chemical examination of discoloured water is necessary in order to deter-

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			FOOD 131

		mine on what the discoloration depends. But, in any case, it must be clearly understood that the colour in itself is not a satisfactory indication of the quality of the fluid. The brightest and most sparkling water may be absolutely deadly, while dark-coloured and dirty water may be comparatively harmless. A rough test, wdiich the unprofessional observer can easily employ, is to allow the specimen of water to stand in a glass for some hours, for the purpose of ascertaining if there is any sediment. Taste and smell are means of ascertaining something of the qualities of water, as in a wholesome state the fluid does not possess any decided taste, either acid or alkaline; and an odour, either pungent or offensive, may be at once accepted as proof that the water is not fit for drinking purposes. Then there are also certain simple tests which may be readily employed even by a person who has not more than a very elementary knowledge of chemistry. For example, the presence of lime may be detected at once by adding a solution of oxy- late of ammonium, which causes at once a white precipitate, and some idea may be formed of the amount by the quantity of precipitate which falls. A mere turbid condition, rendering the water somewhat opalescent in appearance, does not indicate that the water contains more than an ordinary quantity of lime, while a large quantity of precipitate indicates a hard water. Colonel Fred. Smith gives a very simple process, which he has found effectual in estimating in a rough way the amount of hardness of water in which the oxylate of ammonium has caused the characteristic white precipitate. He proposes to use the ordinary soap liniment as a "test, and he finds that 1 drop of this preparation added to \ oz. of Water will indicate about 1-\| grain of lime per gallon, if on shaking the mixture a lather is produced. If, however, 4 drops are required to produce a lather there will be about " grains of lime per gallon. If 6 drops are required there will be 9 grains, W 12 drops, 18 grains. Calculating that the amount of lime per gallon in good water should not exceed 6 grains, it is easy to form some idea of the oegree of hardness which exists in the water under examination. The Process may be further extended in order to ascertain which of the lime salts is the cause of the hardness; which may depend upon carbonate of ^lrne, and indeed generally does, but may also result from the presence a sulphate, chloride, or nitrate. The presence of the carbonate is deter- med accurately by boiling a portion of the water which has been tested y the soap liniment. Supposing that it takes 12 drops of soap liniment ⁰ produce a lather before boiling, and only 3 drops to produce the same ect after the water has been boiled, it would show that the hardness was ^e to chalk (calcium carbonate). The advantage of acquiring this know-

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			132 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		ledge will be obvious when it is remembered that the hardness caused by the carbonate of lime may be got rid of by a comparatively simple process (the addition of a small quantity of lime, and precipitation of the carbonate. See page 123), while that caused by the presence of sulphate, chloride, and nitrate of lime cannot be removed. The test, however, for chlorine, sulphuric acid, and nitric acid would be rather beyond the powers of the amateur. The presence of organic bodies is generally considered to render water unfit for use, but a great deal must depend upon the nature of the organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, and also on the state of decomposition which has been reached. Samples of water which have been found to contain an enormous quantity of vegetable matter have been taken by animals with perfect impunity, doubtless on account of the matter being of vegetable origin, and not having undergone decomposition. Microscopic examination of water, especially water which deposits various impurities after rest, is the only satisfactory method of discovering the character of the impurities. A further step in the same direction is inoculation of nutritive media, such as pure gelatine and other similar subtances used by the bacteriologist, but this, as well as the use of the microscope, must necessarily be left in the hands of the expert. EXAMINATION OF AIR In an absolutely pure state, such as could only be secured by the admixture of the two essential constituents, oxygen and nitrogen, in proper proportion, the air does not exist in nature. The purest air contains a minute quantity of carbonic acid and a certain amount of water vapour, with traces of ammonia and ozone, varying in amount according to the situation, as well as organic and mineral particles. Of the constituents of healthy atmosphere, oxygen deserves the chief consideration as a power- ful agent in the destruction of various impurities. Roughly, its proportion may be taken as one-fifth, while nitrogen constitutes the greater part of the remaining four-fifths, exercising apparently its chief function, that of diluting the oxygen and modifying its stimulant action. Animal life is not sustained by nitrogen, as it is a non-respirable gas; it is destroyed by oxygen by being carried on too rapidly�the animal under the violently stimulating, exciting influence may be said to live the whole of its life in a short space of time. It is only, therefore, by the combination of the two elements that a respirable atmosphere, capable of supporting life for its normal period, is obtained. Air is distinguished by its almost unlimited capacity for absorbing

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		INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE 133 impurities of all possible kinds. Wherever animals and plants exist carbonic acid and various organic substances excreted from the system are constantly being thrown into the air. Living organic bodies are also continually being conveyed by the air, sometimes long distances, and in this way certain infective particles are conveyed from diseased to healthy animals. A large number of these, however, cannot in all probability be carried to any great distance, unless under the influence of powerful currents. It is recorded that ships, when several hundred miles from land, sometimes have their sails and yards covered with sand; it can hardly be questioned, however, that such heavy material could only be conveyed such a distance by very high winds. Examination of air is only possible to the unprofessional observer by the use of the organ of smell, and it may be said of air, as it has already been said of water, that the presence of a smell of any kind is proof of contamination. The taste and the eyesight will assist in certain cases when the air becomes charged with the smoke emanating from chimneys of factories in which trades, which are described as noxious trades, are carried on; but for the purpose of detecting invisible suspended matters, organic bodies, carbonic acid, watery vapour, ammonia, and other solid and gaseous products, the knowledge and skill of the expert are absolutely essential. INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE Under the above heading Dr. Parkes, in his classical work on Hygiene, refers to individual hygiene as a large subject which would require a Volume to itself; it will be understood that by the use of the term that great authority means to include everything which is in any way connected with the habits of the individual:�his work and his amusements, the nature of his diet, and the amount of exercise and rest which he takes, the kind of clothing which he wears, the climate which he inhabits, in ^short, everything which the man does or leaves undone. Even the exercise ⁰¹ his reasoning faculties, to quote the words of the author, "the amount °i mental work, the practice of general good temper, cheerfulness, and nope ", are all concerned in digestive processes, and they are all included ^ln the term individual hygiene. Obviously in applying the term to the ower animals a very large part of the subject, i.e. everything which relates ⁰ mental processes and the exercise of volition, everything indeed which ne individual does by intention, must be necessarily omitted, because the ^ammal in domestication has no choice in the matter of his diet, the amount ■C ^exercise or work, the gratification of his wants, whether reasonable or wierwise, as everything is arranged by the stable attendants. For these

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	134	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	134

reasons the heading " individual hygiene " must be applied to the acts of the individual who attends to the horse, the animal itself being only called upon to submit to what is done for it or what it is constrained to do. The author of Veterinary Hygiene adopts Dr. Parkes's classification generally, and deals with such matters as grooming, clipping, clothing, bedding, and other items of stable management, which vary considerably in different establishments, according to the character of the work which the horse has to perform, or the views of the owner as to the comforts which are necessary for the animal's well-being, or the amount Fig. 484.�Curry-comb of luxury even which may be allowable in reference to stable construction and stable appliances. Grooming is the term which is used to include the various methods of cleaning horses, whether engaged in work or resting in the stable. The instruments employed for the purpose include brushes of different degrees of hardness; a curry-comb, which is a kind of iron rake with fine teeth; wisps, which are small bundles of hay or straw twisted up into a con- venient shape by the stable atten- dant who employs them; sponges, and an iron hook which is employed for removing mud from the feet. A thin flexible band of steel with handles at each end, known as a scraper, is also employed for scrap- ing wet mud from the sides and Fig. 48o.�Scraper ° other parts of a horse on a return from a journey in wet muddy weather. In the ordinary course, horses are groomed in the morning for the purpose of cleaning the skin from the dirt which may have accumulated during the night. This application of the brush with a certain amount of force not only removes the surface dirt, but also stimulates the skin and improves the circulation. It is usual to follow the brush by the wisp of hay or straw, and this part of the process is usually carried on by the stable-

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	INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE
	INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE	135
		135

man with considerable energy, and with the utterance of a peculiar whistling- noise, which may be taken as a habit on the part of the operator, but is also considered by some people to be soothing to the horse. The wisp is usually brought down upon the skin with a certain amount of force, and then drawn along the hair, and the whole effect is doubtless very complete as a method of beating out the dust from the animal's coat. The brush that is employed in the first instance is known as a dandy brush. (See fig. 486.) At different times during the application of this brush the attendant employs the curry-comb, an instrument with an iron back, having secured to it a series of small plates with fine saw-like teeth, intended solely for the cleaning of the brush from the accumula- tion of dirt and loosened portions of cuticle (dandruff), of which word the name given to the brush is evidently a corruption. The curry-comb ^ls sometimes resorted to tor the purpose of assis- ting in cleaning a thick ^e°at and a very scurfy ^skm; it is hardly neces- sary to say that the curry- comb was never intended tor any such purpose, and fL , . ^L ^l Fig. 486.�Dandy Brush wiat its use is altogether objectionable. In fact, unless considerable care is exercised, it may happen that the skin of the animal, to which a new and therefore sharp curry-comb is applied, may be considerably damaged at those parts where the skin is closely applied to bone, as in the protuberant part of the ^Ps, for instance, and the owner of a horse observing such injuries may be pretty safe in suspecting the curry-comb, and in declining altogether t° believe the ordinary explanation that the horse has scratched himself ^against a wall or the side of the stall. I he feet and legs, in muddy weather especially, are generally washed, and ⁿ the case of hunters, which after a run in heavy country in wet weather ^e covered with mud on the legs and lower parts of the body, washing with or cold water according to fancy is usually employed after the scraper ^as oeen used to clear away the greater portion of the mud. This procedure, usual, and on the face of it so natural, a way of getting rid of the dirt at the stableman would have been once condemned as inefficient and idle had neglected it, has for a very long time continued without the least ^spicion that it could under any circumstances be objectionable. It was ^ry well known, however, that there existed a disease of the skin, which ^s called mud fever on account of its affecting horses which were working

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			136 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		on muddy roads or hunting in wet districts, and various methods of treat- ment were employed for its cure, and some countries had the credit of possessing soils which contained an unknown but extremely irritating con- stituent. It was, however, always the case that these parts of the country were perfectly harmless in dry seasons, but, having loose loamy soil, were readily converted into mud by heavy rains, and certainly no particular constituent likely to cause irritation was ever discovered, nor with our present knowledge of the subject is there any reason to suspect that such peculiar constituent existed. To complete the story it is necessary to relate that some fifty years ago a veterinary surgeon in the midland counties discovered, in the course of his practice, that mud fever never occurred in badly conducted stables, where the attendants were either too lazy or too much occupied to trouble themselves about the mud on the animals' legs and other parts, but turned them into their stalls untouched, and got rid of the mud the following morning with the greatest ease, commonly by the aid of the ordinary birch broom, which, being applied to the parts where the dried mud remained, at once swept it off in the form of fine dust. The discoverer, whose name has escaped the writer's memory, as it has that of all modern writers on the subject, apparently induced some hunting men to try the method, to the great disgust of the grooms, as a matter of course. The system very soon became quite general in large establishments, and cracked heels and erup- tions on the legs and other parts of the body almost, and in some cases entirely, ceased to appear among the horses. In the best establishments, where the proper appliances are always to hand and understood, the practice is to envelop the muddy legs in dry, warm, flannel bandages, and brush the dust out of the coat the following morning. As soon as the fact was discovered that washing the muddy skin was injurious, and all the more when hot water was used, a satisfactory physio- logical explanation was at hand; indeed, an experiment by one celebrated physiologist has only to be quoted in order to make the whole matter perfectly clear. The experiment was one connected with a series relating to the causes of inflammation under the influence of change of temperature. The ear of a rabbit was subjected to the influence of cold fluid until the blood was driven from the superficial vessels by the contraction of the arteries. The animal was then at once transferred into a warm chamber. The blood im- mediately rushed back into the channels from which it had just before been driven, with the necessary result that some vessels were blocked by the excess of blood, while in others the circulation was going on with rapidity.

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	INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE
	INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE	137
		137

Fig. 487.�Barton-Gillette Clipping Machine All the essential phenomena of the inflammatory process were thus in- duced. Washing the feet is, of course, entirely free from the objection which attends washing the skin, as the hard horny substance which forms the hoof has no vessels, and consequently no circulation which can be disturbed; and when, in the case of light-coloured horses, washing the legs is insisted ^on> it should be clone with cold water, the greatest possible care should be taken to dry thoroughly the parts which have been washed, and bandages should be at once applied. The practice of washing horses all over cannot possibly be defended. It is totally unnecessary, and, when it is done, the fiances are entirely in favour of the animal being left in a wet condition, unless there are sufficient helpers at hand to ensure that the wisps, which hiust be frequently changed, are applied with sufficient energy, and for a uthciently long time, to get rid of all the moisture. Clipping, or singeing, or both, are absolutely necessary in the case of orses which have a thick winter coat, and are engaged in ordinary work. here is no doubt that the presence of a heavy coat indisposes the animal ⁰ exertion; the warmth naturally leads to excessive sweating, and the coat etted in this way is dried with very great difficulty.

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		138 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	It has been suggested, as an objection against clipping, that a horse, after the removal of a thick coat, is likely to take cold; but this objection may be easily disposed of by the use of extra clothing for a time. In some cases among working horses a portion of the hair is left on the back and loins and also on the extremities. Clothing", in the best establishments at any rate, is looked upon as one of the necessities of stable management, and if we accept Stewart's observa- tion that its effect is to keep horses warm without endangering the purity of the air they breathe by restricting ventilation, it is evident that the use of clothing can be defended on hygienic principles. Clothing is in favour

				Fig. 489.�Clippers for Trimming Legs
			Fig. 488.�Horse-clippers


with grooms and coachmen, and is sometimes used to excess for the purpose of keeping a horse's coat fine and glossy. It must be quite obvious, how- ever, that thick clothing during hot weather is in every respect objection- able, and that, when it is employed, it should be regulated in regard to its weight, according to the climatic conditions under which the horses are placed. Bedding.�In stables where luxurious appliances are in vogue, a sufficient quantity of straw of good colour and quality is considered to be indispensable for the comfort of the horse, as well as for the appearance of the stable; but when economy is an obj ect, as in the case of large estab- lishments, moss-litter is commonly employed, or, in place of it, saw-dust or tan. It was when moss-litter first came into use that there was a great outcry about the injurious effects of the litter on the horses' feet; certainly in some cases the hoofs of animals standing on the moss-litter were found

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INDIVIDUAL HYGIENE

139

to be broken, and the soles of the feet discoloured, as if from the effects of
^a severe bruise. From experience, however, it would seem fair to conclude
that the brittleness and the discoloration must have been due to other
causes.

Of late years, at any rate since its use has been better understood,
Nothing has been heard of this objection.

Some horses exhibit an extraordinary fondness for the straw of their
litter, and eat it in large quantities to the neglect of the hay which is
placed in the rack for their use.

In these cases there are alternative means of prevention. One, the
employment of a muzzle, and the other the disuse of straw⁷ altogether for
the litter of the particular animal in favour of one of its substitutes.

Management Of the feet is a very important part of individual
hygiene, and it consists chiefly in a rapid adoption in regard to healthy feet
°i the policy of non-interference. Hoof
ointments, which are supposed to increase
the elastic qualities of the hoofs, when
they are not injurious by plugging the
openings of the horn tubes, many of which
terminate, from their somewhat oblique
course, on the wall, and all of which so
terminate on the horny sole, are at best en-
tirely unnecessary. The same thing applies,

°t course, to stopping the bottom of the _Fi

490.�Toe-tip for Horses turned to grass

teet. The most important part of hygienics,
^as applied to the feet, is a careful observation of the condition of the hoofs,
^arid of the position of the shoes, with a view to having the latter renewed
when necessary, or removed and reapplied when not sufficiently worn to
necessitate the application of new shoes.

Horses which are kept to rest in loose-boxes�the most successful
method, as a rule, of summering hunters�require more than usual care
in regard to their feet. The hind shoes are usually altogether removed,
^and the edge of the crust is rounded off by the rasp, in order to prevent
ehipping. A light tip would usually be applied to the fore-feet, leaving
the heels to come in contact with the ground surface.

The above remarks may be applied in regard to animals which are
turned out to grass. In very dry seasons horses' hoofs, under such circum-
stances, become exceedingly dry and brittle, and contract sometimes to a
^Seftous extent. This happens just as certainly as it would if the hoofs w^Tere
Amoved and placed in a warm place, the only difference being that, in the
case of the living animal, the drying occupies a longer time. The only

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	140	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	140

remedy is the application of moisture, which possibly may mean the fre- quent removal of the horse from the dry ground into a shed or other place where the soil can be kept moist. It may be taken as a golden rule that moisture is essential for the maintenance of a healthy condition of the hoof horn, and that no other outward application is necessary. Vices.�Certain habits which horses acquire while standing in the stable, habits which depend upon peculiarity of temper and constitution in some cases, while in others they are due to imitation, require correction, as far as it may be possible to correct them. Crib-biting and wind-sucking are perfectly well known to horse-owners; weaving, a singular habit of moving the head from side to side; drawing the halter-ropes by the attached blocks up and down through the manger-rings; and the extremely un- pleasant habit of kicking, particularly at night, are all of them productive of a great deal of annoyance, and some of them�crib-biting and wind-suck- ing for example�are distinctly injurious, the two latter deserving to be classed under the head of unsoundness, as they certainly cause damage to the teeth, and lead to attacks of colic, loss of condition, and even more serious affections, and certainly render an animal less capable of performing the work which is required of it, than it otherwise would be. All these stable vices are fully considered in the chapter devoted to that subject. HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS In the case of horses suffering from any kind of sickness, the principles of hygiene can only be applied for the purpose of assisting the restoration of health, as it would be impossible to preserve what has already been lost. Undoubtedly it is the case that sanitary laws should be more strictly applied in cases of sickness than during health, and their strict application should have relation to everthing connected with stable management. Isolation.�First, the subject of strict isolation has to be considered. At the commencement of an attack of illness it is impossible to determine, in many instances, whether or not the disease is infectious; in fact, it is even at present, notwithstanding our great advance in the knowledge of pathology, doubtful in respect of many diseases, whether they are infectious or non-infectious, and at any rate, at the outset, separation of the sick animal from the healthy is a simple precaution which should neA^er be neglected, if it is possible to enforce it. Food is the next subject, and it is rather remarkable that in regard to sick animals, as well as to sick persons, a question which is most anxiously asked is, what is the patient likely to fancy to eat. It was remarked by a

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	HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS
	HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS	141

celebrated physician that his great difficulty in serious cases was to induce the friends of his patients to refrain from supplying them with anything in the form of food until he gave instructions to that effect; and it is well known to physicians in fever - hospitals what disastrous results have happened from the friends of patients recovering from typhoid fever sur- reptitiously bringing in a currant-bun, under the impression that it would tempt the patient's appetite and be a pleasant change from the slops on which he had been kept. Should the patient attempt to consume the delicacy, the result to be apprehended, and one which has happened, as proved by post-mortem examination, is the lodging of some of the currants m healing ulcers in the intestines, and the setting up of a new ulcerating process. Some horses are certainly exempt, as a rule, from this special risk, but so extremely anxious are the attendants to support a sick animal's strength, as they say, that they not only tempt the appetite of the subject of inflam- mation of the lungs, or other acute disease, with carrots, green food, or some other delicacies, but, if they are refused, as most probably they would be, they insist on forcibly administering food in the form of gruel or thick hnseed tea, quite forgetting that the mere act of exciting the patient, by the force which is necessarily employed, will do far more harm than the rood could do good, even if it were willingly taken. Attendants on sick horses have yet to learn that the want of appetite is -Nature's unmistakable way of hinting that the animal is much better with- out food during the immediately acute stage of a fever attack. It is only during the stage of convalescence that food is absolutely necessary, and the ^lngenuity of the attendant may be wisely exercised in selecting articles of diet which he thinks the horse would be likely to take, always on the understanding that the food selected must be easy of digestion, and concen- trated in its character. All kinds of bulky food are out of the question. A ^c°uiplete change of food has been recommended even in the ease of animals ''hat have no particular disease, but suffer from want of condition, and this °uange is far more necessary with animals which are suffering from acute ⁽ isease. The most perfect change which can be devised is the substitution animal for vegetable diet. Good meat-soup mixed with bran, and placed small portions in the animal's mouth, as previously directed, will often Xcite the animal's appetite, and when he once becomes accustomed to the flavour of the new diet he will take it with avidity. in extreme cases the fibrine of the blood, separated and dried, and mixed the form of powder with bran mashes, has been found very effective as a storative. Milk mixed with eggs forms an acceptable diet for sick horses, ^cl is frequently taken by them without any difficulty, and it may be

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			142 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		allowed at any time after the first acute stage of the disease has begun to decline. One error which is commonly committed in feeding sick horses is that of leaving the food which the animal has refused in the manger, with the idea that he may take it later on. Certainly nothing could be more dis- gusting to a sick person than to have the plate of food which he has declined kept close to him for some hours; and sick horses may be credited with a certain amount of taste in the same direction. When the food has been refused, it should be entirely removed from the manger, after the animal has been allowed a reasonable time to consume it, if he wished to do so. And no more should be offered until the horse indicates by his movements and looks, which an experienced stableman perfectly under- stands, that he is anxious for another opportunity of taking nutriment. Water should be kept always within the animal's reach, and should be frequently changed, so as to be always cool and fresh. The plan that is frequently�and in former times much more frequently than it is now� adopted of adding hot water to take the chill off, the compound so formed being called oddly enough chilled water, instead of what it really was, warmed water, is an act of unnecessary cruelty. Nothing can be more grateful to a man or horse suffering from feverish thirst than a draught of clear, cold water, and probably nothing more sickening than a draught of warm water. Air, fresh and cool, is of equal importance with fresh and cool water, and with animals suffering from congestion or inflammation of the lungs it is often necessary to fix them in such a position that the cool air will reach them, as it is sometimes the case that sick animals will seek the most distant corner of the box, and get as far away from air and light as they possibly can�frequently standing with their heads close to the ground, a position in which they necessarily breathe the same air over and over again. Light.�The question of the amount of light which a sick horse finds grateful will easily be decided by an observant attendant who notices the animal's movements. In diseases in which the eyes are affected, as they commonly are even from sympathy, a strong light is extremely irritating, and should be moderated at once, which can be easily done by fixing some kind of temporary blind to the window. Temperature.�The temperature of the animal's body in all forms of sickness is a matter which should be attended to with the greatest care, and the regulations to this end will vary very considerably according to the season and the situation of the box in which the animal is kept. In all febrile diseases the tendency is towards coldness of the surface

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		HYGIENICS APPLIED TO DISEASED ANIMALS
				H3


generally, and of the ears and extremities particularly. Under such circum- stances it is important to conserve the heat by the application of clothing, which, if necessary, may be made to cover the whole of the animal's body. This is clone by adding to the ordinary rug a hood which will cover the head down to the nostrils, with separate cases for the ears, and reaching downwards to the withers, joining the ordinary rug which should buckle across the chest (fig. 491). The further addition of flannel bandages to the

			Fig-. 491.�Clothing for Sick Horse

	extremities will complete the clothing, which will naturally be thick or thin according to circumstances. Grooming" is very commonly entirely neglected in the case of sick horses, from a mistaken notion that it is better not to expose the surface °f the animal to the open air, or to excite it by the employment of brush ^0r wisp. This excess of precaution may be desirable during the continu- ance of the very acute stage of a febrile disease, and in cases generally where the animal's life depends upon perfect quiet being maintained; but as soon as the animal's condition will permit, friction to the surface should t»e employed daily, and two or three times a day it may be desirable to stimulate circulation in the extremities by removing the bandages and ^land-rubbing the skin of the legs until warmth is restored, applying the bandages again immediately. -Exercise.�Presuming that the horse has a good roomy box, the want

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	144	HEALTH AND DISEASE

of exercise will not be severely felt for some time; but as soon as it is safe for the animal to be moved out of the stable, walking exercise once or twice a day, beginning of course with a very short time and gradually increasing, will be an important aid towards the restoration of the animal's health and condition. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE The two terms, sign and symptom, are constantly used to express the same idea." There is, however, in reality a well-marked difference between them. A symptom is one of the characters of a disease, just as a cough is a symptom of an ordinary cold; it is also a symptom of acute bronchitis and laryngitis, as well as a symptom of what is known as broken wind; while a sign is a definite indication of a particular disease, as the presence of the tubercle bacillus is a sign of the existence of tuberculosis. Notwithstanding the admitted difference between the signification of the two terms, they always have been, and probably always will be, used interchangeably. Strictly speaking, however, this is only justifiable when symptoms are diagnostic, in which case the term signs may be properly applied to them. Symptoms may be described as local and general, according to whether they are limited to the diseased part or relate to the whole of the organism. They are also described as idiopathic when they arise directly from the diseased part, and sympathetic or secondary when they are due to secondary disorder. They are also premonitory and precursory when they are of a nature to suggest the advent of a disease, the indications of which are not yet defined. Thus it may occur to an attendant or to the owner of a horse that the animal has something the matter with it, but the most careful inspection and enquiry may fail to lead to the discovery of any precise morbid condition. Neither the pulse nor the breathing exhibits any special characters, and all that can be gathered from the animal's condition is the impression that it is sickening for something; and if it should be the case that influenza is prevalent in the district, the suspicion is at once aroused of the infection having attacked the animal. Symptoms are diagnostic when they indicate the precise nature of the disorder from which the animal is suffering; for example, an attack of violent but intermittent abdominal pain is a diagnostic symptom of spas- modic colic. Prognostic symptoms include all those indications of disease which suggest the probable termination, as a failing pulse and coldness of the surface are warnings of a fatal ending to the disorder. Therapeutic symptoms are those which indicate a particular line of treatment, as high

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			SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 145

		temperature, quick pulse, and rapid breathing show the existence of fever, ^and point to the application of febrifuge remedies. Symptoms which are obvious to an observer are described as objective, but when they are only expressed or described as sensations experienced by the patient they are called subjective symptoms. It is evident that in the ■lower animals subjective symptoms are practically non-existent, as it is barely the case that an animal by its actions can express its sensations in such a manner as to be rightly interpreted. Again, symptoms are called dynamical when they are active or violent, and statical when they are subdued; the terms positive and negative are also used to express the same conditions. Pathognomonic is a term used in application to symptoms which in- dicate a particular disease, as a peculiar cough and double action of the expiratory muscles are pathognomonic of broken wind. To the unprofes- sional reader these terms may appear to be unnecessarily complicated, but a little consideration will prove their usefulness as a means of saving time m description. General Symptoms Of Disease.�In order to arrive at a correct diagnosis, the skilled examiner has a certain method which enables him to obtain the information which he desires without any waste of time. °yniptoms which to the amateur resolve themselves into a general expres- sion of the presence of some illness, are to the eye of the expert in many ^cases distinctly indicative of the locality and nature of the disorder. When diagnostic symptoms are absent it becomes necessary to make a ^systematic examination, which, although comprehensive, is carried on with ^So little effort and occupies so short a time as to attract very little notice from the lookers-on. For instance, beginning with the animal's head, a ^tew seconds will suffice to enable the experienced examiner to ascertain the condition of the visible mucous membranes; a mere glance at the mouth, the interior of the nostrils, and the eye will be sufficient to show whether °^r Hot the membrane is red or yellow, or pallid or spotted, or in any way _^anged from its normal condition. The general attitude of the animal ^wnl have been noticed at the first moment of inspection, and the con- dition of the surface ascertained by passing the hand over different parts the body and the extremities, the examiner noting whether or not the ^kin is in a healthy state or is harsh to the touch, adherent to the tissues ■ ^eneath, hot, warm, or cold. The condition which is described as a staring; . ^0at> where the hair is more or less elevated or erect, is seen at once, and ^s always accepted as a symptom of bad condition, and may commonly be Ken as premonitory of some serious disorder. After a general examination of the kind described has been completed, Vol. III. 75

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146

HEALTH AND DISEASE

attention is paid to the condition of certain organs, including those of the
circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. The state of the circulatory
organs is to a large extent shown by the character of the pulse, i.e. the
periodic expansion of the arteries, during the contraction of the heart in its
effort to drive the blood throughout the body. This expansion, or beat as
it is called, may be felt by placing the finger over any of the superficial
arteries. The sub-maxillary artery (a, fig. 492) in the horse, as it passes under
the edge of the lower jaw close to the bone, is a convenient vessel for the
purpose. In the popular idea the object of feeling the pulse is to discover

the number of pulsations in a
minute. The pathologist, however,
attaches far more importance to the
character of the pulsation than to
the number of beats in a given
time, and it may be added that the
character of the pulse varies under
different circumstances to an ex-
tent which it may be difficult for
the unprofessional mind to realize.
Many of these variations can be
recognized by the touch; their
complete appreciation, however, re-
quires the use of an instrument

Fig. 492.�Points for Feeling the Pulse

which is known as the sphygmo-

a, The sub-maxillary artery, b, The zygomatic artery.
c, The carotid artery (behind the jugular vein). The
pulse is felt at the points indicated by crosses, at a by
pressing against the inner side of the lower jaw with the
fingers, at b and c by pressing down upon the artery.

graph, which enables the observer
to obtain tracings showing precisely
the condition of the circulation.

The varieties of pulse which can
be recognized by the touch are described by Sir J. S. Burdon Sanderson
in his hand-book of the sphygmograph under four heads: 1st, There is a
frequent and infrequent pulse, terms which mean the number of pulsations
within a given time. 2nd, The quick or slow pulse, expressions which are
erroneously used to define the same thing, i.e. the number of beats per
minute. To the pathologist the words quick and slow bear a totally different
signification, meaning not the number of beats in a minute, but the time occu-
pied by each beat of the pulse irrespective of number in a certain time; thus
a quick pulse may be slow so far as the number of beats in the minute is con-
cerned. 3rd, The large or small pulse, terms relating to the degree of dilata-
tion of the artery in length and breadth. 4th, A hard or soft pulse, so called
from the impression which the beat communicates to the touch: a soft pulse
is easily compressed, while a hard pulse only gives way to considerable force.

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	SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE
		147


All the above described conditions of the pulse, which can be appre- ciated without the aid of any instruments, convey to the mind of the expert certain ideas as to the state of the animal's system or of some particular part or organ. The frequent pulse, for instance�that is, a pulse which beats more frequently than the standard number of 40 in the minute,�in the horse indicates some degree of excitation in the circulatory system, which may depend on a variety of causes�exercise, a sudden alarm, the mere entrance of a stranger or a strange animal, may increase the frequency of the pulse within certain limits; but when in the horse the heats reach to 50 or 60 in the minute, or above, fever is obviously indicated.

A. very frequent pulse may, however, be associated with extreme debility; ^Dut in addition to the rapidity of the pulse in such circumstances there Will be an important change in its character. An infrequent pulse is found in diseases of the heart or brain, and in ^such cases the pulse is often intermittent, a condition which is extremely characteristic and easily recognized; a number of regular beats being fol- lowed by a period of rest, and then succeeded by another sequence of ^regular beats. Quick pulse as distinguished from frequent pulse is more easily dis- covered by the sphygmograph than by the finger. It depends upon the sudden contraction of the ventricle; the expansion of the artery con- sequently occupies less time than in the healthy pulse, although by cal- culating the number of beats during a given period the quick pulse may be °und to be also less frequent than the normal. The quick pulse would usually be taken to indicate excess in irritability of the muscular structure ^of the heart.

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		148 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	Slow pulse as distinguished from infrequent is due to the slow con- traction of the ventricles, so that each beat is prolonged independently of the number of beats in a given time. Eeference has already been made to the sphygmograph, which, is used for the purpose of obtaining a tracing of the pulse. This instrument has

Fig. 494.�Sphygmograph Diagrams of the Pulse (after Sanderson, Dudgeon, and Steell) In the Human Subject�1, Normal healthy pulse: «, systolic wave produced by contraction of left ventricle; b, apex of upstroke indicating highest pressure; c, downstroke; d, first tidal or predicrotic wave; e, aortic notch, probably indicating the end of the systolic and commencement of the diastolic action of the heart; /, dicrotic wave due to sudden closure of aortic valves; g, second tidal wave; g to h, period of rest (after Dudgeon). 2, Feeble pulse of age (weak contractility of artery). 3, Senile pulse (muscle failure of heart). 4, Hard wiry pulse of rheumatic fever. 5, Hard and long pulse of hypertrophy of left ventricle with dilatation. 6, Soft pulse of irritative fever. 7, Nervous excitement. 8, Mitral and aortic disease. In the Horse.�9, Tracing from the facial artery (normal). 10, From the same animal, after the destruction of the aortic valves, showing absence of the dicrotic wave. 11, Hcematograph. Blood spurted from a human artery received upon a revolving drum, showing systolic and dicrotic waves (after Landois). not come into use in general practice, nor is it probable that it will for some time at least replace the ordinary method of taking the pulse; never- theless, it may be interesting to examine the above illustrations, which show very clearly how the different tracings are interpreted; and further information on the subject will be found in the treatises on the sphyg- mograph by Dudgeon, Steell, and others. With regard to the respiratory system, symptoms having reference to

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	SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE
		149


the number of respiratory movements in a given time, and their character, are almost as varied as are those affecting the circulatory system; thus the breathing may be quick or slow, spasmodic or difficult. Stertorous breath- ing is attended with a noise which may be compared to snoring. Breathing niay also be irregular, sometimes being carried on by the abdominal muscles while the ribs remain fixed, and at other times by the thoracic Muscles almost exclusively, as in cases of acute peritonitis. A peculiar form of the expiratory effort is exhibited in the act of coughing, the sound °f which is produced by a sudden spasmodic expiration, and varies as to its character in different forms of disease; thus there are described moist, dry, and spasmodic coughs. There is also a cough which is peculiar to the broken-winded horse and to the roarer. A soft painful cough is present in bronchitis of the acute kind, and its character is so well defined that the ^expert will accept the sound as a diagnostic symptom. A hard, dry, or husky cough indicates the absence of mucus, a fluid which in the normal state moistens the lining membrane of the respiratory tubes, and in one stage of bronchitis, or bronchial catarrh, is secreted in excess and often assumes a purulent character. A dry cough is also a symptom of parasitic bronchitis, which is commonly on this account designated " husk". Symptoms which are observed in relation to the digestive system are often rather obscure in their indications; diarrhoea, for example, may arise from so many and diverse causes that its presence does not materially assist the examiner in forming a diagnosis. Nervous excitement is capable of inducing it in some horses. The sight of a red coat or other preparations for the hunting-field act on some sensitive hunters much more rapidly than a dose of purgative medicine. Indigestion may be ^accompanied by this symptom, or the presence of parasites in the in- stinal canal may produce the disorder; and it may also be the sign of ^a critical stage in certain febrile affections. �In the opposite state, i.e. constipation, the same difficulties occur in he endeavour to interpret the symptom, and in both cases it becomes accessary to take cognizance of other symptoms in order to arrive at a ^c°rrect conclusion. -Diarrhoea or constipation, in association with a yellow tinge of the ncous membrane or the skin, or of both, will naturally lead to a suspicion at derangement of the liver is the primary cause. This symptom is so prognostic, as it points to the necessity of treatment being directed ⁰ the liver rather than to the digestive tube. TV disorder of the urinary organs is usually marked by obvious changes the quantity and character of the urine secretion, and the practitioner ^requently gains valuable information by observing that the secretion is

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	150	HEALTH AND DISEASE

excessive, defective, or altered in character. An examination by means of the microscope and the application of chemical tests are among the means which the modern veterinarian employs to complete the evidence on which his diagnosis must be based. It is not of course expected that the horseman will devote himself to the study of symptoms sufficiently to master the subject thoroughly, but he cannot fail to be interested in an account of the methods which are employed by professional men to arrive at correct conclusions as to the localization and pathological character of the derangements which it is their object to rectify by the use of appropriate remedies. Special Character of Infectious Diseases. � Certain maladies which are due to the action of virulent micro-organisms, and also those in which, up to the present time, no special microbe has been detected, are distinguished from ordinary non-infectious diseases by certain features. The most prominent character of all infectious maladies, which has been recognized from the earliest times, is their tendency to render the system of the animal which they attack proof against a recurrence of the same affection for a considerable period, and in some cases for the life of the subj ect. Further, they are marked by the occurrence of certain phases or stages, beginning with what is called the period of incubation, by which is meant the time which elapses from the moment of infection up to the declaration of the disease, indicated by the appearance of the first definite symptoms. Following this, which may be described as the period of invasion, there is in eruptive affections a perfectly well-defined series of changes in the character of the eruption, from its first appear- ance to its decline. Small-pox furnishes the most typical instance of these changes, which begin with the appearance of papules or pimples (papulation). The effusion of serous fluid beneath the cuticle converts the red pimples into vesicles (vesication), subsequently the contents of the vesicles become purulent (pustulation), and at last dry up and form a scab (desquamation), which ultimately falls off, leaving an eschar behind it (pitting.) These changes occur at intervals on an average of some- thing like three days. In infectious diseases which are not eruptive the stages are not so definitely marked, but there is always the period of incubation, followed by invasion indicated by febrile symptoms, then the progress to the acute stage, and the gradual subsidence of the disorder to the period of convalescence, or, on the other hand, the increase of the energy of the attack until a fatal result occurs. Another peculiarity of infectious diseases is their refractory char- acter in reference to remedial measures. Medicines are for the most

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			SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE 151

		part of little or no value, in controlling the progress of these disorders, and it is recognized as an axiom in the treatment of all such affections that the aim of the physician should be to maintain the patient's strength to enable him to resist the effects of the malady during its progress, which it is admitted cannot be arrested. The recognition of the fact that an attack of an infectious malady exhausts for a certain period the susceptibility of the system, very early ted to the adoption of inoculation as a means of controlling the virulence °i the disorder, and, further, of causing the attack at a period when it might be considered to be of least importance. When the inoculation Was properly performed, even in a virulent disease like small-pox, the resulting attack was generally very mild in its character. The extremely minute quantity of the virus which was employed had a great deal to do with the more benign character of the infection, and the operation had further the advantage of enabling the operator to determine w^Then the disease should be produced, and selecting a period when the patient ^was in the most favourable condition. The one insurmountable objection which presents itself, both in regard to man and the lower animals, is the danger of communication of the inoculated disease to susceptible subjects, who are as likely to suffer from a severe or fatal attack as if they had taken the affection from the most virulent case. The dis- covery of certain microbes which were proved to be the cause of disease, ^and the results of artificial cultivation in modifying this virulence, turned the attention of pathologists to the subject of protective inoculation by means of the ameliorated virus, which was found to produce an extremely mild form of the disease and to confer immunity with a very slight ^aixi°unt of risk. This method of protection has been tried with a certain ^amount of success in anthrax, and in the disease which is known as blackleg in young cattle. In this country the system was not at first ^avourably received; accidents occurred among inoculated animals wdiich °d to losses as great as would in ordinary seasons occur in the unprotected, ttiproved methods of preparation of the virus, and simpler means of ^1Qoculation, have since been attended with a large measure of success. J or a long period there was only one infectious disease�glanders� ⁰ which the horse was believed to be subject, and in regard to this section its infectious origin was frequently disputed. Of late years ^e P^rogress of the science of bacteriology has led to the addition of a ^umber of diseases which are classed as infectious, the term being now uoerstood to include disorders the virus of which may, according to some uthorities, be generated in the organism instead of being introduced from ^e outside. This view, however, of auto-infection is not capable of

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	152	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	152

demonstration, because it is impossible to prove that the infection has originated in the organism, in face of the fact that the atmosphere is capable of conveying the spores of bacteria into the animal's body. The following diseases of the horse in the present day, among others, are in- cluded in the term contagious, infectious, or epizootic affections:�Anthrax, variola (horse pox), tetanus, pyaemia, malignant oedema, contagious stoma- titis, purpura, strangles, influenza, contagious pleuro-pneumonia (which belongs to the influenza group), cerebro-spinal meningitis, tuberculosis, and certain affections of the skin, as mange, ring-worm, and epizootic lymphangitis, depending on the invasion of animal or vegetable parasites. PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES Prevention.�Preventive measures are of the utmost importance in relation to all diseases. They have a special value when directed against infective disorders on account of the peculiarity which those maladies possess of extending the area of their prevalence, unless severe restric- tions are imposed upon the movement of diseased or infected animals, and even of persons or substances which have been in contact with them. Prevention naturally occupies the first place in dealing with infective diseases; its immediate object being to oppose, as far as possible, their introduction into a country or a district. The measures of suppression can only be employed when the disease has been introduced, and it becomes necessary to check its progress. Preventive measures in relation to the infective diseases of the horse must necessarily be limited in the majority of cases to individual action, as all the maladies which have been named already exist in the country, and every purchaser of a horse incurs a certain amount of risk of introducing an infected animal into his stables. Glanders appears to be the only affection which could be consistently dealt with by any restrictive enactments against the entrance of animals from those countries in which the disease is known to exist. The horse-owner may, however, protect himself by the exercise of care in the selection of fresh animals, and further, by enforcing a certain period of quarantine on his own premises, for the purpose of satisfying himself that the animal is free from the more common infective diseases, such as those which belong to the catarrhal group�influenza and strangles, for example. It is also possible for him to ensure perfect cleanliness and thorough disinfection, and he can avoid purchasing second - hand harness, clothing, brushes, buckets, or any apparatus used about the stable; or at least, in the event of such things being introduced, it is not difficult to have them properly

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		PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES 153

�disinfected. It is also important for the horse-owner to recognize the ■added risk which horses incur of contracting disease when they are affected with cracked heels, abrasions of the lips, and generally any wound on the surface which may give access to the infective matter of glanders, strangles, tetanus, and other infectious diseases. Away from home, the horse is exposed to fresh dangers which can hardly be averted. It may be true that the risks associated with public stables and water-troughs are exaggerated, but there can be no doubt that some nsk has to be faced every time advantage is taken of such convenient

	■arrangements.

	In respect to horse-boxes on railways, complaints have been loud and deep that no provisions have been made for proper cleansing and disinfec- tion, and that in consequence a sound horse may be put into one from which a diseased horse has just been taken. This may be done, but only m defiance of the law which has been in operation for many years past, and is generally enforced on all the railways in the country. The order pro- vides that the floors of horse-boxes shall be thoroughly swept and scraped, ■as also all other parts with which the droppings of any horse, ass, or mule have come in contact. The sides of the horse-box and all other parts thereof with which the head or any discharge from the mouth or nostrils °f any horse, ass, or mule has come in contact shall be thoroughly washed with water by means of a sponge, brush, or other instrument. All the above-named steps are to be taken on every occasion after a horse, ass, or mule is taken out of a horse-box and before any other horse, '^a8s₃ or mule, or any animal is placed therein. That the provisions for cleansing and disinfecting horse-boxes are not Universally appreciated may be gathered from the circumstance that corn- Plaints have been made by hunting-men of the use of water in cleansing horse-boxes on the ground that when a horse comes in from a run he wants a dry, warm box rather than a damp one, which being admitted, it never- theless follows that proper cleansing is not possible without the free use of water. Suppression of infective diseases implies the adoption of measures ^re ^or less stringent, according to the character of the disease. First in ^er stands the so-called stamping-out system, which includes slaughter of iseased and infected animals, or in place thereof perfect isolation, which "°uld be equally effective if it were not that it is almost impossible to . ^Sure it. In cases of disease which terminate fatally in the majority of stances, slaughter does not imply any great sacrifice, but in other infec- ^e �aladies which ordinarily end in recovery isolation would naturally be stituted, and it may be here useful to suggest some of the precautions

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			154 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		which the effectual adoption of that system involves. The first requisite is a box which is entirely disconnected from other stalls or boxes, by which, of course, is meant that the walls and boundaries�no matter of what material they may be composed�although as a matter of course brick walls properly cemented so as to obtain a smooth surface are preferable to any other material�should extend from the floor to the ceiling; the entrance door should be also solid, light being admitted by a properly arranged window, and ventilation provided for as far as possible by openings in the ceiling. Next, all the appliances which are necessary in the feeding and general management of the animal should be kept in the box; and further, the man attending on the sick beast should have a waterproof covering which he can put on when entering the box, taking it off and leaving it in some con- venient place as he comes out. It may seem hardly necessary to suggest that washing his hands in a disinfecting fluid and cleansing and disinfect- ing his boots are simple matters of precaution which commend themselves, to common sense, and cannot possibly be omitted without definite and incalculable risk being incurred of spreading the disease. During the time that a sick animal is kept in the isolation-box the free use of disinfectants is to be recommended. In the present day there are disinfectants which possess no odour, which can be used without giving offence to the most delicate nostrils, so that the common objection to their employment is easily disposed of. As soon as an animal has recovered, and is considered to be sufficiently well to leave the box, thorough cleansing* and disinfection will necessarily follow. The procedure will not materially differ whether the animal has been slaughtered in consequence of having been affected with glanders or has recovered from an attack of influenza or strangles; in the latter case, however, it would not be unreasonable to dis- infect the animal itself, immediately it comes outside the box, by sponging it over with a solution of Chinosol, and thoroughly washing its feet. In regard to the box from which a diseased animal has been taken, the litter which has been used during the time of its illness, instead of being; carted away for manure, should be taken to a convenient place to be burnt, or, this being impossible, it should be thoroughly mixed with quicklime; the floor, after being sprinkled with lime should be thoroughly swept, and the walls and all parts of the box should be thoroughly washed with hot w^xater in which a liberal quantity of washing-soda has been dissolved. This preliminary washing is perhaps the most important part of the whole process, and no amount of disinfection can compensate for its neglect. In a properly constructed isolation-box the rack and manger and water-trough would all be made of iron, and therefore could easily be cleansed arid dis- infected; but if the animal has been kept in a place where wooden racks and

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	PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
		155


mangers are used, the most effective measure would be to have them pulled down and burnt, especially if the wood-work is in any way damaged, and the same course would be wisely adopted with regard to brushes, buckets, sponges, rubbers, and any other apparatus which has been used about the diseased animal. After the sweeping and washing have been thoroughly done, all parts to which the cleansing process has been applied should undergo disinfection, and there is no doubt whatever that fumigation with chlorine gas, or sulphurous acid from burning sulphur, is the most effective means which can be adopted; but to be perfectly effectual the place must be so arranged that it can be completely closed while the gas is being disengaged. The ordinary sulphur candle supplies a convenient and satisfactory means of filling a place with sulphurous acid gas. Chlorine may be most readily set free by filling some common dinner-plates with a mixture of common salt and peroxide of manganese, and then pouring over the mixture ordinary commercial hydrochloric acid. As soon as the gas commences to escape, either from the sulphur candle or the mixture of salt and manganese, the door should be closed and the place left for twenty-four hours. The disinfection may be completed by applying to the floor and walls and all parts of the box a solution of any of the numerous disinfectants which are in use. Carbolic acid is most commonly employed, and in a mixture With twenty or thirty parts of water is very effectual for the purpose. A place which has been properly disinfected should be fit for use for another animal as soon as the walls are dry, and this statement will answer the question which is commonly put as to the length of time which ought to be allowed before infected premises are again used for keeping animals. Clearly it must be the case that if the infected matter has been thoroughly destroyed or removed, time is a matter of no consequence, and rt the process has been imperfectly done, and active infective matter is still ^eft, it is impossible in many cases to say how long it may remain active. ^iri fact, it would be necessary to make a different calculation in regard to ^each infective disease. Most probably the duration of the life of many Kinds of virus discharged from diseased animals is brief, otherwise infective disorders would be more rife than they are. There are, however, always 'eacly for quotation, stories of the wonderful vitality of infective matter, ^d it is at least satisfactory to keep an animal out of a place where microbes ^m&J* possibly lurk until the danger may reasonably be regarded as. a thing of the past. A more serious difficulty is the want of proper appliances, in most ivate premises, for isolation and disinfection, and, further, the failure on ^e part of the owner and the attendants to realize the necessity of minute

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
		156	HEALTH AND DISEASE

	attention being paid to each detail of the cleaning and disinfecting process, whereas the smallest blunder may render the whole procedure useless. It will probably be a subject of enquiry what is the best course to be pursued in instances when, from the construction of premises and other circumstances, it would be absolutely impossible to carry into effect in their entirety the means which have been recommended, and the answer can only be in effect what is provided in orders relating to disinfecting and cleaning processes, viz. that where the premises cannot be disinfected, as in the case of a field, for example, in the manner directed, it shall suffice that they be disinfected as far as practicable.

27. OPERATIONS MEANS OF RESTRAINT Dealing with animals like the horse, of high nervous organization, great ■strength and activity, and often considerable weight, it is sometimes necessary to employ means of restraint whereby operations of greater or less severity may be per- formed. Minor ones can often be accomplished under the restraining in- fluence of the voice alone; and in this connection it may be remarked that it is given to some men to exercise great authority over the brute kingdom, while a want of tact and judgment would seem to preclude others from ever Fig. 495.-Twitch applied attaining such a desirable influence. Some of the means employed for this purpose are mechanical, others physiological, and in their application may be confined to a limb, or to one portion of the animal, or applied to his whole body. By superior force the animal is rendered incapable of resistance, and the same may be ■effected by the administration of drugs which overcome consciousness and paralyse movement.

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			PLATE LI

	HORSE HOBBLED

L

		HORSE CAST

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			MEANS OF EESTRAINT 157

		The twitch is a simple and effectual appliance by which a horse may be induced to submit to some trifling operation. It is, however, too often resorted to in many stables in lieu of gentler methods of persuasion. This instrument consists of a loop of stout cord attached to a strong" stick by means of a hole an inch or two from the end. In applying it the loop is placed on the horse's upper lip, and the stick is then twisted until sufficient force has been applied to overcome resistance (fig. 495). It is sometimes applied to the ear and tongue. The ear is liable to be per- manently injured by it, and the practice of twitching the tongue is so cruel, as well as dan- _t gerous, that it cannot be too strongly con- demned. As soon as the twitch is removed from the lip, the latter should be gently rubbed with the palm of the hand, as this gives relief to the horse, and his grati- fication is evident by his manner. Holding up a leg will be a sufficient de- terrent in many cases where a restive animal Will not Otherwise Sub- _Fig. 496.-Fore-leg strapped up mit to be handled. If strapped up with a stirrup-leather�a method of restraint to be remembered in emergency (fig. 496)�knee-caps should not be forgotten, in anticipation of a fall. Restive horses are sometimes induced to take medicine, or remain quiet while a hay seed is being removed from the eye, or some other simple operation is performed, by inserting the running portion of a hemp halter under the upper lip while the head piece is jessed over the poll; any resistance made by the animal while so secured increases the amount of punishment and causes him to desist. Attaching the head to the tail is one of the breaker's means of secur- ^lng obedience, but is rarely applicable for the purposes of medication or nnnor surgery, so that we need not particularly describe it. The bag of

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		158 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	corn which the breaker finds useful in the case of determined rearers is also of service in the stable when a horse refuses to be drenched or "balled" and strikes out with his front legs. Here an ordinary corn sack is about half-filled with heavy oats or maize, and the ends firmly secured to a harness collar (previously put on the animal's neck) in such a manner that the contents are suspended in front

Fig. 497.� The Travis of the creature's knees. He cannot strike, and it is with difficulty he can rear. The horse-hair crupper is a useful restrainer, but belongs rather to the cure of vice than that of disease. The travis (fig. 497)�a fixed apparatus seldom seen at the present day, though in general use formerly at all country smithies�is an arrangement of posts and rails, in length rather less than that of a horse's body, and in width only sufficient to permit those of large size to enter. By means of bars, straps, and cords a restive animal can be secured in a variety of

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			PLATE Lil

		VINSOT'S OPERATING TABLE

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			MEANS OF RESTRAINT 159

	attitudes, but the patient is liable to injure himself while struggling-, and J? 1 * tor this reason the travis has to a great extent fallen- into desuetude. The Side-line is a useful and humane appliance, having few objections, although, like all other methods of securing a horse, it is not wholly free from danger, either to the animal or attendants. A single and a double side-line are recognized among those in the habit of operating upon animals. The former consists only of a long rope passed round the neck and fastened in form of a collar, the free end being carried between the hind-limbs and into the hollow of the heel, whence it is brought round to the front, and looped or fastened by a " half hitch " to the collar portion again.

		Fig. 498.�Side-line Fig. 500.�Cross Hobbles

The hind-leg can in this way be brought forward, and the horse pre- vented from kicking on that side. The double side-line is employed in the same w^Tay on both limbs, but in addition it is also used to cast and firmly secure an animal on the ground. A common wagon rope is all that is necessary, but very much more con- venient lines are now supplied by veterinary instrument makers. They are provided with eyes through which the rope ends are made to pass, with a minimum risk of either rubbing the skin or drawing the line too tight {fig. 498. See also Plate XLIII). HobbleSc�This term may be employed to describe the apparatus used by veterinary surgeons for casting and securing horses on the ground. It consists of stout leather straps with steel eyes and buckles, and a specially .made rope terminating in a few feet of chain, where the principal strength is required (figs. 499 and 500). The subject may be cast on either side or

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			160 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		readily turned over, when down, from one to the other. The accompany- ing illustrations give an idea of the modus operandi of casting (Plate LI). The horse to be cast is first made to stand with all four legs close together; the rope is then drawn up tight, the leading man standing near to the fore hobble, and at the word of command the three or four men engaged on the rope pull together in an outward and backward direction. To ensure the animal falling on the side opposite to that on which the men are pulling, another rope is usually attached on the falling side to a surcingle or else under the opposite arm, and given into the charge of one who can be depended on to exert the necessary power- when the right moment arrives. When down, the rope is prevented from running out, and the horse from moving his legs, by a spring hook (fig. 501) being inserted between one of the links of the shortened chain, while his head is held back and pressed upon the ground. A piece of old pasture is the most convenient and at the same time safest bed upon which to cast animals, but where this is not procurable, a thick bed of straw answers the purpose equally well. Fig. 5oi.�spring Hook for Hobbies For the more important operations, and especially in well-equipped stables, an oper- ating-table, such as that illustrated in Plate LII, is of course desirable,, though not by any means essential. The physiological means of restraint have been incidentally referred to in other parts of this work, notably that dealing with the subject of local and general ansesthesia. For minor operations cocaine is one of the most valuable of recently discovered anaesthetics. By its aid we may perform minor operations upon the eye, the mucous membranes of the mouth, nostrils, &c. By injecting it under the skin, even such severe pain as that inflicted by firing can be obviated, and the patient made to stand during the operation. A solution containing from 4 per cent to 10 per cent of the drug is commonly em- ployed, whether for painting on a mucous membrane or injecting subcu- taneously, and up to about 15 grains, there is absolute safety. No greater amount should be used at any one time except under professional direction.. (See Anaesthesia, Vol. II, p. 479).

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			NEUEOTOMY, NEUEECTOMY, UNNEEVING 161

		NEUEOTOMY, NEUEECTOMY, UNNEEVING The operation known by the above terms is undertaken with the object °i depriving some part of an animal of sensation when affected with an mcurable disease. It is resorted to in cases of navicular disease, of side- bone, ring-bone, and other forms of lameness of a chronic and painful character, more especially in the region of the feet. Unnerving, although always effective in depriving the part of sensation, is attended with a varying measure of success, largely dependent upon the judgment of the surgeon. If undertaken upon a subject of navicular dis- ease, for instance, it is important that the foot shall have sufficient strength °i horn to receive the nails, without risk of binding or pricking in the course °f shoeing. When deprived of sensation, injuries of this kind are not recognized by the horse, and he continues to use the diseased and unfeeling toot without that care which he would otherwise take of it, and without showing any signs of lameness. The presence of corns, which may fester ^ln a foot deprived of sensation, is another element of danger, since in the absence of pain and lameness it is liable to pass unnoticed, until irreparable Mischief is wrought. It is, however, an error to suppose that reparative power is lost when the purely sensory nerves are divided. If a pricked loot or one with a festered corn is detected before serious inflammatory changes have taken place, recovery may be looked for, if judiciously treated. Neurectomy, if performed on suitable subjects, is undoubtedly a valu- able operation, and may add tw^To or three years or more to the usefulness ^of an animal. Methods of Operation.�The operation is distinguished topographi- cally as the high operation and the low operation. These terms are some- what confusing to the beginner, as there is another neurectomy frequently performed, but adopted much later. It is called median, and is the highest ⁰¹¹ the limb, the median nerve being situated on the inner aspect of the- °rearm as shown at Fig. 502. For the present the old nomenclature must ³ retained. The high operation consists in division and removal of a Portion of the trunk of the plantar nerve immediately above the fet- °ck. Here it runs a little to the front of the border of the back tendons ^ S- 502), and, being immediately beneath the skin, affords the surgeon ciuties for division without the risk of injuring other structures. It is ather more superficially placed on the outside, and as its bifurcation takes P ace somewhat lower down than on the inner side, the incision in the skin ^1Tlay be made a little farther down the limb in the former than the latter. ' ^ls usual to divide both nerves, though not always necessary, as, for ^v°l. III. 76

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		162 HEALTH AND DISEASE

	instance, when side-bone exists on one. aspect of the pastern only. More- over, by leaving the nerve of one side intact, the foot will continue to enjoy a certain amount of feeling, which will not only give security to the animal's movements, but ensure some degree of caution in the use of the limb, which will be to the advantage of the neurotomized half of the foot. It is necessary to cast the animal prior to operation, and if total anaes- thesia is to be produced, a period of some fifteen hours' fasting is recom-

Fig. 502.�Tenotomy and Neurectomy. Localities of the various operations 1, Median neurectomy. 2, Neurectomy of the ulnar nerve. 3, Tenotomy of deep flexor tendon. 4, High plantar neurectomy. 5, Low plantar neurectomy. 6, Cunean tenotomy. mended; indeed, fasting by way of preparation for throwing is by many veterinary surgeons considered a necessary precaution against risk of rupturing some of the abdominal organs, especially the stomach and bowels. If, immediately the horse is cast, the precaution is taken to apply a powerful india-rubber band (with hook-and-eye) to act as a tourniquet, bleeding from the wound is prevented, and the operator has no difficulty in dissecting the nerve from its surroundings. The site of the operation is closely clipped, and washed with soap and water, and afterwards dressed with an antiseptic, the same precautions being taken in respect to instruments and appliances to be used. A longi- tudinal incision about three-quarters of an inch in length is then made with a sharp scalpel, and the underlying connective tissue divided until a clear

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NEUROTOMY, NEURECTOMY, UNNERVING

163

view of the nerve is obtained.
Wate LIU, fig. 2) with an eye
m it is then passed under it.
While so placed, the end of a
piece of carbolized silk or gut
^ls passed through the eye of
the needle and drawn back-
under the nerve, which may
^now be raised from its bed
and divided by a pair of

A blunt-pointed needle (fig. 503, and

Fig. 504.�Neurotomy Needle and Knife combined

blunt-pointed scissors. The chief difficulty attaching to this rather delicate
operation is to recognize the nerve when exposed, and to distinguish
between it and the artery
^which runs alongside of it.
tn old horses, the victims
°f many blisters, these two
structures are somewhat
^nr»dy attached together,
^and require careful dissec-
tion.

Three-quarters of an
inch of the nerve trunk
^must now be removed
^tr°m that portion con-
nected with the foot. Then .
the wound must be irri-
gated with an antiseptic,
^aiid covered with a pad
cotton-wool supported

y ^a clean linen bandage,
*ⁿ<l subsequently treated

y the ordinary antiseptic
Method.

Many modern practi-
tioners who are adept at
his operation make a trans-

^Verse mcision, and cut down

Fig. 505.�High Plantar Neurectomy by Transverse Incision

^uP°n the nerve with very

ofll?⁸?¹"¹³?⁰⁶ °^f ^the ^adJ^acent ^tissues- ^The ^nerve ^ divided by means

len^tt _f ^eV^eedle "^ ^kmfe ^(% ⁵⁰⁴>' ^In °^rder ^t0 ^remove ^a ^suffi^t
oi it, through an aperture no more than half an inch long (fig. 505),

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		164		HEALTH AND DISEASE
				HEALTH AND DISEASE

the insensitive end that has just been divided is picked up by strong pliers, and pulled out until sufficient is exposed for removal, as above advised. Next in frequency of performance is the low operation, in which the posterior branch of the plantar nerve (fig. 502) is divided as it passes along beside the perforans tendon, midway between the fetlock and the coronet. The mode of procedure is the same as that described for the higher neurec- tomy. It is sometimes resorted to in navicular and other diseases of the posterior part of the foot, but it is not so uniformly successful as when the

			Fig. 506.�Low Plantar Neurectomy. Raising Fig. 507.�Low Plantar Neurectomy. Sever- the digital nerve by an aneurism needle threaded ing the digital nerve held out by carbolized silk with carbolized silk or gut or gut

	main trunk is divided above the fetlock. It has the advantage, however, of leaving a certain degree of sensibility in the front part of the foot, which greatly adds to the safety of the animal's movements. Dealers in unsound horses are much in favour of the low operation, as the scar resulting from it is not readily seen, and the unwary are in this way imposed upon. Median neurectomy (fig. 508) is sometimes performed for the relief of lameness affecting some part of the limb from the fetlock upwards, such as that arising from " knee splints " and other ossific depositions which have not yielded to ordinary measures of treatment. Division of the ulnar branch (fig. 509) is also practised for removing sensibility of parts at the back of the knee.

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			PLATE LUI

		NEURECTOMY: THE HIGH PLANTAR OPERATION cision. ₂. Needie passed below the Iateral digital nerve and threaded with earbolized silk or gut.
'� ^Making the I�


	-^vennS ^the Nerve. ₄. Removing portion of the Nerve. 5. The Operation completed.

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NEUROTOMY, NEURECTOMY, UNNERVING

165

Neurectomy has also been

resorted to in the case of

spavin, when all other treat-
ment has failed, but not with

satisfactory results.

Horses which have been

unnerved, although free from

lameness, usually give some

indication of the fact. When

the hand is passed over the

site of operation the foot is

sharply raised as though the

animal had been asked to hold

it up, or the horse flinches on

the application of slight pres-
sure over the nerve end,which
always remains sore for some

time after division. In many
cases a nodule of more or

Fig. 508.�Median Neurectomy

1, Median nerve. 2, Brachial artery. 3, Brachial vein.
4, Ante-brachial fascia.

less hard material forms on l_________________________________________

the end of the upper division of the nerve, which can be felt on either
side of the leg where the incision was made. When these exist they
form serious ground of suspicion as to
neurectomy having been performed,
and all that is needed to settle the
point is a few pin-pricks over the pas-
tern. If the nerves have been divided
there will be no snatching up of the
foot, as occurs when sensibility of the
skin is intact.

Sequelae. � Some of the conse-
quences of neurectomy have been inci-
dentally alluded to: gelatinoid de-
generation of tendons, sloughing of
the hoof by undiscovered suppuration
arising from pricks, wounds, corns, &c.
When the operation has been resorted

to for navicular trouble, the diseased

Fig. 509. �Neurectomy of the Ulnar Nerve

bone will sometimes fracture or the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
flexor tendon passing under it becomes excoriated, its fibres soften, and
rupture under the weight imposed upon them; the toe turns up, and the

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166

HEALTH AND DISEASE

hindmost portion of the heel comes to the ground. A swelling now
appears round the coronet, a bulging is seen in the hollow of the heel,
and ultimately the hoof sloughs away and the end has been reached.

FIRING OR THE ACTUAL CAUTERY

Firing has been referred to, in other parts of this work, as an indis-
pensable operation for the cure of lameness, while the actual cautery has
also been advocated for the treatment of other forms of disease.

In veterinary practice the term " firing" has by common consent
been applied to operations upon the limbs, as distinct from the use of
the actual cautery for the destruction of morbid tissues, the arrest of

hgemorrhage,

the

severance of organs
(as in castration). In
the former case it is
employed with two
principal objects,

namely, the excita-
tion of superficial in-

Fig. 510.�Firing Irons

flammation outside,

but as near as pos-
sible to, the seat of injury or abnormal growth, and by its subsequent
thickening and contraction of the skin to afford an abiding support un-
obtainable in any other way. No humane man can witness the operation
of burning the living tissues without pain to himself, and it is a matter
for congratulation that not only is firing much less practised at the present
time than formerly, but the more general use of chloroform by veterinary
surgeons has deprived the operation of all unnecessary suffering. Since
the necessity of firing is admitted by the best-informed as well as the
most humane practitioners, we need not stay to defend the practice, but
proceed briefly to describe the methods. Whether the operator proposes
to fire in straight lines, on " feathers", " diamonds", " lozenges", or to
make punctures with a pointed iron, the preparation will be the same.
The part of the limb to be fired should be closely clipped, or the skin
will be scorched by the burning hair, and the smoke and charred remains
will obstruct the view of the surgeon and prolong the operation.

It is usual to cast the patient with hobbles (Plate LIV), but many
men, expert by long practice, succeed in making a fairly good pattern
with no greater restraint than that afforded by the twitch, and a front
or hind limb held up. Cocaine, injected by several punctures a few

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			-o r- >

		HORSE CAST FOR FIRING

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	FIRING OR THE ACTUAL CAUTERY
		167


minutes prior to operating, undoubtedly reduces the pain to the animal, and risk to the surgeon who undertakes to fire while the patient is stand- ing. Plain lines about three-quarters of an inch apart probably answer quite as well as the most artistic patterns where the firing is intended to act upon a considerable area, as, for instance, in broken-down ligaments and tendons; but in the case of bony growths, as spavins, side-bones, and splints, punctures may be made with a fine-pointed iron (fig. 511) heated in a fire, or by an aluminium point heated by spirit vapour, as practised in the use of the thermo-cautery. Whether an iron or aluminium instru- ment is used, the acting surface of the implement should be slightly rounded at the edge, and applied in such a manner as to burn until a dull white appearance of the skin is produced, but avoiding complete division of it, which might result in sloughing and permanent blemish. Besides the immediate superficial inflammation produced by the iron, which should be at red heat when taken from the fire, it is claimed for this ancient method of treating lameness, _Fig _5n.__Spavin._punch that by causing the skin to thicken and contract it is made to afford permanent support to the part. There are not wanting authorities who deny the claim that firing has the effect of contracting the skin and producing a permanent bandage, and who assert that all the beneficial results the operation confers are obtain- able from repeated blisterings. Viewed from the humanitarian aspect, a ^verdict in favour of firing might be given, in preference to blistering repeatedly, as it is more than likely that a horse suffers as much pain from ^a blister as from firing, if the latter operation is performed under chloro- form. The inflammatory action set up by firing is not more painful than that produced by a severe blister, and as the effects produced by the °rmer can only be obtained by a repetition of the latter there is little ⁰ oe said against firing on the score of humanity. ^he practice of applying a blister immediately to the skin already eated by the iron is not desirable where the lines are drawn close together, !t may be done with advantage in " open" firing. A minimum of two ttis rest should be ensured to a fired horse, and as much longer as distances permit; the latter part of the time may be spent in a pad- ^v or well-littered yard in preference to a loose-box, where during the i . ^ew weeks the patient should be confined. No good object can be . °y removing the thick and scabby layer which results from the be I If °ⁿ' ^anc^' ^un^^ess ^an early repetition of the blister is required, it should ⁰ tall away after an under-covering of hair has been produced.

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HEALTH AND DISEASE

168

TENOTOMY

For the most part this operation aims at straightening deformed limbs
by division of the tendons where, as the result of sprain or other causes,
they have become contracted, or where from congenital deficiency of
development they are abnormally short. A preliminary dose of aloes or
some diuretic medicine may be advantageously employed where the limb
is thick or swollen, as this tends to remove any temporary swelling and

bring the tendons more clear-
ly into view.

Animals with contracted
tendons have usually a
very overgrown foot at
the heel. This should be
brought to the ordinary
level before operation. The
tendons which most fre-
quently call for treatment
are the large flexors of the
fore and hind limbs, "per-
forans" and " perforatus".
Cunean tenotomy is prac-
tised for stringhalt when due
to adhesions connected with
spavin or other lesions in
the immediate neighbour-
hood, but is of doubtful
value. The operation, in

Fig. 512.�Cunean Tenotomy. Scalpel inserted, forceps
holding away fascia

any case, should be per-

formed under chloroform.
The position chosen for
dividing the "perforans" or "perforatus" tendon is a little below the
middle of the canon, or rather less than half-way between the fetlock
and knee of a fore-limb, and the fetlock and hock of a hind one.

The horse having been prepared, and everything in readiness, he is cast
in the usual way, and the cross-straps are placed upon his legs above the
hocks and knees (Plate LIV), the horse lying upon that side on which are the
limbs we intend to operate upon, a position which will enable us to operate
on the inner side of the limb. The writer's reasons for preferring the inner
side are that the cicatrix is less in view than it would be if it existed on
the outer side, and we are not likely to wound the oblique branch of nerve

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TENOTOMY 169

{fig. 502), which leaves the inner metacarpal nerve at the upper third
of the space between the knee or hock, and fetlock, to join the outer at the
lower third. If we are about to operate on the hind-leg, the upper cross-
strap (Plate LIV) is
buckled up tight, thus
■drawing the upper-
most hind-leg as far
forward as possible,
The foot of the leg to
^De operated upon is
now removed from the
hobble; a web halter
is placed around the
leg above the hock,
but below the cross-
strap, its free end
being held by two
assistants, who are to
pull, when desired to
oo so, in a backward
direction. It will be
seen that this traction
will be directly against
the cross-straps, which

will fix the leg. A
similar piece of rope

Fig. 513.�Tenotomy. Tenotomy knife inserted beneath tendon. Skin
cut away to show position of blade beneath tendon. Forceps holding
sheath

^ls to be placed around
the hoof; the heels of the shoe will prevent it from slipping off, and the free
^nd is to be held by an efficient assistant, who also is to draw steadily when
Erected. To raise the leg a little it may be placed upon a cushion. The
operator is now to place himself so as to be out of personal danger. The
^two men at the pos-
terior rope are to
'draw firmly and

steadily. The assis-

Fig. 514.�Tenotomy Knife

tant at the foot rope

^s to flex the foot as the operator directs, who is now to grasp the tendons,
which are quite lax, about midway between the hock and fetlock with his left

^and, the fingers being placed beneath the tendons and the thumb above
^m (fig. 515). In this way we can to a slight extent separate one tendon

^r°m another, so as to feel distinctly the space between the two. (Varnell.)

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	170 HEALTH AND DISEASE

After making a very small incision in the skin, the leg is slightly flexed. The tenotomy knife (fig. 514) is then forced sideways between the tendons. and the suspensory ligament. The point of the knife must not be allowed to puncture the skin on the opposite side of the limb, and when introduced it must be kept close to the tendons to avoid injury to the vessels and nerves running along their border. The blade is now turned so that the cutting edge is brought, into contact with the part to be divided; the foot is. then forcibly extended by an assistant acting on the foot rope, and by a firm, steady, sawing- movement of the knife the tendon is severed. This will be made known by a sharp snapping noise emitted by the sudden.

			parting of the divided portions. The operation being accomplished, the knife is withdrawn and the animal is allowed to rise. A piece of carbo- lized wool is now applied to the wound, and sup- port given to the leg by the application of a linen. bandage from the foot,
		-Tenotomy of the Perforans Tendon, showing position of hands and knife
				upward towards the hock

or knee, as the case may be. In order to prevent any undue lengthening of the divided tendons during reparation a high-heeled or a patten shoe will require to be placed on the foot, and the animal must be supported by slings. At the expira- tion of a fortnight or three weeks the heel of the shoe must be lowered, and the position the foot takes on the ground carefully noted from day to day,, so that' should the heel show any signs of being drawn up as the tendon becomes reunited, a shoe with a long toe-piece or lever must be fitted to the foot in order to prevent undue contraction in the uniting substance. It is customary with some to divide both perforans and perforatus, but in recent cases of contraction it suffices to divide the one or the other..

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				171
			CASTRATION


whichever may need it. The complete straightening of the limb is not always immediately apparent, as in long-standing cases numerous adhesions may still prevent the heel from being brought to the ground, unless they are put upon the stretch and broken by forcible extension of the leg while the animal is under control. Where no such adhesions exist, the patient at once puts the heel down and the toe has a tendency to turn up. After-treatment consists in keeping the wound aseptic by bandaging with suitable dressings (see Antiseptics Employed in the Treatment of Wounds) for a few days, during which it may be expected to heal. Tying up the animal's head to prevent interference with the limb is always desirable. When the tendons have reunited and the new connecting material has become firm and dense, the horse may be turned into a soft meadow for two or three months until the parts have regained their original strength. The application of a repetition of blisters to the leg will reduce any slight enlargement which may result from the operation, and if at the same time the patient be subjected to a course of iodide of potassium a still better result may be effected. The success of the operation is generally greater in the fore than the hind limbs, but very much depends on the time which is allowed for repair. J-he posterior extremities having to bear the strain of propulsion in heavy draught, require that reparation be thoroughly completed before the horse resumes w^Tork, and for this reason a longer time should be allowed. More or less thickening of the tendons always remains after the opera- tion, but by keeping the wound thoroughly aseptic this will be very much under control. The only operation of much practical value is that on the back tendons
	^of the leg.
	^of the leg.

		CASTRATION

	The necessity of this operation, at least so far as the British Islands are concerned, is its justification. There are not wanting extreme humani- ^arians who are prepared to deny the necessity of castration, and point to the fact of entire animals being employed to a considerable extent in �European capitals. In the omnibuses of Paris, stallions are commonly °und yoked together, and apparently upon good terms with each other. n this country it has been proved dangerous and inconvenient to employ ⁿⁱ for such purposes. We may claim, too, that the custom of castration vmg been general for centuries, has tended to the survival of the fittest, that being so, our horses are in every respect superior to those of other untries, and being more high-spirited, are consequently dangerous for s> neral use when not emasculated. It is obvious that breeds cannot be

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			HEALTH AND DISEASE
	172		HEALTH AND DISEASE

maintained pure if at pasture the sexes are permitted to associate, and the inconvenience of having to keep them apart on an ordinary farm holding would very materially interfere with horse-breeding. In the town stable a similar objection applies, notwithstanding that certain mechanical re- straints are employed to keep mares apart and stallions from fighting. Castration in some crude form would seem to have been a means adopted very early in the history of the world, not only for the purposes of taming and controlling animals used in the service of man, but also for improving their flesh. In the Pentateuch we have references to animals "maimed, broken or lacking in their parts", and a very distinct one to mulling¹ as still practised in Asia. Age.�It is usual in this country to castrate yearlings, provided the colt has wintered well and developed sufficiently in the forehand. There is much to recommend this custom, inasmuch as the animal may continue after operation to run with other horses. It is, however, found that some considerable number of colts are not fit for operation at this age, for the reason that only one testicle is to be seen in the scrotum, the other not having made the second descent (they are both usually present at birth). It is then advisable to wait until autumn or perhaps until the following spring. Castration is also postponed until the second year when colts are low at the wither, light or of ewe-formation in the neck, or generally back- ward in development, or where it is desired to have male features more pronounced. For the last reason, operation may be deferred until the third season, when all the inconveniences of keeping an entire horse are of course encountered. When the operation is too long deferred the shoulders become thick and heavy, the crest high and coarse, and the forehead broad; in a word, the masculine features which distinguish the horse from the gelding become developed. METHODS OF OPERATION These are many, and vary not only in different countries, but also in counties and districts of England. Some are practised while the animal is upon his feet; others necessitate casting with hobbles or ropes. The oldest, and what is still regarded by many expert operators as the best method, is by actual cautery. Hobbles of various designs (see Methods of Restraint) are employed by some operators, while others attain their object with no other apparatus than a wagon rope (see Plates LI and LV). The colt being cast upon his left side, and the hind-limbs drawn for- ward out of the way of the castrator, the parts are fully exposed. The

		Levit. xxi. 20: " or having his stones broken ". Deut. xxiii. 1.

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		-v f > H m r <

	HORSE CAST FOR CASTRATION

A " D " or a Spring Hook must be inserted at * to prevent the chain from slipping.

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CASTEATION

173

penis and scrotum are now thoroughly cleansed with soap and water,
and freely anointed with carbolized oil or vaseline, so that in the event
of any considerable swelling following the operation, the penis may
be extruded without difficulty in the
act of urination. While this is being
done, the scrotum is examined for
possible hernia or malformation, and
having satisfied himself that all is
normal, the operator seizes the testicle
in the left hand, and drawing the skin
tightly over it, proceeds to lay open
the scrotum with a bold long sweep

of the knife (fig. 516), which shall by

Fig. 516. �Castrating Knife

one stroke divide the common integu-
ment and investing membranes. He will choose the under testicle first,
as the second operation will not then be so much obscured by blood as
when the reverse order is pursued. The gland, having been freed from
the purse, is firmly grasped, and the action of the cremaster
muscle, which tends to draw it back again into the scrotum, is
steadily resisted. Any attachment which may
be found to exist between the testicle and the
investing membrane is divided by the knife,
until the gland is clear of everything but the
cord. A clamp or forceps made for the
purpose (fig. 518) is then placed upon the
latter, and either locked by a hook or serrated
catch at the end, or firmly held by the oper-
ator, while in the right hand he holds a red-
hot iron, with which the cord is divided by
a gentle sawing movement of the instru-
ment.

To prevent haemorrhage from the sper-
matic artery a little powdered resin is dusted
on to the divided extremity of the cord, and

a somewhat cooler iron is then employed to

Castrating ^Seal Up the Vessel.

Fig. 518.�Clamp for
Castration by Firing

Iron

The majority of castrators employing this

th.

ancient but truly aseptic method also adopt

■ precaution of smearing the clamp, and afterwards anointing the in-
¹ or the purse with an ointment composed of verdigris, Venice tur-
ne, and bees'-wax, with the object of preventing too rapid healing

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174

HEALTH AND DISEASE

of the wound and imprisonment of blood-clots, which may decompose
and set up septic poisoning.

Whatever the origin of the custom, we know that verdigris (copper
acetate) is a valuable antiseptic, and that the success of this apparently
crude application of the antiseptic system is beyond dispute.
The method above described is that most commonly
practised among those who employ the actual cautery and
cast horses as a preliminary to castration, but the details
vary, and some operators do not use a knife at all, but
divide the coverings of the testes by a thin-edged and
very hot iron. Dexterously carried out, this is not so
painful as from the bare recital of the method it would
appear, the severance being very rapid when the investi-
tures are rendered tense by the hand or clamps grasping

C(?

the scrotum below.

Haemorrhage from the spermatic artery when imperfectly

Fig. 519.�Fixing
Forceps for Castra-
tion by Torsion

sealed is the chief danger to be feared; a moderate amount

of bleeding from the small vessels divided is rather welcomed
as presaging less swelling subsequently.
On the completion of the operation the inner aspect of the thighs
should be anointed with lard or vaseline to prevent scalding of the skin
by matter discharged from the wounds in the course of healing, and
it may be advisable to tie up the tail when long, lest the decomposing
blood and matter gathered upon it be transferred to the wounds and
set up septicaemia or blood poisoning. This is especially
liable to take place in summer, when flies are troublesome
and the tail is lashed between the thighs to effect their dis-
placement.

Torsion.�A favour-
ite method on the Con-
tinent, and in vogue in
some parts of Scotland
and Wales, is that of

Fig. 520.�Torsion Forceps

twisting and drawing

�out the artery until its
�coats break and all possibility of haemorrhage is precluded.

To castrate in this manner, the animal has to be cast in the way pre-
viously described, and the testicle let out of the purse by the knife. The
posterior or non-vascular portion of the cord is then divided, leaving the
testicle suspended by the vascular portion alone. The cord is then secured
in the clamp above the epididymus. This portion is now seized by the

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CASTRATION

175

■"fixing forceps" (fig. 519), which are firmly held by an assistant (Plate
LVI, fig. 2). The operator now seizing the cord still nearer the testicle
by the "moving forceps" (fig. 520), twists the intervening portion round
■and round from left to right until all the structures break away, and the
testicle is removed. It is an operation requiring more skill than the
method, previously described, and occupies more time. If the traction and
twisting are too quickly executed, the vessel may be broken before its coats
■are sufficiently torn and separated from each other (the object sought) to
■stop the bleeding.

Ligature.�With the same methods of restraint and preliminary
preparation, severance of the glands may be effected by ligature. In this
method the posterior or non-
vascular portion of the cord is C^\ ^~""~]
�divided by the knife as in the '�J L�-'
preceding operation, and the
artery is tightly bound round
by some suitable material, as
carbolized gut, waxed silk, or
fishing cord. The first of these
presents an advantage in that
it is capable of being liquefied
and absorbed during the healing
of the wound, while the others
require to be removed from out-

side when strangulation of the

Fig. 521.�Clamps and Forceps for holding the same

vessel has been effected; but

hone of them is wholly satisfactory. The general opinion in this country
among castrators of experience is to the effect that this, the most simple
and cleanly method, is the least successful of any.

Caustic Clamps.�Destruction of the cord by a corrosive agent, com-
bined with compression in a wooden clamp, is among the older methods,
Probably next akin to that practised among savages of including the whole
^Scrotum in a ligature, and turning the wretched beast adrift until the
testicles dropped off. In castrating by clamps one of two methods is adopted
--the covered or the uncovered operation. In the covered operation the
testicle is not completely exposed. The skin and dartos muscle are cut
through, leaving the internal envelope immediately enclosing the organ
intact. The clamp is then placed upon the spermatic cord and its investing
unic, with the ends directed backward and forward. They are then
rougfit forcibly together by the castrating forceps (fig. 521), and securely
tied by means of strong cord.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	176	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	176

In the uncovered operation all the structures enveloping the testicle are cut through, and the gland is fully exposed. The clamps are then adjusted over the spermatic cord only (Plate LVI, fig. 1), in the same manner as in the covered operation, but a little more above the testis. When securely clamped the testicles may be removed or left to slough away. The clamps employed in the operation of castration are sometimes grooved (fig. 521) along the centre for the accommodation of a charge of caustic paste, which, acting on the tissues of the cord, brings about their more immediate destruction. Standing Operation. � It has been previously remarked that an element of danger necessarily enters into the act of casting horses and retaining them in a fixed position on the ground. The risk is comparatively small in connection with colts, whose tissues are elastic; but injuries aris- ing from this cause hav- ing from time to time occurred to animals of great value, an exag- Fig. 522.�"Reliance" Castrator gerated importance has been attached to it, hence the standing operation,, which in recent years has been largely adopted, both by veterinary surgeons and the ordinary castrator. The usual plan of the standing operator is to have the subject placed against a padded wall or partition in which a strong ring staple is fixed, and a running noose through it is passed over the animal's withers, whereby it is possible to keep him from turning round. A twitch is placed upon the upper lip in the usual way, and then by dint of threats and feints and the pain of the twitch together, the colt is induced to remain upon his feet. Many colts can be induced to stand with no other restraint than the twitch, as the fact of having the testes firmly held prevents them from kicking or striking. One effect of the pain they suffer is to make them crouch in a manner inconvenient to the operator. To keep them on their feet is the chief difficulty, and despite the twitch, shouts, and gestures of those who adopt this method, some will lie down. Taking advantage of the upright position the castrator grasps the scrotum in the left hand, and with a clean stroke of the knife liberates first one testicle and then the other. The testicles being liberated from the scrotum, there remains a choice of methods as to their removal. Some apply the caustic clamp, the central groove of

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		PL'ATE LVI

	CASTRATION

A. By uncovered testicle. B. By limited torsion.

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PASSING THE CATHETER

177

which is charged with a paste of perchloride of mercury and whiting, or
some other destructive agent, which, together with the compression of the
cord, corrode and strangulate the tissues. When this has been effected the
clamps are removed. A quicker way of performing the standing operation
is by severing the

LOCKED

cord at once with a
double-toothed instru-
ment (fig. 522), which
compresses and divides
^ at the same time,
ⁿ° clamp or other

means of arresting

Fig. 523.�Ecraseur

hemorrhage being
adopted. Another instrument, known as the ecraseur (fig. 523), and first
introduced into this country by a famous American castrator, is in the
nature of a chain, and performs its task in a similar manner to the crushing
serrated instrument last referred to. The advocates of the standing opera-
tion not only claim to avoid those accidents which result from casting, but
likewise to ensure greater cleanliness and less liability to infection of the
wounds while the horse is upon the ground.

PASSING THE CATHETER

J-his operation has been several times alluded to in connection with

disi

eases of the urinary and generative systems. Its opportune performance
^ay sometimes be the means of saving life, and of affording great relief in
^ertain disorders, both in the male and female animal.

J-he male catheter (fig. 524) is an instrument some 4 feet in length,

^Ilci composed of flexible material in order to accommodate itself to the

^rves over which it is required to pass on its way to the bladder.

J-t is hollow throughout its length, and commonly provided with a

ette of pliable material, such as whalebone. The end to be passed into

canal is provided with a nozzle of some harder substance, perforated in

eral places to admit the urine, and not therefore depending on a single

^ce at the point, which may be blocked by mucus, blood, or other

P^r°ducts of disease.

may be passed when the animal is either standing or in a recumbent

re. If standing, the operator will adopt measures to secure his own

1 ft- i ^a ^^a^^e ^UP ^a P^os^ion on the horse's right side, where, with his

and, he can seize the penis, and by exerting gentle but continuous

n overcome the resistance of the retractor muscles, and draw out the
^v°i- in. ₇₇

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			178
			178	HEALTH AND DISEASE
				HEALTH AND DISEASE

		organ to its fullest extent. A little flour or meal upon the hand enables one the better to grasp and retain it, as the resistance is not inconsiderable, especially in stallions. The instrument, previously oiled, is then taken in the right hand and carefully introduced into the urethral canal. Provided no obstacle exists, such as a calculus from the bladder, it is advisable to push on with steady but continuous force until that viscus is reached. Should any opposition of the kind indicated be encountered, all effort to

	Fig. 524. �Retention of Urine�Catheter inserted A, Catheter, b, Bladder, c, Corpus spongiosum. D, Corpus cavernosum. E, Scrotum. F, Testicle. G, Ureter. H, Kidney. I, Aorta. J, Eectum. K, Anus. L, Prostate glaud. M, Colon.

force the passage should cease, after a fair and reasonable attempt has been made to remove the obstruction. A careful operator will employ an assistant to watch the perineum and lightly press upon the part in order to direct the instrument over the curve of the pelvis, and give it a forward direction towards the bladder. It is important that the nozzle should reach as near as possible the floor of the bladder, so that all the fluid may be drained off; care, however, must be exercised not to injure the organ by forcible contact. The stilette is next withdrawn, and a vessel held under the cup-shaped end of the instrument to receive the fluid. If no solid matters interrupt,

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		PASSING THE CATHETER
		PASSING THE CATHETER	179
			179

	the urine will flow as from a syphon in steady and continuous stream until but little is left behind; but it is generally considered advisable, where extreme distension has existed, to leave some portion of the fluid behind for ^a time, with the object of exciting contraction in the walls of the bladder and restoring its normal function. The catheter is now withdrawn, and if any meal or other substance has been used on the hands, the penis should be cleansed, and some simple

Fig-. 525.�Insertion of Female Catheter ^Ai Bladder, b, Catheter, c, Membranous fold overlapping the orifice of the bladder. D, Vagina. E, Uterus. F, Rectum. guent applied within the sheath to facilitate the extrusion of the organ ¹¹¹ the act of micturition. Among the chief disorders necessitating the employment of the catheter the male animal may be mentioned retention of urine from stricture, ^argement of the prostate gland, the presence of calculi, injuries to the ^nis, morbid growths, inflammation of the bladder, and paralysis. ■the female catheter (fig. 525) is a shorter instrument, and often com- l seel of metal�a soft alloy, which will permit of slight bending. It is ³⁰ made of caoutchouc, of cellulose, and other materials similar to those ployed in the manufacture of male catheters. The orifice of the female ³ ^add_er will be found on the floor of the vulva, about 4 to 6 inches from ^v°i. in. 772

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			180 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		the labise; an instrument, therefore, from 10 to 15 inches in length is found adequate for the purpose. A fold of membrane slightly overlaps the opening, and when this is felt by the finger, the end of the catheter is directed to it and gently pressed forward and downward into the bladder. Precautions for the safety of the operator are even more necessary in the case of mares than when attempting to withdraw urine from male horses (see Methods of Eestraint). The disorders calling for the use of the catheter in mares are, for the most part, the same as those for which it is employed in the male sex, but in addition there are troubles connected with the bringing forth of young which temporarily interfere with the passage of urine. Among these may be mentioned metritis, inflammation of the vagina after difficult and protracted labour, retention of the placental membranes, and maladies contracted in coitu. OVARIOTOMY IN TROUBLESOME MARES The ovaries are not unfrequently the seat of structural or functional diseases which, although not seriously affecting the general health of the mare, may, and sometimes do, render her vicious and useless. When these morbid states exist, the temperament and habits of the animal undergo a marked change, and what was before a quiet unaggressive mare now becomes a restless, unseemly, and dangerous creature. During the period of sestrum, or what is commonly spoken of as " horsing ", there is at all times a certain degree of exceptional irritability, and this is evident in some mares more than in others. But in the cases referred to above, it sometimes becomes so pronounced as to require the greatest care in their handling and general management. As the sestral period expires the danger may pass away, but in some mares it continues throughout the summer, while in others sestrum becomes a chronic con- dition. These animals are more or less constantly "horsing", and receive service after service without any result. The morbid sensibility they display renders them dangerous not only to drive, but likewise to attend upon in the stable. When they are touched or even approached they squeal, straddle, let themselves down behind and throw out a quantity of urine, and the labia are spasmodically opened and closed for a number of times. Sometimes they will strike out with their fore-limbs, and the danger of such an animal is her tendency to kick and injure those about her. Mares so affected are difficult to put in and take out of harness, and they frequently lean towards

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			OVARIOTOMY IN TROUBLESOME MARES 181

		one side or the other and refuse to be straightened. Sometimes they may ■^e driven without fear, and at others they become vicious and kick luriously at the vehicle to which they are yoked. Habits of this kind are not unlikely to be attended with serious conse- quences, and the owner naturally seeks for something to be done to correct ^era- Here the operation of ovariotomy, or removal of the ovaries, is the only remedy by which the animal can be rendered quiet and useful. Some- Wies, especially in the case of old mares in whom the vice of kicking has become indelibly established, the operation does not seem to overcome altogether, but as a rule the contrary is the case, and the mare is rendered quite quiet and useful for all kinds of work. it is seldom that animals of this kind will breed, and nothing is lost lerefore by removing the organs of reproduction. ft is advisable that some attention should be given to the condition of t.Ii ne mare before the operation is commenced, and especially in respect to ^er diet. For three or four days previously she should be fed on sloppy ^ran, and during the last twenty-four hours before the operation, all food Uould be withheld and very little water allowed; this should be given ^early on the morning of the operation. Inasmuch as the rectum is immediately above the part to be operated ^uP°n and the bladder below it, it is necessary that both these organs oulcl be emptied of their contents. By so doing, additional room is ^quired for the operator, and if an enema or two be thrown up the former °re the operation, the liability of soiling the hands is thereby guarded ^against. -^-U- the outlying parts of the mare, as the under surface of the tail, the turn, the perineum, and the labia, should be thoroughly washed with rm water and soap, and after being sponged with clean water should ¹¹ be freely dressed with a 5-per-cent solution of carbolic acid. This ^UW be done in the morning, and again immediately before operating. ^s the vagina is the part to be operated upon, it becomes of the first portance to ensure that it, as well as the part leading to it, should be ered as thoroughly aseptic as possible. For two or three days before operation an antiseptic solution of chinosol, or perchloride of mercury, arbolic acid should be injected into it morning and evening; and when mare is cast, and while under the influence of chloroform, this can be " ted, and in addition the walls of the vagina should be thoroughly Ponged with antiseptic solution. ^e instruments required for the operation are an ecraseur (fig. 523), mte whose blade is guarded (fig. 526), and an enema syringe. These °e thoroughly cleansed and boiled, or placed in a 5-per-cent solution

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				HEALTH AND DISEASE
		182		HEALTH AND DISEASE

of carbolic acid for two or three days before being used. The sponges or wool, or whatever is used for mopping up the blood, must be similarly dealt with. Having sterilized the instruments, the operator must give strict atten- tion to his own person. Dirty hands or a dirty garment may make the difference between success and failure. He should wear a gown which has been washed and rinsed in a solution of carbolic acid or percliloride of mercury. His hands and arms should be washed and brushed in soap and carbolized water, and afterwards rinsed in a fresh solution of the same. The nails must be cut short and be thoroughly cleansed. These preliminaries having been completed, the opera- tion may be proceeded with. In casting a mare for the purpose in question, the ordi- nary hobbles (Plate LI) will suffice, after which she may be brought under the influence of chloroform in the ordinary way. There are two positions in which an animal may be placed for being operated upon:�(l) Standing. (2) Re- cumbent. In the former the parts to be dealt with are in their natural position, and are in this respect more readily seized and removed; but to restrain these animals for such an ordeal requires the administration of large doses of morphia or chloral, and even then a good deal of unnecessary pain and struggling invariably results.
	Fig. 526.�Guarded Knife. The dotted line shows the blade pressed forward for cutting
			The most convenient and humane method is no doubt to place the animal in the recumbent posture, and, as we have suggested, to put her under the influence of

	chloroform. In this condition all sense of feeling is obliterated or put to rest. There is no pain nor suffering, and the mare may be put in any position the operator may require. When this has been done, the operation may be proceeded with. This consists in making a hole in the walls of the vagina, through which the hand may be passed into the belly. The operator, placing himself in a recumbent position behind the mare, takes the guarded knife (fig. 526) in the left hand and carries it into the vagina. At the anterior extremity of this cavity will be felt a short, fleshy projection, the neck of the uterus. This may be used as a guide for the incision which must be made in order to reach the ovary. The knife is carried to the inferior part of this body (as the animal lies), and being then

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OVARIOTOMY IN TROUBLESOME MARES

183

unsheathed, is carefully plunged through the walls of the vagina. Having
done this, the fingers one after another are then passed into the opening,
which they enlarge by tearing the structures until the hand can be intro-
'duced. The tearing is done in order to avoid hsemorrhage, which would
follow incision of the vessels of the part.

On entering the abdomen the hand is passed in an upward and forward
�direction, following the line of the horn of the uterus, and the ovary will be
found suspended from the spine behind the kidney. In a natural condition
the ovary is somewhat soft, but in these nymphomaniacs it usually becomes
'Wore or less hard, and may be either enlarged or contracted.

Fig. 527.�Cystic Ovary

A, The ovary entire. A A, Cysts distended with fluid. B, Ovary in section.

which fluid has been removed.

A A, Cysts or Cavities from

The next stage in the operation is the removal of the gland, and for this

Purpose the ecraseur is passed through the wound made in the vagina.

J-he chain of the instrument is then placed round the parts which suspend

t) and tightened up by turning the screw slowly until the ovary drops into

he hand. Care must be taken to secure it, and not allow it to fall into the

^e^^v- The other ovary is then removed in a similar manner.

-Luis having been done, the operation is completed and the mare is
Wowed to rise. Usually these cases make a good recovery, and, excepting
^xght temporary uneasiness and colicky pains occasionally for the first few
°urs, no unfavourable symptoms are presented.

J-he mare should be kept on scalded food for a day or two, and gradu-
^a% returned to her normal rations.

i± after removal the ovaries be examined, they will be found to be in
^ne of two conditions. Either they are much smaller than is natural, or they

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			184 HEALTH AND DISEASE

		are irregularly enlarged. In the former case they are hard and contracted in consequence of having undergone a process of fibroid degeneration, or in other words they have been converted into fibrous tissue. In the latter, when divided with the knife, a number of cavities of different sizes are found, filled with watery fluid. In this case the ovary is in a cystic con- dition (fig. 527). Many of these cysts are Graafian follicles which have become inordinately large, and in some instances by mutual pressure have broken into each other. CASTRATION OF RIGS OR CRYPTORCHIDS It sometimes occurs that the testicles, which in the early period of life are still in the belly (Plate XXXIV), fail to appear in the scrotum. For some reason or other connected with development, they are either retained in the abdominal cavity or stop short in the inguinal canal. When this occurs such an animal is said to be a rig or ridgling, or more technically a cryptorchid. It is not uncommonly observed that one or both the testicles fail to descend in the sac. In the former case the horse is termed a monorchid, while in the latter he is distinguished as a double cryptorchid. When the testicles do not "come down" into the scrotum the animal has all the attributes of a stallion, and he is consequently unable to be stabled with mares or turned to grass with other horses. Horses in this condition are frequently capable of getting foals, are for the most part troublesome, and are undesirable property. Moreover, their progeny are liable to be afflicted with the same malformation as them- selves; in other words the defect is congenital. It becomes necessary, therefore, that such animals should be castrated. The operation to be resorted to is for the most part simple and free from danger, but where the testicles remain in the abdomen special care is needed for their removal. In all cases it is desirable to prepare the horse for the operation by restricting his diet to bran and slops for two or three days; and, for twenty- four hours previously, withholding all kinds of food and restricting his w^rater to half-rations. This done, the horse is cast and fixed in the manner usually resorted to> for castration. The operation is very much facilitated by the administra- tion of an anaesthetic, when every muscle is relaxed and the animal lies quietly instead of struggling, as is the case where he is not under its- influence. Chloroform is undoubtedly the most useful agent in this connection,,

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CASTRATION OF EIGS OE CEYPTOECHIDS

185

�since it controls the entire body and deprives the horse of consciousness
■and feeling.

The animal is now placed on his back, and trusses of straw or bags of
■saw-dust forced against his sides.

To empty the rectum before the operation is also a desirable course to
pursue, and the tail should be tied up, and after the administration of
chloroform has taken place it may be carried forward out of the way and
tied to the collar.

The instruments which will be needed are a castrating knife (fig. 516),
�artery forceps, a pair of dressing forceps, a needle, strong silk, silkworm
gut, and an ecraseur (fig. 523).

Before commencing the operation it will be necessary that these several
items be placed in a 5-per-
cent solution of carbolic

acid for forty-eight hours,

tfiiiiiiiiiij

otherwise they must be
thoroughly boiled and kept
in hot water until required.
Cotton-wool or sponges,
whichever may be used,
should be rendered sterile
by the same treatment.

The hair in and about

Fig. 528. �Dressing Forceps and Artery Forceps

the scrotum must be re-
moved by close clipping, and the site of the incision should be thoroughly
Washed with warm antiseptic water and soap. After washing, the part
should be carefully soaked again and again with fresh antiseptic solution.

This should be done by the operator, whose hands will at the same time
be undergoing disinfection. When complete, the part should be wiped
thoroughly dry, and then the hands and arms of the operator must be
washed and brushed with hot water and soap, and afterwards soaked for
^nve minutes in fresh carbolic solution. Special attention should be given
to the nails; in these cases they should always be cut short and be surgi-
cally clean.

-The same treatment must apply to the assistant and anyone who may
^e told off to handle the instruments.

ine first step in the operation is to make an incision carefully through
^le skin and the thin layer of elastic tissue beneath it, taking care to avoid
uttmg into any of the vessels forming the rich plexus of veins which are
isseminated through the connective tissue beneath. This incision must
³ about 5 inches in length over the site of the testicle.

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		HEALTH AND DISEASE
	186	HEALTH AND DISEASE
	186

The subcutaneous connective tissue is then to be torn through and: pushed aside with the fingers, until the outer ring of the inguinal canal is reached. Sometimes the testicle is found immediately within it, in which case it will be seized and removed by passing the ecraseur around the cord by which it is suspended. In other instances it is placed higher up in the canal, and in some cases it is found in the cavity of the belly. Whether it be found in the one place or the other it must be brought out, or the chain of the ecraseur must be carried to it and placed around the cord, and by slow but continuous tux'ns of the screw divided. Should any difficulty arise in meeting with it in the abdomen, the hand should be passed to the upper surface of the bladder, where the vas deferens, a firm tube about two-thirds the diameter of a lead pencil, will be found, and this followed in a forward direction will lead to the testis. When the abdomen is opened and the internal ring enlarged, there is of course some danger of escape of the intestines. This may be guarded against by suturing the skin closely with interrupted sutures of silkworm gut, and in some measure also by allowing the horse to rise from the ground while lying on the side from which the testicle has been removed. This done, my friend Professor Hobday suggests that the skin be covered with iodoform and collodion (1 to 10) or orthoform and collodion (1 to 8). From a consideration of the following table of cases operated upon by Professor Hobday, it will be seen that� In 36 instances the right testicle alone was missing, whilst in 29 the left was the offending- organ. In 11 of the cases both testicles were concealed. In 39 instances the organ was found in the abdomen, and in 43 it was in the inguinal canal. In 2 instances (27 and 69) one or both testicles were entirely absent, and in 2 others (68 and 75). the missing testicle was not found after a prolonged search. It may be mentioned that death occurred in only 4 out of the 77 cases.

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187

CASTRATION OF RIGS OR CRYPTORCHIDS

Particulars of Cases Operated upon by Professor Hobday


No.				Testicle
ot Case.	Date.	Breed.	Age.	which was hidden.	Situation of Missing Testicle.	Other Testicle.
1.	March, 1898	Cob	�	Left	Inguinal canal	/ Had been re- 1 moved.
2.	June 4, 1898	Hunter	2J years	Both	Do. do.	-----
3.	July 7, 1898	Pony	�	Right	Do. do.	j Had been re- \ moved.
4.	July 8, 1898	Cart	3 years	Both	J Right one in inguinal canal, ") I left one in abdomen j	-----
5.	July 8, 1898	Cart	3 years	Left	Inguinal canal	(Had been re- \ moved.
6.	Oct. 9, 1898	Cart	2 years	Right	Do. do.	Do.
7.	Nov. 26, 1898.	Cart	3 years	Left	Do. do.	Do.
8.	Nov. 26, 1898	Cart	3 years	Right	Abdomen	Do.
9.	Feb. 21, 1899	Hackney	3 years	Left	Do.	Do.
10.	Mar. 28, 1899	Cart	3 years	Right	Inguinal canal	Do.
11. 12.	May 18, 1899	Pony	5 years	Right	Do. do.	Do.
11. 12.	June 24, 1899	Pony	3 years	Left	Do. do.	Do.
13.	j July 6, 1899, and) I June 15, 1901 j"	Cart	2 years	Left	/Epididymus in canal; tes-\ \ tide in abdomen /	Do.
14. 15.	July 15, 1899	Hackney	2 years	Right	Inguinal canal	In scrotum.
14. 15.	July 20, 1899	Cart	2 years	Right	Do. do.	Do.
16.	July 20, 1899	Cart	5 years	Left	Abdomen	f Had been re- 1 moved.
17. 18.	July 22, 1899	Cart	1 year	Left	Do.	Do.
17. 18.	July 22, 1899	Cart	3 years	Both	Inguinal canal	-----
19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.	/July 29,1899, and) *■ Sept. 30, 1901 /	Hunter	6 years	Right	/Epididymus in canal; tes-\ \ tide in abdomen J	(Had been re- \ moved.
	Sept. 12, 1899	Cart	5. years	Right	Abdomen	Do.
	Sept. 12, 1899	Cart	3 years	Right	Do.	Do.
	Sept. 12, 1899	Cob	4 years	Left	Do.	Do.
	Dec. 7, 1899	Cart	3 years	Left	Do.	Do.
	Dec. 8, 1899	Cart	3 years	Left	Do.	Do.
	Dec. 8, 1899	Cart	4 years	Right	Inguinal canal	In scrotum.
26.	Dec. 8, 1899	Hackney	4 years	Right	Do. do.	j Had been re- \ moved.
27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.	Feb. 20, 1900 May 1, 1900	Thoroughbred Pony	2 years 2 years	Both Right	Inguinal canal	In scrotum.
	May 12, 1900	Cart	3 years	Right	Abdomen.	Do.
	May 21, 1900	Pony	2 years	Right	Inguinal canal	Do.
	May 26, 1900	Hackney	3 years	Left	Abdomen	Do.
	June 2, 1900	Cart	2 years	Both	Inguinal canal	-----
33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.	June 20, 1900	Thoroughbred	3 years	Right	Do. do.	/ Had been re- \ moved. Do.
	July 25, 1900	Cart	18 months	Right	Do. do.	/ Had been re- \ moved. Do.
	July 31, 1900	Hackney	2 years	Left	Abdomen	Do.
	Aug. 4, 1900 ^Aug. 23, 1900	Cart Pony	4 years 11 years	Left Left	Do. Do.	Do. Do.
	Sept. 5, 1900	Shire	7 years	Right	Do.	Do.
	Sept. 11, 1900 Sept. 11, 1900 Sept. 11, 1900	Hackney	7 years	Left	Do.	Do.
4l]		Cob	7 years	Right	Do.	Do.
42		Cob	7 years	Left	Inguinal canal	Do.
43!	Sept. 18, 1900	Cart	3 years	Right	Do. do.	Do.
43!	Sept. 18, 1900	Cart	3 years	Right	Do. do.	In scrotum.
44. 45. 46.	Oct. 12, 1900	Cart	1 year	Right	Abdomen	j Had been re- \ moved.
44. 45. 46.	°et. 12, 1900 °et. 12, 1900 Oct. 12, 1900	Cart	2 years	Both	Do.	-----
i7.		Pony	3 years	Left	Do.	In scrotum.
48. 49		Cart	4 years	Both	Do.	-----
48. 49	^N«v. 3, 1900	Carriage horse	3J years	Right	Inguinal canal	< Had been re- \ moved.
50. 51.	Nov. 5, 1900 ^N°v. 17, 1900	Cob Hackney	4 years 3 years	Left Left	Abdomen Do.	Do. In scrotum.
50. 51.	Dec. 1900	Cart	4 years	Right	Do.	j Had been re- ^ moved.

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188 HEALTH AND DISEASE


				Testicle
No. of	Date.	Breed.	Age.	which	Situation of Missing Testicle.	Other Testicle.
Case.				hidden.
52.	Jan. 18, 1901	Thoroughbred	3 years	Left	Inguinal canal	/Had beenre- ^ moved.
53.	Feb. 11, 1901	Cart	3 years	Right	Abdomen	Do.
54.	May 20, 1901	Cart	7 years	Left	Do.	Do.
55.	June 5, 1901	Cart	4 years	Right	Inguinal canal	In scrotum.
56.	June 11, 1901	Hackney	2 years	Both	/Left testicle in abdomen,"! \ right testicle in canal J	-----
57.	June 15, 1901	Thoroughbred	2 years	Left	Abdomen	In scrotum.
58.	June 15, 1901	Thoroughbred	2 years	Both	Inguinal canal	-----
' 59.	June 21, 1901	Cart	2 years	Both	Abdomen	----
60.	June 21, 1901	Hackney	5 years	Right	Inguinal canal	/ Had been re- \ moved.
61.	July 1, 1901	Pony	2 years	Left	Do. do.	In scrotum.
62.	Aug. 1, 1901	Hackney	4 years	Right	Do. do.	r Had been-re- \ moved.
63.	Sept. 17, 1901	Hackney	3 years	Right	Do. do.	In scrotum.
64.	Sept. 17, 1901	Hackney	3 years	Left	Do. do.	Do.
65.	Sept. 24, 1901	Thoroughbred	2 years	Both	/Right one in canal, left"! (^ one in abdomen /	----
66.	Sept. 24, 1901	Cart	5 years	Left	Inguinal canal	j Had been re- \ moved. Do.
67.	Dec. 11, 1901	Cart	3 years	Left	Abdomen	j Had been re- \ moved. Do.
68.	Feb. 18, 1901	Shire	8 years	Right	Do.	In scrotum.
69.	Mar. 1902	Cart	3 years	Right		I Had been re- \ moved.
69.	Mar. 1902	Cart	3 years	Right		I Had been re- \ moved.
70.	April, 1902	Hackney	3 years	Right	Inguinal canal	Do.
1 71.	July 25, 1902	Shire	3 years	Right	Abdomen	Do.
72.	Aug. 26, 1902	Cart	2 years	Right	Do.	Do.
73.	Aug. 26, 1902	Cart	2 years	Left	Inguinal canal	In scrotum.
74.	Aug. 27, 1902	Cart	2 years	Left	Abdomen	j Had been re- \| moved.
75.	Aug. 17, 1902	Cart	5 years	Right	Do.	In scrotum.
76.	Oct. 17, 1902	Cart	3 years	Right	Inguinal canal	/Had been re- \ moved.
77.	Nov. 4, 1902	Cart	3 years	Left	Do. do.	Do.

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	EQUINE LOCOMOTION

^voi in
^voi in		189	78
		189

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		*

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			Section V.-EQUINE LOCOMOTION

		The paces of the horse cannot well be understood without reference to ^tne means by which locomotion is brought about. In the anatomical portion of this work frequent reference will be found ⁰ the origin and insertion of muscles, and the attachments of tendons and laments. Attention is called to the fixed points upon which muscles act by the shortening of their body or "belly". The stimulus of the will or tlier agents put in action a force which causes a contraction of muscular ^e, resulting in approximation of the fixed points of origin and insertion. A familiar example of this action is seen when the human biceps, by its elfying or contraction, changes the contour of the limb and brings the ^nd to the point of the shoulder. -The horse may be viewed as a living mechanism, a series of pulleys and ^evers attached to bones, and having the ground for a fulcrum. J-he comparison is not, however, so complete as some Continental writers ^ave striven to prove. Marey says: " The comparison between ordinary achmes and animated motive powers will not have been made in vain ^Jt has shown that strict relations exist between the form of the organs ^lcl the character of their functions; that this correspondence is regulated j the ordinary laws of mechanics; so that when we see the muscular and ⁿy structure of an animal we may deduce from their form all the char- ts and functions they possess". THE HORSE STANDING ₍₍ ^ven a sound, well-proportioned horse standing to " attention", or ectedly" as masters of equitation are wont to term it, with head up ears forward, the face will have a profile whose angle to the ground oout 45 degrees, and the weight will be equally distributed among tour supports (limbs). As a matter of observation, horses seldom adopt _ exact position, rather choosing to advance one foot slightly in front j >,^S. ^e"^owJ despite the training which they may have undergone in " dress- fc ^lH a troop of horses. 191

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EQUINE LOCOMOTION

192

Movement must have some point of departure, and we will assume that
our subject is in the position which Barrier and Goubaux, Le Coq and
Stillman, Hayes and Marey all assume as possible, though Captain Hayes
alone, among the authorities named, while admitting the possibility of an
attitude such as is assigned to the horse by Goubaux, adds, " I have never
seen a horse adopt it". Without insisting upon minutiae we may suppose
our horse to be standing as nearly "square" as a horse will. In any change
of attitude the centre of gravity will be shifted, and recovered by obtaining
a new base of support.

In the slow pace of walking there is no elevation of the centre of
gravity, and consequently no danger of losing the equilibrium; but in the

faster paces this danger ex-
ists, as will be readily seen
in the illustration of a horse
extended at the gallop, with
the head advanced to the
utmost limit which other
conditions of its carriage
will permit (fig. 529). The
draught-horse (pushing, be
it remembered, for it is not
draught¹) lowers his head
(when not artificially re-

Fig. 529.�Equilibrium in the Gallop

strained by the bearing-

rein), and so brings forward
the centre of gravity. With the advance of a limb a new base of
support is obtained, and as long as the centre oi gravity falls within
the base of support, equilibrium is maintained. In raising a limb the
resistance encountered is only that of its own weight, or pressure of the
atmosphere, and propulsion of the animal above and in front of the per-
pendicular line of the centre of gravity is brought about by straightening
the limb against the immovable surface of the ground.

Diminished resistance, as in deep ground, results in a lesser degree
of propulsion, apart from the deterrents to progression which arise from
suction and the additional weight of soil attached to the foot. A good
example of propulsion by straightening of the limbs against a fixed object
is that of the swimmer who touches, turns, and strikes off from the side
of the bath; the wall being immovable (with the force at disposal), while
the water is readily displaced.

¹ The propulsion of a vehicle is brought about by a series of levers bent upon one another between a fixed
and a movable point. These levers act against the ground, where the toe is placed, and the collar.

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SPEED 193

Through the columns of bones the propulsion is directed, and of these
in the horse two sets are in operation. The limb producing a forward and
upward movement being invariably directed backward and downward, must
necessarily act in the direction stated.

The impetus obtained from the horse's fore-leg is through the humerus
and elbow-joint, while that of the hind-limb is through the medium of the
hip-joint and pelvis.

SPEED

Speed is not due to the strength of
the muscles, or we should find strong
cart-horses with light bodies competing
with the blood-horse. It is due to the
rapidity with which the limbs can be
straightened out in contact with an
immovable body.

With few exceptions, it may be said
that animals of great speed have long
limbs and slender muscles, while those
possessed of great strength have short
bmbs and thick muscles. A comparison
between the race-horse and dray-horse,
°r between the greyhound and bull-dog,
will serve to illustrate our meaning.

Upon the distance through which
the centre of gravity is moved, in the

various paces, depends the degree of

fatigue produced. Where there is a
Period of suspension�all the legs being

dear of the ground (Plate XII)�the______________________________

Fig. 530.�Action of the Flexor Muscles and
Tendons of the Fore-Limb

a, Flexor pedis perforans. b, Flexor pedis
perforatus.

centre of gravity is necessarily raised,

and thus it follows that the fast trot, canter, or gallop over a given dis-
tance takes more out of a horse than the walk or slow trot, where there
is no such period of suspension.

The raising of the centre of gravity in each of the paces where there is
a period of suspension is exactly equal to its fall (or vice versa).

The changing of the centre of gravity from one side to the other is
facilitated by the head and neck acting as a balance. The muscles con-
necting the head and neck with the trunk assist in raising the fore part
of the body during locomotion.

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			194 EQUINE LOCOMOTION

		The weight of the body, says Le Coq, " transmitted by the canon bone upon the upper articulating surface of the long pastern, is the resist- ance to be overcome. The fulcrum is the ground at the toe of the foot, and the power acts upon the sesamoid bones, which are at the back of the pastern; the shortening of the flexor muscles being the cause of the straightening of the angle formed by their tendons." The manner in which this lever of the second order acts, keeping the distance between the power and the weight constant, will be seen in the accompanying illustra- tion; but there is much variation in their distance from the fulcrum, owing �to the difference of conformation in horses in respect to the slope of both pastern and hoof. The nearer the toe to the canon bone the greater the mechanical power, as in the short-jointed draught-horse, while greater length gives more spring, and a long and sloping pastern is therefore esteemed in a saddle-horse, and particularly in the race-horse, as contributing to greater speed. In addition to the flexion and extension enjoyed by the front limb, the hind one has an outward movement, due to the shape of the astragalus, and so designed to enable the stifle to move clear of the abdomen. This facing outward of the hinge does not affect the direct forward movement of the hind-foot, nor is the screwing action of an old and worn horse due to any failure of this portion of his mechanism. THE WALK If we accept the word time as meaning the number of separate steps in each stride of a pace, we may describe the walk as one of four time, the limbs moving one after another consecutively. Commencing, for instance, with the left fore-leg, the movements will be in the following order:�1, left fore; 2, right hind; 3, right fore; 4, left hind. Or, as frequently happens with the horse which has no military predilection for leading off with the left fore, but commences with any leg, according to convenience, suppose him to commence with the left hind- limb, the sequence will be�1, left hind; 2, left fore; 3, right hind; 4, right fore. Each foot follows the one which precedes it in something like half the time it takes to make one step. As a result of these movements, the order in which the body is sup- ported by the several limbs is as follows:�1, right pair; 2, right diagonals; 3, left pair; 4, left diagonals (Plate LVII).

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			3

Copyright 18S7 by Eadweard Muybridge.]
Copyright 18S7 by Eadweard Muybridge.]		From Amtnals in Motion, published by Chapman & Hall.


	THE WALK The lower row of figures shows, from right to left, the various positions of the left fore-foot in its forward movement

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	THE TROT
	THE TROT	195

THE TEOT There are three forms of trotting recognized by horsemen, and described as the slow or short, the common or ordinary, and the fast or flying trot. In the first the prints of the hind-feet respectively are found in rear of those made by the corresponding front ones; in the second they cover or slightly overlap; and in the third there is a period of suspension intervening between the right and left diagonal movement. The movements concerned in this pace may be described as alighting, support, leaving, suspension, and coming down on opposite diagonals. The same amount of work being required of both front and hind limbs in the trot, a horse can maintain a comparatively fast rate of speed for a longer time at this pace than at any other. The diagonal supports of the trot facilitate the maintenance of equilibrium, and for this reason give the trot an advantage over the amble and canter, in both of which it is more considerably displaced (Plate LVIII). THE AMBLE In this pace, which may be described as one of two time, there is scarcely any suspension, unless it is pushed to that form known in America as "pacing", when (from examination of the best photographs hitherto produced) there appears to be an undoubted period of suspension. Pro- gression in this gait is brought about by the alternate movement of the left and right pair of legs, or, of course, of the right and left. THE CANTER The canter is an intermediate pace between the amble and the gallop. It is a movement of three time, the entire weight resting momentarily on one or other hind-leg. The order in which the feet come to the ground, supposing the right hind is supporting the animal alone, will be as follows:�1, right hind; 2, right fore and left hind; 3, left fore, with or without a brief period of suspension before the right hind is brought down. Photographs of heavy horses (80th of a second exposure) leave us under the impression that there is no period of suspension whatever; but a well- bred lady's hack, schooled to the pace, proves that there is such a period in the more elastic members of the equine family. The canter is an easy pace to the rider, but, save as a relief to some

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			196 EQUINE LOCOMOTION

		other, cannot be recommended for the horse. He seeks to relieve the fatigued muscles by changing sides, and is usually trained to do this by a light stroke down the shoulder with the whip. The fore-leg which is not acting as a diagonal support is called the leading leg, and a horse is said to be cantering to the left or right accord- ing to which leg is leading. As a straightforward pace, cantering is perhaps the safest of all, but while cantering a horse should not be asked to turn, except towards the

	Copyright, 1887, by Eadweard Muybridge. Prom Animals in Motion, published by Chapman & Hall.

Fig. 531.�The Canter side of the leading leg; neglect of this precaution renders him liable to cross his legs and come down. The hind-leg upon which the whole of the animal's weight is momen- tarily imposed, is on the opposite side of the leading fore-leg. There is a fast canter, more frequently called a " hand-gallop ", in which the diagonal support does not act unaided. The period of suspension in the canter is obtained in the same way as in the gallop, the straightening of the leading fore-leg raising the forehand. Listening to the uninterrupted sound of a horse cantering to the left, it will be noted that the interval of suspension between the coming down of the left fore and right hind feet is of greater duration than either of the

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Copyright 1867 by Kadweard Muybridge.]
Copyright 1867 by Kadweard Muybridge.]		[Krom Animals in Motion, published by Chapman & Hall.

	THE TROT
	THE TROT

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THE CANTER

197

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SLOW
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ORDINARY
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LONG
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CANTER

GALLOP

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Fig. 532.�Trails (Footprints) of the Various Paces

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		EQUINE LOCOMOTION
	198


other intervals. The weight in the hand-gallop being more equally dis- tributed than in the common canter, it is distinctly less fatiguing to the horse. THE GALLOP With the eye accustomed to the results of instantaneous photography, it will be difficult indeed for the next generation to understand the reluc- tance of the artist and the horseman to give up, as proved fallacies, the preconceived ideas as to the attitudes assumed in the various paces. Until the publication of such series of photographs as those taken by Muybridge in America, and by Hayes in England, to say nothing of previous efforts in the same direction on the Continent, many artists held on to the hope that at least the gallop would be spared, and that the horse extended so as to have no limb to straighten against the ground, and supported only by the atmosphere under his belly, might be allowed to remain as it had come down to them through centuries. It should be remarked, however, in this connection, that several of the early Greek writers afford evidence of their more accurate estimate of the precise movements of the horse in locomotion, and the application of photography to this question goes to show that they were on the road to the discovery of what has for so many centuries since been a mystery, only to be revealed at last by the highly-sensitized plates and improved lenses which enable the photographer to fix for us images of animals in motion. With a range of twenty-four cameras, acted upon by the breaking of a cotton thread, Mr. Muybridge was enabled to take pictures¹(reproduced in Plate XII) of horses galloping past at all stages of the pace; and this has since been done by Captain Hayes, whose work on Points of the Horse will be found to supply details which space forbids in this article. But for the conservative attitude of the public in matters of art, Muy- bridge's photographs would have spoilt the value of what are still regarded as priceless works of the old masters, and as it was, there was considerable anxiety expressed by holders of many paintings of repute in which horses are represented in what we now know to be impossible attitudes. From the point of view of present-day artists, it may be said that the grace and symmetry of the leap-creations of a former generation of draughtsmen must be abandoned in favour of the more accurate definitions with which photography has supplied us. The gallop is a "four-time" pace, in which the intervals are equal. The feet follow in succession, and there is a period of suspension between the putting of the leading fore-foot and opposite hind one to the ground. The ¹ In his preface to The Horse in Motion, Mr. Leland Stanford says, " The time occupied in taking each of these views is calculated to be not more than the five-thousandth part of a second ".

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Copyright 1887 by Eadweard Muybridge.]
		LFrom Animals in Motton, publislied by Chapman & Hall
	THE CANTER

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	LEAPING AND JUMPING
	LEAPING AND JUMPING	199

fore-leg of the diagonal support comes to the ground after its hind fellow, while in the canter it was shown that the reverse was the case, the fore-leg coming to the ground either immediately prior to, or at the same time as, its hind fellow. The canter and gallop are much alike, and the former readily becomes a gallop by the greater extension of the leg that is not leading. The leading fore-leg in the gallop is more extended when it touches the ground than its fellow, and has also to afford a longer period of support than either of the other three legs. It follows, therefore, that the leading fore-leg is more subject to sprain of the back tendons and suspensory liga- ment than the non-leading leg. As the left fore-leg is the one usually chosen to lead because more convenient to the rider, it is found to be more frequently injured than the right. Captain Hayes thinks the ligaments of the leading fore-leg are sprained by over-extension and not by concussion, which latter is greater upon the non-leading leg " by reason of its coming on the ground at a moment when it is wholly unsupported by the other fore-limb ". In the gallop, the horse seldom has more than two feet on the ground at the same time, and if a third touches it it is for the briefest possible period. The extreme extension of the fore-feet represented in many old prints is shown to be possible by some of Muybridge's photographs (see Plate XII), and in such positions of the body and forehand the face will have its profile vary between 40 and 55 degrees or even more. If the reader will follow the figures he will get a more correct know- ledge of the successive movements of the limbs in this most interesting, because fastest, pace of the horse, than from any verbal description we can give. LEAPING AND JUMPING In jumping, the forehand is first raised, and the body and hind-quarters made to follow by the straightening of the hind-limbs against the ground. J-he period of suspension in the leap is when the hind-feet have left the ground. It is customary to speak of several kinds of jumping or leaping, although Produced by the same main springs. There is the standing and the running Jump, the high and the long leap. laking-off.�A horse takes-off or commences his jump in a variety of ^ays, according to whether he is standing (the standing leap), ambling, ermg, or galloping. Few horses can jump properly from the trot, ^a though it is of great advantage to be able to do so. n the canter or gallop the animal prepares to take-off by straightening

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		EQUINE LOCOMOTION
	200


his fore-leg on the fetlock and raising his forehand; the corresponding hind-leg (usually, but not always) is next brought down, and then the other (whichever it may be), wdien, as stated above, he clears the obstacle by straightening the hind-limbs and projecting himself upwards and for- wards. There appears to be no suspension between the straightened lead- ing fore-leg supporting the animal and the bringing down of the first hind-foot. In the standing leap the animal can only accomplish his purpose by rearing, and he takes advantage of the ground to the utmost by breasting the object or pushing right up to it before rising at it. Horses that can leap from the standing position are often the most troublesome to keep in bounds, while really good flying leapers can be kept at home by a low fence round a cramped paddock. "Clever" jumpers, so-called, are those best able to judge of the time and distance in which they will have to take-off, and who prepare them- selves so as to have the leading leg ready to plant at a spot near enough to and yet not too near the obstacle to be negotiated, since it will increase the length of the jump if the horse takes-off too soon, while the height may not be surmountable if too close, and the animal has to raise himself too near to a perpendicular line. Horses with a long stride are more liable to the mistake of taking-off too " big" or jumping too soon than are short quick steppers, or those which, measuring the distance with unerring eye, put in one short step to correct the number of strides, which would else be too many or too few to bring the jump to the right spot. The flying jumper is easier to sit, and though he seems rash he seldom comes to grief; but he cannot get one out of a narrow lane like a horse that "creeps" up to his jump and projects himself over without any residual impetus when he lands. It may be taken as a broad rule that all horses jump better from the canter or gallop, and that those able to jump nicely from the trot are scarce and esteemed, because able to perform under cramped conditions, where the flying leaper would be "pounded". The horse that can jump from the trot has the additional advantage of being able to choose from two different periods when he will take-off, these being when either of the respective diagonals comes to the ground. The length of a horse being somewhere about 8 feet (the cavalry drill makes an allowance of 8-\| feet), there is considerable length to be carried, as well as height to be surmounted, in getting over an obstacle by jumping. With these points in view, the reader will see that it is necessary for a horse to get a good spring or impetus by getting up a bit of speed some little distance from the object to be negotiated. The greater the speed at which

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			> H m r X


Copyright 1887 by Eadweard Muybridge.]		[From Aiiimals in Motton, published by Chapman & Hall.
Copyright 1887 by Eadweard Muybridge.]

	THE LEAP: APPROACHING AND TAKING OFF

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	LEAPING AND JUMPING
		201


he takes a long jump, the farther is his body projected, there being two agencies at work in propelling him, namely, the power of the muscles, to which is added the impetus gathered by the speed in approaching the jump. It is not found in practice that great speed or impetus in a forward direction (chiefly) is helpful in surmounting high jumps, and the reason is that greater weight is thrown on the forehand, and this will impose more difficulty on the leading fore-leg, whose office it is to raise the forehand off the ground. A certain angle of elevation, of course, is necessary to carry a long body over a level jump, but the angle being low, nearly all the impetus of a fast horse is expended in the right direction. Practical steeplechase- riders are wont to say that a slower pace brings out the longest jump�a pace something short of the topmost, but still having plenty of " weigh " at the point of taking-off. In jumping fences at slow paces (and these are recommended by the cognoscenti), the clever jumper before referred to gets his hind-feet as much under him as possible, so as to expend nearly all the energy gained by straightening the hind-legs in projecting his body upward. He increases the angle of elevation by raising his head. His front legs will be doubled up and his hind straightened to their utmost at the moment of taking a high jump. As to the attitude the rider should assume, there is some difference both of opinion and practice among experts, and we need not here enter into the subject beyond referring the reader to the poses of riders in the illustrations. These have been evolved out of the necessity of keeping in the saddle, and though we can conceive of certain attitudes on the part of the rider which might ease his " mount", those of our horseman on Plates LX and LXI do for the most part conform to the general laws of mechanics. Landing over a Jump.�While suspended, the good jumper will tuck his feet up as closely as possible. No sooner do his hind-legs leave the ground than he thus prepares himself for anything that may happen; he may not be able to see the landing-place, and he is ready for a deep ditch or other contingency. The careless or untrained animal, on the other hand, drags his hind-legs behind him, and is liable to land upon the top rail of a tence, and cannot avail himself of an intermediate cat-like spring from it, or trom the summit of a wall or other obstacle, which trick is a most valuable acquisition among the best of Irish horses and others accustomed to jump stone walls. Some of the best jumpers keep their limbs quite still while in mi air, "^ut there is no absolute rule, each horse caring for his own safety m the way which commends itself to his individual judgment. If we watch e trained performer at a distance, he appears to come down with both fore- at once, but closer observation enables us to see that one foot is invari- y m advance of the other, and receives practically all the weight, the

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		EQUINE LOCOMOTION
	202


other being slightly bent at the knee, and in readiness, in case of a false step, to save the horse from a fall. The leading leg is quite straight at the moment of landing, and a bent knee would seem to add greatly to the danger of a fall. (It is to be noted, however, that some of the safest con- veyances the writer has had were a good deal "over" at the knee.) The right hind-foot follows the right fore, and the same thing applies to the limb of the other side. The print of the hind-foot is found to be in advance of the front one, so that the latter must be picked up and out of the way before the descent of the hind. In sticky ground, and for other reasons, such as a heavy rider rolling about in the saddle and supporting himself on the animal's neck, the fore-foot is not extricated in time, and a serious over- reach may result. The forehand is raised after a jump by the straightening out of the limb, and anything that hinders the muscles engaged endangers both the horse and his rider. Severe bits have the effect upon tender- mouthed horses of making them try to land on their hind-feet, and in other ways risk losing their equilibrium. There are still persons to be found who believe that this is the habitual method (landing on the hind-feet), but, as pointed out by Hayes, " the hind-limbs of the horse are altogether unfitted to stand the violent shock which would be transmitted through them if they had to bear the weight of the body on landing. Such poor weight-carriers are they, that a horse disposed to rear has difficulty in walking a few yards on his hind-legs." Circus horses compelled to walk on their hind-legs have commonly large curbs, spavins, and thorough-pins. The principal paces have now been alluded to; for further details and description of the artificial paces of the riding-schools, readers are referred to the works of Stanford, Hayes, Marey, Goubaux and Barrier, Le Coq, &c.

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		BREEDING

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			Section VL-BREEDING

		THE STUD There is nothing more satisfying to a breeder of horses than to breed a good one. To win a race over a course, or a prize in a show-ring, affords a certain amount of pleasure, and maybe some profit. While allowing that to bring a horse into a condition to accomplish either of these feats entails a certain amount of intelligence and skill, it falls far short of yielding that substantial and abiding gratification which is afforded by having overcorhe the far more difficult task of producing the animal by which the one or the other is accomplished. To breed a winner of a classic race or a champion of the first class is unquestionably the end to be aimed at. That success in these respects seldom comes, even to the most patient and painstaking, should be rather an encouragement than a deterrent, for the more difficult the task the greater the honour. We could point to many men who, with control of large studs, have spent a lifetime in honest endeavour to realize these higher ambitions without attaining success; but they have done the next best thing, they have produced stock of a high standard of excellence which has brought ^a remunerative average; and, after all, that is what the general breeder desires and what the country requires � a grading up as near to the highest attainable point as can be reached. In breeding operations a certain percentage of the produce of the stud are sure to fall below mediocrity in conformation and character, and others, for various reasons, will fail to prove remunerative. To guard against these adverse influences is the great problem which the breeder should strive to ^s°lve, and upon which his highest success will depend. A plentiful supply of common horse stock is assured to this country by our colonies and the Continent; and if it is to hold its position as a centre to which all nations will continue to look for the best and most impressive specimens of the several varieties, those principles of breeding which ex- perience has dictated must be more rigidly followed. Vol. Ill 205 79

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		BREEDING
	206


At the present time a large proportion of our Society carriages are horsed with foreign-bred animals, and whatever adverse criticism they have deserved in the past, the unprejudiced judge will not now fail to recognize the high excellence to which they have in recent years attained. In days gone by, the " foreigner " could be identified by his ill-make and shape at a street's length. He was a leggy, cow-hocked, " narrow-gutted ", light-chested, heavy-crested brute, with a back that made the most daring fear to put anything on to it; besides which, his pluck and endurance were proverbially of the worst. All that is altered now. The importation of our best mares and most promising sires into the horse-breeding provinces of France, Germany, Austria, Hungary, and other parts of the western conti- nent, which has been going on for over half a century, has now so anglicized the breed in those places as to enable us not only to procure English horses from abroad, but animals of such a uniform and useful type as to compare favourably with the best of our own. Bred with the strictest regard to the requirements of our market, in colour, size, action, quality, and soundness, they are now able to compete on equal terms with our home-bred stock, and to fill a void which could not have occurred but for the unreasonable encouragement which has been given to the production of small unmarketable animals by the management of our horse shows and agricultural societies. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE BREEDING-STUD Conditions conducive to health are of the first importance to success in the breeding and rearing of horses, and however well designed the plana may be in other respects, neglect of this cardinal point is sure to end in failure. The man who is willing to invest his money in the purchase of good stock at the outset, should be sure that nothing stands in the way of maintaining and enhancing its high standard of excellence. For the lack of this precaution the writer has witnessed many painful examples of failure and disappointment. Site.�A good site and aspect, ample and well-designed stabling in the midst of, or in close proximity to, a suitable, well-conditioned farm, con* stitutes the bed-rock on which the foundation should be laid. A high and dry position, sheltered from the east and north by rising ground, is the most desirable site, and where choice is permissible should be selected. It is not, however, to be understood that a less elevated position is necessarily objectionable. This would depend a good deal on the nature and porosity of the soil, the extent and efficiency of drainage, and whether the

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	GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE BREEDING-STUD
		207


country was heavily wooded or open. The fen lands of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, although low-lying, are nevertheless well adapted to horse- breeding. Their light, fertile soil, luxuriant herbage, and free open country, where neither fences nor trees interfere with the free circulation of air and escape of moisture, all conduce to a state of atmospheric dryness and salubrity, notwithstanding the numerous water-courses which intersect the land. Soil suitable for breeding and rearing horses, although variable in its nature, is influenced in a great measure by the extent to which it is drained and wooded. In a well-drained, open country, where the moisture is carried off and not allowed to stagnate and become dissipated merely by evapora- tion, a fairly strong clay may prove useful; while the converse of these conditions will render the air so humid and damp, and the soil so cold, that both plant and animal life will be prejudicially affected. Trees and fences, by breaking the force of the wind and affording shelter from storms, are most desirable adjuncts in due proportion and when suitably disposed, but when existing in excess they not only impart dampness to the district by preventing the free circulation of air, but in summer-time they form a breeding-ground for flies, which worry and torment horses so, that grazing is interfered with and constant stamping provoked, causing serious damage to legs, and especially to those of growing animals. To go into the subject of geological formation best suited to the breed- ing of horses would open up a very difficult and debatable question. To what extent it influences the success or failure of breeding operations !t is impossible to say, but it is important to notice that by far the greater number, and the most valuable horses, are bred and reared on the eastern side of the country. When we come to examine the formations enclosed in this area it is found that a large breadth of the country extending from the coast-line inwards is alluvium, and beyond this to the west, chalk and the red sand- stones predominate. Another feature about this horse-breeding area is the small number of trees, the paucity of woodland and big fences, and for the most part its flatness. There can be no doubt that good horses can be, and are, bred on every description of geological formation, other things being favourable, but for obvious reasons those referred to above appear to lend themselves to this class of enterprise much better than do some others. Limestone we know is greatly extolled, and all other things being favourable, is perhaps the best substratum that can be found for the Purpose, but without the "other things" there is little to be said in its favour.

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		BREEDING
	208	BREEDING

Physical Conformation.�The physical conformation of a country may operate for good or for evil. Hill land is proverbially dry; it affords good " lair", and is so far conducive to health, but, generally speaking, it lacks fertility, and is not so sustaining as that in less elevated positions. It offers, however, advantages which are of considerable importance to the growing animal. The pasterns acquire slope, elasticity is imparted to the paces, and action is developed. The feet, too, acquire strength, with ample size and good formation. Hills, however, when too steep, affect brood-mares prejudicially in the latter stages of pregnancy, especially when they are fat and caused to gallop down them. In these circumstances the foetus is forced violently forward, and the shock imparted to it may either occasion an unnatural presentation and render foaling difficult, or provoke abortion. FOOD From the moment when the mare accepts service to the time when she foals, her food should be ample without being excessive, and care- fully apportioned to her work. Good feeding is indispensable to the due nourishment and growth of the foetus, while feeding in excess of what is required to meet the demand of parent and offspring may jeopardize the health or even the life of both. In addition to good corn and hay, the pregnant mare should be liberally supplied with pulped roots, or, fail- ing them, a daily small ration of bran or linseed, or both. It should not be overlooked that roots when frosted or decomposed are a standing menace to gestation and a fruitful cause of abortion. Some mares when pregnant develop a morbid appetite, which prompts them to eat many hurtful things in dangerous quantities. One will take every opportunity of devouring earth, another will consume its own excrement, and others lose no opportunity of ingesting large quantities of litter, both clean and dirty, or drinking filthy water to which they may have access. Where this unnatural desire exists, measures should be adopted to prevent its being indulged. Many mares are allowed to remain idle during the whole breeding season, and although it is not a commendable practice it is one which cannot always be avoided. In such circumstances many run out in the open pasture during the whole year, and if they are allowed ample range, an open shed, and plenty of good food, it is much to be preferred to cooping them up in stables or confining them together in the narrow limits of a yard.

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	FOOD	209
	FOOD

Besides affording them an opportunity for exercise, an outdoor life fits them and their produce for an early return to pasture after foaling, without incurring the risks incidental to pampering in confinement. Water.�Nothing is more important to the well-being of breeding- studs than a supply of wholesome water. It is not to be expected, save under exceptional circumstances, that a public service will be available. Ponds, rivers, wells, and streams are the more common sources from which the supply will require to be drawn. Here it will be necessary to look into the details of these sources in all their relations, and par- ticularly as to whence they are fed or replenished, and in what relation they stand to possible sources of contamination with matters prejudicial to health. Rivers on whose banks manufacturing industries are carried on, are liable to be polluted with various deleterious waste products of manu- facture, and the danger to animal health will in such cases be in pro- portion as the stream is slow and small in volume, or rapid and large. In times of drought, when water is low and sedimentary matters come to the surface and are stirred up by the feet of horses while drinking, the danger is materially augmented, not only as regards chemical sub- stances and decomposing organic matter, but also in reference to parasitic infection. Large numbers of animals are sometimes ruined in health or altogether destroyed by the last-named cause. More than one costly stud, in the experience of the writer, has been seriously depleted in conse- quence of exposure to ponds infested with the eggs and larvae of blood- sucking parasites. Ponds should be periodically cleansed. No trees should be allowed to overhang them, and to obtain the greatest security against mischief they should be fenced off and the water lifted into tanks placed beside them. This is especially desirable during periods of drought, when they ^are 1_0W) _anc\| the decomposing sediment teeming with animal and vegetable nfe is brought near to the surface. Purity is not a possible condition in nature, and cannot therefore be hoped for, but as far as practicable an ample and wholesome supply should at all times be accessible to breeding-stock and their produce. Neglect of this precaution has frequently been found by the writer to afford a reasonable explanation of those outbreaks of abortion and infertility which so frequently occur in our large breeding-studs, and it should ever be present to the mind of the breeder that however whole- some water may be at its source and in its course, dangerous pollution ^lay nevertheless result where tanks and troughs are allowed to be fouled y animal and vegetable matters. The periodical cleansing of these

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			210 BREEDING

		receptacles, therefore, is indispensable to good management and success in breeding operations. STOCKING AND OVERSTOCKING Stocking and overstocking are clearly relative terms. The number of animals a definite area of land will carry will of course depend upon the fertility of the soil and its power of sustaining growth through the year, as well as upon the nature and character of the herbage it produces. Horses have a strong predilection for the finer grasses, and from a grazing point of view may be regarded as wasteful feeders. Nothing is more striking than the way in which they will clear the grass off certain patches down to the roots, and continue to graze the ground over again and again, while other parts of the pasture are covered with a luxuriant growth which they altogether neglect. Acreage, therefore, is no absolute measure of the sustaining power of pasture land, but rather the quantity and quality of suitable herbage it produces. It is on account of this residue of rough grass that bullocks prove so useful after horses. They eat off the coarse herbage, and lay bare a fresh succulent bite which horses will attack when there is a shortage of the better kinds. Among other reasons, it is this partiality to certain parts of pastures which has rendered it desirable to provide a large area of ground for horses to run over. In a pamphlet published by Sir Walter Gilbey on Young Racehorses, it is pointed out that " one yearling to every five or six acres is plenty". Nothing tends so much to the deterioration of pasture land as over- stocking with horses. By this is not to be understood the mere placing on it of more horses than it can fairly carry and support, but grazing it year after year without intermission or association with cattle. By this method of treatment the fine herbage becomes less abundant and the coarse rejected variety, remaining to seed, is more largely distributed. Moreover, if wet or boggy as a whole or in parts, the soil becomes foul, and serves as a suitable environment for the growth and maturation of the larvse of equine parasites, which, when once introduced, continue to multiply year by year, invading first one animal and then another, until under favourable conditions the great bulk of the breeding-stock become more or less severely infected. Poverty, stunted growth, infertility, and abortion are among the con- sequences of this too common mismanagement. Land devoted to horse- breeding should be periodically grazed with cattle or mown for hay, and,

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			FOUNDATION STOCK 211

		save on limestone or chalk formation, should be subjected to a good dressing with lime and salt. FOUNDATION STOCK No man should undertake the breeding of horses who has not first acquainted himself with the natural influences which operate in modify- ing descent. He will then realize how difficult it is to obtain a uniform result from what appears to be the same set of circumstances. He may rely on each variety being true to itself�that shires will produce shires; hackneys, hackneys; thoroughbreds, thoroughbreds, &c.; but he cannot rely on one or another to reproduce offspring of a uniform standard of excellence. Moreover, the same dam and the same sire mated through a succession of years will frequently be found to yield produce essentially dissimilar from each other in form, colour, endurance, and temperament. On this account breeding has been said to be a "lottery", and I do not know how it could be better expressed. Influenced in a large measure by causes which are beyond our control, and which we but vaguely comprehend, the element of chance must necessarily enter largely into the enterprise. Notwithstanding this, there is ample experience to show that the uncertainty incidental to horse-breeding may be greatly curtailed by the adoption of proper methods. The natural tendency of both animals and plants in the course of propagation is to vary either in one or more of their parts, or as a whole, and this will be more especially the case in those specimens which have been rapidly forced to a higher state of development by artificial selection and treatment. Beyond this there also exists a tendency, in these improved forms especially, to revert or throw back to a more or less remote ancestor, and in doing so the offspring may depart from the parental type by losing the more recently acquired and much-coveted characters. It is on this account that "back breeding" so forcibly calls for careful scrutiny and consideration in stud-management. With these facts in view, it is not difficult to understand why produce so frequently differ from each other, and from the parents from which they spring, and why the fundamental belief that " like produces like" is so frequently untrue. Many a breeder has experienced the disappoint- ment of producing an unshapely, worthless brute from an alliance of his choicest stock. Derby-winners and the commonest of platers have frequently descended

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		BREEDING
	212	BREEDING
	212

from the, same parents. Champions and cup-winners claim family kin- ship with cabbers and vanners as the result of these reproductive dis- turbances. Of course, discrepancies of this kind are not always referable to the causes alleged. Some are brought about by accident or neglect, in which sickness and indifferent feeding and housjng play an important part; but the natural tendency to variation, and to revert to ancestors less improved or of inferior type, is accountable for much of the diversity of size, form, colour, temperament, and endurance so frequently encountered in the experience of horse-breeders. To minimize the risks which must always attend the breeding of animals, and especially the improved races, it should be the aim and object of whoever enters upon the business to procure at the outset some of the best specimens of the variety he wishes to reproduce. Outward form, however, is not necessarily the passport to success, but with that must be combined the property of prepotency, or power on the part of the breeding-stock to impress their meritorious points, size, form, action, power, quality, &c, upon their offspring. This property, largely possessed by certain strains or families, is but feebly exercised by others. The Danegelt strain of Hackneys, the St. Simon strain of Thorough- breds, and the Harold strain of Shires are forcible examples of the former, while instances of the latter will be present to the mind of all who have watched the stud career of some noted representatives of these varieties. It is equally important that this power to impart to the offspring the best qualities of the parent should be as strongly implanted in the dam as it is in the sire, and it should also have existed in the ancestors of both for a succession of generations. It will be gathered from the above that individual merit alone cannot be relied upon to perpetuate itself, unless fixed in the individual by a long succession of prepotent ancestors. How often do we see in our show-rings horses and mares possessing the most perfect form and action, whose offspring never rise beyond mediocrity, and for the most part hardly reach that. Such animals are usually examples of extreme variation or reversion, whose high standard of excellence ends with the individual instead of being perpetuated in the race by the force of heredity. Good characters to be transmitted to the offspring with reasonable regularity must be strongly inherited by the parents from remote an- cestors. There must be a deep-rooted faculty in the family for reproducing their best traits of character.

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			EARLY MATING OF MARES 213

		Animals so constituted, when mated together, yield the best results, and by a process of selection the breeder is enabled to grade his stock upward, and thus improve the race. It must, however, be remembered that this power to reproduce all that is best in conformation and constitution may be equally effective in transmitting any faults which may appear in the one or the other. Where a weak point is found to exist in the make-up of a breeding animal, care should be taken to mate it with one which is not only strong in that particular respect, but descended from parents in whom the required quality was also a conspicuous feature. Only those who realize the importance of back breeding and its influence in shaping the offspring can hope to make breeding a profitable enterprise. EARLY MATING OF MARES At what age mares should be put to the stud has always been a question around which much controversy has gathered among breeders of horses; but whatever differences may exist in the matter of opinion, there can be no doubt as to the very general practice in vogue, which allows them to commence their stud career at two years old. This system of early mating is more prevalent among breeders of pedigree stock than among those who engage more especially in the production of trade horses. The latter recognize the physiological truth, that the highest development is reached where the nutritive resources of the system are devoted exclusively to its own maintenance, and not shared by the growing foetus, the main object being to encourage growth and develop- ment, and produce a horse with size, substance, and constitution. Pedigree, and the glamour of family fame which attaches to it, too frequently prompts the indiscretion of breeding from babies, and the demand for special produce may, from a commercial point of view, justify such a course; but no one with any knowledge of the laws of hfe can doubt that to impose upon a mare the task of reproduction while actively engaged in building up her own frame, and to ask her subsequently to support her offspring, is a certain means of retarding her growth, if it does not also enfeeble her constitution. Those who care to take the risk of putting mares to the stud at two or three years °Id, should at least exercise some judgment in the selection of subjects tor the purpose. They should be forward in growth, and at the same time well furnished ^0r their age, and in good condition. They should not come to the horse until late in the season, and from

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			BREEDING
		214


	the time when they are served to the day when they foal down, and onward to the weaning period, a liberal ration of corn, regulated according to the season, should be allowed them. An open yard, with a well-littered shed for protection, and a run out in the course of the day if convenient, are the most suitable conditions for winter quarters. While making these suggestions, the fact remains that the practice is a bad one at best, notwithstanding that examples of the contrary may

Fig. 533.�A Shiverer be found in every variety of our horse stock. " That grand horse, Bury Victor Chief, for which Mr. Wainwright paid 1500 guineas, was the produce of Bury Daisy at three years old, and among the Hackneys such famous examples of the breed as Garton Duke of Connaught, Langton Duke, Langton Performer, Vigorous, Astonishment, Orange Blossom, and Dorothy Derby II were all from three-year-old mares. " But of the huge total of animals so bred, those which have achieved fame in the ring and at the stud form a very small proportion, and lend no sort of encouragement to the adoption of early breeding as a general system." It is in the interest of the race, no less than the breeder, that mares

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	MANAGEMENT OF IN-FOAL MARES
		215


should not commence their stud career until they are four years old, when growth is being completed, and when the organs of reproduction have reached their full development, and the physiological energy of the system is well-nigh disengaged from the task of building up the frame, and can be more effectually devoted to maturing the foetus. The great bane of the breeding-stud�hereditary disease�must be jealously guarded against, and in this connection much assistance may be derived from the careful study of family history. It should, however, be kept in mind that many ailments are acquired as the result of accident, which in their outward form are indistinguishable from those which are hereditary. Sprains, curbs, ring-bones, side-bones, roaring, whistling, string-halt, shivering (fig. 533), specific ophthalmia, and cataract are the most damaging of the many hereditary affections to which horses are liable, and whenever they appear, heredity should be suspected, unless evidence to the contrary is forthcoming. MANAGEMENT OF IN-FOAL MAKES Feeding.�Not the least important branch of stud-management is that which deals with the care and protection of mares during the period of pregnancy, and it is not too much to say that a considerable percentage of the sickness and mortality ordinarily prevailing in our breeding-studs results from causes of a common and preventable character. Of these, some are especially conspicuous, and perhaps none more so than the prevailing and rapidly-extending system of undue feeding, fattening, and pampering, to which mares of the heavy breed are subjected in the course of their show career. This is an evil so obvious to anyone concerned in horse-breeding, and so universally admitted by all, that neither evidence nor argument is called for here. Were it otherwise, ample testimony would be found in tne stud-books of our heavy breeds. Here it is clearly shown that the productiveness and breeding merit of our great champion mares stand at an almost irreducible minimum, and the limited number of successful produce among their offspring is such as to leave no doubt as to the pernicious effects of the " getting up" and " letting down" to which they are subjected, in the course of their show career. The obesity in "which the great bulk of our show mares are found during the exhibition season is a state altogether inconsistent with the exercise of the full Pleasure of their productive powers. With every organ in the body encumbered with fat and impeded in function to the verge of disease,

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			216 BREEDING

		it would be strange indeed if the foetus did not suffer in point of size and constitution. Nor does the mischief of this injurious practice end here, for the danger to both clam and foal where any impediment to parturition arises is multiplied manifold, firstly by diminishing the room naturally available for the passage of the foetus, and secondly by lowering the vitality and strength of the dam, and adding to the difficulty of delivery. It is not only in these immediate effects that this practice proves hurtful, but long after it has been discontinued, sterility, or a disposition to abort�one or the other�is often left behind, while the capacity to reproduce in the offspring that vigour of growth and frame which characterizes the parent is frequently weakened beyond recovery. Good general health is unquestionably the bodily condition most conducive to productiveness in the dam and growth in the young, and this state can only be acquired and maintained in its fullest measure by a judicious system of liberal feeding and apportionment of suitable work. It must, however, be recognized that while the former may, and should, be within the reach of all who aspire to horse-breeding, the latter is, for obvious reasons, impossible of universal adoption. Mares kept exclusively for breeding purposes lead a life of idleness�in what is usually but erroneously regarded as a natural state. As to pasturing brood-mares much might be said, but it will be sufficient to note the chief points in which it may fail of success. Not the least important of these is the nature of the country. Steep hills and rough ground should certainly be avoided, and especially so where the mares are big and roomy, and in all cases when pregnancy is far advanced. Very naturally, to any suggestion of this kind may be opposed the condition of mountain ponies. Mountain ponies, however, are neither big nor roomy, nor are they highly bred, nor highly fed, nor highly domesticated. Their suscep- tibility to outside impressions cannot be compared with that resulting from the long years of cultivation and artificial treatment of our improved breeds. Besides, there is no evidence to show that even these denizens of the mountains do not suffer as breeding animals from the physical conformation of the country they inhabit. Of still greater importance to the well-being of the brood-mare is the nature of the soil from which she draws her sustenance. That best adapted to stud purposes is such as will neither fatten nor starve, but supply a steady growth of herbage of a sound and nutritive character throughout the greater portion of the year. Low-lying, damp situations, where the grass comes sour and rank, where the soil is wet, and dense fogs prevail in the cold nights of spring and autumn, are alike conducive to abortion and prejudicial to health. At all times the winter grazing

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		MANAGEMENT OF IN-FOAL MARES 217 of pregnant mares needs considerable care and attention on the part of the manager, and the resort to dry, nourishing diet should not be too long delayed. When it should be commenced will depend upon the nature and quality of the herbage, the size of the pasture, the number of stock upon it, the state of the season, and, above all, upon the condition of the mares. The last-named should never be allowed to get low. Poverty on grass is the worst form of poverty, not only because it is usually attended with exposure, but also because of the tendency which the cold indifferent herbage of the autumn and winter possesses of lowering the temperature of the body. This kind of treatment not only predisposes to abortion, but at the same time retards the development of the foetus, and tends to impair its vitality and render the foal an easy prey to any disease that may overtake it at the period of birth. Work.�The view may not be universal, but it is generally held that nothing conduces so much to the production of strong, healthy offspring as giving the mare a reasonable amount of work, under judicious manage- ment. A certain element of risk, it is true, always attends the active employment of pregnant animals, and especially those engaged in farm- work, but with common care this is far outweighed by the benefits con- ferred on the clam and produce. When mares have well-proportioned work and a liberal supply of good food, foals are not only dropped bigger and stronger, but they resist the exposure to adverse influences, and thrive and grow much better than those from idle, ill-conditioned mares. As to the stage of pregnancy when mares should cease to work, different people entertain different ideas, but the question is surely far more one of management than of opinion. It is common enough for mares to work right up to the time of parturition, and especially among little men, who depend for their livelihood on the labour of their mares. But in these cases self-interest lends its force to management, and largely determines the success of the enterprise. As a general system such a course would be fraught with the greatest danger, but there can be no doubt, where common care is observed in the selection and appoint- ment of work, together with good general management, pregnant mares are all the better for working up to within three or four weeks of the time of foaling. When work is discontinued, daily exercise should be substituted, or, if available, some brief, light employment. The late Mr. James Martin�a rare authority, by the way, on blood and breedings once observed to the writer: " I have foaled eighteen mares this season. All have worked nearly up to the time of foaling, and without a mishap to either mare or foal." Such a result is not likely to be of common attainment, but it is most assured under the influence of reasonable,

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			218 BREEDING

		well-regulated work, and generous but careful treatment. In-foal mares should, however, be guarded against severe exertion, such as drawing heavy loads in deep ground or on hilly roads, or backing, or trotting at fast pace, especially down hill, nor should they be made to undergo long fasts or suffer fatigue. As pregnancy advances, and the calls of the growing foetus on the nutritive resources of the dam become more and more considerable, so should the amount of work demanded of her be diminished, and the food-ration undergo suitable adjustment. To assert that the observance of such details should be among the commonplaces of every stud is only to suggest a state of things that, to say the least of it, is far from universal, technical education notwithstanding. Stabling.�In the stable, pregnant mares should be provided with plenty of room to permit them to lie down and extend themselves over a good bed of soft litter. The floor of the stable should not slant too much in a backward direction. When separated by bails, their com- panions should be quiet and free from vice. Breeding-mares, however, never perhaps do better than when turned into the crew yard at night, with a dry shed for protection from the weather, and plenty of dry litter, providing they are on good terms with each other. Our cold and changeable climate has often been urged against this exposure of working animals, but experience teaches that, with an adequate food-supply, the open yard is far more conducive to health than the atmosphere of the average stable, which is usually made filthy by the studious exclusion of outside air and the deliberate confinement of that which is within. Moreover, the denizens of the open yard know nothing of those ex- tremes of temperature, the sudden alternations of which are so fruitful of disease; and while being at all times fitter for their work, they are also much less susceptible to sickness than those which spend their nights in the stuffy, filth-laden air of a stable deprived of all means of ventilation. When the weather permits, this kind of management allows of the mare's being turned to grass for a few hours each day during the later weeks of pregnancy, without the risk attaching to animals more closely stabled. A bite of spring grass, before parturition, prepares for the more complete change of food which is shortly to take place, and protects the foal from those often fatal attacks of diarrhoea, which result when mares are suddenly transferred from hard corn to pasture�from the close stable to the open field.

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	WHEN FOALS SHOULD FALL
		219


WHEN FOALS SHOULD FALL To regulate the mating of mares so that the foals shall be dropped at a suitable season is a matter of the greatest concern to the breeder of horses. In these days of horse shows, with their numerous and costly prizes, medals, championships, and challenge cups, great temptation is offered to the breeder of pedigree stock to strive after early produce, and resort to a system of forcing and pampering which, while productive of a limited and temporary success, cannot be otherwise than disastrous to the general well-being of the horse. As to the particular month of the year when foals should be encouraged to come, a great deal will depend upon the soil, locality, and climate in which they are to be reared, and, naturally, opinions on this question vary with the variations of experience gained under different local conditions. In a climate so uncertain and trying as ours, early foaling is distinctly prejudicial to the life and health of the offspring, and it is not too much to say that a large share of the loss and disappointment that breeders experience under ordinary conditions is due to this cause. Some consider the advantage of an early colt to be a good set-off against the risk entailed, and the latter part of February or the beginning of March is the time arranged for foaling to commence. With the prevailing winds from the east or north-east at this season of the year, cold rains and snow-storms, little sunlight, and a scanty supply of rank herbage, both mare and foal must either be subjected to confinement for several weeks, or face the rigours of the season and attendant risks. -Nothing conduces so much to the health and well-being of the dam, and to the growth and stability of the foal in the first period of its life, as an abundance of spring grass and the vivifying influence of the solar rays. These desiderata cannot be hoped for as a settled condition until the tttonth of April has well advanced, and it is from this time onward, through May and June, that the best and strongest foals will be dropped, and most successfully reared. The best food that can be procured, and the most perfect stable and management that can be designed, are poor substitutes for the liberty, pure air, and rich succulent herbage of advanced spring. Foals dropped late in the summer are at an equal disadvantage with those that appear too early. The grass at this time is losing its goodness, ^and the milk of the dam is indifferent both in quality and quantity. Be- sides, the nights are getting cold and damp, and, worse than everything, the youngster will be shedding its coat at a time when it should possess its winter suit. All this tends to lower the vitality of the individual, to check growth, and enfeeble development. If foals are to grow, and shape, and

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			220 BREEDING

		make good horses, they must bask in the sunshine of summer, and receive an abundant supply of the rich milk and ripe herbage it affords. More- over, growth, to be attended with substantial development, must be con- tinuous, and uninterrupted by the poverty and inclemency of both spring and autumn. Light land districts where the soil is 'dry, the climate temperate, and the site protected, are the most congenial to early produce, but under the most favourable conditions early foals should only be turned out when the sun shines, and where shelter, in the shape of a comfortable shed, is provided. THE FOAL AT BIRTH The bowels of the foal at birth contain a considerable amount of faecal matter, consisting of the solid remains of bile, and other secretions thrown out by the mucous membrane of the intestines during foetal development. Usually this is discharged soon after birth as a soft greenish or yellowish brown fseculent substance. In some cases, for reasons which we cannot assign, this material becomes hard and dry, and is unduly retained. The foal is noticed to keep raising the tail, arching the back, and posing as if to dung, and now and again straining without effect. Here a little timely help is needed to clear the bowels of their hard contents. For this purpose an enema of warm glycerine and water may be injected into the bowel, and repeated, if necessary, two or three times during the day. Should this fail to effect removal of its contents, a small dose of castor-oil should be given without delay, in a little warm fresh milk. If the con- stipation becomes habitual in the foal, the dam must be allowed an extra supply of carrots or green food, and a couple of ounces of sulphate of magnesia mixed with the food every day for three times. Foals, when born before the full term of gestation has been reached, are sometimes discharged enveloped in the foetal membranes or after-birth, and, as they are then disconnected from the dam, respiration is only possible by exposure to the external air; it is necessary, therefore, that the membranes be promptly removed. This having been done, breathing may be set in motion by a little artificial respiration, sprinkling the face with cold water, or the application of a smelling-bottle to the nose. It is of the first importance that the after-birth be promptly removed from the box and buried in some unfrequented place, and sufficiently deep to guard against its being exhumed by dogs. The milk of mares which foal prematurely is always scant and of indifferent quality for the first two or three days, and may require to be Supplemented by milk from another mare or from the cow.

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		PONY STALLION, SIR GEORGE Sire, Sportsman (Harts) 624 by Prickwillow (WeatheriU's); dam, Polly. The Property of C. W. Wilson, Esq., Rigmarden, Westmorland

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	FOALS PREMATURELY BORN
		221


At the time of birth and for some time afterwards, foals often present an unshapely and awkward appearance. Their hocks or knees, or both, are acutely flexed, and their fetlocks may almost touch the ground. The limbs give the impression of being incapable of supporting the weight of the body (Plate XL). In many instances the advice of the writer has been sought as to whether animals so deformed should not be destroyed. It should, however, be remembered that where there is no bending of bones, or shortening of ligaments or tendons, the foal invariably "straightens up", and the deformity gradually disappears as growth proceeds. In those cases where the bending of the joints is due to contraction of the tendons, the defect may be remedied by mechanically stretching, or dividing the latter by a surgical operation. FOALS PREMATURELY BORN When foals come before their time, they lack the finishing touch in the work of development, although every organ may be fully represented in all its parts and relations. The prospect of rearing these immature youngsters will depend upon the period of gestation which has been reached when they are born, and the strength and vitality they display at the time. In all cases they require the greatest attention and care, and in some, however anxious we may be to preserve life, the task is hopeless from the first. This is especially so when birth takes place four or five weeks before the natural period. Foals prematurely born are, from their ill-developed condition, small, and, being too weak to stand, are unable to feed themselves. They display a great desire for sleep, and it is of the first importance that every encouragement be given to its restorative influence. For some time the breathing will be more or less quick, and to the uninitiated may give the idea of some grave lung disease, but under judicious management a gradual subsidence will take place as time goes on, until the normal standard of breathing is reached. Being helpless, a foal prematurely born should be removed from the presence of the mare as soon as it has been thoroughly cleansed, and con- veyed into a warm, dry apartment, where, if necessary, artificial heat must be supplied. Laid on a soft bed of hay, and covered by a couple of blankets, it should be left undisturbed for half to three-quarters of an hour, when the mare must be milked, and the produce given to the foal out of a feeding-bottle. This must be repeated every half-hour, with the precaution that the vessel used for receiving milk from the mare and the one employed in feeding Vol. III. 80

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	222	BKEEDING
		BKEEDING

the foal should be thoroughly scalded, drained, and dried in the oven each time after being used. Before the mare is milked, the teats and udder must be cleansed, and sponged over with a solution of carbolic acid. Unless these precautions are strictly observed, and the milk conveyed fresh to the foal directly it leaves the dam, it will be impossible to guard against diarrhoea, and when this disease is once established in these imper- fectly developed youngsters, a fatal termination is mostly the result. Hand-feeding will require to be continued night and day until the foal is strong enough to feed itself, but after the first thirty-six hours the period between meals may be gradually extended. When it has acquired sufficient strength to support itself, it may be returned to the dam. How it will be received by her is a question which must not be overlooked, and the attendant should stand by until the mare has settled down to her offspring and shows a desire to nurse it. If, as is most likely to be the case, the dam is short of milk, the deficiency must be made up by milk from the cow, prepared as directed below. HAND-REARING OF FOALS It sometimes happens that the udder of the dam is functionally de- stroyed, or so far damaged as to be incapable of producing a supply of wholesome milk, or the dam may die and leave the offspring to be reared by foster-mothers or by hand. To procure a foster-mother is always a difficult task, and sometimes a most costly one. It does, however, now and again occur that a mare will lose her foal, and a foal will lose its mother, about the same time in the same district, and in these cases it is a mutual, if unequal, advantage to the persons concerned to bring the survivors together. When this can be done, the trouble is in a large measure removed, although it must be admitted that the transference of a newly-born foal to a strange mare is not unlikely to be attended with digestive disorder and diarrhoea at first, and especially if the former has not received the first laxative milk of its dam, and the latter should have foaled several days prior to entering upon her fostering duties. As to whether hand-rearing is a desirable course to pursue, this will very much depend on the age, character, and breeding of the offspring. The more youthful it is when deprived of its parent the greater amount of trouble it will give, whether its other properties be good, bad, or indifferent; and those who undertake the task of ministering to the wants of these unfortunate youngsters must be prepared for no inconsiderable sacrifice of time, to say nothing of comfort, as well as for inconvenience and expense.

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			HAND-REARING OF FOALS			223
			HAND-REARING OF FOALS

Failing a foster-mother, the next best source of food-supply is the cow. Here again some consideration must be given to selection of a suitable subject whence to obtain the milk, for if the task of hand-rearing is to be undertaken, it must be entered upon and pursued in such a way as to safeguard success at all points. The most suitable milk for this purpose will be obtained from a heifer a week after calving, or if the foal has not sucked its dam it would be an advantage to procure a supply for the first thirty-six hours from a cow just calved, in order to awaken the action of the bowels and provoke discharge of their contents. Once having commenced with the milk of a particular animal, it is most desirable that no change be made, if possible to guard against it, and, as We have previously observed, the milk of a young cow freshly calved is much to be preferred to that of a stale old one. Although, as will be seen from the figures given below, the same con- stituents are found in the milk of the cow as enter into that of the mare, the actual and relative proportions of these constituents differ to a consider- able extent in the two cases. To approximate the composition of the one to that of the other, and to render it more suitable to the requirements of the foal, water must be added to reduce the proportions of casein and fat, and at the same time the deficiency of sugar must be made up by the addi- tion of a suitable quantity of the domestic article. At first the proportion °f water to cow's milk should be one part of the former to two of the latter, but as time goes on one part to three will be found more to the purpose, and later water may be excluded altogether. The following ⁿgures are percentages:� Cow's Milk. Mare's Milk. Water ......... 87-0 ......... 88-0

		Fat Casein Sugar Salts
					1-0 1-6 8-9 0-5
				4-6 4-0 3-8 0-6	1-0 1-6 8-9 0-5

	J-hus it will be seen 'that while the fat and casein of the cow's milk is largely in excess of that of the mare's, the sugar of the mare's milk far exceeds that of the cows. -Next in importance to a judicious selection of milk is the desirability °t its being transferred immediately from the cow to the foal while still warm. To maintain the natural temperature (100° F.) it should be drawn ^r°ni the cow into a vessel previously warmed, and afterwards diluted with Water raised to 100° F. Cold stale milk at this tender age is sure to provoke diarrhoea, and not unlikely to bring about a fatal result. Cleanli-

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				BREEDING
		224		BREEDING
		224

		ness in the vessels used and the handling of the milk should be strictly observed, and, above all, its administration must be frequent and regular, both as regards quantity and time. At first half a pint should be given every half-hour, and gradually increased as time goes on, while the intervals between meals may be extended accordingly. It must be remembered that to be successful the indications, of nature must be closely observed and acted upon. Neglect in this matter can have but one result, viz. failure. In commencing this system of rearing from birth, attention should be directed to the state of the bowels at the outset. Should the foal not have received the first milk of its dam, constipation is more than likely to exist, and should be corrected by the administration of a small dose of castor-oil and an enema of glycerine and water. Where the milk of a newly-calved cow can be procured, its purgative properties may be sufficient to unload the bowels, in which case further interference becomes unnecessary. USE AND ABUSE OF COW'S MILK To supplement the milk of the mare with that of the cow as a means of raising foals is in certain circumstances both desirable and necessary. Fillies with their first foal frequently fall short of an ample supply to keep the sucker growing, and especially is this the case after a hard winter on indifferent fare. At this early period of life the mare is building up her own frame at the same time that she is nourishing her offspring. The mammary gland has not yet reached its full size, and as a milk-making machine it has not developed a high functional activity. Mares advanced in years before being put to the stud, as well as those which have bred on to the decline of life, and others constitutionally weak, frequently fail to yield the necessary measure of milk for the support of their offspring. The same result may follow upon an injury to the mam- mary gland, by which its functional activity becomes in a greater or less degree curtailed. Nor is the question of the nourishing power of the dam's milk always one of quantity. The writer calls to mind several instances where foals have starved on what appeared to be an ample supply, but which was subsequently found to be of the most indifferent quality. In these circumstances a little help from the cow, until the youngster can forage for itself, may make the difference between a valuable and a useless animal�between a serious loss and a substantial gain to the breeder. We must, however, condemn that pernicious system so much adopted to- wards foals preparing for show, of allowing them an unlimited supply of cow's milk not only before but long after they are weaned. There is no doubt that by this treatment a spurt is given to growth, size is materially

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	WEANING FOALS
	WEANING FOALS	225
		225

increased, and so long as the allowance is continued and the balance of health upheld a vigorous growth is provoked and maintained�in other words the animal is " forced ". It is in this way that many of the foals and yearlings that take champion rank at our various shows are built up. But how many fall victims by the way, and fail to realize the hopes and aspirations of the too ambitious owner, is only known even approximately to those whose business calls them to minister to the unfortunates. Diseased feet, overshot joints, bog-spavins, and wind-galls, to say nothing of the constitutional break-down which sometimes follows upon a discontinuance of the milk diet, are the too common consequences of this hurrying treatment. It is not the intention of the writer to condemn the use of cow's milk in the rearing of foals where circumstances call for it, but to caution the breeder against its abuse, for when the ailments indicated above are brought into existence by this forcing system, they not only occasion immediate disappointment, but frequently continue, and result in deteriora- tion and loss. WEANING FOALS The longer a foal can have the easily assimilable milk of its dam the better horse it will make. But for various reasons mares are but seldom permitted to wean their own foals, partly because they are required to take part in the work of the farm or to be used for riding or driving purposes, and partly also because they have again been put to the horse and are building up another foetus. Although these several duties are capable of being performed within certain limits without ill effects either to parent or Progeny, when pushed too far they are likely to prejudice the health of both. As the foetus of the pregnant mare increases in size and attains to higher development, suckling can only be carried on at a disadvantage to the former, and a heavy drain on the nutritive resources of the latter. Foals are usually weaned about September or October, when they are five or six months old. At this period of the year, nights are getting cold ^aud damp, pastures are on the wane, the milk-supply is falling away, and ¹¹ the mare has been to service her foetus has made considerable growth ^ar*d requires all her support. Where, as the result of constitutional weakness or debility, from back- Ward growth or any other cause, it is considered desirable that the foal should continue with the dam for an extended period, then both should be allowed an ample supply of corn and chaff, and any demand that is being ^made on the mare in regard to work should cease.

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	226	BREEDING
	226

Animals when called upon to extend the period of suckling, should be taken up early and put into a well-littered yard, and have the protection of an open shed. In all cases the foal should be well " done " with corn, bran, and chaff for three or four weeks before being weaned, so that the loss of the mother's milk may not be so severely felt. As to whether the separation of the foal should be made completely at once, or by allowing it to return to the mare at increasing intervals, is a matter upon which breeders are not by any means unanimous, some adopt- ing the one course and some the other, with equal success and satisfaction. We think, however, that a gradual intermittent process of weaning is most rational, and best adapted to safeguard the health of both dam and offspring. For some time after separation takes place the mammary gland of the dam continues its secreting function, and in the case of mares in whom lactation is very active may cause painful distension of the udder. To avoid this, the quantity and milk-forming quality of the food supplied to the dam should be reduced, and only a moderate measure of water allowed. After weaning, foals should not be allowed to "go back" in condition, but should be kept growing by a liberal ration of manger food and good pasture. The restlessness resulting from separation from the dam will be greatly appeased by company, and especially by two or more foals being turned out together. THE MARE AFTER FOALING To safeguard the foal it is necessary that every attention be given to the mare after parturition. Old matrons which have passed through the ordeal again and again, and are familiar with the duties of their office, seldom call for interference. With young mares, however, fresh to the business, certain special precau- tions require to be observed. In the first place, the teats should be examined as to their permeability. In some instances there is no opening for the escape of milk, and the foal pines, and is sometimes reduced to the verge of starvation before the defect is discovered. So long as the excitement resulting from foaling continues, strangers should not be allowed access to the stables, and the man in attendance should be one who is best known to the mare, and who has been in the habit of feeding and tending her. When the excitement of parturition has passed away, and the foal has gained its legs, it will soon commence to seek for the teat, and it may be

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	THE MARE AFTEE FOALING
		227


sometimes desirable to direct it to the gland. This, however, should not be attempted too soon, for the natural instinct of the little creature will sooner or later guide it to the source of its food-supply. Young mares are liable to injure their foals by treading upon them before they "get their legs", but this is frequently brought about by the over-anxiety and untimely interference of the attendant. Strong foals quickly rise to their feet, and require but little interference. Weakly foals, on the other hand, or those prematurely born, make many ineffectual attempts to rise, and in doing so are liable to fall in the way of the dam ^and suffer injury. It is in these cases that special watchfulness and care are required. Here the attendant should allow the foal plenty of time, and wait until it is able of itself to rise. It may then be supported and assisted to the teat. For the first twenty-four hours after foaling, the mare's diet should be carefully selected and adjusted as to quantity. At first, warm oatmeal or linseed gruel is the most suitable; and if parturition has been troublesome and prolonged, and there is evidence of exhaustion and weakness, a pint of good ale should be mixed with it and repeated in two or three hours, or failing that, 4 to 6 oz. of whisky may be substituted. A little scalded bran and crushed oats may follow, and later a liberal quantity of nourish- ing diet, of which green stuff should form a large proportion. After the mare has cleansed and drained, the soiled straw should be removed from the foaling-box and the floor well swept and disinfected. For several days a certain small quantity of discharge will flow from the genital passage and soil the tail, and maybe the udder and teats, and ^xn a putrid condition this may find its way into the stomach of the foal, and occasion diarrhoea of an obstinate or even of a rapidly fatal character. Many of those attacks of this disease of obscure origin, and which are attributed to all sorts of possible and impossible causes, arise out of the ingestion of decomposing filth, taken in the act of suckling. Not only may this poisonous stuff besmear the udder, but it may also be transferred to it hy the filth-laden tail, or be gathered from the sodden litter on which the inare may lie. To avoid danger to the foal from this cause, the udder should be sponged from time to time during the first few days after parturition, and the tail of the dam should also be thoroughly washed and cleansed. These precautions are especially necessary in those cases where foaling has been difficult and has called for assistance, and the discharge has been con- siderable. For the first two days after foaling, both mare and offspring should be Protected from cold and wet, and especially from exposure to easterly and

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		BKEEDING
	228


north-easterly winds. As, however, they will soon require to be turned out to grass, overheating of the stable requires to be strictly guarded against by free but carefully regulated ventilation. Neglect of these precautions sometimes conduces to serious, if not fatal, pneumonia. To keep a foaling-box too cold is pardonable, to overheat it is culpable. As soon as the weather permits, both mare and foal should go to grass. In turning them out for the first time, that part of the day should be selected when the sun is out, the wind in a favourable quarter and not too brisk, and when the ground is fairly dry. After confinement, foals in their gallops and gambols often become overheated, and in a state of fatigue throw themselves down on the wet, cold ground, or stand about in a biting wind, causing serious, if not fatal, consequences. In the early spring the weather is prone to rapid and extreme changes, and bright warm sunlight is often followed by piercing winds and driving rains; and with these adverse forces to contend with, the careful studsman will arrange his first turn-out within easy reach of shelter and protection. This will not be needed long, for foals soon adapt themselves to an outdoor life. Even when a turn-out is not desirable, foals should be provided with plenty of room to move about, and have in addition forced exercise under shelter of a shed. A little movement helps to straighten up a foal and put him fairly on his legs. When the turn-out comes, it will require to be considered as to how far grass should be supplemented with manger food. This will, of course, depend a good deal upon the state of the weather, the nature of the soil, and the stage of growth of the herbage. Cold weather, with a shortage of grass, will call for a liberal daily ration of dry food. Young mares which enter upon their maternal duties at three years old, and old ones whose yield of milk is insufficient, should always receive a couple of feeds of crushed oats daily for two or three weeks after being turned out, or until the grass comes to its best. In both these circumstances the foals should be encouraged to eat manger food with the dam, so that any lack of milk-supply occurring as the season advances may be met by a further addition to the corn ration. Without this precaution the foals of young growing mares, and those of old ones whose vitality has been lowered by age and hard work, seldom make good growth and develop size and constitution. Mares with foals at foot should have good range of pasture, and in addition an occasional change is most desirable.

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	STERILITY
	STERILITY	229
		229

STERILITY It would seem that sterility in the female must depend upon one of several causes. The ovaries may be incapable of forming eggs, or the eggs when formed are defective and incapable of fertilization. The ovaries, on the other hand, may be functionally perfect, but owing to some obstructive condition of the Fallopian tubes or oviducts they fail to reach the uterus. Again, a perfectly healthy ovum may be impregnated and safely conveyed to the womb, but unless that organ is in a normal condition it may die, conception would not take place, and the mare would as a consequence fail to breed. The writer has known several instances where the entire structure of the egg-forming glands have been destroyed by the growth and expansion within them of cysts or bladder-like formations (fig. 527), and other cases where the glands have been rendered functionally useless by the develop- ment within theni and round them of malignant tumours. The Fallopian tubes may be rendered impervious by pressure from without, or by thickening of the membrane lining them, or by morbid growths within them or upon them. Mares which have passed through a period of diffi- cult foaling not unfrequently become sterile owing to the Fallopian tubes getting blocked up by inflammatory products, or so far thickened as to obliterate the passage and prevent the ovum from reaching the uterus. However perfect the ovaries or oviducts may be, impregnation cannot take place unless the semen of the male gains access to the uterus, for which purpose it is necessary that the entrance thereto should be open to receive it. Obstruction at this point is not unfrequently the cause of sterility in Wares, either as the result of a twist of the neck of the uterus, or a thicken- ing of its walls, or disease of the mucous membrane, any one of which may obstruct the passage and prevent the entrance of the sperm element into the womb. From these considerations it will be seen that the possibility of restor- ing fruitfulness in the sterile mare will depend upon the nature of the cause to which the sterility is due. Of these some are amenable to treatment, but others are altogether incapable of being removed. While it would be ^possible to restore the function of an ovary or egg-gland whose structure had been broken up and absorbed by the growth of cysts or some other formation within it, it might not be difficult to remove or overcome an obstruction in the neck or mouth of the uterus, or, in some cases, to restore its lining membrane to a normal condition.

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		BREEDING
	230	BREEDING
	230

In order that an impregnated ovum may proceed to develop into a fetus, the womb with which it must establish a connection will require to be in a healthy condition. Many mares fail to breed, not from any structural defect of the reproductive organs, but from a functional derange- ment of the mucous membrane of the uterus or vagina, whose vitiated secretion imperils, if it does not immediately destroy, the life of the sperma- tozoa, or should they escape and impregnation take place, the fertilized ovum sooner or later succumbs to its unhealthy environment. Many of those cases where mares return to the horse and receive service again and again without proving fruitful, result from some one or other abnormal state of the uterus unfitting it to nurture the impregnated germ. Although little can be done to rectify those graver structural defects of the ovaries and the uterus which add to the prevalence of sterility, much may be done to prevent that greater waste resulting from obstructive conditions affecting the mouth and neck of the womb, which prevent the semen from entering it. It has repeatedly been affirmed and implied that in the act of coition the spermatic fluid of the horse is deposited in the vagina of the mare, and that the spermatozoa subsequently enter the uterus by virtue of their own powers of movement or are sucked into the latter organ during its relaxa- tion, when copulation is completed. .While allowing the operation of both these forces in the act of insemination, it is impossible to disregard the mutual adaptation of the male and female organs to the purpose of convey- ing the semen directly into the mouth of the womb. The projection of the urethral canal beyond the glans penis in a state of erection would seem to indicate that this arrangement was designed to ensure the delivery of" the male element into the mouth of the uterus. That this should take place is not absolutely necessary to fertilization. It has been proved by experiment that the injection of semen into the vagina alone may be sufficient to induce pregnancy. Because this is so, it has been argued that the spermatic fluid in the act of copulation in the horse is not discharged into the uterus. It seems to the writer that such a conclusion is not warranted by the facts. That the introduction of semen into the vagina is followed by preg- nancy does not exclude the possibility of its being deposited directly into the mouth of the womb during the act of coition, but would rather appear to afford a supplementary provision for impregnation in the event of this not being effected. Whether insemination is brought about by one method or the other, or both, a clear entrance to the uterus is an indispensable condition to impregnation by natural means.

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			ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
			ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION	231
				231

	ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION As obstructions of one kind or another are frequently encountered, it has been found necessary to resort to artificial methods of insemination in those cases where the hindrance can be overcome and a passage forced into the uterine cavity. For many years it has been the practice with some stud-managers to pass the fingers into the uterus of mares which failed to breed, before putting them to the horse, the object being to open the passage for the entrance of the seminal fluid, and in many instances with the result that pregnancy has followed the service. In untutored hands this method of clearing the way has sometimes been

		Fig. 534.�Inseminator A, India-rubber bulb; B, flexible tube; c, nozzle; D, guard, to prevent choking of the nozzle.

followed by bad results, but when properly performed it is quite a harmless ^and simple operation. One more safe and reliable, however, is to resort to artificial insemination. This is effected by means of an instrument (insemi- nator) designed to collect the semen of the male from the vagina of the female after service, and transfer it directly into the uterus. The practice has been largely adopted by breeders, and with a considerable amount of success. Among the earlier examples of its value in this country, was the yearling filly "Sandflake", the daughter of "Trenton" and "Sandiway", which, at the dispersal sale of the stud of the late Duke of Westminster, was sold by auction to Mr. Sievier for 5500 guineas. This filly was the result of conception following upon artificial insemination. In America the operation had been practised on a considerable scale for many years, and to a less extent in France, Germany, Russia, India, and other countries, before its adoption in these Islands was at all general. Mares which have been to service again and again year after year

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				BREEDING
		232		BREEDING

	without being impregnated by natural means have at once been rendered fruitful by artificial insemination. Thus valuable animals, relegated to the drudgery of the farm as lost to the race, have been restored to the stud, and converted into valuable assets. The advantage of this mode of propaga- tion is not alone that it overcomes the impediment to insemination in the mare and renders her fruitful, but by reducing the work of the sire his strength and vigour are conserved, and his services become more effectual.

			Fig. 535.�Artificial Insemination: Gathering the Semen

A, Uterus; B, os uteri; C, vagina; D, inseminator; d', bulb of same; E, rectum; F, bladder; G, the semen. In the case of old and valuable stallions, artificial insemination may be made to reduce their work by one half, or even more, while at the same time it preserves their productiveness and prolongs their lives and usefulness at the stud. By the same means, young fashionable stallions may be protected during the period of growth against venereal excess, which in so many instances is allowed to sap the constitution and weaken not only the individual but his offspring. The overstrain which the rush to fashionable horses inflicts upon them is responsible for much of the premature mortality and impotence from

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			AETIFICIAL INSEMINATION 233

	which many of them suffer, and to this is attached an immense annual loss to farmers and breeders. Artificial insemination requires that the operator be provided with a suitable instrument to gather up and transfer the semen to the uterus of the mare, and that certain precautionary measures against failure be observed. In this latter connection it is necessary: (1) that the tempera- ture of the syringe employed be raised to 100° F., which may be done by

		Fig. 536.�Artificial Insemination: Passing the Inseminator into the Uterus

A, Uterus; B, os uteri; c, vagina; D, inseminator; d', bulb of inseminator; E, rectum; F, bladder. placing it in a pail of warm water; (2) that it should be thoroughly clean; (3) that the semen should be injected into the uterus of the mare soon after it leaves the sire. Exposure to the air, to cold, or strong sunlight, weakens the vitality of the spermatozoa, and when unduly prolonged kills them and defeats the operation. The mare to be inseminated must, of course, be " in use", and while m this condition should be served by the horse in the usual way,¹ The seminal fluid discharged during the service will be deposited on the floor °f the vagina near to the mouth of the uterus. o ¹ Under favourable conditions successful impregnation has followed when the semen has been transported ^io"g distances.

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		BREEDING
	234	BREEDING
	234

When the horse has left the mare, the warm syringe should be intro- duced into the passage and carried forward by the left hand to the part indicated in the illustration (fig. 535), while the india-rubber ball is being compressed by the right one. The point of the instrument should then be directed into the seminal fluid (g, fig. 535), and the pressure removed from the india-rubber ball, and as a result the fluid will stream into the syringe. The syringe having become charged, the nozzle is introduced into the uterus (fig. 536), the ball is squeezed, and the operation is completed. Where it is intended to inseminate a second or a third mare, a fresh charge of semen should be obtained from the same service in the manner described, and the operation repeated. A supply of seminal fluid may sometimes be caught in a cup directly from the male as he leaves the mare, or some of the service discharged by the mare may be secured in the same way. SIEES Nothing is more important to the success of the breeding-stud than a good sire, and to prolong and maintain his fertility can only be effected by scrupulous care and rational treatment, in which the aim should be to keep up the balance of health and render his sexual work fruitful. It must, however, be remembered that the fertility or power to beget stock will differ in different animals, and in the same animal at different periods of life. The recognition of this fact suggests the desirability of regulating the work of a sire to his powers of service and reproduction, so that abuse may be avoided, his use at the stud prolonged, and the number and value of his produce enhanced. Eightly or wrongly it is the common practice to allow a horse to commence his stud career at two years old, and, although no apparent ill consequences may follow when sexual work is judiciously apportioned, we cannot help thinking that at this critical period of growth some benefit would be derived by allowing another year to pass over, before calling upon him to exercise his reproductive function. This precaution is especially needed where condition and growth are backward, or where the latter is in excess of what it should be at that age, when in consequence the system is wanting in strength and vigour. Big colts should be allowed ample time to develop before being put to the stud, and little ones to grow. When it is decided to use a two-year-old colt, the natural question arises as to how many mares he should be allowed to have. " The number

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		235
	SIRES	235
	SIRES

of mares sometimes allowed to horses at this age is almost incredible, and the view seems to find favour with many that what a colt can do should be the measure of what he should do, and it is no rare occurrence for forty, fifty, or even sixty mares to receive service from these baby sires during their first season. That they may be fairly fruitful under such a strain there are examples to show; but the general result of such a practice is not only to check growth and physical development, but to lay the foundation for sexual weakness and disappointment in the following season, and, it may be, to produce an abiding weakness of the reproduc- tive function, or even permanent incapacity to get stock. Moreover, the offspring of horses so overtaxed are at the best but doubtful blessings to the breeder, and many a farmer can tell how his money and the stud services of a good mare have been thrown away by the incautious use of those overworked youngsters. . . . Having regard to health interests, to quality of produce, and endurance at the stud, a horse at the age in question should not be allowed more than ten to fifteen mares, and it would be much to his advantage, as it would to that of all young sires, if the season were allowed to get well advanced before commencing service. At this time, grass will be plentiful and good, mares will 'come keen' to the horse, the chance of returning will be materially diminished, and the horse's services correspondingly lightened. As to older stallions, the same want of care obtains with them as with the more juvenile section, and many a good horse is prematurely used up or falls a victim to disease as the outcome of unbridled abuse. The number of mares a horse should receive from three years old upwards allows of no fixed rule being laid down. Very much will depend upon growth and development, and even more on natural vigour of constitution and sexual capacity, which latter can only be known by experience. Some horses almost complete their upward growth at two years old, while others at that age have made but little progress." In settling the work of young sires, every consideration should be given to their fitness in respect of the points referred to above, and lack m one respect or the other should be deemed sufficient to withhold them irom stud service until, by time and good living, they have acquired the necessary growth and vigour of constitution to enable them to exercise the reproductive function without prejudice to their full development and Saturation as sires. There is a very Avide difference in the desire and the capacity of horses tor stud work. Some, although young and fairly fruitful, display a ^vexatious indifference towards their mares, and can only be induced to consummate the act by the greatest care, or some special device on the

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		BREEDING
	236


part of the groom. Many of these horses become more and still more indisposed for sexual connection, and ultimately refuse service altogether and become prematurely impotent. In some the desire may be maintained by good living, plenty of walking exercise, iron tonics, and by keeping the horse away from mares for such a period as will bring back the sexual impulse. How long this may be, the attendant must find out for himself, and, having done so, exercise his discretion in directing the services of the horses under his care. On the other hand, there are stallions which with a remarkable capacity for service unite an extraordinary fertility and endurance. A notable instance of this was afforded by a well-known Shire stallion, which, on completing a heavy season in Lancashire, was let for further work in the south. On reaching his destination, at three o'clock in the day, twenty-three mares were waiting for service. Of these, nineteen were found to be in season, and were served the same day, and thirteen proved to be in foal. "Many sires, and some of great celebrity, have been known to serve from 200 to 260 mares in one season, and to leave a fair proportion of foals." Of course, it cannot be expected that such an amount of sexual work as is here implied can be continued for any number of years with- out inducing sterility or premature impotence, and owners of stallions, in their own interest, no less than that of their stock, should guard against dangerous abuse of their stock-horses by judicious restriction of their services at the stud. It is impossible to lay down any hard-and-fast rule by which the work of horses at different ages should be governed, but the following scale may be accepted as a fair average allowance for the season:� Age. Number of Mares. 2 years old ... ... ... ... 10 to 15 3 � � ............ 25 � 30 4 � � ............ 45 � 60 5 ,, ,, and upwards ... ... 70 � 100 Condition in the Sire.-�How far failure on the part of mares to prove fruitful is due to impotence on the part of sires it would perhaps be difficult to say, but those who are in and about our breeding-studs know that in some circumstances barrenness is largely attributable to this cause. It is too much the fashion to regard the mare as the ever- erring partner, and to overlook the disability of the horse to render his services fruitful; but how often is it observed that numbers of mares both old and young which have been regular breeders fail in a particular season to a particular horse to bear foals; and it is no uncommon occurrence to hear a breeder remark of a certain sire that " he has not left two foals

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			SIEES 237

		in the parish", or a comparatively trifling number in a district, notwith- standing that he was well supplied with mares the previous season. This is an occurrence so common as to be within the knowledge of everyone concerned with horse-breeding or stud-management. Explanations of various kinds are always forthcoming to account for these stud failures, some implicating the mares and others the season, but the shrewd breeder, while allowing for the possible adverse influence of both these causes, does not fail to recognize that other and more potent factor, the sire. How much of this failure is due to impotence on his part cannot be precisely stated, but there can be no doubt that under the circumstances presently to be referred to it is the predominating quantity. When we consider the exhausting services which stud-horses have to render during the season, and the indifferent preparation many of them undergo in anticipation of the work before them, it is not surprising that they sometimes fail to give the results expected of them. Without condition, the services of a sire are no more capable of yield- ing a full measure of success than are those of a race-horse, and to call upon him to perform a season's work in its absence is as much an injustice to the horse in body and reputation as it is to those who use him. The practice of turning a horse away into a loose-box after the season is ^over, to spend the winter in confinement, and too frequently on indifferent fere, is, even in these enlightened days, of common occurrence, and not infrequently the foundation on which subsequent failure of the stud is laid. When to this is added that bullock-like obesity into which he is rapidly brought during a few weeks of forcing treatment in the spring, little then remains to be done to defeat the object for which he is intended, it is not suggested that fat horses are necessarily impotent, but that they tail to meet the full and legitimate requirements of those who use them, and pay for a fruitful service. In saying so, we recognize the fact that, in order to command liberal patronage, sires, and especially those of the heavy breeds, must be brought up to the show standard, and at a time too when they should be in " racing trim . In this connection it must be admitted that the users are not altogether tree from blame for the losses which they suffer, and until they can judge niake and shape", and select their sires in the absence of soft superfluous nesh and fat, owners of stallions will continue the abuse to which we have referred. Want of condition not only renders reproduction uncertain, but lays the individual open to attack from all sorts of diseases and accidents of ^a crippling nature, and to none more than that bane of stallions�laminitis. ^vol. ill. 81

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		BKEEDING
	238	BKEEDING
	238

Eighty per cent of the cases of this disease occur at the beginning of the season, when every organ of the body is over-burdened with fat, and the muscles devoid of that healthy tone by which the feet are relieved from undue impact of superimposed weight. When a horse commences his season fat and wanting condition, his stud work is greatly multiplied by mares returning to service, and espe- cially if�as is mostly the case�he is allowed to serve an unreasonable number. In this state his early services are often abortive, and require to be repeated again and again, so that the vigour and condition with which he should have started is never attained. Young and old horses especially are made to suffer, both in body and reputation, by neglect of this first principle of stud-management. Stallions which have passed through an average season show the effects of its weakening influence, and need at that time as much as any a liberal measure of support. To uphold condition is the end to be aimed at, if a high state of fertility is to be maintained and services prolonged. In order that this may be done, the winter keep should be generous and of the best. A paddock with ample range, if possible, should be provided, in which exercise and plenty of it may be obtained. Stallions are better in the open, even in the cold days of winter, than in the average stable. It is no uncommon thing to see Mr. James Forshaw's valuable Shire stallions out with their blinkers on at Christmas, when snow is over their hoofs, and most people will respect his large experience of stud- management. As February comes round, the food ration should be increased, and exercise, commencing with six and increasing to ten miles a day, should be enforced. Hard condition and a fruitful season will be the result, to say nothing of the escape from diseases incidental to obesity. With judicious management, horses "on the road" will uphold their condition as the season goes on, and far exceed in fruitfulness those that " stand" at home. How much the vitality and strength of the offspring depend upon the vigour of the sire at the time of service is an unknown quantity, but no one acquainted with the subject will fail to realize the importance of their physiological relations. It is distinctly to the ad- vantage of stud-horses that they be regularly fed, and ample time be allowed for digestion to advance, before going to service. Neglect of this precaution is accountable for many of those attacks of indigestion, twisted bowels, and ruptured stomach from w^Thich stallions so frequently suffer. Nor is it less important that, as far as practicable, horses on the road should do their work in the early morning and cool of the evening, so that the depressing effects of mid-day heat may be avoided.

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		239
	TELEGONY	239
	TELEGONY

TELEGONY From time to time it has been said by breeders of horses and other animals that females, having bred to certain sires, have subsequently thrown offspring to other sires which in outward form, colour, &c, have taken after the sire to which they had first been pregnant, or in other words, that the influence of the first male is sometimes shown in the produce when the mare is put to a different mate. To illustrate the proposition�a mare having bred to a donkey, her subsequent produce to a horse should present some of the characters of the donkey. In explanation it is suggested that the unripe eggs in the ovary of the mare at the time of the first impregna- tion, as well as the one which is fertilized, are infected with the germinal matter of the first sire, and rendered capable of producing foals to other horses more or less like him; or, as Bruce Lorre puts it, "the dam absorbs some of the nature or actual circulation of the yet unborn foal, until she eventually becomes ' saturated' with the sire's nature or blood as the case may be". What has hitherto been regarded as the most authentic and convincing experiment in this connection was performed by Lord Morton in the early part of the nineteenth century. He put a chestnut mare, which had never before bred, to a quagga stallion, and as a result obtained a female hybrid of a dun colour which " in her form and colour bore very decided indica- tions of her mixed origin". The same mare subsequently passed into the hands of Sir George Ouseley, who put her to a black Arabian horse two consecutive years, and produced a filly and a colt respectively which in their colour and in the hair of their manes, it is said, bore a striking resemblance to the quagga. Both were bay, and distinguished by a " dark line along the ridge of the back, the dark stripes across the forehead, ^and the dark bars across the back part of the legs. The stripes of the colt ^were confined to the withers and to the part of the neck next to them, -l-hose on the filly covered nearly the whole of the neck and the back as far ^as the flanks. The colour of her coat on the neck adjoining to the mane ^Was pale and approaching to dun, rendering the stripes there more con- spicuous than those on the colt. The same pale tint appeared in a less degree on the rump, and in this circumstance of the dun tint also she ^resembled the quagga. . . . Their manes were black, that of the filly short, stiff, and stood upright, and that of the colt long, but so stiff as to arch Upwards and to hang clear of the sides of the neck, in which circumstance it resembled that of the hybrid." Prima facie this would appear to admit of the conclusion that impreg-

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	240	BREEDING
	240

nation by the quagga had in some way or other imbued the system of the mare from which these two foals were bred, with the power to impress upon her subsequent offspring by other sires the characters which dis- tinguished her first mate, the quagga. However inviting such a conclusion may be, the fact, as mentioned by Darwin, must not be overlooked that " in all parts of the world, stripes of a dark colour frequently appear along the spine, across the legs, and on the shoulders occasionally, where they are double or treble, and even sometimes on the face and body, of all breeds of horses and of all colours". Notwith- standing this, Darwin was satisfied that in the case of Lord Morton's experiment " the quagga had affected the character of the offspring sub- sequently got by the black Arabian horse". The evidence which that distinguished observer, Mr. Herbert Spencer, was able to procure, satisfied him of the truth of the influence of the male on the progeny subsequently borne by the mother to other males, and he suggests that this remarkable phenomenon is the result of the ova in the ovaries becoming infected with germ-plasm through her tissues. From experiment and other sources of information, Mr. Eomanes was equally satisfied that a previous sire "asserted his influence in a subsequent progeny ", but he was of the opinion that instances of the kind were of rare occurrence. Mr. Allison, who writes for the Sportsman under the nom de plume of the " Special Commissioner", avers that it would " not be difficult to furnish hundreds or even thousands of instances" of the occurrence. Whether the cases referred to by Mr. Allison would bear that searching- method of enquiry which science demands before deciding upon so delicate and obscure a question, there is no evidence to show. Some breeders of horses, dogs, and other animals claim to have experienced the effects of telegony in their studs and kennels, but it is doubtful if their knowledge of the possible influence of reversion and other cognate subjects was suffi- ciently extensive to permit of their forming a reliable judgment. In this connection Professor Ewart points out that while many English breeders have been it may be over-credulous, not a few German breeders have long looked with suspicion on the infection theory. " Professor Kuhn (late head of the Prussian Agricultural station at Halle), Settegast, Nathusius, and others familiar with scientific methods, notwithstanding an extensive experience in breeding and crossing, have never known a case of telegony. Hence it would appear that while some doubt its ever occurring, others are convinced there is no such thing as telegony, that the female is neither infected by the first male, nor by subsequent mates to which.she bears offspring."

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	TELEGONY
		241


Professor Ewart, who has made the subject of telegony a special study for several years, employing in his experiments Burchell's male zebra, which he has crossed with several varieties of the horse, and subsequently mated the mares so used with horses, believes in regard to markings that " if those on Sir George Ouseley's colts were not due to the dam having been influenced in some way by the quagga, they resulted from reversion". " I prefer", he says, " the reversion explanation, because it seems to be simpler and more in accordance with established facts." On the general question, however, he is careful to note that " it would be premature to come to any conclusion as to whether there is such a thing as infection of the germ or not". Millais, who made numerous experiments with "pure-bred dams and wild sires, and returned them afterwards to pure sires of their own breeds, never saw a case of telegony", and " every single experimenter", he says, " who has bred to produce the phenomenon has hopelessly failed like himself". We have endeavoured to elicit the general experience of horse-breeders and stud-managers by submitting to them the following question on the subject, and it will be seen by the answers given below how little is known of it, and how universally the theory is repudiated by them. Question.-�-When a filly has been put to a horse and bred a foal by him, it is said by some that foals from the same mare subsequently born to other sires partake after the first sire. Have you any experience which bears out this statement? If so, will you kindly give me particulars of the case or cases? 1. " It is a subject in which I have taken great interest for some years. In the cases that have come under my observation I have never had an instance of foals born from the same mare taking after the first sire."� Itev. D. B. Montefiore, Mursley Hall, Winsloiv. 2. "I think the first sire influences the produce when a mare is put to another sire, but have no experience to offer. Mowthorpe, my stud- groom, is certain they do, but neither can he give any evidence on the point."�R. Whitworth, Southwood End, Halifax. 3. " I have not had any cases where a mare has bred a foal and then ^when put to a different sire, has bred stock which has taken after the first sire. I once had a case where I could not get a Shire mare to commence breeding to a Shire horse, so we used a hackney, which was successful. Several people told me she would always breed hackneys or very light foals, but I proved this to be quite the contrary, as the next foal she had, which was by a Shire horse, was very weighty and full of bone and made a good horse, and the mare continued breeding good Shires."�J. Wainwright, Hargate Hall, Buxton.

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			242 BREEDING

		4. "I have not noticed a sire to have any effect on the future progeny of a mare by other sires, and I don't think it possible."�G E. E. Cooke, Bygrave House, Baldock, Herts. 5. " I have not in my experience noticed that when a filly is put to a horse and bred a foal by him, foals from the same mare subsequently born to other sires partake after the first one."�W. Crosland, Buscot Park, Faringdon. 6. " I do not know that I have ever known the taint from the first sire to descend in a following year to the progeny, either in horses or cows."� J. P. Cross, Catthorpe Towers, Rugby. 7. " So far as my experience goes, I have not noticed that foals got by different sires from the same mare have partaken after the first horse. I have heard it said that if a nag-mare was first discovered by a cart-horse and afterwards mated with the lighter class of stallions the foals would for two or three years have a strain of the cart-horse blood in them, but I have never known it."�A. Collen, Hackney Stud, Saffron- Walden. 8. "I have heard that when a filly has been put to a horse and bred a foal by him, foals from the same mare subsequently born to other sires have partaken after the first sire, but- in my experience I have never observed anything of the kind."�J. Bastin, Norbury Park Farm, Dorking. 9. "I have never known a case in which a sire had any influence on the subsequent produce of a mare by other sires. " I know many people hold very strong views in regard to this matter, but I feel quite confident that their theory is founded on a mistaken idea. " How often do you find a smallish, undersized, insignificant-looking mare that is reputed to be and instanced in her neighbourhood as a good and consistent breeder, and you will hear the remark, she always breeds one better than herself, and this not always to the same horse, but to any decent well-bred horse she may be put to. To account for this you examine her pedigree, and you find it made up for several generations of weighty, typical Shire animals that have themselves been bred true to type. This mare generally breeds animals that have a strong family resemblance to each other, very dissimilar to herself, and perhaps not much like the sire, but breeding always one type to different horses. Thoughtless people are apt to say that the foals must take after the first sire, though they may have none of his peculiarities really, and the people who make the assertion probably never saw the sire."�J. Green, Galwich Estate Office, Ashbourne. 10. " I have had no experience to justify me in coming to the con- clusion that a filly, breeding for the first time to a certain horse, and then

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			TELEGONY 243

		mated with other horses and breeding from them, will produce foals par- taking of the conformation or type of the first sire."�John James, Dinarth Hall, Colwyn Bay. 11. "I have crossed scores of mares of coach, cart, hackney, and thoroughbred varieties, and have never yet been able to find in my experience that it made the slightest difference in regard to the subsequent produce."�Mansfield Harrison, Broohfield Stud, Highgate. 12. "I believe in some cases the effect of previous mating is visible in the produce, but personally I have not come across a case in the horse. On one occasion we had a Clydesdale mare accidentally served by a Shetland pony. The produce was a nondescript animal, just what you would have expected from such a violent cross. Her next foal was to a pure Clydesdale, and it did not show the slightest trace of the Shetland with which she had previously been mated, though I fully expected it would have done so."�JR. Brydon, Seaham Harbour Stud. 13. " My experience is quite contrary to the idea that the first sire has any influence on the subsequent produce of mares by other sires."� J- Paisley, Waresley Estate Office, Sandy. 14. " The point you raise with regard to breeding of horses, that foals partake after the first sire, is, I think, a common belief. I have, however, had considerable experience in breeding, and I have never as yet been able to satisfy myself that such is the case."�J. Lett, Rillington, Yorks. 15. "I really cannot say that I have ever noticed that when a mare has been put to a horse and bred a foal by him, foals from the same mare subsequently born to other sires have partaken after the first sire."�E. Green, The Moors, Welshpool 16. "I believe that when a mare is served by a good horse, her subse- quent progeny to other sires will be favourably influenced by the first. I have not had a case myself."�F. Buttle, Kirkburn Manor, Driffield. 17. "Having studied the question of a sire's influence on stock other than his own for now forty years, I am convinced that there is no ground whatever for saying that he has any influence on the future progeny of the ttiare when put to other horses."�J. Forshaw, Carlton-on-Trent, Newark. 18. "I certainly do not think that when a mare has been put to a horse and bred a foal by him, foals from the same mare subsequently born to other sires will partake after the first sire."�John Rowell, Bury, Huntingdon. 19. "I have heard a good deal said about the matter you mention, out I do not think there is so much in it as many people seem to think� ^xn feet, if there is anything at all. I give you one or two cases of my ^experience.

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	244
	244	BKEEDING
		BKEEDING

" 1st. 24648 ' Eoyal Duchess', grey, was served as a two-year-old by ' Dunsmore Combination', which is a dark-brown, and she produced a grey foal which was rather of the Clydesdale type. As a three-year-old she was served by ' Dunsmore Bismarck', a brown horse, and produced another grey, which also took after that sire in character of legs and hair, which was rather inclined to be curly. The following year she was served by 'Dunsmore Jameson', which is a bay. She then produced a bay-brown of a class re- sembling most of that horse's get, and not the least bit resembling either of the other two horses she had been served by, the colt having more size and scale than any of the others. She was again served by ' Dunsmore Jameson', and produced another bay-brown colt, which died when it was about six weeks old. She is now suckling a grey by the same horse, which is at present not so strong as the two she bred previously by him."� T. Ewart, Dunsmore Home Farm, Rugby. 20. " In my experience I have never known a sire when put to a mare to influence foals from her by other sires."�Alfred S. Day, Berkeley Stud, Crewe. 21. "I have no experience of violent crosses, but where animals of the same breed are used, I do not think there is anything in the matter suggested by your question."�_E Drewry, Holker, Cark-in-Cartmel, Lancashire. 22. " I have keenly watched the subject for years, but have never seen anything to indicate that the first sire influenced in any way the produce of other sires from the same mare."�W. Bower, East Rudham, Norfolk. 23. " I have no experience of a case of a mare producing a foal that favoured a previous sire."�T. B. Barling, M.R.C.V.S., Amberley Court, Monmouth. 24. " My experience has been that a foal from a mare by a different horse to which the same mare has previously bred, does not partake after the first sire in shape or colour. " To give one of many examples, the hackney mare ' Bonny Clara' 6419 bred to the chestnut horse ' Clovelly' a chestnut filly foal. The same mare put to 'Derwent' 4737, brown, produced a brown filly; the next foal, by 'County Member' 948, brown, a bay filly. "Her next three foals are all by 'Eoyal Danegelt' 5785, chestnut, and are all chestnuts. These several foals varied in shape and colour according to their different sires."�H. Starling, The Paddocks, Elsenham, Essex. 25. " I have had a number of mares here with foals by trotters (American), Shire horses, thoroughbreds, all of which have afterwards bred to my hackney stallion, and in no case has any trace of a previous impression been found in their immediate or subsequent foals. I anrthere-

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		GENERATION 245

fore unable to believe in the subject of telegony."�A. W. Hichling, Ald- bolton, Nottingham. 26. " I know it is the theory of some people that a mare will throw back to the first horse that she breeds by, but in my experience I have never found it so."�William Flanders, Witchford, Ely. 27. "I cannot say positively that any actual impression from the service of a stallion of a different breed or type was conveyed to the next produce of another horse."�J. Conchar, Wylde Green, Birmingham. 28. "I am not aware that we have had any case where a horse has affected a mare's progeny for more than one foal�"�Colin Campbell, Danesjield. Marlow.

	GENERATION The one prominent function of the generative system is the perpetuation of the race, and using the term in its widest sense, generation includes all the processes which result in the multiplication of living beings. Reference to the description of the organs which constitute the genera- tive system in the higher animals�the mammals, for example�will show that two sets of complicated structure belonging to two sexes�male and female�are concerned in the function, and a knowledge of the functions of the two distinct sets of organs will leave no room for doubt that the female has the largest share in the perpetuation of the species. " Omne vivum ex °vo " is a very familiar quotation, but it contains a most important truth. The ovum of the female animal or plant contains all the material necessary for the formation of a new animal or plant. In the ovum or egg there is ^a germ possessing a dormant vitality, which only awaits contact with the sperm-cell of the male to become actively alive and capable of appropri- ating the material by which it is surrounded, and evolving from inert and shapeless substances all the tissues and organs which constitute the new existence. With the impregnation of the germ-cell by the action of the male, the more complicated function of the female begins, and must go on until the Hew creature is sufficiently advanced to live an independent existence. A merely superficial analysis of the function thus lightly sketched, reveals the three essentials of which it consists, namely, impregnation, gestation, and Parturition, each of which includes certain conditions which vary in different beings.

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	246	BREEDING
		BREEDING

IMPREGNATION Impregnation is effected by the contact of the sperm-cell of the male with the germ-cell of the female. The precise manner of the contact, and the means employed to ensure it, are of no consequence to the result. In the most highly organized mammals, for instance, the fluid secreted by the testicles of the male (semen), with fluid from the prostate and other glands, is conveyed to the generative organs of the female by means of the intro- mittent organ, which injects it forcibly into the vagina, and to some extent also through the open mouth of the uterus into that organ. Sperm-cells, or, as they may more correctly be termed, spermatozoa, which have been set free from the sperm-cells, are abundant in the fluid so injected. These actively moving bodies are the essential agents in impregnation, and whether they reach the germ-cells of the ovum in the natural way, or are conveyed artificially by instrumental means, as in artificial insemination, the effect of their contact is the same. The previously passive germ-cell becomes active under the action of the stimulus imparted by the sperm-cell, which rouses the developmental force, before lying dormant, in the ger- minal vesicle of the ovum. Another important factor in the generative function�the receptive con- dition of the ovum�is at this stage to be considered. Not every contact between the sperm and the germ is fruitful; possibly the power of the sperm-cell may always be active, but it is quite certain that the ova in the ovarium are not at all times ready to react to the mysterious force which the sperm-cell is ready to transmit. During the period of life which includes the power of procreation, development of ova is always going on in the substance of the ovary. From a mere speck of germinal matter or protoplasm, the egg originates as a simple cell, gradually attaining to the condition of the mature ovum with its external vitelline membrane {zona pellucida), the yolk-sac containing the yolk and a germinal vesicle with the central germinal spot. As the development of the ovum reaches nearer to the point of perfection, the Graafian follicle in which it is contained and protected, advances to the surface of the ovarium, blood circulation in the external membranes in- creases in volume and rapidity, and soon the surface of the Graafian follicle is covered with an arboresque arrangement of brightly coloured vessels. In due time the follicle bursts and sets the mature ovum free to pass into the open fimbriated mouth of the Fallopian tube, through which it passes to the interior of the uterus. If no contact takes place with the sperm-cell, the ovum, although ready to receive the stimulus, which, however, may not be

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THE OVUM

247

present, passes into the uterus and forms part of the waste products of the
raucous membrane, and with them is expelled; one of the many instances of
the reckless liberality of the natural functions, which are constantly supply-
ing redundant matter for the development of new organs or repair of
wasted tissue�matter which is often in excess of the demand, or is supplied
unconsciously when the conditions are not favourable to its fruitful use.

THE OVUM

Changes which occur in the mammalian ovum during its progress to

maturity are always going , ,

~ ■ * xi. x- � t x ° o c d e f g h

on, Irom the time oi puberty

to the end of the productive
life of the animal. Its mature
state is reached with the oc-
currence of eestrum, or heat,
and it is to be noticed that
during the few days of con-
tinuance of this condition
there is a marked increase
of sexual excitement. The
mature ovum or ova are at
this time discharged from
the Graafian follicle.

An idea of the form and
structure of the mammalian
ovum may be gained from

Fig. 5R7.�The Ovum lying in the Graafian Vesicle

ct, Stroma or tissue of ovary; 6, c, external and internal tunics
of Graafian vesicle; d, cavity of vesicle; e, thick tissue of ovum
or yolk sac; /, yolk; g, seminal vesicle; A, the spot.

^an examination of the egg
of a bird. The common fowl furnishes the most simple examples, simple
because they are prominent objects, easily seen by the unaided eye, while
the mammalian ovum is a microscopic object, only to be distinguished by
the aid of a highly magnifying power.

In the above illustration (fig. 537) a diagram, with description,
exhibits the ovum lying in the Graafian vesicle.

Physiologists are not agreed as to the successive steps in the formation
°i the ovum, but it is allowed that the development of the germinal vesicle
is precedent to the appearance of the yolk. The germinal spot is to be seen
^ln the germinal vesicle, and presumably the spot is the incipient body round
^which the vesicle is developed.

From its origin to its maturation the chief changes which occur in the
^ovUm are those incidental to its growth, and the necessary advance of the

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		248 BREEDING body from the centre of the Graafian vesicle to its circumference. The germinal vesicle itself, as maturity in the ovum advances, becomes rela- tively smaller, owing to the more rapid growth of the structures with which it is associated. While the ovum is advancing to the circumference of the Graafian vesicle, the granular contents of that vesicle are pushed to the inner side of the investing membrane which forms its wall, and become the membrana granulosa, in which the ovum itself is embedded. According to modern views, the germinal vesicle, during the growth of the structures of the ovum, undergoes changes which result in its temporary obliteration, and the substitution of a spindle-shaped body at each end of which the elements of the yolk are clustered. All the developmental actions which have been referred to as occurring in a single ovum, it will be understood, are going on at the same time in a number of ova enclosed in the ovaries. In fact, it is not unreasonable to presume that, from early life, ova are constantly being developed and dis- charged as effete matter, falling short of the indefinable something which would give them the right to take rank among the actual, or, at the least, possible, entities. To continue the story, it must be granted that one or more of several mature ova meet the sperm-cells, which can start their dormant life into activity, and in such case on the instant of contact commence the changes which end in the formation of a miniature representation of the parent. CHANGES IN THE OVUM AFTER IMPREGNATION At what stage of its progress from the ovarium through the Fallopian tubes to the cavity of the uterus the ovum meets the sperm-cell from the seminal fluid is not known. Most probably the point of contact is purely accidental. The spermatozoa are capable of rapid movements, and may meet the advancing ovum at any point of its course, even from the moment of its exit from the Graafian cell. Wherever the contact between the germ- cell and the sperm-cell occurs, the resulting changes are wonderful and also inexplicable. First it is evident that active developmental powers exert themselves, and effect in the contents of the ovum remarkable structural changes. Next it may be predicated that the male spermatic fluid imparts certain qualities and characters to the germ, such as form, constitution, and dis- position, which belong to the male, as it later becomes evident that the female parent also shares the power of transmitting these qualities in vary- ing proportion.

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	THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
	THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO	249

Theoretically, it may be considered that the male transmits form, and the female disposition and character, and in man the intellectual power. To this rule there are, however, many very marked exceptions. After the disappearance of the germinal vesicle, curious changes in the yolk are perceived, resulting in segmentation. First, depressions or notches are noticed in the membrane surrounding the yolk at two points, and these slowly advance through the mass, cutting it in halves, while almost at the same time a similar process is going on in each half, making four divisions, which are divided again and again, until a mulberry mass is formed. This process of multiplication by division of the mass possesses a remarkable significance, which will be referred to in connection with the process of generation in the lower forms of life (fig. 538). Completion of the process of segmentation leaves the yolk a mass of delicate granular spherical masses, each with a clear centre. Conversion of these masses into cells is effected by the development of an investing mem- brane round each mass. As soon as the cell-formation is perfected, the peripheral cells arrange themselves on the surface of the yolk, the central masses follow, and finally complete the construction of a thick membrane, which is known as the germinal or blastodermic membrane, which soon divides into two layers; the upper one nearest to the original investure of the yolk, the vitelline membrane, is called the serous layer of the blastodermic membrane, and the lower one the mucous layer. From the upper or serous layer, the outer portions of the animal body, the bones, muscles, and skin, are developed, while the inner or mucous layer, which is in contact wdth the yolk, forms the internal organs or viscera. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO First Signs.�At the outset, the attempt to describe the formation of the various parts of the young animal is met by an insuperable difficulty, because by no form of verbal gymnastics is it possible to describe a whole set of simultaneous processes by the aid of consecutive phrases. It is easy, for example, to state the fact that in the germinal membrane the embryo is formed; that bones, muscles, integument, and viscera appear, and that adaptive changes go on in the uterus, in which the young one has to pass its embryonic and foetal life; but unless the reader will consent to make a mental effort to realize that the changes are all going on in different degrees ^at the same time, there is no hope that the writer will succeed in conveying ^a correct idea of the true nature of the developmental process. Proceeding from the point which has just been reached, the formation of a germinal membrane by an accumulation of cells round the inside of the

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		250 BREEDING

	investing membrane of the yolk (yolk-sac), it will be quite easy to under- stand that at a certain part in the blastodermic membrane a round mass of cells appears, called for the sake of distinction the germinal area. In this round mass, which soon becomes an oval mass, the first sign of the embryo is seen, as shown in the accompanying figure (fig. 538, e). On each side the primitive groove or trace above described, are collected two oval masses of cells rising above the plane of the germinal membrane and bending towards each other until they touch and form an arch in which the incipient spinal cord is to be lodged; all this is arranged, it must be observed, in the upper or serous layer of the germinal membrane. Imme- diately below the primitive groove a line of cells may be recognized, forming the chorda dorsalis, the rudimentary stage of the bodies of the bones of the back (dorsal vertebrae). Then below the primitive groove, at the same

			Fig'. 538.�The Development of the Ovum a, First division of the ovum; b, c, d, subdivision of the ovum; e, first trace of the embryo.

time that the cells of the laminae dorsalis are closing over to form the central canal for the spinal cord, the serous membrane sends off prolongations from its lower margin, the lamince ventrales, which unite to form the walls of the trunk to enclose the abdominal viscera. As they proceed downwards, the ventral lojirnince turn inwards, enclosing part of the yolk-sac, after which the yolk and inner mucous layer of the germinal membrane are divided into two portions, one being retained in the body of the embryo, the other being left outside. The latter is called the umbilical vesicle. The mucous layer of the germinal membrane now lines the interior of the abdominal cavity and also the interior of the umbilical vesicle. The upper or serous layer is continued round both, and from the portion of the mucous layer enclosed in the body of the embryo the intestinal canal is developed. This state of the embryo is represented in the next illustration (fig. 539). Foetal Membranes.�While the changes above described have been going on, the formation of the foetal membranes, the allantois and amnion, is proceeding. Folds of the external layer of the blastodermic membrane are raised to enclose the body of the embryo forming the amnion; at the same time during the development of the amnion the allantois protrudes from

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO 251

the hinder portion of the intestinal canal, as a small pear-shaped mass of
cells at first, but, rapidly extending, it presses its way between the folds of
the amnion and comes in close contact with the outer one of the two folds,
becoming more vascular as it proceeds. Reaching the umbilicus, the allan-
tois is divided into two parts. The outer part, however, extending to the
external investure of the ovum, the chorion, shrivels, and is lost; the other
portion remains in the abdominal cavity, and part of it is converted into
the urinary bladder, while the
remaining portion extends from
the bladder to the umbilicus
under the name of urachus,
which after birth forms one of
the ligaments of the bladder.

It may be remarked here
that an oval body flattened in
form, which is commonly de-
scribed as a false tongue, and
sometimes affirmed to exist in
the mouth of the foal, is really
a concretion which is met with
in the fluid of the allantoid
sac, and nowhere else; occa-
sionally there are several of

Fig. 539.�Development of the Embryo, eighteenth day

these bodies, of various sizes.

a, Outer or corneous layer; b, amnion; c, allantois con-
nected with the anal portion of the alimentary canal; d, yolk-
sac or umbilical vesicle ; e, vitello-intestinal opening; /, simple
alimentary canal in lower position; g, trunk and head of
embryo; h, foetal heart; i, alimentary canal in upper por-
tion; k, place of convergence of amnion and reflexion of
false amnion or corneous layer.

exists in some parts of the country.

The name given to them, "Hi]�>-
pomanes", indicates that they
were known to the Greeks,
and an ancient superstition
attributed to them talismanic
power, a belief in which still

The annexed figure (fig. 539) shows the arrangement of the three
membranes which invest the ovum, i.e. the external chorion, the amnion,
the outer portion of which becomes in part firmly attached to the inside
of the chorion, and the allantoid sac.

The villi on the outer surface of the chorion of the human ovum (fig. 540)
are seen to be massed on the right side of the figure to form the placenta.
In the equine ovum there is no circumscribed placenta, but instead the
vascular villi are connected throughout with the internal uterine mem-
brane by means of numerous placental tufts, which penetrate the lining of
the uterus so that the capillaries of the foetal vessels and those of the
Maternal vessels are in contact over the whole surface. There is, however,

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		252
		252		BREEDING
				BREEDING

	no actual communication between the two sets of capillaries, but the blood- stream of the mother and that of the foetus are separated only by the thin walls of the vessels, through which the blood is constantly flowing. The interchange which takes place between the maternal and the fcetal blood, for the nutrition of the young animal, necessarily is carried on through the two layers of membrane by osmosis, i.e: that force which regulates the inter- change of fluids through wet membranes. Blood-VesSGls in the embryo commence by formation of a thin mem- brane in the blastoderm, between the serous and mucous layers, at a part which is described as the vascular area. Red lines appear, and form a net-

			Fig-. 540.�Development of the Human Ovum

1. Early stage: a, interior and exterior folds of the serous layer joining the amnion; b, embryo; c, incipient allantois; d, chorion; e, vitelline mass surrounded by blastodermic vesicle. 2. Second month: a, amnion, outer layer, coalescing with chorion; &, embryo; c, umbilical vesicle; d, amnion, inner layer; e, smooth portion of chorion; /, villous portion of chorion; g, elongated villi collecting into placenta. work of vessels filled with blood, a rudimentary heart is formed in the vascular area, and to that organ the branching vessels proceed, and the outline of the circulatory system is complete; the details being filled in by further developments in correspondence with the continuous advance of the embryonic structures. In the next illustration (fig. 541) the condition of the embryo and its membrane at the age of seven weeks is shown. Changes which occur in the Uterus in Gestation.�Further consideration of embryonic growth and development may be deferred for a space, in order to explain the adaptive alterations which have up to this time taken place in the uterus. At an early period in utero-gestation the openings of the glands of the mucous membrane lining the uterus increase in size and become more numerous. Meanwhile the membrane itself receives additions which render it softer, thicker, and more vascular than the normal membrane; in fact, the added materials constitute a new membrane under the name of the

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			THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
				253


	mernbrana decidua, which is afterwards divided into three layers�the decidua vera, decidua reflexa, and decidua serotina; the last named is especially devoted to the reception of the villi of the chorion. In the cavity of the uterus a quantity of fluid rich in nucleated cells collects, in contact with the deciduous membrane and the chorion, aiding in the process of nutrition and purification of the foetal blood. The membranes which have been described as surrounding the embryo also contain fluid, and the young animal during the whole of its existence

		Fig. 541.�Embryo of Horse at Seven Weeks 11, Embryo sae; all, alh, alls, alh, allantois; am, amnion; ys, yolk sac; a-c, absorbing area

^ln the uterus is surrounded and protected by water cushions of the most Perfect construction. It may be mentioned incidentally that all the membranes belonging to the foetus, with a large portion of the deciduous linings of the uterus, are east off at the time of parturition as the after-birth, and the uterine mucous ttiernbrane gradually returns to its former condition. Development of the Organs.�Up to this point the object of the ^wnter has been to convey to the reader some idea of the very interesting subject of embryonic development from the mature ovum, which is a mere ^speck about the ycrg-oth part of an inch in diameter, to the point at which the rudiments of the young animal are formed, and the embryo is in vascular connection with the mother by the contact of the vessels of the chorion surrounding the ovum with those of the lining membrane of the uterus, so Arranged that nutriment may be transferred from the parent to the offspring, Vol. hi. 82

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		254
		254		BREEDING
				BREEDING

	and the oxygenation of the blood be effected by the process of osmosis. Thus the placental union may be looked upon as representing an organ of respiration as well as of nutrition. Growth and development continue from the stage at which the embryo was left at the seventh week to the period when the embryo becomes

			Fig. 542.�Foal about Fourth Month

the foetus, about the fourth month (fig. 542) all the organs then being miniature representations of those of the animal when separated from the mother by the act of parturition. A detailed account of every step in the further development of the embryo would occupy more space than can well be allotted to the sub-

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	THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
	THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO	255
		255

ject; it will, therefore, be necessary to condense the description as far as possible. Development of the Nervous System.�In the early embryo the formation of the line of cells below the primitive trace was described as the chorda dorsalis, the basis of the future backbone or vertebral column. Conversion of the gelatinous mass of cells into bone is the simple result of the deposition of bone-earth, calcium phosphate and carbonate mainly. With the ossification is associated the necessary elaboration of form of the bones, ending in the development of the bodies, arches, and processes of the vertebral bones, which are divisible into neck, back, loins, and tail�i.e. cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal bones. At the anterior part of the vertebral column a prolongation of the structures occurs, to form the cranium to contain the brain, and next the bones of the face are formed from a series of arches derived from the visceral laminae, which have been described. The four limbs or extremities at the same time are growing from the laminae which form the boundaries of the trunk, and it is noticeable that m all vertebrate animals the four extremities are at first identical in form, whether their ultimate use is to be for walking, grasping, swimming, ^or flying; in other words, whether the extremities are to be finally feet or hands, or fins or wings, they all have the same shape at first. The highest mammal in the course of embryonic development exhibits some of the features of the reptile, fish, and bird, a good example of evolution in a com- pressed form never exciting any astonishment, because it is never seen by the ordinary eye, being hidden in the membranes which invest the ovum, ^and only to be detected by elaborate and minute dissection by a practised anatomist skilled in the use of the most delicate instruments. Development of the Heart and Vessels.�In its primitive con- dition the heart is a mass of cells to which, as already described in the embryo, the vessels of the vascular area tend and ultimately reach, forming the rudiments of the circulatory system. Cavities are constructed in the mass of cells representing the heart, ^wmch become separated to form the ventricles and auricles. Blood- vessels which were formerly only red lines acquire size and shape, and ^aivide themselves into arteries and veins, and gradually the complicated mechanism which is described in the section on the anatomy of the organs circulation is elaborated from a few clusters of cells. -Long before birth the foetus possesses a perfectly complete set of organs °nnected with the circulation, differing in a few details of construction _ meet the peculiarities of the foetal environment. To understand the culation of the blood in the unborn foal, it is desirable to refer to

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	256
	256	BREEDING
		BREEDING

the description of the circulation of the blood in the adult horse (see p. 436, Vol. I, Anatomy section). In regard to the foetal circulation, it will be convenient to commence with the umbilical arteries, two in number, which convey the blood which has already passed over the body of the foetus to the vascular tufts which constitute the placenta. In the way recently explained, the blood so conveyed effects an exchange of its effete matters through the walls of the foetal and the maternal capillaries, and receives in return nutriment and oxygen. Thus renovated, the blood is carried back by the con- verging capillaries, which unite to form the umbilical vein, which vessel with the two umbilical arteries and the urachus mainly constitute the umbilical cord. The blood in the umbilical arteries is really in the foetus comparable to the venous blood in the mature animal, while the umbilical vein receives the renovated blood, and thus performs the function of an artery. Passing through the navel (umbilicus), the vein enters the liver of the foetus, and in the horse pours the whole of its blood into the portal vein. In animals other than soliped or single-hoofed, the vein divides before entering the liver, and sends part of its blood directly through a separate branch (the ductus venosus) into the posterior vena cava. In the equine foetus, however, all the blood gets into the vena cava at last, and thence to the right auricle of the heart, which cavity also re- ceives the blood from the anterior part of the body through the anterior vena cava. This blood goes directly through the auricle into the right ventricle, while the blood from the posterior vena cava is directed by the Eustachian valve through an opening (the foramen ovale) in the muscular wall which divides the right from the left auricle, and at once passes to the left ventricle, and by the contraction of the walls of that cavity is driven over the body after having met with the blood in the right ventricle, which has passed into the pulmonary artery in the ordinary course, but instead of reaching the lungs has been diverted into the arterial duct {ductus arteriosus), which in the foetus leads directly from the pulmonary artery to the posterior aorta. It is of course understood that the foetal lungs are not respiratory organs, as no air can reach them; therefore nothing would be gained by the blood entering them in large quantity; in fact, that fluid has been aerated in passing through the placenta. After circulating over the body, the blood is again carried by the pulmonary arteries to the placenta, and the course of the circulation just described is repeated. The total result of the modification in the arrangement of the circulatory apparatus in the foetus is the distribution of mixed blood over the body; only that

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	EVOLUTION AND GENEKATION
	EVOLUTION AND GENEKATION	257

portion which passes through the umbilical arteries reaches the placenta and becomes oxidized and otherwise improved by the interchanges which take place between the maternal and foetal fluids. Development of the Organs of Special Sense.�As soon as the structures forming the bony boundaries of the spinal column and cranium are ready for their reception, the spinal cord and the brain are formed, constituting the cerebro-spinal system; the eyes, organs of hearing and taste, are gradually developed by the ordinary processes of cell-formation. The alimentary canal has already been referred to in connection with the mucous layer of the blastodermic membrane, and it may be observed that from the same source the other organs of the abdominal cavity, and also the organs of respiration, are formed, and the foetal structures are, so far as general outline is concerned, complete. The subsequent processes are those of growth due to the continually added supplies of nutriment, until the young animal is fit for " separate life ", when some mysterious stimulus acts upon the uterus and causes expulsion of the foetus in the act of parturition. The Foal.�For some time, however, the foal has to depend on its mother for its subsistence, and as soon as it can rise to the erect position, instinctively it seeks for the teats of the dam, from which for some months to come it will obtain its chief food. By degrees the foal, prompted by instinct or curiosity, essays the taste of the herbage at its feet, and in time begins to prefer it to the maternal fluid. The mother at the same time seems to realize that her nursing days have been sufficiently prolonged, and gives her colt em- phatic hints that it has ceased to be solely dependent on her for its daily food. EVOLUTION AND GENERATION The story which has just been told of the function which is ex- Pressed in the term " generation " may be considered from more than one Point of view. In the record of the successive changes which end in the production °f the young mammal resembling its parents in form, constitution, temperament, and susceptibilities, the scientist sees an example of the process of evolution, so familiar that it fails to excite any special notice, ■the less experienced observer, with a larger perception of the marvellous, cannot avoid being impressed with the remarkable results of apparently ^Slmple causes. Opponents of the theory of evolution have found some

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BREEDING

258

amusement in quoting with derision the statement which someone is
supposed to have made, that man arose from the jelly-fish by a series of
developmental changes occupying ages. Most probably no one has been
asked to believe in such an origin of the human race; but it may be
worth while to think for a moment on the facts which have just been
recorded, about which there is no dispute, all tending to prove that an
organism much less advanced in the scale of creation than a jelly-fish,
being, indeed, only a speck of germinal matter, is capable of evolving a

man.

The mammalian ovum is in
reality a minute speck of animal
matter having no individuality, a
simple cell formed by investing
membrane surrounding an albumi-
nous mass, having a diameter of
less than the y^j^th of an inch,
containing a germinal vesicle and
a germinal spot only visible under
the highest powers of the micro-
scope. It is but required that
the minute germ in the egg, or
ovulum as it may more appro-

Fig. 543.�Examples of Multiplication by Division

and by Budding

1. Amoeba; p, point of separation. 2. Chilodon cucul-

lulus; successive stages of division. 3. Hydra fusca;

a, very young buds; b, older buds at different stages.

priately be called, should be fer-
tilized by contact with the male
sperm to ensure the development

of a man, or a much larger mam-
mal, not during the course of ages, but in a few months. If it could
be demonstrated that the higher mammalian is the outcome of incon-
ceivably prolonged transformations in the organism of the jelly-fish, it
is difficult to understand that there would be any greater ground for
wonder than should naturally be, at the contemplation of the meta-
morphosis of the mammalian ovum, ending in the evolution of the highest
animal in creation.

Multiplication of the species in the minute, lowly-organized beings
which may be described as constituting the dawn of life, is effected by
processes which may be termed marvellous in their extreme simplicity.

Taking the amoeba for an example, we have a mere film of trans-
parent germinal, i.e. living, matter, capable of movement without any
discernible organs of locomotion, breathing without any respiratory
apparatus, and taking necessary nutriment and growing thereby without
a trace of digestive organs. Multiplication of these primitive forms of

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			EVOLUTION AND GENERATION 259

living things is the simple result of the separation of portions of the mass, which are at once new beings possessing all the powers and pro- perties of their parent. Among the Infusoria, the highest division of the Protozoa, there are endless varieties of form, most of them moving freely in the fluid in which they live, by the aid of fine hair-like pro- jections (cilia), although some of them have a stationary life, being attached to stones or other bodies. Their reproductive powers are always active, and result in the growth of buds, which project from their bodies, become severed from their parents, and enjoy an independent exist- ence, giving origin to new lives by the simple process of budding in their turn. Division of the organisms is another method of multiplication which is common. The paramecium, for instance, has been seen to divide into several parts, which go on dividing every twenty-four hours. Monads, which are the smallest of infusorial ani- malcules, exhibit phenomena closely allied to those which have been

		described in the early changes in		Fig. 544.�Alternate Generation 1. Chrysaora (Medusa): a, egg; b, Hydratuba stage;

	the mammalian ovum, i.e. multi- i..... c, Hydra undergoing subdivision; d, young medusa de- PUCatlOn by Cleavage. A Small tached. 2. Distomum hepatieum: e, adult; /, egg; g, fissure is Observed in the Cell Wall l^arVa ^(lst g"^ion>; h, redm stage (2nd generation); I, cereana stage (3rd generation). at two, sometimes at four, points, and by the simple extension of the fissures the creature is converted into two or four individuals. Alternate Generation.�Among the variations, some of which have been described in the function of generation, that of alternate generation ^ls the most remarkable. It has been aptly defined as the production, by an animal, of an offspring which at no time resembles its parent, but which itself brings forth a progeny which gives rise to other forms still differing from the parent animal, so that the original maternal animal does not meet with its resemblance in its own brood, but in its de- scendants of the second, third, or fourth generation. This paradoxical Position of the reproductive function is not exceptional nor even rare. Vertebrate animals are the only class in which it has not been observed. In bell-shaped Polypes, Claviform Polypes, Medusse, Salpse, Vorticellse, and Entozoa it is well known. The last-named class, Entozoa, and

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		BKEEDING
	260	BKEEDING

Insects, furnish not only most striking, but also easily recognized ex- amples. Flukes, which occur in the ducts of the liver of various animals, horse, sheep, and cattle, and tape-worms, which inhabit the intestines, are among the most instructive instances of alternation of generations. A few lines will suffice to describe the curious metamorphoses, the elucidation of which has occupied scientists for years of patient labour. Stock-owners are well aware of the effects of the invasion of the liver of the sheep by the common fluke. This parasite is in form something like a flounder or minute sole, about an inch in length when fully grown; its digestive tubes are usually filled with bile. The reproductive system is highly developed, male and female organs existing in the same creature. Millions of eggs are deposited in the ducts of the liver of the sheep and other animals, and carried into the intestines along with the bile, finally being expelled along with the excreta. Falling on moist ground, the eggs are hatched, and from them emerge�not young flukes, but long, ciliated embryos, as much unlike the parent as the most erratic imagination can realize. Now the changes begin; the long embryo swimming about finds a snail, the shell of which it pierces, and lodges itself in the body of the animal, and becomes a " sporocyst", which means a cell full of germs. This is the first generation. The germs are developed, and become more highly organized than the embryos were, and are called " Redise" (second generation). The Redise escape from the parent cysts and lodge themselves in various parts of the snail; meanwhile, inside these Redise long-tailed Cercaria are developed (third generation). Some of the Cercaria, which are tadpole-like creatures, wriggle out of the snail and enjoy for a brief space a free life of swimming in the pools and puddles of wet grounds. Soon, however, they fix themselves on grasses and other plants growing in water, exude a gummy substance, and form little cysts, in which the Cercaria, the inchoate fluke, is enclosed. In this state they remain until they are swallowed by a sheep or other warm-blooded animal, when they escape from their slight prison, find their way to the liver ducts, and assume the form of minute flukes (fourth generation, from the egg of the parent fluke). To put the case in one view, one fluke egg gives exit to one embryo, which becomes one sporocyst, in which many Redise are developed. In each Redia sac numerous Cercaria of the tadpole shape, the fluke of the next generation, are formed and set free. Thus a single fluke egg is calculated to be responsible for at least 200 Cercaria. Leuckhart has estimated that the oviduct of a fluke may contain 45,000 eggs; it is only necessary to multiply that number by 200 to arrive at the total number of young flukes

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		IMPEEGNATION
		IMPEEGNATION	261

which one fluke may produce. The whole story sounds like a fairy tale; it is, however, a true story every whit. Only less marvellous is the history of the generation of the tape-worm, which in every mature joint produces myriads of eggs, each containing a living embryo, globular in form and armed with six minute hooklets, which have a purpose presently to be divulged. Mature joints or segments are constantly being expelled from the intestines of infested animals, lambs, for example, and are, as a matter of course, eaten with herbage by other graz- ing animals. Eeaching the digestive organs of the warm-blooded animal, the eggs are set free, the armed embryos find their way, by the aid of their hooklets, to certain organs, lungs, liver, or brain, fix themselves securely by the little hooks, and grow into water-bladders (hydatids), sometimes of great size. In the interior of the hydatid there are to be found numerous minute germs,�sometimes the numbers cannot be estimated,�which are in reality tape-worm heads and necks, ready to grow joint by joint, until they reach several feet or yards in length. The hydatid is swallowed by a dog or other carnivorous animal, and tape-worms are again developed. These two examples of alternation of generations may suffice. Ob- viously the scheme has enormous advantages on the side of multiplication of species with an abnormal rapidity, and it is a startling reflection that the creatures thus liberally distributed over the world are destined in their struggle for existence to inflict disease and death on creatures higher in the scale of creation than themselves, undiscovered, even unsuspected.

	PHYSIOLOGY OF GESTATION AND PARTURITION IMPREGNATION Successful horse-breeding demands a special knowledge of horses, so far as concerns their external conformation, aptitudes for different services, and peculiarities and defects; and in its practical aspect it recmires also a sound knowledge of horse-rearing and management, particularly of the young stock, and of mares during pregnancy and parturition, and for some time alter that event. Constant care and attention are likewise needed on the P^art of those entrusted with the carrying out of the details of breeding, ^xn order to avoid accidents and ensure a satisfactory result. The age at which horses commence to breed depends to some extent ^upon race peculiarities and external conditions, which have an influence in

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	262	BREEDING
		BREEDING

promoting precocity or retarding puberty. Well-bred animals are more precocious in this direction than those which are under-bred, and an abun- dance of rich stimulating food, easy labour, and comfortable surroundings expedite the development of the procreative faculties. The male and female horse are capable of breeding at two years of age, but instances are on record in which yearling colts and fillies have copulated successfully, and foals have been born before the parents were two years old. The duration of the period during which procreation is possible is also dependent upon circumstances connected with breed, management, and surroundings. The stallion may continue potent until over thirty years of age, and mares have been known to produce foals when twenty-eight, thirty-two, and thirty-eight years old. But it may be accepted as a rule that stallions and mares are at their best from four or five years, until they are about sixteen years old. When immature from youthfulness, or stale and decrepit from old age, the progeny of such animals cannot be expected to have the constitutional stamina or perfection of form of stock derived from parents in the bloom of life. The mare is usually " in season" (ready to receive the stallion) from April to June, or even later, and the periods when conception is likely to take place during that time recur about once a fortnight or three weeks, and are very brief in some mares�only of two or three days' duration. The indications of this condition (aestrum) are generally well marked: the animal is usually irritable or sluggish, and less able to sustain severe exertion; the sensibility is increased, and the appetite is more or less in abeyance or capricious, and thirst is often present; there is a tendency to seek the company of other horses, especially males; attempts to pass urine are frequent, and there are spasmodic ejections of a whitish fluid, accom- panied by movements of the vulva. While these symptoms continue, the mare will readily receive "service", and fecundation then most certainly occurs,�though it must be remarked that they often persist continuously in certain mares, and " service " does not allay them, neither does pregnancy result from such service, as they are mostly due to an abnormal condition of the ovaries. (See page 180 of this volume.) When conception has taken place, these symptoms, as a rule, do not recur at these usual periods, and are not witnessed during the whole time of pregnancy,��though now and again instances are noted in which one or more of them are observed, and pregnant mares will sometimes accept the stallion, instead of repelling him, as is usually the case, though he rarely shows any desire to have intercourse with mares when they are in foal.. When conception has taken place, the signs of heat or rutting, as has

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			IMPREGNATION 263

		been said, subside, and are not again noticed until after parturition; they reappear, however, very soon after that act has taken place, and it is be- lieved that on the ninth day subsequent to foaling, the mare will be more successfully impregnated than at any other time. With some mares impregnation does not take place readily, and this fault may be due to various causes, such as the animal being too old when tried for the first time, too fat or debilitated, &c, in which cases medi- cines which stimulate the generative functions, such as cantharides in very small doses, tonics, or stimulating food, may be of service. For other cases in which the cause is located in the organs of generation, the remedy to be resorted to will depend upon the character of the obstacle. The most frequent of the causes which hinder or prevent impregnation and produce sterility appears to be one of a mechanical kind�closure of the small opening (os) in the neck (cervix) of the uterus, leading to the interior of that important receptacle. This can only be ascertained by a manual examination, which discovers the opening into the uterus to be impervious, through contraction or alteration in structure of the neck of that organ. For very many of those cases the canal can be dilated by the fingers im- mediately before the mare is brought to the stallion; and great success has attended the employment of the india-rubber impregnation-tube, which is in- serted into the canal before service, and withdrawn when that has been effected. When impregnation has been successfully accomplished, certain changes are usually observed in the behaviour of the mare which lead to the sup- position that such is the case. Perhaps the most notable indication is the disappearance of "sestrum" or "heat". It is ordinarily the practice to present a mare to the stallion nine days after she has foaled, this being the time at which, as has been already stated, conception is popularly believed to take place with most certainty. About a fortnight afterwards she is again presented, and generally in another fortnight a last trial is made, when if the animal refuses intercourse it is concluded that she is pregnant, especially if no unfavourable signs have been observed in the interval, such as a desire for the male. In a short time, also, the majority of mares, if they have been irritable and restless previously, become quieter and more docile, if not absolutely torpid, and inclined to become fatter. Seldom is anything more noticed until pregnancy has advanced to the sixth or seventh month; so that though the question is often asked the expert as to whether a mare is in foal before that period, a reply in the affirmative is rather hazardous, and can only be based on the indications just alluded to, unless recourse be had to a manual examination per rectum or through the genital passage, a procedure which is not advisable in all cases.

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		BREEDING
	264	BREEDING

But about the sixth or seventh month an attentive observer can gener- ally detect an enlargement of the abdomen, more particularly on the right side, and movements of the young creature can also be seen in the region of the right flank, and most probably after the mare has been drinking cold water. The expert may also be able to hear the beating of the foetal heart. From this time onwards the size of the abdomen gradually increases, and it becomes more pendulous and prominent, though the volume varies in different mares, the variation depending not only upon a difference in the size of the foal, but also upon the amount of the fluid which surrounds it in the uterus, this being much greater in some mares than others. When the term of pregnancy is nearly completed, not only is the abdomen increasingly larger and more pendulous, but its upper part on both sides towards the spine begins to fall in, this hollowness being very marked immediately before parturition. A waxy matter also forms on the teats, and the udder becomes enlarged, this enlargement being generally coincident with the appearance of a thin discharge from the teats. The mare becomes sluggish, is readily tired, and seeks for rest and tranquillity, though the appetite, which has been greater during the later months of pregnancy than before, is usually unimpaired. A few days before foaling the croup sinks on each side of the root of the tail, and sometimes the hind-limbs swell slightly. CARE OF THE MARE DURING PREGNANCY During the early months of pregnancy the mare demands no special care beyond that included in the term "good stable management", and usual labour can be exacted with impunity. But towards the sixth month she should be more carefully treated than she would be if not in foal. If she is worked, and especially if the work should chance to be of a fast kind, then it ought to be, if possible, not so rapid, and be gentler and more uniform�violent paces or irregular and severe efforts are attended with danger, all the more imminent as pregnancy is advanced, and particularly so towards its finish. Within a week or two of foaling all work should cease, but exercise ought to be allowed if the mare is not in a paddock, though with care farm-mares may be permitted to do light, steady labour until within a few days of foaling. It must be remembered that exercise is beneficial, and indeed necessary, for all breeds of mares during pregnancy; but if they are allowed to run out-of-doors this should be on as level ground as possible, with a soil in which the feet will not sink, and without ditches or holes. Mares when in foal, and especially when near foaling time, have a

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			CARE OF THE MARE DURING PREGNANCY 265

		greater tendency to indulge in rolling than at other times when lying down, and if there are hollows, open drains, or ditches, they may become fixed in one of these, and in their struggles to get up so strain themselves as to make parturition difficult, or lead to abortion or death of the foal. All the walls or fences enclosing the fields or paddocks in which pregnant mares are kept should have no gaps or stakes projecting inwards, and all doors and gates through which such animals may have to pass ought to be sufficiently wide to permit them to pass through quite easily. Pregnant mares should not be pastured with young horses or cattle, nor exposed to anything likely to cause excitement. The same care ought to be observed if the mare is stabled. She must be protected from annoyance or injury by other horses, and if kept in a stall this ought to be of ample width, to allow her to turn round easily in it. The floor should also be as level and horizontal as possible, so that the mare may stand and lie easily, and the weight of the abdominal contents not be thrown too much backwards. The mare should also be fastened by the head in such a manner that there may be no danger of her getting cast. But it is always judicious to have a mare about to foal kept in a con- venient loose-box or temporary shed, where there is plenty of room for her to move about, with protection from inclement weather, freedom from draughts of cold air, and good ventilation. For litter, straw is suitable, though when parturition is near this should not be new, as some mares have a kind of morbid appetite at this time and would consume it greedily, thereby producing abdominal distention and consequently dangerous pressure on the uterus and its contents. Long new straw also becomes twisted and rolled round the feet, and so impedes movement. It is therefore advisable to use slightly soiled but dry litter that has been under other horses�this is soft and broken, so that the mare's feet will not become entangled in it, and being soiled she will not eat it. With regard to food, the kind and quantity allowed will depend upon the stage of pregnancy which the mare has reached. If she is working, the quantity and quality should be sufficient to maintain her in good health ^and efficient condition�if anything it ought to be better in quality and a little more in quantity than that given to similar-sized horses not in foal, ^and it should, if possible, be presented more frequently. Whether the mare is or is not working, it is advisable not to allow her to become fat ' indeed it is preferable to keep her in what might be termed moderate condition. There is nothing better than good hay and oats for pregnant mares; but for farm in-foal mares at work, mashes, or bruised oats or barley mixed with pulped roots, and chopped hay or straw damped with

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		BREEDING
	266	BREEDING
	266

linseed-cake water, have been recommended. Maize is generally considered unsuitable for pregnant mares. Many mares at pasture receive nothing but the grass they pick up, and when there is plenty of this and it is of good quality, the mare may do well and produce a well-developed foal; but during unfavourable weather, or when the pasturage is scanty or poor, a suitable quantity of hay and oats should be allowed, especially for morning feed; indeed at all times an allowance of oats, even if small, is advantageous. All food should not only be of good quality, but be also capable of easy digestion. When the mare is near parturition she may beneficially, two or three times a week, have mashes of boiled linseed mixed with bran, and made more enticing by the addition of an ounce or two of salt in each mash. A very excellent adjunct to the diet is a lump of rock-salt placed in a position where the mare can conveniently get at it to lick it. Medicines should never be administered to pregnant mares except under skilled advice. With regard to drink, the water should be clean and pure, and allowed frequently. If the mare is stabled it should be always beside her, as then there will be no danger of her drinking too much at a time. Soft water is better than that which is hard. ACCIDENTS INCIDENTAL TO PREGNANCY As will be seen, much of the success that should attend horse-breeding depends upon the care and attention bestowed upon the mare towards and at foaling time, as then not only are her own health and safety at stake, but the welfare of her progeny is also a matter for serious consideration. But if suitable precautions are adopted and intelligent observation main- tained, the mare and foal usually pass through this critical period of their existence in a satisfactory manner. It is certainly true that in very many instances pregnant mares receive little notice beyond that given at other times, and are often hard-worked and exposed to all kinds of unfavourable treatment. This is more especially the case with animals belonging to poor people, and particularly farmers in a small way of business, who exact labour from their mares almost up to the day of foaling, and set them to work again after that event has taken place. But this treatment is not always pursued with impunity, for accidents of a serious kind often occur, and sometimes the foal, sometimes the mare�not infrequently both� suffer disastrously. And it is no less true that common-bred animals are less predisposed to accidents at this time than those which are high-bred

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	ACCIDENTS INCIDENTAL TO PREGNANCY
	ACCIDENTS INCIDENTAL TO PREGNANCY	267
		267

�high-breeding bringing in its train greater liability to certain accidents incidental to pregnancy and parturition. High-bred animals therefore require more careful supervision on the part of the breeder. Abortion.�Abortion and premature birth are the most serious accidents that can happen to pregnant mares. Though both terms are often applied indiscriminately, " slipping the foal" is the term generally employed when the young creature is expelled at any time before it is fully developed and the usual time of pregnancy has expired; yet it is recognized by those who make this subject their study that the term " abortion " should imply expulsion of the foetus from the mother when it has not attained sufficient development to live outside its mother's body, while " premature birth" signifies that the young creature has been born before its time, yet with all its organs sufficiently formed to enable it to live for at least some time in the external world. In the first instance it is either dead when expelled from the uterus or it dies immediately afterwards; and in the second it may be weakly and immature and succumb after a variable period, or it may continue to live and eventually thrive. In practice, however, there is no accurately defined limit between abortion and premature birth, and especially when the latter has been brought about by any one of the causes that produce the former. Abortion is said to take place in mares when the foetus is expelled forty days before the usual period of pregnancy has terminated, and though it may occur at any time during pregnancy, especially before the 300th day, yet it is much more frequent during the first than the second half of preg- nancy. When the accident takes place at a very early period it may not produce any appreciable disturbance in the mare's health, and the develop- ing ovum usually escapes intact and often unperceived; but when it occurs at a later stage it is serious, as it not only entails the loss of the foal, but may also compromise the health, or even the life, of the parent. Many causes operate in bringing about abortion, and some of these have been mentioned; they act more or less in a mechanical manner, and Usually only one mare in a number will abort. But when several cases follow each other quickly in a breeding establishment, and no sufficient reason can be assigned for their occurrence, then the question of infection arises, and there can be no doubt now that to this cause must be ascribed the serious outbreaks of abortion among mares in recent years in various parts of Europe, but more especially in the United States of America, where heavy losses have been sustained. When, therefore, tw^ro or three abortions happen in a stud, it is well to ^adopt precautions at once; indeed, where a number of pregnant mares are kept, such precautions ought to be resorted to when only one accident of

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		BKEEDING
	268


this kind transpires, as no one can foretell whether it may not be the starting-point for others. If it could be arranged for every mare advanced in pregnancy to be kept by herself in a loose-box and paddock, it is very probable that this serious risk might be obviated; at any rate, isolation and other measures could be more readily and effectually applied. As a preventive of this form of abortion, the surroundings of the preg- nant mare should be as clean as possible, and all decaying or putrid animal or vegetable matter ought to be kept away from her. Cleanliness, good food, and pure air and water are the only efficient protectives that can be recommended against abortion, beyond those already mentioned. When a mare shows signs of impending abortion, if she is not already housed and by herself, the first thing to be done is to remove her to a spacious loose-box, which ought to be kept rather dark, and free from noise. These signs, however, are not very obvious in all cases. Sometimes it happens that the mare appears to be as lively and well as usual up to the moment when the foetus is expelled, while the expulsive act itself is so sudden and quick, and accomplished with so little visible effort or disturb- ance, that the accident excites very little if any notice. It frequently happens during the night, and surprise is expressed at finding in the morning the aborted foetus, usually contained in its intact envelopes, lying behind an animal which on the previous evening looked perfectly well, and even now is so cheerful and unaltered, and its functions so little impaired, that it can scarcely be believed she has been the subject of such a grave mishap. Even the sentiment of maternity, which is so strongly developed in animals after carrying the young full time, is not awakened in her, and she shows the utmost indifference to the foetus, even treading upon it. When abortion takes place during the day, the flanks have been observed to fall in a little, the abdomen descends, the vulva and vagina slightly dilate, and there escapes from them a glutinous, reddish-tinged fluid, followed by the foetus. If abortion occurs at an early period in preg- nancy, the membranes in which the young creature is enclosed are not ruptured; but when the period is more advanced�it may be towards the seventh or eighth month�these envelopes rupture before expulsion of the foetus, and may be retained in the uterus or ejected soon afterwards. In other instances, however, especially when pregnancy is well advanced, and particularly if the mare has sustained external injury, there are precur- sory signs of abortion which the attentive observer may note, but which vary to some extent, according as the foetus is dead or alive. The mare suddenly appears dull and dejected, or is restless, uneasy, and constantly moving about. If the foetus is alive and strong its movements are�by

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		SHIRE MARE AND FOAL, WYKEHAM MABEL By English Oak 2771; dam, Wykeham Whitefoot bv Samson II. The Property of the late Sir J. B. Maple, Bart.

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			PARTURITION 269

		one watching the mare's abdomen�perceived to be frequent, violent, and disordered, but they soon become feeble and infrequent, and cease alto- gether when it has died. The mare shows symptoms of illness, and these are soon succeeded by those that characterize ordinary parturition, and spontaneous birth of the dead progeny takes place, or, in rare instances, it may be necessary to remove it manually. In other instances, when the foetus is not removed from the mare spontaneously or artificially after it has ceased to move in the uterus, the mare regains her ordinary tranquillity, appetite, and liveliness, and all the symptoms disappear for one or more days, when they are again manifested, and the foetus may be expelled without any apparent effort, or after much straining. When it is observed that abortion is likely to occur, it is advisable to obtain professional advice as soon as possible. If the accident has already occurred, however, then, if other pregnant mares are near, they must be at once removed to a safe distance from the place, which should be cleaned and disinfected as soon as possible. Everything in the way of litter and remains of fodder, together with the foetus and its envelopes, ought to be burned, and the ground well scraped and disinfected. The hind-quarters of the mare should also be washed with carbolic water, Condy's fluid, or solution of corrosive sublimate (1 per 1000); one of these fluids, warm, should also be injected into the uterus if this is emptied of its contents. Until all this has been done, and some days have elapsed, the mare must not be allowed to associate with in-foal mares. It is also advisable to prohibit persons who have attended on the mare approaching these until they have at least been disinfected. It is a wise measure to keep pregnant mares away from horses affected with infectious or contagious diseases, such as influenza and strangles, as, if they become affected, they may abort, or the maladies may be transmitted to the progeny. PARTURITION The duration of pregnancy in the mare is usually about eleven months, though it may vary between ten and twelve months, or even more. The normal duration is, however, between 330 and 350 days. Some foals may be born alive from the 300th to the 310th day, but this is rare. Breed and feeding have some influence on the duration of pregnancy. In high-bred and well-fed mares it is generally shorter than in under-bred,, badly-cared-for, and hard-worked animals. Allusion has already been made to the signs which indicate that this period is drawing to a close, and it is necessary that these should be noted VOL. III. 83

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				BREEDING
		270		BREEDING
		270

	and acted upon, so as to be prepared for the birth of the foal; and when the event is imminent, a visit should be paid to the mare frequently by night and by day. Birth of the foal, when all things are favourable, takes place very rapidly, and in the great majority of cases the mare requires no assistance. When the labour pains come on, and she begins to strain energetically, the foal is propelled backwards, with the fore-legs leading, and the head between them. These soon appear externally, usually surrounded by the membranes and the fluid contained in them. A few more strains and the

			Fig. 545.�Natural Presentation

membranes are ruptured, when the foal glides gently down over the mare's hocks, if she is standing�which is generally the case�and falls softly on to the ground; the navel-string (umbilical cord) is nearly always torn through during this descent of the foal. The mare, soon after its birth, cleans the foal by licking it all over, and when this is done it is well to offer her a bucket of warm oatmeal or linseed gruel, and some bran mash, but otherwise she ought to be interfered with as little as possible. In some instances the mare refuses to have anything to do with the foal, and even becomes aggressive towards it. In such cases it has been recommended to sprinkle the foal's back with flour, as an inducement for the dam to lick this off, and so to become attached to her progeny. The expulsion of the membranes, or " after-birth", sometimes takes

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	PARTURITION
	PARTURITION	271
		271

place with the birth of the foal, but it is generally subsequent to that event within a few hours. If they are retained until they begin to putrefy, serious consequences may ensue; it is necessary to remove them in a day or so. If they are apparent, or readily accessible to the hand, they may be gently twisted round like a rope and slightly pulled upon until they are brought away. If this procedure is not successful, then the hand and arm, well soaped or oiled, must be introduced into the uterus, and the mem- branes seized, disengaged from their attachments, and completely removed from the mare. This attempt is all the more urgently necessary when there is a foul odour from the membranes and a bad-smelling discharge from the vagina, the mare at the same time making attempts to strain, and looking feverish. Then not only must every portion of these membranes be removed from the uterine cavity, but this must be thoroughly cleansed by copious injections of warm water, to which a small proportion of carbolic acid has been added, and scrupulous cleanliness should be observed with the mare's hind-quarters and her surroundings. Sometimes the mare, from debility or other cause, foals while lying down, and unless she gets up immediately the foal is born, the navel-string is not torn, so that the young creature may remain attached to its parent through this medium unless some accident release it, either the cord being ruptured or the membranes dragged from the uterus. If an attendant is at hand, however, the foal can be readily disengaged if he ties the cord firmly round with a piece of string in two places, about 6 or 8 inches from the foal, and cuts in through between the ties; this prevents bleeding from the mother and from the foal. Difficult Parturition.�Though parturition is generally and appa- rently an easy and prompt act in the mare,, yet it is .not always so; on the contrary, in some instances it is extremely complicated and difficult;, and many of these cases have a rapidly fatal termination. Hence the great need for careful observation of the mare at this time, for when the foal presents itself in the genital passage in an unfavourable position or abnor- mal attitude, unless the attendant have skill and experience it will fare badly with the mare, unless the assistance of an expert can be speedily procured, as she�unlike the cow�unless soon delivered, quickly becomes greatly excited and restless, and even furious. All veterinary surgeons ^ho have had to deal with cases of difficult birth in mares are well aware of the herculean and dangerous task that often lies before them, when they are called upon to attend such cases, owing to the excitement, uneasiness, and only too frequently mad plunging of the animal, which is all the greater as parturition is protracted. For this and other reasons it is imperative, if the foal is not born very

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		272 BKEEDING

	soon after straining commences, that an examination should be made, and if the cause of obstruction cannot be discovered or speedily removed, then the veterinary surgeon ought to be called upon to render assistance with as little loss of time as possible, as every minute's delay increases the gravity of the case. If the attendant possesses sufficient knowledge of veterinary obstetrics to enable him to deal with a comparatively simple case of difficult parturi- tion when skilled assistance is not immediately available, then, of course, he will first make an examination in order to inform himself of the cause of

obstruction to delivery. Should he find the foal in a favourable position, with the fore-legs presenting and the head forward or resting upon them, with sufficient room for the young creature to pass through the canal, then prudence may induce him to wait a little, as the labour pains may not be strong enough to produce its expulsion. If, however, the position of the foal is not favourable to speedy birth it must be rectified, or if the labour pains are feeble, even when the position is good, and especially if some time has elapsed, then in both cases, steady and firm but not violent traction may succeed in effecting delivery. It should be noted that some old mares have a large pendulous abdomen, which is a hindrance to foaling, as the young creature is so much below the level of the passage through which it has to pass to reach the outer world, that the abdominal muscles�which are those chiefly concerned in the expulsion of the foal�cannot raise it

			^

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			PARTUEITION
			PARTUEITION	273

high enough. In such a case it is most advantageous to elevate the abdomen by means of a sack passed beneath it, and lifted up by strong- men at each end. When the foal itself is the cause of obstruction, this may be due to the position of the limbs, body, or head. The fore-limbs are perhaps most often at fault, and one or both are involved, the difficulty being generally caused by their being doubled back at the knees (fig. 546). A similar flexion of the hind-limbs at the hocks may occur and be a cause of difficult parturition. The head, instead of being placed nose forwards and between

		Fig. 547.�Head and all Four Legs presented

	the fore-limbs, may be bent downwards towards the foal's chest (fig. 546), ^or it and the neck may be thrown upwards and backwards, or towards the side of the foal's body. Instead of the head and fore-limbs coming first, it may be the hind-limbs, or these may be retained and only the tail and buttocks presented (figs. 551, 552), while the body itself, instead of the back being towards the mare's back, may be reversed, the young creature lying more or less on its back with the legs upwards. Besides all these and other malpositions or malpresentations here ^represented, there is the difficulty sometimes�though not very often in the case of mares�occasioned by the presence of twins, as well as the Recurrence of monstrosities, and serious deformities or morbid conditions ^ln the foal. Deformity or diseases in the mare causing narrowing of the genital passage may also be a cause of hindrance to birth.

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		274
		274		BEEEDING
				BEEEDING

In cases of difficult parturition in the mare, much skill, adroitness, patience, and resource, as well as physical strength and agility, are re- quired in dealing with the very numerous and diverse obstacles that have to be encountered and overcome if the lives of the foal and mother, or either, are to be saved. More especially are judgment and manual tact required in making an examination. This demands not only a thorough knowledge of the internal anatomy of the mare's generative organs, healthy and pathological, but also an acquaintance by touch with all the surface and different regions of the foal's body and limbs. Without this knowledge and tactile facility it may be impossible to understand the hindrance to birth, and to render assistance by adopting proper measures or resorting to effective manoeuvres. So that the amateur or unskilled operator is likely to do more harm than good, and may even unawares convert what to an expert would prove a comparatively simple case, into a most difficult if not altogether hopeless one. MALPRESENTATIONS Head Presented, Knees Doubled Back.�To effect delivery while the foal is in this abnormal condition (fig. 548) is practically impossible*

			Fig. 548.�Head presented, Knees doubled back

	What is required is to bring the legs into the position of a natural presentation, i.e. into the passage, with the head resting upon them'. To effect this the canon bone must be straightened on the knee and the leg

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		PARTURITION 275

	extended. The limb most easy of access is the first to be dealt with. If the head is in the passage it must be forced back into the uterus by plant- ing the flat of the hand on the front of the face. When necessary, this may be effected with a crutch made to press on the front of the chest. While this is being done by an assistant, the operator will pass his hand along the under side of the neck until the forearm is reached. A push in a backward direction should then be made, until the arm can be raised and the leg brought bodily forward. The hand should now pass down to the canon, seize it, and through it push the knee up towards the neck.

J-he hand while drawing the limb forward gradually moves towards the pastern, which it firmly grips, and after extending the fetlock- J°mt, draws the foot into the passage. The limb having been secured by cords, the recovery of the next one may be proceeded with, after which delivery will be effected in the usual way. Still more difficult is that presentation where one fore-limb with the head is in the passage, and the other is lying far back under the body \ⁿg. 549). Here the advantage of a long arm and a strong man to use it ^will be clearly obvious, for, as in the last presentation, the success of the °peration will depend upon the displaced fore-limb being secured and brought into position. The passage must first be cleared by pushing back the head. The hand should then be passed along the under part of the ⁿeck, should seize the fore-arm and bring it forward into the passage.

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				BREEDING
		276


	If this cannot be accomplished, then the front parts of the dam must be raised by underpacking the fore-feet with litter so as to give the body an inclination backward. When the forearm is reached the hand should follow it downward to the knee, or as near it as possible. The limb is then firmly grasped and drawn forwards. When the arm has been brought in a straight line with the pelvic inlet, it should then be used to push the body backward and clear the way for the leg being brought into the passage. To do this it may be

			Fig. 551.�Breech presentation, Hind-legs in Passage

necessary to push the body back into the uterus with a crutch implanted against the breast. If it should happen that the arm cannot be reached, an attempt must be made to pass a cord round it by means of a Porte-cord (fig. 550). Should such an instrument not be at hand, a hooked walking-stick carry- ing a cord through a hole in the handle may be employed. The leg will then be pulled forwards by assistants, while the operator, seizing the canon and then the pastern, will engage himself in directing it into the passage. Posterior or Breech Presentation.�The breech of the foetus may be presented either with the hind-legs in the passage (fig. 551) or projected forward under the abdomen (fig. 552). In the former position delivery may be effected without assistance, but it is always desirable to afford help promptly where the least difficulty arises. This position is the most favour-

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	PARTUEITION
	PARTUEITION	277

able breech form of presentation, since it requires no readjustment of parts. All that is necessary is to suj>plement the natural force of the throes with manual assistance from without. It is otherwise where the hocks are flexed and presented with the breech, and the legs extend forward under the belly (fig. 552). In this presentation there is danger of the parts being wedged in the pelvis, and so fixed as to render a proper adjustment difficult if not impossible. Before delivery can be effected in this case the direction of the hind-limbs must be changed and they must be brought into the passage. To effect this

Fig. 552.�Breech and Hocks presented *t is necessary that room be provided by forcing the buttocks in a forward direction so as to clear a space for bringing up the hind-limbs. In per- forming this task, advantage will be obtained if the hind extremities of the ^are be raised by underpacking with litter or some other suitable means. �^ forward and downward inclination will thus be given to the foetus, and �he resistance to pressure from behind thereby reduced. When this has ^Deen done, an attempt should be made to force the body of the foal forward, either by means of the hand or a crutch (fig. 558) applied to the buttocks ^mediately below the tail. In this connection it is necessary to point ^ut that the force employed should not be sudden and spasmodic, but eady, continuous, and progressive. The intervals between the throes ^r^ periods when the foetus will yield most to pressure, and the advantage gamed at these times should not be lost, if possible, when straining returns.

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			BREEDING
	278		BREEDING
	278

Eoom having been thus provided, an attempt should now be made to bring the hind-legs into position for delivery. For this purpose the palm of the hand should be placed against the under side of the point of the hock, and pressure made in a forward and slightly upward direction upon the second thigh. If by a little manoeuvring a cord can be placed round the bend of the hock, it should be done and handed to an assistant, who will be able to render considerable help by pulling the limb backwards when the right time comes. The operator should now grasp the shin-bone, and with such help as his

		Fig. 553.�Breech presentation, Legs extended beneath Abdomen

assistant can give him, draw the leg towards the pelvic inlet. As soon as the pastern or the foot can be reached, the fetlock-joint should be forcibly flexed and the leg lifted into the passage. Before this can be done it may be necessary to pass a cord round the pastern and bring traction to bear upon it, while the operator presses the point of the hock in an upward and forward direction. After one limb has been adjusted the other must be dealt with in the same manner. A still more troublesome and dangerous breech presentation is that where the hind-legs, instead of being flexed as in the case referred to above, are carried forward and downward towards the fore-limbs, and the thigh bent upon the pelvis allows the croup and buttocks to be presented (fig. 553). Unless this misplacement is promptly recognized and corrected, the

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	PABTUEITION
	PABTUEITION	279
		279

difficulty will be aggravated by the straining, which, while forcing the breech backward into the pelvis, causes the hind-limbs to be moved farther forward at the same time, thus adding to the already serious difficulty of the case. Here " the rational indication is, of course, to extend the limbs of the foetus backwards, as in ordinary breech presentation (fig. 551), and to give these and the body a direction in harmony with the axis and dimensions of the pelvic inlet, so that birth may be effected by the combined efforts of the mother and the obstetrist". But this indica- tion is often most difficult to fulfil, though in some instances it is possible when labour is not too advanced, and when the foetus, still in the abdominal cavity, is movable, and can be pushed sufficiently from the inlet to allow the lower part of the limbs to be seized and brought into the vagina. Pushing the foetus as far into the abdomen as possible, one of the limbs is seized above the hock, and the thigh flexed as completely as circum- stances will permit, by lifting that joint towards the mother's sacrum. Still pushing the foetus off by means of the repeller or crutch, the hand is passed down to the hoof until the toe is reached and enclosed in the palm; by adopting this precaution danger of injury to the uterus or vagina is averted. Then the foot is brought into the passage by flexing all the Joints on each other. Again, pushing the foetus forward, the same manoeuvre is repeated with the other limb, if necessary, and delivery is proceeded with. MALPOSITION OF THE HEAD Neck Presented, Two Fore-Limbs in the Passage.�The diffi- culty in bringing about a natural presentation in this case will be in proportion to the backward displacement of the head. Should this be slight, it may only require that the hand be passed under the chin or into the mouth, and the head raised into the passage. Where, however, the neck is much bent, and the head carried under the brisket with the poll firmly fixed against the pelvic brim (fig. 554), considerable difficulty will be experienced in restoring the parts to their Proper position. The first requirement will be to push the body backwards by means °i a powerful arm, or failing in this, crutches applied to the front of the shoulders. By doing this, room will be provided for the forward movement ⁰¹ the head. An attempt must now be made to raise the latter by seizing ^Such parts as come within reach to which traction may be applied. The ears will be first accessible, or blunt hooks (fig. 557) may be inserted into the orbits, or passed behind the lower jaw or into the angle of the

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		280
		280			BREEDING
					BREEDING

				Fig. 554.�Neck presented, Fore-limbs in Passage

	mouth. It is necessary to point out that in order to obtain the full benefit of the measures suggested above, the backward force should be

			Fig. 555.�Neck presented, Legs directed backwards

applied to the body at the same time as the forward pull is made upon the head.

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			PAKTUEITION
			PAKTUEITION	281
				281

	Breast Presented, Legs in the Passage.�The head may also be displaced laterally, i.e. thrown back on to the right or left side of the neck or body. Here again the degree of displacement will vary in different cases. Sometimes the head is merely flexed on the neck, while in others the neck is bent backward and may carry the head as far as the flank (fig. 556). The long neck of the foal tends to render these presentations difficult and sometimes impossible to rectify. On the mode of procedure in these cases the late Dr. Fleming observes: "The principal aim is, of course, to get hold of the head, adjust it, bring it into a favourable position in the

		Fig. 556.�Legs and Breast presented

genital canal, and then terminate delivery. With regard to adjustment the better plan appears to be as follows:�Cord the presenting fore-feet, Push the foetus into the uterus so as to clear it from the pelvic inlet, Pushing either on the flexed neck or chest, and not directly backward, but rather obliquely to the side opposite that to which the head inclines, ^So as to bring this round to the inlet. If the fore-limbs are iryjhe way ⁰¹ the operator they may also be pushed back into the uterus." The head should then be sought for and brought into position. Here the ears are the most accessible parts to which force may be ^aPpHed; then, if necessary, blunt hooks may be inserted into the orbits, ^0r into the angles of the mouth, and the head drawn forwards by u^eans of cords, while the body is being pushed backwards w^rith a crutch ^0r repeller. When the head has been brought into line with the body,

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		BEEEDING
	282	BEEEDING
	282

delivery is then effected in the usual way. Besides this faulty position the head may also be thrown upwards and backwards while the fore-limbs are presented in the passage. As we have already pointed out, these are always most difficult tasks, and require a large practical experience, skill, and judgment to ensure success. They are not such as to be under- taken by the amateur if professional assistance can be procured. MECHANICAL AIDS TO DELIVERY Mechanical aids in difficult operations become indispensable to success, and it is of the first importance that whoever undertakes their use should clearly understand the particular purpose for which they are designed, as also their most effective mode of adjustment. These qualifications cannot be imparted by any written description, but must be acquired by experience and practice. In proceeding to deliver a mare, the uterus should first be freely explored until the precise position of the foetus has been determined; then the steps necessary to bring it into a natural presentation and effect its removal should be carefully considered. In this connection it should always be in the mind of the operator that where two feet are presented they may not belong to the same animal, and before delivery is attempted he should fully satisfy himself that he is not dealing with twins, from each of which a foot may proceed. Where but one foal exists, it is equally important to be assured that the feet in the passage are both fore-feet or hind-feet, and not one of each. The application of force while these precautions are neglected would en- danger the life of both dam and offspring. It may be found that the existing malposition is such as can be rectified by a little judicious employment of the hands alone, or that the use of ropes, repellers, hooks, or pulleys, or all these several appliances, will be called for in the course of delivery. Besides the mechanical aids, it must not be overlooked that the mare may be made to lend herself to the process of delivery by being placed in certain special positions. By raising the hind-quarters with litter, the foetus may be thrown forward and more room afforded the operator in rectifying the presentation, or it may be desirable to place her in the reverse position by underpacking in front. It is a good working rule to secure with ropes or other means all parts which are found to be in the passage whatever they may be, and to keep them under control until it has been fully decided that .they are not necessary to delivery.

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	MECHANICAL AIDS TO DELIVERY 283

Many parts of the body of the foetus are available for the application of ropes and other instruments, by and through which to bring traction to bear upon the foetus. A stop-noose may be ap- plied round the neck, a light head-stall extemporized out of a strong cord may be fitted to the head. A running noose passed into the mouth and carried over the poll, or ap- plied round the lower jaw, will aid materially in the applica- tion of force, and the same may be said of ropes applied above the hock or knee, or the fet- lock, or the foot. When no sufficient hold can be secured by these means, hooks of various descriptions may be brought into use; but it must be understood that, "while in trained hands they Fig. 557.-Hooks or crotchets are most useful auxiliaries, in a, Sharp; 6, blunt; c, double. the hands of the unskilled they may prove dangerous and even deadly instruments. Hooks or crotchets may be sharp or blunt, single or double (figs. 557). Some are attached to ropes, and others are fixed to handles. The crutch or repeller (fig. 558)

		Fig. 558.� Gowing's Parturition Instrument a, Crutch or repeller.

^ls another means of moving the body of the foal backwards into the ^orub when it is desired to make room for securing and changing' the Position of one or more of the extremities. Blunt hooks connected with ^a rod will be found useful to anchor on to the angle of the mouth or

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		284 BREEDING

	the orbit of the eye, when these parts are placed beyond the reach of the hand, and in critical cases, when the mare is in danger and a firm hold is imperative, sharp ones may also be made available in connection with the latter. In applying them, however, care should be taken to implant them well into the orbit, and to avoid the use of excessive force, lest we should tear out and injure the walls of the uterus. When no sufficient hold can be secured by any other means, double hooks or crotchet forceps (figs. 559), blunt or pointed, may be employed. Double crotchets will be found serviceable in a variety of conditions, and especially when no sufficient hold can be secured by other means. These instruments may be made to enter the tissues and take a firm hold of deep-seated tendons or ligaments, or be anchored on to bones. In employing these several aids to delivery it should be understood that everything which it may be found necessary to introduce into the



Fig. 559. �Pollock's Obstetric Forceps, with double Hooks uterus or genital passage should be thoroughly clean and disinfected, and the same precaution also applies to the hands of the operator, whose nails should be cut short as a safeguard against injury to the womb. APPLICATION OF FORCE IN DELIVERY When force is employed in the removal of the foetus it should be steady, regular, and continuous. Jerky and spasmodic traction avails but little, and may be actually injurious both to the dam and offspring. The effort, when commenced, should be sustained, and increased steadily with each throe or labour pain, so that the outward force and the inward force shall continue and operate simultaneously. Until the head has passed through the vulva the pull should be directly backwards, then slightly inclined downwards so as to prevent the withers jamming against the upper boundary of the pelvic outlet. As the shoulders pass through the pelvic outlet the resistance will be very considerably increased. To overcome it a pull should be taken slightly to one side and then to the other, and the same alternation of movement may be practised when the hips drag in the passage. Where the case is protracted and signs of exhaustion appear in the

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CARE OF MARE AND FOAL AFTER PARTURITION 285 mare, the efforts must be sustained by the administration of stimulants and a short rest. The necessity for this may be frequently avoided where plenty of force is provided early, while the mare is fresh and full of energy. Many mares are annually sacrificed from neglect of this precaution, and veterinary surgeons rightly complain that delivery is frequently rendered impossible, and the life of the mare jeopardized by the "pulling about" she suffers, for want of sufficient well-directed force at the outset. CARE OF MARE AND FOAL AFTER PARTURITION After parturition, and if mare and foal are getting on well, warmth, comfort, cleanliness, and a plentiful supply of good food are all that are necessary while they are under cover. The most favourable, and therefore the most natural, time for mares to foal in is during the months of March, April, and May, when the weather is, or should be, propitious and grass ^Is plentiful. At this period, if the mare has been pastured before foaling, she and the foal may soon be allowed out of the loose-box to the paddock if the weather be fine, as nothing can be more invigorating for both than ^a run at grass, if only for an hour or two at first, though they must on ⁿo account be exposed to rain or cold winds if such exposure can possibly be avoided. In the loose-box, good hay and a small allowance of crushed oats two °r three times a day should be given; and if grass is not available, and ^especially if the mare does not furnish a sufficient supply of milk, mashes °f boiled barley or oats, to which coarse sugar or treacle has been added, ^ay be allowed frequently, and with great advantage. Crushed oats is especially to be recommended for the mare when the foal is a few weeks °*d, as the foal begins to nibble at and soon to eat them, and thus to Prepare itself in the best way for being weaned, while this addition to its food will greatly tend to its robustness and development. The foal itself is not liable to many diseases if properly cared for. At pirth the attendant should give it his immediate attention if it does not immediately breathe, as unless he then acts promptly it may die. When ^ fads to inspire after the navel-string has been divided, he should at °Qce open its mouth, seize the tongue, and pull it gently forwards a few times at some seconds interval, blowing hard into the mouth and nostrils ^while the tongue is forward. Flicking the sides of the chest with a wet ^Wel at intervals may also produce the desired effect.

	^V0L. HI.
	^V0L. HI.	84
		84

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			286 BREEDING

		THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE¹ Some years ago certain naturalists were wont to maintain that plants and animals had reached their present stage of development through the operation of internal (innate) forces. Now, however, the belief is all but universal that organisms are what they are to-day because of the operation of external forces�that they have reached their present stage through the ever-present influence from generation to generation of the external sur- roundings or environment. If, during the past, the environment (which includes not only the food, temperature, and other like influences, but also the influence living things have on each other) has been the means of producing so marvellous results�of not only causing variation but also of playing the part of the selector,�it may be safely assumed that changes in the external conditions may even in a single lifetime lead to very decided modifications�not necessarily of a permanent (hereditary) kind� in, say, the size and fitness, the time at which maturity is reached, and more especially in the germ-cells from which the next generation springs. That in the case of the horse the external conditions or environment count for something, a glance at the history of the Equidce affords sufficient evidence. In early Eocene times the representatives of recent horses were small-brained, primitive, five-hoofed creatures, about the size of a wolf, but at the most semi-plantigrade. As age succeeded age the outer digits (1 and 5) gradually dwindled, and at length Hipparion appeared on the scene, a creature decidedly equine in form, and only essentially differing from the horse of to-day in its teeth and in its limbs, each limb bearing three complete hoofs, as in the rhinoceros. At a still later period the evolution of the horse was carried a stage further by the shrinking within the skin of the second and fourth digits, already quite useless in Hipparion and in the three-toed horse (Proto- hippus) of the New World. Like Hipparion (many fossils of which have been unearthed near Athens), the true horse, during at least the Reindeer period in Europe, was of a considerable size. This conclusion is supported by the size of the petrified remains in the Rhone valley, where for a time the horse afforded abundant sport for Palseolithic man. Just as in olden times the elephant in certain areas dwindled in size to form pigmies measuring sometimes only 36 inches, so the horse gradually dwindled to form certain pigmy breeds which (as in the Shetland Islands) were often as small as the little ele- phants that in olden times flourished in what is now the Island of Malta. ¹ By Professor Cossar Ewart in the Live Stock Journal Almanac.

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			THE BATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE 287

		In the case of the horse, as in the case of the elephant, the dwarfing was undoubtedly due to unfavourable surroundings. If the external con- ditions were sufficient in, geologically speaking, a comparatively short time to dwarf the horse until it was actually smaller than the "fossil horses" of the remote Eocene epoch, it is not surprising that man�with his wonderful control over nature�is able even in a single generation to modify greatly the horse and other domestic animals. That in a few centuries the large, highly-nervous race-horse, with his wonderful speed and courage, has been evolved out of Eastern and native ponies is a matter of history, and every- body knows that while some are now engaged in breeding pigmy horses little over 30 inches in height, others are as successfully breeding huge, powerful animals as wonderful in their way as their pigmy relatives. It day even be said that a recognized part of the breeder's work consists in modifying, through changes in the external conditions, the animals to which he happens to devote his special attention, just as horticulturists, by food, heat, and timely shelter, alter plants until all resemblance to their wild stock is as good as lost. Breeders of Shetland and polo ponies, and, for that matter, breeders of race and heavy horses, know well enough that to have any chance of success they must exercise the utmost vigilance over the conditions under which their foals, colts, and fillies are reared. Hitherto, as far as I can learn, breeders have not had at their disposal any very accurate informa- tion as to the rate of growth of horses either during development or after birth, and hence, though aware that growth is rapid during the first year, they have been without any certain index as to when changes in the food, temperature, &c, are likely to produce the maximum effect. Having for some years been collecting data bearing on the development ^and rate of growth of the horse, I propose now placing on record such facts ^as are likely to prove interesting and suggestive to breeders, and to lead, perchance, to the influence of various kinds of treatment before and after birth being systematically investigated. In studying the rate of growth of the horse, it is hardly necessary to point out that on the one hand allow- ance must be made for the influence of the external conditions, and on the other for hereditary influences, i.e. the stereotyped changes ultimately due to the environment. In other words, that in an investigation of this kind the surroundings should be as natural as possible, while the animals used should neither be characterized by an hereditary tendency to produce either very large or very small offspring. Bearing these points in mind, -■ selected for observation the offspring of horses from 14 hands to 14 hands inches in height�the height at times reached by horses living in an ^alliost wild state in the west of Ireland�and. I provided the foals and

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		BREEDING
	288	BREEDING

colts under observation with as natural surroundings as circumstances permitted. Having fixed on the size of the horses to be studied, it was next neces- sary to consider how the rate of growth before and after birth could be best determined. The difference between a tail and an undersized man is mainly a differ- ence in the length of the legs; but in the case of the horse the height, as commonly understood, instead of bearing, as in man, an intimate relation with the length of the hind-limbs, is intimately related to the length of the fore-limbs. The height of a horse, it is hardly necessary to state, depends mainly on (1) the length from the elbow to the ground; (2) the length and obliquity of the arm-bone {humerus); and (3) the length of certain spines of the dorsal vertebrae, the spines which give rise to the more or less arched ridge known as the withers.¹ In the living animal it is impossible to measure the length of the vertebral spines, and only possible to estimate roughly the length and obliquity of the humerus, and hence it will be necessary in studying the rate of growth in the horse to trust chiefly to the length of the fore-limb as measured from the elbow to the ground. In man the limbs belong to the common or ordinary vertebrate type, but in the horse they have departed as far from the general plan as highly useful structures well could, for instead of five digits, as in man, there is but one complete digit, and in their hard parts the limbs are infinitely more highly special- ized than is the case in any other mammal, and more profoundly altered than even the wing of a bat. Influenced by the doctrine of recapitulation (the belief that each animal climbs its own ancestral tree), not a few were wont to believe that when a sufficiently young horse embryo was examined, the fore-limbs at least, as in the early Eocene "fossil horses", would be pentadactylous, i.e. have rudiments of five digits. This, however, is not the case; at no stage in the development (in the life-history as distinguished from the ancestral history) of the horse are there any visible rudiments or vestiges of the first and fifth digits. In other words, the horse is at the most tridactylous, and only one of the digits�the one corresponding to the human middle finger in front and the human middle toe behind�ever comes into use. In the case of the horse, the first rudiments of limbs appear in the form of short bud-like outgrowths between the twenty-first and twenty-eighth ¹ Than the height at the withers it would be difficult to find a less trustworthy index of the size of a horse. The height at the elbow is a safer guide, or, seeing that a horse (like a man) propels itself by the hind-limbs, the height at the croup should be taken into consideration.

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THE EATE OF GROWTH IN THE HOESE 289

days. The growth is at the outset so deliberate that even at the end of
the fifth week the limb rudiments (fig. 560) are only 2 mm. (about -§� inch)
in length. After a time, however, the rate of growth is accelerated, with
the result that before the middle of gestation (the twenty-fourth week) is
reached they are relatively as large as in the full-grown horse. Having
reached this size, it might be assumed that they would continue to main-
tain the same proportions up to the time of birth. This assumption would,

however, be wide of the _____

mark, and in fact would ^f ^v

never be made by any- ^/^ ^ \

one aware of the great ^f0. \

relative length of the
legs in the new-born
foal (fig. 561). To have
a chance of surviving in
^a wild state�of escap-
ing prowling wolves or
hungry hysenas, jackals,
^and hunting dogs�a
foal must almost from
the moment of its ap-
pearance on the scene
°e capable of keeping
^UP with the troop into
which it is so uncere-
moniously introduced�
sometimes apparently to
the annoyance of the
^ever-watchful leader and
head of the family.¹ To

succeed in this it re-

Fig. 560.�Horse Embryo (five weeks)

quires legs long enough

^to gallop at least as fast as the older members of the herd. It is doubtless
^t0r this reason that during the second half of the period of gestation the
nmbs grow very much faster than the trunk, with the result that for
some weeks before birth they are relatively not only extremely long,
^Dut so wonderfully perfect in all their parts that, as in certain other wild
^Ungulates, a foal is no sooner ushered into the world than it is galloping
merrily along, carefully shadowed by its dam.

¹ Stall

ions in a wild state sometimes endeavour to compel mares to leave their foals; thus all the more

^lnS that only vigorous offspring survive.

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				BEEEDING
		290		BEEEDING

The smallest horse embryo in my collection measures 7 mm.�just over \ inch. This, a twenty or at the most twenty-one days embryo, is somewhat fish-like in form, but quite limbless. Soon after the end of the third week limbs appear in the form of minute buds. At the end of the fourth week (fig. 562) they are easily recognized, and by the end of the fifth week they are 2 mm. in length; at the end of the fourth week a horse

			Figf. 561.�Mare and New-born Foal

	embryo measures 10 mm., and is not unlike a human embryo of the same age; by the end of the fifth week it is 5-6 mm. longer. At first the limb buds are simple paddle-like, structureless outgrowths, but during the fifth week rudiments of the skeleton appear; while during the sixth week they are so rotated and flexed that the position of the elbow and wrist (com- monly called the " knee ") can be made out in the fore-limb, and in both fore- and hind-limb there are indications of three digits (2-4). Even at the end of the sixth week, when the embryo is 2 cm. in length, the fore- limbs only measure 4 mm., and the hind-limbs are but little longer (fig.

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THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE ^1

563). Marked progress is made during the seventh week, with the result
that before the eighth week is reached the limbs have all the distinctive
equine characters and are about one-third of the total length of the embryo
�the embryo measuring 3 cm., the limbs nearly 1 cm. Before the eighth
week is reached not only are the elbow and "knee" evident, but the fetlock

Fig. 562.�Hind Limbs and
Tail (four weeks)

Fig. 564.�Hind Limbs and Tail (eight weeks)

Fig. 563.�Hind Limbs and Tail

(six weeks)

and frog of both fore- and hind-limbs are fairly well moulded, and in
the latter the true knee (stifle) and hock are well defined (fig. 564), the
distance from the hock to the tip of the developing hoof being 7 mm.
■"y the end of the eighth week we have a horse in miniature. At this
stage (the total length of the embryo being 6*5 cm.) the distance from the
Withers to the tip of the curved and pointed hoof is 3"3 cm., from the
elbow 1-9 cm., while the length from the hock is 1*3 cm.

In fi

gs. 562, 563, and 564 the growth of the hind-limbs and tail from

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	292	BREEDING
		BREEDING

the fourth to the end of the eighth week is represented�five times natural size. It will be observed that as the limbs increase in length and com- plexity the tail gets relatively shorter. In the Eocene " fossil horses " the tail, at first long enough to trail on the ground, gradually dwindled as the heels (hocks) were raised. In becoming relatively shorter during develop- ment the tail may be said to repeat the ancestral history. It may here be added that up to near the time of birth there are only long hairs at the end of the tail, from which it may be inferred that in the Miocene an- cestors of the horse the tail resembled that of the living asses and zebras. During the eighth week the embryo nearly doubles its length, but during the three following weeks there is an increase in bulk rather than in length. At the end of the eleventh week the total length is 10'2 cm., the length from the elbow being 3"15 cm., from the withers 52 cm., and from the hock 24 cm. From the eleventh to the fifteenth week the embryo again more than doubles its length, and increases considerably in weight. At the end of the fifteenth week the length is 23 cm., the height at withers 14 cm., the length from the elbow 88 cm., and from the hock 6"6 cm. Again, from the fifteenth to the twenty-fourth week the total length is nearly doubled, while the length of the limbs is more than doubled. At the beginning of the twentieth week the total length is 28 cm., the height at the withers 19"5 cm., the length from the elbow 12'3 cm., and from the hock 9 "2 cm. By the time the twenty-fifth week is reached the total length of the young horse is 43'5 cm., the height at the withers 325 cm., the length from the elbow 21 cm., and from the hock 15 cm., the circumference below the knee being 3 cm. As already mentioned, before the middle of gestation is approached�i.e. prior to the twenty-fourth week�the bones of the limbs are as nearly as possible of the same relative length as in the adult. This fact is best brought out by comparing the limb bones of a five- and-a-half-months embryo with the corresponding structures in the adult. In the thoroughbred horse Hermit the humerus measured 33"5 cm., the radius 37'5 cm., and the third metacarpal 25'5 cm. In a twenty-three- weeks embryo the humerus is 6'5 cm. in length, and the radius 7 "3 cm.� i.e. the radius bears exactly the same relation to the humerus as in the case of Hermit. Again, the middle (HI) metacarpal in a half-time embryo, to agree with the corresponding bone in Hermit, should measure 5'0 cm.; its actual length is 5'5 cm., i.e. it is already 5 mm. relatively longer than in Hermit; but this is more than counterbalanced in the twenty-three-weeks embryo by the phalanges being relatively shorter. In figs. 565 and 566 the bones of the fore-limb of a twenty-three-weeks foetus, the radius and third metacarpal bear nearly the same relation to the humerus as in

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THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE

293

Hermit. From the twenty -
fourth week onwards the limbs
grow faster than the trunk.
In front the increase in growth
is mainly beyond the wrist-
joint, while in the hind-limb
it is chiefly beyond the knee-
joint or stifle. In both fore- and hind-
limbs the increase is greatest for some time
in the middle metacarpals (fig. 565, III)
and metatarsals�i.e. in the fore and hind
cannon bones. In the case of Hermit¹ (the
1867 Derby winner), when the hunjerus is
taken as equal to 100, the third metacarpal
is equal to 76^-1. In a seven-months foetus,
however, with the humerus equal to 100,
the third metacarpal may be over 90, while
at nine months it may be over 110, and
at birth 130�i.e. relatively well-nigh twice
the length of the third metacarpal in Her-
mit. A similar rate of growth characterizes
the third metatarsal bone. This increase in
the cannon bones during the second half of
the period of gestation explains to a large
extent the great length of the foal's legs at
birth; it also accounts for the fact that the
cannon bones�the bones considered of so
immense importance in all kinds of horses
"�increase but little in length after birth.
In the case of a thoroughbred, e.g., the
third metacarpal appears only to increase
3 cm. (barely 1\ inch) after birth,² while
the main bone of the fore-arm (the radius)
often increases 9 cm. (3^ inches), or nearly
three times as much as the front cannon
bone.

^ynst
(foiee)

Fetlock jowl

The skeleton of Hermit ia preserved in the Boyal Veteri-

^ary College Museum, Camden Town, London. Eclipse's skele-
ton '

Pig. 565.�Fore-limb (twenty-three
weeks), natural size

is in the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Museum,
^Ke<i Lion Square, London.

1 hough the cannon bones may only increase 1 inch in length after birth, they may increase 3 or even
inches in circumference in a 14-hands horse.

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294 BEEEDING

From the twenty-fourth to the beginning of the thirty-fourth week,
horse embryos often increase at the withers from 32"5 cm. to 54 cm., while
from the elbow onwards the increase is from 21 cm. to 34^-5 cm., and from
the point of the hock to the tip of the hoof the increase is 10'5 cm.�i.e.
from 15 cm. to 25 "5 cm.

At the fortieth week the embryo is about 86 cm. in length, the height

at the withers being 76 cm.; from the

Radius

elbow to the point of the hoof the dis-

wt/>

Line of gro

tance is 52-53 cm., and from the hock

ece)

(end p

40-42 cm.

Of the 22 cm. of increase in height

Wrist
fKnee")

from the thirty-fourth to the beginning of

the fortieth week, 19 cm. is due to the
lengthening of the leg from the elbow
downwards; but during the last eight
weeks (i.e. 40-48) of foetal life there is

// Metacary

IV Metacarpal

only an increase of about 9 cm. from the

elbow to the ground, while the total in-

II Digit (*e^sV3^e>

III Metacarpal
fetlockjemt-

crease at the withers is over 20 cm.

At birth the foal of 14-hands parents
may be expected to measure 92 cm. at the

withers, 62 cm. from the point of the
elbow, and 45 cm. from the point of the

Phalanges
of HI Digit

hock to the ground, the circumference be-

low the knee being 10 cm.

From these figures it appears that dur-
ing development the actual increase in the
length of the limbs is greatest between the
twenty-fourth and fortieth weeks. The rate

Fig. 566.�Fore-limb (twenty-three weeks),
front view, natural size

of growth at the withers and from the

elbow and hock downwards during develop-
ment is graphically represented in Table I. Further enquiries may show
that during the last eight weeks of fcetal life there is a rapid formation
of bone, a hardening of tendons and ligaments, and a strengthening of
the muscles, so that immediately after birth the foal may, even in times
of stress, keep its place in the herd.

Having indicated the periods at which the unborn foal grows most
rapidly, I shall now deal with the rate of growth after birth. My obser-
vations show that the rate of growth of the foal is decidedly unequal even
during the first three months. It might have been assumed either that the
increase would be continuous and equal during the first two or three years,

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THE RATE OF GROWTH IN THE HORSE 295

Table I.�Showing Rate of Growth of a 14-hands Horse during Development

WEEKS 4 8 12 IB 20 24- 28 32 36 40 44 4S WEEKS

_ro°

'>
V

^......_. j

____;.\

■A&

pr~

rr.p^f

100 c m.
so cm.

so cm.

io cm.

60 cm.

so cm.

fo cm.

30 cm.

20 cm.

io cm.

o cm

or that, rapid at first, it would gradually diminish as the growth power of
the bones was lost. From the data already collected it appears that the
growth, rapid during the first month, is inconsiderable during the second,
but more pronounced during the third, while from the fifth month onwards
the rate of growth may be said to diminish gradually, there being, however,
ups and downs, related to the shedding of the coat, weaning, or other dis-
turbing causes. In Tables II and III I have indicated the rate of growth
that may be expected in a colt (born early in May and weaned in October)
that will eventually measure 56 to 58 inches at the withers.

During the first month the growth at the withers is 11 "4 cm., during
the second 3 cm., and during the third 10 cm. Throughout the second
three months (4 to 6 inclusive) the growth at the withers is about the
same as during the third month; from the seventh to the ninth month it
^ls 6 cm., from the tenth to the twelfth 5 cm. Hence, during the first year
the total increase in height at the withers may be all but 42 cm. (16-§-
mches). During the entire second year the growth may not exceed 8 cm.
^4 inches), and during the third year it may amount to less than an inch.

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BREEDING

296

Table II.�Showing the Rate of Growth of a 14-hands Horse during the

First Year

8 12 16 20 24 ZS 3Z 36 40 44- 43 52 WEEKS

*----------*---------**---------'-----------■-----------<-----------^|&-------**---------'-----------'-----------'----------■ i4o cm.

(S3 In)

WEEKS.

130 CM.

120 cm.

no cm.

(aeji/n)

(ZSln)

fism)

After the third year increase in height, if there is any, results almost
entirely from a further lengthening of the vertebral spines that form the
skeleton of the withers�the length of these spines is intimately related to
the size and weight of the head. In the male wapiti, e.g., the spines are
long; in the female, owing to the absence of horns, the head is lighter and
withers are absent.

Of the increase of height during the first six months 17"7 cm. are due
to the growth of the fore-limb from the point of the elbow downwards, but
during the second six months the increase of the fore-arm, wrist, and foot
is only 3"7 cm., and after the first year the fore-limb from the elbow down-
wards only increases 1*4 cm. It is worthy of note that almost the entire
increase in the length of the fore-limb below the elbow is due to the
growth of the radius (fig. 565). The circumference below the knee in-
creases considerably during the first three months, but alters little during
the rest of the first year. In the case of the hind-limb there is a gradual
increase from the point of the hock during the first nine months, when the
maximum length is often reached�the increase is mainly due to a lengthen-
ing of the phalanges and the heel process of the os calcis, not to the middle
metatarsal.

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THE EATE OF GEOWTH IN THE HOESE 297

Table III.�Showing Eate of Growth in a Horse during the First Three Years


					op of e be- mar- Is.	inner ye to in oi	i«l	point ound, aving ition.
						s^Hg	&bgs	_s5"x	Circum-
Age.		Height at	Height at	Girth.	o c ^a°	hs	*^ss°^*	Is-gS	ference
Age.		Withers.	Croup.		�■** ^a^	*! ~>	s s»s	ia « g	below
					^^ o 0	till	pi!	0 �- *H C CO "� 5 o-w ca	Knee.
					vJ	s	&	-4
		In.	In.	In.	In.	In.	In.	In.	In.
At birth......		36*	38	30	121	5*	25	18	*i
End of 1 month ...		41	42*	38*	14	el	27*	19	4f
� 2 � ...		421	44*	42	151	7	30*	20*	H
	, 3 � ...	451	46\|	46	16}	n	30,	211	5f
	, 4 � ...	46\|	48\|	48	17*	7*	31	211	5f
	, 5 � ...	48	49	49*	17*	8	31	21}	5\|
	, 6 � ...	481	49f	52	17*	8i	31-	21*	6
	7 �	49f	«i	53*	17\|	8f	32	21$	6
	, 8 � ...	50*	52	54	18	8*	32f	22*	6
	, 9 � ...	50f	531	56	18i	9	33	22*	6
	, 10 �	51$	53f	56*	18*	9*	33	22*	6
	, 11 �	52*	53f	571	19	9*	33_�	22*	6*
	, 12 �	53	54	59	191	9\|	33i	22*	61
	. 24 � ...	56J	56*	64	20-\|	IO4	33f	22*	6f
	, 36 �	57	58	68	20*	10*	33f	22*	7*

The length of the head gradually increases all through the first year,
when the maximum length is nearly attained. The increase is mainly
below the orbit, the space between the inner canthus of the eye and the
^upper margin of the nostril being nearly doubled during the first two years.

It will be noticed from Table III that the girth is all but doubled
during the first year.

Why, it may be asked, is the growth in the horse arrested so much
sooner than in man? In the horse, as in man, the majority of the long
bones consist of a shaft and of two end-pieces (epiphyses) (fig. 566, shaft,
^eP-> ep.). The increase in the length of the typical long bones takes place
^at the junction of the shaft with the epiphyses. This zone of growth is a
source of weakness, and the sooner the terminal pieces�which by their
free ends enter into the joints�firmly coalesce with the shaft the better.
In Ae horse this fusion takes place at a comparatively early stage, and
when it has been once effected all further increase in length becomes im-
possible.

The question may now be asked: Can any practical use be made of all
this information as to the rate of growth in the horse?

To this question an affirmative answer may very safely be given. In
■England it is often taken for granted that the sire counts for infinitely
^ore than the dam. If the sire happens to be more impressive than the

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		BREEDING
	298	BREEDING
	298

dam, he will doubless count for most in the characteristics of the offspring; but a sire, however good, can no more make up for want of quality in the dam than good seed can yield a good return regardless of the nature of the soil in which it is sown. To begin with, it is quite as important that the germ cell provided by the dam should be as perfect in every respect as the infinitely smaller sperm cell supplied by the sire. Further, unless before development begins there is stored up an abundant supply of the material needed for the developing embryo, and unless all through the period of gestation the food contains the ingredients requisite for building up the bones and other tissues of the developing foal, the result must of necessity prove disappointing. However perfect the sire, he can no more assist in providing nourishment or suitable conditions during development than he can assist in ministering to the wants of the foal after birth. But the enquiry as to the rate of growth of the foal mainly shows that from the sixth week of development there is an ever-increasing demand for bone-forming material. This demand, great enough during the later months of gestation, is especially urgent during the first three months after birth; I might almost say during the first five months, for it is during this period that the growth of the bones mainly takes place. It may hence be said that, with the help of the information submitted, the breeder should be better able so to regulate the food of his brood mares that an abundant supply of bone-forming material will be available not only during, but for some months after, gestation, and will be in a position so to treat his colts during their first two years that they may reach either a maximum, an average, or a small size, and, whatever the size, will be provided with the best possible chance of forming large ivory-like bones, and, what is perhaps of equal importance, strong ligaments and tendons capable of withstanding sudden jars and strains.

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		HORSE TRAINING

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			Section VIL-HORSE TRAINING

		THE GENERAL TRAINING AND PREPARING OF HORSES Until a person has by practical experience become acquainted with the evil results of bad breaking, it is impossible for him to estimate the im- portance which attaches to the proper handling and preparing of horses for whatever their future mission in life may be. Of course, as different varie- ties of horses have to be put to different work, and as tempers and con- stitutions vary very considerably, each class of animal has to be treated separately in matters of detail, though up to a certain point there is a similarity in the methods applied to the breaking and preparation of all horses. Individuality.�Thus, for instance, the man who is entrusted with the responsibility of preparing a horse for whatever purpose will, if he is wise, endeavour in the first instance to master all the details of the temper, constitution, and peculiarities of the animal. He will satisfy himself of the condition of the teeth, digestion, wind, eyes, limbs, and general state of his pupil, and will use his best endeavours to strengthen ^any weaknesses which may exist in these before the preparation commences, ^0r> if possible, so to shape his system that it will adapt itself to the peculiar mfirmity of that particular horse. Any inattention to such preliminary considerations as the above will be certain to be associated with failure ^and disappointment, as it cannot be too strongly impressed upon all those ^who have transactions with horses that no two animals are identical in all Aspects, and therefore that a course of treatment which will prove bene- ficial to one may prove worse than useless if applied to another. Whip and Bit.�The great mistakes which many persons make in breaking, schooling, or preparing horses are the over-application of the ^WQrp and the adoption of a loud bullying tone towards the animal when makes a mistake, or does not immediately respond to the requirements the breaker. Even the Duke of Newcastle, in his sumptuously illus- ^rated folio work on equitation which was published so far back as the Vol. Ill 301 85

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			302 HORSE TRAINING

		year 1743, expressed himself very strongly upon this subject. In attend- ing to the whip, he says " it is oftentimes of service, but I wish it were more sparingly used", and assuredly these words of wisdom should be written in letters of gold in every saddle-room in the kingdom. There is, too, a very general tendency towards the employment of unsuitable bits on horses of all varieties, young and old, light and heavy, and upon this point again the old Duke of Newcastle is to be credited with the delivery of most excellent advice. He writes: " But, above all, this rule is chiefly to be observed, to put as little iron in your horses' mouths as possibly you can". This advice is so admirable that it needs no comment, and may be sincerely commended to all horse-owners in the present day. Over- bitting, unnecessary flogging, and the intimidation of nervous horses by the shouting and bullying of loud-voiced trainers are indeed most fruitful causes of inglorious displays in public on the part of animals which, had they been properly treated, would have rendered far better accounts of themselves. Therefore the most scrupulous attention to their comfort and well-being in other respects will certainly be neutralized if the natural tenderness of their mouths and their individual peculiarities are not also most carefully considered. Training for Hard Work.�In training and preparing horses for hard work it is perhaps unnecessary to state that the methods which obtained in days gone by have been greatly modified in many respects; but even nowadays considerable difference of opinion exists amongst trainers as to what is beneficial and what is not good for a horse. Some men are keen believers in a system which involves an almost merciless amount of hard work being set any animal which can endure it, whilst others advocate a life of comparative laziness for the aspirants for future honours, both parties being more or less indifferent to the fact that, after all, the individual temperament and strength of each horse should be con- sidered by itself, and every case be permitted to stand on its own merits. Water.�Most probably, however, the views of trainers differ more strongly from each other upon the subject of water than they do upon any other point. In America it is not generally considered necessary to restrict the supply of fluid to any very appreciable extent, and great was the astonishment of English race-goers when they first saw the American race- horses indulged with a drink from a pail of water before proceeding to the post to fulfil their engagements at Newmarket. Mr. John Splan, one of the most successful trainers and drivers of trotting horses, is emphatic in his opinion that plenty of water should be supplied the competitors in a match, as he writes that a drink may be given " before the race, in the race, after the race, or at any time the horse wants to drink "; but on the

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			THE GENERAL TRAINING AND PREPARING OF HORSES 303

		other hand, he is not an advocate of a constant supply being always beside the animal in the stable. Grooming.�A very important point in connection with the preparation of all horses is to secure the services of a thoroughly reliable and com- petent man to attend to the grooming and other details of stable manage- ment, as no one can possibly calculate the number of horses which have failed in their preparation in consequence of the carelessness of those who have them in charge. Proper grooming is, in short, only of secondary importance to food and exercise, and yet many an owner or trainer will trust a valuable animal to the care of an inexperienced lad, or an unsteady man, simply because the wages paid to such people are lower than those demanded by a thoroughly competent groom. The Stable accommodation for horses in training should, of course, be warm, yet airy. The admission of a plentiful supply of fresh air is con- sequently a necessity, though, on the other hand, the presence of draughts will assuredly affect the well-being of the horse. In stating that the stable should be warm, it is not implied that the temperature should be un- naturally high, or that any approach to stuffiness should exist. If the ventilation be defective, so that the ingress of fresh and the egress of foul air is rendered impossible, the horses are pretty certain to suffer in their respiratory organs, and indeed in their general health and stamina. Avoid overclothing a horse in training; rather treat him as you would yourself, by giving him an extra rug when the night promises to be cold, and relieving mm of a superfluity of woollen blankets when the weather is mild. System.�Above all things, the person entrusted with the responsi- bility of preparing a horse, whether it be for work or show, should en- deavour to act by system. It is his duty to make himself familiar with the peculiarities, constitutional and otherwise, of each individual animal, and to lay down the method of treatment for each. By adhering to the general regime he has determined upon he will soon discover whether it is adapted to any particular horse, and if it is not, he will be enabled so to modify it as to meet the requirements of the animal. On the other hand, W there is no method in force, the trainer cannot possibly tell in which ^re&pect his plans have failed, and the horse goes back in condition for the Jack of that inspiration which the trainer vainly looks for in the dark. Food.�Of course the best English oats and sweetest upland hay should lorm the staple food of all horses which are undergoing a preparation, the addition of clover, carrots, beans, and the like being regarded more in the ^xght of adjuncts to the diet than as ordinary fare. For soft food many rainers prefer boiled oats to bran, which some ironically refer to as being beneficial to a horse as saw-dust; and it is better to feed a horse four

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		HORSE TRAINING
	304	HORSE TRAINING
	304

times than three, adding a sufficiency of chaff to the corn to ensure his masticating the latter properly and not bolting it so that it will pass through him undigested. Never give hay at the same time as the corn, is a good rule to follow, else a gross feeder will be liable to gorge himself, whilst a shy doer's stomach will revolt at the sight of so much food. Companionship.�Finally, it 'must be remembered that some horses pine if kept in an isolated box by themselves, and that such socially-dis- positioned animals will therefore rest better if kept in a stable where they can see and hear other horses. Others fret and worry themselves if near their stable companions, and should therefore be kept apart, as it is of the highest importance to the well-being of all horses in training that their long hours in the stable should be passed as comfortably as possible. The above are perhaps the most important of the general rules which should be attended to by the amateur who is desirous of getting his animal fit; references to the details of schooling the various breeds will be found in the succeeding chapters; but the reader may once more be reminded that no hard-and-fast rules can be laid down for training, as the con- stitutions and tempers of horses so widely differ from each other. The chapter on Training the Trotter contains many suggestions on special treatment which may be read with benefit by those who contemplate the preparation of other breeds of horses. TRAINING THE THOEOUGH-BEED As may naturally be supposed, a great deal of difference exists between the methods of trainers of thorough-breds, not merely as regards their treatment of individual animals, but in connection with the entire prin- ciples which regulate the preparation of race-horses. Some persons are still advocates of "strong" preparations, entailing a tremendous amount of work upon their charges, whilst others are believers in sweating the horses for miles under heavy rugs; some also go to the length of Squire Osbaldiston, who used to state that " one month is necessary to prepare a horse for a race, but if he be very foul, or taken from grass, he might require two ". There are those again who take an entirely different view, and are in favour of a slow and gradual preparation. It is, however, probable, that the views of the extremist on either side require considerable modification save in very exceptional cases, and at all events there is no reason to question the soundness of the old adage that a hurried preparation is never satisfactory to man or beast. In regard to the amount of work which should be given a horse it must be left to the discretion of the trainer to decide. Some families, and notably the New-

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	TRAINING THE THOROUGH-BRED
		305


minsters, usually do best, or at all events in some cases remarkably well, upon a course of very easy work, whilst other animals are perfect gluttons, and require a large amount of exercise to keep their flesh down and their condition up. Constitution, temper, habit, and idiosyncrasy are seldom alike in different horses, and even the same horse may change in these respects from time to time. Nothing, therefore, in the shape of a hard- and-fast rule can be laid down for the instruction of a trainer, who can only be guided in his treatment of each animal by the knowledge gained of him while under observation, and the amount of progress the horse makes. Yearlings, after being mouthed and broken to driving-reins after the manner described in the chapter on Training the Trotter, may be mounted and gently taken by degrees through all their paces until they become perfectly handy, when they may be regularly exercised, but always by themselves. In the matter of work, three, or at the most four, furlongs should be the limit of a yearling's canter, as if this distance is exceeded the strength of the juveniles is certain to be overtaxed, to the prejudice of their future speed and stamina. In the case of older horses being trained for long distances, it is not desirable that they should commence by galloping a course of the length they will have to run, but may begin at a mile and gradually work up to the full distance. It is also a very bad and objectionable practice to gallop any horse the long course at full speed; but, on the other hand, steady work over it will be necessary to strengthen his wind. The requisite number of strong gallops will depend in part ^upon the condition of the animal, and in part also upon the weather ^and state of the ground; as when the going is heavy the efforts of the horse are correspondingly increased. Some trainers through conviction, and others through necessity, give their horses comparatively little galloping to do; indeed, Tom Oliver was ^wont to boast that he could get a steeplechaser fit for a two-mile race by merely walking and trotting him about; but this is a bad principle to work upon in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred. Long four-mile sweats under heavy rugs were condemned by the best of the old writers ^upon preparing horses, in spite of the fact that Samuel Chifney, in his ^D°ok, speaks of sweating horses six miles three days a week. A severe °ourse of sweating is objected to by most trainers of the present day, t°r even though the practice is popular with some people, there can be ⁿ° doubt that if carried to anything like excess it is weakening to the uorse. If horses in training are away from their stables for an hour ^and a half at a time it will be quite enough for them, and it is always ^est to avoid taking them out during the heat of the day�early in the

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			306 HORSE TRAINING

		morning during summer, and as soon after breakfast as possible in the winter, being the best time for the heavy work. The earlier horses can be got to work in the spring the better it will be for all parties concerned, as their preparation then need not be hurried, though, of course, animals with early engagements before them must be rattled along whenever the state of the ground permits. Those, how- ever, which will not be wanted until later can be given just enough exercise to prevent them from getting big, but not sufficient to cause stale- ness when their preparations begin in earnest. On the other hand, even if the presence of a long frost has necessitated slow work on the straw bed, it is not desirable, except in very exceptional cases, to gallop a horse severely directly he gets back to the training-ground, lest undue pressure should break him down. Although, of course, the two-year-olds will not be wanted until the season is well on, they should nevertheless be kept gently at it under the tutorship of a steady school-master, whom they should be permitted to beat when anything like fast work is indulged in, else they may be encouraged to turn out faint-hearted on the Turf. The responsibility of discovering whether a horse is possessed of stamina, or deciding whether he be merely a sprinter, devolves upon the trainer, who must also settle the question of fitness. This is proved by the state in which an animal pulls up after a good gallop. If there is a heaving flank and dilated nostrils, the horse requires another gallop, and so he will if he finishes tired. On the other hand, sweating is not by any means an infallible sign of unfitness, as many horses will sweat even though they are drawn to the limits of fineness, which is perhaps the condition in which most thoroughbreds run best. Were it possible to get horses to do their abilities full justice when run big, it would be a relief to the trainer, and in fact the best for all parties concerned; but, unfortunately, the vast majority of animals require to be run light, and therefore their preparation becomes a more serious matter than it would otherwise be. Trials.�No race-horse, or at most extremely few, is sent upon the course without having been previously subjected to the ordeal of a trial at home, but it is very questionable whether these tests are of anything like the value which they are supposed to be. In fact, it is something like asking too much of a horse to expect him to run up to the same form upon two or three different occasions, as there is no knowing how the animal may be feeling at the time he is being put through the mill. Chifney, in his " Genius Genuine ", asserts that an animal named Magpie would run the same distance nearly two hundred yards better on some days than on others, and few people who have written upon the subject of the race-horse

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307

SCHOOLING THE HUNTER

have been in a better position to express an opinion upon such a subject
than he. At the same time there can be no gainsaying the fact that,
assuming the trial horse is in form and willing, trials must be regarded
as being very valuable guides to trainers in estimating the merits of their
charges, though, it may be repeated, there is a tendency on the part of
many supporters of the Turf to attach a great deal too much importance
to the results of home efforts.

SCHOOLING THE HUNTER

The earlier days of the hunter that is to be are beyond all question
far happier than those of any other breed of horse, and, in fact, until old

Fig. 567.�Key Bit

Fig. 568.�Cayesson

^age or accident has rendered him unfit for work, a horse of this variety
may be regarded as the most fortunate of all the members of the equine
world. For, at all events, the whole of the first twelve months of his
existence the hunter is permitted to enjoy a life of absolute immunity
from all annoyance, the best of everything being provided for him in the
^way of good pasture and keep; and, though he may have been handled by

^ls attendant, it is not the custom to attempt to lead him until he is well
into hig second year. Having then accustomed him to the feel of a bit
\ⁿg- 567) in his mouth, and to wearing a cavesson (fig. 568) or a head-stall
^and a surcingle as described in the chapter on Training the Trotter, the
youngster should be well initiated into the mysteries of long driving-reins

store being subjected to the lunging operations which are regarded as

"dispensable to the education of the future hunter. It is desirable, how-

^er> that the colt or filly should be pretty steady in the driving-reins

store lunging commences, as the latter takes a good deal more than many

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		308 HOESE TRAINING

	persons may imagine out of a young horse; for at first he is worried and perplexed by learning what to do, and when the lesson is properly learnt it is hard work to be sent round in a circle for so long a time as many two-year-olds are. To vary the monotony, the breaker should repeatedly reverse the direction of going round, sending his pupil first to the right and then to the left, taking care that he always leads with the right leg, and checking him as soon as ever he breaks from the canter into a gallop. The lunging should not be a long affair, half an hour, including the

			Fig. 569.�Lunging Tackle

necessary halts for rest and the rectification of faults, being amply sufficient for each lesson; and when the youngster has become quite steady he may be tried over small obstacles to teach him how to jump, but always kept on the lunging rein. Most colts require a little humouring at first when it comes to leaping, but patience and kindness soon teach them what they are required to do, and every possible effort should be made to spare them injury and save them from being frightened when an obstacle is first presented to them to negotiate. Falls and bumps will come quite soon enough to warn the colt of the unpleasant consequences which succeed a mistake; and, above all things, it is necessary to give him confidence at the start. First Mount.�At three years old the embryo hunter is usually backed for the first time, but before any attempt is made to ride him he should be

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	SCHOOLING THE HUNTER
	SCHOOLING THE HUNTER	309
		309

thoroughly accustomed to the sit of the saddle and the grip of the girths. This done, mounting and dismounting should be quietly repeated again and again until he is thoroughly familiar with what is required of him. The precaution of engaging the services of a light-weight rider if the breaker is a heavy man is most desirable, though it is preferable, if possible, for the colt to be first backed by someone with whom he is familiar. No attempt should be made at this time to bully him into submission if he is disposed to be fractious; a snaffle-bit and light hands, supplemented by verbal remonstrances and a good seat, are all that the breaker requires, provided he is endowed with the golden gift of patience, as all breakers should be. If the colt manages to get him off, the rider will have reason to regret the mishap, for the pupil will have acquired a knowledge of his superior power, and will probably be desirous of repeating the operation; but he must speedily be remounted, and kept well at it, walking about, or trotting if his education has proceeded so far, in order to disabuse his mind of the idea that if he tries he can be master. Jumping.�When the time arrives for the first jumping lesson he should be accompanied by a steady old horse which can be relied upon not to refuse, but after the pupil has gained confidence, and displays a willing- ness to take his leaps alone, the services of the school-master may be dis- pensed with, and the colt may be schooled by himself. At four years old or earlier his education should be sufficiently advanced for him to be taken out cubbing, where he will get a look at hounds and their belongings; but the greatest care should be taken when he first appears in public to prevent him from being upset by the novelty of the surroundings, ^fts if permitted to have his own way at this time the horse may be ruined for life. Consequently, it is not desirable to bring a promising colt of which great things are expected, and which may probably grow into money, out too soon. A little patience will be amply repaid later by escape from accident and a larger price being obtained for him; and he will find plenty to learn if properly schooled at home, without being subjected to the excitement he will meet with at the covert side, °* the strain which will be put upon his immature energies when the bounds are running. His schooling being completed, the five-year-old hunter is fit to take bis place in the field, but a hard-riding owner should remember that after all he has only a baby under him, and should therefore be careful to spare his mount as much as he can. Anything like stopping on the ^Way home should never be thought of, but if the journey be a long one, ^or the horse pumped, a drink of gruel is a merciful provision which should be procured at the earliest opportunity. On arrival at the stables the

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		HOUSE TEAINING
	310	HOUSE TEAINING

worst of the mud should, if very thick, be scraped or brushed off, no water being applied to any part of the body but the muzzle and dock, as the application of water increases the chances of mud-fever superven- ing. Have the horse rubbed dry, his ears pulled, and legs bandaged and well cooled; clothe him and leave him for an hour or two to enjoy his food and well-earned rest. After which a brisk rub over with a wisp will suffice until morning. Treatment in Summer.�It is still common practice to turn hunters out to grass for the summer, but many sensible men are averse from exposing their animals to the heat of the sun and the torments of attack from flies, and therefore bring them into boxes for the day-time, providing them with a feed of corn and some hay, and turning them out into a meadow at night to enjoy the cool air, and receive the benefit of the dew on their feet of a morning. Other owners simply reverse the shoes and treat their horses as described in the chapter on Training the Trotter; whilst some keep them more or less in work all the summer with a view to retaining the desired hardness of condition, and thereby dispensing with the severe course of training which has to be resorted to in the month of August, in order that the animals may be quite fit to go in September. Of all these courses that which ensures the hunter being out at grass of a night and in a cool, shady box during the day is the one which commends itself most strongly as the best to pursue, but each case must be governed by its own peculiar circumstances; and it is not every hunting man who is so fortunately circumstanced as to be in a position to treat his horses exactly as he would desire. PREPARING THE SHOW HORSE AND HARNESS HORSE All the varieties of show horse, be they hunter, hack, or harness animals, require a similarity of treatment in order to prepare them for competition in the show-ring. It is, of course, evident that each variety must require a little different schooling, but all are fed and managed on the same lines, the object of the owners of each being to send their animals in before the judges in as blooming condition as possible, not so fat as to lather and blow, but quite fat enough to conceal their faults, and as fit and fresh as is possible for them to be. High feeding is consequently a most important feature of the preparation of a show horse, save of course in the case of the deep-ribbed, gross animals, which, if over-fed, let down too much about the belly, and these must be treated to plenty of judicious work, and be only fed upon sound, hard grain, with a little chaff and hay.

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			PREPARING THE SHOW HORSE AND HARNESS HORSE 311

		Should the animal be brought up from grass, it is a good plan to give him a dose of aloes (about 5 drachms for a big horse, and less in pro- portion for smaller ones), preceded by two or three bran mashes, and after that the less physic he gets the better. In the case of a short- ribbed horse, a good deal of time must be spent in endeavouring to get his belly to drop, and thereby take away the tucked-up appearance which disfigures so many movers. If this end is finally accomplished it will generally be through the assistance of a system of feeding which, though it does not commend itself to a man who requires his horses for work, is absolutely essential to the purpose of a stud-groom who is in charge of a naturally short-ribbed, narrow-middled animal. Great care should be exercised in the cleansing and washing out of his manger after every feed, and the removal of every particle he has not consumed. It is best to mix all his grain with chopped stuff well damped or even scalded, as the moisture assists in dropping the body and thereby concealing the shortness of rib. The eternal question of exercise depends, as it does in the race-horse and trotter (which see), upon the discretion of the trainer, as not only do constitutions vary in horses, but in the case of high-movers the feet will be much less tried by the lofty action of some than will be the case in others. There is not, however, any great necessity to give the majority of show horses very severe work, though in the case of the hunter, which should appear muscular, it is desirable that he should be ridden regularly and supplied with plenty of hard food. As the amount of exercise is therefore somewhat limited, and the feed- ^lng light, a periodical dose, perhaps once a month or so, of an alterative ttiedicine should be administered, and this, with the addition of some carrots to the diet, will usually succeed in keeping the blood in order. The Show Hunter.�The preparation of the show hunter after the animal has been " broke" is very similar during its early stages to that adopted towards other varieties of horse; but when he comes to be ridden and got ready for the show-ring, both skill and patience have to be Upended in the bridling and bending of him. The steeple-chaser, or business-hunter, can be allowed to slip along with his nose forward, but the show horse requires bending and pulling back on his hind-legs to ttake him go off the ground and flex his hocks so that he may look smart when ridden. The question of finding a suitable bit for the animal is therefore a matter of serious consideration, whilst the hands of his rider ^a*so have to be studied. Severe bits are always to be avoided when young horses are under treatment, and, in fact, the less that old ones ave to do with them the better, and therefore, when side reins have ⁰ be shortened on a colt, the more tender the bit, the better the mouth

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		HOESE TRAINING
	312	HOESE TRAINING
	312

is likely to be in after-life. In making the show hunter it is necessary to commence with slow work, and work along gradually, teaching him to carry himself as he should do, first at the walk, then the trot, and so on to the canter and gallop, the instructor always bearing in mind the great importance attached to carriage of the head and the tucking of the hocks well under the belly, two points which can usually be greatly improved by judicious handling. In the hack and harness horse, action is, of course, the greatest of all points to be obtained, and many and peculiar are the devices resorted to to accomplish this. Stories, in fact, are told of tin pots having been attached to the tails of dogs, in order that the antics of the latter and the noise between them might cause the horse to pull himself together. Such tales, however, carry with them the stamp of improbability; but there can be no doubt at all that many persons teach their horses to step high by exercising them over timber or railway-sleepers, arranged far enough apart to permit of the animals finding room between them, and lofty enough to ensure their bending the knee. Others trot them over a long run with furze or straw knee deep, and ride or drive them regularly in practice thus; whilst others rely implicitly upon the efficacy of weights upon the feet. These weights consist of india-rubber tubing filled with shot, and fastened round the fetlocks. No doubt, after wearing the latter the horse feels relieved when they are removed, and is likely to lift his knees higher than before. Many very experienced showmen, amongst whom is Mr. Alfred Butcher of Bristol, who during the past ten years has probably taken more prizes for harness horses than any six other persons, do not attach any \alue to such methods as the above for improving the action of show horses. At all events, such an animal, to be successful, must possess natural action to commence with, and must, moreover, have pace as well. If not, no amount of artificial aids to movement will make him a first-rater; whilst, if he possesses these merits, it is contended that he can be improved by more legitimate methods. According to Mr. Butcher, the first great secret to be discovered is the horse's best pace, as every animal has some particular one at which he shows off his action to the best. Then each horse must be shod according to his style of going, it very rarely happening that two animals in the same stable, unless it is a very large one, will be suited with the same weight and shape of shoe. A third and equally important question to be solved is the style of bit which suits each particular horse; whilst, finally, the hands of the coachman have to be considered, as it frequently occurs that horses will move splendidly when driven by one person, and go all to pieces when handled by another,

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	TRAINING THE TEOTTEE
		313


although the two men may be equally good whips. It is a certain fact, moreover, that most good harness horses, and many saddle ones as well, are by no means pleasant animals to handle, and have to be humoured and studied in every possible way when at work, and consequently it is no use trying to win prizes in good company with a horse which is not upon good terms with his driver. Pace, no doubt, can be improved, and action also to a certain extent, and therefore a reference may be made to the chapter on Training the Trotter, in which information will be found regarding the methods principally resorted to in America for increasing the speed of this class of animal, and preparing him for his engagements. Assuming that an animal is temperate, it is desirable that he should be brought into the show-ring before the judge as fresh as possible; but if, on the other hand, he happens to be of an excitable disposition, a good gallop if he be a hack, or fast trot if he be a harness horse, an hour or so before the judging, will benefit him if it can be arranged for. Time, however, should be left for the animal to cool down in. Above all things, be the system under which you prepare your show horses what it may, always try to avoid conveying an impression of artificiality to the judges. Don't let your horses come into the ring with their mouths full of iron, and wear- ing martingales and bridoon bits, if you can help it. Many a judge, and very properly so, would hesitate to award a prize to animals treated thus; as he would naturally, if he were a practical man, arrive at the conclusion that they were either useless without them so far as the carriage of their heads is concerned, or else unmanageable beasts which could not be trusted safely without such restrictions being placed upon their liberty. That a superabundance of harness is not in the least degree necessary to ensure success in the show-ring is proved by the fact that it is rarely, if ever, that Mr. Butcher drives a horse which carries even a bearing rein, and yet his successes have been so many as to be almost past calculation. TRAINING THE TROTTER The sport of trotting is not one which has ever taken very deep root m this country, nor is it in the remotest degree probable that it will ever rival horse-racing, as the term is accepted by Englishmen, in the estimation of the public. On the other hand, trotting is the great popular ^sport of America, and therefore it is by no means to be regarded as sur- prising that a few admirers of this gait are endeavouring to increase the interest taken in it by their fellow-countrymen on this side of the Atlantic.

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		HORSE TRAINING
	314	HORSE TRAINING

It must, moreover, be borne in mind that many Englishmen, though uninfluenced by any desire to race their horses, endeavour to increase the speed of their animals, and consequently a few lines devoted to the main principles of the successful preparation of a trotting horse may assist in attaining the object of these owners. The Yearling.�In America yearlings are raced (of course trotting is referred to), and as the foals are usually dropped about May, it is necessary to commence their education at a very early age. They are, therefore, usually weaned by the New Year, having been haltered when only about a fortnight old, and frequently handled whilst at the foot of their dams. As soon as their education commences they should be gently and tenderly led by the halter on a straight, level, and well-secluded road or track, a bit having been previously placed in their mouths; but this should not be attached to the head-stall, or used in any way, being merely put there to familiarize them with the feel of it. After the colt leads quietly, a surcingle with side-straps may be added, but the side reins should be at first quite long, so that he cannot injure his mouth. After a day or two they should be gradually taken up, whilst, as before, he should be led by the halter and not by the bit. When he goes steady, have him shod with tips, and accustom him to the use of the crupper. After about two months of this sort of work the regular breaking harness may be put on the yearling, care being taken to fasten up the traces and tugs in such a manner that they cannot flap about or trail on the ground, and so frighten the youngster. Do not put him into a vehicle of any kind until he has become quite accustomed to the harness, but exercise him steadily in long reins, and encourage him to reach out when set going. After he is quite handy in leather, introduce him to the breaking-cart, letting him examine it well before placing him between the shafts, and taking care not to disgust him with the conveyance by jerking at his mouth or treating him roughly if he gives trouble at first. When the colt is steady in the breaking-cart he may be put in the sulky, being by this time probably about a twelvemonth old. Have him shod lightly, but on no account hurry him�in fact, commence to drive him on the track rather slowly at first, permitting him to indulge in a fast spurt only now and then. Never let the youngster go more than a quarter of a mile at his top speed during the earlier period of his education in a sulky; and if he can do this distance a few seconds inside the minute it will be a satisfactory, though not a remarkable, performance. About the end of June he must be sent along faster in company with an old horse to lead him, and should be taught the art of starting and getting away smartly. Teach him also to quicken up when called upon,

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		PLATE LXII

	MR. WALTER WINANS' TROTTER, JOE W.

MR. WALTER WINANS' TROTTERS, LYRIC AND SAMOS

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			TRAINING THE TROTTER 315

		and encourage him to obey such admonitions to go faster at every part of the track, upon which he should always be driven now, so that he may become accustomed to the turns. The distance travelled each day must entirely depend upon the colt, as some animals require an amount of work to keep them fit which would knock up others. Finally, the yearlings should be tried about the last week in July or the beginning of August. The training Of the made trotter resembles the final stage of the yearling's preparation, so far as the daily exercise goes, as this must necessarily vary in the case of different horses. Trainers, moreover, are not all of one mind upon the subject of walking and jogging exercise. Mr. John Splan is of the opinion that a horse can have too much of it; and consequently he favours plenty of slow heats, adding to this piece of advice the information that " if he "�the horse�" is any good when he gets into condition, he will show you the speed". It, moreover, stands to reason that the speed of any horse will be prejudicially affected if he is being continually sent along at full speed. He should, therefore, not be driven as fast as he will go; and occasionally, if not always, he should be exercised in good company, the trainer taking care to use his best en- deavours to make the horse obedient to his voice. Should he break, take hold of his mouth gently and talk to him, the use of the whip under such circumstances being greatly to be deprecated. It is desirable, too, to have two sets of sulkies, a heavy one for road work, and one of a lighter build for use upon the track; and the greatest attention should be paid to the question of shoes, as no two animals require these of identical weight and make. Boots should also be worn, and especially skin boots on the hind- legs, the limbs being carefully examined every time the horse comes in; and if there are any signs of a bruise, or if there appears to be any prospect of the horse hitting himself at any point, that particular part should be carefully protected and the shoes examined, and, if necessary, removed, altered, and readjusted. Always endeavour to avoid over-exercising a trotter, and never permit him to extend himself on muddy or very hard ground. The latter, sooner °r later, is certain to produce concussion or bruises, and to obviate it many trainers shoe their horses with a strip of sponge an inch thick inserted between the iron and the hoof at the quarters of the foot. A poultice °i boiled turnips is also recommended for bruises, in order to reduce the inflammation; but whatever course of treatment is pursued, the earliest possible attention should be paid to any injuries to the feet and limbs, not °my of the trotter, but of all horses which are being schooled. The autumn and winter treatment of adult horses which have had ^a hard season's work will depend a good deal upon the condition in which

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			316 HOESE TRAINING

		the animal concludes his trotting for the year. Should he finish up fresh and well, he may be kept in easy work, and only require attention lest he lay on superfluous flesh, which will take trouble to get off when he comes to work again in the spring. On the other hand, if the legs are stale, as they probably will be, the horse may be put up in a loose-box with a yard attached to it, his clothing being gradually removed until all has been taken off, his winter coat being quite sufficient protection. He should be shod with tips only, so that his heels will let down and expand, and if left ungroomed he will take no harm. It is not desirable to turn him out, as the exposure may injure his constitution, and the absence of regular feeding will do him no good; added to which, he may injure his feet on the hard ground when frosts come. Should blistering be necessary, keep him in the stable on cooling food, in the company of other horses, during the ordeal; and, when convalescent, place him in a loose-box, as recommended above, keeping him on a moderately low diet, unless he has early spring engage- ments ahead. Many trainers permit the horse to have a few hours in a meadow on fine days, and this is no doubt beneficial in many cases. Beginning a New Season.�When the time comes for training again, it is advisable to proceed slowly. A mild dose or two of physic should precede the course, but no attempt should be made to get flesh off in a hurry, and therefore sweating and strong medicine should be avoided. Neither should the internal organs and legs be overtaxed by overfeeding and hard work at the commencement. Some people consider it desirable that the winter coat should be clipped now, whilst others are of the opinion that it should be allowed to come off naturally, the process not being hastened by any artificial means. Perhaps a medium course is the best of all, however, and the coat may be allowed to remain on until strong work commences. After about ten days' slow work the horse may be permitted to slip along, and when he comes in sweating he should first of all be well scraped. Then he must be blanketed and walked about gently to cool, after which he may be taken into the stable, given a little gruel or chilled water, washed, dried, and bandaged. A week after his first sweat he may be tried to see if he retains his speed; but it is a bad thing to overtax him the first time, and too fre- quently repeated trials are sure to ruin. The animal must, therefore, be watched, and his trials and work regulated by the progress he makes. Food.^:�References have already been made to feeding in the chapter on General Training, but about 10 lbs. of oats a day will be found the daily average consumed by the trotter. Some horses, however, require far more than this amount, and such was the great Earus, which, Mr. Splan writes, required a full 15-lb. allowance when in hard work.

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		STABLES

			86

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			Section VIIL-STABLES

		THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS In no country so much as in Britain is the horse at once the friend and the companion of man, and in no country is he so well housed. The arrangement and the construction of a gentleman's stable are of an impor- tance second only to that of the dwelling-house itself; indeed, it is to be feared that in some cases the accommodation provided for his equine servants claims more thought and care than that provided for his human ones. In selecting a position for the stables, something, of course, will have to be left to the special exigencies of the site, but a few general principles may be laid down. While naturally taking somewhat of a rear- Ward position, they should be easy of access from the front entrance and approach. It is not perhaps desirable to have them in too close juxta- position to the domestic servants' yard and offices; but they should be of ^easy access from the master's office or study, and from the side entrance used by the master of the house and his family. As it is not desirable to have too many back lanes or approaches likely to be neglected or to form a loitering-place for idlers, it may be well to arrange the stable entrance so as to be at the same time accessible from the main carriage-drive, and yet available for such purposes as the removal of manure, &c, without such operations being unduly in evidence. Decoration.�Considering the importance of the stable department, it Would seem proper to give it a fair amount of architectural embellish- ment, always bearing in mind, however, the sound maxim that utility is the cardinal principle in all building, and that the truest architecture is the artistic treatment of the useful. Whatever style is adopted in the dwelling-house should be applied in a plainer degree to the stables. The Material, so far as it affects the internal fitting up, will be more suitably dealt with at a later stage; but as regards general construction, the local Materials will usually be found most suitable. Brick, stone, or even wood 319

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		STABLES
	320	STABLES

may be applied; but the last in this climate is seldom durable, except at a considerable expense in the way of periodical painting or coating with other preservatives. In the general arrangement of a stable there are many points to be considered. The modern horse is, like the modern man�his master,� an artificial product, and, like him, is easily affected by healthy surround- ings or the reverse., There are few of the principles of modern sanitation which are not applicable to the stabling department. A dry and well- drained site, air, light, and ventilation without draught are all indispens- able for a healthy suite of stables. Cess-pools under or close to a stable, and any large or long-standing collection of manure in close proximity, should also be avoided. The principal accommodation required in a complete stable range will consist of stalls, loose-boxes, one or more sick- or isolation-boxes, a washing-box or shed, coach-house, harness-room, cleaning- and saddle-rooms, a provender-room, tool-house (which may possibly also be made available for a heating apparatus for hot-water pipes to the coach-house), and lofts for hay and corn. The last-named may be partly over the stable, as tend- ing to keep the latter at an even temperature; but the ceiling of the stable should as far as possible be air-tight, as the less communication there is between the air of the stable and the loft the better. For this reason it is desirable that the ladders or stairs to the loft, and the shoots for hay and corn, should not open directly into the stable, but, if possible, be in the provender-room or in a separate passage. It is also of advantage that a portion at least of the yard should be covered over for the more comfort- able washing of carriages, &c, in wet weather. If this be done, a special washing-box for horses may perhaps be dispensed with, though it has its advantage on the score of privacy in the case of restive horses. It is better not to have the manure-pit inside the stable-yard, but at some distance, a portable iron box being provided for the removal to it daily, or more often, of all manure from the stable. Latrines for the stablemen should form a part of every well-ordered stable. A typical plan is shown in fig. 570, with two stables of four stalls in each, a range of four loose-boxes, a sick-box, washing-box, harness-room, coach-house, fodder- or provender-room, and a tool-house. As the washing- box serves also for a passage, there is a direct communication throughout the range, except in the case of the sick-box, the isolation of which is rendered as complete as possible. Perhaps four ordinary loose-boxes, especially with the addition of a sick-box, may be in a larger proportion to eight stalls than is usually the case. Where hunters are kept, however, this number will not be too numerous, as the boxes will be used mainly for

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			THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS 321

the hunters, and the stalls for carriage-horses. If this is not the case, the end box can be cut off as a separate house for a root store or for dogs. Some persons also might prefer the loose-boxes to be entirely separate, with access only to the yard; but the horse is a sociable animal, and is more comfortable within sight and hearing of his companions. The advantages also in the matter of attendance, and the increased facilities for ventilation,

		Fig. 570.�Plan of Stable-buildings for Twelve Horses

	outweigh those of increased isolation. The covered part of the yard is shown with only three supports, the facilities for the manufacture of light- iron roofing rendering a multiplicity of columns quite unnecessary. It is not desirable that anything of the nature of a residence, especially where there are children about, should form any part of a stable range, although m some cases this is insisted upon; but apartments for at least one at- tendant should be provided, care being taken that, while accessible from the stables, they are not immediately over any part occupied by the horses.

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		322 STABLES

	The room over the harness-room is often found suitable for this purpose. It is not well to have too many stalls for horses in a single stable; ranges of four, or at the most five, with walls and doors between, are much better both for isolation and quietness. Smaller Stables.�The quadrangular arrangement shown in fig. 570

			Scale Of ? & VJ ^ gfl ?5 3,0 35 40 45 SO SS 60f_eet

Fig. 571.�Plans of L-shaped Stables cannot be adopted for small stables. As a rule the building takes the form of a simple oblong, the stable itself being at one end, the corn-store and harness-room in the middle, and the coach-house at the other end. The central portion may be carried up to a greater height than the others, in order to provide space for a hayloft or a man's room over the harness- room and corn-store. In many cases an L-shaped plan is the most suitable for the site, the coach-house serving to screen the stable from the garden or

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	THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS
	THE BUILDINGS AND FITTINGS	323
		323

from the house. Plans of two stables of this kind are shown in fig. 571. The accommodation provided in one plan includes a loose-box and two stalls for horses, and a smaller stall for a pony, a harness-room, heating- chamber, and coach-house; over the heating-chamber and harness-room there is a room for a man, and over the coach-house there is a large loft for hay, corn, &c. In the original design for this building, a corn-store was shown on the ground floor, two boxes were provided, and a glazed roof was shown over part of the yard in front of the coach-house. The manure pit and E.C. are at the back of the stables. The heating-chamber contains a boiler, which serves to warm, by means of hot-water pipes, not only the coach-house but also a range of lean-to green-houses built against the back wall of the coach-house. The other plan shows the plans of a building containing on the ground floor a small stable for three horses, harness- and store-rooms, and coach-house, and on the first floor a hayloft over the stable, and coachman's house over the other rooms. The stable and some of the other rooms were originally shown larger, but the sizes were reduced in order to bring the cost down to a specified amount, and consequently the plans cannot be regarded as entirely satisfactory. They serve, however, as an example of an economical range of buildings, and of one method of plan- ning a coachman's house over part of the ground-floor space. Externally the two buildings, of which the plans are given in fig. 571, were designed to be in keeping with the adjacent houses. Materials.�Some of the materials used in the construction of stables will be treated upon in the detailed description of the several parts. With regard to the walls and roof, there is no special material that is better than another; whatever most harmonizes with the dwelling-house, or is most characteristic of the locality, is suitable. Brick, stone, or even wood may be selected. Both stone and brick walls can be easily kept dry by building them with a hollow space in the centre. For the roof, slates are now generally the cheaper, tiles the more picturesque. A good Stable should be 18 feet wide inside, and each stall should be 6 feet wide. The divisions of the stalls should be at least 9 feet long, which will leave 9 feet for the passage behind the horses; or if the stall division is 10 feet, as is better, the passage will be 8 feet wide. A stable for cart-horses may be 16 feet, but the width of the stalls should not be less than 6 feet; narrower stalls are often made, but for large horses this width is indispensable. A good size for a loose-box is about 12 feet by 10, but boxes often vary much in size according to convenience in planning or caprice of the owner. The stable of olden time was a very dirty place, and among many stable attendants ideas and habits in consonance therewith too often still linger. In the modern stable, however, strict cleanliness is

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			STABLES
		324


	almost as much a desideratum as in a hospital yard. Everything should be clean, bright, and pleasing to the senses. The gentleman's horse is often a nervous and fidgety creature, and every part of the fittings should be so constructed as to reduce to a minimum the possibility of his doing himself an injury. There should be no sharp or projecting angles in the stall-divisions, mangers, or other fittings with which the horse is likely to come into contact. THE FITTINGS The Stall-divisions are usually fitted with cast-iron posts, which may be bolted to a stone block or provided with a hollow base which

Fig. 572.�" Self-fixing " Base for Cast-iron Stall-pillar to 2 inches thick, slid- ing into a grooved iron sill below and a curved or ramped iron capping above. A portion of the sill should be fitted, as shown in fig. 573, with a shifting-piece to allow the wood-work to slide in, for the convenience of replacing when damaged; when the shifting-piece is replaced, it holds all secure. The divisions may be of pitch pine or oak, but a very handsome and strong division is sometimes made of teak rubbed smooth and oiled. Many divi- sions have an intermediate rail, in which case the portion between this rail and the ramped upper rail may be of round iron bars, or iron trellis-work, which gives a much lighter appearance and facilitates the circulation of air. It is better, however, that the parts immediately beside the horses' heads should be filled solid, so that the horses, when feeding, cannot see, and possibly disturb, each other. Another advantage of the central rail is that it may be made hollow, to contain a sliding bar, which can be drawn out at night and the end secured to a staple or socket in the wall. This closes the passage behind, so that if a horse breaks loose during the night he will be safely confined to his own stall. A typical division is shown in fig. 573,

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			A MODERN STABLE

		Fittings bv Messrs. Musgrave

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			325
		THE FITTINGS	325
		THE FITTINGS

which also shows in section a hopper window serving as a ventilator over the horse's head. The divisions for loose-boxes are generally made of the same character as the stall-divisions, with boarding below and trellis-work above, which, in the same way as for the stalls, should be closed alongside the manger, &c. The latch of the door should be flush with the woodwork and of such form that the horse cannot " nose " it open. Loose-box doors may also be made to slide, but the special advantage is not apparent. A

	tttg, and the ap- pearance is improved if this is secured into half-rails of iron at the top ^and bottom, to match the divisions. In a higher-class stable a portion at least of the space above the boarding should be lined with glazed tiles, and the tiles should be continued to the same level above the manger. The enamelled tiling is impervious to moisture, and, being on that part of the wall upon which the horse breathes, or with which his body comes in contact, is easily kept clean, and is not liable to decay. Salt-gl_aZed bricks are now^T often used instead of wall-boarding, and are cleaner and more durable. The tiles above the wall-boarding should be of some light tint in preference to white. Dark tiles are not to be recom- mended. The upper part of the walls, if not tiled, may be plastered. J-hough more expensive, Keene's or some other hard-setting cement is

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			326 STABLES

		for hygienic reasons to be preferred, but ordinary plaster can now be cheaply coated with Duresco or other preparation which admits of being washed or renewed at a comparatively slight cost. It is indispensable that the Stable-floor should be impervious to moisture, capable of being easily cleaned, and with as few places for the lodgment of dirt as possible; the surface should have a sufficient foothold to pre- vent any risk of a horse slipping. The ground vitri- fied clinker stable- paving bricks meet these re- quirements, and should belaid upon Portland - cement concrete. In the ordinary paving bricks, the joints are at the bottom of the grooves, but it is better to have the grooves formed in the middle of the

	Fig. 574.�Section through Stable and Hayloft, showina: Drainage and Ventilation A, Surface-drain or gutter; B, Disconnecting trap; D, Ventilation-pipe from sewer; E, Patent waste-chamber of manger with movable waste-pipe into the gutter; F, Pipe through wall; G, Air-inlet; H, Air-outlet; J, Valve for regulating outlet of air; K, Foul-air shaft; L, Extract-cowl.
				bricks, so that the joints are on the flats between the grooves. The

floor should have as little slope as is consistent with the flow of liquids, so that the horses will not have to stand too much on an incline. Another excellent paving is formed with adamantine-clinker bricks. These are of a small size� 6 inches long, 2\ inches deep, and If inch thick�and are laid on edge in herring-bone fashion upon concrete, with rather open joints, and grouted with cement. These clinkers wear with a gritty surface, and, being so small, the numerous joints afford a good foothold for horses. They are made with chamfered edges as well as square. Similar bricks are also

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		THE FITTINGS
				327


	made a little wider. Granolithic paving composed of Portland cement and granite chippings, and laid on a foundation of brick or stone rubble, forms an excellent floor when properly laid by experienced men, and has the great advantage of being in one mass without joints. It can be grooved in any way, the surface figured as desired, and channels can be formed in it to any width and slope. Ordinary cement paving is, however, quite unsuitable for stables, as it is soon damaged by the horses' shoes. The fitting up of racks and mangers has received great attention. The chief desiderata are: nothing that could injure a horse, or that a horse could injure, perfect clean- liness, and economy in the use of food by the horse. In many stables there are m every stall or loose-box three articles�a hay-rack, nianger, and water-pot, but the last is often omitted. All these are best made of iron, with enamelled lining to the manger and water- pot. The hay-rack answers best when on a level with the manger, the old-fashioned

			Fig. 575.�Manger, Hay-rack, &c.
overhead rack allowing dust and particles of hay to fall mto the horse's eyes, besides often allowing the food to be wasted. The low or trough rack is not open to these objections, as hay dropped by the horse generally falls again into the rack. This may be fitted with a sliding grid, which lies loosely on the top of the hay. The horse eats through the bars of this grid, which follows the hay as it diminishes, and prevents the ^waste occasioned by the horse pulling out too large mouthfuls at a time. Another form often recommended has the bottom of the rack on a level ^Wlth the manger, and in this case it should be fitted with a sloping perforated bottom, which allows the seed to drop through, and always keeps the hay close to the front of the rack and within reach of. the horse. The front of the manger should be of considerable strength, and rounded ⁸o that the horse cannot grasp it for "crib-biting". It is a great advan-

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STABLES

328

tage to have the water-pot made without a brass plug or chain, but on the
"tip-up" principle. This can be so arranged that, while the attendant
can turn it over to empty, the horse cannot possibly disturb it. The
water is discharged into a waste chamber, from which a metal pipe leads
to a continuation of the stall gutter; this is of great service for flushing
the latter out. The tumbling principle may also be applied to the manger,
rendering it more easily washed out when necessary. Another advantage
in the manger is a cross-bar (fig. 575), which prevents the horse from
" nosing" corn or other food over the edge.

The tying of the horse in his Stall is of some importance, and in
this several improvements have been made with the object of avoiding noise

and preventing the horse (if startled or fright-
ened) from injuring himself, or pulling away or
breaking the manger. In the arrangement
shown in fig. 576 the horse is not fastened to the
manger, but the chain or halter works through
a long slit in the top plate, or a front guide
ring, which allows it to play as freely as if there
were no manger before the horse. The bracket

PATENT BUFFER

supporting the manger holds back the halter-

weight close to the wall. The weight has an
india-rubber buffer on the top, which, when
suddenly pulled up, strikes a fiat place below"

Fig. 576.�Musgrave's Horse-tying
Arrangement

the bracket and prevents noise, besides check-
ing to some extent the shock to the horse.

The upper end of the manger chain or halter
has a small ball, which stops w^Then it comes to the slit in the top plate,
and relieves the horse of the weight while feeding, the weight only
coming into play when the horse draws back or throws up his head.
There are several modifications of this principle, but all contain the buffer
on the weight and the ball to prevent it from dragging needlessly upon the
horse. Leather is sometimes substituted for the chain in the part passing
through the ring, so as still further to reduce noise. The tying also i^ssometimes duplicated, so as to prevent all possibility of the horse breaking
away.

DRAINAGE

Channels Should be laid down the centre of each stall and along
the passage behind. The channel may be semicircular, of cast-iron, with
a perforated flat top, in sections made to slide, so that by removing one
of them the attendant can slide the ether pieces along and clean out the

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		DRAINAGE 329

whole of the channel (fig. 471). By discharging the waste water from the drinking-pot into it the flushing of the channel is rendered easy. Some persons prefer an entirely open gutter (fig. 470), as being less liable to choke up from neglect. The chief objection to open gutters is that they allow the liquids to be absorbed by the bedding, retaining them within the stable and vitiating the air. Musgrave's pattern, as shown in fig. 577, has a fall in itself, and is often used; the channels or corru- gations provide for the flow of liquids to the drain, while the surface is almost level, and offers a good foothold for the horse. The underground drains should be made of glazed stoneware or cast-iron pipes, laid upon concrete and jointed in the best modern manner. It used to be the idea that, on account of the great percentage of solid matter con- tained in the drainage from a stable com- pared with the liquid portion, a very large diameter of pipe was necessary. The theory of large pipes for
			Fig. 577.�Musgrave's Patent Open Surface-gutter
	house-drainage is now quite exploded, and there is no reason why it should be retained in the case of a stable. The contrary rather should be the case for a small pipe running nearly full will be better flushed, and there will be less deposit of sediment than with a larger one. The same arrangements must be adopted for stable drains as for house drains. All inlets to the drains ought to be outside the building, as shown in fig. 574, and ought to be trapped. The trap shown in fig. 475 can be used for this purpose. The surface drainage from the stable ought to be carried through the wall by an iron pipe discharging over the basket in the trap, and to prevent to some extent the risk of foul air being drawn through the pipe into the stable, a hinged brass flap (fig. 473) may with advantage be fitted on the outer end of the pipe. It is desirable to have an inspec- tion-manhole with an air-tight cover at every change of direction or important junction, so as to obviate as far as possible any necessity for lifting the drains and breaking up the yards and pavement. Another manhole must be constructed at a short distance from the point at which the drain is connected to the public sewer or to the private cess-pool or

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			330 STABLES underground tank, and in this manhole an intercepting trap must be placed to prevent foul air from the sewer or cess-pool from entering the drains. To ventilate the drains an opening for air must be formed in this manhole, and at the head of the drains a drawn lead or cast-iron ventilating pipe not less than 3^ inches in diameter must be carried up the building outside. These are shown in fig. 476. The chief features of a stable trap are that it should be very strong, and afford a good foothold for horses, and that the attendant should be able to get his hand into every part. If by any accident it should be left open, the horse should not be likely to be injured if he put his foot into it; the trap should also provide as easy a flow for liquids as is compatible with a sufficient water-seal. Winser's stable trap, shown in figs. 474, 475, p. 85 of this volume, fulfils these conditions, and contains a perforated metal basket which prevents straw and dung from entering the drains. Intercepting Tank.�Some corporations do not allow any connection between stable-drains and the public sewers, and an intercepting tank may sometimes be required. This tank should not be too large; it should be impervious both at the sides and bottom; the top should be closed with air-tight cast-iron cover, and due means should be taken for ventilation. Such a tank, however, must be viewed with more or less suspicion, and perhaps the safest way is to place it in a spot as little frequented as possible, with a ventilating grid made to lift easily, and to have it cleaned out at very short intervals. VENTILATION

			The ventilation of the stable is of supreme importance, as probably one-half of the diseases from which horses suffer may be traced directly or

		air as heated and contami- nated by the horse's breath towards the back of the stable. From this one or more shafts should be provided, according to the size of the stable, but at least one to every three or four horses, up through the loft, and

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			VENTILATION 331

		discharging (if possible) at the ridge through a suitable ventilating-cowl. The whole system of ventilation is shown in fig. 574. Wherever practi- cable, windows ought to be provided in the front and back walls of a stable, and if another window can be placed in the gable ending, extending upwards to the ceiling, it will be a great improvement. These windows not only admit light, but, if made to open, can be adjusted to serve both as inlets and outlets for air. In ventilation, as in everything else about a stable, simplicity is of the first importance. Beware of elaborate contrivances that look pretty upon paper, but require constant attention to ensure their proper working. An automatic system, depending solely upon the flow of the atmospheric currents, and the poise and the counterpoise always going on between the inner and outer temperature, and consequent weight of the air, may fail during some rare calm, or on an exceptionally hot day; but, on the other band, it is independent of the stableman, who probably understands but little of the theory of ventilation, and is liable to be careless or indifferent even when he does. Another method of ventilation, first suggested by Mr. Alfred Water- house, R.A., is a modification of that generally known as "Tobin's". The did of the stall-division nearest the horse's head is cast hollow, in the form °f an oblong tube, at the lower end of which the air is introduced by a grating in the outside wall, and, passing up the hollow with an impetus towards the ceiling, spreads out all round without draught. As before stated, the heated air from the stable should not be allowed to escape into the hay-loft, either through traps in the ceiling or through other openings; a special air-shaft should be provided, and the hay brought down through a shoot if possible in an outside passage, or in the fodder-room. The loft stairs also should not rise directly from the stable. To render the stable ceiling completely air-tight may not be easy, for plaster is not desirable under a hay-loft, and boarding, even when grooved and tongued, is apt to shrink and become far from im- pervious. Felt, or at least brown paper, laid under the floor-boarding, °r over the ceiling-boarding, answers the purpose well, however, and is not expensive. The hay-lofts should, of course, be well ventilated by louvred windows, arranged to allow a full current of air through every P^art of the loft. HARNESS-ROOM A- good harneSS-room is an indispensable adjunct to every stable, ⁿd, where a number of hunters are kept, a saddle-room also is necessary. nese should be placed as centrally as possible to the whole group of

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STABLES

332

stalls and loose-boxes. One of these rooms is often a suitable place for
the stairs giving access to a man's room above, and to the range of lofts.
There should always be a fireplace, which is best fitted with a small range
containing a large boiler to supply the hot water which is so often required
in stable work. By continuing this boiler round both sides, as well as
at the back of the fire, a very large supply will be always available.

Fig. 579.�Pad Bracket for Single Harness Fig. 580.�Saddle-holder

In small establishments the harness-room sometimes adjoins the coach-
house, and a slow-combustion stove is placed in an open niche between
the two. This may be sufficient to keep both places fairly warm and
dry, but is of little use to give a supply of hot water, or for cooking.
A harness-room may also, with convenience, contain a washing-sink, unless
there is a separate cleaning-room, when it is better there. The tap over
this sink will often be of service if the yard-cock is temporarily stopped

Fig. 581.�Saddle-bracket for Lady's Saddle Fig. 582.�Collar-holder Fig. 583.�Whip-rack

by frost or other causes. The walls of harness-rooms should, if possible,
be boarded, both for dryness and for the facility of securing pegs,
hooks, &c.

The furniture of a harness - room is now of infinite variety.

Formerly it was entirely of wood, and tended often to be somewhat
clumsy, but a combination of wood and iron has the advantage in
strength, lightness, and appearance. Harness, being almost entirely of
leather, and much exposed to damp both from the weather and the
horse's body, requires, when hung up, to have the parts separated from

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FODDER-ROOM 333

each other and open to a free circulation of air, in order to ensure rapid
drying and to prevent mildew. It is impossible, within the limits of our
space, to describe all the varieties of brackets for harness, saddles, collars,
bridles, girths, whips, bits, reins, &c. Figs. 579, 580, 581, 582, and 583
will give some idea of the principles which guide the manufacture and
use of such articles. A contrivance for airing the inside of a saddle
before the harness-room fire is shown in fig. 584. This, when not in use,
will fold up, and can be hung against the wall. A saddle-and-harness
cleaning-horse, which combines a press and drawers for horse clothing and
cleaning articles, with provision for opening
out the saddle-horse to form a table, may be
found very useful where space is confined,
fhere are also many other conveniences, if
ftot requisites, for the harness-room, such as
brush- and sponge-drainers, chamois-leather
and brush boxes, wall-brackets to hold car-
riage-lamps when not in use, &c.

Spare-harneSS Room.�In large es-
tablishments it may be found convenient to
have a spare-harness room for the reception
°f articles not in daily use, as in the case of
town- or country-houses occupied by the
ianiily in turn for a part only of the year.

J-his will apply especially to country-houses

Fig. 584.�Saddle-airer

¹¹¹ which there may be a large influx of

guests during the hunting season. Particular care should be taken of the
Warming of such a room, as leather and steel goods, when laid away, are
^Very susceptible to damp. In regard to this, it may be borne in mind that
^stagnant air, even when warm, is more conducive to mildew than much
colder air when freely circulated, and therefore that attention to ventilation
^ls °f great importance both in a harness-room and coach-house.

FODDER-ROOM

The fodder- or provender-room is indispensable where a large number

t horses are kept. It should be fitted with bins overhead for corn, &c,

**d a chaff-cutter, and it is desirable that the corn-shoot and hay-shoot

°uld discharge into this room instead of into the stable. These shoots

^e How made to measure the exact quantity of an ordinary feed for a

^rse- In large stables there may also well be an extra house for the

^storage of roots.

^vol. in. ₈₇

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		STABLES
	334	STABLES
	334

THE COACH-HOUSE The coach-house need not be closely adjoining the harness-room, though in small establishments it may be convenient to place it so. In depth it should be about the same as the stable, i.e. 18 feet in the clear. The length will depend upon the number and class of vehicles to be accommodated. Although few carriages, even with lamps, exceed 7 feet in width, the doors should never be less that 8 feet wide, and are better made 9 feet or over. There is a great convenience in making the doors to slide, as when hung with hinges they are liable to be blown about by the wind. This can be accomplished by a little manipulation of the piers, and the sliding doors are generally hung with sheaves at the top to run along an iron bar. There should be small rollers at the bottom to reduce the friction. The floor may be laid with smooth flags, either natural or artificial, or concrete, but in this case especial care should be taken of the quality of the cement and sand used, as concrete may be very good or very bad according to the materials of which it is made. Asphalt is sometimes used, but is liable to become soft in extremely hot weather. Tiles are not desirable, for the risk of breakage. A coach- house should always have the means of being warmed. As before stated, in small places it sometimes adjoins the harness-room, and a slow-com- bustion stove is placed in a recess in the division-wall between, but in larger places a separate means of heating by hot - water pipes will be necessary, and, as in the case of the harness-room, some provision should be made for ventilation. TOOL-HOUSE The apartment for the hot-water boiler may be utilized as a coal- house, and for the barrows, forks, shovels, buckets, and other tools which form the necessary outfit of a stable-yard. Slow-combustion stoves are now made with a boiler sufficient to supply hot-water pipes for the coach- house and harness - room. It may sometimes be possible to combine an auxiliary pipe for the coach-house with a set for the green-house, but it is not desirable to sacrifice convenience in other respects for this purpose. THE YARD The gates for the yard are also, like the coach-house doors, more conveniently arranged to slide. They should be at the least 10 feet in width, and may even be more where dignity of appearance is sought. A side door should also be provided.

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			THE YARD 335

		The manure should, if possible, be stored at a distance from the stable-yard, and removed by a small covered cart, or barrow, as collected daily or more often from the stalls. The manure-pit should always have a solid concrete bottom, and be roofed over, and every precaution should be taken to prevent liquids from penetrating the soil, for they often travel underground for a great distance, and may pollute wells supposed to be quite beyond their influence. The London by-laws relating to the con- struction and maintenance of receptacles for dung may be thus sum- marized : � 1. The capacity must not be greater than 2 cubic yards. 2. The bottom or floor must not be lower than the surface of the adjacent yard. 3. The contents must not be allowed to escape, and there must not be any soakage from the receptacle into the ground, or into the wall of the building. 4. Rain and surface water must be excluded in such a manner that the receptacle is freely ventilated into the external air. 5. If the contents are removed at least once in every forty-eight hours, the capacity may be greater than 2 cubic yards, and a metal cage may be used, the ground under the cage to be properly paved to prevent soakage into the ground, and any wall, " near to or against" which the cage is placed, to be adequately cemented to prevent soakage into the wall. It will also be necessary to provide suitable latrines for the stable attendants. Water - closets should be used if the supply of water is abundant, but earth-closets of a good type and properly attended to are ^also satisfactory. If a pit, or receptacle, is required, the bottom and sides should be made water-tight, and the pit should admit of being easily and frequently cleaned. Much advantage will be found from having at least a portion of the yard covered in, and some very comfortable yards are entirely so, but m these sufficient provision should be made for allowing a free circulation °i air at the sides, care being taken, should the situation be exposed, that in high winds the air has a sufficient escape in several directions, ^So as to avoid any risk of the roof being lifted. Convenient, but not too close to the coach-house doors, there should ^De a proper carriage-washing Stand, arranged with a sufficient fall to ^a §^aUy, Newton's medium size being very suitable. The washing-place should be not too far from the horse-washing stand, or shed, so that the hose and attachment for washing the horses can also be within reach , *°r the carriages. Of course, if the number of horses is large, it may be sirable to have a separate water - supply and hose for the carriages. resides the hose attachment there should be a tap at the proper height ^0r filling buckets for the stable use, even if, as in the best stables, the ^Water is kid on direct to each stall.

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		STABLES
	336	STABLES
	336

WATER-SUPPLY In arranging for the water-supply to a stable much will depend upon the site. Town and suburban stables will generally avail themselves of the local supply, for which much storage will scarcely be needed, and the pressure will be sufficient for the hose and other purposes. In the country, however, a special supply will generally have to be provided. Rain- water is often valued for this purpose, and if it is collected from the stable roofs the cistern will have to be fixed at a suitable level below the eaves; the higher its position the greater head of pressure there will be for the discharge from the hose. The tanks, when not too large, may be of galvanized iron, but slate is very clean and durable, and for very large tanks boiler-plate iron is a strong and cheap material. Where the rain-water is used for drinking it is the better for being filtered. This need not be an elaborate affair. It should be borne in mind that the mechanical, or straining, part of filtration is now recognized as being the least efficient part of the process, and that the purification of water is now known in the main to be due to the biological work effected by microbes, and that the most efficient filtering material is that which furnishes for these the most favourable habitat. A very efficient filter for stable purposes may be formed by dividing the tank into two sections by a diaphragm reaching to within a few inches of the bottom, and placing a false bottom of perforated wood, or a galvanized-iron grating, about 6 inches above the real bottom. This grating should have a layer of not less than 12 inches of crushed coke. The water would enter the tank on one side, pass through the layer of coke and under the diaphragm, and ascend again through the layer of coke on the other side. A filter of this sort will remain in working order for a long period, and when it shows signs of clogging a slight scraping of the surface of the coke will probably re-establish its efficiency. A better arrangement would be to have the filter above the cistern, as it would not then be always water- logged, and would have full opportunities for aeration. Two filters might be provided, one being in use, and the other being laid aside for aeration or repairs. STABLES FOR CART-HORSES The accommodation required for cart-horses is of course of a much simpler nature than that for the carriage- or riding-horse. Not only is the horse generally of a heavier make, and of a less sensitive constitution, but he is looked upon as a unit of business that is expected to " pay

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	TEAMWAY STABLES
		337


his way", and that must therefore dispense with luxury. Still more is this the case in the stables of omnibus or tramway companies, or other large commercial undertakings. Everything in these has to be contrived to combine efficiency with economy, for which, indeed, the former is, or ought to be, only another name. The space is reduced to a minimum, 5 feet being generally considered enough for the width of each stall, though for large cart- or dray-horses more ought to be allowed. Space is also often economized in the width by placing the horses back to back, with a passage in the middle. Thus, with stalls 9 feet long and a passage 7 feet wide between, and a door at the end, a stable 25 feet wide will accommodate two rows of horses. It will hardly be advisable, however, unless with doors at both ends, to have more than about eight or ten stalls on each side. The fittings must all be of the strongest and simplest kind. Metal capping will still be the best to prevent " crib biting ", but the remainder of the divisions may be of pitch pine or spruce, both being hard and tough. "Swinging bars" have been sometimes tried to give at least the pretence of greater space in the stalls; but they are not satisfactory, and with any but the quietest horses may give rise to more trouble than comfort. In places where they have been introduced they have been soon abandoned. The mangers and pots are often of glazed fire-clay, as being probably more durable than enamelled metal, and can be made with a fire-clay bar across to prevent nosing out the food. Hay-racks are often dispensed with, as chopped fodder is the custom in all these stables. Flooring.�In the long run, square sets, though dear at first, will generally be found to make the most economical floor, and, with the general introduction of peat-litter, drainage is dispensed with. With an ^]tttpervious bottom, and care in the management of the litter, and of course ^arnple ventilation, it is surprising how sweet a crowded stable can be kept even in summer. TRAMWAY STABLES With practically no more harness than a trace and collar, in the case of tramway or bus stables, each horse's harness can be hung upon his own ^stall-p_0Sk A special harness-room, except as a store, is hardly required; ^Dut in these large stables, where the horses are counted by the hundred, ^a ^^arness-repairing shop and a forge or shoeing-shop will each form a most P^ortant branch. A number of loose-boxes for horses sick or temporarily tabled, or on trial, will be very necessary. One for every eight or ten orses kept will not be too many. In stables of this size an engine and ^0liers to supply the power for cutting up the fodder and bruising and

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			338 STABLES

		mixing the corn, and in some cases for pumping water, are indispensable, and will keep a special staff of assistants in full work cutting, weighing, and filling into bags. In the passages between the various ranges of stables, strong rings should be built into the wall to secure the horses while being groomed, though a regular washing-and-grooming shed may be more convenient and offer greater facilities for inspection. All provi- sions for cleanliness are of even greater importance than in the gentleman's stable. The manure-pit must not be large and must have sides and bottom impervious to moisture, and the removal should be daily. In the stables of one of the best-managed tramway companies the principal walls, &c, are whitewashed monthly, and at the horses' heads every week. Lime wash is a great and cheap purifier. In many large city stables, still further to economize space, the horses are accommodated on two stories, the upper part being reached by an inclined plane or gangway. This gangway has to be made with cross pieces of wood, well covered with gravel or litter to prevent slipping. The floor of the upper stalls is best made of steel joists and concrete, which, with the great modern facilities for the production of these articles, in- volves very little extra trouble or expense. Naturally a little more care will have to be taken with the ventilation and lighting of the lower story; and indeed, where possible, it is better to utilize this for subsidiary pur- poses, such as forges, harness-repairing, &c. RACING STABLES Racing stables are generally situated within convenient distance of training-grounds, as Newmarket Heath, the South Downs, &c, and are managed by trainers to whom are committed the horses of numerous owners. The separate loose-box is the universal system, and for a variety of reasons, the chief of which is the desirability of keeping apart entire horses, and the prevention of accidents to animals of great value, such as might occur in stables where, by breaking loose, the sexes could commingle, or vicious mares damage one another. .

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			STABLE MANAGEMENT 339

		STABLE MANAGEMENT THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPLETE SUPERVISION In keeping horses, competent supervision is a matter of primary im- portance, and no real success can be relied upon without it. Where the owner has the knowledge and time, this duty will devolve upon himself; but wherever these are lacking, a competent substitute must be employed. In large studs financial and other considerations soon demonstrate the benefits of expert management, and the employment of veterinarians pos- sessing special training and experience in stud management, as superin- tendents, is increasing. In smaller studs the employment of such experts is unattainable, but where the charge is placed with a natural horseman with the necessary training the best results are obtained. In many cases, however, the necessity for trained supervision is unrecognized, and any odd man with little knowledge and no natural qualification for the position undertakes the duties of horse manager. Again, no matter what the natural aptitude may be, no man is competent to exercise supervision "without the knowledge which practical experience alone can give. Wher- ever economy with efficiency is the order, trained experience with natural aptitude must be possessed by those in control. The man who knows a horse thoroughly in good health will be the first to recognize any departure from that condition. There is no truer saying than the old one, that " prevention is better than cure"; and the difference between success and failure depends far more than is generally recognized ^upon the apt appreciation of anything amiss, and the prompt employment °f suitable measures to relieve it. But besides a general knowledge, a special knowledge of the class of horse in charge is requisite. Although the natural inclination and experi- ^ence possessed by one man may make him a first-class supervisor of a stud °f cart-horses, he may be wholly unfitted to take charge of a stud of race- horses, and vice versa. But in addition to being a class specialist he should be an individualist capable of recognizing the individual capacity ⁰¹ each horse in his care, so that each horse may be employed in accordance with his powers. The ability to select the horse most suitable for a given purpose requires keen observation and long experience, and is even frequently of more importance than the question of technical soundness. ^Unly those possessing the knowledge can thoroughly appreciate the deli- cacy of the points upon which selection has sometimes to be based. In ^a large stud the man who can carefully select horses most suitable for their

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		STABLES
	340


work is simply inestimable. As a large livery-stable proprietor remarked the other day: " It is the misfits which ruin our business ". Having a suitable horse, the next point is that he should be in fit condition; and it must be remembered that no horse can be fit for pro- longed severe exertion without a requisite amount of previous exercise. The number of horses that are ruined through non-recognition of this is incredible. Many men assume that a new purchase, simply because it is new, should equal, if not surpass, similar horses in hard condition, and ignore the fact that the new horse is generally young, and frequently in no condition for hard work, for which he has to be prepared by gradually increasing daily exercise. Grooms.�Anyone aspiring to be a groom should possess a natural love of horses, a good equable temper, and self-control, firmness, patience, and kindness. Then he should be well trained so as to understand the duties of feeding, grooming, and harnessing thoroughly, and be able to ride and drive with care, judgment, and efficiency. Ignorance and care- lessness are responsible for most of the mishaps which occur both in the stable and at work. Imperfect grooming, excessive, deficient, or irregular feeding or watering, are all inimical to health. Whenever a horse is laid idle, the rations should at once undergo a decrease. A well-groomed horse is easily recognized by his cleanness, his glossy coat, and well-cared-for appearance. Evidence of undue haste in grooming, slovenliness, or care- lessness is generally to be found in the unclean, untidy condition of the mane and tail. When cleaning, in addition to attention to mane and tail, any discharge about the eyes and nostrils should be carefully removed, also the skin round the anus cleaned, &c. In addition to seeing that his horse is well groomed, it is the groom's duty to have his harness thoroughly cleaned and well fitting, and likewise to keep the stable pure, sweet, and clean, free from draughts, and of an equal temperature. Anyone when approaching a horse for any purpose, should always by word advise the horse of his intention. The omission to do this has been the cause of many accidents. The horse should never be taken by surprise; it startles and enervates him. The old saying that " it is the pace that kills " is a very true one, and is frequently exemplified both in riding and driving. The way in which a horse is handled in saddle and in harness will, to a large extent, govern the amount he can do in either case. Most horses, when treated intelligently, are tractable and readily obey when properly educated, and the majority of unmanageable horses are the result of ignorant or incapable handling. Occasionally, however, horses are met with which the most efficient care and handling fail to render

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	STABLE VICES
		341


serviceable; indeed, some are more or less .insane, and when heated or excited absolutely uncontrollable. STABLE VICES Habit Of Eating the Bedding.�Many gross-feeding and voracious horses acquire the pernicious habit of eating their litter, but the vice is not confined to these, for horses with normal appetites in ordinary cir- cumstances readily acquire the custom when their food-supply is unduly restricted, or when the objectionable plan of using damaged hay as litter is resorted to. The methods of prevention are various, but, before adopting others, where damaged hay has been used its use should be discontinued, and care should always be taken to see that the food allowance is sufficient. When this is ineffectual the plan sometimes adopted is to tie the horse's head up after feeding, but a much better and equally efficacious one is the use of a muzzle. If this latter be objected to, the best remedy will be the sub- stitution of saw-dust, peat-moss, tan, or other suitable material in place of straw as litter. Night Kicking or Stamping in Stable.�The habit of stamping or kicking at night is a great nuisance, and not infrequently difficult or impossible to rectify. All sorts and conditions of horses are subject to it, but, as might naturally be expected, heavy horses, especially coarse, hairy-legged ones, are the most common culprits. Occasionally a horse kicks on both sides, but the majority kick only on one side. Pruritis, or an itching sensation about the limbs, is a common cause of stamping, and in such cases the requisite applications of anti-pruritic remedies generally give relief. In other cases no assignable cause is recognized, and despite preventive ^and curative efforts the habit remains. In all such circumstances the effect of a loose-box should be tried. In this and other complaints a loose-box is frequently effectual when other measures fail. When failure follows all other methods, it is claimed that success may °e achieved by adopting the use of hobbles. The hobbles are placed on ^a fore- and a hind-limb of opposite sides, and fixed above the knee and hock respectively, and the connecting hobble-rope is suspended through a ^rmg attached to the lower part of a girth. But this is only to be tried as ^a last resort. Tearing Clothes and Bandages.�Horses which tear their clothing ^are generally at rest, or their work is irregular or intermittent. Those O-Oing hard everyday work rarely practise this annoying and expensive

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		342		STABLES
				STABLES

	habit. Various measures are adopted for its prevention, such as muzzling, tying the head up, using a cradle, attaching a rod from the stall-collar to the girth (fig. 585), or attaching a piece of strong leather to the head collar or head stall behind the jaw so that it projects a little beyond the lower lip. Similar measures may be employed to prevent the tearing of bandages. Smearing the bandages with some bitter material may be tried, and is often effective. Horses putting their Feet in the Manger.�When horses acquire this habit, there is often considerable difficulty in overcoming it. Mangers

			Fig. 585.�Side Rod

should be placed as high as can be reached when the horse is feeding, and, where possible, a loose-box should be used. Very few horses will persist in the habit when they are placed in a loose-box, in which the manger is fixed at a fair height. Pawing and Scraping in Stable.�This habit, besides rendering the stable untidy, is occasionally responsible for a blemished or enlarged knee, with the resulting depreciation in value. The injury is caused by the horse striking a sharp edge of the manger. In these cases the position and shape of the manger require attention, and where attainable a loose-

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	FOOD
	FOOD	343

box should be tried. Crocker recommends, as a "sure cure", that a weight should be suspended by a rope over a pulley on a girth and the other end of the rope attached to a hobble placed below the fore fetlock. Lying Oil Elbow.�Capped elbow is an enlargement on the point of the elbow caused by the horse, when lying, pressing his elbow against the heel of the shoe. The usual preventive measure is the use of a soft pad fitted round the heel of the foot (fig. 385, Vol. II., page 360), or of a large soft pad suspended against the elbow. Another and very effectual method is to place the horse in slings for a time. After this many, when again allowed to lie down, cease to press their elbow on the shoe. Capped Hocks.�Horses which kick or stamp in the stable are liable to injure the point of the hock, in which case a capped hock is the usual result. To prevent this, padded stall divisions, loose - boxes, and the employment of the ordinary preventive measures for stamping are the methods usually relied upon. Crib-biting is a pernicious habit, the subject of which seizes the manger or any convenient fixed object, and makes a belching noise. The habit is usually associated with more or less digestive derangement. To prevent cribbing various kinds of neck-straps, &c, are in use. Whether one or another of these be used, none of the fittings should be such as the cribber can catch hold of, and no cribber should be permitted to remain in the same stable with non-cribbing horses. A cribber is easily recognized by the condition of his teeth. Wind-SUCking is allied to crib-biting, but here the horse does not take hold of the manger. He simply arches his neck, opens his mouth, and sucks in air. Like crib-biting it is generally accompanied by indiges- tion, and horses addicted to it should always be stabled alone. FOOD The various food-stuffs used for horse provender in these days of cheap and rapid transport are drawn from a great portion of the habitable world. This wide extension of the sources of supply has naturally led to a large increase in the kinds of food-stuffs used, and the different sorts of oats, beans, peas, maize, barley, bran, linseed, hay, &c, imported into the country are daily increasing. The old plan of feeding with oats and hay stood the test of experience very well, but economy could not be disregarded, and in most large studs an extended and more varied bill of fare is now the custom. But it is not solely to economic considerations that this change is due. It is not difficult to understand that no single food, however admirable, can provide for a

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			344 STABLES

		horse's requirements in the same degree as a well-proportioned mixed food will do. The term " mixed food " is generally used to signify a mixture of various grains with chaff. In forming such a mixed food several points have to be considered, as no mixture can be the best for all horses under every circumstance. A food suitable for old horses may be inappropriate for young growing animals, and, generally speaking, the class of horse, his condition, his work, the season of the year, will all influence the amount and proportions of the various food ingredients. In discussing food and feeding it is usual to give tables showing the chemical constituents of the various food-stuffs, but it is not intended to give in detail data of that kind in this section. (See, however, the chapter on Foods, page 87 of this volume). Nevertheless it may be pointed out that in employing such data, when deciding the most appropriate mixture for horses under any given circumstances, certain points must always be remembered. No comparisons can be fully relied upon between unlike substances. To accept analytical composition as a true estimate of the respective values of fodder and grain would be absurd. Their real value depends upon the constituents that are digested, and not upon their relative component constituents, and as the amount of digested con- stituents in any food is materially influenced by the food materials with which it is given, the necessity for knowledge in the amalgamation of food is very evident. Under the plan of feeding with oats and hay, the custom is to give a certain measure of oats and allow hay in the rack ad libitum; but in the more economic plan of using mixed food, a definite weight of hay is apportioned to a definite weight of mixed corn. In deciding the pro- portion of grain to hay it may be observed that no large bulk will com- pensate for defects in quality, and no concentrated mixture for deficiency in quantity. Much of the saving effected by mixed feeding has been by a partial substitution of grain for hay, and in this connection it may be remembered that a bulky food is particularly unsuitable for horses on account of the small size of the equine stomach. And when grain can be obtained at a less price per ton than hay, as is nowadays frequently the case, there is a natural inclination to increase the less expensive but more nutritious grain and reduce the more expensive and less nutritious hay; but this substitution can only be carried to a certain limit, and any attempt to go beyond this will prove disastrous. It must not be forgotten that a too highly concentrated food is very dangerous for any horse, and particularly so for greedy feeders. These, being unsatisfied with a deficient bulk, are tempted to overgorge whenever

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		345
	FOOD	345
	FOOD

the opportunity occurs, and as highly concentrated cut food favours rapid mastication, gastric repletion is soon established with all its attendant evils. On the other hand, as has been pointed out, the equine stomach is ill adapted for bulky innutritious food, and horses fed on such food are deficient in the condition and fitness requisite for long-continued and severe exertion. It is of real importance, therefore, both in the interests of efficiency and economy, to apportion accurately the weight of hay to the weight of mixed grain, as well as to decide upon the most suitable grain mixture. Practical experience teaches that hard-worked horses will do well upon a mixture of two parts hay and three parts grain, and that it is not advisable to reduce the quantity of hay materially below this, and is uneconomical to increase it materially; but while such a mixture meets the requirements of horses doing hard work, it is an unsuitable and too rich a food for idle horses, for which a mixture of equal parts of chaff and grain will answer much better. Chaff is simply cut hay, or cut hay mixed with a proportion of cut straw. A very good and not too expensive chaff will be secured by mixing together two parts meadow hay, one part rye-grass and clover, and one part good oat straw. In forming a suitable grain mixture, it should be remembered that the chief characteristic of cereals is the large percentage of carbohydrates m them, and that although oats may be used alone, both they and barley are improved by the addition of a few beans. While cereals are char- acterized by the large proportion of carbohydrates they contain, the percentage in maize is still greater; and therefore, while the addition of beans is beneficial with cereals, it becomes almost essential with maize. As has been observed elsewhere, whenever a horse food is deficient m nitrogenous elements the deficiency is most easily made good by the addition of beans; and moreover beans, although so valuable in a mixture, are, in consequence of their highly nitrogenous character, altogether un- suited for use alone. By bearing these points in mind, and by the confirmation of practical ^experience, a good and economical grain mixture can easily be made; and it has been established that a suitable mixture for working horses is obtained by combining two parts cereals, two parts maize, and one part beans. Whatever plan of feeding is followed the food-stuffs used should be the best of their kind. Hay and straw should be the produce of good ^S0lls, and should be sweet, clean, well-harvested, and free from mould.

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			346 STABLES

		Corn should be clean, hard, dry, and sound, and old corn as a rule should be preferred to new, as it is less likely to give rise to any gastro-intestinal derangement. Preparation of Food�Cooked Food.�It is generally conceded that horses fed on cooked food are in no respect superior, and it is even questioned whether they maintain a condition equal to that of horses fed on similar food but uncooked; and as the cost of cooking cannot be disregarded, the system of cooking horse food to any wide extent has become a thing of the past. Feeding with Oats and Long Hay.�This plan has been in use for a long time, and on the whole has been very successful. Like other plans it has its advantages and disadvantages. Its chief disadvantage is its greater cost compared with the other methods. This arises from the higher relative price of oats and from the waste of hay which invari- ably occurs where hay is racked. Its chief advantage, Avhere ordinary care is used in regulating the amount of corn given, is its comparative immunity from the production of gastro-intestinal derangements. This naturally follows from the length of time required for eating racked hay, and as a consequence the diminished liability to gastric impaction. But, as cost is an important factor in most horse establishments, this plan has very largely been replaced by the system of feeding on mixed food. Mixed Food.�Under this regime the hay is cut into chaff, all dust being removed during the process by appropriate machinery, and the grain, after all extraneous matters are removed, is cracked but not crushed. The chaff and cracked grain are then thoroughly mixed together, and the mixture is then ready for use. The chaff is better to be fairly long than too short. Long chaff retards the process of mastication and secures additional time for gastric digestion. When grain is crushed too fine, a certain quantity of meal is made. This gives a dusty character to the mixed food, and many horses leave the finer portions in the mangers. By thoroughly cracking all grain its thorough mastication is facilitated, and by not grinding it too fine, waste is prevented. One great advantage attendant upon the use of mixed food is the security it gives that the grain will be thoroughly masticated. A horse cannot swallow chaff without first masticating it, and during the mastica- tion of the chaff he of necessity masticates the grain. System of Feeding.�All horses should be fed at least four times a day. Both on physiological and anatomical considerations, small, frequent, and regular feeding is desirable, and is certainly a more beneficial � pl^aIXthan giving larger quantities at longer intervals.

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	FOOD
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Where mixed food is used it is found to be a good plan to subdivide each feed into two portions. Two-thirds of the feed should be given as the first portion, and after that has been entirely consumed, and a short interval has elapsed, the remaining portion should be given. By following this procedure it will be found that even greedy feeders proceed more leisurely with the second portion, and in doing so lessen the liability to gastric engorgement and¹secure more thorough digestion. Total Amount Of Food.�Heavy dray-horses require from 28 lbs. mixed food to 33 lbs. or 34 lbs., according to their size and the severity of their work, and whenever more is required it is the result of some attendant waste. About 27 lbs. or 28 lbs. of mixed food of equal parts of grain and hay will usually supply the requirements of farm horses. Tram and omnibus horses are usually allowed from 26 lbs. to 30 lbs. Other horses will require food in a corresponding ratio, according to their size and work. Horses at rest will do with a third less food than when doing severe work. Oats.�Oats are generally looked upon as the best horse-corn, and in the light of long practical experience there is, on the whole, just grounds for that belief. No other kind of grain alone is found so well adapted for horse food under all circumstances. Whether the horse is young, or growing, or fully matured, whether he is a cart-horse or a race-horse, at work or at rest, oats can be relied upon to provide a suit- able food. An explanation of this well-established fact is furnished by the chemical analysis of oats, which shows they contain the food con- stituents in better-balanced proportions for the horse's requirements than any other grain used for feeding purposes. But although oats are superior to any individual grain in this respect, they are not superior to many grain mixtures, several of which may be made having the requisite feeding - constituents in better proportions than oats, and possessing the additional advantage of being cheaper. -That oats form a perfect food, or for that matter any other single grain, Do one will contend; even their most powerful advocates recognize that as a food for hunters and other horses during severe weather they are improved by the addition of beans. The oats on the market comprise ^an immense variety, of which our home supply constitutes a small pro- portion, the major portion being imported. Owing to the bright appearance of many samples of damaged oats, ^which have been more or less successfully treated for the purpose of giving them the semblance of good ones, and to the difficulty in accurately assessing the proportion of husk to kernel in many samples, and for

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		STABLES
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various kindred reasons, much skill and experience are necessary in making a good selection. Indeed, no other horse-corn demands an equally skilled judgment in buying. It is of very little moment whether they are black or white if they are their natural colour, thin - skinned, uniform, bright, sweet, clean, heavy, in good hard condition and thoroughly matured. All damaged oats, however mixed, bleached, or otherwise disguised, and all discoloured, musty, or dirty oats, should be avoided. Barley.�In recent years, owing to the relatively low price of much of the imported barley, and of home - grown barley unsuitable for malt- ing purposes, barley has been used to a considerable extent as a horse food. It is used in the form of malt, boiled barley, damped barley-meal, and in the dry, crushed state. For every-day use damped barley-meal and dry crushed barley are chiefly employed. In either way it answers very well. Many people who would not think of giving barley have been using it without realizing it. For years many samples of oats have contained a large percentage of barley. After feeding the Birmingham Corporation cart-stud with 8 lbs. barley per horse per day in place of 8 lbs. oats for a period of eighteen months, the conclusion arrived at was that, given in this amount, along with maize and beans, no real practical difference could be recognized between barley, when so used, and oats. It is frequently the most economical food on the market, the relative prices of maize and barley often alternating in this respect. Where much barley is given, the faeces of the horses fed upon it are generally rather softer in character than the faeces of those fed on oats, but the writer has failed to observe any itching condition of the skin, as is sometimes ascribed to its use. Good feeding barley should be bright, sweet, clean, hard, and dry. Much of the imported barley contains a large proportion of dirt, and in that case it should be thoroughly cleaned before being used for horse food. Maize.�Maize has been extensively used for many years as an article of horse food, and there are now few large studs for which it does not form a portion of the provender. Along with hay, it will maintain cart-horses in fair condition, but it is too deficient in nitrogenous con- stituents to form a typical horse food, and to rectify this deficiency there should always be given along with it a certain proportion of pease or beans. By giving the maize and beans in the right proportions, a mixture can be made possessing a similar nutritive ratio to oats, and this may, with impunity, be substituted for oats in the food of mature horses, but not for that of young growing animals, for which it would not possess a sufficient proportion of ash constituents.

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Maize has been accused of causing grease, but such an accusation is entirely unsupported by facts, and it simply remains as a remnant of the prejudice which attended the introduction of maize as a horse food in this country. There has only been one objection of any weight made against its use, which is that when maize is used alone, and more particularly new maize, the faeces are less firm than normal, and possess a somewhat un- pleasant smell; but when old corn is combined with beans and oats, or barley, in due proportions, it gives admirable results, and the offensive character of the faeces practically disappears. There are several varieties of maize in use, recognized by their colour, as yellow and white, and by their shape, as fiat corn, large round, and small round, in addition to which each possesses a distinctive name, according to the place from which it is obtained, such as States, Galatz, La Plata, &c. In practice we find it is immaterial which is used, providing the selected variety is old, sound, perfect corn, and so long as it has these qualities price may with impunity control the selection. Wheat.�Owing to the low market price of wheat during the last few years, many farmers have used it largely among the horse-corn. It is undoubtedly a valuable food, but great care must be taken in using &■ The marked increase it undergoes in bulk, as a result of fermentation, and the doughy character of the fermented mass, necessitates that only a small allowance be given at one time. With the view of lessening the danger of using it, many farmers damp the ground corn some time before feeding with it, and claim that by so doing they materially diminish the risk. When the price of wheat is relatively lower than other grains, many will continue to use it, but whenever its price is on a level with these, most will prefer the ordinary horse-corn. Beans. � The beans in common use are mostly English, Egyptian, and Konigsberg. English are generally preferred, and usually command ^a higher price, but both Konigsberg and Egyptians are very extensively ^Used, and so long as they are clean and dry it is very doubtful in practice whether any difference can be recognized in their feeding value. Old ■^nglisb beans are preferred to new, because they are generally harder and drier, but many people prefer new Egyptian to old, because they ^are less damaged by weevils, and they are as hard as the old in con- sequence of the washing and drying they undergo. Whatever kind is. Used they should be thoroughly dry, sound, and clean. Beans are much too rich in nitrogenous constituents to be used alone, "Ut they are most valuable in combination, and are the usual means Vol. in. 88

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		STABLES
	350	STABLES

whereby the albuminoid ratio of foods deficient in nitrogenous matter is raised. Pease are frequently used instead of beans. They possess a some- what similar composition, but in using them great care should be observed to see they are thoroughly dry, otherwise they are liable to produce flatulent colic. When sound, hard, and dry, either English, Canadian, or Australian may be used with every confidence. Indian pease are frequently mixed with the Indian vetch, or Lathyrus sativa, which possesses marked poisonous properties, and should never be incorporated with food. Many deaths have been caused by its use, and many horses that do not succumb to its effects are rendered permanently useless by becoming very bad roarers. Bran.�Bran is not now regarded as a food material in the same light as it used to be. This is partly in consequence of recent feeding experi- ments, and partly owing to the improved flour-mill machinery. In the first place it has been shown that a considerable portion of the nitro- genous constituents of bran is indigestible, and in the next that the im- proved machines, by more effectually separating the more nutritive constituents from bran, have actually lessened its value. Many sick horses with fickle appetites will eat bran while refusing all other food, and for this purpose it is most valuable. A very useful custom for working horses is to give a bran-and-linseed mash each week, and a good one may be formed with 3 lbs. bran and 1 lb. boiled linseed. Bran should be clean, and have a sweet smell. It should not be kept in bulk, as it is liable to heat, especially when it is made from now grain. Heated wetted bran soon becomes sour and unfit for use. ¹ Linseed.�Linseed makes a valuable addition to mashes. It may also be given in the dry, uncrushed state, mixed with the corn. It is not given as a regular article of food, but is a beneficial addition for many hide-bound, unthrifty horses. Linseed cake is frequently used for the same purpose with much benefit. In the form of gruel, or tea, linseed is also useful in some respiratory and urinary affections. Linseed should be clean and sweet, and free from the extraneous seeds of which many samples contain a large percentage. Mangolds and Turnips.�These roots are given to horses during the winter and spring months. In the early spring, when horses are working hard, they relish either of these roots, and many fickle feeders are benefited by their addition to the food rations. Where cooked food is employed the addition of a few well-boiled swede turnips sweetens the whole, and many over-worked farm-horses

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m spring will readily eat food so prepared when they will not look at corn. All roots should be well cleaned, and no unsound ones should be given. Carrots.�No roots are so much esteemed for horses as carrots. They are too expensive to form part of the general rations for large studs, out for individual horses, with deficient appetites, and for hunters and other horses doing very severe work, or passing through an attack of sickness, they are most valuable. Most horses are very fond of them, and many fickle feeders and invalids will eat carrots with relish after refusing their ordinary food. They should be thoroughly sound and well cleaned before being given. Green Food.�Many consider it advantageous to give a quantity of green food to stall-fed horses during the summer months, and when Used with judicious care it is a most agreeable and beneficial, as well ^as an economical food. Clover, rye-grass, meadow-grass, and vetches are Usually employed, and whichever is used it may be given separately, ^0r be cut up and mixed with the ordinary mixed food. Care should be taken to secure a regular supply of the best quality, otherwise hard - worked, highly - fed horses will rather deteriorate than improve in condition when receiving it; but the loss of condition some- times observed may be partly clue to the great reduction in the corn allowance that is frequently made when horses are on green food. In commencing its use it is advisable to begin with a small quantity °r the first day or two, and at all times it is necessary to be very careful ^when the green food is very succulent and newly mown, or when it is ^wet with dew or rain, as it is then very liable to produce flatulence and Purgation. If very succulent grass, such as is grown on water-meadows or sewage ^arid, is given to horses on hard food, many cases of " lymphangitis", or ^weed", are observed to occur when the green food is first used; indeed, ^ore cases of lymphangitis may be seen then than at any other time. Hay* is generally considered an essential constituent in the food of table-fed horses. It is true, no doubt, that in certain districts, when ^ay is short and oat-straw plentiful, many farm-horses do hard work . ^Corn and oat-straw, but these may be deemed exceptional cases, and Will generally be considered that hay is a staple article of horse food. I he general term hay embraces several varieties differing more or ^ss from one another. Thus rye-grass differs from meadow-hay, meadow Hi clover, clover from alfalfa, and so on, but if each be good of its <* their difference in feeding value is not so great as is sometimes as- uied. A curious illustration of the illusory character of local opinion

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respecting the feeding value of rye-grass and clover-hay and of meadow- hay is furnished in the subversive estimation of their values by English- men and Scotchmen. Some few years ago hay was scarce in Scotland, but plentiful in England, and in consequence a considerable quantity of meadow-hay was sent north. The Scottish owner, regarding the native rye-grass and clever as the hay par excellence, freely gave 20s. per ton more for it than he would give for the best transported meadow - hay. The following year hay was abundant in Scotland, but scarce in England, and a large quantity of rye-grass and clover-hay was sent south. The English horse-owner now had an opportunity of show- ing the converse view, and did so, for the rye-grass and clover-hay from the north never realized in the Midland markets within 20s. per ton of that obtained for best local meadow-hay. Nevertheless horse-owners in general value rye-grass and clover more highly than meadow-hay, and the explanation given is that horses prefer rye-grass and clover, and do better upon it, and the point is sufficiently emphasized in the higher price usually paid. That horses eat good sound rye-grass with even a greater relish and avidity than meadow-hay is undisputed, but the reason why is probably because the former is less sustaining and satisfying than the latter. At all events, in practice we find that they consume a greater weight of rye-grass and clover than of meadow - hay to maintain a similar condition when doing the same amount of work. It has long been recognized that the value of the hay depends to a large extent upon the land on which it is grown, many farms possessing a noted reputation for the feeding properties of their produce, others having an unenviable notoriety for growing herbage of an unfeeding quality; but it is not so generally known that however much the hay grown on different soils may vary, that grown on the same soil, but cut and harvested at different stages of maturity, may vary as much�over-maturity being invariably attended by decreased nutritive value and digestibility. Again, hay exposed, during harvest- ing, to much rain and weather loses its natural aroma and much of its soluble matter, in which condition it is less valuable than hay made in good weather. Hay that is damp when ricked becomes mouldy, acquires a musty smell, and has injurious effects both on the digestive and re- spiratory system. When succulent hay is ricked too soon, undue heat and fermentation supervene; it becomes mow-burnt, deteriorates in value, and tends to induce derangement of the digestive and urinary organs. Good hay has a clean, bright appearance, a greenish tint, fragrant smell, crisp feel, and a tough though a flexible skin. The grasses when

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		cut should be in the state of inflorescence, and any seeds that have formed still adherent to the spike; they should be mainly those which grow on good soils and be free from the inferior sorts which grow on poor and wet lands. Hay that is mouldy, or much mow-burnt, must always be looked upon as inferior, however good the grasses composing it may be, ^a*id in whatever stage of maturity it may have been harvested. Rye-grass and clover-hay should be well mixed, free from weeds, have ^a pleasant perfume and bright appearance, and it should be tough and flexible, with leaves and seeds unshed. All inferior hay, such as samples that contain a large mixture of those grasses which are characteristic of poor wet soils, or hay that is over- ^ripe, bleached, very brittle, mouldy, bad-smelling, and highly fermented, should be rejected. At the same time it may be remembered that a small admixture of mow-burnt hay is not only not detrimental, but is distinctly beneficial, in that in small proportions it has an appetizing effect, and it seems to give to the whole a more agreeable aroma and ^a more palatable flavour. New hay, although equal in nutritive value, does not seem to pos- sess the same conditioning property as old hay, and horses fed on it ^are " soft", perspire more profusely, and appear more liable to digestive derangements. Notwithstanding the opinion of some very good horse- men hay does not improve by being kept several years, and the only ^advantage the horse-owner derives by the opportunity of buying hay several years old is that he may continue to obtain the produce of ^a particularly good hay season. The real gainer is the hay owner. By keeping hay for several years, and carefully watching the course of the Markets, a higher price can often be secured than by yearly disposing of each year's produce. In all large studs, and in many small ones, it is now the custom to ^cut the whole of the hay into chaff, and this is undoubtedly the most ^economical plan. Many horsemen, however, prefer giving a portion of the hay in the rack; and, when care is taken to prevent waste, this is a capital plan, especially for sick and idle horses. Invalids will frequently nibble ^at rack hay when they refuse to look at chaff, and idle horses have their ^attention occupied for a greater length of time, owing to the longer period ^required for masticating the uncut hay. But for hard-working horses the ^De$t plan is to cut the whole into chaff; such animals do not need a stimulus to appetite, or their attention specially occupied. What they ^require is food prepared so as to aid thorough digestion, and to be allowed ^rest as soon as they have consumed their food. A marked benefit of charting hay is the opportunity it affords for extracting dust, and one has

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			354 STABLES

		only to see the quantity of dust extracted from the best samples of hay to be thoroughly and permanently convinced of the benefits of dust- extraction. Straw is sometimes used instead of hay, and wheat-straw is more frequently used in a chaffed condition than any other; but oat-straw is a far more nutritive fodder. The Scotch farmer knows his horses will do much better on oat-straw than wheat-straw, and the intelligent horse- owner ought to know that chaff from oat-straw is much more valuable than chaff from wheat-straw. Whenever hay is of a soft character, or is dear in price, an admixture with good bright oat-straw will be of benefit. The addition of one-quarter part oat-straw will improve the quality of the hay without appreciably lessening its nutritive value, and it will usually materially cheapen its cost. A very good and not too expensive chaff will be secured by a mixture of tw^To parts best meadow-hay, one part rye-grass and clover, and one part oat-straw. Of late years a large quantity of hay has been imported, and much of the best imported hay is in practice found equal to home-grown produce. BEDDING The substances used for litter or bedding purposes are of considerable variety, their selection depending primarily upon the views of the horse- owner, the class of horse, the purpose for which the horse is kept, and the relative cost and supply of the various suitable materials. Wherever the health and comfort of the horse and the appearance of the stables are the primary considerations, and cost is of secondary account, straw is the sub- stance invariably used. Horse-owners universally contend, and justly so, that clean, sweet, dry straw makes a better litter than any other material, as it entices a tired horse to lie down and rest, and it is generally more conducive to good health. Anyone possessing a real affection for his horses, and having any pride in them, will feel amply rewarded for the extra expense he incurs, by using straw for bedding, when he remembers that he is adding to the comfort and well-being of his equine friends. Wheat-Straw makes a better litter than the other straws, such as oat, barley, rye, bean, pea. It makes a good bed, is brighter-looking, tougher, and more durable, the durability being balanced when the trusses are cut in two, so that soiled ends can be removed without sacrificing the unsoiled. Oat-Straw is generally cheaper than wheat-straw, and makes a very fair bed, but it is not so bright or so durable. It possesses a disadvantage

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�-viewed, however, by some as an advantage�in that many horses when bedded with it eat their bedding. Barley-Straw is cheaper than either oat- or wheat-straw, but it is inferior in appearance and durability, and its use cannot be recommended on account of the annoying property, probably from the presence of barley-awns, of producing skin irritation and itching of the limbs, and thereby inducing rubbing, stamping, and kicking among horses littered with it. Rye-straw is not so irritant as barley-straw, but it is less com- fortable than oat- or wheat-straw, and its limited supply and extra cost preclude its general use. Bean- or pea-straw is, as a rule, used only on the farms where it is grown. The general custom is to give it for combined fodder and bedding purposes, the better and more digestible parts being eaten, and the inferior used as bedding. Damaged hay is sometimes used for litter, and on farms where it is there is a difficulty in knowing what other use to put it to; but it is not a good bedding, and horses littered with it generally acquire the habit of eating their bedding, a pernicious habit which, when the hay is much damaged and mouldy, may originate serious indigestion, or even broken wind. The quantity of straw necessary to keep a good clean bed will depend to some extent upon the stall floor and the drainage, less straw being required where the floors are evenly laid and have a slight incline from before backwards. The amount will also vary for individual horses, and horses usually require more than mares. Where there are a number of horses the average amount necessary can easily be arrived at, and with ordinary care in the management it will be found that a good bed can be Maintained on 8 lbs. per horse per day, or -\| cwt. per week. For several years this quantity was allowed to a large stud under the care of the writer, ^and although the weight was never exceeded, but, on the contrary, the whole of it rarely used, a thoroughly good bed was always maintained. As already indicated, whenever the straw is very long it should be cut in two. If the supply of straw were unlimited, and its cost of no moment, in ^dU probability no one would think of using any other substance; but as eost is a very important point in large studs kept for utilitarian purposes, ^and the supply is more or less limited, for many of these studs saw-dust, Peat-moss, and other materials have been substituted. Saw-dust.�The writer has employed saw-dust as bedding for the last eighteen years without having experienced any deleterious effects that °ould be ascribed to its use. It has been used solely on the grounds of economy. In large towns where there is a considerable supply of saw-dust the difference in the net cost, after making allowance for the difference in

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		the manure, will be 9c?. to Is. per horse per week, which in a stud of 400 horses means a sum of �800 to �1000 per annum. Many grooms and stablemen have at first a strong objection to saw- dust; but after a time most lose this, and many seem to prefer it to straw, no doubt from the facts that it entails less work, that the coats of light- coloured horses are less liable to be stained when it is used, and that it is one of the best detergent agents for rubbing down horses' legs when muddy. Drains are inadmissible where saw-dust or peat-moss is used, as they become blocked with dust or moss, and speedily become insanitary; but the absence of drains gives rise to no inconvenience, as the urine is readily absorbed in the dust or moss, and removed with the manure. An objection to the use of saw-dust is based on the fact that some horses accustomed to a straw bed refuse, for a time at least, to lie down either on a saw-dust or a peat-moss bed; but this reluctance can generally be easily overcome by using at first a quantity of straw over the dust or moss, and subsequently gradually reducing the amount of straw. A more real objection arises when horses are at rest in a loose-box, and allowed to stand on a considerable thickness of either dust or moss. There is a tendency to the generation of heat in a thick bed; and where this is allowed, the feet of any horse standing upon it for a length of time are more or less injured, the hoofs becoming brittle, hard, and dry. In the stalls of working horses the bedding is swept up against the stall divisions during the day and re-spread at night, and in this way all objectionable heat is driven away and its further production avoided. But here the injurious effect of the saw-dust upon wood, especially upon young wood, is very marked, and the wood of unprotected stall-divisions again <t which the dust lies is soon rotted away. This injury is easily prevented by extending the iron kicking-plate, usually attached to the stall-division, forward to the manger. The quantity of saw-dust required to maintain a good bed is from a bag to a bag and half per horse per week. Peat-mOSS.�Moss litter has been used largely as bedding. It is less costly than straw; but although its price has undergone a material reduc- tion it is still more expensive than saw-dust. Opinions differ very markedly as to the value of peat-moss as a bedding- material, some commending it unreservedly, others crediting it with in- jurious effects. At a meeting of the Midland Veterinary Association some members condemned it, and ascribed to it, more especially when used in a thick bed, the production of a condition somewhat analogous to dry rot in the hoof. Notwithstanding this, we find many practical men continuing to use it and speaking favourably of it.

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		HAENESS 357 In our experience saw-dust is preferable to moss. Saw-dust is both the cheaper and the cleaner material, and although the moss manure is the more valuable, this latter point is not an equivalent to the former points; besides which, saw-dust seems to have a less injurious effect on the hoof. Mill-dust.�In some districts mill-dust is used for bedding purposes, but it has little besides its low price to recommend it. According to some authorities, horses bedded with it become infested with lice; but there are no reliable data proving that its use in any way favours the propagation of lice. Dried bracken, in districts where it can be obtained, makes a very good, cheap, and useful bedding, but of course its use is limited to those localities where it grows. The leaves in wooded districts are collected when dry, and when better litter is scarce or unattainable they form a useful substitute. Sand.�At sea-side places another material sometimes used is sand. It seems to answer fairly well, and it has certainly the merit of being cheap. HARNESS Everyone who has charge of a horse should be thoroughly conversant with the use of every part of the harness and know how to adjust it, and every driver or rider should make it a rule before starting to see that the harness fits properly, and that every part of it is safe and sound. If this were strictly adhered to, accidents would be much fewer than they are. While all parts of the harness are of importance, some are more so than others; thus the reins and bridle are of primary importance, then come the traces, back-strap, breeching, kicking-strap, &c. At the same time every part should be of strong, light, and good material, well made, suitable for its purpose, and free from superfluities. With uncertain horses the danger of using anything but perfectly-fitting harness of best leather and work- manship is obvious, but with any horse the consequences of using defective harness may be very serious. A broken rein has led to many a runaway, and a broken breeching to many a kicking-bout. And important as is the quality of the harness its fit is almost equally so, for a badly-fitting bridle may be a cause of bolting, a badly-fitting saddle of kicking, and a badly-fitting collar of jibbing. The necessity of perfect quality, suitability, and fit in harness cannot be too strongly urged. Bits.�The bit is a most important part of the harness, and upon its appropriate selection and accurate adjustment much depends. Every horse should be carefully fitted with the bit most suitable for him if he is to oo his work with comfort and to give his driver pleasure and his owner

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satisfaction. The kind of bit required chiefly depends upon the character of the horse's mouth and his temperament, and is also largely influenced by the quality of the horseman's hands and his control of temper. The

		Fig. 586.�Plain and Easy Snaffle Fig. 587.�Chain Snaffle

				Fig. 588.�Twisted Snaffle

			Fig. 589.�Pelhara Bit Fig. 590.�Double Bridle. The Weymouth

experienced horseman speedily recognizes when the bit is unsuitable, and takes the first opportunity to make a change, repeating this if necessary until the most suitable is obtained. Whatever kind of bit is used it should be of a width and size corresponding with the horse's mouth, and should be

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		HAENESS
			359


	adjusted to hang free in the mouth just below the angles, which should not be compressed by it. Many horses go best in a snaffle, and for these there is a wide range for selection, from the plain and easy snaffle (fig. 586) to the twisted snaffle (fig. 588) and the powerful chain (fig. 587). Others are better suited by a curb bit, as the Pelham (fig. 589), or by a double bridle, as the Weymouth (fig. 590), each of which may be easy or punish- ing, according to the mouth-piece, the length of the cheek-bars, and the adjustment of the curb. The easiest bit is the plain snaffle. The guard- bit, with revolving mouth-piece (fig. 591), is also a very humane bit, and by many preferred to the Liverpool sliding-bit (fig. 592). The advantage of good " hands " cannot be too strongly insisted upon.

Fig. 591.�Guard Bit Fig. 592.�Liverpool Bit Many a puller has been made, and many a high-spirited horse spoiled, by the irritation of a heavy, unsympathetic, uncultivated hand. Bearing-reins.�The question of bearing-reins is a somewhat thorny °ne. As frequently used the bearing-rein is undoubtedly an instrument of punishment. Eecognizing this, many humane people have in unsparing language denounced its use under any circumstances. Notwithstanding this, the bearing-rein, when properly adjusted, is of great benefit in re- straining fresh, hard-pulling horses; it makes them go better together, Keeps them better in hand, and saves the driver many an arm-ache and the owner the costs of many an accident. As an aid in controlling restive horses it is unquestionably much less chafing, more serviceable, and more humane than its secret substitute the gag-bit. Every horseman who has to handle high-spirited, well-bred, well-fed, mtermittingly worked horses can appreciate the great value of a properly adjusted bearing-rein. While its abuse deserves the condemnation of every humane person, its rational use can only be condemned by those ignorant of its benefits.

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		STABLES
	360	STABLES
	360

CLIPPING AND SINGEING The relief which horses, especially those doing fast work, experience by the removal of their coats in winter is so manifest to every horseman that any argument in favour of the procedure, or in defence of it, is wholly unnecessary. The old method of clipping by hand-scissors and subse- quently singeing was years ago discarded for the hand-clipping machine, and in its turn the latter is rapidly being replaced by more expeditious and better-working clippers constructed on the principle of the sheep- shearing machine. (See fig. 487, page 137 of this volume). The singeing- lamp, formerly so frequently and often ignorantly used after the hand- scissors, is almost unnecessary after the improved clipper, and is now used chiefly for the removal of long coarse hair from undipped parts. All horses with thick coats, doing fast work, should be clipped during the winter months, and in the majority of cases two clippings are necessary, the first about the beginning of October, the second about Christmas. In harness-horses the coat is removed all over the body, but in saddle- horses it is usually left on the saddle-seat and on the limbs, saddle-galls and mud fever being less frequent in the undipped than the clipped. While clipping is so beneficial for horses doing fast work, it is not found to answer so well in the case of horses that do slow work and have to stand about in cold weather, such as cart-horses when their carts are being loaded and unloaded. Clipped horses so exposed are frequently the subjects of chills, colds, &c. In these cases, for the purpose of securing as far as possible the benefits of clipping while avoiding its disadvantages, two methods have been adopted�the one chiefly in Scotland, the other in England. The Scottish plan is to clip the horse half-way up, and to leave the upper surface intact. The English plan, which is the better one, is to singe the whole surface, but in a graduated manner, so that while the most of the hair is singed off the under surface of the abdomen, a fair coating is left over the back and loins. Anyone using the singeing-lamp for the first time, whether on the clipped or undipped surface, must be careful, especially on the under surface of the abdomen, not to bare the skin. One of the w^xorst cases of erysipelas the writer has witnessed occurred as a sequel to an excessive use of the singeing-lamp on a previously-clipped surface.

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			VENTILATION OF STABLES 361

		VENTILATION OF STABLES Adequate stable ventilation is nowadays recognized as essential for the maintenance of good health in the stud. No horse can be thoroughly well or fit, or in condition to do hard work or to resist disease, that is condemned to inhale the impure air of a badly-ventilated stable. When the inspired air is charged with equine exhalations, oxidation of the blood is lessened, elimination of impurities from the body is retarded, the system becomes loaded with waste products, and the vital force is markedly lowered. The visible results are that horses so housed become languid, easily fatigued, and show a marked tendency to succumb when attacked by any serious disease. If horses are to be kept in good health the air they breathe must be pure, hence the necessity for ventilation, or, in other words, the extraction of impure air and the introduction of fresh air. This exchange requires to be done without unduly lowering the temperature or creating draughts, and it should be constant and regular. With the view of best securing this, many plans have been tried, but their efficacy depends on many extraneous circumstances, such as, e.g., the season of the year, the position of the stable, its size, &c. The inlets and outlets require to be much greater in hot than in cold weather, and in confined, closely- inhabited town positions than in thinly-populated exposed country dis- tricts. Regulation of temperature and prevention of draughts are more easily secured in small than large stables; and as the spread of infectious and contageous diseases takes place more readily in stables where large numbers of animals are kept, the majority of horse-owners are beginning to recognize the advantages of small over large stables. The entrance °f fresh air is usually arranged for by means of gratings, and by tubes m the walls, by the doors, and by specially-constructed windows. The exits generally consist of extraction-shafts, patent cowls, gratings, win- dows, and louvred arrangements. But whatever plan of inlet and outlet is employed the former should be fairly low down and so placed as to avoid Projecting draughts on any of the horses, and the latter should be high up m the building. The old principle of low inlet and high outlet is correct, and, when followed, a more thorough exchange of air is secured than when both inlet and outlet are placed on nearly the same level, for in the latter case the lower stratum of air surrounding the horses remains practically unchanged. Likewise, whatever plan of exit and entrance is used, there should always be provision for regulating the size of the ventilators according to

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			362 STABLES

		requirements, and due care should be taken that their proper adjustment be systematically attended to. The necessity for this will be fully apparent when it is remembered how much smaller apertures suffice for half-filled stables during cold windy weather than for well-filled stables during hot sultry weather. TEMPERATURE OF STABLES The temperature of the stable is another matter of primary importance. Its influence in modifying the horse's coat is thoroughly appreciated and taken advantage of by horse-dealers and grooms. They systematically keep the temperature too high, as well as employ a complete covering of rugs and bandages, for the purpose of improving the appearance of their horses' coats. The injurious effects of this are clearly seen in the frequency with which newly-purchased horses suffer from cold, &c, when subjected to ordinary treatment. A marked example of the influence of temperature is exhibited by pit- studs. During the first winter they are in the pit the majority require to be clipped, but in succeeding years clipping is unnecessary, for, owing to the slightly higher and more even temperature of the pit, most horses acquire very fine coats. Another striking illustration of the effects of high temperature, but of an injurious character, is occasionally furnished by horses that have been left out at grass late in the autumn. When these horses are brought in and stabled in warm stables, they, owing to their heavy coats and the sudden change of temperature, perspire profusely, and, as their heavy coats do not dry readily, a subsequent chill with pneumonic trouble not un- frequently supervenes. Whenever such horses are brought up from grass they should be housed in cool stables. The stable temperature should range from 50° to 60° Fahr., according to the time of year, the class of horse, and the work he has to do.

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		EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS

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	Section IX.-EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS

		INTRODUCTORY

The examination of horses as to soundness is a difficult and in many instances an unthankful task, even to the expert veterinarian. Yet many Norsemen outside the professional element undertake it, and in a certain measure succeed. By long experience they are enabled to recognize the grosser organic defects and their consequences which appear on the surface, and their familiarity with the normal action renders any serious disturb- ance in this respect a noticeable object. Even those less informed and ^with no experience to guide them venture to undertake the responsibility, ^and sometimes by a stroke of luck without suffering loss, but in the majority of cases to find that their self-reliance has played them false ^and landed them in a more or less costly difficulty which is too often rendered still more so by the interposition of the solicitor, maybe the learned counsel and the court. It is not to be expected that anything which we may write will imbue lay eyes, lay fingers, and the lay mind with that co-ordinated intelligence ^which the qualified veterinarian possesses, and for this reason alone it is always desirable that the one should seek the assistance of the other ^when the question of soundness is involved. What we are about to say, therefore, as to the examination of horses is not with any idea of encouraging the horse-buyer to disregard this common uuty to himself, but rather to show him how great are the difficulties in the ^ay of its successful performance, and to assist those who are beyond the ^each of veterinary aid, or who have not the means to procure it; also to ^nelp others who, while recognizing a defect, fail to interpret its effect on ^tQe value and utility of the animal. -Lhe important questions involved in the examination of horses are:� 1. Does the animal present any appearance to indicate the existence of disease or its effects? ^v°l- III. 365 89

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		366 EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS 2. Assuming one or both of these to exist, to what extent, if at all, do they interfere, or are they likely to interfere, with the services of the animal and to depreciate his value? Many animals show obvious effects of disease yet are not one whit the worse for it. Some while actually suffering from disease are still capable of perform- ing a considerable amount of work without inducing pain, and, although unsound, are in a certain measure useful. That form of bony growth on the legs of horses termed " splint" exists almost universally, and in a very large majority of cases the animals so affected pass through life without suffering inconvenience from it after it has formed, and sometimes even when it is of very considerable size; and the same may be said of some other bone tumours. A horse having a cataract in his eye would be legally unsound, but for certain purposes might be as serviceable as one whose eyes were of crystal brightness. Numerous other cases of the kind might be adduced, but these will suffice to illustrate what the writer wishes to convey. The other class of cases, where serviceableness becomes possible during the existence of actual disease, finds its best illustration in that affection of the breathing organs termed roaring and whistling, in which certain of the muscles, whose office it is to open the entrance to the w^Tindpipe, undergo a slowly progressive wasting, during which their action becomes impaired and the free entrance of air to the lung hindered. Here, however, sooner or later work becomes impossible, and the useful animal becomes useless. As to whether a horse is " sound " or not is quite beyond the powers of the most able and experienced veterinarian to say. The most he can do is to affirm the absence of any outward visible signs of unsoundness, but so differently are phenomena interpreted by different individuals that even here he is frequently met by contradiction from his equally able confreres. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS In proceeding to examine a horse as to soundness, there are certain observations which require to be made before the animal is removed from his stall or box, or in any way interfered with, and it is always desirable during this time to note the general state of the box itself. The posture or position in which the horse habitually stands may be of the first importance in directing the course of enquiry, and should be carefully observed. In this connection some regard will be paid to the manner in which the horse disposes of the weight on his limbs. One fore-foot habitually in advance of the other, although not necessarily

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			EXAMINATION OF THE EYES, NOSE, AND MOUTH 367

		indicating lameness, is nevertheless a posture almost invariably assumed where disease exists in the foot, and sometimes also in the course of the leg. If the feet be alternately advanced and withdrawn, the animal first resting one and then the other at frequent intervals, or if, as it is said, the horse " points" his feet, both will require to receive special attention in the course of the examination, since this change of attitude, or " pointing " of the feet as it is termed, may imply some defect in both. Similar observations require to be made with regard to the hind- limbs, and any habitual tendency to rest one more than the other should be a matter for further enquiry. Horses suffering from spavin stand with the hock flexed and the weight removed from the limb, and when moved over from side to side a halt in the gait will be evinced. If the horse's head is tied up short to the rack it should be let down. The crib, however, will be more or less frayed if he has been in the habit of biting it, and the partitions and stall-posts will reveal any propensity to kick in the stable, as some horses do. This, of course, is ^a vice, but the purchaser should not overlook anything that is likely to interfere with the horse's well-being, and the act of kicking in the stable not only tends to bring about injury to his legs but to damage the stable fittings and give annoyance to the grooms. It sometimes occurs that stringhalt will reveal itself in moving a horse over in his stall, or turning him in a narrow box, when it cannot be provoked in the open. EXAMINATION OF THE EYES, NOSE, AND MOUTH Having proceeded so far, a snaffle-bridle may now be put on and the horse's head brought round to the door, where a careful examination °f his eyes and their appendages should be made. Before, however, proceeding with this branch of the inspection, the examiner should assure himself as to the suitability of the light. A door facing an °pen space is the most suited to the purpose, so long as it is not exposed to bright sunlight. Too much light falling upon the eyes causes the pupils to contract, and the crystalline lens, which is of special importance to the ^enquiry, to be hidden from view. Having provided a suitable light, the form and disposition of the eyelids should first be noted. When paralysed they droop and give the eye a closed appearance, but another condition aflecting them is that resulting from repeated attacks of specific ophthal- mia, when the upper eyelid, instead of describing a graceful arch over the globe, is drawn up into an angular condition, as shown in Fig. 593. Of course the haw, or third eyelid�a thin triangular piece of cartilage in the

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EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS

368

inner angle of the eye,�should be present and free from any abnormal
growth or thickening of its investing mucous membrane. A good view

of it may be obtained by pressing the eye-
lid backward under the orbit, as shown in
Fig. 594.

A general examination of the eye itself
must now be made, first by comparing the
one with the other as to size. Wasting of
the eye-ball is a common result of consti-
tutional ophthalmia, and is attended with

Fig. 593.�Recurrent Ophthalmia

Eye showing an angular condition of the
upper lid the result of a succession of
attacks of Specific Ophthalmia.

that angular condition of the upper eyelid
referred to above, as well as a more or less
sunken state of the globe and textural

alterations within it.
As to matter of form, the normal condition of the eyes should be full
and bold, and describe a regular convexity in front without there being
any observable difference between them.

Eyes too prominent, although per-
fectly clear, sometimes result from
paralysis of the optic nerve, in which
case vision is more or less defective
or altogether lost. Undue flatness of
the cornea or front of the eye is also
a condition in which sight is impaired,
and would, like the other defects re-
ferred to, constitute unsoundness.

In order that objects may be
clearly visible, the passage of light
to the optic nerve should be uninter-
rupted by any cloudiness or opacity of
the ordinarily transparent structures.

In this connection it will be neces-
sary to examine not only the surface,
but also the interior of the eye �■
the cornea, or surface, for opacities

Fig. 594.�Examination of the Eye (a, the Haw)

of various forms and densities, and the
interior for these and other defects.
Opacities on the surface are much more serious when in the centre than
when near the circumference. They not uncommonly assume the form
of pale milky streaks across the eye, such as are inflicted by the lash
of a whip, and sometimes so faint as to be of no importance. On the

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EXAMINATION OF THE EYES, NOSE, AND MOUTH 369

other hand, they may be very dense and interfere with the function of
vision. Sometimes these opacities are presented as white spots, small or
large according to the nature and extent of the disease which produced
them. Such examples are serious, and
unquestionably constitute unsoundness.

While these observations are being
made as to the condition of the cornea
or superficial coat of the eye, it will be
necessary to note whether the pupil con-
tracts when the eye is exposed to light,
and dilates when its influence is with-
drawn. The latter condition may be pro-
duced by covering the eye with the hat
for three or four minutes, when the pupil

Fig. 595. �Interior View of the Eye

A, Pupil. B, Iris, c, Ciliary Processes.
D, Corpora Nigra.

should dilate and contract again when
exposed to light. If it is found to re-

main widely dilated, with no disposition

to contract, or to contract feebly and imperfectly, either the light is not
reaching the optic nerve, or the nerve or the iris itself is diseased. In
^such a case the animal is clearly
unsound.

To those unaccustomed to the
lamination of eyes the appearance
°f the corpora nigra (fig. 595) may
cause some confusion. These are or-
dinarily small black bodies attached
to the margin of the iris, but in some
instances which have come to the
Writer's notice they have become so
tar developed as to hang over the
P^upil as large black masses, and while
uoing so obstructing the ingress of
"gut and thus impairing vision.

The crystalline lens (j, fig. 596),

^enclosed in its capsule and placed
^Dehind the pupil, will now come
Under observation. In a normal
^c°ndition both these structures are

Fig. 596.�Section of Eye

A, Lachrymal Gland. B, Levator Palpebrse Superioris.
C, Levator Oculi. D, Sclerotic Coat. E, Choroid Coat.
F, Retina. G, Optic Nerve. H, Vitreous Humour.
I, Capsule of the Lens. J, Crystalline Lens. K, Aqueous
Humour. L, Cornea. M, Iris. N, Upper Eyelid.

Perfectly clear and transparent,
ut under circumstances of disease dense opaque spots, varying from

the

size of a pin's point to that of a pea, or a diffused opacity,

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370

EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS

appear, and these constitute the disease termed cataract (Vol. II, p.
119).

The larger and denser of such developments are readily detected, but
the smaller formations only become visible when carefully sought for.
To detect these more minute opacities the eye requires to be viewed
--^sa,? / - ^m ^a ^sl^ariting direction while a dark shadow

is thrown over it.

Standing at the right side of the horse's
head, while still at the door, the examiner
seizes the cheek of the bridle with the left
hand, and with the right brings his hat, or
other black surface, opposite the eye, and
within a few inches of it. He then pushes
the nose slightly away from him, when, by
looking into the eye in an oblique direction

Fig. 597.�Cloudy Cataract

from the right forward towards the left, he

may see the lens and critically examine it.
Anything in the form of a cataract will then be noticed either as a sharply
circumscribed white spot (fig. 256, Vol. II, p. 119) or as a diffused cloudi-
ness (fig. 597) of the lens, or its capsule, or both. The right eye having

been examined, the left is then
submitted to the same line of
inspection.

Where deep-seated mischief
is suspected, i.e. disease of
structures behind the lens, the
use of the ophthalmoscope may
become necessary to bring it
under observation.

EXAMINATION OF THE
HEAD

Carrying the eye down the

Fig. 598.�Examination of the Nostril
a, True Nostril, b, False Nostril, c, Nasal Duct.

face, the examiner should look

for enlargements in the region
of the jaws from disordered teeth and other causes.

The nostrils should then be dilated with the finger and thumb as
shown in fig. 598, and the interior examined as far as the eye can see.
The natural colour of the lining membrane is of a uniformly pale-pink
hue, which in certain diseases becomes seriously changed. In glanders

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	EXAMINATION OF THE HEAD
	EXAMINATION OF THE HEAD	371
		371

the membrane assumes a bluish, or' dark slatey hue, and may present one or more red elevated pimples, or ulcers, or, where the latter have healed, white irregular scars. Thickening of the membrane from other causes, or polypi, may also exist here and interfere with the entrance of air into the lungs. Disease of the nostril is usually associated with more or less enlargement of the lymphatic gland (submaxillary), situated on the inner side of the lower jaw (fig. 77, Vol. I), which is readily accessible to the fingers, and should always be examined. Any discharge

Fig. 599.�Examination of the Mouth a, Tongue; b, froenum; c c, openings of the salivary ducts; d, teeth. from the nostril should be regarded with suspicion, and if resulting from ^a cold, or some abiding cause, or if associated with tumefaction of the gland referred to above, would constitute unsoundness. To avoid error it may be necessary to point out that on the floor of the nostril, a little way within it, and at the line where the skin joins the mucous membrane, a small round hole appears. This is a natural formation�the outlet of a duct, by which any excess of tears is conveyed from the eye (c, fig. 598). We call attention to it because it has some- ^mes been regarded as an ulcer. Before leaving the facial region, the examiner should open the mouth

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			372 EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS

		widely as shown in fig. 599. This affords an opportunity to decide upon: 1, the age; 2, as to whether the teeth show any excess or deficiency in number; 3, any irregularity in their growth, distribution, or direction; 4, any disease. A horse whose teeth are so situated, or directed, or exist in such number or condition as to interfere with his feeding, is unsound. The tongue should be free from disease, and the lower jaw, between the tush and the grinders, needs careful attention, as here serious damage is sometimes done with the bit, causing abscess and sloughing of a portion of the bone, a state of things which unfits the horse for work and renders him unsound. The hand should now be passed along the sides and under part of the throat, over the poll and the withers. The glands of the throat may show enlargement left as the result of cold, influenza, or strangles. The poll, or the withers, may be enlarged and tender from a forming abscess, or from a declining fistula. It sometimes occurs that the jugular vein becomes blocked as the result of injury inflicted upon it by bleeding. If pressure is made upon the vessel in the middle of the neck groove, and the flow of blood from the head be interrupted, the vein in a normal state will become filled out and distended, but if obliterated, or spoilt, will undergo no change above the seat of pressure. GENERAL EXAMINATION The horse may now be led out, and, while standing perfectly quiet, subjected to a careful inspection as to any alteration of form from accident or disease. In this connection he will require to stand on level ground and be viewed from all points and in all his various parts; from below, from behind, in profile and diagonally, as well as from the front. Viewed from the front the feet should be compared, to see whether they are alike, or if one is smaller than the other, or whether there is or is not some defect of formation, or a shelly or weak condition of the hoof, or sandcrack. Carrying the eye upward along the course of the legs the observations to be made here should be concerned in the first place with their direction �are they straight, or does the animal knuckle over at the fetlocks, or stand over at the knees? do the joints show signs of wear or enlarge- ment, or the muscles of the shoulder an appearance of wasting? Looking back in the line of the quarters the examiner should note whether the hips are intact, or whether one has been broken ("Hip down"). Any scars or abrasions on the knees will also be noticed at this time.

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			GENERAL EXAMINATION 373

		A side view will tend to confirm or refute some of the conclusions formed from the front aspect, and, in addition, it will enable the examiner to judge as to the normal or abnormal condition of the breathing. He should, while here, examine the back for sores, the belly for rupture, and the groin for scirrhous cord. The presence of this last condition is sometimes marked by a discharge which gathers on the inner surface of the thigh, and always by a hard enlargement in the scrotum. In stallions occasionally, and less frequently in geldings, hernia in the scrotum, or purse, may exist, and will be recognized by a fluctuating enlargement in the groin. Other enlargements sometimes occur in the scrotum of the stallion, the result of disease, such as varicose veins, or the presence of fluid, as in hydrocele. A horse having any of these defects would of course be unsound. The side view should now be extended to the quarters, taking in the hind-limb. Any appearance of " down at the hip" may now be confirmed by manipulation of the part. If this defect be found to exist, the question to be decided is whether the breakage and displacement of the bone is such as to cause lameness or interfere with the horse's services. To a hack or harness-horse it might not be of any consequence, but in the case of a hunter, or race-horse, any considerable fracture and displacement would constitute unsoundness. From this point of view, too, the tail will come Under inspection. Sometimes this organ is paralysed and hangs loose and bmp, and is altogether incapable of voluntary movement. In these cases the sphincter ani, or round muscle, which ordinarily prevents the escape of the faeces from the bowels, is also involved, and fails to perform its Junction. Such a state of the parts is essentially one of unsoundness, and the same may be said of an animal recently docked, when, as a result, he becomes the subject of tetanus. Carrying the eye downwards, the examiner should notice the direc- tion of the limb and should keep in view any defect of conformation, tendering brushing or other injury during action possible. From this point the presence or absence of curbs, and any enlargements about the joints, ^0r in the course of the bones, tendons, or ligaments, will be noted, to be confirmed later by manipulation of the parts. The same observations as ^ere made in respect to the fore-feet should be repeated on the hind ones. Viewed from behind, the symmetry of the two quarters should first °e criticized. It sometimes happens that from various causes the muscles ⁰¹ one side of the croup are wasted. The existence of such a state may ^De associated with spavin of the same limb, or with some other disease which has caused the muscles of the quarter to be thrown more or less out of use during its existence.

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		374 EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS ERUPTIVE DISEASES While this course is being gone through, any eruption on the skin, or warts, tumours, or scars resulting from their removal, will come under notice. Pimples and nodules on the skin of grey horses, especially in the region of the flank, about the sheath, perineum, or anus, are always suggestive of a form of growth (melanosis) of a malignant character. Eruptions behind the knees and in the bend of the hocks, termed respec- tively " mallenders" and " sallanders", interfere with action, and some- times altogether unfit the horse for work, in which case they constitute an unsoundness; and the same may be said with regard to the disease termed " grease", and all other eruptions when occurring on parts of the body where they will interfere with the animal's services. ACTION We may now direct our attention to the horse's action, for which purpose he should first be made to walk about 50 yards backwards and forwards, with his head as free and unrestrained as it can possibly be allowed. The common practice of taking hold of the bridle close to the bit, and forcing up the head, as usually adopted by the expert nagsman, adds very considerably to the difficulty of forming a diagnosis in the slighter forms of lameness, and may be the means of causing them to be altogether overlooked. The animal may now be turned short round from right to left, and from left to right, and then caused to move in a backward direction. During this test it will be noticed whether the action is close, and such as to cause brushing, or interfering, and whether there are any indications of stringhalt or shivering. The former will be indicated by a spasmodic upward jerk in one or both hind limbs�rarely it may occur in the fore ones�while the latter is recognized by a difficulty in backing, during which the muscles of the quarter and the tail are thrown into a tremulous condition (fig. 533). Although both these affec- tions constitute unsoundness, it must be borne in mind that animals that suffer from them are generally capable of performing a considerable amount of useful work; and further, that either of them may exist in such an incipient condition as only to be perceived on rare occasions. It cannot therefore be said that because a horse does not exhibit signs of their presence at the time of the examination he is necessarily free from them. Lameness when present is not always developed by walking, but may only appear in the faster paces, and even then it may not be

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		DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION AND DEFORMITIES 375 displayed until weight is placed on the back. It is therefore necessary to a thorough examination that the horse be trotted for 50 yards in hand backwards and forwards on a loose rein, at an easy pace, and then again under saddle, first on soft ground and then on hard. While this is going on, his movements should be carefully criticized, both as to the natural action, which may be close and "brushing", as well as to the presence of actual lameness. There is an idea in the minds of some that where lameness exists the affected animal " drops" on the lame limb, but, as matter of fact, the reverse is the case. When the unsound leg is on the ground the head is elevated, in order that the muscles may relieve it of a certain amount of weight, and when the sound limb meets the ground the head " drops" with it. The same kind of movement is observed where lame- ness occurs behind. It is well known that lameness is aggravated when passing from soft to hard ground, and some veterinarians have regarded this phenomenon as indicating the foot as the seat of trouble. Our experience is, that when the cause of lameness is in the foot the difference in the intensity of lameness in passing from the softer to the harder surface is greater than when the cause is elsewhere, but we do not con- sider that the test is of any diagnostic value. DEFECTS OF CONFORMATION AND DEFORMITIES There are certain defects of conformation which, if they are not them- selves unsoundness, sooner or later lead to it when existing in a pro- nounced form, and the examiner must be on his guard in respect to the amount of licence he permits in them. Among these, turned-out toes !s in certain instances a fruitful source of trouble, and especially when the pasterns are long and the horse is narrow in front; and the defect is still further fraught with mischief when the feet are large. Brush- ing, cutting, and interfering are the common consequences of this form of development. If the out-turn of the feet is not considerable, and the Pasterns not too long and sloping, and at the same time there is an absence of any marks of brushing, no serious importance may attach to it, and especially if the horse has been in regular work. When, how- ever, in these cases the animal is wearing a feather-edged shoe and the inner quarter of the foot has been rasped away, there is ground for suspecting that the horse is in the habit of brushing when undefended ^Dy these artificial means. Legs bent over at the knee, " knee-sprung ", or that form in which the bend is forward at the knee, is another very common defect of conforma-

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		376 EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS tion more particularly seen in our thoroughbreds. This is very frequently congenital and hereditary, in which case a slight forward inclination is of no importance, and we have known horses whose knees were very much flexed to pass through a life of hard work without displaying the slightest inconvenience from them. But this defect is very frequently acquired by accident or hard work. It may be that no very obvious changes in the textures of the leg are to be found, but with the majority it is otherwise. Bursal enlargements, sprains and contractions of tendons and ligaments behind the limb, bony enlargements behind and below the knee, are the most common among the causes of this defect, and all of them constitute unsoundness. EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET We have now reached a stage where it becomes necessary to subject the legs to careful manipulation in search of defects which may not hitherto have been patent. Capped elbow (Vol. II, p. 359) will, of course, be perceptible at a glance. It is of varying importance. Sometimes, when of recent forma- tion, and attended with inflammation and lameness, it would constitute unsoundness, but after the inflammatory action has subsided it becomes merely an eye-sore, unless of course it is large and specially liable to injury from the cause which produced it. Before proceeding down the limb the finger should be directed to the seat of median neurectomy (p. 165 of this volume), when evidence of the kind referred to in connec- tion with other neurectomies may be discovered (see Fetlock, p. 377). As we pass down the leg we may meet with sprain or rheumatism affecting the muscles of the arm, and the only evidence of it then present may be a tenderness to pressure along their course with more or less lame- ness. The writer has in mind the case of a horse which he knew went sound on one day, and was quite lame from this cause on the next. The Knee.�Passing on to the knee, we first survey the front and feel for any enlargement of the surface, or for a nodule beneath the skin not uncommon in hunters from an embedded thorn; the hair should be raised in order to expose any scar, the result of a former broken knee. Scars here do not render a horse unsound, unless the cause which produced them has also affected the joints or structures about it in such manner as to interfere with the animal's action and usefulness. The Canon.�Carrying the hand down the front of the canon, one not unfrequently finds here in young thoroughbreds soreness, with bony deposit (sore shins), which is distinctly an unsoundness.

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	EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
	EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET	377
		377

As the hand travels along, the tips of the fingers should be made to grip lightly the inner splint-bone and its connection with the canon in search of splints, which will be recognized as small nodosities or lumps either upon the splint-bone or at its junction with the canon. As to whether a splint is an unsoundness, this will depend upon a variety of circumstances; but it is well to understand that it is not necessarily so, or, in other words, that a horse may have a splint and yet be in a legal sense sound. If, however, it should cause lameness at the time, or be in such a position, or of such a size, or of such a form as to do so in the future, the horse would be unsound. The most objectionable position in which a splint can form is at the upper part of the canon, behind and below the knee, where it is bound to encroach upon and interfere with the suspensory ligament. A large splint behind the leg in any position may do the same, or even encroach upon the flexor tendons, where a small one might be perfectly harmless. A small sharp-pointed or asperous splint is more likely to injure parts contiguous with it than one having a round, smooth surface. Further, a splint may be quite out of the way of all tendons and ligaments, but of such a size and in such a position as to render it liable to be struck by the opposite limb. It is, therefore, of the first importance that these points be Well considered in carrying on an examination of this region. It should, moreover, be kept in mind that splints, which, by virtue of one or another of these forms, are very objectionable in young animals, are much less so in older ones, where the parts about the splint have by time accommodated themselves to the encroachment of the bony growth. The Fetlock.�Approaching the fetlock-joint, the examiner will note whether or not the animal has been "unnerved". Evidence of the opera- tion should be sought on either side of the limb a little in front of the back tendons and about 3 inches above the joint (high operation), or in the same situation midway between the fetlock and the coronet (low operation). (See pp. 161-166 of this volume.) Here the scars resulting from the incisions will be found attended with more or less thickening of the skin, ^and the divided ends of the nerves will be felt as small nodules beneath the skin. If the skin of the heel be pricked with a pin there will be no uinching, the division of the nerves having deprived the part of all sensibility. In passing the hand over the fetlock-joint the examiner will recognize ^any enlargement in front, and then, coming to the long pastern, will some- tunes find small bony excrescences in front and at the side, and their ttnportance will depend upon their relations to the tendons and ligaments thereabout. An ossific growth beneath the tendon of the extensor pedis, ^0r beneath the branches of the suspensory ligament, as they proceed over

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		EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
	378


the pastern to join it, would be more likely to produce lameness than one occurring in either of the triangular spaces situated between them, and which are covered over by skin alone. Lower down we come to the short pastern, the common seat of ring-bone, which is characterized by a full firm bony growth spread over the front and sides of the bone, and may pass upward over the lower end of the long pastern, or downward to the os pedis or foot-bone, or to both. Its encroachment on important structures, whose action it impedes, renders the formation an unsoundness of the worst form. The fact, however, must not be overlooked, that great differences are found to exist in the natural conformation of the pasterns of different horses., and especially towards the sides, where the tubercles to which the lateral ligaments are attached are sometimes extremely developed, and give the pasterns a prominence and coarseness which it is difficult to differentiate from disease. Any scars and thickenings of the skin and underlying parts about the coronet should be carefully noted. Such con- ditions may be the remains of a former quittor or carbunculous disease of the coronary band, both of which may return, with the worst consequences. The Foot.�From this region we descend to the feet, and, comparing the one with the other, remark any difference of size or form, or in the general character of the hoof-horn. It sometimes happens that one foot is smaller than the other from birth, and where this is known to be so, too much importance must not be attached to it; but it must not be forgotten that such cases are exceed- ingly rare, and it becomes necessary, without direct knowledge to the contrary, to regard all differences of this kind to have resulted from disease either in the organ itself or in some remote part, necessitating prolonged resting and contraction of the foot as a result. The fact must not be lost sight of that one or both feet may be consid- erably reduced in circumference by breakage of the horn or undue paring, and disparity of size may be due to one or other of these causes; here, however, the heels will be open, and in point of width and development correspond with the larger foot. We shall see presently that contraction of the foot resulting from disease is attended with certain well-marked changes which are not difficult to recognize, and which clearly indicate the existence of unsoundness. The feet may be unduly flat or too deep and upright, as the result of disease, laminitis or fever in the feet being a common cause of the former, and navicular disease, or some more remote affection in which the foot i^srested, of the other. Where laminitis has existed, the hoof usually presents a number of ridges encircling the foot, the hoof-horn is brittle, dry-looking, and Coarse

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			EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET 379

		in texture, the heels are low, the toe thick, and in some cases the sole is more or less convex and the front of the hoof concave or sunken. In the morbidly upright deep feet the texture of the horn is close and compact, and the hoof presents a dense solid appearance. This is especially the case m navicular disease, where the sole is very concave, the heel narrow, and the frog wasted. Where these characters exist there can be no doubt as to the animal's unsoundness. Careful search should at all times be made for cracks in the hoof, or, as they are termed, " sandcracks" (Vol. II, p. 366). These ruptures of the horn occur in various situations,' in some of which they are not at once apparent. This is very much the case where they are of limited extent and occupy the upper border of the hoof hidden by the overhanging hair. In the lighter breeds of horses this accident is most frequently seen on the inner quarter, while in draught-horses it is more often noticed in front of the hoof; wherever they occur, they represent a serious form of unsoundness, serious not only on account of the long period required for their treatment, but also because of their liability to recur. The examiner should be on the alert here, for unscrupulous dealers do not hesitate to fill the cracks with composition, and the artful way in which it is done renders deception possible unless the greatest care is observed. A defect, which in some instances must be included in the category of Unsoundness, is that comprehended in the term " shelly feet", by which is understood a dry and brittle condition of the horn, which, being also loose m texture, splits and breaks on the slightest provocation, rendering shoeing difficult, and sooner or later impossible. Another defect in the horn, to which unsoundness attaches, is that condition of the crust known as "false quarter". Here there is a local deficiency of development in the hoof arising out of an injury to the coronet, in which the horn-secreting band has been to some extent destroyed ^and the hoof weakened. It is recognized by a deep wide furrow passing from the top to the bottom of the hoof. Knee (Posterior Aspect).�Turning round, we now direct attention to the posterior aspect of the limb, and the first part requiring notice is the knee. Here we are sometimes confronted with a soft fluctuating swelling °n either side, resulting from a distension of the sheath of the tendons ^Wlth fluid, and commonly termed " thoroughpin" of the knee from its ^rcsemblance to that enlargement which appears from time to time above ^aud behind the hock-joint. The back tendons and ligaments will next come under notice, and ^as the hand passes over them it should particularly note their condition ^a°out the lower part of the upper third of the canon-bone, where the check

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		EXAMINATION OF HOESES AS TO SOUNDNESS
	380	EXAMINATION OF HOESES AS TO SOUNDNESS
	380

ligament joins on to the deep flexor tendon (Vol. II, p. 294). This is the point where sprain most frequently takes place, and where the enlargement which results will be felt when it can be detected nowhere else; but in severe sprain the tendon for a greater or less distance along its course towards the fetlock and the knee becomes enlarged and gives to the leg behind a bowed appearance, hence the term " bowed tendon". A defect of this kind affecting structures of such importance in any part of their course is a serious one, and at once contravenes the animal's soundness. In front of the tendons, and immediately behind the canon-bone, the suspensory ligament (Vol. II, p. 272) will be felt. As we have elsewhere pointed out, this structure divides a little way above the fetlock-joint into an inner and an outer branch, which become inserted into the sesamoid bones behind the fetlock. Sprain and thickening of this ligament are more especially seen W hunters, chasers, and race-horses. The injury almost invariably occurs either at the point where it divides above the fetlock-joint, or where its branches join the sesamoid bones; but the spread of the inflammatory action from these centres provokes enlargement for varying distances along its course, according to the severity of the sprain. Each individual branch of the ligament should be examined separately and compared with its fellow^T, and with those of the opposite limb too, lest a slight uniform thickening of the two should be overlooked. Sprain of this ligament is at all times serious, and must be regarded as an unsound- ness. The Fetlock-joint.�We now come to the fetlock-joint, where one or more of a variety of diseases incidental to it may be found. One or both of the sesamoid bones are sometimes enlarged, and here again they should be compared one with the other and with those of the opposite limb, lest slight but important changes be overlooked. The joint, as a whole, may be swollen from a general sprain of rt^sstructures, or from hard and prolonged wear; but it must be borne in mind that all swellings of this part are not attributable to these causes. Some, which are commonly spoken of as "filled" legs, are generally the outcome of slight temporary disturbance of the general system, and will disappear when that disturbance ceases to operate. In special cases this defect may result from a weak heart, in which case it would most likely be permanent or periodic, and the cause of it an unsoundness. Bony growths of one sort or another are not seldom found in the region of the joint involving either the canon or long pastern, or both. Such formations are, for the most part, an unsoundness; but the same cannot be said of all. Brushing or interfering is often accountable for enlargement

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	EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
	EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET	381
		381

of the inner aspect of the joint, and should receive special attention at this stage of the examination. The effect of this mishap may be serious or not, but all horses whose conformation and action predispose to it should be declined. Distention of the synovial sheaths of tendons which pass over the fetlock-joint behind, or of the capsular membrane of the joint, is commonly observed in smaller or larger bulgings termed " windgalls ". These may be the progressive result of severe work, or arise out of sprain or other injury to the part. In their slighter forms they are un- important, unless there is evidence of a hereditary predisposition to their formation. This will most likely exist where similar developments are observed in and about other joints, such as thoroughpins, bog spavins, and the like. Where, however, they are large, tense, and resisting, action will be interfered with, and they must, in such circumstances, be regarded essentially as an unsoundness. The Heels.�As we descend, the heels may afford evidence of the present or past existence of grease. If the former, an offensive discharge will cover the skin; if the latter, the integument will be more or less thickened and thrown into folds, and may be studded over with small bard pimples. In heavy horses whose legs are covered with hair this disorder may be overlooked, unless a searching examination is pursued. Cracks and chaps may also exist here and render the horse for the time being unsound. The Coronet.�Coming to the coronet, the examiner now tests the lateral cartilages with the object of determining if they possess their normal ^elasticity, or if they have become converted into " side-bones�". Pressure should be applied to them from behind forward along their entire length, first while the foot is on the ground, and again after being lifted up and the weight removed from it. Some horses' cartilages are naturally thick and resisting, while others ^are thin and yield to very slight pressure. In old horses they become °ard with age without necessarily being ossified, and such cases call for ^considerable experience and judgment. Where, however, the existence o* side-bone is established, unsoundness follows. Damage to the heel as the result of overreach may lay the foundation ^0r unsoundness, and scars arising out of this cause call for some attention. The Sole and Frog".�It becomes necessary now to examine further ^^e foot, more especially as to its ground surface. Having observed the with of the heels, the examiner lifts it up, and so brings the sole and frog ⁿ°-er observation. In a normal condition the former should describe a ^voi- III. 90

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		382 EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS gentle arch upward. Any extreme concavity must receive careful con- sideration. It may be due to an overgrowth of the crust being permitted in the course of shoeing, but it is frequently the result of contraction of the wall consequent upon some deep-seated trouble, such as navicular disease. Confirmation of this will be found in a shrunken frog, a thick, solid, upright, blocky-looking hoof, and more or less obvious lameness. Some degree of hollowness or undue concavity of the sole will arise from many causes which have led to the foot being rested for a long period, and which of course must be associated with unsoundness. It must, however, be pointed out that where, as a consequence of indifferent shoeing, the crust is permitted to remain too deep or to project too far beyond the sole, the latter will have the appearance of being too concave, and may be actually so. Whether it is or not is a matter for the examiner to decide from the general appearance of the organ. The frog will claim attention now. It should be free from thrush and canker. A good, wide, deep, bold frog is much to be desired. A small, dry, shrunken frog is an object of some suspicion, especially in aged horses, where it may be associated with navicular disease, or some ailment for which the foot has been rested. Although not an unsoundness in itself, it is an indication significant of disease elsewhere, and calls for careful consideration. Thrush in its milder form, when unattended with lameness, does not constitute unsoundness, but where the sensitive frog is much exposed it must be so considered. In those cases where the frog is broken and ragged the detached portions should be removed, and the general surface of the organ in- spected for underlying disease. Canker which appears in the form of a fungating growth about the frog or sole, or both, attended with an offensive discharge, is one of the worst forms of unsoundness. The sole may be too flat, but, as a natural conformation, will not come under the category of unsoundness unless identified with lameness; it is nevertheless a sign of weakness, and horses with flat soles are never a desirable purchase. When the sole has become convex, or, as it is frequently expressed, "dropped", as the result of laminitis or any other cause, the animal is unsound. The Stifle.�From the fore-limbs we pass to the hind ones, and here, in addition to many of the diseases already noticed, there are others peculiar to them requiring special consideration. The stifle should be free from enlargement or from any hereditary or acquired impediment to its perfect action.

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	EXAMINATION OF THE LEGS AND FEET
		383


With reference to the former an increase of size is sometimes found to result from an overfulness of the joint capsule with synovia, which pre- sents itself as a fluctuating swelling, or a more firm swelling may exist in one or another part of the joint or over its general circumference, as a consequence of a past injury, or there may be sudden displacement, luxa- tion, or " slipping out" of the patella or knee-cap, followed or not by an equally sudden return to its natural position. Some animals inherit a form of development of the stifle which permits this dislocation and return of the bone at uncertain periods. It is possible, therefore, that, however careful an examination may be conducted, this serious defect may not be detected. In some cases it is brought on by weakness, following upon influenza and other debilitating ailments, and may not show itself while the animal is under inspection. From whatever cause it may arise it impairs the usefulness of the animal and renders him unsound. The Hock.�Passing from the stifle to the hock, we have here to notice in the first place the " point", which should be free from every form of swelling. Sometimes, as a result of injury, enlargement of this part is found to exist. The enlargement will vary in its character in different cases, and also in its relation to legal soundness. A capped hock, as it is termed, may consist of nothing more than a little fluid infiltrating the loose tissue beneath the skin, and causing no present or prospective inter- ference with the horse's action or power to work, in which case its presence is not inconsistent with a state of soundness; but it would be otherwise if the swelling were inflamed and painful, and caused the animal incon- venience, or if it involved the synovial sac which intervenes between the tendon and the point of the bone, as the one plays over the other. From the point of the hock downwards to the fetlock-joint the posterior border of the leg should descend in a straight line. It sometimes, however, happens that this rule is departed from even in the absence of disease. When the head of the outer splint-bone is more than usually developed, as sometimes occurs, a bulging is formed behind the hock which gives the ^appearance of a curb, and has on many occasions been mistaken for one. J-he bulging caused by a true curb stretches across the back of the leg, ^while the projection formed by the bone is confined to the outer side, where the bone is situated. Moreover, when the fingers are passed over a curb, it is found to yield somewhat to pressure, whereas the bone is hard and resisting. Curbs vary very considerably in size. Some are observable and dis- tinguishable at once, but others are small and only just raise the line of the leg. Although horses having curbs must be regarded as unsound, it must

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		384 EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS not be lost sight of that many animals so affected do life-long work without further mishap, and we should therefore say that, where the curb is small and unattended with lameness, the legs well formed, and the horse in hard condition, but little risk would attend the purchase of such an animal if the work required of him was not severe. Many good horses, because of curb, have been rejected by intending purchasers in favour of an indifferent brute having some sort of title to be called " perfectly sound ". In front of the point of the hock and behind the leg-bone is the tendon of the deep flexor muscle, whose sheath sometimes becomes largely dis- tended with synovia, forming a fluctuating tumour passing from one side of the hock to the other, and commonly termed thoroughpin. Young horses are most frequently its subjects, and especially those of the heavy breeds while being got up for show. Although an unsoundness for the time being, it should not be forgotten that they frequently disperse alto- gether without showing any disposition to return. A similar condition may also be found to exist in the true hock-joint, the capsule of which is made to bulge at the upper and inner part by synovial distension, causing what is termed a "bog spavin" (Vol. II, p. 290). Here again we have a state of unsoundness which, when occurring in young animals, frequently disperses and may not recur. Having decided as to the presence or absence of bog spavin, the examiner then passes the hand over the inner face of the joint, taking note of any abnormal condition or swelling at the lower part, which is the seat of bone spavin (Vol. II, p. 217). As to whether such a disease exists or not is frequently a difficult and sometimes an impossible question to answer correctly, even by the most accomplished expert. The conformation of the hock varies to a considerable extent in different animals of the same variety, and in many instances in the two hocks of the same animal, when the hocks are said to be " odd ". In some they present a relatively flattened surface, the natural bony prominences being slight, and the general outline of the joint is regular and refined, while others are conspicuous by their coarseness, in which the natural prominences of the bone are greatly exaggerated, and stand out from the surface in bold projections. Such hocks are known as " coarse hocks ", but in numerous instances, where the coarseness has been specially marked over the seat of spavin, it has been mistaken for that disease. To distinguish between the normal and the abnormal condition in these cases needs not only a large experience of hocks at all periods of life, but a clear comprehension of the anatomy of the part. Coarseness of the hocks is generally associated with the same condition

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	EXAMINATION OF THE WIND
	EXAMINATION OF THE WIND	385

m the other joints of the extremities, and these will sometimes help in a solution of the difficulty. It remains, however, that bone spavin, as an objective symptom, is an abnormal growth of bone on the inner and inferior part of the joint, but with this there is usually associated more or less disease of a destructive nature going on between the bones, by which their articular surfaces become disorganized. It follows from this that the malady is attended with lame- ness, in which the hock-joint is but imperfectly flexed, the step is short, and the weight of the body quickly displaced from the affected limb. When this disease is suspected, some confirmation may be found in the fact that the affected animal leaves the stable with a halting gait after rest, which becomes much less pronounced or altogether disappears as he continues a journey. The disease we have already referred to as existing between the bones °f the hock may be present without any perceptible enlargement on the surface, but all the other symptoms described will be present. This con- dition is termed " occult spavin" from the fact that there is no visible enlargement to account for the lameness which, judged by the action, ^ls due to hock mischief. Whether the disease be occult or visible, spavin, it is hardly necessary to say, constitutes an unsoundness of the worst form. EXAMINATION OF THE WIND Having so far disposed of the organs of locomotion, the examiner must now direct his attention to the state of the breathing apparatus, for which Purpose the horse must be subjected to exertion. In carrying out this task the place selected should be as quiet as Possible, and the attention of the examiner should be fixed upon the sounds given out during respiration. The position he takes up should °e to windward, so that the sound emitted may be conveyed towards him. Wherever the examination is being conducted he should take up ^a position alone, and not allow his attention to be diverted from its Purpose by any conversation with others. Noisy dogs in dealers' yards, the shouting of men, and cracking of whips are not calculated to render tnis part of the examination as satisfactory as it should be. The horse, having been mounted, should be made to trot sharply in ^a circle for a few minutes, and then brought to the canter and finally ^to a sharp gallop. In drawing a conclusion upon this test regard must be paid to the fact at the breathing sounds emitted by different horses are liable to some

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		EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
	386	EXAMINATION OF HORSES AS TO SOUNDNESS
	386

variation within the limits of health, according among other things to condition, formation of the face, setting on of the head, temperament, &c. Space will not allow us to examine these several questions here. Suffice it to say that any noise which partakes of the nature of roaring or whistling is an indication of unsoundness, and denotes the existence of some obstructive disease in the respiratory passage leading to the lungs. In a very large majority of cases the defect is located in the larynx, the entrance to which becomes narrowed in consequence of paralysis of the small muscles, whose duty it is to keep the passage open. Thickening of the mucous membrane of the larynx from cold, influenza, and strangles, enlargement of neighbouring glands, and tumours about the throat may each and all, by their pressure and narrowing influence, be the means of causing roaring. Tumours and bony excrescences in the nostrils may also give rise to the nasal form of this unsoundness. "Punching" is a test commonly resorted to by dealers, and consists in striking the animal suddenly over the body with a stick or the closed fist, followed up with a succession of feints to repeat it while the animal is firmly held against a wall. The test is not a reliable one, although in the majority of roarers it causes the emission of a deep, sonorous grunt. It is, however, useful in the sale-yard, where no opportunity is afforded of resorting to other means. REMOVAL OF THE SHOES The examination will be concluded by having the shoes removed, when the ground-surface of the crust will be exposed, and with it any shelliness or seedy state of the hoof. The latter consists of a cavity extending for some distance up the crust, and unscrupulous dealers sometimes resort to the practice of filling it in with some preparation of pitch and other matters. Care should be taken, therefore, to expose any such deception that may exist.

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		THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

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			Section X.-THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

		NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT In reference to their structure and arrangement, also as a means of ascertaining the animal's age, more accurately at least than by any other Method, the teeth of the horse are peculiarly interesting. In the chapter on the horse of the present day and its fossil pro- genitors, referring to the peculiar features in the conformation of the horse, the special characters of the teeth will be described, and their relation to the same organs in the earlier types of horse-like animal commented on. For the present purpose it will only be required that the characters °f the different descriptions of teeth, and the changes which they undergo n consequence of the wear to which they are subjected, should be noted sufficiently to enable the horseman to form some opinion as to the animal's age. Number Of Teeth.*�When the dentition is completed at the age °i five years, the horse has six incisors or nippers in the front of the niouth, in the top and bottom jaws, and six molars on each side, top and ^D°ttom jaws. The three last of the row are true molars, the three in front °t them are distinguished as pre-molars. In addition, in front of the anterior pre-mplars on each side of the top jaw there is often seen a small ^Conical tooth, which, notwithstanding its insignificant appearance, is in the Popular view an organ of some importance. The term eye-teeth is generally applied to these rudimentary organs, and it is believed, even by people ^ho ought to know better, that the presence of this tooth in some extra- ordinary way is a cause of blindness, and in the case of a horse of three or °ur or five years of age having any disease in the eyes, it is usual to look ⁿ the animal's,mouth in order to see if the eye-teeth, or, as they are some- 'nies called, " wolves' teeth", are present. If so, they are immediately ^enioved by a somewhat primitive method of punching. An ordinary Punch, which is used for the preparation of nail holes for the horse's shoes, ^U(t the shoeing hammer are found to be effective instruments for the

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	390 THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

operation. As these rudimentary organs have a very slight hold in the jaw, a very moderate amount of force will dislodge them, and the horse is neither better nor worse for the performance. Eeference to the section on the conformation of the horse will convince the reader that the small conical tooth, to which so much importance is attached, is really the vestigial remains of the first pre-molar, which is a well-developed tooth in the top and bottom of both sides of the mouth in many of the ancient ungulate mammals, making a row of seven instead of six molars, of which four were pre-molars and three true molars. The gradual diminution in size of the first pre-molar may be traced in the fossil remains of horse-like animals of the ter- tiary formation. In the horse of the present time the first pre-molar has altogether ceased to exist in the bottom jaw, and only remains in the top jaw as a rudimentary and occasional struc- ture, which is frequently shed when the temporary pre-molars are exchanged for permanent. A peculiarity in the horse's mouth more difficult to account for than that above referred to is the space which exists between the molar teeth and the incisors. This space did not exist in the most ancient mammals, but in the Phena-
			Fig. 600.� Permanent and Temporary Incisors of Horse
				codus there were some indications of it,


		and it becomes more distinct through the series of horse-like animals which will be described in the chapter on the peculiar features of the conformation of the horse. In the male of the horse family the space is partly occupied by the canine teeth or tusks; in the mare these organs are either entirely absent or are merely rudimentary. Form and Arrangement.�Some knowledge of the form and general arrangement of the different orders of teeth are essential for an intelligent appreciation of the changes which take place owing to wear in one direction, and the growth of the organs in the other. The incisor teeth are chiefly used as a means of judging the age after permanent dentition is complete. Up to that time the change from temporary to permanent organs, both incisors and molars, affords important indications of the age of the animal from birth up to the age of five years. For the purpose of distinguishing the temporary from the permanent organs, an illustration will be more useful than a written description., and

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		DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES�I A. Thoroughbred at birth (male). 1, 2, 3. Temporary molars. 4. Permanent molars (uncut). 5, 6, 7. Crowns of temporary molars. 8, 9, 10. Central, lateral, and corner temporary incisors. B. Fo�r-month-old New Forest Pony (male). 1, 2, 3. Temporary molars. 4. Permanent molars. 5. Permanent molar (uncut). 6. 7, 8. Crowns of temporary molars. 9, 10, 11. Central, lateral, and corner temporary incisors.

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PLATE LXIII


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DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES�1

A. Tlioroughbred (male) at birth. B. Four-month-old New Forest Pony (male).

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		NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT 391

	w fig. 600 the temporary and permanent incisors of the horse are shown side by side. No difficulty could possibly be experienced wdien the two organs are removed from the jaw for the purpose of examination�the difference in form and size is quite apparent; but it may also be noticed that the permanent incisor decreases in width from above downwards, without showing any line of separation between the upper part of the tooth which is called the crown, and the lower part, or fang. In the temporary incisor the distinctive boundary between the two parts is perfectly well defined. These differences are not quite so well marked when the teeth are looked at in the tttouth of the living animal, but the small size of the crown, and the absence °f deep grooves in the temporary incisors, will be sufficient to enable the observer to distinguish the one from the other during the period of change from tem- porary to permanent teeth. It is not, however, quite so easy to distinguish the temporary from the permanent in- cisors in ponies between one and two years of age, as these animals very fre- quently present some of the adult char- acter in their general conformation; and when the judgment is to be formed en-
			Fig. 601.�Permanent Incisor, showing sections at various points, <z, The central cavity.
	tirely by an examination of the teeth, it

!S quite possible for one who is not an expert to mistake a well-developed pony of one year old for a five-year-old, ^and one of two years old for a six-year-old. The difficulty, however, may be at once disposed of by an examination °f the molar teeth. To appreciate the variations which take place in the outline of the worn surfaces or tables of the incisor teeth as age advances, it is desirable that the examiner should have a clear understanding of the peculiarities of form in these organs, which render a certain fixed series of changes in the outline of the tables quite inevitable. In the next figure (fig. 601), Representing a permanent incisor of a horse, it will be seen at once that the long diameter of the table is exactly at right angles with the long diameter at the base of the tooth. Further, it will be seen in the drawing, which shows the tooth as seen from the back, that a ridge extends from

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		THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
	392	THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
	392

near the upper surface to the bottom of the tooth, causing the opening at the base of the fang to represent a triangular figure. Consequently, sections commencing at the upper part of the tooth, and carried down to the bottom of it, would represent the forms which are shown on the right- hand side of the drawing. The wearing of the teeth from the upper surface downwards is compensated by the growth of the tooth upwards from its cavity, and the changes 'in the form of the table as the animal advances in life are necessarily a gradual approach to the triangular form. Besides the changes in the form of the table which the tooth undergoes during the course of its natural wear from constant attrition, there are also changes relating to the " mark", which is the name in common use to indicate the cavity in the centre of the tooth, which becomes dark or black in colour from the action of the food on the bony structure. The cavity is formed by the inversion of the three structures of the tooth, the crusta, enamel, and ivory. The hollow cone extends about half-way down the incisor tooth, and consequently, when the wear reaches to a certain point, the cavity is obliterated, or, in the horseman's language, the mark is worn out. One result of the inversion of the tooth structures to form a hollow cone in the interior of the incisor is a peculiar arrangement of lines on the worn surface. This condition is shown in fig. 601. An outer line of white enamel is seen, inside which is the broader line formed by the bulk of the tooth�the ivory; then the inner line of enamel which belongs to the inverted cone, with the lining of crusta, which is originally on the out- side of the tooth, but in the inverted structure is necessarily on the inside. This structure is quickly darkened by contact with food. The darkening is also distinctly seen on the crusta on the outside of the tooth, being espe- cially marked in the grooves. The prominent parts of the surface become white in consequence of the darkened crusta being rubbed off by the move- ment of the animal's lips. It will be obvious that the table of the tooth exhibits the following features:� 1. An outer ring of enamel. The outer covering of crusta is at the edge of the tooth worn away. 2. A broad line of ivory, in the centre of which is a faint line, showing the junction of the inverted cone with the outer shell of the tooth. 3. A ring, of enamel called central enamel, with the line of dark crusta inside it. It is necessary to note here that the changes in form of the central enamel afford important evidence of the age after seven years. Tricks.�Horses at the middle period of life are more valuable than when very young or very old. It is not remarkable, therefore, that certain

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	TEMPORARY DENTITION
	TEMPORARY DENTITION	393
		393

devices are adopted for the purpose of, in the first place, facilitating the cutting of the permanent teeth to make young horses look older than they ^are, and, on the other hand, to restore the " mark " when it is obliterated, for the purpose of making old horses look younger. The extraction of the temporary teeth will undoubtedly assist the development of the permanent organs beneath them, and if the operation !s properly done the deception would not be detected; but as a professional operator would not be likely to be consulted in the matter, it is usually badly done, and defeats its object, either by destroying the germ of the new tooth below and leaving an obvious gap in the mouth, or by causing t to be displaced, and in that way leading to a derangement of the dental line. The second form of deception, termed "bishoping", is probably rarely °r never practised now. It consists in carving a properly-shaped cavity in the extremely hard bone of an old tooth and making it black by heat, a performance which would require great mechanical skill and most perfect apparatus, and, however well performed, certainly would not deceive any- one who had the slightest claim to be an anatomist or a judge of a horse. Birthdays.*�It is usual to preface a description of the means of Judging the age of the horse with the statement of dates, which are some- what arbitrarily fixed as birthdays, and also to interpret certain qualifying terms which are constantly employed. The ages of thoroughbred horses are dated from January 1st, and of other horses from May 1st. The animal which is approaching the termina- tion of any given year is said to be "coming" the age; if the birthday has Passed, he is said to be " off". Thus " coming four" is taken to mean that the horse wants about three months of the full age, and " four off" would mdicate that his fourth birthday had passed about three months previously. J-he expert, however, will judge of a horse's age by the state of his teeth, ^Wlthout concerning himself about the dates which have been artificially hxed, and are indeed to a certain extent convenient. TEMPORARY DENTITION It is not a matter of much importance to be able to judge the age of a loal during the first few months, nor of a colt during the first year or two °i its life, but in order to make the history of the evidence which the teeth afford complete, it is necessary to begin with the animal's birth. The first ^teeth, it is understood, are known as milk teeth, and at the time of birth ^tne foal has four incisors in top and bottom jaws, and three molars on each ^sloe of the upper and lower jaws. All these teeth are entirely, or nearly

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		4 394 THE TEETH OF THE HORSE covered with the gum, but they are seen quite distinctly in outline, and here and there the points may appear uncovered. The condition of the temporary incisors is indicated in the illustration (fig. 602). It will be observed that the front or central incisors are much larger than the next in order�the lateral incisors. The drawing represents the

				Fig. 602.�Incisors of Colt at birth Fig. 603.�Incisors of Colt at two months

	bottom jaw, which is usually examined; but the condition of the teeth is very much the same in both jaws.

			Fig. 604.�Incisors of Colt at six months Fig. 605.�Incisors of Colt at one year

age of six months the appearance of the front of the mouth is as shown in the drawing (fig. 604). The incisors show a line of wear on their upper surfaces, and the molars also exhibit a worn surface. At nine months preparations are being made for the teeth which

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		DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES-II A. Eioht-month-old Thoroughbred (female). 1, 2, 3. Teniporary molars. 4. Permanent molars. 5. Permanent molars (uncnt). 6. 7, 8. Crowns of teniporary molars. 9, Crown of permanent 4th molar. 10, 11, 12. Central, lateral, and corner teniporary incisors. B. Sixteen-month-old Thoro�ghbred (female). 1, 2, 3. Teniporary molars. 4, 5. Permanent molars. 6, 7, 8. Crowns of teniporary molars. 9, 10. Crowns of permanent molars. 11, 12, 13. Central, lateral, and corner teniporary incisors.

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PLATE LXIV

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DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES�II

A. Eight-month-old Thoroughbred (female). B. Sixteen-month-old Thoroughbred (female).

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				TEMPORARY DENTITION 395

	indicate the age of one year. The corner incisors, completing the number of six, begin to protrude through the gum, as does also the fourth molar behind the three pre-molars, and at the age of one year the front and back of the mouth will present the appearance of the drawings (figs. 605, 606). So far as the appearance of the incisor teeth is concerned, it will be noticed that it closely coincides with that of the mouth of the horse at five

			Fig. 606.�Molar Teeth of Colt at one year

		years old (fig. 613). The prominent difference, however, is that all the teeth ^a?e temporary in the one case and permanent in the other. The presence of the tusks, or in their absence the existence of six permanent molars, *n the five-year-old horse, will prevent any mistake being made as to the animal's age. It has already been stated that in the case of forest ponies ^an error in regard to the animal's age is quite possible unless the difference between temporary and permanent teeth is recognized.

					Fig. 607.�Molars of Colt at two years

Between one year and two years of age the only change in the incisor teeth ^s that which is naturally consequent on growth of the teeth and the wear I the upper surfaces by attrition. At the full age of two years the upper ^Ul'iaces of all the incisor teeth are worn flat, and the tables, which is the ^attie given to the worn surface, are fully formed, which means that there is ^e°niplete line of wear running round the central cavity (infundibulum or +V. Occasionally there is an exception in the posterior or inner edge of ^e corner tooth, the wear of which is not quite complete.

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396

THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

In the two following figures the appearance of the incisors and molars
at two years old is shown (figs. 607, 608).

Any question which may arise as to the distinction between one and

two years is settled at once by re-
ference to the molar teeth. Shortly
before two years of age a fifth
permanent molar begins to prick
through the gum, and at the com-
pletion of the second year the erup-
tion is nearly perfect, as shown in
fig. 607.

The colt has now a full set
of temporary incisors in front of
the mouth, top and bottom, all of
them showing a year's wear on
the surface, with three pre-molars
(temporary) on each side, top and
bottom, and two true molars (per-

Fig. 608.�Incisors of Cart Filly at two years

manent) on each side, top and

bottom.

Changes which occur in the teeth up to the age of five years will
include the falling of the temporary organs and their replacement by
permanent teeth, the cutting of the tusks in the horse, and the erup-
tion of two molars�the third and sixth in situation.

ERUPTION OF THE PERMANENT TEETH

When it is stated that between two and five years the change from
temporary to permanent teeth is effected in regard to twenty-four temporary
teeth, it will be apparent that the process is conducted with considerable
rapidity; in fact, a large instalment of the total takes place during the third
year of the animal's life, in which period four incisors and eight molar teeth
are changed for permanent teeth.

Soon after two years the red and depressed condition of the gum round
the upper central temporary incisors indicates that the teeth are being
pushed out of their place by the permanents growing underneath them-
These signs are quickly followed by similar signs in the lower temporary
incisors, and by two years and a half the four permanent organs are usually
cut, and the mouth presents a very peculiar and characteristic appearance.
At three years old the four incisors are usually fully developed, as shown

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		DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VAPJOUS AGES�III A. Two-rBAR-OLD Hackney (female). 1, 2, 3. �emporary molars. 4, 5. Permanent molars. 6. Permanent molar (uncut). 7, 8, 9. Crowns of temporary molars. 10, 11. Crowns of 4th and 5th permanent molars. 12, 13, 14. Central, lateral, and corner temporary incisors. B. Three-year-old Cart Horsb (male). Upper Jaw 1. Permanent molar. 2, 3. Temporary molars. 4, 5, 6. Permanent molars. 7. Crown of lst permanent molar. 8, 9. Crowns of 2nd and 3rd temporary molars. 10, 11, 12. Crowns of 4th, 5th, and 6th permanent molars. 13, Central permanent ineisor. 14, 15. Lateral and corner temporary incisors. 16. Tusk. Lower Jaw 1, 2. lst and 2nd permanent molars. 3. 3rd temporary molar. 4, 5, 6. Permanent molars. 7, 8. Crowns of two first permanent molars. 9. Crown of 3rd temporary molar. 10, 11, 12. Crowns of 4th, 5tli, and 6tli permanent molars. 13. Central permanent ineisor. 14, 15. Lateral and corner temporary incisors. 16. Tusk.

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			PLATE LXV

		DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES�III A. Two-year-old Hackney (female). B. Three-year-old Cart Horse (male).

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ERUPTION OF THE PERMANENT TEETH

397

by the wear of the anterior
edge, which is well marked
in the drawing below (fig.
609).

Meanwhile the first and
second pre-molars (temporary)
have been passing through the
same changes as those which
have been described in the
four central temporary inci-
sors, and at the age of three
years there are eight new
molar teeth, two on each side
in both jaws, top and bottom.
These recently-cut permanent

pre-molars are distinguished

Fig. 609.�Incisors of Horse at three years

by their surfaces being com-
paratively free from wear, while the molars behind them are worn quite flat.

Fig. 610.�Molars of Horse at two years and seven months

The illustration (fig. 610) shows the state of the molars at two years
^and seven months.

The next changes affect the lateral temporary incisors, top and bottom,

Fig. 611.�Molars of Horse at three years and eight months

^aQd the third pre-molar (temporary), and include the eruption of a sixth
tttolar at the back of the mouth, which is cut at the same time as the third

Vol. hi. 91

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			THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
398			THE TEETH OF THE HORSE
398

				pre-molar. The tusks in the horse are also fre- quently cut at four years, although they are not well developed until five. The next two illustrations show the condition of the molar teeth at three years and eight months (fig. 611), and the state of the in- cisors at four years (fig. 612). Thus, during the fourth year of its life, the horse has sixteen permanent teeth advancing, and the eruption is often com- pleted by the end of the year. In short, the per- manent dentition is com- pleted, excepting the corner teeth, which are changed for permanent during the following year; at five years old, there- fore, the condition of the front of the mouth will correspond to the next drawing (fig. 613). The corner tooth at this age is distinguished by a peculiar shell-like appearance. The posterior edge is considerably lower than the anterior edge, which is the only part of the tooth on which the effects of wear are appa- rent. The tables of the central and lateral incisors are fully formed, the cen-
	Fig. 612.�Incisors of Horse at four years

		Fig. 613.�Incisors of Horse at five years
		Fig. 613.�Incisors of Horse at five years

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			CHANGES IN THE FORM OF THE TEETH FROM WEAR 399

		tral cavity being surrounded by a continuous line of worn surface. In the central incisors the central cavity is extremely shallow. With the changes above described, the evidence afforded during per- manent dentition is completed.

	CHANGES IN THE FORM OF THE TEETH FROM WEAR It is customary in examining the mouth of the horse, after the animal has reached the age of five years, to devote special and sometimes exclusive attention to the state of the corner incisors. In cases, how- ever, where an exact opinion is important, the state of the other incisor teeth deserves considera- tion. Between five and six years the anterior edge of the corner tooth necessarily undergoes 'Wear, which finally extends along the whole front of the tooth, so that at the completion °f the sixth year the incisor has lost its shell-like character; the posterior edge, however, still retains its rounded appearance, -these characters are shown in

	the next illustration (fig. 614).			Fig. 614.�Incisors of Horse at six years
				Fig. 614.�Incisors of Horse at six years
At seven years of age the ^whole of the incisor teeth have assumed a more solid character, and *t will be seen at once that they are in some degree approaching the triangular form which is the result of the combined effects of the wear taking place at the upper part, while the teeth are constantly growing from below. The central incisors in the seven-year-old horse have their lateral out- mes considerably elongated as compared with the same teeth at six years °m. This change is less marked in the lateral and corner teeth. The ^atter, however, have their tables fully formed. A line of wear, narrower ^at the posterior than at the anterior edge, encircles the central cavity as ^shown in the next figure (fig. 615). At eight years old the triangular form of the incisors is still more marked. The central enamel in the central teeth corresponds in its tri-

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400 THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

angular form to the general outline of the table, and in all the teeth the
" mark" is extremely small as compared with the seven-year-old mouth.

The tusks are also rounded at their
points (fig. 616).

After eight years of age some
variation in the appearance of the
teeth, owing to the continued attri-
tion, may be expected; but it is not
possible to decide with absolute
certainty in many cases whether a
horse is eight or nine years of age.
At ten years old, however, the evi-
dence is fairly definite. The so-
called "marks" in all the teeth are
nearly obliterated, but the circle of
central enamel still remains quite

Fig. 615. �Incisors of Horse at seven years

distinct on the tables in all the

teeth, nearer to the posterior than
to the anterior edge, and at ten years old the figure of central enamel is
nearly round. At this age, also, a very important mark is present. At the
upper part of the top corner tooth on each side, close to the gum, a distinct

Fig. 617. �Incisors of Mare at ten years

Fig. 616.�Incisors of Horse at eight years

depression, which is really the base of a long groove, begins to appear.
This point will be alluded to further. The condition of the tables of the
incisor teeth at ten years old is shown in the next drawing (fig. 617).

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		DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES�IV A. Four-year-old Pony (female). 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Permanent molars. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Crowns of permanent molars. 13, 14. Central and lateral permanent incisor. 15. Corner temporary incisor. B. Five-year-old New Forest Pony (female). 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Permanent molars. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Crowns of permanent molars. 13, 14, 15. Central, lateral, and corner incisors.

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		i

	PLATE LXVI

DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES�IV A. Four-year-old Pony (female). B. Five-year-old New Forest Pony (female).

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			EVIDENCE OF AGE AFTER TEN YEARS 401

EVIDENCE OF AGE AFTER TEN YEARS Some years ago Mr. Sidney Galvayne made public a new method of judging the age of the horse up to the latest period of the animal's life, and as his system has proved to be extremely useful when it has been applied to old horses, the date of whose birth happened to be known or could be ascertained within reasonable limits by collateral evidence, it is desirable to rely upon that system exclusively after the age of ten years. Mr. Galvayne's discovery, as it may be called, is based on the existence of a groove in the fang of the upper corner incisors. The groove is not visible in the living animal until the age of ten years, by which time

		Fig. 618.�{a) Groove at the side of Upper Corner Fig. 619.�(6) Groove reaching half-way down the Incisor at ten years Corner Incisor at fifteen to sixteen years

	the bone of the alveolar cavity, which contains the tooth, has shrunk. The tooth meanwhile has grown, or has been pushed forward, to an extent corresponding with the wear at the surface, and the lateral groove is exposed as shown in the next figure (fig. 618). The method of judging the age from the point indicated in the above illustration is extremely simple. It is only necessary to recollect that, as the tooth continues to grow, and is at the same time constantly being worn, that part of the groove which is shown in fig. 618 will, at a certain period, be at the bottom of the tooth, and therefore year after year more of it will be seen. Eleven years, according to Mr. Galvayne's calculation, will elapse before the bottom of the groove reaches the cutting edge of the tooth. At that time, consequently, the animal will be twenty-one years old. When it is half-way down the tooth, as shown in fig. 619, the horse will be about sixteen years old. The appreciation of the exact value to be attached to the gradual advance of the groove year by year can only be the result of close observa- tion, but in any case the method is more reliable than any other which has

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THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

402

been devised. The next illustration shows the groove extending the whole
length of the tooth at the age of twenty-one years (fig. 620),

From the age of twenty-one another process has to be noted, which
ends with the total obliteration of the groove through the combined pro-
cesses of wear and growth in the course of
another nine or ten years. The drawing
below shows that.the groove has been half
worn out from, below, and the smooth,
ungrooved surface of the previously con-
cealed portion of the organ has grown
downwards, which indicates the animal to

Fig. 620.�(c) Groove extending the
whole length of the Corner Incisor at
twenty-one years

be twenty-six years old (fig. 621).

In the course of another four or five

years only a trace of the groove is seen
at the cutting edge of the tooth, the structure up to the place where
the gum encircles it being perfectly smooth. This condition is shown in
the next drawing and indicates that the animal is thirty years old
(fig. 622).

It cannot, of course, be suggested that any great importance has to be
attached to the means of judging a horse's age from twelve, when the

Fig. 621.�(d) Groove grown down from the
gum, leaving the upper part of the tooth
smooth at twenty-six years

Fig. 622.�(e) Groove nearly worn out,
upper part of incisor round and smooth,
at thirty years

animal would be called aged up to thirty, when he would usually be worn
out; but the horseman will find some interest in comparing the drawings
which have been given with the mark in the corner tooth in any cases
which may come under his notice of horses whose ages are accurately
known.

*_1t* The illustrations in this section are reproduced by permission of the Council of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England from the pamphlet by Professor Sir George T. Brown, C.B., entitled "Dentition a*
Indicative of the Age of the Animals of the Farm ".

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PLATE LXVII

'2 II 10 9 8 L

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DENTITION OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES�V

A *s*
� ^lx-year-old New Forest Pony (female)�all the teeth are permanent and show effects of wear.

^ery aged New Forest Pony�the fangs of the teeth have become forked, and the crowns are thin as the result of wear.

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		WARRANTY

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			Section XL-WARRANTY

		A warranty is a guarantee given by the seller to the buyer that a horse answers the description given of it at the time of sale. Such a warranty forms no essential part in the sale of a horse, but so risky is it to purchase without one, that in the sale of valuable animals it is rarely dispensed with. No special form of words is necessary to create a Warranty, nor need they be in writing, though, to avoid disputes or liti- gation, it is obviously prudent to obtain a written warranty wherever possible. Mutatis mutandis, a warranty usually runs somewhat as follows:� " Received of Mr. John Jones of Newborough the sum of fifty guineas for a chestnut mare, warranted quiet to ride and drive. Wm. Brown. "Peterborough, March 14th, 19------." Such a warranty need not be, and in fact rarely is, written at the time the warranty is given. All it amounts to is a memorandum of such Warranty, reduced to writing at the time the money is paid. No stamp is required beyond the receipt stamp, and if the warranty be ⁰ⁿ a piece of paper distinct from the receipt, even this is unnecessary. {Skime v. Elmore, 2 Camp. 407, citing Br own and Try.) Where a written receipt is given, but no mention is made of warranty, such warranty may be proved by parole or oral evidence. (Allen v. Pink, 4 M. v. W. 140.) ■It should be noted that though the words "warrant" and "sound" con- stantly occur in warranties, such words are not essential, as already inti- mated. In Paisley v. Freeman, 1789 (2 Smith's leading cases), Mr. Justice ■culler says: "It was rightly held by Holt, Chief-justice (in Cross v. Gardner, Carthew 90, 1689), and has been uniformly adopted ever since, that an affirmation at the time of a sale is a warranty, provided it appears ^ln evidence to have been so intended". Whether a warranty is intended ^0r not is a question of fact for the jury. 405

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		WARRANTY
	406	WARRANTY

General Warranty.�There are several kinds of warranty. It may be general, as where the seller says: " I warrant the horse", or "the horse is sound ". In such a case all the buyer has to do, if the horse is unsound, is to prove that it was so at the time it was sold. Qualified Warranty.�Or there may be a qualified warranty, as where the seller says: " The horse is sound to the best of my belief". In this case, if the horse is not sound, the buyer must be prepared to prove, not only that the horse was unsound at the time of sale, but that the seller knew of such unsoundness. A statement " that the buyer might depend upon it that the horse was perfectly quiet and free from vice" has been held to be a warranty [Cave v. Colman, 3 Man and E. 2, 1828). Another kind of warranty is that known as a limited warranty, where any objections a buyer may have to make must be made within a stated time, or the horse must be retained with all faults. This is a kind of warranty commonly employed at public sales and repositories. For instance, horses sold by Messrs. Tattersall at Albert Gate, at their Monday sales, " not answering the description, must be returned before five o'clock on Wednesday evening next; otherwise the purchaser shall be obliged to keep the lot with all faults" (Revised cata- logue, March 16th, 1896). In the case of Head v. Tattersall (L.E. 7, Ex. 7, 1871), where the above condition was discussed, two important points were decided. There, before the horse was removed, the buyer was told by the groom in charge of such horse that the warranty given with it was wrong, and it was con- tended that the buyer in removing the horse after such notice had waived his right under the warranty. The court, however, held that the state- ment of the groom was not equivalent to a notice by the defendants that the warranty was incorrect. The other point argued was whether the fact that the horse received some injury while in the custody of the buyer deprived the latter of his right to return it. On this point Baron Bramwell remarked: "It is quite true as a general proposition that a buyer cannot return a specific chattel except it be in the same state as when it was bought; but in such a case as the present the rule must be qualified thus: the buyer must return the horse in the same condition as when he bought it, but subject to any of those incidents to which the horse might be liable, either from its inherent nature or from the course of the exercise by the buyer of those rights over it which the contract gave. For example, suppose the horse when standing in the stable strained itseli or injured a limb, that would not affect the right of return, although the horse would no longer be in exactly the same condition as before."

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	WARRANTY
	WARRANTY	407
		407

Further, if a horse be sold at a repository where a public notice is fixed up that warranties given there are subject to such notice, the buyer is bound by such notice, though it is not particularly referred to at the time of sale (Bywater v. Richardson, 1834) I. a v. E. 508. In Chapman v. Gwyther it was held (I. L.R.Q.B., 463) that when the horse was unsound at the time of sale, but complaint of unsoundness was to be made within a month, and such unsoundness was not discovered within a month of the sale, the buyer was without remedy. Special Warranty.�There is a further warranty known as special warranty. Such a warranty arises when both parties are cognisant of defect, and when the buyer in the one case wishes to render the seller answerable for any consequences that may arise from such defect, or the seller, on the other hand, wishes to protect himself against them. For instance, in Chanter v. Hopkins (4 M. v. W. 406, 1838) the court stated: " If a party offered to sell me a horse of such a description as Would suit my carriage, he could not fix in me the liability to pay for it unless it were a horse fit for the purpose it was wanted for; but if I describe it as a particular bay horse, in that case the contract is performed by his sending that horse". A representation that a horse is " a good drawer and pulls quietly in harness" is a warranty that it is quiet in harness and pulls well there. "Good" means good in all respects (Colt- herd v. Puncheon, 2 D. and E. 10; Smith v. Parsons, 8 C, b. P. 199). A high or sound price is no proof of warranty (per Justice Grose in -Parkinson v. Lee, 2 East. 314, 1802); but generally in the absence of express warranty the law does not imply a warranty as to goodness or quality upon sales of goods. The sale is caveat emptor. The buyer takes at his own risk, and in general no liability is incurred by reason of bad Quality or defects, unless there be an express warranty or fraud. Accord- ^lng to Mr. Justice Grose in the case above cited, " there must either be an express warranty of soundness or fraud in the seller to maintain an action". REPRESENTATIONS THAT DO NOT AMOUNT TO WARRANTY Whether representations made by a seller constitute a warranty is frequently a matter of extreme difficulty to decide. Mere loose words of ^c°nimendation, even though they may induce a purchaser to buy, do not therefore amount to a warranty, as if a seller were to say: "I can fully ^recommend this horse," or " I would sell it to my dearest friend". (Xas- ^Ce^es on Horse Warranty, 2nd edition, 1881, p. 46.) A warranty may, however, be gathered from a series of letters passing between the parties,

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	408	WARRANTY
		WARRANTY

as in Salmon v. Ward (2 C. v. P. 211, 1825). In that case C. J. Best says: " The question is whether the jury and I can collect that a warranty took place; I quite agree that there is a difference between a warranty and a representation, because a representation must be known to be wrong. The plaintiff in his letter says: 'you remember you represented the horse to be five years old', to which the defendant answers, ' the horse is as I repre- sented it'." The jury found that there was a warranty. Hopkins v. Tanqueray (15 C.B. 130; 23 L.V. C.P. 102, 1854) affords an excellent illustration of the difference between a mere repre- sentation and a warranty. In that case, on the day before the sale, while the plaintiff was looking at the horse in the stable, the defendant came in and said to the plaintiff: " You have nothing to look for, I assure you; he is perfectly sound in every respect," and the plaintiff replied: " If you say so, I am satisfied," and bought the horse, presumably on the strength of the defendant's representation. In an action on the assumed warranty the court ruled that there was no warranty. This case, too, confirms the ruling in West v. Jackson (16, 2 B. 280, 1851) that the warranty must be made during the treaty; antecedent representations in no way affect the validity of the sale. When a representation is made during actual treaty, which after- wards becomes an important factor in the transaction, it constitutes an intrinsic part of the warranty; but if it forms no part of contract, but was merely made by the vendor to induce the purchaser to buy, it is not a warranty. No action, it should be noted, will lie for simple misrepresentation: " The rule which is to be derived from all the cases is that where, upon the sale of goods, the purchaser is satisfied without requiring a warranty, he cannot recover upon a mere representation of the quality by the seller, unless he can show that such representation was bottomed in fraud' (Ormrod v. Huth, 14 M. v. W. 651). Where the misrepresentation is perfectly innocent, both parties believing the horse to be sound, a slightly different construction is put upon the transaction, according as there is or is not a general warranty. In the former case the buyer has a remedy, as the seller is liable for the mistake; but where there is no warranty, the buyer must pay the price agreed upon. In Kennedy v. Panama &c- Mail Co. (L.R. 2 B. 580, 587, Ex. Ch., 1867) Mr. Justice Blackburn says: " There is, however, a very important difference between cases where a contract may be rescinded on account of fraud and those in which it might be rescinded on the ground that there is a difference in substance between the thing bargained for and that obtained. It is enough to show that there was a fraudulent representation as to any part of that which induced

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	FRAUD
	FRAUD	409
		409

the party to enter into the contract which he seeks to rescind; but when there has been an innocent misrepresentation or misapprehension, it does not authorize a rescission unless it is such as to show that there is complete difference in substance between what was supposed to be and what was taken, so as to constitute a failure of consideration. For example, when a horse is bought under the belief that it is sound, if the purchaser was induced to buv by a fraudulent representation as to the horse's soundness, the contract may be rescinded. If it was induced by an honest mis- representation as to its soundness, though it may be clear that both the vendor and purchaser thought they were dealing about a sound horse and were in error, yet the purchaser must pay the whole price, unless there was a warranty." Formerly there could be no warranty against future unsoundness, and so Blackstone lays down; but the law now is different, and in Eden v. Parkinson (2 Douglas, 732) it is distinctly stated, " There is no doubt you may warrant a future event". FRAUD Fraud has already been incidentally adverted to as vitiating a contract of sale. As, however, fraud, or deceit, as it is alternatively called, is a word of somewhat vague import, and actionable fraud differs considerably from what is commonly regarded as fraud, some consideration of it in a work °f this kind is necessary. As commonly understood, fraud is a much more heinous offence against morality than the law requires to form the ground of an action for deceit. It appears, however, to be now well settled that some amount of moral delinquency is necessary to support such an action. What amount of nioral delinquency is necessary to render a misrepresentation fraudulent was fully discussed in the celebrated case of Derry v. Peck (L.R. appeal ^cases, H.L. p. 337 foil.), in which it was finally settled that to support an ^action for deceit there must be an intention to defraud. "No honest mis- take, no mistake not prompted by a dishonest intention is fraud" [Derry ^v- Peck, supra p. 339). A statement " may be inaccurate, yet if the defendants honestly, though mistakenly, believed that it substantially represented the truth, there is no fraud, and an action for deceit will not n^e". In other words, there must be moral culpability; and therefore the tact that a statement was unreasonable will not render it fraudulent if a belief in its truth was honestly entertained by the person making it. " To believe without reasonable grounds is not moral culpability, but mental

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			410 WARRANTY

		culpability." Of course, a statement may be so utterly irrational, so destitute of all reasonable foundation, as to furnish strong evidence of dishonesty; but the mere fact that it is unreasonable does not per se render it fraudulent. In giving his opinion in the above case of Derry v. Peck, Lord Fitz- gerald refers with approval to -the words of Popham, Chief-justice, in a previous case: " That if I have any commodities which are damaged (whether victuals or otherwise), and I, knowing them to he so, sell them for good, and affirm them to be so, an action upon the case lies for the deceit; but although they be damaged, if I, knowing not that, affirm them to be good, still no action lies, without I warrant them to be good." "Popham", Lord Fitz- gerald remarks, "had the reputation of being a consummate lawyer." It should be observed that where a warranty is given, misrepresentation alone, where it forms part of the warranty, even though not fraudulent, might be a sufficient ground for rescinding the contract. Fraud may conveniently be divided into three kinds:� (1) Misrepresentations tainted with fraud. (2) Industrious concealment of defects. (3) Suppression of material facts. Of these (l) and (2) may be said to constitute positive, (3) negative fraud. The first kind of fraud has already been alluded to in the foregoing remarks. A false statement of this nature, it would appear, will only amount to a fraud in horse warranty when it forms a material part of the contract, or when, as above noticed, it is made during actual treaty. It may be generally remarked that no statement, fraudulent or otherwise, antecedent to treaty, or made after a bargain has been struck, will affect a warranty. Examples of the second kind of fraud are the stopping up of " sand cracks", painting over of broken knees, or any similar trick or device to induce a sale or obtain a higher price. A fraud of this kind would vitiate even a sale expressed to be " with all faults". The third kind of fraud, suppression of material facts, would seem to apply to horse warranty only where the buyer has no power of in- spection, and relies upon the integrity of the seller. There it would appear to be of the essence of the contract that the seller shall disclose all material facts. Generally, however, the rule of caveat emptor applies, and the vendor is under no obligation to disclose faults which a purchaser may discover for himself. In Peck v. Ourney (L.R. 6, H.L. 403), which

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			PATENT DEFECTS 411

		is quoted in Derry v. Peck, Lord Cairns says: "There must, in my opinion, be some active misrepresentation of fact, or, at all events, such a partial and fragmentary statement of fact as that the withholding of that which is not stated makes that which is stated absolutely false"; and Lord Blackburn says: "Even if the vendor was aware that the pur- chaser thought the article possessed that quality, and would not have entered into the contract unless he had so thought, still the purchaser is bound, unless the vendor was guilty of some fraud or deceit upon him, and a mere abstinence from disabusing the purchaser of that impression is not fraud or deceit; for whatever may be the case in a court of morals, there is no legal obligation on the vendor to inform the purchaser that he is under a mistake, not induced by the act of the vendor" (Smith v. Hughes, L.R. 6, C.P. 597). Where two or more are concerned in a fraud, it is a criminal offence and amounts to conspiracy. In his "Digest of the Criminal Law" Sir James Stephen remarks (art. 336): " Everyone commits the misdemeanour of conspiracy who agrees with any other person or persons to do any act with intent to defraud the public, or any particular person, or class of persons. . . . Such conspiracy may be criminal, although the act agreed upon is not in itself a crime. I select two of the examples given. A con- spiracy to induce a person to buy horses by falsely alleging that they were the property of a private person and not of a horse-dealer (M. v. Kenriek, 5, 2 B. 49), or a conspiracy to induce a man to take a lower price than that for which he had sold a horse by representing that it had been discovered to be unsound, and resold for less than had been given for ^lt (Carlisle's Case, Drar. 337), are conspiracies to defraud." Fraud, however, as I have already stated, is so many - sided, and assumes so many different forms, that it would be unwise in the extreme to rely upon it as a ground for rescinding a warranty without taking Qualified legal advice. The above brief sketch is merely intended to give ^a general idea of what is meant by actionable fraud, of which even the law itself attempts no definition. PATENT DEFECTS Warranty generally does not extend to cover patent or obvious defects. This was laid down long ago in Bailey v. Merrell (3 Bulstrode, ^y5)- Yet, in the purchase of horses, so strongly has the principle of Warranty been upheld in England, .that it is not safe to rely implicitly ^upon this rule. In Siddard v. Kain (2 Bingham, 183), the plaintiff ^s°ld two horses to the defendant, telling him at the time of sale that

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			412 WARRANTY

		one of them had a cold, but warranting them nevertheless "sound and free from blemish at the end of a fortnight". At the end of the fortnight the buyer refused to complete, as one horse still had a cold and the other a swollen leg. The plaintiff there- upon brought his action for the price, but the jury found for the buyer, and refused a motion for a new trial, on the ground that the warranty applied not to the time of sale but to a future date. This decision recognized the general rule as to patent defects, but found for the buyer apparently on the ground that, the horses not being sound within the time stipulated, he was free to repudiate the contract. Another case, which cannot be regarded as altogether satisfactory, is that of Margetson v. Wright (17 Bingham, 603; vide Bingham, 454). In this case the plaintiff, a lawyer, bought a horse for racing purposes of the defendant, who was a horse-dealer. At the time of sale the defendant pointed out to the plaintiff that the animal was a crib-biter, and had had a splint, and in consideration of these faults agreed to take a less price than he would have otherwise accepted. The warranty was in these words: " And the said Mr. Wright does hereby warrant the said horse to be sound, at this time, in wind and limb". The horse was taken away, put into training, and at the end of six months broke down, and the plaintiff thereupon brought an action and recovered a verdict for breach of warranty. A new trial was applied for and granted, and again the jury found for the buyer, on the ground " that, although the horse had exhibited no symptoms of lameness when the contract was made, he had upon him the seeds of unsoundness at the time of the contract, arising from the splint". A motion for another new trial was refused. The moral to be drawn from this case, is that no one who sells a horse with a patent defect should warrant it without a memorandum upon such warranty that he will not be responsible for any consequences that may arise from such a defect. In another case, Smith v. O'Bryan [Law Times, N.S. 346), the jury gave a verdict for the plaintiff on some- what similar grounds. There the horse fell lame after sale, and the jury found that such lameness arose from a certain splint to which the owner had called the plaintiff's attention at the time of sale. Of course, as already intimated, the general rule that a warranty does not extend to patent defects does not apply where the buyer has no power of inspection: " Where there is no opportunity to inspect the commodity, the maxim caveat emptor does not apply" (per Lord Ellenborough, in Gardiner v. Gray, 4 Camp. 144).

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		PATENT DEFECTS
				413


It should be noticed that, as the law now stands, a written warranty can be varied by parole evidence (Graves v. Key, 3 B. v. Ad. 313, 1832). A distinction should also be drawn between patent defects, which are the defects of disease, accident, &c, and such as are in the nature of natural malformations. These latter are patent, and may seriously interfere with a horse's ^action, as where it is cow-hocked, but a warranty will not cover them. Whether curby hocks are a natural malformation or not is a moot-point, ^and in Brown v. Elkington (8, 7 v. W. 132, 1841) the jury, under the judge's direction, found for the defendant on the ground that curby hocks ^are not, like splints, symptoms of disease, but malformation for which the seller is not liable. One question that naturally suggests itself in connection with this subject of patent defects is, what is the position of dealers in respect of *t? These, it is clear from their special training, are better able to judge °f> and would be quicker to notice, defects than an ordinary or unskilled Person, and defects that would not be patent to the latter might be so to them. The answer is that the law makes no distinction between skilled ^aud unskilled persons in respect of patent defects, but the former are placed in the same favourable position as the latter in this respect. And rightly, as a man's special skill should not be pleaded to his dis- ^advantage. Of course, where defects are so patent as to be obvious to ^aUy one, neither a dealer nor a private person would be protected by a ^warranty. Many defects are obvious to any one, as, for instance, broken ^uees and severe lameness. Vice, too, can hardly be concealed. Very °iten, however, a warranty is impugned when the buyer only is in fault. A horse that was perfectly free from vice when sold may be rendered ^Vlcious by cruel or improper treatment; or a horse that was perfectly ^uiet to ride or drive in the hands of its former owner may become restive ^Ironi want of exercise and from high feeding. Defects, of course, that are not patent may be covered by a warranty; ^jut so indeterminable is the law of patent defects as applied to horse ^Warranty, that many dealers refuse to give warranties either absolutely °r for more than a certain time. We have already shown that a warranty given by Messrs. Tattersall at their weekly sales at Albert Gate extends °ⁿⁱy to two days, and a common warranty from Horncastle Fair lasts twenty-eight days.

	Vol. 111.
	Vol. 111.		92
			92

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			414 WAKRANTY

		DEALERS AND PRIVATE PERSONS AND OTHERS We have already had occasion to notice the position of dealers as com- pared with private persons in treating of patent defects. In this relation the law makes no distinction between dealers and non- dealers, and hence the former in this respect occupy a decidedly favourable position by reason of their special knowledge. In other respects, however, dealers are placed at a disadvantage. So, by the statute, 29 Car. 2 C, 7 S.I., it is enacted that no tradesman, arti- ficer, workman, labourer, or other person whatsoever shall do or exercise any ivorldly labour, business, or work of their ordinary callings, upon the Lord's Day, or any part thereof (works of necessity and charity only excepted); and that every person of the age of fourteen years offending in the premises (that is, in the aforesaid provisions) shall forfeit five shillings. Under this statute it has been held that a horse-dealer cannot sue for a breach of warranty made on the sale of a horse which he purchased on a Sunday (Fennell v. Ridler, 5 B. v. C. 406). A sale, however, on a Sunday, which is not made by the seller or his agent in the exercise of his ordinary calling, is not void either at common law or under the above statute (Scarfe v. Morgan, 4 M. v. W. 270, 1838; Drury v. De Fontaine, I. Raunt. 131, 1808); and in Bloxsome v. Williams it was held that a person who had bought a horse of a dealer, warranted sound, on a Sunday, but did not know that the vendor was a dealer and exercising his ordinary calling, could sue upon such warranty. The case of Smith v. Sparroiv (4 Bing. 84, 1827) is important, because in it the judges doubted the -decision in Bloxsome v. Williams, and referred with high approval to the case of Fennell v. Ridler. Horse-dealers, farmers, and others, there- fore, whose ordinary calling, or part of whose ordinary calling, it may be to sell horses, should be careful not to sell or give a warranty upon a Sunday. Otherwise they are liable to have the sale repudiated, and the horse returned upon their hands; or they may find themselves the de- fendants in an action for breach of warranty to which they will have no defence. Another respect in which dealers differ from private persons is that i of agency. In some cases an agent is undoubtedly able to give a warranty. "Whether he is or is not so able depends upon the nature of the agency and upon the position of the principal. Horse-dealers and others could hardly carry on their trade unless they were able to delegate their authority to a representative. Such a representative would be known

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	DEALEES AND PRIVATE PERSONS AND OTHERS
		415


^as a general agent, and, in the absence of express notice to a purchaser, ^would have power to do all that is generally done in carrying on such ^a trade. So the keeper of a livery stable is liable to an action for breach °f warranty upon a warranty given by his servant, though he had expressly given such servant instructions not to warrant, for the public ^ls not supposed to know of any private arrangement between principal ^and agent, where the latter is acting within the general scope of his authority. This last reservation is important, as where an agent does any act, ^which does not form a part of his duties or employment as an agent, his principal is not bound. (Fenn v. Harrison, 3 T�R. 757, 1790; Harvard v. Sheward, L.R. C.P. 148, 1866.) So too the servant of ^a private person, who is entrusted with the sale of a horse at a fair or other public mart, would appear to have power to warrant and bind his principal by such warranty, as it is usual, in the course of business, for the person in possession to have such power. (Brady v. Todd, 9 C.B., ■N-S. 592, 1861; Alexander v. Gibson, 2 Campb. 555, 1811; Brooks v. Rctssal, 49 L.T. 569, 1883.) Except, however, in such a case, the ^Servant of a private person, who has been instructed to sell and deliver ^a horse on a particular occasion, is not thereby authorized to give a Warranty; and if a buyer takes a warranty from such servant, he will "^ave to prove, in order to bind the principal, that the servant was ^authorized to give such warranty. (Brady v. Todd, vide supra.) It should ^De noticed that in both the cases instanced above, where the principal ^ls bound by the act of the agent, he is so bound by general custom or Usage�in the case of the dealer, because the agent is a general agent, ^wuo, in conducting his principal's business, has a generally understood Power to grant warranties; in the case of the private owner, because ^lt; is customary for a person in possession of a horse at a fair or public ^n3art, and entrusted with the sale of such horse, to possess all the powers the owner, including that of warranty. He would not in this case ^e a general agent, but rather a special agent with general powers. ¹¹ no other case, however, would such a presumption be allowed as ⁴gamst a private owner, as it is no part of his business to sell horses, ^0r can his servant be assumed to have the powers necessary in the ^ase of a horse-dealer for the conduct of his business. Where an auctioneer is instructed to sell, he may be the agent of both ^uyer and seller for the purpose of signing the memorandum contemplated ^bF the statute of frauds (29 Car. 2 C. 3). ^ Whether he is so or not, however, depends somewhat on circumstances, uere the sale takes place at a private place, he is the agent of the seller

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		WARRANTY
	416	WARRANTY

only, and wherever the place of sale may be, he only becomes the agent of the buyer on the fall of the hammer (Warlow v. Harrison, 28 L.J. 2 B. 18, 1858). There is no need to give a written authority to an auctioneer. The mere act of sending a horse to a repository for the sale of horses would be taken as an implied authority to sell, and an owner would be bound by a bona-fide sale even without his express consent. "An auctioneer has a possession coupled with an interest in goods which he is employed to sell, not a bare custody, like a servant or shopman. There is no difference whether the sale be on the premises of the owner or at a public auction-room; for the premises of the owner an actual pos- session is given to the auctioneer and his servants by the owner, not merely an authority to sell. I have said a possession coupled with an interest; but an auctioneer has also a special property in him with a lien for the charges of the sale, the commission with the auction duty, which he is bound to pay." (Wilson, Justice, in Williams v. Millington, I.H., Bl. 81, 1788.) Where a horse is sold at a repository on the condition that, if it does not answer the warranty given with it, it may be returned within a certain time, the auctioneer is statute-holder between the seller and purchaser, and the money paid by the latter does not rest in the seller until such time has elapsed. The purchase-money, until such time has elapsed, should be retained by the auctioneer. A misdescription of horse put up for sale by the auctioneer will vitiate a sale, and may even amount to fraud, as if a horse be wrongly described as the property of a certain gentle- man deceased, or as belonging to a certain stud. Where, too, it i^sexpressed in the conditions of the sale that " the highest bidder shall be the purchaser, and if a dispute arise, it shall be decided by a majority of the persons present", it would be fraudulent for the seller to bid either himself or by an agent. Puffing also is illegal, and if the buyer finds it out, the seller cannot recover the price (Pilmore v. Hood, 5 Bingham, N.C. 97, 1838). This point was fully considered in Crowder v. Austin (3 Bingham, 368, 1826)- This action was brought to recover the price of a horse sold at Aldridge s Repository, where one of the conditions of sale was that each horse shoufo. be sold to the highest bidder. The seller had employed his groom to run up the price of the horse, and the buyer, having discovered this, refused to take it. The plaintiff was non-suited. Auctioneers have also a lien (°^rclaim) upon horses sold by them for their commission and charges {Robin- son v. Rutter, 4 E. v. B. 954, 1855; Williams v. Millington, v. supra; and Grice v. Kenrich, L.E. 5, 2 B. 340, 1870). Where fraudulent repre- sentations are put into the mouth of the auctioneer, the seller canno recover the price (Murray v. Mann, 2 Exch. 538, 1848).

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		417
	DEALERS AND PRIVATE PERSONS AND OTHERS	417
	DEALERS AND PRIVATE PERSONS AND OTHERS

Generally, it may be stated that a sale in a fair or market overt is binding upon all persons claiming any property in the thing sold. In the country, market overt is only held upon certain fixed days, in a place specially set apart for the purpose; but shops are not market overt. In the city of London every shop is market overt for the class of goods usually sold there, and every day, except Sunday, is a market day. In the case of horses, the general rule as regards sales in market overt are somewhat modified by statute. The first statute dealing with the question was passed in 1555 (2 v. 3 P. v. M.C. 7), and this was followed in 1589 by another (31 Elir. C. 12). They provide inter alia that, in all fairs and markets overt where horses are sold, a toll-keeper shall be appointed to keep the place from ten o'clock in the morning till sunset, and to take tolls for all horses. Such toll-keeper was further required to enter the names, descriptions, and addresses of buyers and sellers in a book kept for the purpose, together with a full description of the horses sold. These statutes Were mainly directed against horse-stealing, and practically effected their object. It should be noticed here that a sale at a repository outside the city of London is not a sale in market overt (See v. Bayes, 18 C.B. 599, 1856). Another class of persons who are liable to the laws of warranty are job-masters. When a job-master lets out a horse or carriage for any par- ticular purpose, he is taken to have warranted it for that purpose. This reservation is important, as such liability ceases if the hirer has used the horse for any other purpose than that for which it is let out. Thus, if a horse is let out for riding, the hirer must not put it into harness; if he does so, and an accident thereby happens, he, and not the owner, is liable. Generally, also, if the hirer keeps the horse for a longer period than that for which it is hired, he is responsible. With these exceptions, how- ever, and certain others which I shall presently notice, the letter is respon- sible for every accident and loss which he cannot prove to have been due to the positive negligence of the hirer (Cooper v. Burton, 3 Camp. 5, 1810). > hat constitutes negligence in contemplation of law is not capable perhaps °f exact definition. Some acts, however, are clearly negligent. Thus, in driving on the wrong side of the road, one is bound to exer- cise more than ordinary care to avoid a collision; if one do not exercise ^sUch care, and an accident happens, one will clearly be liable for such ^accident on the ground of negligence. So, too, a hirer has been held liable ^f°r "overdriving" a horse (Walley v. Holt,* 35 L.T., N.S., 630, 1876).

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		WARRANTY
	418


But where a horse is returned with broken knees the letter must prove negligence in the hirer {Cooper v. Burton, v. supra). If a horse fall ill during the hiring, and the hirer prescribes for it him- self and the horse dies, he is liable, but not if he calls in a farrier (Deane v. Keate, 3 Camp. 4, 1811); also, if a horse become exhausted and refuse its food, the hirer must discontinue the use of it (Bray v. Maine, Gow. 1, ancl see Edwards v. Carr, 13 Gray's Massachusetts Rep. 234, 1859). To sup- port an action for negligence the rule is that there must be some affirma- tive proof of negligence; where the evidence does not go to prove whicn party failed to take proper care, the plaintiff will fail in his action. Further, if there has been contributory negligence, that is if an accident alleged to have been caused by the negligence of the defendant would not have happened but for negligence on the part of the plaintiff, the latter could not recover. The owner is also bound to supply strong and proper harness where a horse is employed to draw any vehicle, and is liable if any accident occurs through the reins breaking (Cotterill v. Starlcey, S.C. ^v- P. 693). It was there stated that " if a person driving along the road cannot pull up because his reins break, that will be no ground of defence, as he is bound to have proper tackle ". It was also decided in this case that " a foot-passenger has a right to cross a highway, and persons driving carriages along the road are liable if they do not take care, so as to avoid driving against the foot-passengers who are crossing the road". They are also bound " to drive slowly, cautiously, and carefully over a crossing tor foot-passengers", while a correlative duty is cast upon the foot-passengers " to use due care and caution in going upon a crossing, so as not recklessly to get among the carriages (Williams v. Richards, 3 C. v. K. 82). "The rule", however, "as to the proper side of the road does not apply with respect to foot-passengers; and as regards foot-passengers, the carriages may go on whichever side they please" (Cotterill v. Tuff). Where a job-master lets horses by the day, week, or job, and also supplies the driver, he is generally responsible for all the injuries resulting from careless driving; if, however, the hirer supplies the driver, he would appear to be responsible for any accident or loss arising from negligence or want of skill in such driver (Croft v. Alison, 4 B. v. Aid. 590). Where, however, the letter supplies the driver, the hirer may make himself respon- sible under certain circumstances, as where he takes upon himself the actual management of the horses, or directs the driver to do something unusual or improper, in consequence of which an accident happens (Quarman v. Burnett, 6 M. v. W., 507). The mere fact of the hirer sitting on the box-seat alongside the driver will not, however, as commonly supposed, relieve the latter of responsi-

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			SOUNDNESS 419*

		bility. Of course, if an accident happens through a servant exceeding or not acting within the scope of his duties, the master is not liable. What acts are and what are not within the scope of the servant's employment it is not always easy to determine, and is a question that must necessarily depend to a large extent upon the facts of each particular case. SOUNDNESS What is meant by soundness has been variously stated in works upon the horse and also in decided cases. According to Baron Parke in Kid- dell v. Burnard, " the word ' sound' means what it expresses, namely, that the animal is sound and free from disease at the time it is warranted to be sound"; and in the same case Baron Alderson says, "the word 'sound' means sound, and the only qualification of which it is susceptible arises. from the purpose for which the warranty is given. If, for instance, a horse is purchased to be used in a given way, the word ' sound' means that the animal is useful for that purpose, and ' unsound' means that he at the time of sale is affected with something which will have the effect of impeding that use." Such may be taken to embody the legal definition of soundness. Positive definitions are, however, rarely satisfactory, and for practical purposes a negative definition, that is a definition of unsoundness, is at °nce easier and better. " Stonehenge" gives the definition of unsoundness ^as " the existence of disease or alteration of structure which does or will Unpair the horse's natural usefulness". Unsoundness, therefore, would appear to be caused by disease or alteration of structure either actually or prospectively impairing a horse's usefulness. The diseases that constitute Unsoundness we shall presently consider; what is meant by "alteration of structure " may be disposed of at once. A sound horse has been defined as a horse in perfect health, with perfect action or motion of all its limbs and organs". Not that, to be sound, a horse must exactly fulfil these ^requirements�very few horses do�but a horse may be said to be perfect ^ln health and limb without being ideally perfect. A horse, for instance, ^rth some natural malformation may be perfectly sound, as already inti- mated, since natural malformation does not constitute unsoundness, and ^^et not be perfect in such a sense. A horse, however, that had been " nerved " would not be sound. In Best v. Osborne (E. v. M. 290), where ^a horse moved soundly enough, but had been " nerved " to cure it of lame- ness, Mr. Justice Best remarks: " Sound means perfect, and a horse de- prived of a useful nerve is imperfect, and has not that capacity for service nich is stipulated for in a warranty of soundness".

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			420 WARRANTY

		It remains further to consider what diseases or defects do, and what d not, constitute unsoundness. It will clear the ground if we deal with tn latter class first. Bog Spavins are caused by sprain or hard work, and in the slighter cases do not constitute unsoundness. If, however, they cause lameness, the case is otherwise, though lameness alone amounts to unsoundness. Spavins generally we shall have occasion to consider later. Broken knees, when the joint is not so injured as to impair its action, do not amount to unsoundness. Capped hocks and elbows do not render a horse unsound, so long as they do not cause lameness or interfere in any way with the action o the joints. Contraction of the foot is not in itself a mark of unsoundness. 1* is, however, frequently a result of unsoundness, as of navicular disease, anc will then amount to unsoundness. We may here also conveniently notice rings on the hoof. These are sometimes regarded as marks of unsoundness, though they are not neces- sarily so. When a horse suffers from a disorder the growth of the hoof becomes less active, resulting in the formation of a groove, and then, when the horse is turned out to grass, healthy growth is renewed, thus causing ^aring. Blisters, too, if used periodically, will cause a rapid growth of the hoof for the time, and a series of rings will result as a consequence. Curby hocks are not unsoundness. In the celebrated case of Broivn v. Elkington (8 M. v. W. 132), Lord Abinger remarked that "a defect m the formation of the horse, which had not occasioned lameness at the time of sale, though it might render the animal more liable to be lame at some future time, was no breach of warranty ". This view was upheld by the Court of Exchequer, which refused to grant a new trial. Cutting is not unsoundness, unless the horse is lame from it at the time of sale. It is, in fact, often the result of bad shoeing. Soreness of the joints arises from overwork and is not accounted unsoundness. Splints do not amount in every case to unsoundness, but only when they cause, or by their size, form, or position are likely to cause, lameness. The leading case on splints is Margetson v. Wright, to which we have already had occasion to refer. Thoroughpin in a moderate degree would not appear to amount to unsoundness. As this, however, is a matter of opinion, it is unwise ^t0warrant a horse sound if suffering from this disease. Thrush, when only a consequence of mismanagement, and not cause

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		421
	SOUNDNESS	421
	SOUNDNESS

by any disease or defect in the horse, will not be held to amount to unsoundness. Windgalls usually arise from overwork, and when of small size and unproductive of lameness, do not constitute unsoundness. We now come to consider those diseases or forms, or stages of disease, which do constitute unsoundness. Blindness.�All forms or degrees of blindness which impair a horse's usefulness amount to unsoundness. Bog spavins, when so severe as to interfere with the action of the joint, amount to unsoundness. Breaking down.�A horse is said to be broken down when through an extraordinary strain on the sinews and tendons of the leg it has become temporarily lame, and the part affected is swollen and inflamed. The swelling may sometimes be so reduced as to pass unnoticed by an ordinary buyer, but a broken-down horse is undoubtedly unsound. Broken Knees.�These, when the injury is only slight and superficial, do not, as already intimated, render a horse unsound; but when the knees have been so badly broken as to allow the synovia, or joint-oil as it is called, to escape, or when the skin over the knees has become so thickened, in con- sequence, as to impede their action, the horse will be unsound. The latter kind of unsoundness, however, occurs more especially when a horse has been thrown down repeatedly, or when the injury has been deep and severe. Cataract constitutes unsoundness in every stage of the disease. Cold.�This is unsoundness, and will vitiate a warranty of soundness H the horse is suffering from a cold at the time of sale. Corns, which generally occur in the fore-feet, are usually held to be a mark of unsoundness, and if they cause, or are likely to cause, lameness, are so. If, however, they are superficial and only of a trifling nature, they Would not apparently amount to unsoundness. In an aggravated form, or Ui any of their more serious developments, they would unquestionably amount to unsoundness. Coughs.�A cough will render a horse unsound, that is, of course, if the horse had it at the time of sale. To avoid unnecessary litigation, how- ^ever, it should be observed that horses are specially liable to acquire this ^ailment, and if they do so at any period after sale, there can be no return tor breach of warranty. Curbs are accounted unsoundness, even though there be no lameness. A horse with a curb, sold under a general warranty, can be at once ^turned; if, however, the curb be pointed out at the time of sale, it ^iU be a case of special warranty, and the buyer must be upon his guard. ^UrDy hocks have already been noticed.

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			422 WARRANTY

		Farcy, a disease identical with glanders, renders a horse unsound. Fever in the Feet, Founder, or Laminitis alters the structure of the foot, and therefore amounts to unsoundness. This disease alone, apart from other considerations, renders a horse unsound, because the laminse are so affected by the disease that a horse which can be proved to have suffered from it is most likely to fall lame if put to work. Dropping and bulging of the sole of the foot and displacement of the bones is often a result of laminitis. Glanders is a most serious disease, sometimes confounded with strangles. A horse sold with glanders should be at once returned and the purchase-money demanded back.¹ If the seller can be proved to have known of the existence of the disease, the buyer may also recover damages. A horse with glanders must not be resold, but destroyed. Grease, a skin disease generally affecting the heel of the foot, and which will be found dealt with elsewhere, constitutes a horse unsound. Mange, a parasitic skin disease which is generally apparent, amounts to unsoundness. Megrims, or fits, renders a horse unsound. Navicular disease, a disease of the foot, known in its advanced stage as " errosginess ", renders a horse unsound. o Co ⁷ A "nerved" horse is unsound on two grounds; by reason of the disease for which it was "nerved", and as being structurally imperfect through the nerves having been severed. A "nerved" horse may be able to work, but is at any time liable to become useless on account of the defect. Ophthalmia is unsoundness. If it has previously existed and again manifests itself soon after purchase, it is most likely of constitutional origin. Evidence of its presence by a competent veterinary surgeon will be sufficient to enable the buyer to rescind the contract. Ossification of any of the structures adjacent to the joints, and there- fore ossification of the lateral cartilages, constitutes unsoundness. Pumiced foot is unsoundness, as being evidence of laminitis. Quidding, being an indication of disease or defect in the mouth, i^sunsoundness. Quittor, a chronic abscess of the foot, is unsoundness. It is generally accompanied by more or less lameness, which, as already stated, woul alone constitute unsoundness. Ring-bones and Side-bones, both large and small, render a horse unsound. 'Notice to the vendor must be given, recent law preventing the leading of a glandered horse thro g thoroughfare except under special conditions.

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	SOUNDNESS
		423


Roaring and whistling, as evidence of contraction of the entrance to the air-passages, render a horse unsound; in other words, they are evidence of a structural defect, and a roarer or whistler is therefore unsound. This was decided in Onslow v. Eames (2 Starkie, N.P.C. 81). Ruptures of all kinds render a horse unsound. Sand-cracks, or cracks in the hoof of a horse, sometimes extending from the sole to the coronet, constitute unsoundness. They have been already noticed in treating of "patent defects", and would apparently only invalidate a warranty where the buyer has no power of inspection. Seedy-toe, which appears as a hole or cavity in the hoof, is a form of unsoundness. False-quarter, or sand-cracks in an aggravated form, would clearly amount to unsoundness. The remark as to warranty in cases of sand-crack would apply both to "seedy-toe" and "false-quarter". Spavin (bone).�A spavined horse has been held to be unsound, although not lame (Watson v. Denton, 7 C. v. G. 86). Many good racers and hunters, however, have spavins, which in no way impede their action or inconvenience them. If a spavin caused lameness, it would undoubtedly render a horse un- sound. " Bog" and " blood spavins " have already been noticed. *Strangle, an infectious fever affecting the throat, which is very likely to lay the seeds of roaring and whistling, amounts to unsoundness. Stringhalt, a peculiar jerky action of the hind-legs, will render a horse unsound. It should be observed that horses with this disease, though unsound, are not incapacitated for any kind of work. Thickening of the back sinews,** or suspensory ligament, will, when appreciable, constitute a horse unsound. The diseases above noticed, it will be observed, apply for the most part to the feet and legs. They constitute, in fact, in the vast majority of cases, the grounds on which horses are returned for alleged breach of warranty. There are, however, other diseases not so easily discoverable which amount to unsoundness. Generally, it may be stated that all diseases of the internal organs constitute unsoundness, though they are frequently so subtle as to defy detection. Of these it will be sufficient to notice a few to which the horse is more especially liable. Colic and gripes are self- evident, as the horse that suffers from them is convulsed with agony; but chronic nephritis, or inflammation of the kidneys, is less apparent, but more insidious. We may also notice cystitis, or inflammation of the bladder, spasm of the neck of the bladder, stone in the bladder, and diabetes, ^aU or any of which diseases will render a horse unsound for the purposes °f warranty, as will any acute or chronic ailment of the other important organs of the body.

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		WARRANT?
	424	WARRANT?
	424

VICES Besides diseases and defects which amount to unsoundness, there are certain faults which will entitle a buyer to return a horse when warranted " free from vice ". Of course, it must be clear that such faults existed at the time of sale, and are not the result of subsequent mismanagement or unskilfulness. The first we shall have occasion to notice is:� Biting.�A biter is manifestly vicious, as being dangerous to those who have occasion to approach it. From the great power in a horse's jaw it is capable of inflicting terrible injuries. Bolting, or running away, is also held to be a vice, if habitual. It is open to question, however, whether a horse that has run away once would not be likely to do so again if a favourable opportunity offered. Crib-biting, as tending to injure a horse, is sometimes held to be a vice. If it has that effect, it undoubtedly is a vice. Many devices have been tried to cure this habit, with more or less success. One, adopted by a well-known sportsman, is a slung bar in front of the manger, which slips away from the horse as often as he attempts to gnaw it. Kicking.�This is a very bad and dangerous habit, and a confirmed kicker is unquestionably a vicious animal. It is, however, not at all an unusual thing for a high-mettled or even a docile horse to develop a habit of kicking, in consequence of mismanagement or cruelty, which before purchase was perfectly free from the vice. Thus a young horse warranted " quiet to ride and drive", after being kept in the stable a long time and too highly fed, may, on being put into harness, run away, though it had never shown a tendency to do so before; or kick the dashboard to pieces and upset the vehicle, from being urged uphill with sticks. Before returning a horse, therefore, for the alleged vice of kicking, it ^lSalways desirable to ascertain, first, whether the horse is a confirmed kicker; and secondly, if it be so, how it acquired such a habit. Kicking when " merely a mode of letting off superfluous spirit" is, of course, not a vice. Rearing, if it has become a habit, is most dangerous, as the horse may fall backwards upon and kill its rider. In this stage it is probably incurable, and is a vice. In a raw, unbroken colt, however, it could hardly be accounted a vice. RestiveneSS, in the sense of refusing to go in the direction desired, is a returnable vice. Shying, when a confirmed habit, is a vice. Weaving in the stable, or an uneasy moving of the head from side to side, like a wild beast in his cage, is a vice.

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			VICES 425

		We may conveniently sum up this brief enumeration of ailments amounting to unsoundness and returnable vices with the definition laid down in Elton v. Brogden (4 Camp. 281): "If at the time of sale the horse has any disease which either actually does diminish the natural usefulness of the animal, so as to make him less capable of work of any description, or which in its ordinary progress will diminish the natural usefulness of the animal, this is unsoundness; or if the horse has, either from disease or accident, undergone any alteration of structure that either actually does at the time, or in its ordinary effects will diminish the natural usefulness of a horse, such a horse is unsound". It should also be borne in mind that ailments to amount to unsound- ness need not be permanent or incurable. It is sufficient if the horse is affected by such ailment at the time of sale; or even, according to the decision in the leading case of Margetson v. Wright, to which we have already had occasion to refer, if the horse has the seeds of unsound- ness in him at the time of sale. Even if a horse which was unsound at the time of sale, recovers before action is brought, this is no defence to such action. We may conveniently close this chapter with a few remarks as to the proper course to be adopted where a horse is believed not to answer to its warranty. If there can be no mistake about its unsoundness, and that such unsoundness existed at the time of sale, it should be at once returned, with a letter demanding back the purchase - money. It is, however, always desirable to obtain independent veterinary testimony, written if possible, or the opinion of an expert, previous to returning the horse. Such return should also be accompanied by a copy of the veterinary surgeon's report, or the expert's opinion. If the seller refuses to take the horse back, it may be sold, and he may be sued for any deficiency between the price realized at such sale and the price originally paid for it, together with any expenses to which the buyer may have been thereby put. Of course, there must be no unnecessary delay in returning the animal, as the law does not aid those who sleep upon their rights. No definite time is fixed by law for the return, and each case must be governed more or less by its own peculiar incidents; but generally, m the absence of any stated time, as where the horse has not been sold subject to the rules obtaining at some fair or repository for the sale of horses, eight days inclusive may be taken to be a reasonable limit. If the horse is very valuable, legal aid should be sought, and action ^wiU then be taken in one of the superior courts, but many cases of warranty will naturally come within the jurisdiction of the county courts,

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			426 WARRANTY

		■and in that case the plaintiff may desire to conduct his own case. I¹¹this latter event he can obtain all necessary information respecting the usual formalities from the officials of the court belonging to the district in which he lives. A few suggestions, however, will not be out of place. All original letters or documents should be carefully preserved, togethei with the warranty, if written. He should also write out a detailed statement of his claim, of which he should make three copies, one 101 his own use, one for service on the defendant, and the third to be attached to the plaint note. He should also serve a notice upon the defendant to produce all letters and documents bearing upon the case. The plamtin should then consider what witnesses he requires to prove his case, and if he has reason to think that any of them will not come willingly) he should subpcena them. His statement in court should be a plain and unvarnished setting - out of the facts, chronologically arranged, up to the discovery and proof of breach of warranty. The defence set up niay be a direct denial of the allegations of the plaintiff, or that such alleged breach is the plaintiff's own fault. If the warranty is in writing, the case will, of course, be much simplih^ecl' as the court will be in possession of the exact terms. If the warranty is not in writing, the plaintiff should be careful to give the exact terms of the warranty, since, as already stated, there are many representations which do not amount to, or constitute part of, a warranty. A written certificate of soundness or unsoundness, it is to be observed, is only of use in court for the purpose of correcting evidence, and tn person giving such certificate should be in court, so that the party whom such certificate is adverse may have an opportunity of cross-exaiM¹¹" ing him. A written warranty, as already stated, need not be stamp^eC � Whether, however, a horse is to be sold with a warranty or not, tn intending purchaser should be careful to overhaul him before a bargain is struck, as, where there is full power of inspection, the maxim cavea emptor, "at purchaser's risk", will apply, where there is a warranty ! respect of patent defects, and where there is no warranty, uncondition ally-

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		HORSE-SHOEING

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		Section XIL-HORSE-SHOEITO

HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING The adoption of horse-shoeing marks an advanced stage of civilization m a country. Good roads are essential to social and commercial develop- ment, and good roads necessitate horse - shoeing. Until artificial roads are made and generally adopted, the horse's hoof is able to withstand the wear of tolerably long journeys. Between the time of no shoes and the era of shoes fixed by nails a long period of slow evolution intervened. In the days of Xenophon horses were not shod either for civil or military purposes. The armies of Alexander suffered from the effects of wear ^uPon the feet of their horses, and we are told that cavalry was left behind, owing to the damaged state of the horses' hoofs. A form of sandal woven of grass is the earliest protection for the horse's foot recorded, and it was not constantly used, but only employed on horses that were too lame to travel without some temporary cover for the worn ^0r broken hoof. Probably the next stage in hoof-protection would be the use of leather, as less cumbersome than the sandals made from ^Vegetable fibre. Then we pass to the use of metal plates to strengthen the sandals, and next to metal plates attached by leather thongs. Metal shoes for continuous wear, fixed by nails, came gradually into ^Use in Europe between the fifth and ninth centuries. As skilled work- men would be required to make and fix them, it may be concluded that ^at first only horses employed for military or court purposes would be generally shod. Then the horses used for traffic in towns would be ^shod, and as hard roads extended, so would the art of shoeing spread along them for the protection of the feet of horses used for carrying goods ^0r passengers. There is no account of the art in this country prior to the Conquest, ^"hen William of Normandy gave to Simon St. Liz, one of his followers, ^ne town of Northampton and the hundred of Falkley, then valued at ⁴⁰ per annum, to provide shoes for his horses. In Brook's Catalogue °J Errors, page 65, it is stated that "he appointed Henry de Ferrers
	Vol. in

			93
			93

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		HORSE-SHOEING
	430	HORSE-SHOEING
	430

to be superintendent of the shoeing smiths; and his descendants tn Earls of Ferrers bore six horse - shoes on the quarterings of their arms. At Oakham, in Eutlandshire, the seat of the family, a singular custom long prevailed. If any baron of the realm passed through the place, he was to forfeit one of his horse's shoes unless he chose to redeem it by a fine. The forfeited shoe, or one made in its place, was fixed upon the castle gates, inscribed with his name. In consequence of this custom the gates became in time covered with numerous shoes, some of them of unusual size, and others gilt, &c." From its introduction by the Conqueror, to the time of Elizabeth, w have little recorded account of the shoeing art, but that it was no neglected we may be certain, as one of the old City of London Guilds �the Worshipful Company of Farriers�was founded as early as 1360. The first work in the English language which contains any detaiie account of shoeing is that of Blundeville, published in 1609. In ^^niswork, illustrations are given of shoes for general and special purposes, and for sound and unsound feet. These shoes (fig. 623) are very similar m outline to those now used, but are heavy and clumsy, and wanting in some of the little details which are necessary to make them most useful and. comfortable. The horse-shoe of Queen Elizabeth's time was merely a bar of iron about twice as wide as it was thick, turned to the outline of the hoof, and supplied with nail-holes punched through its substance. in 1674 the Worshipful Company of Farriers obtained from Charles II ^aCharter of Incorporation which gave them controlling powers over ai farriers within the city of London and for seven miles around. One ° the reasons for granting the charter was that "horses were seriously injured by the operations of persons unskilled in the art". In this reign farriers not only shod but doctored the horse, and were the re- cognized attendants on sick and injured animals. In the eighteenth century further progress had been made, and more than one useful treatise was published. Two of the most practical writer were Osmer and Clark, who had noticed the injury done to flat feet by the uneven bearings of a flat shoe. They consequently bevelled oft ^aportion of the foot surface of the shoe, so that only its outer portion came in contact with the hoof. Just before the close of the century ' French veterinarian arrived in England and founded the Royal Veterinary College. Charles Vial de Sainbel only lived a short while after establish- ing the college, but during that time he reintroduced a shoe flat ^or* the foot surface and concave towards the ground. The successor o Sainbel at the Veterinary College was a surgeon named Coleman, wh took great interest in the horse's foot and shoeing. He published tw

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HISTORY OF HORSE-SHOEING 431

volumes�one on the anatomy of the foot, with coloured plates, and one
°n the principles of shoeing. About the same time a sporting gentleman,
Strickland Freeman, issued a book on horse-shoeing. It is difficult to
^say whether his or Coleman's illustrations were the more artistic and
correct. Both were excellent, but it must be confessed that the principles

J K ._

Fig. 623.�Divers Shapes of Shoes

afal

A, A shoe for a perfect horse. B, Hinder shoe for same. C, For a flat-foot or pomised horse. D, For

s quarter, shoe with the inside turned outward to show the shoulderings. E, Fore-shoe for interfering.

^fj Hind-shoe for interfering. G, Lunet for weak heels. H, T^Vlee- J, A joint shoe to widen and straighten at pleasure,

I, A shoe with a
K, A shoe with a welt or border. L, A shoe

with rings to make a horse lift his feet.

⁰ fernery laid down by Freeman were better than those of his scientific
^rival.

Between 1800 and 1830 the subject of horse-shoeing found many

^exponents. Bracy Clark, Goodwin, Moorcroft, and Cherry kept up a

ontmuous discussion, which doubtless did much to improve the art,

which introduced some very unfortunate theories, followed by evil

actices. Flat shoes and "seated" shoes were offered as panaceas for

^ Kinds of feet. Narrow shoes were pitted against wide shoes, short

gainst long. Frog pressure and short shoes were tried and discarded.

^es were pared thin, and frogs trimmed to favour elasticity. Shoes

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			432 HORSESHOEING

		were made with hinges to allow expansion, and heated quarrels took place as to the position and direction which nails and nail-holes should take. Each authority pledged himself to some special form of shoe or method of applying it as the only one suitable for all feet. Few, if any, seemed to grasp the fact that horses' feet differed widely in form and substance, and that the best general principles depended largely for success upon the careful performance of every detail. From 1830 to 1860 not much was written about horse-shoeing- Farriers followed their own line, and rather looked askance at theories and principles. The actual manual work was remarkably well done m the large towns, but too much attention was given to the production of the shoe, whilst the preparation of the foot was neglected save i°^rthe neat and smart appearance shown by the whole operation. J-^nehoof was pared and rasped as though it were an inanimate block, wito the result that it was more fitted for a table ornament than a basis or support for a horse travelling over rough roads. To the late Mr. JosepO Gamgee belongs the chief credit of the more sensible methods adopted to-day. From 1860 to 1870 he never ceased to write and teach that a horse-shoe was wanted to protect a hoof from wear, that the hoof should be left as strong as possible compatible with its proper proportions, and that the fitting of a shoe to the foot should be exact, whilst every i°° should be treated according to its own special requirements. He ^waSably seconded in his endeavours by Dr. G. Fleming and other veterinarians, with the result that correct principles are now quite understood and fairly widely adopted. During the last decade a new departure has been made in some counties. The technical education committees have recog" nized the importance of horse-shoeing as a craft, and an endeavour being made to improve the art by lectures and by practical demonstration with a travelling forge and an efficient instructor. Now that apprentice- ship has fallen into desuetude, this practical instruction is the only ^wa) in which many districts can offer facilities for young workmen to see to best work and to have it explained to them. Few owners of horses appreciate the importance of the best shoeing' which can only be done with time and care. Low-priced work mean low-priced labour, and the hurry necessary to obtain a living by it q^ulprevents men from giving the attention to details which is essential good shoeing, even when knowledge of principles and manual skill exis The aim of this article is to afford owners of horses such inforniatio as will enable them to know good from bad shoeing, or at any rate impress them with the fact that the art is an important and difficult on > worth much more attention than it obtains.

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433

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT

Some knowledge of the structure of the foot and of its functions is
necessary to an understanding of the principles of horse-shoeing. The
hoof is only a layer of horn covering very sensitive parts and affording a
base of support for the limb. A damaged hoof cannot properly protect the
parts within, and a deformed hoof places the whole limb at a disadvantage
^even as a column of support�much more
so as a propelling organ, when great effort
^ls required for draught, or quick move-
ments for pace.

The hoof is not a regular geometrical
hgure, ft j_s _an i_rreg_Ul_ar _one (fig. 624),
^and this irregular form must be followed
^ln shoeing. If the two front feet be looked
^at on the ground it will be seen that they
^are similar in form and size, that the inner
surface is more upright than the outer,
^and that the hoof is much higher in front
than behind.

The Wall (fig. 625) is the part of
the horn forming the front and sides of
the hoof. It grows downwards from the
^coronet, and as it slopes forward and is
^c°nstantly growing, there is a continuous

^lengthening of the toe. The effect of ex-
cessive growth is therefore to bring the

Fig. 624.�Normal Foot: front view,
showing slopes of (a) outer wall and
(B) inner wall

bearing surface of the foot out of proper ]
Nation to the leg, and all overgrown feet afford a disadvantageous
Position for the horse standing or moving. When a horse is shod his
ⁿ°of continues growing, and if the shoe be retained too long, the hoof
gets disproportionate, and may cause either stumbling or injury to the
tendons. The angle at which the front of the wall slopes is a useful
guide to the proportions of the hoof. It should be about 45 degrees.
*hen the toe is too long the wall slopes too much, when the heels are too
ⁿⁱgh the front of the wall is too upright (fig. 631). The wall is thicker
the toe than at the heels, and as this variation is gradual from front
⁰ back, so nails may be driven into it with less danger towards the
^e- The wall does not vary in thickness vertically, so a good workman
^may safely drive a nail to any reasonable height in its substance. The

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	434	HORSE-SHOEING
		HORSE-SHOEING

outer layer of the wall is the hardest, and thus most capable of resisting wear. It protects the deeper layers, and by preventing evaporation keeps them tough and pliant. The evil of rasping is that the exposed horn soon becomes hard, and a repetition or excess of the process renders the hoof brittle. When the under surface of the foot is examined, the sole, frog, and bars are seen. The Sole forms the larger portion of the floor of the hoof. It is con- cave, and firmly attached to the border of the wall. On a smooth, level surface only the outer portion of the sole�that which is immediately connected with the wall � takes a direct bearing. But the sole sus- tains its share of the weight of the horse just as an arch supports weight although resting only on its abut- ment. The frog is the promi- nent triangular-shaped mass of horn situated at the back part of the under surface of Fig. 625.�The Wall of the Foot: Hoof showing the hoof. It extends forward Insensitive Laminae, &c, , . , to a point reaching more than A, Peripolie horn-band. B, Coronary groove, c, Insensitive ° lamina?. D, Horny sole, a, Horny frog. half- Way to the toe. ltS prominent surface is broken by a depression which should be shallow, but which is too often a narrow, deep fissure. On each side of the frog is a space separating it from the bars. This space permits lateral yielding when weight is placed upon the frog. It must not be supposed that the frog is an extra thick mass of horn resting on a level sensitive foot. Its prominent parts and its depressions follow exactly a similar formation of the sensitive structure under it, and the whole should be left in its full strength. The form of this division of the hoof suggests its use, which is to form a catch when the foot comes to the ground, and so increase the security of foothold- The structure of the frog is a tough elastic horn, and as the back of the foot comes to the ground first during progression, the frog is well con- stituted to break concussion. The bars are the ridges of horn which run on each side of the frog forwards from the heels. They are formed by a turning-in of the wall at

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT

435

its posterior extremity. Between the bars and the wall are enclosed the
extremities of the sole, which are often injured by a badly-fitted shoe,
especially upon the inner side,
and the resulting bruise is called
^a " corn ". The bars assist in
preserving the width of the foot
^at the heels, and when cut away
by the farrier, permit contrac-
tion of the hoof.

Bars, sole, frog, and wall
form one continuous horny
covering to the foot. By long
^laceration in water they can
be separated, but in a healthy
living foot they are all firmly
United so as to form a sound

Fig. 626.�The Sensitive Toot: Side View

A, Skin, a', Skin devoid of hairs. B, Peripolic band.
0, Coronary cushion. D, Sensitive laminse.

hoof. Each division should be
kept in its most perfect condi-

tion, because any long-continued

defect of one is certain to affect the other injuriously. If the wall at
the heels be left too high, the frog soon shrinks and wastes. If the
sole be cut away and weakened, the wall
nas to support unaided an excess of weight,
and it becomes broken and diseased. Wall,
^s°le, and frog must be kept proportionate if
the proper relations of the whole hoof are
to be maintained.

Internal Structure of Hoof.�Al-
though the hoof is a firm, strong, protect-
ing covering to the sensitive foot within
*t, very serious injury to the horse results
^trom defects in its structure which are often
^0verlooked. These will be appreciated more
Readily when it is known that within the

^°°f is a particularly delicate and complex

Fig. 627.

arrang_ement. Whe n a hoof is removed with

and Frog

°are, _a beautiful, sensitive structure is ex-
Posed, having a contour exactly matching

A, Median cleft of fleshy frog. B, La-
minse of the bars. 0, Velvety tissue of
the frog. D, Velvety tissue of the sole.

J^e i_nner surface of the hoof (figs. 626, 627).
■^he inner surface of the wall is covered with rows of thin, horny plates
inning from above downwards parallel to each other, all sloping forwards

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			436 HORSE-SHOEING

		like the fibres of the wall. The corresponding portion of the sensitive loot presents hundreds of similar parallel projecting leaves of soft, velvety, fibrous tissue. These are called the sensitive laminge, and in the living foot are dovetailed between the horny laminse of the wall so as to afior a firm, secure attachment between the two. The sensitive frog and sole are firmly attached to the corresponding horny parts, but instead of plates the connecting medium here is a mass of little papillse, so closely arrang^ecas to give a velvety appearance and feel to the exposed surface. J-^nlSsensitive layer, known to farriers as "the quick", is bountifully suppn^eCwith nerves and blood-vessels. Just where the hair meets the horn trie part called by horsemen the coronet�is a very important structure, seen when the hoof is detached. This is a prominent ring or band extending round the foot and covered with very large papillse. From it the wa grows, and injuries to it are followed by serious defects in the horn. rso only do such easily-recognized conditions as "sand-crack" and "false" quarter" follow injuries to the coronet, but all the defective qualities o horn, such as are found in dry, brittle hoofs, proceed from the coronet. ^Dalso do the rings and irregularities often noticed on the front of the hoot Growth of Hoof.�The wall grows downward from the coronet a the rate of about an inch in three months. It is constantly growing, ^anwhen protected from wear by a shoe, soon causes a disproportionate noo � If allowed to grow, it may even produce deformity. Remembering tin , horse-owners will understand how necessary it is that no shoes should worn more than about a month without the superfluous growth of hoi being removed from the hoof. Farm horses in idle seasons are often gross j neglected by being forced to stand in shoes attached to hoofs so overgrow as to place the foot quite out of its proper relative position to the limb. Young horses that have never been shod are often injured by bei & allowed to run in yards or small soft pastures where the hoof is ^Dnaturally worn down. Their feet become so overgrown and dispropor- tionate that the limbs are injured and joints twisted permanently- & foals should be attended to by the farrier when their hoofs become ove grown. No paring is necessary. All that is wanted is the removal 01 excess of wall with a rasp. This necessary attention would frequen y make all the difference between good feet and limbs and bad ones. Cartilage.�It is unnecessary to enter more into detail as to anatomy of the foot. Within the sensitive layer just noticed are bones, and attached to them the tendons which move the limb in P gression There are two structures, however, which must be mention The chief bone of the foot�the coffin-bone�which gives the general foi to the hoof, does not extend throughout its whole interior. It forms

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437

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT

basis of the front and sides of the hoof, but towards the heels is replaced
on each side by plates of gristle or cartilage (fig. 628). This elastic material
can be felt at the inner and outer sides of the coronet through the skin of
the living horse. When diseased
and converted into bone it
forms the so-called side-bones,
which sometimes cause lame-
ness, and always destroy the
natural elasticity of the foot.
These cartilages, replacing bone
at the back parts of the foot,
give resiliency to the hoof, and
so prevent concussion.

The Frog.�If we examine
the under surface of the foot,

Fig. 628.�Lateral Cartilages, &c, of the Foot
A, Os pedis. B, Lateral cartilage, c, Peripole. D, Peri-
polic band. E, Coronary cushion. F, Sensitive laminae, or
fleshy leaves. G, Section of skin. H, Fleshy frog. I, Horny
frog. J, Horny sole.

we find another provision
against jar, for whilst the sole
rests upon a bony basis, the

frog does not (fig. 629). The

an inch past
which extend

body of the coffin-bone only extends backwards
the point of the frog. It there divides into two

to about
processes

nearly to the heels, but leaving between them
a large space which is filled by a pad of elastic
ttiaterial, over which the frog rests. This
arrangement permits the frog great freedom
of movement, and gives to the back portion
of the hoof the special feature of elasticity so
necessary to its function of breaking concus-
sion when the foot comes to the ground
during progression. The front part of the
foot, by the thickness and hardness of the
Wall, and by the rigid basis of bone within,

^Js specially fitted to sustain the strain which
^ls placed upon it when the toe takes the
height of the horse, as it does in all forward
Movements. The back part of the foot, by

Fig. 629.-Under Surface of the Coffin-
Bone, showing its Position within the
Hoof

A, Os pedis. B, Sensitive and insensitive
laminae, c, Wall of hoof. D, Horny frog.

*ts thinner and more elastic horn, by its

prominent and soft frog, and by the partial substitution of cartilage for
^D°ne as its inner basis, is specially endowed for receiving its first impact
^with the ground during progression. That the foot may preserve its func-
tions intact the hoof must be maintained in its best form. No parts must

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		HOKSE-SHOEING
	438


be defective, and all must be proportionate. A foot denuded of horn may have its sensitive portions injured, and a foot covered by an excessive or disproportionate hoof may so destroy the balance of the limb as to cause grave lesions, resulting in lameness. Shoeing¹ is necessary to protect the foot by preventing wear of hoot, but shoeing by preventing wear leads inevitably to excessive growth oi horn. Good shoeing, then, entails regular removal of shoes and systematic reduction of the overgrowth of horn. Before a shoe can be properly placed upon a foot, the hoof must be prepared for it, and this operation requires for its skilful performance a knowledge of the normal form of a horse's foot, of the proper proportion of its various parts, and some idea of the right relative position of the foot to the limb. PEEPAEATION OF FEET FOR SHOEING The first step in the operation of shoeing a horse is to prepare the hoot for the shoe. As a rule the hoof is overgrown, and the farrier has to reduce it to proper proportions. He has also to produce a level bearing surface upon which a shoe can rest securely. The first question to determine is, what is the natural bearing surface of the hoof? On sort ground the whole lower surface of a hoof takes a bearing, because the ground yields, and allows the frog, sole, and lower border of wall all to take weight. On hard ground this is not so. The sole is arched, and on a level surface only rests on its abutment with the wall. If we examine the worn part of an unshod foot we find that the border of the waU> with a little of the sole to which it is connected, is marked by contact with the ground, and that the frog also shows evidence of wear. As ^ashoe is only to protect the hoof these parts are indicated as the natura bearing surfaces, and we follow nature in attempting to produce similar surface by artificial means. With a rasp the farrier removes so much of the lower border of the wall as will reduce the foot to a p^r0' portionate form. He uses his rasp so that a level bearing is formed from the heel to the toe. He must leave as much horn on the foot as i necessary to protect it from injury, and he had better err on the side o leaving too much rather than too little. Some hoofs are so overgrown tha their reduction with a rasp is tedious, and a layer of horn all round tn circumference of the wall is more easily removed with a hammer and ste blade known as a "toeing knife". Properly used on a strong foot tn method is unobjectionable, but on weak, soft feet it is liable to abuse y removal of too much horn. The whole of the superfluous horn must ne^vbe taken away with the " toeing knife ", as it does not leave a level bean g

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PREPAEATION OF FEET FOE SHOEING 439

surface. The rasp is to be used to finish the process, and as it only obtains
a level by further removal of horn, sufficient must be left for it to work on.
But a level surface is not the only aim a farrier has to keep in mind. It
*nay be produced with such exactness that a level shoe rests on it perfectly,
and yet the hoof may be altogether out of proportion. Both sides of the
hoof must be left of the same height, and if the sides of a foot when it comes
to a farrier be of unequal height, it is evident that one side must be reduced
more than the other to obtain a proper form. Again, it is clear that if the
foot be level on both sides, a man may rasp away more horn from one part
than another and so cause a disproportion. Carelessness in the use of a
^rasp frequently leads to unevenness of the bearing surface. From the
position in which a foot is held on
°r between the knees of a farrier,
some portions of the hoof are more
easily reached with the rasp than
others. The left foot suffers by
over-reduction of the outside and
inside toe, the right foot at the inside
heel and outside toe. A left-handed
man is liable to injure feet in just

-Overgrown Foot

the opposite positions. It is equally

Fig-

possible to over-lower both heels or
only the toe. Even when the sur-

ab, Old base of overgrown foot, ad, Level surface
obtained by lowering the heel more than the toe.
be, Level surface obtained by lowering the toe more
than the heel, ce, Proper angle for new surface.

face is quite even from heel to toe
°n both sides of the hoof, the foot

may remain disproportionate. The heels may be left too high or the toe
too long, and the proper adjustment of these two extremities of a hoof
is the most difficult and most frequently-neglected part of the preparation
of a foot. The great cause of difficulty is the fact that horses' feet are
ftot of definite form, and that much harm may be done by attempting
to carve a foot to some ideal standard.

Some feet have naturally high heels, which can only be reduced to a
shapely pattern by weakening their structure. Some feet have naturally
low heels, and some have long toes, which must not be interfered with
(fig- 631). As a rule, when the overgrown wall is reduced to the level of
the sole, very little more horn need be removed. The effects of lowering
the heels are to lengthen the bearing surface backwards and to increase the
^shope of the wall in front. Too much horn at the heels tends to straighten
the foot and to lift the frog from contact with the ground. It is always
desirable that the frog should touch the ground, but when it is wasted
ⁿ° attempt to let it down by over - lowering the heels should be made.

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		HORSE-SHOEING
	440	HORSE-SHOEING
	440

When a hoof is excessively sloped in front and the toe long, it would be injurious to shorten the toe by rasping the under surface ot the foot. Such a hoof is properly treated by directly shortening the toe with a rasp applied to its border. When a hoof presents broken horn on the lower border of the wall, it is necessary not to allow a shoe to rest on it. Broken horn cannot support weight, and when it yields may cause injury to the sensitive parts, and always causes shoes to become loose. Broken horn should be removed unless it can be left in a position offering no bearing for a shoe. "When a foot is insufficiently covered with horn, either as the result of excessive wear from work without shoes or as the effect of previous removal by a farrier, great care is necessary to produce the best bearing surface. As

	ABC Fig. 631.�Well-proportioned and Ill-proportioned Feet A, Foot too long and heel too low. b, Well-shaped foot, c, Heel too high. a rule the quarters of a foot are most broken, and the heels may be truste to take most bearing. The sole should never be pared out with the object of making it concav and smooth (fig. 632). All that is necessary is to remove the loose flakes o horn which are naturally being exfoliated. No part of the sole will staB - uneven pressure by a shoe, and therefore it must be lowered fully to to- level of the wall. The border of the sole, just within the wall, may properly be used as bearing surface, but only in conjunction with the wall. Wher the latter is broken away, no attempt should be made to use the sole a a support for a shoe. On flat feet care must be taken, especially at tfl toe, that the sole is not left unduly prominent. At the heels in all lee the angle of sole between the bar and wall should be left less promrn^eD The than the wall, or uneven pressure will take place and cause »a corn. ^ll old method of scooping out the sole of the foot till it presented a sauce shape not only left the horny covering too thin to protect the sensitive p^al within, but it destroyed the bearing surface for a shoe by leaving the ci i lA "be cumference of the hoof a mere narrow ridge. The bearing surface should as wide as possible, and include not only the wall but the border of the so

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	SHOES	441
		441

The frog should not be touched. The broken and ragged portions invite removal, but are better left. They do no harm, and their removal nearly always leads to further loss of horn which is wanted. The bars should not be cut away, but when they are very prominent may be so reduced that they take no direct bearing on a shoe except at the extreme point where they meet the wall. This extreme point of the bearing surface of a foot is very often injured. What is called "opening the heels" is a favourite operation with some men. It consists in cutting away a wedge- shaped piece of horn from each side of the frog and from the point of the wall. It is altogether evil in its effects, for whilst giving a delusive appearance of width to the heels, it robs the foot of some bearing surface and favours contraction. ^^^^^^__^^^^ To repeat shortly the rules for preparing _Fig ₆₃₂__A _Pared._out _Soie a foot:�With a rasp form a level bearing surface for the shoe from heel to toe; keep both sides of the hoof of the same height; see that the length of the toe and the height of the heels are proportionate; let the frog and bars alone; remove from the sole only such portions as are loose or may receive undue pressure from a level shoe; finally run the rasp lightly round the circumference of the hoof, so that no sharp edge be left which is useless to support weight and might be broken. SHOES Probably the earliest shoes fixed by nails to a horse's foot were thin iron plates, similar to those now used by Arabs and Turks. The nails were ilat-headed, and so soon as the head wore off, the shoe would be loose. On grass land or soft roads this arrangement would afford a fair amount of protection, and the shoe would last a long time by merely refixing it with fresh nails. One of the first improvements would be to increase the thickness of the shoe, and to form the head of the nail ^so that it might be countersunk into the iron of the shoe and thus afford longer wear. The great essential in all shoes is that they shall protect the hoof from wear and do no harm to the horse. They should be of sufficient substance to wear three or four weeks, and they should afford a good secure foothold °n the surfaces over which a horse travels. Material.�The best material for horse-shoes is undoubtedly good

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			442 HORSE-SHOEING

		malleable iron. Steel is too hard, and favours slipping on stone pave- ments. Cast-iron is brittle. Weight.�A shoe should be as light as possible, provided it affords four weeks' wear. Thickness.�No shoe should be much more than half an inch thick, as the greater the thickness the more the frog is raised from a bearing on the ground. Very thick shoes render it difficult to make the nail-holes of the best size and form. Width.�The older shoes were all made wide apparently with the idea that the sole needed protection. A weak, thin sole, especially when travelling over loose, sharp stones, may need some extra cover, but a sound sole which has not been robbed of horn by the farrier needs no protection from the shoe. The width of a shoe should depend simply upon the amount of iron necessary to afford four weeks' wear. If a narrow shoe wears out too soon it is better to distribute the additional amount of iron required in width than in increased thickness. A shoe should not be the same width throughout; it should be widest at the toe and gradually decrease towards the heels, as this provides the extra amount of iron where it is most wanted for wear. The Foot Surface Of Shoes.�A shoe has two surfaces�one applied to the hoof, the other for contact with the ground. Both may be quite flat, but there are conditions which govern the choice of form and render advisable some variations. The surface which is applied to the foot must correspond with the bearing surface on the hoof. On all sound, well-formed feet a shoe with a flat surface is the best. The foot surface of hind shoes is always made flat, as is that of narrow shoes for either hind or fore. So long as the sole of a foot is concave no uneven pressure can result from a flat-surfaced shoe, but when the sole is flat or convex there is danger of uneven pressure. Some front feet present this defect, and to provide a safe form of foot surface a shoe is " seated" (fig. 633)- This means that the inner half, or more, of the foot surface is levelled so that bearing is confined to the flat outer portion of the shoe. This form of shoe is very commonly used, especially when the shoe is a wide one. Properly made, this foot surface is a safe and useful one. When the outer level portion is made too narrow, useful bearing surface is lost; when it is left a little wider than the wall it is unobjectionable. A very bad foot surface is formed by bevelling the iron so that it slopes from the outer to the inner circumference of the shoe (fig. 634). Such a surface affords no level resting-place for the hoof, and when it is attached to a foot may cause lameness by squeezing the wall inwards. At the heels the foot surface should always be left flat, and the seating of a shoe should

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443

SHOES

cease about an inch or an inch and a half in front of the extremities of
the shoe.

The ground surface may vary in form without affecting the foot in
any way. The chief variations are such as afford some special means of
increasing the security of foothold, and of providing against injury to the

Fig. 633.�A "Seated" Foot Surface Fig. 634.�A Bad Foot Surface

horse. A flat surface, broken only by a groove or holes for nails, is
often used. Ridges or grooves are sometimes added for the special
purpose of affording better grip of the road surface. Transverse grooves
"weaken a shoe and cause it to break more easily than longitudinal ones.
What is known as Rodway iron is rolled in bars, having on the ground
surface two grooves and three ridges (fig. 635). Into the outer groove the

Fig. 635.�Rodway Iron Shoe with Double Grooves Fig. 636.�A "Concave" Ground Surface

ⁿails are driven. No better form of shoe exists for harness work, provided
*t affords the necessary wear; but this is just where it fails for the heavier
^class of horse.

The hunting-shoe is concave on the ground surface, with a groove
tor the nails round its outer border (fig. 636). This is a good form for
^Qacks and other light horses, as it affords very firm foothold, especially
^uP°n the grass and soft roads.

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HORSE SHOEING

444

"Calkins" are the turned-down extremities of shoes, which would
probably be called heels by non - horsey folk. Projecting as they do
from a half to one inch, they afford the most effectual stop or eaten
where the surface is such that they can sink into it. For the hind shoes
of hunters they are quite indispensable, and they are most useful ±^orother classes of horse on soft roads. On some paved streets, where the
stones are set with a space between them, calkins afford the best foot-
hold, but on hard, smooth surfaces, such as asphalt, they are quite useless.
To provide against wear, calkins are often made too high. Excessive

height can be avoided by making the calkm
square, and so providing for wear with a lower
projection. Tha evils of calkins are that the}

A preferable form
-Calkins

put the foot out of its normal position by
raising the heel. Thus the toe is subjected

Too high

Fig. 637-

to disproportionate wear, the frog is kept fr°^mcontact with the ground, and to some extent the muscles of the hm
are placed at a disadvantage for action.

Toe-pieces.�In Scotland and the north of England heavy horses
are shod both fore and hind with calkins and toe - pieces. This iovro-
of ground surface on a shoe has some advantages for horses that oDiy
work at a walking-pace and have heavy loads to move. The toe-piece
consists of a portion of a square bar of iron welded across the toe of
shoe. This, with calkins, makes the shoe more level, and so preserve,
the proper relative position of foot to limb. The toe-piece affords fo°

hold to the front of the shoe
B just as calkins clo to the back
of it, and the combination en-
ables a lighter shoe to be used.

Nail-holes

It is a good system for railway

shunt horses and for animals
dragging heavy w^Tagons over paved streets, if the paving-stones ha^
spaces between them in which the toe-piece can find lodgment.

oft

Nails and Nail-holes.�As soon as the head of a nail is worn

the shoe becomes loose, therefore a flat-headed nail such as a carpen*^e

drives into wood is of no use to a farrier. The horse-shoe nail head nans

be countersunk into the shoe so that it wears with the shoe and may

retain it in position until quite worn out. The nail has a wedge-shap

head. It has a flat shank, because the thickness of the wall into will

it is driven is limited. The hole in the shoe must be made to fit

head of the nail, and as the size of nail most suitable for a hoof van

care-

enr sjfiera

bly, it is necessary to make the nail-holes in a shoe very

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		HACKNEY MARE, LADY KEYINGHAM Sire, Danegelt 174; dam, 2016 Dorothy by Lord Derby II 417, The Property of Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart.

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SHOES

445

fully correspond to the head of the proper sized nail. Nearly all hind
shoes and some front ones are provided with nail - holes by stamping
through them a series of four-sided tapered holes of the size required.
Most fore-shoes are " fullered", i.e. a groove is sunk round the shoe
close to the outer edge, and
through this the holes for nails
are afterwards punched. Both
methods admit of nails being
easily driven with safety. The
number of nail-holes really re-
quired to retain a shoe should
vary with the size of shoe.
Never more than eight are re-
quired. Usually seven are suffi-

cient for the largest shoe. Small
shoes are safely retained by six.

Too near inner edge Too near outer edge

Pig. 639.�Wrongly-placed Nail-holes

The position of nail-holes is im-
portant. The wall at the heels is thin, and therefore if good hold
°f the front portion of the foot can be taken it is unwise to drive any
nails at the back part. Nail-holes should not be too near to the outer
^edge of a shoe, as when the nail is driven insufficient hold is afforded
^xt, and the hoof is likely to be split.

Still more important is it that nail-holes should not be placed too
far from the outer edge of a shoe, as then a nail is forced to approach
too near the sensitive structures within the hoof. The nail-holes at the
toe may be a little " coarse", but the holes at the heels

must be "fine". The "pitch" or direction

of a nail-hole is important, because it
controls to a great extent the direction
in which a nail can be driven through

**� 640.-Pitch for

it. The safest "pitch" for a nail-hole

Fig. 641. � Pitch for
Nail-hole for Toe

^aii-hoies for Quarters is straight through the shoe, but the

holes at the toe should have a little
^clination inwards, as the wall at the corresponding part of the hoof
^slopes considerably, and the nail must follow its direction.

Prepared Bar-iron.�Formerly only plain four-sided bars were

^^uPplied for farriers. Now manufacturers roll bars with flat or seated

|°ot surfaces, and with various forms of ground surface. These prepared

^ars only require to be cut into proper lengths, turned round, and holes

Punched for nails to form a very good shoe. For harness horses the

°uble-grooved (Roclway) bar is very handy and very serviceable. For

Vol. in. 94

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		HORSE-SHOEING
	446	HORSE-SHOEING
	446

hunters, bars can be had ready fullered and concaved. For hind shoes of hunters a very good prepared bar is made, which, being rounded on two edges, affords a shoe without trouble that guards against over-reaches. Machine-made Shoes.�All sorts of shoes are now supplied ready for nailing on, made entirely by machinery. For front feet these shoes are all that is wanted, but for hind feet the best hand-made are still unequalled. No doubt engineering skill will soon be able to supply a hind shoe which will last a month on a hard-wearing horse and yet not be heavy and cumbersome. There will be a large demand for such a shoe when it appears. FITTING SHOES Care in Fitting.�Very few horse-owners appreciate the importance of care and exactness in fitting shoes to horses' feet, and yet this part of the operation of shoeing may render a perfectly-formed shoe an instru- ment of torture, and cost the owner more than the price of a hundred sets of shoes. Too much care in fitting the shoe to the foot cannot be taken, and as care means time, the folly of valuing shoeing by its cheapness w^lUbe evident. Cheap work is done by unskilled men or by skilled men in a hurry. Under either condition it cannot be careful and exact, there- fore the horse suffers. One reason why bad shoeing is tolerated is that its evils are not always immediately indicated, and then the results are credited to other causes. Quite a third of the ill effects to horses' leg"^sthat are supposed to be due to hard work are really the result of injury to the feet. The grosser injuries cause acute lameness and are detected, but the finer injuries cause only tenderness and discomfort, which ^lSoverlooked, and so continued for months. The effects are seen in bent knees, shot fetlocks, loss of action, and a shuffling gait, which combined shorten the profitable working lives of horses by years. And yet horse- owners will invite this for the supposed economy of eight or ten shilling⁸a year on their shoeing bill! Having brought the hoof to the best form and proportions, the farrier selects a shoe suitable for it in size, weight, and shape. His next duty is to alter it so that in every detail it shall be exactly adapted to the foot upon which it is to be nailed�in other words, he " fits" it to the foot. There are two distinct objects to be achieved in fitting. Iirst, to make the outer border of the shoe correspond to the circumference of the wall. Second, to make its foot surface rest evenly and closely on the bearing surface of the foot. Feet differ in shape; some are nearly

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	FITTING SHOES
		447


round, others nearly oval, whilst many are very irregular, but they are never geometrical figures. Were there a definite form, shoes might be ■cast in a mould and applied without special fitting. The more ignorant ⁰¹ the hundreds of inventors of horse-shoes are quite unaware of this, and hence the stupid but plausible claim that their shoe " may be fitted to the foot by a groom or stableman". The fact is, every shoe must be fitted to the foot upon which it is to be fixed, and in this is the great art of the farrier's trade. Circumferential Fitting is the adaptation of the shoe to the length ^and breadth of the hoof, so that the wall of the foot may rest firmly ^upon the shoe throughout its whole bearing surface. In producing this 'fit" attention must be paid to the nail-holes, so that they are brought nto the safest and best position for the nails to be driven through into ~the horn. The outer border of the shoe should correspond exactly with the circumference of the wall all round, except perhaps at the heels. In horses doing fast work the shoe should be fitted close, even at the heels, and especially on _^________________ the inside of the foot. The OUter side of Fig. 642.-Shoe Fitted Short at the Heel ^tne foot may be always fitted a little fuller" or wider than the inside. The heavier horses may have the heels of a shoe fitted wider than the hoof, and this especially when ^Calkins are used, because a firmer base of support is given by a shoe when the heels are wide than when they are narrow. A shoe should ■always be fitted full to the foot, i.e.* not within the edge of the wall. When shoes are fitted close, and neatness of appearance valued as nighly as sound work, there is a tendency for men to make the foot ^t the shoe. This is done by roughly and carelessly approximating ^tn-e border of shoe to the border of foot, keeping the shoe a little ^thin the edge of the wall, and, after nailing it on, levelling the work y rasping away any prominent horn. In some strong, well - grown ^teet this may do no harm, but it is a bad habit, certain to do injury ^nen a weak foot is being operated on. The length of a shoe is important. It should be the full length of the bearing surface of the foot. When onger it may injure the horse's elbow when he lies down, and on the ^r°nt foot may be struck by the hind shoe and pulled off. The fore ^,8°oes of hunters are always fitted short to avoid this (fig. 642), but in ^^any cases they are unnecessarily short. A short shoe is objectionable ^or many reasons�it loses some of the natural bearing of the foot, it ^^s likely to cause a corn by bruising the sole at the heel, and it carries forward, out of its proper relative position to the limb, the base upon

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HORSE-SHOEING

448

which the horse stands. On a hind foot there is no excuse for fitting
a shoe short. It stands no risk of being pulled off by another foot, it
cannot injure any part of the limb when the horse lies down, and so the
hind shoe should always be longer than the foot, especially when calkins

are used.

Surface fitting is the adaptation or
the plane foot surface of the shoe to th&
level bearing surface of the foot. The shoe

Fig. 643.�An "Eased" Heel

should rest evenly upon the hoof from toe

to heel, the pressure being uniform through"
out. Should either the foot or the shoe not be level some parts lose bearing)
and others sustain an uneven and excessive bearing. It is not uncommon
to find a shoe fitted so that its centre is higher than either heel or toe.
Such a shoe rests unevenly on the quarters of the foot, and as the wall
is there weak, we often find the horn broken as the result of excessive
bearing. Flat feet present the sole more prominently at the toe than

at other parts, and there-
fore care is required, when
fitting shoes to them, that'
the inner edge of the

Fig. 644.�Shoe with Level Bearing

toe of the shoe should-

not bear upon this part-
Special care must always be taken to avoid any undue or uneven pres-
sure by the heels of a shoe upon the angle of sole between the wan
and the bars. When the horn of the wall is detached from the sole
or badly broken, it must be relieved of all bearing either by lowering ^
with the rasp or by fitting the shoe so that there is no contact between
the two. A very injurious method of fitting shoes followed upon aⁿ

erroneous theory to the-

effect that the heels were

unable to stand their

share of bearing as well

Fig. 645. -Sho.

2T a Worn Ground-surface

other parts of the

wall. With a view

save the heels of the foot, shoes were what is called " eased" or "sprung
at their extremities (fig. 643). This system of fitting left a space between
shoe and foot at the heels into which the blade of a knife might be passed,
and the space extended forward from an inch to an inch and a half.

The fact is that the heels will stand, and they require, all the bearm₀a level shoe can afford. The " eased" heel is altogether an injurious thing"
It loses bearing surface, and concentrates pressure on the spot whe

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	FITTING SHOES
		449


loot and shoe come into contact. Instead of affording ease, it causes ^an on-and-off pressure every time the foot is brought to the ground during progression. The surface fit of a shoe should be an even and level one from toe to heel. Hot and Cold Fitting.�Shoes may be fitted either hot or cold. If fitted cold, exactness can only be attained by the same long process that rs adopted by an engineer who has to fit together two pieces of metal. AH shoes have to be altered to fit a foot properly, and they cannot easily be altered cold. That exactness of fit cannot be obtained by cold fitting is amply proved by the number of loose shoes that occur when !t is practised, to say nothing of the injury to horses' feet from uneven Pressure. An iron shoe is easily altered when hot, and this advantage requires the accompaniment of very grave disadvantages before it can be shown that it is wrong. Counterbalancing disadvantages do not exist, ^and therefore all argument is in favour of hot fitting, in addition to the height of universality of practice. Hot fitting facilitates the exactness °f fit, it decreases the time necessary for fitting, it does no harm to the ■hoof, and it undoubtedly results in greater security of the shoe. Opponents assert that hot fitting leads to excessive burning of horn, but this is ^only an abuse of the method, and does not occur in the hands of a good iarrier. When a skilled workman has selected a suitable shoe he heats t in the fire, compares it with the foot, alters it on the anvil, and then ^aPplies it to the hoof for a few seconds. Wherever the shoe touches the horn it leaves a mark, and thus shows all irregularities. If the horn is at fault a touch with the rasp corrects it, if the shoe is at fault \|t is taken back to the anvil and altered. In this way exactness of fit ^ls soon attained and the hoof uninjured. The abuse of hot fitting takes place when a hot shoe is retained on the foot until it beds itself into the horn. There is no excuse for this practice, which is a sign of slovenly ^w°rk, and may be a source of injury to the horse. Clips* are thin projections drawn from the iron of the shoe at the toe or quarters for the purpose of giving stability to the shoe when on the foot. By many persons they are looked upon as essential for the Prevention of shoes shifting on the foot. On some horses, from peculiarity °* gait, shoes have a tendency to shift inwards. This may be prevented °y a clip on the outside of the shoe. The tendency of a foot to slip forward on a shoe is rare, and yet clips are in Britain always used on the toe of the shoe. The fact is, the toe-clip assists the farrier to fit he shoe, and it gives steadiness to it whilst the first nail or two are being riven. Clips should not be long and narrow, but rather wide and short. hey should be thin, and drawn with an inclination corresponding to the

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		HORSE-SHOEING
	450	HORSE-SHOEING
	450

portion of wall against which they are to rest. Too often a large piece of horn is dug out of the toe to make room for the clip. This is altogether unnecessary, as all that is required is to form a level surface on the horn with a rasp, so that the clip may lie evenly and not project. When the shoe is nailed on the foot a few taps with the hammer are required to leave the clip close, but the violent hammering too often seen is dangerous, and usually due to the clip having been badly drawn. When two side clips are used and both excessively hammered, lameness results from the pressure on the wall. NAILING ON THE SHOE Nearly all horse-shoe nails are now made by machinery. They ^arewell made, sound in structure, properly pointed, and with heads of ^auniform size and shape. The machine - made nails are certainly better than the hand-made, and no fault can be found with them so long as the iron from which they are manufactured is good. A horse-shoe nau must be made of the very best iron, or it will break and cause shoes to be lost. According to the size of a foot so is the thickness of horn, and nails are chosen to suit this. Too large a nail breaks the horn, too small a one fails to hold the shoe on. The direction in which a nan is driven is very much controlled by the form of the nail-holes in the shoe. When a farrier finds that he cannot drive a nail with safety he should either have the shoe altered or decline to drive the nail. J-^nedirection which a nail takes in the horn is recognized by the sound and " feel" elicited by the hammer. In a thin foot it is a delicate operation, but in a strong hoof there is no risk whatever. The heads of nails when driven should fit the holes or fullering of the shoe. A small portion oi the head should be visible when the nail is driven home. When the head is only flush w^Tith the surface of the shoe, and visibly does not fill the hole, the shoe is likely soon to be loose. When a nail is driven through the hoof, its point is turned down and wrung off, so that a protruding portion is left. This is called ^aclinch. Just under it a notch is made in the wall with a rasp, and the clinch gently hammered down into it. A stroke or two of the rasp levels the whole and leaves the clinches smooth. Excessive rasping weakens the clinches and destroys the security of the shoe. When the shoeing is finished the clinches should be seen about equidistant from each other, with a good hold of the wall, and rather higher at the toe than at the heel-

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				451
		EOUGHING		451
		EOUGHING

	KOUGHING In winter some addition to the ordinary shoe is necessary to prevent horses from slipping on ice and snow. In Great Britain the weather is so changeable that a regular provision for frost is seldom made, as it is m countries where ice and snow prevail for weeks or months at a stretch. Here our roads are covered with ice and snow with very little notice, ^and may be free again in a day or two. Horse-owners therefore provide

			I)

Fig. 646.�Frost-nails temporary arrangements to meet the short, occasional spells of slippery leather. The most temporary method of affording foothold is by the ^Qse of what are called frost-nails. These appliances are very similar to. the ordinary horse-shoe nail but with a larger head, and brought to a sharp* Point or to a chisel-edge. The smaller ones may be driven into the holes from which a nail has been removed. The larger are only used ^at the heels in an extra hole specially provided for them. These holes- ^are punched through the heels of the shoe, which is fitted a little wider than usual, so that a frost - nail when driven does not enter the hoof ^at all, but passes through the shoe, and is fixed by being twisted over ^le shoe. Frost - nails are very useful for an emergency, but not for continued use. When frosty weather looks as though it were to continue for some

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452

HORSE-SHOEING

time, horses are " roughed" or " sharped". The shoes are taken off, heated
in the fire, and the heels turned down so as to form a sharp projection
that will cut into ice or frozen snow, and so give firm foothold. On hard
roads this sharp projection soon becomes worn away, and the process
of roughing has to be repeated. This repeated removal of shoes injures
the feet, not only by the driving of nails through old holes, but by
the shortening of the shoe, necessitated by the roughing. So injurious
is repeated roughing, that a better but more expensive method is now
adopted by all sensible men who have horses of value that must continue
at work during frost and snow. From about the middle of November
to the middle of March sufficient frost to render roads unsafe may ^aany time appear. To meet this the shoes, before being put on, are
furnished with holes at the heels, or both at toe and heel. These holes

Fig. 647.�Steel Sharps to be Screwed into Shoes when required

are made with a thread, into which movable steel sharps can be screwed
when wanted. To keep the holes clear a cork may be screwed into them,
or better still, square steel plugs may be used during ordinary weather,
and replaced by the sharps when frost arrives. No removal of shoes i^srequired by this method, and no sharp projections need be left in the
shoes when the horses are in the stable.

INJURIES FEOM SHOEING

When a horse has a good foot and shoeing is properly done, no harm
to the horse results from the repetition of the operation every month
for his whole lifetime. Accidents may happen, but to speak of shoeing
as "a necessary evil" conveys a very incorrect notion of its value. J-0
do the work without shoes that is now done by horses with shoes woul
require twenty times the number of horses at present in use, and mor
than half of the whole would be lame at frequent intervals from injury
due to wear of the hoof. The British army keep very strict notes o
everything which causes a horse to be unfit for duty. The streng
on an average is 16,000 horses, and the injuries from shoeing only 1°

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		453
	INJURIES FROM SHOEING	453
	INJURIES FROM SHOEING

per annum, of which 50 are due to nails. These statistics show unmis- takably that army-shoeing is carefully done, and there is no reason why the work should not be done equally well in civil life. The direct injuries resulting from shoeing may be classed under three heads�those resulting from nails, those from clips, and those from irregular pressure of the shoe. Nails.�Lameness may be caused by a nail being driven too near the sensitive foot without absolute penetration of the "quick". This cause of lameness is called " a bind", and may not be evident for a day or two, or even a week, after the time of shoeing. In every lameness of the horse which cannot be accounted for by a visible lesion the foot should be examined, and especially when it is noticed within a few days of shoeing. To detect a foot-lameness the shoe must be removed and the hoof tested all over by firmly pressing it with pincers. When a " bind" is detected before lameness is very acute, removal of the offend- ing nail, rest, and warm fomentation are sufficient to prevent further injury. When a "bind" is allowed to continue, inflammation is set up in the foot, and pus may form. Then a serious condition exists which requires veterinary attendance. Another form of injury results from a ⁿail being driven directly into the sensitive foot. This is usually followed by immediate lameness, but its gravity depends upon the extent of injury, and upon whether the nail carries with it any dirt or septic material. As a rule the farrier knows when he has "stabbed" or "pricked" a horse, and withdraws the offending nail at once. If suppuration does not follow a prick its effects are very temporary, but the formation of matter within the hoof leads to very grave results, in some cases to a fatal termination. Continued work is the greatest aggravation of injuries caused by nails, and therefore all such cases should be attended to at once, and rest strictly enforced. Clips may cause lameness by being hammered down too tightly. The ^ost serious injury traceable to clips occurs from a shoe becoming loose and only partially detached from the foot, so as to permit a horse to ^tread on the clip. A large punctured wound results, which may endanger the animal's life. Eest and perfect cleanliness are essential to recovery. Uneven Pressure of the Shoe causes the sensitive foot to become bruised. The sole of a flat foot is frequently bruised by pressure of the fboe just behind the toe. When detected early enough removal of pressure ^ls all that is necessary. The most common seat of injury, due to bruising V the shoe, is the inner heel of the fore foot. This is known as a "corn", but is in no way analogous to the condition on human feet described by the same word. A "corn" in the horse is simply a bruise ⁰¹ the sensitive foot resulting from uneven pressure by the heel of the

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		HORSE-SHOEING
	454


shoe. The injury causes lameness, and is accompanied by staining of the horn by effused blood underneath. An open, fiat foot is most liable to corn, and the shoe most likely to cause it is one that is fitted too short and too close. Even a well-fitted shoe may cause a corn when it is allowed to remain on the foot too long. As the hoof grows the shoe is carried, forward, and the extremity of the iron is shifted from its safe bearing on the wall to a position which allows it to impinge on the seat of the corn. The excessive retention of shoes frequently leads to their being forced outwards, and then the inner heel is brought over the sole on the inside, and bruising results. The gravity of a corn depends upon the sensitive sole. In slight cases removal of the shoe and its readjustment, so that no pressure on the bruised part can occur, is sufficient to ensure a return of soundness. Sometimes a day or two's rest and warm fomentation of the foot are necessary. In more aggra- vated cases it is right to suspect the forma- tion of matter at the bruised part, and as this is a serious condition within the hoof, it is necessary to pare away all the dis- coloured horn, and thus afford an opening through which matter may escape. In cases Fig. 648-Tliree.quarter Shoe °^f ^COm ^where ^the discoloration of horn IS not very great, and where lameness is not excessive, it is inadvisable to cut away all the horn over the bruised part. Horn takes time to grow again, and its absence spoils the bearing surface of the foot. In very many cases a simple bruise, that would have recovered in a few days by merely relieving the pressure of the shoe, is made a source of injury and of recurrent lameness by the un- necessary removal of all the horn between the wall and the bar. When a slight corn is found with slight lameness, relief of pressure is easily given by cutting off the inner heel of the shoe, thus forming what is called a three-quarter shoe. This removal of iron is a safer and better plan than removal of horn. Uneven pressure by a shoe may take place at other parts of the hoof- A badly - fitted shoe very frequently bears disproportionately on the quarters, and the wall becomes weak and broken. In such a case relief is given either by lowering the wall or by adjusting the shoe so that heels and toes for a time afford the only bearing. In all cases where a separation exists between the sole and wall, bearing must be avoided, as the wall, when unsupported by a firmly-

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INJURIES FROM SHOEING

455

connected sole, is unable to sustain its share of weight. In cases of
" seedy-toe" this must be remembered. Where a " sand-crack" exists,
pressure should be removed from the wall. If the sand-crack be at the
toe a good plan is to draw two clips on the shoe, one on each side of
the crack, and then to lower the wall between the clips so that it has
no contact with the shoe. With a sand-crack at the toe the heels should

Fig. 649.�Sand Crack, showing Method of Paring the Crust
a, Bearing relieved at wrong place by "springing" the heel. b. Horn removed to prevent pressure

be kept low and no calkins used, as the higher the heel is raised the more
pressure is thrown upon the front portion of the foot. When a crack
exists at the quarters the wall just under the crack must be removed from
bearing, but it is of the greatest importance that the heel of the shoe
should have close contact with its horn behind the crack.

"Cutting" or "Interfering" are the terms applied to the act
of striking the fetlock of one limb with the
shoe of the opposite limb. Every horse-owner
imagines such an accident to be the fault of
the farrier, and every farrier fancies he has
a system of preventing or curing such injury.
I must, of course, allow that the shoe inflicts
the blow, but I am quite convinced it is a
passive agent, and that in 95 per cent of
eases no fault of the shoe, either in form or
fit, can be shown to have occasioned the
injury. " Cutting" is practically confined to

young horses out of condition, or to old horses

Fig. 650.�Shoe for Cutting, showing
Position on the Foot

suffering from debility. It may also take
place in tired horses. Of course, a shoe ex-
cessively prominent on its inside will facilitate injury to the opposite
fetlock, and it is therefore right to fit the shoe close with a view to
prevent or cure cutting. It is not right, however, in any case to rasp
^away the whole of the wall on the inside toe, and such a proceeding
never yet stopped a horse from cutting. It requires about two months
to get a green horse sufficiently into condition to stop him hitting his
legs. During this time he should wear pads or "Yorkshire boots". His

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		456	HORSE-SHOEING
			HORSE-SHOEING

	shoes may be fitted close, but the wall of his foot should not be damaged. As he gets into condition he will cease striking his fetlocks, and what- ever curious form of shoe he happens to wear when he begins to g° strong and cleanly will get the credit of a cure, although it had nothing to do with the change. The hind fetlocks suffer more from cutting than the fore. This is O due to the different form of shoe used quite as much as to the form and action of the limb. The hind shoe has calkins which interfere witn the proper relative position of the foot to the limb, and so cause imper- fection in the gait. Nothing so speedily stops cutting behind as remova of calkins and the use of a level shoe. It is not the calkin that hits

Fig. 651.�Shoes for Cutting the opposite fetlock. In very few cases is the heel of a shoe the offending part. It is the inside toe which strikes, and this proves that the injury results from defective action and not from prominence of the shoe. It has been found that a three-quarter shoe does good in cutting- does so, not because the heel was the offending part, but because movement of the foot is modified by the altered form of the shoe. J-¹practice of raising one side of the foot higher than the other for t prevention of cutting is very widely adopted, and plausible theories a framed as to its effects. Sometimes it is argued that the injured fetloc is thrown farther outwards, and sometimes that the offending foot is ma to move farther away from the opposite leg. The practice is not alw^avsuccessful, and the theory wants a true basis of facts. Not one horse a thousand "cuts" when in good condition, and nearly every horse when out of condition. Patience, good feeding, and regular work better treatment for cutting than all the usual alterations of foot* a shoe.

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			INJURIES FROM SHOEING 457

	Over-reach is an injury to the heel of a front foot by the shoe of the hind foot of the same side. It is not the outer edge of the hind shoe which strikes, it is the edge on the inner circumference of the toe of the shoe. To prevent over-reaching, the hind shoe must be so altered that the offending part is rounded off. As the accident only occurs

		'B

Fig. 652.�Over-reaching-, Forging, and Clacking 1, Toe of hind shoe, showing the edge which cuts the heel of fore foot. 2, Toe of hind shoe, showing rounded inside border. 3, Toe of fore shoe, showing places struck in forging. 4, Toe of hind shoe, showing the edge which strikes the fore shoe. 5, Toe of hind shoe with inner border bevelled off. during the fastest paces it is confined to hunters and trotters, two classes of horses which ought always to be shod with hind shoes having rounded edges on their inner toe circumference. Clacking, or Forging, is the noise made by horses trotting when the hind shoe strikes the fore. It is not the heel of the front shoe that is struck, but the surface of the shoe just behind the toe, so that the foot is in the air at the time of striking. The part of the hind shoe

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		HORSE-SHOEING
	458	HORSE-SHOEING

that strikes is not the extreme point of the toe, but the edge on either side of the toe. Young horses out of condition, and long - stepping, careless goers, are usually the animals that "forge". To prevent it the front shoe is made concave on the ground surface, and the calkins may be removed from the hind shoes. Quite as important as alteration of the shoe is alteration of the horse's gait. He should not be driven "past his pace", and he should be made to go up to his bit. Patience, condition, and coachmanship are as necessary to stop "clacking" as a good farrier.

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		THE TRANSIT OF HORSES

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	Section XIIL-THE TRANSIT OF HORSES

		SEA CAERIAGE

There is every reason to suppose that the horse was very early in the World's history compelled to carry man, but when the latter first devised Cleans for the conveyance of horses is not known. Potentates both great and little were from the earliest times the recipients of presents in the shape of horses from distant lands, and sea carriage appears to have long preceded the horse-box upon wheels. Ships capable of conveying Hannibal's elephants from Carthage to the Spanish peninsula may well have carried horses, but they do not receive ^any mention in connection with that great general's disposition of the sea forces which landed upon Mediterranean shores, to dispute with Eome for the mastery of the world. Viewing the shipping arrangements of to-day, one can scarcely believe there has been much improvement, save in the matter of ventilation. The great passenger ships by which private individuals usually convey favourite horses offer no special accommodation; there are no stalls or Permanent fittings on the Peninsular and Oriental Company's steamers, ^t0r instance, although they frequently carry horses of great value, both ^east and west. The site usually assigned to horses is in the ship's waist, ^where the greatest amount of protection from the weather is ensured. Here they are enclosed in a narrow wooden box some 7 feet by 2 feet 3 inches, ^lJ1e sides of which are 6 feet high. At one end is a door whence the ^anure can be removed, and outside the other end a small manger fits into iron slots. Beyond a little trap-door on a level with the floor there I⁸ no provision made for drainage. The urine escapes from the box as best . ttiay, finding its way from the deck to the scuppers, and out through the °fos provided on all vessels for the escape of water. The horse is not led Aboard as in the regular cattle ships, but is boxed on the quay, and then, y means of slings attached to semicircular iron bars placed equidistant oove him and from the ends of his prison, he is raised by the steam crane ^r derrick, and lifted aboard as deftly as might be a lady's bandbox. In ^vOL III. 461 95

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			462 THE TRANSIT OF HOESES

		this position he has sometimes to remain the whole of the voyage. In cold and foul weather a tarpaulin is thrown over the box as it stands on the open deck. Horses bound for the East suffer more from the heat in the Red Sea than from the inclement weather so often experienced in the Channel and the Bay of Biscay. It is therefore necessary, in exporting horses to India and other hot climates, to make special arrangements with regard to clothing. In this journey a change from warm to light cool rugs will be required on reaching Port Said, and if practicable the horses should be removed to the cool and sheltered side of the ship, which in this case will be the port bow. When weather permits advantage should be taken of every available opportunity to give exercise on deck, so that any undue filling of the legs may be obviated, and relief afforded from the cramp and fatigue of long standing. It will be well, too, to bear in mind that much relief from the discomfort arising out of these causes may be afforded by the repeated application of friction to the surface of the body and vigorous hand-rubbing of the legs. Except when the animal is at exercise bandages should be worn and applied with a fair amount of tightness, so as to support the joints and sinews and prevent swelling. The vessels which bring so many horses from America carry thero between decks. A number of stalls about the same width as the box previously described are arranged on both sides of the ship, the animals facing inwards. They are not slung, but the length of the stall is not sufficient to include the head and neck, which protrudes over the gang- way, and it is therefore impossible for an animal to get down. Each animal is fastened with the usual halter or head-stall, which is long enough to permit him to feed from the level of the deck or floor of the gangway, where the nutritious alfalfa hay is strewn. The stout planking that runs breast-high in front of the stalls is screwed up with bolts, and, in case of a sick animal having to be removed, it must needs be cut away for a space. The planks which divide the stalls are made to drop into iron receptacles, and have only to be lifted out when the horses arrive at their destination. To prevent slipping there are bars across the floor of the stalls, but no bedding is provided, as being unnecessary and likely to hinder drainage. A gutter is provided in those vessels specially constructed for the transatlantic horse trade, and that it effectually carries away the urine may be presumed from the comparatively pure air and freedom from ammonia which prevails on these ships on arrival with a cargo of live stock. The arrangements for disembarkation leave a good deal to be desired, the movable gangways being too long, and most of the animals strike their polls and at first refuse to mount the ladder. Another shoot or portable

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SEA CARRIAGE 463

gangway over the. ship's side enables them to reach terra firma, which
they do with evident satisfaction, for though they are often cramped, and
occasionally the victims of fever in the feet, one cannot have associated
with horses on a voyage without observing the pleasure they display on
once more getting ashore.

Diet.�Diet on ship-board requires to be carefully adjusted. Bran and
sweet hay should form the staple food; a little corn may be added, but the
less the better. A daily allowance of 4 or 5 lbs. of carrots will keep the
body cool and the bowels in free action, besides which they are a wholesome
and refreshing addition to dry aliment.

In passing through hot climates horses should be watered at least four
times a day, and occasional sponging of the face will add materially to their
comfort.

Medicines.�When long sea journeys have to be taken by valuable
horses every provision should be made for dealing with diseases and
accidents which may occur on the voyage, and full instructions should be
given to the attendant how to act in certain emergencies. Among other
things he should be furnished with a clinical thermometer, and exercised
to its xise before starting. Suitable needles, carbolized thread and cord,
should also be provided for stitching up wounds, as well as a stock of
antiseptic wool for dressing them in the course of subsequent treatment.

These, together with the following list of medicines, will be found to
toeet all the ordinary requirements likely to arise in the course of a
voyage :�

Nitrate of Potash Powders.
Physic Balls.
Fever Draughts.
Colic Draughts.
Cough Balls.

Mustard.

Antiseptic Lotion for Wounds.

Stimulating Embrocation for Sprains.

Jar of Vaseline.

Pot of Zinc Ointment.

In some horses of excitable temperament it may be found necessary to
toject a little morphia beneath the skin now and again until they settle
down to their new mode of life.

Necessity may not arise for the use of any of the more active medicines,
but where horses are confined for long periods in a standing posture a little
totrate of potash powder given in the food every second or third day will
^be found of distinct advantage in correcting any tendency that may arise
^to filling of the legs.

Horse Boats.�On short voyages, like that from the mainland to the
■isle of Wight, horses are conveyed in barge-like boats with a floating plat-
^0rm at the stern, corresponding to the tail-board of a cart. However calm

the

sea or river to be crossed, there is always a difficulty in getting horses

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		THE TRANSIT OF HORSES
	464


aboard, as they intuitively dislike an unstable platform, and an old stager has to be kept as a " leader " to induce novices to follow. Once on board they are packed closely together, and linked as well as fastened singly to the bulwarks. Horses taking a long sea voyage should have their hind shoes removed, and tips applied to the fore-feet. LAND CARRIAGE Horses are carried on land in "floats", railway boxes, and trucks. The first vary in different districts, but the main principle is that of a box on low wheels, in which sick or injured horses may be carried. Entrance to these useful conveyances is obtained from behind, where the door, on being let down, forms a gangway with very slight ascent, along which the horse is led into the float. The horse-box familiar to most travellers, at least from the outside, is divided into three compartments, every portion of which appears to have been designed with the special object of making the most alarming noises calculated to frighten the inmates. The same description applies with even greater force to the doors, which open upon the platform, or " dock " as it is called. It is too heavy for a man to let it down steadily, and the traditions of the railway would be altogether violated if it were not allowed to fall with great violence upon the siding. Everything about a horse-box comes undone with a jerk and closes with a bang. Some horses absolutely refuse to enter a box of the kind, and much might be done to render them less fearsome to those unaccustomed to travel. The youngster is frightened at the outset by the sound of his feet on the wooden frame door, which might just as well be "dead sounded" by an intervening substance that would absorb sound, or an india-rubber floor. The means of securing horses when in the box is also objectionable. In this connection Professor Axe, writing in the Live Stock Journal Almanac, observes:�"No one having acquaintance with the construction of our horse-boxes during the past thirty years will fail to recognize how very meagre have been the alterations and improvements which have been effected in them during that period; but what is still more important is the striking want of uniformity, and obviously dangerous methods, which continue to be practised throughout the various systems in the fastening or tethering of travelling horses. " That our railway companies, with all the experience before them, should have failed to develop a reasonably safe system out of the half-dozen

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			LAND CARRIAGE 465

		methods or more now in vogue is by no means reassuring to the horse- owning public, and so long as such divided opinions and practices exist, so long may we expect accidents to continue, and litigants to press the advantages of one system in order to fix blame on another. " In tethering horses in boxes the general practice at present adopted is to engage two stout ropes and a head-stall. The former are tied in various ways, not only in the service of different companies, but also in different boxes belonging to the same company. The more common arrange- ment is to have an ' upper' and a ' lower' rope. These in some companies have a regulation length of 3 feet for the former and 1 foot 10 inches for the latter, while in others the length of rope to be allowed is left very much to the discretion of the porter. When adjusted, one end of each rope js attached to the right or left side of the head-stall below; the other end, belonging to the long rope, is carried upward to one side, and securely tied to an iron ring immediately beneath the roof above; while the still loose end of the short rope on the opposite side is in some cases attached low down to the partition in front, in others to a ring in the manger-board, and in a third to a ring in front of the manger. "Another system is to run both ropes from the head-stall through a ^r\|ng in the last-named position, and then fasten them to the front end of the box right and left of the horse's head. In some boxes only a single ^rope is employed, in which case one end is attached to the chin-strap of the head-stall and the other to a 6-lb. weight, which keeps the rope taut through a hole in the manger-board. " It will be seen from this that, in all these methods of tethering, the ropes, in one form or another, are made to rest on or near the manger or manger-board, as the case may be, and consequently within reach of the horse's feet whenever he is disposed to place them there. It is no rare occurrence for excitable and refractory animals to land their fore-limbs in this position, even when the head is tied down within 6 inches of the manger-ring, and by entangling themselves in the ropes, to suffer severe, « not fatal, damage; indeed, this is the great source of mischief in connec- tion with our horse traffic by rail. "An ingenious and simple device for correcting this unsatisfactory state things, and one in which I have taken a practical interest, has been esigned by Mr. Bartrum, late veterinary officer to the Midland Eailway ompany, who have already recognized its merits and brought it into use. *e appliance consists of a rope, one end of which is attached to a ring in ront of the nose-band by means of a spring hook working on a swivel. . ^e rope then passes upward, and over an adjustable pulley-wheel fixed ^ln a slot in the partition between the stall and the coupe. Attached to

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				THE TRANSIT OF HORSES
		466		THE TRANSIT OF HORSES
		466

	its other end is a small weight, surmounted by a spiral spring, and confined in a small box (fig. 653). By this arrangement only one rope is engaged in the tying, and that is entirely removed from possible contact with the feet. Instead of the horse being bound down by the head, he enjoys comparative freedom and comfort, and indeed such an amount of liberty as will enable him to recover himself from any awkward position in which he may, from restiveness or other cause, become involved. Another conspicuous and important advantage of the fastenings of this appliance is that, should he

Fig. 653.�Bartrum's Tethering Apparatus fail to free himself, he can be set at liberty at once, through the door of the coupe, by removing the spring hook from the ring in the nose-band. These and other solid advantages are presented by the Bartrum device, which promise to do away with much of that suffering and loss which attend the transit of horses by rail." Another serious objection to horse-boxes is that the padding which prevents injury to the skin is not removable for purposes of disinfection or ordinary cleansing, hence the danger of infectious disease, even if the utmost care were exercised. The ordure from the last inmate commonly remains, despite Rule 15 (Transit Order, Animals Act), which requires that the vehicle shall be thoroughly cleansed according to specified direc- tions therein contained. Neglect to comply with these orders carries-

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	LAND CARRIAGE
	LAND CARRIAGE	467
		467

certain�or, rather, -uncertain�penalties, since the railway servants habitu- ally disregard them. Besides the horse-box there is the ordinary truck, which dealers, ever ready to accept additional risk in order to effect an economy, usually employ to convey their purchases on the often long journeys from fairs and markets. J-he truck is better cleansed and kept in a much more wholesome condition than the more expensive box, as for some reason the Animals Orders in connection with cattle are more respected, and these conveyances are fre- quently whitewashed and otherwise disinfected. They hold some half-dozen horses, and the object of the consignor in packing them as closely as possible is to prevent them from kicking one Mother. In the use of the horse-box there is no rule as to having the hind ^shoes off, but it is a sort of lex non scripta of the truck, and usually insisted upon on board ship, but not on so-called horse " boats ". There is a special order issued by the Board of Agriculture with regard to watering horses on railway journeys by which the respective companies ^are made responsible, but owners have been prosecuted for not feeding ^animals on the journey while beyond their own control and detained on the road by some failure on the part of the carriers to deliver within reasonable time.

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		THE HORSE AND ITS POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

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			Section XIV.-THE HORSE AND ITS POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

		THE HORSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST From the investigations of geologists we have learned the fact that the horse is descended from ancestors which existed in long-past ages of the world's history, and which were very different in many respects from the animal so familiar to us. Probably it will be very generally thought that it is late in the day to attempt to question, or even to defend, the teachings of geology, and the kindred subject of palaeontology, or the science of extinct animal and vegetable life. At one period, however, not so remote as to be out of the recollection of many of the readers of to-day, the suggestion that the remains of animals and plants were to be found m certain " petrifactions", dug up from the depths of the earth, was met by opposition which was as violent as it was honest and ignorant. Education has made rapid strides in all directions since the day of merely unreasoned opposition to the advance of science; and it may per- haps be said that the majority has changed its front, and is now either in favour of investigation and receptive to its results, or at least accepts them without any great effort, possibly it may be with some degree of indif- ference, but in any case no longer opposes them. On either assumption !t will be no more than fair to the reader who may not be a scientist, and it will at the same time be inoffensive to the geologist and palaeon- tologist, for whom the remarks are not intended, if we state in a few concise sentences the broad principles on which those experts base their arguments and conclusions. In the first place it may be observed that it is now well known that ^rocks of different sorts constitute what is called the crust of the earth� that is, the superficial portion accessible to human observation�and what ^ls more significant, that these rocks are not for the most part heaped together in disregard of order, but are arranged in a certain succession 471

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		472 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD of beds, or strata, from below upwards. The lowest rocks bear evident signs of the action of heat, and not being arranged in layers or strata, are distinguished as unstratified rocks, being also more or less crystalline. The higher rocks, above those more ancient igneous rocks, whether hard or soft, were originally deposited from water in the form of sediment, and hence are called sedimentary or aqueous rocks. These are stratified, and in them the remains of animals and plants are found more or less abun- dantly, such remains being absent from the igneous rocks. The name fossils is now familiar to everyone as applied to the remains of animals and plants found in rocks, and this term also includes markings, such as footprints and casts or impressions left on originally soft clay on which the object has rested or in which it has been enclosed. To the discoveries of the geologist the naturalist applies the same mental processes which he uses in everyday life. He can see impressions which have been left on the sea-shore, footmarks of men and beasts on the sands, and, observing the marks, he realizes at once the existence of the different creatures that made them. A skull or a leg-bone dug up from a stone quarry or gravel-pit may attract his notice, and by the appli- cation of his knowledge of anatomy he can decide whether the part once belonged to a man or to an ox, a pig or a horse, and with added special knowledge he will go beyond this and define the formation from which it came, and form some idea of the period which has elapsed since it was deposited. In like manner the geologist sees how river banks and sea- walls are washed away year by year, and in other places how hollows are gradually filled by sedimentary deposits, which are left to harden into rocks, and by the exercise of his ordinary intelligence he comprehends how the strata in the earth's crust have been formed in succession by similarly slow and often-interrupted actions going on through long ages. It is of no avail to tell the palgeontologist that the impressions of animals' feet, and the marks of shells and skeletons of birds and beasts and fishes, are not what they seem to him, but only " petrifactions", or " fossils", curious enough and highly interesting indeed, but in no way connected with living creatures of a former period, when all the while his senses of sight and touch inform him to the contrary. He can compare the fossil bone of many thousand years ago with the corresponding bones of the animals of to-day and mark the close relation between them. In fact, he is aware that often, in comparing the later fossil remains with specimens of similar parts of recent origin which have been buried close to the latest fossils, he finds a difficulty in distinguishing between them. In short, the scientist observes and reasons exactly as other people do. Of his facts he is as sure as any enquirer into everyday common things can be of his, and like

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			THE HORSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 473

		him he exercises his intellect and imagination in drawing conclusions from the facts which come under his observation. It is true that some difference may exist between the mental processes of the expert and those of the unscientific observer, but it is only one of degree. The scientist is a trained, and therefore a keen investigator, and his imagination is active as well as critical. Small matters which an ordinary looker-on may pass by, the expert seizes and does not allow to escape until he has exhausted their teaching. The method of Zadig is the one which he, perhaps unconsciously, adopts in all his enquiries. What that method is most people know, but as it may have been known and forgotten, it may be well to follow Huxley's example in his lectures on evolution and quote the short story of the sage entire. According to Voltaire, Zadig, whose country, indeed whose existence, is problematical, dwelt on the banks of the Euphrates, and occupied his lonely life in the close study of nature. Thus by degrees he acquired a marvellously keen power of observation and profound sagacity, of which the following example may be given:� " One day walking near a wood," so the story is told, " he saw hastening that way one of the queen's chief eunuchs, followed by a troop of officials, who appeared to be in the greatest anxiety, running hither and thither, like men distraught, in search of some lost treasure. ' Young man,' cried the eunuch, ' have you seen the queen's dog?' Zadig answered modestly, ' A bitch, I think, not a dog.' ' Quite right,' replied the eunuch; and Zadig continued, 'A very small spaniel, who has lately had puppies; she limps with the left foreleg, and has very long ears.' 'Ah! you have seen her, then,' said the breathless eunuch. 'No,' answered Zadig, 'I have not seen her; and I really was not aware that the queen possessed a spaniel.' " By an odd coincidence, at the very same time the handsomest horse m the king's stables broke away from his groom in the Babylonian plains. The grand huntsman and all his staff were seeking the horse with as much anxiety as the eunuch and his people the spaniel; and the grand huntsman asked Zadig if he had not seen the king's horse go that way. 'A first-rate galloper, small-hoofed, 5 feet high, tail 3^ feet long; cheek-pieces of the bit of twenty-three-carat gold; shoes silver?' said Zadigf. ' Which way did he go? Where is he?' cried the grand huntsman. ' I have not seen anything of the horse, and I never heard of him before,' replied Zadig. "The grand huntsman and the chief eunuch made sure that Zadig had stolen both the king's horse and the queen's spaniel, so they haled him

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		474 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD before the High Court of Desterham, which at once condemned him to the knout and transportation for life to Siberia. But the sentence was hardly pronounced when the lost horse and spaniel were found. So the judges were under the painful necessity of reconsidering their decision, but they fined Zadig four hundred ounces of gold for saying he had seen that which he had not seen. " The first thing was to pay the fine; afterwards Zadig was permitted to open his defence to the court, which he did in the following terms:� " ' Stars of justice, abysses of knowledge, mirrors of truth whose gravity is as that of lead, whose inflexibility is as that of iron, who rival the diamond in clearness, and possess no little affinity with gold; since I am permitted to address your august assembly, I swear by Ormuzd that I have never seen the respectable lady dog of the queen, nor beheld the sacrosanct horse of the king of kings. " ' This is what happened. I was taking a walk towards the little wood near which I subsequently had the honour to meet the venerable chief eunuch and the most illustrious grand huntsman. I noticed the track of an animal in the sand, and it was easy to see that it was that of a small dog. Long faint streaks upon the little elevations of sand between the footmarks convinced me that it was a she dog with pendent dugs, showing that she must have had puppies not many days since. Other scrapings of the sand which always lay close to the marks of the fore-paws indicated that she had very long ears; and as the imprint of one foot was always fainter than those of the other three, I judged that the lady dog of our august queen was, if I may venture to say so, a little lame. " ' With respect to the horse of the king of kings, permit me to observe that, wandering through the paths which traverse the wood I noticed the marks of horse-shoes. They were all equidistant. 'Ah!' said I, 'this is a famous galloper.' In a narrow valley only 7 feet wide the dust upon the trunks of the trees was a little disturbed at 3^ feet from the middle of the path. ' This horse,' said I to myself, ' had a tail 3-j feet long, and lashing it from one side to the other he has swept away the dust.' Branches of the trees met overhead at the height of 5 feet, and under them I saw newly-fallen leaves; so I knew that the horse had brushed some of the branches and was therefore 5 feet high. As to his bit, it must have been made of twenty-three-carat gold, for he had rubbed it against a stone which had turned out to be a touchstone; with the pro- perties of which I am familiar by experiment. Lastly, by the marks which his shoes left upon pebbles of another kind I was led to think that his shoes were of fine silver.' "All the judges admired Zadig's profound and subtle discernment;

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		THE HORSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 475 and the fame of it reached even the king and the queen. From the ante- room to the presence-chamber Zadig's name was in everybody's mouth; and although many of the magi were of opinion that he ought to be burnt as a sorcerer, the king commanded that the four hundred ounces of gold which he had been fined should be restored to him. So the officers of the court went in state with the four hundred ounces; only they retained three hundred and ninety-eight for legal expenses, and their servants expected fees." That the method of Zadig is the method which is pursued by all reasoning men must be evident from this illustration. In Zadig's case the method was exhibited in a condition of the highest refinement, and since his time, and possibly before it, has been practised by many, the untutored savage among them, who never heard the philosopher's name. In considering the facts and arguments on the development of the horse, which is the subject of the following pages, the reader is invited to bring Zadig's method to bear, and that he may begin with a clear understanding of the object which will be kept in view throughout it is stated in plain terms in the following proposition. The horse of the present time may be traced, through a long line of fossil remains of ancestral forms, back to the first discovered hoofed mammals in the earliest beds (Eocene) of the Tertiary formation.¹ The relation between the fossil remains and the present living animal is the more easily shown in the case of the horse, and its immediate relatives the varieties of the ass, zebra, and quagga, as these are all marked by special characters, most of which can be very readily recognized in the fossil specimens of the progenitors of the race which have been brought to light in the course of geological explorations. Before noticing the particular features of the equine group, it will be necessary to define the position which its members occupy in nature. The whole of the Equidae or horse family belong to the Vertebrate kingdom and to the class Mammalia, which is separated by old writers into two great orders or divisions, the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, and the Unguiculata, including all animals with claws. This classification originated with John Ray in his Synopsis Methodica Animaliam, published to 1693. Sir William Flower in his work on the horse remarks on the artificial character of the mode of division, but adds that some portion of the system has survived, especially the group Ungulata, which has been resuscitated of late years and used as a convenient designation for the group of quadrupeds that are distinctively hoofed. The Tertiary is the third of the great life-periods known to geologists, being followed by the Post-tertiary °r Quaternary, to which present-day life belongs.

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476 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

	Ungulate mammals are described by Sir W. Flower as animals which are eminently qualified for a life on land, and in the main for a vegetable diet. Their molar teeth have broad crowns with tuberculated or ridged grinding surfaces, and they have a perfect set of milk teeth, which are changed for permanent ones as the animals advance towards maturity. A very important point in their anatomy is the absence of collar-bones. _R (clavicles). Their toes are covered with horny material, which usually encloses them completely, forming broad blunt nails or hoofs. Cuvier, and after him Owen, distinguished two well-marked groups of un- gulates, the fossil remains of which are found throughout the Tertiary period, the Artiodactyla or even-toed, and the Perissodactyla or odd-toed animals, both still represented by living forms. To realize the significance of these divisions it must

Fig. 654.�a, Diagram representing the Bones of the Right Fore- foot of an Odd-toed or Perissodaetyle Animal. B, Diagram of the Bones of the Foot of an Even-toed Artiodaetyle Animal. C, The Carpus or Wrist (knee of quadruped), consisting of two rows of bones The upper row consists of c, cuneiform; I, lunar; and s, scaphoid; the lower row it, unciform ; m, magnum; and td, trapezoid; with the trapezium, tin, behind the cuneiform. The shaded parts of the bones in A are those that are now present in the horse; in B, those that are present in the ox. Tn five-toed mammals the digits are numbered one to five, beginning from the inner side of the limb. Digit No. I in the upper or fore extremity is the thumb (pollex), and in the hind or lower extremity the great toe (hallex); the other digits are distinguished by the figures II, III, IV, and V.		be borne in mind that the number of toes in mammals- is limited to five on each extremity. Each toe is the end of a series of bones start- ing from a compound joint, the carious or wrist in the front or upper extremity (arm or fore-leg), and the

tarsus or heel in the hind or lower extremity. To the series of bones the name digits is applied to express either fingers or toes, and the term phalanges is used to indicate the separate bones of which the digits are composed. The annexed diagram, with the description taken from Professor Sir W. Flower's work, will make the above remarks intelligible. So far all is quite simple; but it happens in nature, and it may also occur by chance, that one or more of the digits may be missing. Still the biologist is expected to decide from those which remain whether the

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	THE HORSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
	THE HORSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST	47T
		47T

animal belonged to the odd-toed or even-toed group, and it will shortly appear that it is most essential that there should be no risk of error in the conclusion arrived at. It will be seen by referring to fig. 654 that there is a marked difference in the arrangement of the digits in the two figures in the diagram. In the first figure, a, which may be taken to represent the wot of an early ancestor of the horse, the five digits are shown. The shaded parts are the bones which are to be found in the horse now existing. The special feature of the perissodactyle or odd-toed animal is the one large middle digit, the third in situation. In the next figure, B, representing the foot of the ox, the plan of construction is that of the artiodactyle or even-toed group. The first digit is not present, even !n the most ancient members of the group, the second and fifth are absent or rudimentary in the recent members, and instead of one large Middle digit there are two of equal size. These are distinct, and form the so-called cloven hoof of the ox, which is, in fact, constituted of the two middle digits, the third and fourth in situation. The shaded parts of the bones in the second and fifth digits in the diagram show the portions which remain in the foot of the ox. Even a tyro in the science of anatomy will be able to understand he value of the indications afforded by the middle digit or digits in assigning to the animal to which they belong its proper position in the order Ungulata. For further illustration it may be assumed that the ones of the foot of an imaginary animal are in question, and it is Ranted that the animal is an ungulate mammal, and must therefore elong to the odd-toed or even-toed group. To determine which, the enquirer proceeds to examine the bones of the extremities below the carpus or wrist, otherwise called the knee, and the tarsus or heel, nown as the hock in quadrupeds. Finding below these joints one large git, no matter what other bones are present or absent, it is at once. ^c ecided that the animal is one of the perissodactyle or odd-toed mammals.. = however, there are two equal digits, it is as certain that the animal: ¹⁸ one of the artiodactyle or even-toed mammals. . Applying this scheme to the horse, it will be evident that as there^ one big digit , consisting of four phalanges extending from the knee nock to the toe, on the hoof-covered tip of which the horse stands, e animal must be classed with the perissodactyles or odd-toed, and also. !th the Solidungula or single-hoofed mammals. Attached to the back of the one big digit of the horse, the leg-bone,, <>nnon or shank bone as it is sometimes called, are the well-known P W-bones, one on each side, reaching from the knee or hock to a point Vol. in. => ^

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		478 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD about two-thirds of the length of the first of the phalanges. It can hardly be doubted that these splint-bones are the vestiges or representatives of the second and fourth digits seen in the remote ancestors of our horses. What has become of the first and fifth digits is a question to which no convincing answer has yet been given. Certain horny excrescences, termed corns or chestnuts, situated on the inner side of the legs above the knees and at the lower part of the hocks, and also the horny growths found at the back of the fetlock joints, partly or entirely concealed by the long hair which is usually abundant in that part, have been looked upon as the rudiments of the missing digits; but there are some facts connected with their situation in the limbs which do not support this view. What- ever may be their true place in the animal economy, these horny growths have always attracted attention, and much speculation has been indulged in as to their meaning. At the least it may be said of them that they serve to identify the members of the equine family, and to some extent aid in separating the various members of the group one from the other. In their typical form the chestnuts on the hind and fore extremities are charac- teristic of Equus caballus�the scientific name of the horse. Asses and zebras have them in a much-modified form on the fore limbs only. The excrescences (ergots) at the back of the fetlock are as in the horse. The anatomical characters of the growths will be described more par- ticularly in connection with some other specialities of the horse when the general structure of the animal is considered. At this point it will be convenient to pause for a moment to note the general character of the evidence which has been produced. The preceding remarks have enabled us to ascertain with some exactness the place of the horse in nature, and we have further noted some of the more prominent special characters of the Equidee in their relations to the fossil remains of extinct animals in which those special features had a more perfectly-developed form, suggesting that in those animals they formed an actively useful and essential part of their organization. At this early stage of the investigation it is not intended to suggest that the evidence which has already been advanced is in itself sufficient to prove that the horse is a descendant of some remote ungulate mammal which had five perfect digits instead of the " one big digit" by which it is now distinguished. On the contrary, many more facts have to be brought forward and carefully analysed before that proposition can be considered as proved. Huxley, in his lectures on evolution, delivered in New York in 1876, observes that the occurrence of historical facts is said to be demonstrated when the evidence is of such a character as to render the assumption that

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		THE HORSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 479 they did not happen improbable in the highest degree. It is requisite, therefore, to consider the evidence bearing on the evolution of the horse, and it will render the subject all the more easy of comprehension if an attempt be made to explain what the word evolution is intended to express. At the outset it may be remarked that the doctrine of evolution is not exactly new. " The great theory of evolution ", writes Mr. Hutchinson in The Creatures of Other Days, " was first dimly suggested by Greek philo- sophers, such as Anaximander (b.c. 610), who may have derived the idea from Egyptian, Babylonian, or Hindu sources; then revived in a more scientific form by Lamarck last century. In recent years it has been placed on a truly scientific basis by the illustrious Charles Darwin, and is now generally accepted by naturalists. Indeed it is hard in these days to escape being an evolutionist, so abundant is the evidence in favour of the doctrine, especially that derived from a study of extinct animals." Huxley writes in reference to evolution as the acting force in the past history of Nature, " that at any comparatively late period of past time, an imaginary spectator would have met with a state of things very similar to that which now obtains; but that the likeness of the past to the present ^oulcl gradually become less and less, in proportion to the remoteness of his period of observation from the present day. Preceding the forms of ife which now exist, the observer would see animals and plants not iden- tical with them but like them, their differences increasing with their antiquity, and at the same time becoming simpler and simpler; until nally the world of life would present nothing but that undifferentiated Protoplasmic matter, which, so far as our present knowledge goes, is the common foundation of all vital activity!" To all of which the reader, Recording to his views, may urge the series of objections which have from ie fi_rst been formulated and overruled. How is it possible, it may ^e asked, that a mass of protoplasmic matter�a simple, jelly-like mass, giving hardly any evidence of life�can, under the influence of varying conditions of environment, become resolved into plants and animals, Advancing steadily from the lowest forms to the highest? Clearly, the answer comes; the possibility cannot be disputed, the changes are going ^perpetually under our eyes. Take the seed of a plant, or, better Ul, the ovum of an animal, and place it under favourable conditions, the process of evolution begins and goes on to its completion. ^ructures are successively evolved without any interference from without, ^ntil a miniature man, or a lower animal, or a plant is formed. It is ^ery interesting to observe that in the process of development, as Von aer found, every organism in its earliest stages has the greatest number characters in common with all other organisms in their earliest stages,

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		THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD
	480	THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

and at a stage somewhat later, its structure is like the structures displayed at corresponding phases by a less extensive multitude of organisms. At each subsequent stage features are acquired which successively distinguish the embryo from groups of embryos which it previously resembled, thus step by step diminishing the class of embryos which it still resembles, and finally the class is narrowed to the species of which it is a member. The embryo of a bird or a rabbit has at one time in its development characters resembling those of the embryo of the fish�structures repre- senting gill-clefts, for example. In the human embryo, it is only after exhibiting successive changes characteristic of the organization of lower animals that it at last assumes the form proper to man. To the naturalist many instances will readily occur of remarkable changes of form during the evolution of an animal from the ovum to the mature stage. Steenstrupp, the Danish naturalist, in 1845 summarized. the process of development in the Medusae, Entozoa, and others of the lower animals, under the title of " Alternation of Generations", which he described as " the remarkable and till now inexplicable natural pheno- menon of an animal producing an offspring, which at no time resembles its parent; but which, on the other hand, itself brings forth a progeny which returns in its form and nature to the parent animal; so that the maternal animal does not meet with its resemblance in its own brood, but in its descendants of the second, third, or fourth generation." This re- markable form of evolution is exhibited in the reproductive process of the parasite the liver fluke (Distoma hepaticwn) in the most striking manner. The parent fluke provides the ovum, and there its responsibility seems to cease. Hatching takes place in any moist spot or stagnant pool. ln^eproduct, however, is not a young fluke, but a long, thin embryo, having no resemblance to the parent. Soon, however, this undergoes a change into a cyst, or sort of bag, in the interior of which are developed more advanced organisms known as redia, and in them, again, still more advanced tailed cercaria appear, which are nearest to the form of the fluke, and only await entrance into the body of a warm-blooded animal to acquire their perfect; form and thus prove their descent from their original parent. (See p. 2oo of this volume.) f Equally remarkable transformations occur during the development o the embryo in the higher animals, but these go on within the orgaiii^sro of the parent, or otherwise while the young animal is enclosed in the sue of the egg. It is, however, possible to imagine that the changes wluc occur in the embryo, which is hidden from sight, as in the egg of the bird o the uterus of the mammalian, might be displayed to view, as it is in some o the Entozoa and other animals lower in the scale of life. What a wonder�

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			THE HORSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 481

		series of phenomena would be exhibited! Instead of sitting on her eggs tor weeks, the common hen would find her brood at the expiration of a tew days hatched but palpably unfinished, very unlike the chickens to which she had been accustomed. The young living beings would present some of the characteristics of the mammal, but they would also, in certain Parts of their organism, show structures connecting them with reptiles, and, m the arrangement of the blood-vessels, they would run the risk of being classed among fishes. Day by day almost imperceptible changes would be distinguished by the critical observer, and gradually the unnamed living thing would assert ^Jts claim to be accepted as a bird, and finally the expert would decide, without the least chance of making a blunder, to wdiich particular species, genus, and variety of birds the mysterious creature belonged. In like manner it might be supposed, for the sake of illustration, that the mare, instead of producing a foal at the end of several months, would give birth at an earlier period to an unfinished organism in which some of the charac- teristics of the lower Vertebrata would be recognized, those of the reptile or the fish, for example. Gradually advancing day by day, the young organ- ism would exhibit in turn, in the circulatory system especially, some of the features belonging to the bird, and passing through the changes which mark certain phases in the organization of the lower mammals, it would ^aiTive at the stage of perfect development and assume the form of the parent. In reply to the very easy and obvious criticism that the above description is absurd, and that the processes referred to could not possibly take place, it may be observed that nothing has been advanced of a hypo- thetical character. All the changes or metamorphoses referred to do instantly occur, and the only liberty which has been taken has been that of supposing them to be visible. Facts which are invisible to the ordinary observer, but perfectly distinct to the skilled microscopist, have °een assumed to occur in such a position that they might be recognized by the unaided eye. The facts are not the less real because they do not Present themselves in a palpable form. In the study of embryology all these changes are recognized, but they are visible only by the aid of the Microscope. If they formed part of the ordinary observation of the breeder °f stock, as they do of the investigations of the scientist, the mysterious doctrine of evolution would lose its glamour, and become one phase of mere ^e°mmonplace experience. Replying to some of the objections which have been urged against the °-°ctrine of evolution, the late Herbert Spencer deals with two forms of ^criticism which have often been advanced, one relating to the obvious and Emitted fact that the process of evolving a new species has never been

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		482 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD seen, and the other to the difficulty which is based on the ground of the extent of time which would necessarily be required for the development of highly-organized living creatures out of a mass of jelly-like protoplasm. On the first point he quotes from the late Lord Salisbury's address to the British Association, in which the speaker says that no man or succession of men have ever observed the whole process in any single case, and cer- tainly no man has recorded the observation. In reply, Herbert Spencer quotes from an essay which was published many years ago in pre-Darwinian days, in which the author remarks: "In a debate upon the development hypothesis lately narrated to me by a friend, one of the disputants was described as arguing that as, in all our experience, we know of no such phenomenon as transmutation of species, it is unphilosophical to assume that transmutation of species ever takes place. Had I been present, I think that, passing over his assertion, which is open to criticism, I should have replied that, as in all our experience we had never known a species created, it was by his own showing unphilosophical to assume that any species ever had been created." Thus, supposing the two hypotheses�special creation and evolution by natural selection�are to be tested by the directly-observed facts assigned in their support, then, if the hypothesis of evolution by natural selection is to be rejected because there are no directly-observed facts which prove it, the hypothesis of special creation must be rejected for the same reason. In fact, it would be impossible to arrive at any conclusion by such a line of argument. On the subject of the time which would be required for the evolution of a living being of advanced type, the difficulty is thus cogently propounded. " If we think of the vast distance over which Darwin conducts us, from the jelly-fish lying on the primaeval beach to man as we know him now, if we reflect that the prodigious changes requisite to transform one into the other are made up of a chain of generations each advancing by a minute variation from the form of its predecessor, and if we further reflect that these succes- sive changes are so minute that, in the course of our historical period�say three thousand years�this progressive variation has not advanced by a single step perceptible to our eyes, in respect to man or the animals or plants with which man is familiar, we shall admit that for a change so vast, of which the smallest link is longer than our recorded history, the biologists are making no extravagant claim when they demand at least many hundred millions of years for the accomplishment of the stupendous process." In reply to this Herbert Spencer, setting aside the statement that the jelly- fish is a remote ancestor of man, quotes again from a portion of the essay previously referred to where the writer, after admitting that those who

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		THE HOESE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 483 know nothing of the science of life may naturally think the hypothesis that all races of beings, man inclusive, may in process of time have been evolved from the simplest monad a "ludicrous one", continues: "But for the physiologist who knows that every individual being is so evolved, who knows further that in their earliest condition the germs of all plants and animals whatever are so similar that there is no appreciable distinction among them which would enable it to be determined whether any particular molecule is the germ of a Conferva or of an Oak, of a Zoophyte or of a ' Man'�for him to make a difficulty of the matter is inexcusable. Surely if a single cell, when subjected to certain influences, becomes a man in the space of twenty years, there is nothing absurd in the hypothesis that under certain other influences a cell may in the course of millions of years give origin to the human race." In regard to the time required for the alleged evolutionary changes, he accepts Lord Kelvin's proposition to the effect that, " life cannot have existed on the earth for more than a hundred million years". At the same time it is pointed out that the proposition is open to doubt. Other geologists, quoted by Huxley in his lectures on evolution, assert that five hundred million years were occupied in the completion of the Tertiary formations, and in that case the period may be taken as the measure of the duration of the evolution of the horse; but the lecturer goes on to suggest that he is not much concerned about the discrepancies in calcula- tions as to time, the chief point of enquiry being " is it a fact that evolution took place?" That question being answered, the time required for the Process may be left to be determined by the physicist and the astronomer. Herbert Spencer, however, waiving all criticism, accepts the lower estimate of one hundred million years as the time required, and proceeds to compare the changes in the development of the embryo with the evolu- tionary changes, as exhibited in the Tertiary formation, in regard to their extent and the time occupied by them. " The nine months of human gestation, more exactly stated, is 280 days, that is 6720 hours or 403,200 minutes. Thus, then, the total change from the nucleated cell constituting the human ovum to the developed structures °f the infant just born, is divisible into 403,200 changes each occupying a minute. No one of these changes is appreciable by the eye or even by a micrometer." Turning to the other member of the comparison, the writer Proceeds to contrast the evolution of a man from a primitive protozoon with the evolution of the infant from the protoplasm in the cell of the human °vum. In doing this he supposes the developmental changes from the jelly- ^nsh to the man to be equal in their number to those gone through by the foetus. And in order to arrive at a result he divides 100,000,000 years

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		484 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD by 403,200 changes, a simple sum which gives in its quotient a period of nearly 250 years as the interval available for an amount of change equal to that which the foetus undergoes in a minute. If, instead of the human ovum, the ovum of a rabbit had been taken for comparison, the contrast in point of time would have been of necessity more striking, as similar �changes to those which occur in the human ovum during nine months take place in that of the rabbit in a few weeks. It will be observed that the argument is not directed to the proof that man was evolved from a jelly-fish or other primitive protozoon, but rather to the fact of there having been according to the lowest estimate ample time for the process, seeing that in the ordinary course of things a child is evolved from a mass of protoplasm in a few months, and advances to the condition of a man in the course of some twenty years. Enough has been said to leave no room for reasonable doubt that what- ever may be its limitation, evolution is a natural process, the successive steps of which may be observed and recognized, as in the examples which have been given. It is, of course, open to anyone to oppose the proposition that every existing organism, animal and plant, was developed from some original and undifferentiated protoplasmic matter, just as the foetus is developed from a microscopic speck of protoplasm. Nor is it required for the present purpose that the proposition should be accepted. It cannot be denied, on the other hand, that under the influence of changes in the environment certain important alterations of form and function do happen, and are indicated by the presence among existing beings of organs and parts which are so placed as to be devoid of any functional value, while a comparison of them with similar and more developed parts in extinct races necessarily leads to the presumption that they may be, and most probably are, rudimentary or vestigial remains modified by the laws of heredity and the influence of natural and artificial selection. Leaving now the general for the particular, the question which presents itself relates to the facts which are offered by the anatomist and the palseon- tologist, in regard to structure and conformation, bearing upon the state- ment that the horse may be traced through a long line of extinct mammals back to the earliest mammals of the Tertiary period. SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE The horse is generally described as a remarkable animal, at once ex- hibiting perfection of mechanism, complete balance of form, as weli as beauty of outline. Professor Sir "W. Flower lays great stress on the

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	SPECIAL FEATUEES IN STKUCTURE
	SPECIAL FEATUEES IN STKUCTURE	485

specialization of the horse, that is, the modification of its structure from the average type of quadruped to meet some special requirements. The horse is a favourite subject for the evolutionist, as illustrating probably more satisfactorily than any other mammal the truth of the doctrine of evolution. In particular, various rudimentary and apparently useless parts are met with in the horse which correspond to fully-developed structures found in other mammals. Such rudimentary structures in animals may either be in process of growth or they may have the character of vestigial remains; that is, they may be structures that have degenerated from a former more perfect state of development and are now only vestiges of what they once were. In the horse most of the rudimentary structures and parts appear to be in the vestigial condition, and the discoveries in the geological history of the horse all point to that conclusion. Although the horse as it now exists may be looked upon as one of the most recent among animals from the point of view of the geologist and naturalist, from the historian's point of view its antiquity is considerable, since it can be traced back almost to the beginning of the historic period. According to Dr. George Fleming, the horse was domesticated among the Egyptians nearly 2000 years B.C. The Persians, Greeks, and Eomans used the horse for ordinary work and in war not only to carry the riders, but also for the even more useful purpose of being harnessed to chariots, with which the armed warriors were accustomed to attack. (See the chapters on the History of the Horse.) That the horse is specially adapted for the purpose of supporting weight and also for rapid movement, we might con- clude even from an inspection of the skeleton, which with all its delicacy of outline is so adjusted, that great strength is combined with perfect elasticity. Bony Framework.�The accompanying illustration (fig. 655) will show that in many respects it is possible to compare the bony framework of the horse with that of man, in whose structure the highest type of ^anatomical mechanism is exhibited. For the general reader the most interesting feature in the illustration ^11 be the arrangement of the joints of the limbs of the horse in com- parison with those of man, and a very little study of the engraving will correct some popular errors, such, for instance, as refer to the position of the knee of the horse. The real knee of the animal is, in the phraseology of the horseman, the stifle-joint, and the joint which is usually called the f nee of the horse is in reality the wrist. The letters in the illustration delicate the true shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle in both man ^and horse. Commencing with the fore parts of the skeleton, we will first notice the

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		486 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

	joint which is called the wrist or carpus, the knee of the horse as it is wrongly named. In this two rows of small bones are arranged, as can be seen in the figure, between the arm-bone above and the shank-bones below, the latter consisting of one large bone and two small splint-bones attached to it. In man the corresponding arrangement conduces to a very important end�a series of movements in the hand and arm which are

			Fig. 655.�Comparative View of Skeletons of Man and Horse S, Shoulder-joint; E, elbow-joint; w, wrist-joint (so-called knee in the horse); H, hip-joint; K, knee (stifle-joint in the horse); A, ankle (hock-joint in the horse).

mechanically impossible in the horse, notwithstanding the apparent simi- larity of structure. The hand of man constantly performs the movements of flexion and extension, as they are called (these being hinge-like motions with extensive lateral movement), and in addition almost perfect rotation, at least to the extent of two-thirds of the circle. On the other hand, the horse's wrist or knee is only capable of flexion and extension. Nearly the same degree and exactly the same variety of movement are

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	SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE
	SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE	487
		487

possible in the elbow-joint of man, while in the horse, owing to the rudi- mentary form of the second bone of the arm (the ulna), no lateral or rotatory motion can take place. The movement is purely hinge-like. Another marked peculiarity is observed in the connection of the shoulder- blade (scapula) with the trunk. In man the junction is effected by a bone known as the collar-bone (or clavicle), which extends from the shoulder- bone near the shoulder-joint to the first rib on each side. The horse has no vestige of a collar-bone; the shoulder-blade (scapula) is joined to the trunk only by means of the muscles which are attached to it, so that the /ore part of the horse's body is suspended by the aid of muscular bands between the two fore-legs. An examination of the hinder limbs will show that the general plan of construction is nearly the same in both man and horse, as far as the joints are concerned. The hip-joint, the stifle (the true knee) with the floating bone or knee-cap (patella), and the hock (ankle of man) are almost identical m mechanical arrangement. With regard to the hock-joint it may be observed that the two rows of small bones are placed as in the ankle of man, but the movement of the joint is purely hinge-like, and experience proves that the two rows of small bones may be cemented together, and to the cannon-bones and splint-bones below them, by bony deposits in old horses without causing any defect m the action�to a sufficient extent, at least, to be noticed. In fact, the provision for perfectly complete flexion in the hock-joint is secured by the mode of junction of the bones called tibia and astragalus (see fig. 658). -The so-called cushion bones do not appear to contribute much, if anything, to the mobility of the joint, in the flexion and extension of which the small bones are largely concerned. Below the knee in front, and the hock behind, begins the hand and foot respectively. The one large digit in each extremity, composed of what are ^Called the metacarpal and metatarsal bones; the rudimentary second and fourth digits (the splint-bones) attached to them, and reaching two-thirds °f their length, and the three following phalanges, constitute the true hand and foot. The horse, in fact, stands on those parts which in man form Respectively the tip of the middle finger and the point of the middle toe, both of which are capped with an investing hoof instead of a nail. The next illustration shows the exact relation between the finger of man and the reputed foot of the horse. How very close the anatomical relation ¹⁸ will be at once evident. The chief anatomical difference between the fingers of man and the foot °f the horse (which represents the end of the middle finger) consists in the Presence of�(l) a complete horny box or hoof, which covers the organ in

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488 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL' WORLD

the horse; (2) the three floating bones or sesamoids, of which two are
attached to the back of the lower end of the metacarpal bone and one
navicular behind the last phalanx, or rather between it and the articular
end of the bone immediately above it, the coronal bone or short pastern.

i# n

Fig. 657.�Section of Foot of Horsa

1. Metacarpal bone.

2. First phalanx.

3. Second phalanx.

4. Third or ungual phalanx.

5. One of the upper sesamoid bones.

6. Lower sesamoid or navicular bone.
7- Tendon of extensor muscle.

8. Tendon of superficial flexor (flexor perforatus).

9. Tendon of deep flexor (flexor perforans).

10. Short flexor or suspensory ligament of the fetlock.

11. Derma or true skin continued into

12. Coronary cushion.

13. 14. Villous portion of the hoof matrix.

15. Hoof.

16. The heel.

17. Plantar cushion.

18. Fibro-fatty cushion of the fetlock.

19. Horny excrescence or spur (ergot).

Fig. 656.�Section of Finger of Man

1. Metacarpal bone.

2. First phalanx.

3. Second phalanx.

4. Third or ungual phalanx (pedal bone of horse).
(5-6 wanting).

7. Tendon of extensor muscles.

8. Tendon of superficial flexor (flexor perforatus).

9. Tendon of deep flexor (flexor perforans).
11 and 14. Derma or true skin.

15. Nail (imperfect hoof of horse).

17. Fibro-fatty cushion of end of finger.

18. Fibro-fatty cushion of palm behind metacarpal

phalangeal joint.

19. Thickened epidermal covering of the same.

In the human hand two sesamoid bones are found where the thumb
articulates with the first metacarpal bone on the inner or palm surface.
None exists elsewhere in the hand.

When we give full weight to the points of difference in the fore-limbs
of the horse, as compared with the upper (fore) extremity of man, the
similarity in the details of the plan of construction in both man and horse
must seem far more striking than the variations, and this fact, taken in

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SPECIAL FEATUEES IN STEUCTUBE

489

connection with the marked difference in the position and general functions
of the fore extremities in each subject, is certainly more suggestive of evolu-
tion than of special design. Unless on the theory of evolution from remote
ancestors, it is indeed unintelligible that all the bones of the carpus (wrist)
of man, conducing as they do to the greatest perfection of complicated
movements, should be represented in the same joint (knee) of the horse,
but so modified in their arrangement as to permit of no more than a simple
hinge-like motion, which is quite effectually provided for in other hinge-
joints by the adaptation of two bones only. And again, some of the digits


14	------	h
I \l
f�i ^m�		--B
*■^f^*	»§K-	l-c

G F _E *_D ^^^^

Fig. 658.�Foot of Man and Foot, of Horse Compared in Natural Positions

(Note position of ground surface in each case.)

A, Tibia. B, Astragalus, o, Calcis. D, Scaphoid, e, Internal cuneiform. P, Splint-bone (a vestige of

2nd metatarsal), g, Cannon bone, or 3rd metatarsal. 1, 2, 3, Phalanges.

of man, one of the five-fingered and five-toed mammals, are represented in
the horse bv undeveloped structures or rudiments which serve no useful
purpose, as the horse walks on the tip of a single finger and a single toe;
in the foot of man, on the contrary, the whole of the bones from the ankle-
joint are brought into use, forming the plantar surface or sole. Such a
modification of structure in the lower animal can be understood only on
the assumption that it was the result of a gradual process of development
through which the five-toed foot of the horse's remote ancestors was in
course of ages transformed to the one-toed foot of the horse as we now
know it. A very pronounced series of changes it must be allowed, the true
character of which will be more easily understood by reference to figs.
⁶58 and 659, taken by permission of the Eoyal Agricultural Society from
^an article on the structure of the horse's foot by Professor Sir Geo. T.
Brown, and published in the Society's Journal, 1891.

In fig. 658 both man and horse have the foot placed as it is in nature.

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	490 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD Man presents the entire under surfaces of the bones of the tarsus (hock of the horse), with the metatarsal bones and the four phalanges, to the ground surface, while the horse stands on the fourth or terminal phalanx. Fig. 659 shows the positions reversed; the foot of the man has the points of the toes on the ground in a position corresponding to that which is natural in the horse, and the horse is supposed to be in the impossible position of having the whole of the bones from the point of the hock to the last phalanx of the toe on the ground as in the foot of the man. The teaching of the diagram is that for the horse to exhibit a perfect foot, the bones below the carpus (knee) and the tarsus (hock) would have to be included

		Fig. 659.�Foot of Man and Foot of Horse Compared (positions reversed) (Note position of ground surface in each case.) The names of the several bones are given below fig. 658 on the preceding page

in the structures of the organ; instead of this being the case, it i^sobvious that what is called the foot of. the horse only includes the two last phalanges. It will be noticed in comparing the above illustrations with the skeletons in fig. 655, page 486, that in man the bones of the leg (the tibia and fibula) up to the knee, and the thigh-bone (femur) from the knee to the hip-joint, form a column which is nearly a straight line. The limbs of the horse, on the contrary, present very decided angles at several points, chiefly at the shoulder, elbow, hip, stifle, and hock joints; and also from the fetlock-joints to the ground surface, an arrangement which is eminently calculated to give freedom of movement, and at the same time lessen the effect of concussion. Muscular System.�The bones of the skeleton form the framework of the body. Joints are obviously arranged to admit of motion, they

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	SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE
	SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE	491
		491

do not originate it. That function is relegated to the muscles, which form the masses of flesh covering the bones. Muscular tissue possesses the peculiar property of contraction, and the effect of contraction is to Pull the parts to which muscles are attached nearer to each other. As nearly all the joints of the horse are simply hinge-joints capable only of flexion and extension, it would be expected that only flexor and extensor muscles would be required. It is a fact, however, which Sir W. Flower comments on in his work on the horse, that many more muscles exist in the limbs of the animal than would be thought necessary for the very simple functions which they have to perform. It would appear that the reduction of bones to a rudimentary condition, as in the case of the ulna and the fibula, or their entire loss, as in the case of lour of the toes, has taken place more thoroughly than, and in advance °f, that of the muscles which were originally connected with these bones, many of which linger, as it were, behind, though with new relations and uses, sometimes in a most reduced, and almost, if not quite, function- less condition, and sometimes even with completely changed structure. Dr. G. E. Dobson remarks in this connection that if no other evidence Were obtainable of the descent of the horse from five-toed ancestors, the condition of the muscles of the foot would be a sufficient indication. Most of the muscles of the forearm of the five-toed mammal are still represented in the extremities of the horse; the proper extensor even of the fifth digit survives, although both its position and special function nave been completely altered. In the hind-limbs of the horse the two flexors of the great toe and the next one are both present with well-developed tendons united in the loot, as in the greater number of five-toed mammals. "In the human hand there are fifteen muscles which have special functions in the complicated movements of the organ. Only five¹ of hem remain in the horse, four in a very reduced condition, two interossei, ^and two lumbricales. The fifth muscle, a short flexor muscle, called in Qan the first palmar interosseous, is referred to as a remarkable instance ° a structure not becoming rudimentary and useless, but being completely Verted from its original purpose, its function and its structure also ^emg changed. In the horse the modified muscle is entirely transformed, *id in its new form is known as the suspensory ligament�a strong brous band lying at the back of the cannon-bone, being attached to ¹ s upper extremity, and dividing at the lower end into two portions ^wnich spread over the fetlock - joint and are inserted partly into the ^Sesamoid bones and partly into the extensor tendon on the first phalanx." ¹ Others have been discovered in later dissections.

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			492 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

		. The most interesting point, however, remarks M. D. J. Cunningham, in connection with its structure is that it bears its history on its face. Almost invariably two thin streaks of striated muscular fibre are to be found on its superficial surface, leading down to the two inferior divisions. On examining its deep surface two very distinct strands of pink, fleshy tissue are always observed extending throughout the entire length of the ligament. These consist in each case of short oblique striated fibres, and are presumed to represent the two heads of the muscle called the flexor brevis, not yet converted into fibrous tissue. It is hardly necessary to suggest that mus- cular fibre in such a form and position, and with such sur- roundings, cannot possess any functional value, that is, does not serve any really useful end. Indeed, it can only be looked upon as a vestigial tissue which is slowly passing away. The Head. � Proceeding from the consideration of the bones of the limbs we will next give particular attention to the head, mainly on account

	Fig. 660.�Side View of Skull of Man, with the bone removed so as to show the whole of the teeth z, Zygomatic arch ; n, nasal bone; o, orbit; t, temporal fossa; oc, occipital condyle; e, external auditory opening; g, glenoid fossa for articulation of the lower jaw; co, coronoid process of lower jaw; i^l and i², incisor teeth; c, canine; pmi and pvi², premolar teeth; m¹ m^a m³, the three molar teeth.			of the teeth. These, although in the popular view they are looked upon merely as organs for masticating food, and for this purpose are divided into

front and back teeth or in- cisors and molars, do really possess very special features, by the aid of which the naturalist is enabled to determine the family or order to which animals belong. The exploit of the palaeontologist in constructing the model of an extinct animal from a single fossil bone or tooth is often accepted as a trick of sleight-of-hand, more calculated to amuse than to instruct, but when all the facts are known there is really nothing very wonderful in the procedure. Anyone, for example, who is familiar with the form of the teeth of the shark could hardly make a mistake in their identifi- cation, and if a fossilized tooth of a shark were placed in his hand he would at once, in imagination, construct the animal to which the tooth

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SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE 493

belonged�in fact, it would be impossible for him to avoid doing so. In
bke manner other characteristic structures and organs are in themselves
indisputable evidence of their origin, and to the naturalist the realization
01 the form of an animal upon such evidence is a mere involuntary and
quite spontaneous mental process scarcely attended with any effort.

To understand the value of the evidence afforded by the teeth and
certain bones of the skull of the horse as connecting the existing animal
with its remote ancestors, it will be necessary to consider some of the
most salient features of those
structures, premising that
no more than a cursory
view can be taken out of
respect for the patience of
the reader.

If we compare the skull
°f man with that of the
horse it will at once be
evident that the difference
°f form is very marked,
as shown in the two illus-
trations (figs. 660 and
⁶61) from Sir W. Flower's

book.

The letters of reference in
the two figures are the same
m both, and indicate the
same bones. The remarkable

Fig. 661.�Side View of the Skull of the Horse, with
the bone removed so as to show the whole ot the
teeth and nasal bone

n, Nasal bone; o, orbit; z, zygomatic arch; t, temporal fossa;
oc, occipital condyle; em, external auditory opening of glenoid
fossa for articulation of the lower jaw; i¹ i² i³, three incisor teeth;
c, canine; pin', the situation of the first rudimentary premolar,

"llierence in form Of the twO ^wmch ^has been lost in the lower, but which is present in the
Skull ' J J- 1, � upper jaw; pm" pm³ pm*, the three fully-developed premolar

^OK>uns is due to the variation teeth; m¹ m² m³, the three true molar teeth.

m size and shape of the

separate pieces of bone of which the cranial and facial divisions of the

skull are composed.

Most noticeable is the vast difference in size of the cranium of man

^as compared with that of the horse. There is no difficulty in recognizing

he fact that the facial division of the horse's skull, the part which is

mamly used for the mastication of the food, is developed enormously

°ut of proportion to the cranial division in which the brain is lodged�

^e centre of whatever degree of intelligence the animal may possess,

ml the source of some of the most important nerves. In man the

^°nditions are exactly the opposite. The cranium is of immense capacity

-°mpared with the insignificant proportions of the facial bones, yet it

Vol. ttt

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		494 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD is a fact that there are the same number of bones and a similar arrange- ment of them, and in short a general uniformity of the plan of con- struction in both cases, varied in details under the influence, it may be presumed, of the conditions of existence. With regard to the teeth of the horse some points of considerable interest have to be noticed. It has already been stated that the horse has six front teeth or incisors, named more correctly, from their flat sur- faces, nippers, in each jaw, four canine teeth (tusks) in the male, two on each side, top and bottom, while in the female the tusks are absent or are in a rudimentary condition. There are also six molars on each side, top and bottom. The last three of these are specially distinguished as the molars, those in front being known as premolars. To these must be added the first premolars, eye-teeth or wolves'-teeth, in the upper jaw, which are in a rudimentary state, and have disappeared entirely from the lower jaw. In the ancient ungulate mammals the first premolars were fairly well developed teeth, making a row of seven instead of six molars. After a gradual diminution in size, which may be traced ^mthe fossilized remains of the ungulates of the tertiary formation, these teeth are represented in the horse of the present time only by the small conical teeth in front of each of the first well - developed molars of the upper jaw. These teeth (the eye-teeth)�which, as is well known, were once (and are still by some) looked upon as a cause of blindness, and were always punched out as soon as discovered�are undoubtedly there- fore vestigial remains, and in course of time may cease to appear altogether in the horse's mouth. They are usually got rid of between two and three years of age, when the two first molars are exchanged for the second teeth or permanent molars. Between the corner incisors and the first molars is a clear unoccupied space, the diastema, popularly called the bar. This toothless space did not exist in the most ancient mammals, but in the primitive equm^eungulates there were some indications of it, and the feature becomes more and more distinct through the whole series of horse-like animals- What circumstances led to the change, or what object is gained by ^l"> is not known, but in the horse the space in the lower jaw is taken ad- vantage of for the purpose of adjusting the bit. The incisors and molars of the horse are remarkable for their complicated structure. Thre materials of different degrees of density may be distinguished in thei formation. Of these the least dense is known as the crusta jjetros or cementum; the next in hardness forms the bulk of the tooth, ^&nis called dentine; the hardest of the three is the enamel which cover the dentine, following it in all its convolutions. The crusta petros

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	SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE
	SPECIAL FEATURES IN STRUCTURE	495
		495

covers the root of the tooth; it consists of lamellated bone tissue, with acunse and canaliculi, but without haversian canals. It is covered with Periosteum, which is also reflected on to the walls of the alveolar cavity. In the incisor tooth of the horse there is no external dentine; the crown of the tooth is enamel and crusta petrosa (fig. 662). In the molar tooth affairs are different; crusta petrosa, dentine, and enamel all come to he surface, and it is owing to the different degrees of hardness of these substances that the necessary roughness of surface is maintained, as the crown is worn away by use. Not only do the three structures of the teeth accomplish an important Purpose in the preparation of the food for digestion, but owing to variation of colour they present a characteristic appearance which, taken in connection with the form of the teeth, constitutes a dis- tinguishing feature in the Equidce or horse family easily recognized and quite reliable. With the above sketch of some of the special parts of the skeleton of the horse it will be convenient to proceed to the examination of some other characteristics which are exhibited by the animal. Colour may attract the attention of an observer even _n ^more than variations in size and outline, and in many in- tfon of umvom" stances the peculiarities which are recognized on the surface Aduil⁸Horse°* ^ ^m°^re ^definite' ^and certainly to the ordinary observer more «. Dentine; b, ^mt^elligikle, than the evidence which the anatomist obtains &.amei; _c, he- from a close examination of internal parts. ^,nentum;d,Pulp T? 1 � ^oav%. ^p ^or example, some six or seven species of the equine family _t&. ^may ^be distinguished by mere inspection of the markings on cer- m parts of the skin, the arrangement of the hair of the mane and the tail, e s_12e _and _the _ghape _of _the _feet^ _the _leng_th _of _the _earg^ _and _the _exigtence the absence of small horny callosities on the fore and hind extremities, col "^h0rSe (^EqUUS ^cahcdlus> as it is known to naturalists) is variously _0r °^Ured' ^and to the observant eye has very curious markings, often spots the ^ ^herC ^and ^there' °ⁿ ^the ^tail ^the ^hair ^is ^lonS' ^and ^growS ^fromj₈ ⁶ ^f00t ^t0 ^the ^tiP ^of ^tne organ, covering it completely. The mane also ha ^6minent1^ characteristic, especially that part of it, the forelock, which ⁿgs between the ears over the forehead. liffht^6CUliai ^markin�^s ^are ^also frequently seen in the form of a spot, iiT f °^r ^daik.ⁱⁿ ^C°^l0Ur' °ⁿ ^the ^centre ^of ^the forehead. This mark varies occ ^lm' ^1S ^Clreu^^ar ^or ^ova^' elongated or lozenge-shaped, and sometimes frontf⁶⁸ ^a ^COnsiderabIe ^sP^ace> forming a kind of shield over the whole of the face. Blaze or race is the term given to this mark.

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		496 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD Size.�One horse differs from another not only in the characteristics described, but even to a much greater extent in size. Comparing the smallest pit pony of thirty-six inches with the carriage or the cart horse of eighteen or nineteen hands, it is often difficult to realize that both belong to the same species. Nevertheless the apparently widely different animals are in all essential features, excepting in size, the same. The vast difference in bulk is largely due to the efforts of the breeder in applying the principle of artificial selection. Pit ponies are required to work in mines where the seams are only a few feet high; large horses are wanted for special work or for appearance. Both require- ments must be met, and the skill of the breeder, aided by climate and by food, is equal to the demand. The ASS. � Next to the horse (Equus caballus) comes the ass (Equus asinus) with its varieties, which include the zebras. Naturalists affirm that really wild horses are rare, i.e. horses which have descended directly from parents which have never been domesticated. Wild asses, on the contrary, are common in many parts of the world�in Africa, in Syria, in Persia, in Tartary, in Tibet, up to the frontier of China. Though asses have a general resemblance to each other, they still differ so far in size, in form, and in shade of colour or of markings as to justify their division into three varieties. The domestic ass presents some features which require notice. It^ssize varies in different countries, as also does its colour. The tail is bare of long hairs, excepting the tuft at the end. The ears are longer in comparison with its head than those of the horse, and there are no cal- losities below the hock joint as there are in the horse. There is commonly a dark stripe running vertically from the top of the shoulder, and another darker in colour extending along the middle of the back, and occasionally there are transverse markings on the legs. Zebras (Equus zebra) belong to the group of striped asses. There are several varieties, which are distinguished by the length of the ears, by the fulness of the tail and the mane, by the colour and the arrangement of the stripes, by the absence of the callosities on the hind-leg, and by the existence of a modified form on the fore-legs. Quaggas (EquUS quagga) are really modified zebras, from which they are chiefly dis- tinguished by the concentration of the stripes on the head and the neck, the markings being less and less distinct from the shoulders back to the haunches, which are perfectly free from stripes. All the varieties of the ass agree in having the horny callosities in a modified form only on the fore-legs. With regard to these bodies, which have attracted so much attention and led to so much diversity of opinion as to their nature and

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	SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE
	SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE	497
		497

uses in the animal economy, something has to be said in connection with the subject of coloration and skin-markings, of which these curious bodies form an important part. SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HOESE Skin Markings.�Dr. E. Bonavia, in a recent work entitled Studies in Evolution of Animals, takes a decidedly original view of the nature of the skin markings, such as spots, rosettes, and stripes on the bodies of various mammals. He holds that the action of the nerve-centres has more to do with the remarkable variations of colours and of markings in animals than natural selection has; and there can indeed be no doubt that the nervous system does operate largely in determining colour in some cases, because the fact has been demonstrated. Jacob's device of putting straked rods in view of the flock which he was attending, in order to secure a liberal Proportion of straked animals for his own share, was palpably successful, and more recent experience has shown, to the breeder's cost and annoyance, that the determining effect of colours on the imagination of animals through the eyesight is often marked. Further, Dr. Bonavia shows in numerous lustrations how easy it is for spots to be resolved into rosettes and these to be fused together so as to form stripes. A visit to the collection of stuffed animals in the Natural History Museum, London, would make all this quite clear, even to the untrained eye; and an extension of the enquiry to the reptile room might assist in disposing of a good deal of the hesitation which might be felt in accepting Dr. Bonavia's rather startling suggestion that all the markings spoken of, and others yet to be considered, ^are to be explained by referring them to what he deems to be the real ^0rigm of marked mammals�the armour-plated ancestor of the armadillo, of ^which family the illustration (fig. 663) will afford a good example. _ In the figure the reduction of size necessarily disturbs the impression of similarity of markings in the variously spotted mammals and the armadillo, ut anyone looking at the huge carapace of an armadillo in the Natural history Museum could hardly fail to see an excellent pattern for the mark- ^lng of many spotted and speckled creatures. , Dr. Bonavia sums up his views of the nature of coloration of mammals ¹¹ a few short sentences. ''] Glyptodonts, or other armoured mammals," he writes, " were the ^rigmals from which all mammals are descended. The jaguar has re- amed the most primitive type of coloration due to the characters of the ^aneestral armour-plates�a sort of picturation of the carapace after it had °een got rid of entirely,

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		498 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WOELD

	" All other spotted mammalia, whether marked longitudinally, trans- versely, or diagonally, are modifications of the jaguar. " Stripes, whether longitudinal, transverse, or diagonal, are fusions of lines, of spots, or of rosettes; witness the spotting of certain cheetahs, of certain horses, and of certain tigers with twin stripes." In the self-coloured mammals, Dr. Bonavia contends, there is evidently a total obliteration of all special markings, though they now and then turn

			Fig. 663.�Glyplodon re/iculatus, restored from the remains exhibited in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington

up as atavic or ancestral marks, due perhaps to some atomic change or crossing in the nerve-centres. Proceeding to the subject of coloration as it affects the horse, the anim^a* which is most immediately under consideration, it is at least very remark- able to observe the curious mixture of colours in roan, piebald, skewbald, grey, and dappled horses�the last term indicating a peculiar pattern irrespective of colour, as the dappling occurs in bay, brown, grey, and dun- coloured horses. It appears from the experience of breeders that dappled foals a^reunknown, the peculiar marking appears as the animal gets older; and n must be admitted that in the figures in the accompanying plate (LXVIH)

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PLATE LXVIII

..........!

Photo, by F. Habbage

MR. ARMOUR'S TEAM OF DAPPLED GREYS

Photo, by F. Babbajje

DAPPLED GREY GELDING

The property of Messrs. S. Allsopp & Sons

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			SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE 499

		the light spots are singularly suggestive of the plates on the carapace of a large armadillo. In fact, the markings are exactly what would be expected to remain if the armour-plates became loose and ultimately fell off, leaving on the skin only the impression of their outlines. No proof of such a change having taken place in the course of ages can be offered, probably none exists, but it may at least be urged that there would be nothing very remarkable in the change, given that the doctrine of evolution is true. On this point Dr. Bonavia remarks that it would be as idle to suppose that the bony plates of the armadillo, the hide plates of the rhinoceros, and the picture plate of the horse are all so like each other by mere accident, as it would be to suggest that the seven cervical vertebrae or neck bones, which they possess in common, came to them by chance. Markings on the face of the horse, before referred to, in the varied forms of the so-called blaze or race, which are always present to a greater or a less extent, varying in size and in colour, can be accounted for on the same principle, as also may similar patches of colour or absence of colour in other parts of the body, round the eyes, on the nose, and on the lower parts of the extremities. And it is also the case that the upper portions of the body are commonly of a darker colour than the under portions. All these variations, according to Dr. Bonavia, may be explained, if his theory that the horse is descended from an armour-plated ancestor is correct. The lighter colours Would indicate the parts from which the armour-plates had first disappeared, leaving only the pictures behind them, and it would naturally happen that the most movable parts, or those most subject to friction, would first get free from the hard plates which, while they protected the parts they covered, Would at the same time impair their motion. Thus the eyelids, the limbs, and the terminal extremities would be most likely to be freed earlier than the upper parts of the body, and on the same principle the friction which the abdominal region would suffer, when the animal was lying on the ground, would tend to assist the removal of the armour. The fact of the front °f the head being most exposed to rubbing against branches of trees and other projecting bodies would account for loss of armour from that part. That the process of removal of the armour-plates must have been a gradual one, originated and modified by changes in the conditions of life, cannot be doubted; and, in addition, natural selection, absolutely unchecked oy any restraining influences, would inevitably conduce to various altera- tions in the size and the shape of the picture-markings, exactly as artificial selection does in the present day, with the recognized exceptions which from time to time upset the breeder's calculations through the operation of the law of atavism, or reversion to some ancestral type. It does not, however, ^at all times occur to the breeder so strongly as it might, that a red calf, or

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		500 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD one of any other colour, instead of the expected black one, or a foal with a large white blaze when only a small spot was desired, is not a freak of nature, but the consequence of a sternly enforced law of heredity which never dies, although it may seem to slumber now and again. Callosities (Chestnuts and Ergots).�Of all the peculiar markings which have been referred to, the most remarkable and least explicable are the horny growths or callosities on the inner sides of the legs and the backs of the fetlock-joints of horses and their allies. It has been remarked by an American naturalist " that whoever discovers the meaning of the horse's callosities will become famous among naturalists all the world over". Why so much thought and speculation has been devoted to these bodies is not at all easy to understand. They are so placed inside the forearm and at the lower and back part of the hind-leg, just below the hock and behind the fetlocks, that they are quite out of the way. They are never affected by or connected with any disease, and when they grow long enough to be unsightly, as they sometimes do, the shoeing-smith pares them down with his knife, just as he pares the sole of the foot. In size the horny structures vary from that of a hazel-nut to that of an oval mass nearly 3 inches long and 1^- inch broad in the centre in coarse-bred horses. Their shape is most commonly an elongated oval, those in the fore-legs being larger and more distinctly pear-shaped than those in the hind-legs. Some of the earlier veterinary writers�Snape (1687), Bracken (1739), Gibson (1751), Blaine, and also James White (1802) � do not mention the chestnuts, although Gibson figures them in his plates of the limbs of the horse in the fore-arm, but not in the hind-legs. In a later edition (1832) Blaine ascribes to the chestnuts a fanciful value as adjuncts to the generative organs of the stallion, apparently disregarding the fact that they are quite as well developed in the mare. Chauveau, m ihis Comparative Anatomy (1873), refers to the chestnuts as little horny �oval or round plates found in the horse in the inner face of the forearm, .and at the upper extremity of the inner surface of the metatarsal bone. They are composed of a mass of epithelial cells, arranged in tubes like the horn of the hoof. " In solipeds," it is said, " the chestnut is the representa- tive of the thumb. " In fine-bred horses this horny production is much less developed than in coarser breeds. It is always smaller in the hind-limbs. " In the hind-legs and the fore-legs we also find a similar but smaller Ihorny mass growing from the skin in the tuft of hair behind the fetlock, and named the ergot. Like the chestnut, it bears the same relative development in fine-bred and in coarse-bred horses." This is all tha Chauveau has to say on the subject.

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		SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE 501 Sir William Flower combats the view which has been very generally accepted, that the callosities are the remains of the first digits, and his argument is well worth attention. After a concise description of the skin, with its inner layer of interlacing fibres, blood-vessels and nerves, and glands and follicles, constituting the true skin, and the layer of flattened cells which form a protecting layer of insensitive structure�the epidermis or cuticle,�the author refers to the hairy coat of the horse, with its varieties of fine and coarse hairs; the "chestnuts" are described as "mallenders" and " sallenders", with the remark that they are treated as a disease by the older veterinary writers. It is true that these words are used by ancient and modern veterinary writers to indicate an eruptive affection in the bend of the knee-joints and hock-joints respectively, but the terms have never been applied by them to the horny excrescences called chestnuts or callosities. Sir W. Flower's chief objection to the view that the chestnuts are rudi- mentary digits is based on the fact that in the case of the excrescences which are most constant�those on the fore-limbs�the position which they occupy on the forearm, at some distance above the knee, is quite inconsistent with the theory that they represent the thumbs. Sir W. Flower concludes "that the callosities belong to a numerous class of special modifications of particular parts of the skin surface which occur in many animals, the use of which is in most cases remarkably obscure. Bare spots, thickened patches or callosities, and tufts of elongated or modified hair, often associated with groups of peculiar glands, are very common in various parts of the body, but especially in the limbs of many ungulates, and to this category the chestnuts of the horse undoubtedly belong." A somewhat similar horny excrescence has already been mentioned as existing at the back of the fetlock of the horse, hidden by the tuft of long hairs which give the name feetlock or fetlock to the joint. To this excres- cence, owing to its growth occasionally in the form of a spur, the term ergot !s applied, and with regard to its significance Sir W. Flower suggests that it corresponds to the foot-pads of animals which walk more or less on the palm ^and the sole. As no one has previously offered any explanation of the uses °f the horny growths at the back of the fetlocks, it will be interesting to give Sir W. Flower's description verbatim. "If we look at the palms of our °wn hands (which, as shown before, correspond with the hinder surface of the ^fore-limb of the horse below the so-called knee) we see slight prominences Just behind the root of each finger and opposite the knuckles at the back of ^tflc hand, which mark the position of the joint between the metacarpal bones ^arjd the first phalanges of the digits. Over these, especially when the Palm is subject to pressure and friction from hard manual labour, the

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		502 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD epidermis is thickened. The sole of the foot presents exactly the same arrangement. " In such an animal as a dog or a cat, in which this part of the foot comes to the ground in walking, there is a large, trilobed, prominent, bare pad, composed of a thick, fatty cushion covered with hardened epidermis, generally of a black colour. There are also smaller pads in front of this on the under surface of each of the toes, but the large one corresponds with the coalesced three middle prominences of the human palm or sole just noticed. " In the horse's nearest relatives, the tapir and rhinoceros, the same arrangement holds good. There is a large pad under the fore part of the middle of the foot, which in these animals rests on the ground, and there is also a hard sole under each toe. Now the ergot of the horse clearly, both by structure and position, corresponds to the palmar or the plantar pads of those animals which walk more or less on the palm and the sole. " Owing to the modified position of the horse's foot, standing only on the end of the last joint of the one toe, this part of the foot no longer comes to the ground, and yet the pad, with its bare and thickened epidermic covering, greatly shrunken in dimensions, and concealed among the long hair around, and now apparently useless in the economy of the animal, remains as an eloquent testimony to the unity of the horse's structure with that of other mammals, and its probable descent from a more generalized form for the well-being of whose life this structure was necessary." In the illustration (fig. 664) the position of the parts described is shown. In the description quoted, the reference to the ergot of the horse's fetlock�representing the palmar or plantar pad�as being characterized by " its bare and thickened epidermic covering greatly shrunken" does not convey an idea of its true structure. The excrescence, both in the horse and in the ctSSj IS Si decided prominence, and is identical in its minute structure with the hoof of the horse, as will shortly appear, while the palmar and the plantar pads of man and the dog are correctly described as "thickened epidermic covering" quite distinct from hoof horn. A careful examination of specimens which have been obtained for the particular purpose of ascertaining what are the structural relations between the callosities and the ergots of the horse tribe and the plantar and the palmar pads in man and the dog has led to some very interesting results. The several parts referred to may, for convenience, be considered in the first place as they appear to the unaided eye of the observer. After which their minute structure will be more easily explained. Man has no distinct pads beyond those which have been described as hardened cuticle, the result of pressure and of friction affecting certain prominent parts of the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands. These

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		SKIN MARKINGS�II

Blue Roan, White Stripe					Gray
Blue Roan, White Stripe

			Piebald

				Cream
	Red Roan, White Stripe			Cream
	Red Roan, White Stripe

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SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE

503

points are indicated in the human feet A in fig. 664 by the letters a b c.
To the unaided eye the parts referred to are apparently covered with a
hard mass of cuticle, and

a microscopic examina- jtlBtk. §'^!

tion confirms this conclu-
sion.

In the dog the palmar
and the plantar pads are
underneath the fore-feet
and the hind-feet B, fig.
664. Two fatty cushions
form the bulk of each
pad, and the surface of the
skin covering the cushions
is an extremely beautiful
structure, to which the use
of the term hardened epi-
dermic covering, although
strictly correct, certainly
does very scant justice.

Looking at the surface
of any one of the pads
underneath the foot of
the dog, when it is freed
from the habitual coating
of dirt, the observer will
be struck by its tessellated
or chequered appearance.
A series of columns or

cones will be distinguished,

Man;

Fig. 664

with the points directed,
m the natural position
of the foot, downwards
to the ground surface of
the pad.

The small letters a, b, and c indicate the corresponding points of the
three. These points are in man at the centre of the heel a, the protu-
berance at the joint of the third or middle toe b, and m the centre ot
the middle toe c. In the dog at the back of the point of the hock a,
which does not come in contact with the ground owing to the position
of the limb, also on the centre pad b, and on the centre of the third
toe c. In the horse in the centre of the point of the hock a, on the
ergot 6, and near the centre of the frog c.

The plantar pad of the

foot of man is composed ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
of epidermic scales, forming a nearly smooth covering to the sensitive
^and vascular skin.

Among the horse tribe there are no developed palmar or plantar pads;
the remains of these are indicated in c of fig. 664. If, however, the ergots

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		504 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD are to be accepted as the rudiments of the plantar pads in the primeval horse, it must not be forgotten that they differ in structure from the pads of animals in which pads are essential organs of progression, as the ergots are distinctly horny structures and not merely hardened cuticle. Ergots are constantly present in horses and in asses; in the latter indeed they are relatively broader than in the horse, although they do not often protrude quite as far above the skin. After maceration the horny growths are easily pulled off, and even a naked-eye inspection suffices to prove their identity with horn of the sole or coronary surface of the foot. Chestnuts or callosities are met with in different forms and in varied positions in the several members of the equine family. In the horse, breeding exercises some considerable influence on their development, and in their earliest condition in the foetus they are not at all like the horny excrescences which they afterwards become, but, on the contrary, corre- spond strictly to the description given of them in the other equidse, i.e. bare patches of skin with a thickened epidermic covering. It is interesting to note, however, that their true nature is at once ascertained by micro- scopic examination. Among asses, chestnuts are usually found in the distinctly modified form described�i.e. bare patches of skin, often rather larger and more circular in form than the chestnuts of the horse,�and to the naked eye are covered with thickened epidermis. It may be added, however, that in some specimens of chestnuts recently obtained from asses the horny substances projected something like \ of an inch above the surface of the skin, in fact they were larger than some which have been lately obtained from the legs of well-bred horses. In the following illustrations (fig. 665) are represented a chestnut from the fore-leg of a cart mare and one of the ergots from the fetlock joint' also specimens of a chestnut or bare patch from the fore-leg of an ass and one from the fore-leg of a foetus of a mare at about the eighth month of gestation. To the naked eye the chestnuts of the ass and those of the foetus of the mare are identical in appearance, differing altogether from the chestnuts of the adult horse; but under the microscope the three forms are seen to be essentially the same in their minute structure (Plate LXIX). That all the cuticular appendages, hair, nail, and horn, are composed of epidermic cells arranged in various ways is quite well known. To assert, therefore, in respect to any of the structures, that they are hardened, condensed, or modified cuticle is correct; at the same time the statement is not sufficiently definite from the point of view of the scientific enquirer.

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		SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE
		SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE	505
			505

	Cuticle or epidermis is arranged in the manner of the tiles or the slates on the roof of a building, each cell representing a tile. Horn is formed by the secretion of cells round a cone or villus pro- jecting from the underlying vascular membrane, and assumes in consequence the form of hollow fibres closely felted together. Hair is developed in a similar manner from a papilla at the bottom of a small depression or follicle, the chief difference being that each of

Fig. 660.� a, A large chestnut from a cart mare. B, Ergot from same animal. C, Bare patch from fore-leg of an ass. D, Bare patch from foetus of mare. All about \| of natural scale, a, Chestnut; b, Ergot. the hairs is distinct. They are not felted together or arranged in masses, ^as in horn. Nail is also formed from a villous membrane, the fibres being very «ne, and densely crowded together, constituting an extremely hard structure. Although hoof, hair, and nail are all composed of the same elements, the difference in their arrangement is so distinctive that a tyro in the use °f the microscope finds it a perfectly easy task to recognize and to name the several structures when placed before him.

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		506 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD The present enquiry is to ascertain the structure of those peculiar formations on the legs of the horse family, known as chestnuts, ergots, and bare patches of cuticle, and also of the parts described as plantar and palmar pads in man and certain animals, with the view to placing them in the classes of substance to which they respectively belong. Perhaps the most simple way of performing the task will be to classify the several structures at the commencement, and then to show by description and illustration how the classification has been arrived at. Proceeding on this plan, the structure classed as horn will include all the growths known as chestnuts, ergots, and bare patches of hardened cuticle, notwithstanding the decided variations of form which they present to the naked eye. In the next class�" Modified epidermic covering "�must be placed all the varieties of plantar and palmar pads. Taking the chestnuts or ergots of the horse first, both in the adult and in the foetus near the time of birth, there is no difficulty in showing that they are horny structures. The sections, both transverse and vertical, exhibited in the following diagrams (fig. 666) and in Plate LXIX place the matter beyond doubt, and it will be interesting to compare the different sections with the objects as they appear to the naked eye in fig. 665, a, B, c, d. The bare patches covered with hardened cuticle in the ass, and the similar bare patches in the foetus of the mare, are, as previously stated, both quite distinctly true horny structures developed from a villous membrane, exactly as the perfectly formed horny excrescences (chestnuts) are in the adult. After maceration in water in the case of the chestnuts of the ass, and without any preparation in those of the foetal horse, or of the foal at birth, the epidermic covering may be stripped off, and with a pocket lens the secreting membrane thus exposed may be seen covered with villi. The thin layer which has been stripped from it may by the same instrument be resolved into a fine plate of horn identical with the horn of the sole. Transverse and vertical sections under the microscope show all the details of the structures, the sudden transition from ordinary skin to the villous secreting membrane and the horny covering on the surface. All these parts are indicated in the figures referred to, which may be taken to represent the minute structure of the organs exhibited in fig. 665, A, B, c, D. Sections of the ergot in the horse and in the ass exhibit exactly the same intimate structure. In fact they differ only in the size and form of the horny growth. No further proof can be required in support of the statement that chestnuts and ergots, whether they appear as horny excrescences or as bare patches of hardened cuticle, are in their minute

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			SKIN MARKINGS AND CALLOSITIES OF THE HORSE 507 structure identical with hoof horn, and further, that the membrane from winch they are developed is a vascular villous membrane, precisely analo- gous to the villous membrane of the coronary surface and sole of the horse's foot, which has already been described and figured on pp. 434 and 435 of this volume. These facts would have consisted remarkably well with the theory of their being remnants of digits, were it not for the cogent objections which

		Fig. 666.�Sections of Chestnut and Ergot of Horse and Bare Patch of Ass tissue- ^°^m0ntal ^Sectio3 ^throuf^h chestnut of horse-1, horn; 2, villous secreting membrane; 3, subcutaneous 3 s�h' / ^mUSCl^. ^B' Perpendicular section through ergot of horse �1, horn; 2, villous secreting membrane; epiderl; ^aT^US ^-T ,°' ^SeCti°ⁿ ^thr0l^^h ^bald P^atoh ^of ^asg: «> he bare patch; b, skin-1, horny layer of s, A, malpighiati (mucous) layer of epidermis; 3, derma; 4, subcutaneous tissue. have been urged against that view. As it is, the identity of structure in the horny growths and the horn of the foot does not tend to assist in the empt to assign to them any special economy, or in any way to indicate ^rhat functions they might have possessed in their more developed condition. Plantar pads are represented in fig. 664, A, B (p. 503) in man and °g» and their corresponding positions in the leg and foot of the horse are indicated at c in the same figure. It has been stated already that these

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		508 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD pads in man are really hardened cuticle, excessively thick portions of the cuticle in fact. In the foot of the dog, however, both on the surface and in section,, the structure differs from the thickened cuticle of man's hand and foot, and also from true horn. Indeed, the minute anatomy of the organ exhibits a most perfect type of the transition or change from cuticle to born. (See Plate LXIX.) In the case of the dog the plantar and palmar pads are in perfect form and active function. In man, however, they are more or less accidental or rudimentary. The palmar pads, or those on the palm of the hand, depend for their development on the amount of manual work done, and they vanish when that work ceases, while the growth of the plantar pads is checked by the devices of civilization, including shoes and stockings, and the use of various modes of locomotion in place of the natural acts of running and) walking. FALSE NOSTRILS AND GUTTURAL POUCHES Two peculiarities in the anatomy of the horse yet remain to be considered. The False Nostrils, as they are called, and the Guttural)- Pouches. It is generally known to horsemen that the horse breathes solely through the nostrils, owing to the great depth of the soft palate, which entirely cuts off the cavity of the mouth from the opening into the breath- ing tubes. In compensation the nostrils are flexible, and the opening ®°> each side is large enough to admit all the air which the animal requires for breathing under all conditions, which include violent exertion and a lug¹rate of speed. A curious pouch, 3 or 4 inches deep, cone shaped, having its apex pointing upwards, and known as the false nostril, exists at tne entrance to the nasal chambers on each side. No use can. be found for tin cavity. The tapir has the same structure in a more highly developed form? and it also exists in the rhinoceros. To discover the real significance of this peculiar sac is now impossibles most probably it was an important organ in some of the earlier hooie mammals, but unhappily the conservative earth only preserves in a ^oSSstate the bones and like resistant structures. All that might be learne from even badly-kept soft parts has been lost to us, but the organ as ^vnow find it in the three animals named is valuable as connecting creatures of to-day with those of other times. Guttural pouches (Vol. I, p. 505) are cavities at the back of the moui > also communicating with the air-passages, and with a canal which en

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		MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF PLANTAR PADS, CHESTN�TS, AND ERGOT 1. Section of Plantar Pad of Man (20 diameters). 2. Section of Plantar Pad of Dog (25 diameters). 3. Chestnut of Foetus of Mare, early stage (180 diameters). 4. Chestnut of Foetus of Mare, approaehing maturily (3 diameters). 5. Transverse Section of Cliestnut of Adult horse (12 diameters). 6. Longitudinal Section of Chestnut of Adult Horse (12 diameters). 7. Longitudinal Section of Ergot of Horse (12 diameters). "^:V* Each section shows the horny covering, the seeretiug villi, and the soft underlying tissues.

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.<-.

PLATE LXIX

�

Juk

2?'$B

� ///} ' '1

: ^ - ■ ■
: f/L

MICROSCOPIC S�RUCTURE OF PLANTAR PADS, CHESTNUTS,

AND ERGOT

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	FOSSIL ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE
	FOSSIL ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE	509
		509

the internal ear, called the Eustachian tube. The guttural pouches do not now appear to have any special function, and to the veterinary surgeon they are a source of anxiety in many cases, as they are liable to become diseased from the lodgment of foreign substances in them. Sometimes they are the seats of purulent deposits, and now and then become dis- tended with air. Altogether, so far as the horse of domestication is concerned, they might apparently be dispensed with, notwithstanding their value as relics °f a long-past order of things. FOSSIL ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE The preceding remarks on the special characters of some portions of the horse's structure, and on the presence of organs and parts which have now ho obvious use or function, have cleared the way for a brief enquiry into the evolution of the horse. Organs which are now gradually becoming rudimentary and useless must have once formed essential parts of the animal's structure; and in their present state it may be said of them that their existence cannot be satisfactorily accounted for except on the assump- tion that they were transmitted from remote ancestors in gradually modified torms, becoming less and less definite in character as they became either obstructive or unnecessary to the animal in its different surroundings and ^w mode of life. The doctrine of evolution has already been illustrated by reference to the process of generation in the higher and lower forms of life. Changes m the small mass of " undifferentiated (that is, formless and jelly-like) Protoplasm" in the human ovum (egg) have been seen to result in the development of a mature human form; and almost identical changes in a Microscopic cell in the ovum of other animals have also been referred to. No hesitation is permissible in respect to the facts of evolution which nave been described. Wonderful in truth they are, unbelievable, perhaps, o many, but nevertheless commonplace facts to the man of science, who has ad the faculty of wonder obscured and dimmed by incessant repetition of the marvellous in his daily work, and who can no longer take refuge in doubt, because the evidence forces him altogether out of the region of doubt, _ Continuing the investigation in the direction of the previous remarks, ^evidence has now to be produced from the discoveries of geology to justify he assertion that the modern horse had its origin in the remote past in ancestors the history of which can be traced from the earliest beds of the J-ertiary formation up to deposits of a comparatively recent date. Vol. III. 98

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		510 THE HOKSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD In dealing with this part of the subject two courses are open, either to trace the horse from its present condition backwards to the first-discovered hoofed mammal in the lower Eocene, or to begin at the beginning and follow the changes in size and arrangement of his various organs in successive generations of horse-like animals, each series becoming more and more like the horse, until, in the recent deposits, the differences are almost obscured by similarities, and finally vanish altogether. The latter course will pro- bably be the more interesting and intelligible. It has been well said that the horse is an animal the evolution of which from the Eocene to the Pleistocene may be compared to a chain in which there is scarcely a missing link. Starting with the earliest hoofed mammal yet discovered, which, though not a direct ancestor of the horse, has certain special characteristics in common with it�the animal known as the Phenacodus deserves notice. The first specimen was dug up by Professor Cope from the Eocene marl on Bear Eiver, Wyoming, and the restored skeleton of the animal is represented in Plate LXX. The lighter shaded portions of the figure indicate the places where missing portions of bones have necessitated restorations. No important- bones are absent, although, as necessarily happens in fossil specimens, some displacement of parts has occurred. A glance at the skeleton of the Phenacodus will show that it belongs to the perissodactyle or odd-toed mammals, and that the third digit is distinctly larger than the rest. It is not to be understood that the animal here shown is to be taken for the primeval horse, but it has several characteristics in common not only with the horse but also with the rhinoceros and tapir, which lead us to conclude that these animals are all descended from nearly allied ancestors, of which the Phenacodus may be taken as a representative. In the later Eocene and the formations overlying it the remains 01 hoofed mammals are found exhibiting remarkable changes in their teeth and in the arrangement of the bones of that part of the extremities which is rightly called the foot, the bones below the joints called the carpus or wrist and tarsus or ankle in man, the knee and hock of the horse (see Plate LXXI). From the five-toed Phenacodus the change to four, three, and then one (with rudimentary splint bones) is seen to have gone on with remarkable regularity, as indicated in the illustrations. In the Plate the extremities of the limbs have all been drawn to the same scale, so as to show their relative sizes, fig. 1 representing the fore- and- hind-feet of the Phenacodus already mentioned�an animal about as large as a fox�whilst fig. 7 represents those of the horse of the present day.

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		PLATE LXX

	SKELETON OF PHENACODUS

SKELETON OF PROTOROHIPPUS

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FOSSIL ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE

511

The worn or exposed surfaces of the upper molar teeth of five of these
fossil animals and of the
horse are represented in
fig. 667; in order that the
development from the com-
paratively simple structure
of the tooth of the Hyra-
cotherium to the compli-
cated details of the teeth
of the Hipparion and horse
may be more readily fol-
lowed, those figures are
drawn of the same size,

although in nature there
is a gradual increase in
size as well as in com-

Fig. 66/. �upper Molars of Fossil Ancestors of the Horse

«, Hyracotherium; h, Mesohippus; c, Anchitherium;
d, Protohippus; e, Hipparion; /, Horse �1, dentine;
2, enamel; 3, crusta petrosa.

plexity. Of these examples
the first three belong to the brachydont or short-crowned class, of which
a side view is given at a, fig. 668, whilst the teeth of the Protohippus
and Hipparion show an advance towards
the state of hypsodont or high-crowned
teeth (b, fig. 668) which culminates in
the horse (c, in the same figure).

Next in chronological order to the
Phenacodus mention must be made of the
Hyracotherium and the Eohippus, also
"from the Eocene, which are, so far as is

at present known, the earliest direct an-
cestors of the horse, the former in the Old,

the latter in the New World. They may,

indeed, be varieties of the same animal,

and they are described as being about

the size of a fox. In the fore-feet there

Were four well-developed toes and the

rudiment of another, the hind-feet had

three toes, as represented in the Pro-

Fig.

-Short- and Long-crowned

torohippus (fig. 2, Plate LXXI), which

marks the next step in the order of de-

Molar Teeth

, Anchitherium; b, Hipparion; c, Horse.

velopment. The change which has taken

Place in the latter animal, as will be seen by reference to the figure,

consists only in the loss of the rudiment of the first digit, leaving second,

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512 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD third, fourth, and fifth digits. It will be observed that the third or middle digit is the largest of the four, representing in fact what has previously been termed the one big digit of the horse. The Protorohippus has a well-developed ulna, a well-developed fibula, and short-crowned grinders of simple pattern. Comparing its skeleton (Plate LXX) with that of the horse, we see that there is a general correspondence in grace and delicacy of outline in the two animals. The next drawings (fig. 3, Plate LXXI) represent the fore- and hind-feet of the Mesohippus, from the Lower Miocene immediately suc- ceeding the Eocene in which the Protorohippus was found. In comparing this set of figures with those last described, it will be seen that only three prominent digits remain in both the fore- and hind-feet, the fifth digit

		Fig. 669.�Radius (it) and Ulna (u) of Fossil Ancestors of the Horse, showing the gradual diminution in relative size of the ulna (not to scale). 1, Phenocodus; 2, Protorohippus: 3, Mesohippus; 4, Miohippus (Ancbitherium); 5, Protohippns; 6, Horse.

	being reduced to a very slender rudiment. In this animal the ulna (fig. 669) is well developed, but the fibula has become quite rudimentary; the forms of the molar teeth have not undergone very considerable change. In the Miohippus, the contemporary of the Anchitherium of Europe, the extremities remain nearly as in the Mesohippus. The ulna has the lower part greatly reduced; the other limb-bones remain nearly the same. To the Miocene period also belongs the Merychippus, found throughout a large portion of North America, which is remarkable in that in the young condition it has the short-crowned, uncemented teeth of its ancestors, while the adult animal has the long-crowned and cemented teeth of its successors. Proceeding upwards to the Protohippus and its near relative the European Hipparion from the Lower Pliocene, it appears that the changes chiefly relate to the ulna, which in these animals has decreased consider- ably in length, only reaching to the middle of the radius. The two-

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		PLATE LXXI

	COMPARISON OF THE FORE AND HIND FEET OF THE HORSE WITH THOSE OF SOME OF ITS ANCESTORS dus. 2. Protorohippus. 3. Mesohippus. 4. Miohippus and Anchitherium. 5. Protohippus. 6. Hipparion. 7. Horse. (All these figures are drawn to one scale.)
'� Phe

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		FOSSIL ANCESTORS OF THE HOESE 513 extra toes in the fore- and hind-feet still remain, but they are evidently shrinking in size. The changes in the molar teeth are also very con- siderable. As will be seen on reference to fig. 668, the teeth are passing from the brachydont or short-crowned to the hypsodont or high-crowned variety, a change which goes on progressively in correspondence with the vanishing of the extra digits. In the upper molars of the Hippanon there is a distinctive feature which is at once recognized by the anatomist, in the presence of an interior column of dentine completely isolated from the rest of the mass, as shown in the section of the upper molar (e, fig. 667) close to the bottom, in the form of a white oval spot surrounded by a double line. There can be no doubt that the Hipparion was remarkably like a horse, though possibly not a direct ancestor. It was somewhat smaller than the Wild Mongolian Horse, of which an illustration is given on Plate LXXIII, and differed from it in the presence of the extra digits, which were, nevertheless, becoming rudimentary. The animal evidently used only the single hoof, the extra toes being some distance off the ground surface. It may be remarked that some of the species of Protohippus are said to have been as large as an ass; this is particularly the case with the European Hipparion. Proceeding from the Lower Pliocene to the Upper, the Pliohippus is met with, in which the extra digits have become entirely rudimentary, closely approaching in form the splint bones as they are found now in the limbs of the horse. The lower phalanges and the hoofs of the extra digits which were depicted in the Protohippus have entirely vanished. The ulna and the fibula are very much the same as we find them in the horse, the molar teeth are assuming a more equine character. The next step is to the Pleistocene and recent strata in which the fossil remains of the true horse are found. Some of the fossil types have, however, peculiarities of their own, such as the large nasal development ^of the Hippidium from South America, figured in Plate LXXII. The extra ^toes, the ulna, and the fibula are now in their present rudimentary form, the molar teeth show the characteristic hypsodont type, and the anterior ^Separate column of dentine has entirely disappeared in the upper molars. The history of the evolution of the horse, so far as the evidence furnished hy geological researches is available, is thus complete, and surely a more ^c°nnected and consistent story was never constructed. According to promise, the chain of events in the descent of Equus phallus has been traced along its many links from the most distant, the ^E°hippus of the Lower Eocene, to the modern horse found in recent geological deposits.

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		514 THE HORSE'S POSITION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD For the rest of the story of the horse no further demand will be made on the reader's patience or imagination. An active or perhaps a despairing mind may indulge in gloomy anticipations of a time when the Equus caballus, no longer necessary for man, will gradually disappear, and be known to future enquirers only through the science of paleontology.

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		SKULLS UF SOME ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE 1. Protorohippus venticolus. 2. Me.soliippus Bairdi. 3. Hipparion gracilis. 4. Onohippidium Munizi (an extinct South American horse). 5. Arab Horse. A is a cavity for a face gland, and is very marked in Hipparion (3) and Onohippidium (4), while a vestige of it remains in the Arab horse (5). It is absent frora some breeds of living horses. B is the remarkably long nasal slit which is a very noticeable feature of Onohippidium (4).

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	PLATE LXXII

SKULLS OF SOME ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

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			Section XV.-THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

		HORSES OF THE PAST Mention of the horse's existence is to be found in Chinese tradition, which records that during the reign of Hwang-te, who lived before the flood, "Chariots, horses, and bullocks began to be used", and that the same emperor extricated his army "when bewildered in a mist" through the agency of a magnetic pole attached to his chariot, " which always pointed to the south". The ancient Chinese work known as the Shoo-King speaks of Yaou, who lived before and after the flood, as riding in a crimson chariot drawn by white horses; and Yu, the person employed by Yaou in perfecting the great work of removing the flood and restoring order to the empire, thus narrates how he accomplished the task: "The deluge rose high and spread wide as the spacious vault of heaven, buried hills and covered mountains with its waters, into which the common people, astonished to stupefaction, sank. 1 travelled on dry land in a chariot, on water in a boat, in miry places on a sledge, and climbed the sides of hills by means of spikes in my shoes I went from mountain to mountain felling trees, fed the people on raw food formed a passage for the waters of the sea on every part of the empire by cutting nine distinct beds and preparing channels to conduct them to the rivers. The waters having subsided, I taught the people to Plough and sow, who, while the devastating effects of the flood continued, were constrained to eat uncooked food, and in this way the people were fed, and 10,000 provinces restored to order and prosperity" (Kidd's China). Ihe quotations tend to prove that the horse had been subjected to omestication, had been used for purposes of pageants and of war, before e flood, and had assisted the Chinese in clearing the inundated provinces I the waters that brought about the deluge 2348 years B.C. Chinese tra- ction may be considered of too legendary a nature to be worthy of belief, of V*^ltlC1Sms ^of ^the P^ast ^teild to prove that this was the general opinion ^ the learned world, but during the nineteenth century geological research ^s opened our eyes by demonstrating the vast antiquity of the earth and

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
	518


the existence of man on it during thousands of years before the time of Adam, and as such is the case there is not so much difficulty in believing the Chinese tradition of their 75,000 years of national existence. If, there- fore, it has been proved that man inhabited the globe at this early period� 75,000 years ago,�we can easily understand that the human family has descended from ancestors of pre-Adamic origin, and that the tradition of the vast antiquity of the Chinese race, and of the subjugation of the horse during the antediluvian period, is more worthy of credence than the authors who wrote during the eighteenth century suspected. It must, however, be admitted that legends cannot be received as authentic records of the past, neither are the statements handed down to us in ancient history always incapable of refutation. Sometimes they are fables composed after the manner of Plato, but always under the influence of religious sentiment, and in this particular Arabian literature is conspicuous. For instance, we read: "When Allah willed to create the horse, he said to the south wind, ' Condense thyself; I will that a creature should proceed from thee'. Then came the angel Gabriel and took a handful of this matter and presented it to Allah, who formed of it a dark-bay and a dark-chestnut horse." It is also related by many Arabian historians " that after the time of Adam the horse, like many other animals, lived in a wild state, and was first subju- gated by Ishmael, the son of Abraham; but that the horses trained by him lost much of their purity, excepting one stock, whose nobleness was pre- served by Solomon, the son of David". There is a tradition that some Arabs of the Azed tribe went to Jerusalem to congratulate Solomon on his marriage with the Queen of Sheba. Having fulfilled their mission, they addressed him thus: " O, Prophet of Allah, our country is far distant, and our provisions are exhausted; thou art a great king, bestow upon us wherewith to take us home". Solomon thereupon gave orders to bring from his stables a magnificent stallion, descended from the Ishmael stock, and then dismissed them w^Tith these words: "Behold the provisions I bestow upon you for your journey. When hunger assails you, gather fuel, light a fire, place your best rider on this horse, and arm him with a stout lance. Hardly will you have collected your wood and kindled your flame when you will see him return with the produce of successful chase. Go, and may Allah cover you with His blessing." The Azed took their de- parture. At their first halt they did as Solomon had prescribed, and neither zebra, gazelle, nor ostrich could escape them. Thus enlightened as to the value of the animal presented to them by the son of David, these Arabs on their return home devoted him to foal-getting, and by carefully selecting dams at length obtained the breed to which, out of gratitude, they gave the name of Zad-el-Rakeb�the support of the horseman. This is the

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	HOKSES OF THE PAST
	HOKSES OF THE PAST	519
		519

stock whose high renown spread at a later period through the whole world. The importance of the Eastern horse no horseman will dispute, and the investigation of equine pedigrees will show how largely the Arab horse has contributed to the perfection of almost every breed of horse in existence, which has been effected by the impression he made upon indigenous stock. It is thought that the use of the ass and the camel preceded that of the horse. Such might have been the case, but we must remember that during the early historic period these animals were used for different purposes, the ass and the camel to carry burdens�namely, tents and their furniture. When Jacob took his departure from Laban, his goods, wives, and children were placed on the backs of camels, and his sons conveyed the corn they obtained from Egypt on asses; yet at the same time Jacob and his sons recognized that horses possessed qualities that rendered them valuable, for we read: "They brought their cattle unto Joseph, and Joseph gave them bread in exchange for horses and for the flocks, and the cattle of the herds", &c. The pastoral life which Jacob and his sons enjoyed did not necessitate the use of the spirited horse, which in early times was employed almost exclusively for war, and whose hoofs, previously to the discovery of the art of shoeing, would have worn down to the quick during those long journeys which the ass and the camel were capable of performing with impunity. But the nervous temperament, showy action, and activity °f movement marked the horse out as a likely assistant in battle, and as ^a conspicuous feature at pageants; and thus we learn that when Joseph carried his father's body to Canaan, he " had with him a large company °f chariots and horsemen ", which held a conspicuous position in the funeral procession. This is the first time the Scripture mentions the subjugation °f the horse, but there is little doubt that he had been employed by the Egyptians long before this period, and for many years afterwards the breeding of horses was encouraged. This resulted in the production °f a fine stock, which Pharaoh was able to select from when he pursued the Israelites across the Eed Sea, with " six hundred chosen chariots, and ^aH the chariots of Egypt". But before this period communities of men had collected together to form nations. About the year 2217 B.C. Nimrod ^ls supposed to have founded the Babylonian Empire and Assur the Assyrian Monarchy, and these states, according to Ctesias, had studied science and ^art, fashioned implements of war, yoked horses to the chariot, and had trained the charger to undergo the fatigues of battle, before Moses was °orn (1571 B.C.). Although such was the case, history does not much ^assist us in determining the class of horse that was employed during these periods, nor does it inform us whether the horse was found wild in

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
	520	THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

these localities, or was imported from China or from other distant lands in the East; nor do we know whether horses emanated from one centre or many, nor whether they were distributed over Asia, Africa, and Europe at one and the same time, thus forming distinct though distant groups of equine communities from which by frequent intercourse the various b:eeds of horses have been propagated. At the same time it must be admitted that the early accounts given of the horse's existence are some- what legendary, and it is not until after consulting the Scriptures that we receive any authentic information on this vexed subject, and this too only of a very fragmentary nature. The beautiful description of the war- horse given us by Job proves that the horse was very early appreciated by Eastern peoples, and in no language have his merits been painted with such force and enthusiasm: "Hast thou given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He svvalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha! and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting." Although it is said that the Jews did not make much use of cavalry in battle, owing, perhaps, to the mountainous condition of the country, we learn that Solomon imported both chariots and horses from Egypt, and kept a vast number of them�40,000 stalls for his chariot horses, 12,000 horses for his cavalry, and 1400 chariots of war,�and these, we are told, were used more for purposes of display than of war. Such may have been the case, and the taunting message sent by Rabshakeh to Hezekiah, that if he should send him 2000 horses he would not be able to put 2000 riders on them, tends to confirm tm^sopinion; but the Canaanites, with whom the Israelites were constantly at war, possessed a vast number of them, and the Philistines, we read, marched against Saul with 30,000 horsemen and chariots. Other nations �the Egyptians and the Greeks�relied much upon the support of horses both in attack and in retreat, so that in Africa, in Asia, and in Europe the distribution of the equine race had been commenced early. As civilization advanced, the demand for horses increased, and the extensive propagation of them became a necessity. Moreover, wars between nations cause them to be dispersed throughout the various regions of the then known world, where, by intermingling with indigenous breeds, new types wer produced.

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			PLATE LXXIII

		Photo, by L. Medland, F.I.S.

	PRJEVALSKY'S MONGOLIAN WILD HORSE The small inset shows a group in their original condition

RESTORATION OF THE FOUR-TOED ANCESTOR OF THE HORSE Protorohippus venticolus

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			THE GRECIAN HORSE 521

		THE GRECIAN HORSE The Greeks, like the Jews, no doubt derived their knowledge of the horse from the Egyptians, but neither Egyptians nor Jews have handed down to us any authentic information relative to the cultivation of horses, a subject with which Grecian literature abounds. Consequently it is from Greek authors that our primary knowledge of equine lore must be obtained, although previous to this period the Babylonian, the Assyrian, and the Egyptian empires flourished, and the ancient monuments dis- covered in these countries prove that the horse had not been used for agricultural or domestic purposes, but that his services had been confined to the chase, to pageants, and to war. Traditions, poems, and myths constitute among ancient nations part of their historical resources, and Homer, Hesiod, and other authors have handed down to us most valuable information relative to the manners, customs, and warlike pursuits of the ancient Greeks. Homer describes the various labours of farming, ploughing with oxen and mules, sowing, reaping, and treading out corn by oxen on the threshing floor, and also describes the many various duties of the herdsman, but we fail to discover that the horse had at this period been employed for agricultural purposes. During the Trojan war cavalry did not form a branch of Grecian military organization, but chariots and horses were conveyed in the ships that sailed to Troy at the traditional date of 1194 to 1184 B.C. The united Grecian princes, who undertook this famous expedition under the command of Agamemnon, sailed, accord- ing to Homer, with 1186 ships and 100,000 men, and the ships con- veyed horses and chariots in which they fought in battle; but no mention is made of cavalry horses, and consequently it may be inferred that at this time they had not been devoted to this service. According to Greek legend Chiron the Thessalian, supposed to have been an Egyptian, was the first person who mounted the horse; and there is no doubt that the unfamiliar appearance of a man on horseback gave rise to the fable of the Centaurs, a race of beings half-man, half- horse, said to have anciently inhabited Thessaly. From the famous war said to have been carried on between the Lapithse and the Centaurs, we may conclude that at a date as early as 960 B.C. the Thessalians used cavalry in war. Chariots and horsemen were known to several nations before this period�the Babylonians, the Assyrians, and the Egyptians had made use of them,�but the Greeks claim that Erichthonius, who was lame, Was the first inventor of a carriage, which he built for his own personal convenience, and of horse and chariot racing, which was first inaugurated

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			522 THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

		at the Panathensea, the festival held in honour of Minerva, 1506 B.C. But the horse had been ridden long before this date by Babylonians, by Assyrians, and by Egyptians, and also by the descendants of Ishmael, if we place any faith in tradition. If Chiron was the first to mount a Grecian horse, there is every reason to believe that the Arabians for ages previously had been accomplished equestrians. Up to this date the demand for horses had been created by the chase, by pageants, and by war, but the world had not to grow much older before an incentive occurred in the inauguration of the Olympic games. These are said to have been first celebrated in Greece in 1453 B.C., but it was not till 884 B.C., when Iphitus, and after him Choroebus, 776 B.C., renewed these games, that they became a world-famed national institution. The horse did not, however, make his appearance in the hippodrome until the 23rd Olympiad, 680 B.C., when he was ridden, and it was not until the 25th Olympiad that he was yoked to the chariot, and his speed and power of endurance were tested in harness, after which chariot-racing became a dominant pastime of the Greeks. The Olympic games com- prised horse, chariot, and man racing, leaping, throwing the discus, wrestling, and boxing, and for these sports separate areas w^Tere set apart: the stadium for the contests in running and wrestling, the hippodrome for horse and chariot racing, &c. Amongst all these games horse-racing and chariot-racing were the most popular, and they embraced various forms of sport: the chariot race with mules, with mares (described by Lausanias), the chariot race with matured horses, with four foals, and with two foals, and there was also a horse race, in which boys rode. The hippodrome of Greece possessed the same influence as the British turf now exercises in the production of good horses. For performance at these games fleet horses were imported from all parts of the world, studs were established, training - stables built, and running - tracks laid down with as much eagerness by the ancient Greek as by the British owner of race-horses at the present day, and consequently Greece, from its earliest days, became conspicuous as a horse-breeding country. Tacitus describes the celebrated breed of horses that existed at Argolis, and the surrounding country is mentioned by Homer as forming an extensive grazing-ground favourable to the propagation and development of horses. Diodorus Siculus states that in ancient times Macedonia " abounded in horses above all countries in Greece", and that at the royal stud in Pella 300 stallions and 30,000 mares were kept. Strabo also informs us that the Cappadocians paid an annual tribute to the Persians of " 1500 horses, 2000 mules, and 50,000 sheep". Yet, although Greece was a large horse-rearing country, and horses

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	THE GRECIAN HORSE
	THE GRECIAN HORSE	523

were extensively used in dangerous contests at the hippodrome, she seems to have used them only sparingly on the day of battle, and then only when yoked to chariots; but cavalry, which formed a most important military force of the Persians and other neighbouring nations, was by the Greeks long almost entirely neglected. It appears, according to Herodotus, that up to the year 490 B.C. the Greeks possessed no cavalry, and at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, 431 B.C., it only amounted to 1200 strong, out of which number 200 were hired Scythian bowmen. And even down to the time of Demosthenes this corps was not numerically increased, but it was the duty of the two hipparchs who commanded this force to see that it was kept up to its full force of 1000. At the battle of Marathon (b.c. 490) the Greeks used no cavalry, while the Persian army comprised 100,000 foot and 10,000 cavalry. It seems difficult to understand why the Greeks did not employ cavalry in battle, surrounded as they were by nations who made great use of this branch of the service in times of war. Yet, unaided by cavalry, they routed the Persians at Marathon, and on other occasions they had beaten their enemies without the aid of this auxiliary, and instances had occurred where chariots had caused confusion and disaster. Xerxes' army which passed over the Hellespont, according to Herodotus consisted of infantry 170 myriads, of cavalry 8 myriads, exclusive of chariots and camels. In this expedition fifty-six different nations took part, the infantry of which appears to have been little better than a rabble, whose vast numbers, crowded together on the battle-field, interfered with the action of the cavalry and put them into confusion. Marathon, Plataea, and Mycale are witnesses of like dilemmas. The war-chariots could not act upon uneven and broken ground, and thus, being rendered incapable °f acting, became dangerous impediments. Another reason why the Greeks did not employ cavalry might have been the rough and stony ground over which their armies had to march, over roads whose surfaces wore down their horses' hoofs so low as to cause them to become sore and almost incapable of locomotion. For short journeys and performance ^lri the hippodrome the tracks were laid down with soft material, so that horses could run over their 4-mile courses with impunity; but over hard ^roads during arduous and prolonged marches their hoof horn constantly ^wore down to the quick, when the sufferers had to be left in the rear, it is evident that although the horse was not, in the early part of Grecian history, used extensively as a w^Tar-horse, he was highly esteemed as a hunter, for pageants, for racing in the hippodrome, and for purposes of Pleasure, and the pens of the greatest-minded Greeks were devoted to

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	524	THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

the narration of his qualifications and the means to he adopted so as to protect him from disease and injury and to preserve him in health. The writings of the Athenian general and historian Xenophon prove to what a high degree of perfection the horse at this day had arrived, and the attention he required to keep him in sound condition. The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, after their defeat by the Persians under Cyrus, 401 B.C., shows that in his day Grecian cavalry had become an important branch of their military organization. At this period Xenophon had the same difficulties to contend with as previous horse-owners had complained of, namely the wearing away of the horses' hoofs during long and protracted journeys over rough and stony roads, and for this reason he prescribes treatment calculated to harden the unshod hoof, by causing horses to stand upon rough stone stable-floors, and upon similarly constructed pavement when groomed outside the stable. He adds: "Those horses whose hoofs are hardened with exercise will be as superior on rough ground to those which are not habituated to it, as persons who are sound in their limbs to those who are lame". Xenophon also has described the points of a good horse, and the breeding, rearing, and treatment of young horses; from which it is evident that at this period horses were used not only for the sports of the hippodrome and for hunting, but also for war; but as yet they had not been used as beasts of burden, neither had they been yoked to the plough nor engaged in farming operations�the mule, the camel, and the ox per- formed these services. Although Greek authors have described the capacities in which horses were employed, they have not given us pictures of the various equine breeds which it is natural to imagine surrounded them. Xenophon certainly has described the horse of his day, and the friezes of the Parthenon now at the British Museum (Plate LXXIV) give us an idea of one equine type, but not of the many which must have existed during the flourishing days of ancient Greece. At the same time the Grecian horse might have been of one type�the one linked to the chariot might have been of the same breed as the one on which the trooper rode in battle,�and if such was the case it must be accounted for on the supposition that the Grecian stock was of Arabian descent, for the statuary of horses discovered in the ruins of Nineveh gives portraitures of these animals very similar to the Grecian horses repre- sented in the Elgin marbles, and consequently both might have originated from a common stock and birthplace. Buffon considered that Arabia was the centre from which the horse sprang, and this has been the generally accepted opinion. This subject will be recurred to when writing on Arabian horses; let it suffice for the present to give the opinion of an eminent authority- "It is generally supposed from the omission of all mention of horses whil^e

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			Plate LXXIV

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				"■� ,

	ASSYRIAN HORSES From the Palace of Assur-bani-pal, Nineveh

		GREEK HORSES From the Parthenon Frieze

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	THE HOESES OF ROME	525
	THE HOESES OF ROME

the Israelites were in Arabia that this country, which has since become so celebrated for them, was at that time entirely without them. The proof is, however, of an entirely negative character, though I confess that it is as good as any of that nature can well be. Indeed 600 years later Arabia could not in any way have been celebrated for her horses, for Solomon, whilst he resorted to her for silver and gold, mounted his cavalry from Egypt. Yet the latter country could scarcely have been the native land of the horse, not possessing the extensive plains which are so peculiarly suited to his existence in a wild state, and it is considered probable that he was introduced from the central regions of Africa, which are undoubtedly the native plains of the quagga, the zebra, and some other congeners of the horse, but where, curiously enough, he is not found in a wild state." �Stonehenge on the Horse. These arguments are based on the supposition that the various equine races emanated from one common stock, if not from one pair. But if we accept the theory that different varieties originated in several regions of the world, whether by creation or by evolution, it can easily be understood that horses of more than one type existed at one and the same time, and inhabited countries situated at long distances one from the other, each country possessing a distinct stock of its own, upon which horses imported from Africa or Arabia, by intermingling, were sure to produce a good cross. -Tradition tells us, and history lends its authority to the assertion, that in the earliest ages of the world Africa was conspicuous for a celebrated °reed of horses. No doubt the Sahara was the birthplace of the barb, ^hich in the past gave as excellent impressions to the equine stock of ancient nations as its descendants, the Oriental horses of the Stuart epoch, ^id in the production of the British thoroughbred. It is possible that the barb and the arab may have descended from the same stock, but they may have been distinct breeds; and this seems most likely to have been the ^ease, as the Assyrians possessed horses, chariots, and horsemen at the same ^toe as the Egyptians. THE HOESES OF EOME The Romans appear not to have been an equestrian nation, though they ^re said to have possessed a body of cavalry soon after the founding of the ^Jty by Romulus (752 B.C.). It is well known that they relied almost tirely on their infantry in the day of battle, and that their horse soldiers ^re in most instances no match against the cavalry of their enemies. ^ey could not withstand the onslaught of the Numidian and Parthian ^rse> and had to succumb to the cavalry of Macedonia and Epirus. We Vol. in. ₉₉

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	526	THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

consequently learn that Rome relied more upon mercenary cavalry than upon her own, and in the time of Caesar this force consisted of auxiliary corps composed of Numidians, Thracians, Spaniards, and Germans com- manded by Roman officers (Praefecti equitum). " The Roman cavalry had disappeared before Marius; its last mention is in the Spanish campaign of 140 B.C., and after the Jugurthan war it vanished entirely. Even the Italian cavalry had been for long unable to cope with the enemies of Rome; it had been defeated by Hannibal in Italy, and Scipio only won Zama by the cavalry of Massinissa. It vanished completely in the social war, and after that foreign troops�Gauls, Spaniards, Thracians, and Africans�were taken into the service in larger numbers than before." It will be un- necessary to refer further to the native-bred equine trooper of Rome. Yet although the native Roman horse was not a conspicuous charger, he was a beast of burden, and in this capacity became most useful to the postal service which was instituted for the purpose of transmitting letters, parcels, and baggage of every kind throughout the vast Roman empire. This important state department required for the execution of its duties several kinds of animals, namely horses, mules, asses, and oxen, which were ridden or employed in drawing vehicles laden with light or heavy goods and in the delivering of letters, parcels, &c, at their respective destinations. This service was divided into two branches, the one for light and the other for heavy traffic. Yet had it not been for the existence of the splendid roads throughout the Roman territories, which connected the remotest parts of the empire with Rome, the postal service never could have become so important an institution. At this time a vast road traffic necessitated the employment of thousands of horses, the demand for which must have been great and have operated as an incentive to the production of the general utility horse. This type of horse was in most instances the descendant of native stock, and w^Tas the class of animal adapted for heavy vehicular traffic; but he could not per- form with success in the arena, neither was he good enough for a charger- At circus exhibitions horses obtained from foreign sources, especially from Asia, always proved themselves to be facile principes. The Circus Publicus caused the employment of thousands of horses, and consequently created a demand which was responded to by the importation and extensive propagation of horses; but a greater incentive even than thi^gfar-reaching road traffic existed in the amphitheatre, which represented the race-course, where chariot and horse racing formed the leading sport ot patrician Rome. The games which took place in the circus were, so it is said, instituted by Romulus. They consisted in wrestling, running, fighting, horse-racing'

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		527
	THE HOUSES OF ROME	527
	THE HOUSES OF ROME

and chariot-racing. For the latter pastime swift horses from all parts of the world were sought for by men who devoted their time and money to the promotion of this sport. The equestrian exercises in the circus, for which the Eomans were so famous, w^rere no doubt introduced from Greece, and the best equine per- formers were imported from foreign sources�from Spain, Sicily, Greece, and in later times from Cappadocia. The horses intended for this sport were not broken in until three years old, and were not raced until the completion of their fifth year; and in consequence of this wise treatment we find that such horses were during several years winners of many races. A horse which was a winner of 100 races was called Centenarius. In the inscription of Diocles a horse named Tuscus is mentioned as the winner of 429 races, and others were even more successful. The drivers of chariots were originally of a low class and often slaves; yet when they won races the slaves received their freedom, and the winners generally were handsomely rewarded. Under the Empire, especially after Caligula and Nero had mounted the chariot, the patricians condescended to contend in the arena, and many descriptions of races have been handed down to us which reveal how great Was the rivalry between families and factions in order to gain victories at the circus. Horse-racing and chariot-racing in the Roman circus were con- ducted very much upon the same principles as horse-racing at the present day: advertisements of race-meetings placarded in large letters were exposed in conspicuous places, as the discoveries at Pompeii prove; cards of the races, on which the names of the starters, riders, and drivers appeared, Were sold; fortunes were won and lost; betting enslaved patrician and Plebeian alike; intrigue and villainy corrupted the public mind, bribes secured a winner, poison put an end to the career of a dangerous favourite, ^and Caligula is said to have removed by iniquitous means the best drivers °f his rivals' horses. This brief description is sufficient to prove how great ttiust have been the incentive to the production of first-class horses, and that such was the, case we learn from the fact that Marius had a stud farm where he "bred Moorish horses for the circus". ^c In 1878, in a village of ^ned Atmenia, in Algeria, some elaborate mosaic pavements were found in the villa of the pro-consul of Africa under Honorius, who appears to have °een a great breeder of horses for the circus. Perspective views of the training stables are represented on those mosaics, and other pictures show the racers in their stalls clothed from head to foot."�Dictionary of Grecian ^nd Roman Antiquities. The horses bred on Roman soil for performing at the circus were of foreign extraction. The native horse had proved himself inferior to the dorses of Persia and Greece on the battle-field, and in the arena he had

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			528 THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

		given way to the importations from Spain and Cappadocia. All the countries named, it will be seen, owed their excellence to one source, to the horses of Africa, which had no rival until the descendants of the Barb and Arab, represented in the British thoroughbred, became kings of the equine race. Cabs also represented another institution which caused horses to be in demand. The Roman cab was a two-wheeled vehicle capable of seating two persons besides the driver, and was drawn by one or two horses or mules. These vehicles were stationed about Borne, and were kept for hire on the great roads. Cicero mentions a case where a messenger travelled 56 miles in ten hours over these highways. From the foregoing w^Te learn the various uses in which the horses of Borne had been employed, and although the Circus Puhlicus and cisia (cabs) demanded the assistance of strong horses, we find that the Latin authors who wrote conjointly on the tillage of the soil and the treatment of animals never mention the horse as having been engaged in agricultural operations. Virgil, in his Georgics, discourses about trees and crops, but tells more about the cultivation of bees than any other animal, and devotes only a very small space to the consideration of equine lore. Vegetius (a late Latin writer) gives descrip- tions of the various breeds of horses that existed in Italy, and indicates the different kinds of labour they had to perform, but the farm-horse is not included in his catalogue. For the circus, he writes: "The Spanish horse excels all others, even the Sicilian, although African horses are the swiftest of any. For the saddle above all the Fersian horses are the easiest in carriage and most soft in step, afterwards come the Armenian, nor should the horses of Sicily and Epirus be despised, though not equal to them in deportment nor in form." For chariots he recommends the Cappadocian horse; for war that of the Huns, which breed he thus describes: "The horse of the Huns is known from all other breeds by the great curving outward of the front of the head, by his prominent eyes, small nostrils, broad jaws, stiff neck, mane reaching to the knees, wide ribs which stand out, hollow back, tail copious with long and curly hairs, stout shanks, small fetlocks, large and spreading hoofs, hollow flanks, angular body with projecting points of bone, length which exceeds his height, belly when it is empty and when the horse is out of condition hanging low, bones every- where large, agreeable leanness of appearance which contributes to him rather a grace than a deformity, gentle and cautious temper, and by his patient endurance of the wounds and casualties of war ". For the saddle, owing to their easy gait, he prefers Fersian horses, which " in stature and fashion are much the same as other kinds, but the great difference consists in their walking with a grace peculiar to them, for their steps are very short and frequent, and this makes riding delightful; nor can they be taught it by

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	THE HOUSES OF ROME
		529


art, but it appears to be the pure gift of nature. With the Persian horse it is ascertained that his step is more pleasant in proportion as it is shorter; in long journeys his patience is very enduring. His temper is haughty; unless he is subdued by continued exercise, he is apt to be vicious and stubborn; nevertheless he is sensible and intelligent, and, what is sur- prising, in impetuosity he does not lose sight of propriety. In his carriage his neck is curved as a bow, and this brings his chin to touch his breast." Thus during the age in which Vegetius lived it seems that horses of various breeds existed on Eoman territory, and were used for many useful purposes�for the chariot and for the saddle, for pleasure and for war,-�but even at this period horses had not been yoked to the plough, the occupa- tion of the farm-horse proper had not commenced; his spirited nature had hitherto exempted him from agricultural labour, which was performed by the mules and the oxen, and for this reason much attention was bestowed on these last-named animals. Indeed, a law was enacted to protect them, and so severe was it that death was the penalty for abusing them. The wearing down of the hoof-horn of unshod horses might have prevented their being used for the prolonged labour of the plough, or their light build might not have adapted them for drawing heavy burdens, which the lethargic dis- positions of the ox and mule rendered them capable of performing with comparative ease: but for war and chase the horse remained an important factor, and whatever incapacitated him from these uses received the diligent attention of the Eomans. The greatest evil they dreaded were injuries to his unshod feet. To prevent such accidents, sandals and other foot armatures were prescribed. The Latin authors who wrote on this subject to a great extent copied the writings of Grecian authors, especially in the treatment of equine dis- eases and the means to be adopted in order to harden the hoofs of their Unshod horses. For instance, Xenophon advises that the best way to harden horses' hoofs is to cause them constantly to be implanted on hard stones. Columella, with the same motive in view, suggests in the place of hard stones the use of oak boards for horses to stand on. Not only did the Romans attempt to protect their horses' feet from mjury, by applying sandals, &c, and by adopting measures calculated to harden them; they also laid down those mighty highways, the Eoman ^roads, which were so constructed as to ensure smooth surfaces over which their horses might pass. The existence of these roads enabled the Romans to extend their con- quests, for they were thus brought in contact with nations who possessed Worses which were better adapted for war than their own, and which, as before stated, although they were smaller than those of Italy, were more

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
	530


agile, and consequently possessed the facility of rallying and retreating with greater rapidity than the somewhat bigger-framed Roman horse. This breed appears to have been obtained originally from Etruria, and it was upon horses of this kingdom that Romulus mounted his equites or cavalry. These were also the animals which supplied the circus with its first equine performers, and the battle-field with its charger; and there is little doubt but that the size of the Roman horse was derived from the Etruscan. Confirmation of this assertion is afforded by the discovery in an Etruscan graveyard of a wall-painting on which horses are depicted so large as to be quite out of proportion to the car to which they are attached. Whether the carriage is drawn too small, or the horses too large, cannot now be determined, but the picture, as it exists, suggests that the Etruscan horse at that date was a large animal. During the incursions made by the Romans into Germany and into Gaul large horses were found, and in Bavaria and the neighbourhood large horse-shoes have been exhumed from tumuli. The Germans are represented by Tacitus as a big race of men possessed of great bodily strength, who devoted their life almost exclusively to martial exercises and hunting, in the performance of which they required large horses to carry them. These facts to a certain degree show that an indigenous breed of large horses existed in mid-Europe, which by admixture assisted in developing the tournament horse, and ultimately in the production of the British wagoner. A large breed of horses also existed in Spain before it was conquered by the Moors, and these were probably the descendants of the horses on which the soldiers of Hannibal at the battle of Cannee were mounted. In other parts of the world there is no evidence of the existence of large horses; in fact they seem generally to have been small, for the horse-shoes excavated from tumuli evidently have been worn by ponies not 14 hands high, and experience teaches us that the horse becomes small as he approaches th^etropics and the Arctic regions, but that in a medium temperature, like that of mid-Europe, he gains size, and, if he is combined with Arab blood, h^egains pluck and endurance also. In Asia, Africa, and North Europe tb^enative breeds of horses remain small, as they were in the past; and Caesar, when he invaded our country, found only an indigenous race of small ponies. England is now the possessor of the finest horses in the world; both large and small, but she obtained the materials from which they wer^ebred from foreign countries�size from Flanders and Lombardy, and quality and elegance of form from Africa and Arabia.

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	THE HORSES OF ASIA AND AFRICA
		531


THE HORSES OF ASIA AND AFRICA THE ARAB AND THE BARB Both Africa and Arabia claim to have been the birthplace of the great Eastern race of horses. Some say that Africa gave the horse to Arabia, and others that the Arabians migrated to Africa. Such migration, according to Eusebius, did occur. He informs us that some of the early descendants of Cush settled on lands on the eastern side of the Red Sea, and gradually moved to the south of Arabia, whence they crossed the sea and transplanted themselves into Ethiopia. The Ethiopians, we are told, agreed in many points with the Arabian Cushites, and were believed by most Asiatic nations in the time of Joseph us to have originated from the same source. At the period when these Arabians passed over into Africa, namely, during the time the Israelites were in Egypt, other African natives besides the Egyptians possessed horses, and battles had been fought with chariots and horsemen before these Arabians arrived in Africa. Conse- quently horses must have been fairly well distributed on African soil before their introduction into Ethiopia by the Cushites. Of course the idea of migration has resulted from the belief that the equine species originated from a single pair. It may be thought that it matters little whence the horse originated, but in reality it is most important. For if the various animals emanated from single pairs, the horse from one stallion and one tnare, then we have to account for the distribution of varieties, and how different equine types have been developed; whereas if we accept the theory of the evolution of several varieties in different regions of the globe, it will not be difficult to understand how, by intercourse between different types of the same species, distinct breeds have been brought into existence. That this mode of development has taken place during the historic period is evident; we know how the large horses of mid-Europe have been im- proved by commerce with those of the East, how the hobby, the race-horse of Queen Elizabeth's time, by intermingling with the Arab, has led to the ultimate production of the English thoroughbred, and how thousands of years before this period, this great Eastern breed was sought after by civilized and quasi-civilized nations�by Assyrians, by Babylonians, and by Egyptians�for his qualifications as a hunter and a chariot horse. The African horse was introduced into the hippodrome by the Greeks, and into the circus by the Romans, and at the present day the great performers m the hunting-field and on the turf are descendants of the Barb or the Arabian.

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			532 THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

		There is no doubt that horses of the highest qualifications have through all ages come from tropical, or at least warm regions, and the Arab horse is believed by many to have been the parent of the equine race, or at least to have been the first domesticated variety. Although the Arabs claim their descent from Ishmael, it must be remembered that many provinces in this country had been inhabited before Hagar was banished to the desert by Abraham. Joktan ruled over Yemen, and his youngest son, Jorham, founded, it is said, the kingdom of Hejaz, while his posterity " kept the throne until the time of Ishmael". Consequently Ishmael, when he lived in the wilderness of Paran, was in contact with a settled and somewhat civilized population, who possessed horses, and who most likely had subjugated them; for we know that on the eastern side of Arabia the Babylonians and the Assyrians had employed horses in battle, and that the wild life the Arabs led, owing to the nature of the country, induced them in their earliest days to train horses for hunting and martial pursuits. The prediction that their hand should be against every man, and every man's hand against theirs, has been fulfilled. From the time of this utterance to the present day the Arabs have lived by attacking and plundering caravans which pass through the desert, and this they could not have accomplished so easily had they not possessed swift horses to overtake the travellers, or to escape by rapid flight from foes too strong for them to overcome. This desert life was, therefore, a great incentive to the production of the world-famed Arab, whose services from the most ancient times every civilized nation has acquired, either by purchase or by capture in war. Both Greece and Borne hired Arabian and African cavalry to assist them in their conquests, and on more than one occasion the onslaught of these splendid horses and horsemen converted a threatened defeat into victory. The auxiliaries also of other nations who assisted the Bomans in the battle-field rode upon horses who owed their excellence to the result of a cross between their native breeds and the Arab. The Bersians, early in their history, obtained from the desert horses which, by intermingling with the indigenous stock of the country, produced a breed second only to their half-brothers the Arabians, whose descendants formed the magnificent Bersian horse so celebrated in history for rfc^sbrilliant exploits in time of war. The same story could be repeated ot other nations whose cavalry was composed of horses in whose veins flowed the blood of the Arab. When the Saracens extended their dominion by conquest, the distribution of their horses in the various conquered countries still further assisted in the diffusion of Arab blood among the many natrv^eequine races. In fact, it was propagated in the East and in the West

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			THE HORSES OF ASIA AND AFRICA 533

		in the train of the Arabs who subsequently penetrated to the limits of the known world. After the introduction of Islamism, new Mussulman invasions extended the fame of Arab horses to Italy, to Spain, and even to France, where, without doubt, they have left traces of their blood. But the event which more than any other filled Africa with Arab horses was the invasion of Sidi-Okba, and still later the successive invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries after the Hegira. It was not until the days of Mohammed that the important qualifications of the Arab were fully recognized. By the Arabs the horse is considered to be a divine gift, and his protection and kind usage to be a divine duty; blessings also are to attend those who keep horses. " Whosoever keeps and trains a horse for the cause of Allah is counted among those who give alms day and night; publicly or in secret he shall have his reward. All his sins shall be forgiven and never shall dishonour his heart." The Mohammedan conquests extended from the centre of Asia to the western verge of Africa, and a great part of Spain was long held by the Moors or the Arabs. In all the territories they acquired by the sword, there the Arab horse always left his impression on native stock, or re- mained in such regions to perpetuate, unsullied by admixture, the purity of his race. In no country is this so observable as in Spain; for in this country, when European nations possessed only very indifferent equine stock, Spain was celebrated for her splendid breed of horses. No doubt these animals had been obtained from the Moors during their 800 years' possession of Andalusia, during which period the Arab horse had con- veyed his good qualities to the mares of the surrounding country. The jennet, doubtless, is a descendant of these horses, but previously to the occupation of Andalusia by the Saracens, two breeds of horses existed in Spain; one, the ancient war-horse, which Gervase Markham and the Duke of Newcastle considered in their days the best charger and most accomplished menage horse, " an animal unrivalled in war and not to be excelled in equestrian exercises"; the other, the horse indigenous to the country, used in ancient times as a beast of burden, to carry packs like the mule, the descendants of this breed being still used in the same capacity as their ancestors. Both these breeds had been improved by intercourse with the Arab horse during the domination of the Moors. But previously to this date an improvement had been effected by the introduction of Eastern blood, and when the Duke of Newcastle eulogized the Spanish horse he praised not the native - bred horse, but a breed which derived much of its excellence from relationship Avith the Arab. Honian, a Nestorian physician at Bagdad, 850 A.D., brought out editions

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
	534


of Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Galen, and others, and also biographies of celebrated horses in which the pedigrees of these animals are clearly traced back for thousands of years, their performances narrated, and their services rendered to their masters in battle and in the chase re- corded, the highest praise always being bestowed upon the descendants of the mares ridden by the prophet in his flight from Mecca to Medina. It is not to be wondered at that Mohammed valued the horses of the desert so highly when we consider the services they rendered to their masters in war, and that, without their assistance, the vast Mohammedan conquests could not have been secured. The horse consequently became an object of the utmost respect, and means were resorted to in order to ensure that the Arab horse, in all his purity of descent, should be handed down to posterity. It is owing to his purity of blood that this animal, both in the past and in the present, has made such a useful stock- getter. No other horse in the world can be depended upon to stamp his likeness on his progeny as the Arab, and it is for this reason he has improved the various breeds of horses throughout the world. It is thought by many that the Barb is a better horse and a more celebrated sire than the Arab, and in this opinion Arabian authorities agree; but they do not consider that this animal forms a distinct breed, only that he has descended from Arabs which were imported into Africa, and in that country produced offspring superior to those grown in Arabia. Accounts of the migration of the Arab horse into Africa, and thence into other parts of the world, tend to show that European horses have derived their best qualifications more from the Barb than the Arab, i.e. from the region of the Sahara; and it certainly is the breed that both in prose and verse is the most highly praised. But whether they are both of the same descent is not of much importance, since one fact is patent, namely, that from both breeds European horses have obtained those characteristics designated quality and high breed. There is little doubt that it was with Barbary horses the Moors invaded Spain, and that during the many years they remained there the blood of the Barb was communicated to her native breeds, from which crosses the jennet and the celebrated Spanish war-horse arose. The exploits of these im- proved breeds have been handed down to us both by Spanish and by Arabian authors. We are told of their feats of daring and their splendid performances, and to what a great extent the smiles of the fair sex and their commendation incited the equestrians to deeds of valour. These were the days of chivalry and of a civilization introduced into Andalusia by the Moors and the Jews. This great intellectual development w^ras checked by the expulsion of the Moors and the Jews, who, nevertheless, left behind

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		Plate LXXV

	THE DARLEY ARABIAN From a contemporary engraving

THE GODOLPHIN ARABIAN After a painting by G. Stubbs, R.A.

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	THE HORSE W BRITAIN
	THE HORSE W BRITAIN	535
		535

them libraries, and among other things interesting manuscripts on equi- tation and the treatment of horses, and these have been handed down to us either directly or through the medium of Spanish literature. On the departure of the Moors most of their property was confiscated. Their horses, from which neither love nor money would part them, were seized or sold for a tenth of their value. These remained in Spain, and from Spain many of their descendants were distributed over Europe, and soon after found their way into England. THE HORSE IN BRITAIN Before the commencement of the Christian era Rome, which had become "mistress of the world", extended her conquests in Asia and in Africa, and ultimately reached the shores of Great Britain. The landing of Caesar was hotly opposed by the Britons with a strong force of cavalry, which they furiously drove between the ranks of the enemy, discharging their darts, as they rushed along, with such dexterity as to inflict considerable loss on the invaders. In his account of the invasion of Britain, Csesar writes: " When they engaged the horse they left their chariots to fight on foot, their charioteers in the meantime re- tiring and placing themselves so that their masters, if overpowered by numbers, might readily find them and have an easy retreat. By this manner of fighting, they had both the speed of the horse and the steadiness of the foot, and they were by daily practice so expert that they could stop their horses on a steep descent, though in full career, turn them in a narrow compass, run along the pole, sit upon the yoke, and from thence, with incredible quickness, return to their chariots." This is the first historical account we have of the existence of horses in Britain. Whether these animals were indigenous to the soil, or whether they were descendants of horses imported by other nations, such as the Phoenicians who, it is said, traded with the Britons as early as the Trojan war, cannot be ascertained. Neither are we able to discover their exact type; we only know that they were small. As the horse-shoes found in Roman and in Saxon tumuli were only of a size sufficient to fit small hoofs, and as the size of the shoe indicates to a great extent the size of the animal whose foot during life it had protected, it is reasonable to assume that the original breeds of British horses were small. In all northern countries of Europe the indigenous equine races have always been represented by diminutive breeds of ponies. The domestication of the horse has led to his improvement, and the knowledge of man has assisted in securing his progressive development, especially

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		536 THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

		by judicious crossing and by the careful selection of parents. During the time the Romans were extending their conquests in Britain distinct evidence is afforded, not only of the vast number of horses that existed in the country, but also of the large importation of them by the Romans. When in 54 B.C. Csesar landed a second time in England, he brought with him 20,000 foot and a very powerful body of cavalry, with which he defeated the petty prince Cadwallon in every action. So numerous were the horses of the Britons, however, that their leader was able to bring 4000 chariots to impede the Roman advance. The imported Roman horses no doubt were of a mixed breed, whose ancestral line of descent during centuries had been improved by careful supervision; consequently these animals, being much larger than the native ponies, would be capable by intercourse between them of producing " fresh crosses of good blood in which both great quality and size might be anticipated. During the 400 years the Roman sway continued, horses from the Continent were constantly landed on our shores, and British ponies were also transported to Rome. Subsequent to the departure of the Romans from Britain the invasions of other nations led to the further introduction of foreign horses. Saxon and Danish horses found their way into this country, and thus laid the foundation for the production of improved breeds. Little specific mention is made of the British horse until 631, when Bede informs us that the prelates, who had previously performed their journeys on foot, at this date rode on horseback, and always used mares instead of horses as a mark of humility. When Judith, the daughter of Charles the Bald, king of France, came to this country on her marriage with Ethelwolf, we learn she was attended by numerous horsemen who rode " magnificent Spanish horses' ; but it is not until the reign of Alfred the Great, the fourth son of Ethelwolf, that we obtain any distinct information that horses received especial care, or that their propagation was intelligently supervised. This prince was well qualified to inaugurate this important business, as he had visited Rome, where he met many learned churchmen and others, from whom he received not only his early lessons in religion and m secular matters, but also in equestrian exercises, in which the patrician Roman youth took a great delight. This youthful visit to Rome placed him in a position to make constant observations, and particularly concern- ing the various breeds of horses, from among which those most conspicuous for their beauty and other qualifications could be selected. There is no doubt the pastimes indulged in by the Romans did not escape the notice of Alfred, and when he arrived at man's estate he was possessed of such knowledge as enabled him to inaugurate a system of horse-

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	THE HORSE IN BRITAIN
	THE HORSE IN BRITAIN	537
		537

breeding, and assisted him in making selections from among those foreign horses which he had admired on the Continent, with a view to mate them with the indigenous breeds of Britain. Alfred was not only a large importer of horses, but also imposed laws calculated to operate in improving indigenous breeds; and in order to ensure that his mandates should be thoroughly carried into effect he appointed a stud - groom or master of the horse, who received the title of Horse Thane. The duty of this officer was to superintend the breeding, training, and management in health and in disease of the royal horses. During this reign horses both foreign and native were bought and sold, but it was not until Athelstane ascended the throne, 925 a.d., that horse-dealing became a vast commercial pursuit. Laws were enacted designed to regulate the price and otherwise to protect purchasers against fraud. If a horse were destroyed or lost through negligence, the owner was entitled to "thirty shillings compensation, for a mare or colt, twenty shillings, for an untrained mare, sixty pence, for a mule or an ass, twelve shillings". Athelstane was a large importer of foreign horses, but he would not allow English horses to leave the country, proving that at this early date the value of British breeds was recognized, and therefore their exportation was prohibited by law. The importation of Continental horses was encouraged, and nothing gave Athelstane so much pleasure as the receipt of presents in the shape of horses. We read: "Sundry princes sought his alliance and friendship, and sent him rich presents, the finest horses, w^rith golden furniture," &c. These are said to have been "running horses", probably nags of moderate size, adapted for purposes of display, of hunting, and of chariot-racing, which sports represented the pastimes of this period. Athelstane evidently highly valued these presents, for in his will he enumerates and makes a disposition of them: "Those given me by Thur- brand, together with those given me by Liefbrand," &c. During this reign it is evident that numerous horses existed in Great Britain, and that intelligent measures had been adopted to cause their propagation and their improvement, and to prevent any decrease in their number; moreover, the law prohibiting their exportation was rigorously enforced. -During the following reigns it was the function of the horse thane to superintend the cultivation and the propagation of horses. When William the Conqueror landed on British territory he brought with him from Normandy a large army, consisting of archers, light and heavy armed mfantry and cavalry, and the superiority of the Norman horse no doubt largely contributed to William's victory at the battle of Hastings. The history of this memorable event shows us that the Norman horses landed °n these shores remained permanently in this country, and contributed

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
	538	THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
	538

to the increase of Biitish stock and to the improvement of the native breeds. William, at the battle of Hastings, rode a Spanish charger, and the Bayeux tapestry depicts some of the equine types that were imported on this occasion; all the boats of the invading army are full of horses. " Every knight has a small pony, on which he rides without armour, whilst the great war-horse is led by a squire." Thus history records certain exact equine types that were landed on these shores by William. His charger, most likely, was a Spanish jennet, and the cavalry on both sides were small, even those that were yoked to the chariots; but the great horse upon which the knight entered the combat made his first appearance on the British coast at Hastings. From this importation the tournament horse arose, and, centuries after, the heavy cart-horse. The great horse was strictly a war-horse, and was used also for parade and for display, but light horses were employed in the chase. The Conqueror, who was devoted to this pastime, laid many villages waste in order to secure large open plains for his favourite pursuit of hunting, and no doubt the chase was the cradle in which the future racer was primarily nursed. At this period Roger de Belesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, in order to improve the existing type of horse then in the country, introduced Spanish stallions into his Welsh estate of Powisland. The excellent qualifications of these animals are recorded by Giraldus Cambrensis, and their praises are celebrated by the poet Drayton. The Norman nobles who settled in England distributed both large and small horses throughout their newly acquired possessions, and during the Plantagenet dynasty horses from the East and from Lombardy were landed on these shores. Beranger describes these horses as being adapted " for war purposes and exhibition of public assemblies, of which horses are always an essential and orna- mental part". As yet horses had not been attached to the plough, oxen having been employed in the art of husbandry, and even up to a very recent period the horse had been exempted from this service. At the time of the Norman Conquest the horse had been employed in agri- cultural labour, however, as the Bayeux tapestry gives a picture of a man driving a horse drawing a harrow. In the reign of Henry I two horses of Barbary were imported into this country, one being presented to the king and the other to the church of St. Andrews, by Alexander the First of Scotland. This is the first notice we have of Oriental horses having been imported into Great Britain. Youatt says that some authors have asserted that from these two horses sprung the English thoroughbred, a statement which he thinks " is devoid of foundation". This may or may not be the case, but if they were Barbs or Arabians they certainly were of the right breed from which race - horses could be producedj

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		Plate lxxvi

	HBH ECLIPSE From the painting by G. Stubbs, R.A.

FLYING CHILDERS From the Painting by Sartorius after Seymour

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	THE HORSE IN BRITAIN
	THE HORSE IN BRITAIN	539
		539

since it is from such stock that Eclipse and Flying Childers descended. Fitz-Stephen, who lived during Henry II's reign, gives a description of the public exhibition of horses; how at Smithfield [planus campus) they were paraded for sale. " Every Friday, except some festival intervene, there is a fine sight of horses brought to be sold. Many of the city come to buy or look on, to wit, barons, knights, earls, and citizens. It is a pleasant thing to behold the horses there, all gay and sleek, moving up and down, some on the amble and some on the trot, which latter pace, although rougher to the rider, is better suited to men who bear arms. There are yet colts, ignorant of the bridle, wdiich prance and bound and give early signs of spirit and courage; there are also managed war - horses, of elegant shape, full of fire, and giving every evidence of a generous and noble temper; horses also for the cart, dray, and plough are to be found here." The tournament on the Continent had been for many years a pastime with warriors, but the love of hunting to which the English nobles were devoted delayed its becoming a British institution until the time of Henry II. At this time Fitz-Stephen tells us that on every Friday in Lent a tournament was held at Smithfield, where young Londoners armed and mounted on horses performed a variety of warlike evolutions, and from this age the tournament ruled supreme both in England and on the Continent until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when the race-course gradually pushed out of existence this ancient pastime. The tournament was not established in England until sixty years after the Norman conquest, but from the account of Stephanides of Canterbury it is evident that during the reign of Henry II various equine breeds were common in England, the charger or tourna- ment horse being spoken of as distinct from the cart-horse. These animals were the descendants of imported Norman horses, and were representatives of an improvement that had been impressed upon native stock by the judicious selection of parents under the supervision of their owners. During the Plantagenet dynasty the chase became the incentive which led to the propagation of swift horses, and in the same way the tournament operated in causing the production of the great horse; and consequently we find that during the reign of King John the development of the great horse Was continued. We read that this monarch imported one hundred stallions from Flanders, and, as the tournament was at this period a great national institution, we may presume that these animals were destined for perform- ance in the tilting yard and at the same time for purposes of the stud. The value set upon these horses during this reign is indicated by a fine that King John imposed upon a person named Till, who " possessed a noble breed of horses", but falling under the king's displeasure was condemned to pay

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			540 THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

		a fine of ten horses, each worth thirty marks, about �300 oi our present currency. These were the days when large horses were in request, and when kings and nobles vied with each other in attempting to procure by importation and by breeding magnificent specimens of the "great" horse, and also lighter bred animals for the chase. Soon after Edward II ascended the throne we find a commission is given to one Bynde Bonaventure for twenty war-horses and twelve draught horses to be purchased in Lombardy. John de Trokelow, in 1307, bears testimony to the care this prince bestowed on horses and the zeal with which he attempted their improvement. Edward III was an ardent supporter of the tournament and the chase, and warmly encouraged the importance and breeding of light and heavy horses. It is recorded that this monarch purchased fifty Spanish stallions for 1000 marks, and imported from France four great horses, for which he paid Count Hainault 25,000 florins. This prince also introduced horse- racing, in which sport Spanish horses seem to have been engaged, and those animals which performed on the turf were named running-horses. During this reign the various breeds of horses were separated into classes, each breed being distinguished by a name indicating the use in which each respective class was employed. Laws also were enacted to prevent dis- honest dealing and to control prices; and as the laws were principally directed against owners residing in Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire and York- shire, we can perceive that even then these counties were considered favoured localities for breeding and rearing horses. The equine importa- tions mentioned above consisted of large horses from Flanders and from Lombardy, and of light ones whose ancestors had been bred in Africa or in Arabia; and it is from these two breeds that our race-horses, hunters, and heavy wagoners have by gradual and progressive development derived their origin. The Crusades offered an opportunity to the warriors who left this country for the Holy Land, to note the excellence of the horses ridden by the Saracens, and on their return to this country they brought with them many Asiatic horses, which became the progenitors of that stock whose descendants in the days of the first Stuart and later were conspicuous on the race-course. These horses most likely had descended from the stock with which Mohammed and his followers had waged war, and were represented by Barbs, by Arabs, by Persians, and by Turks. They were small, as they are to this day, i.e. not more than 14^- hands high, but from these animals the English pony gained size and the charger quality. For the tournament the light Arab-looking horses imported by the Crusaders would have been use- less. For this pastime heavy horses were obtained, and it was from inter- mixture between these two types that quality was acquired and greater size

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			THE HORSE IN BRITAIN 541

		induced. Upon such steeds the warriors of old faced their enemies in the battle-field and on the tilting-ground, encased in armour so weighty that it sometimes demanded the assistance of two squires to mount them. Chargers of great size were imported by Anglo-Normans, by Plantagenets, and by Tudors from Flanders and from Lombardy, and Chaucer gives a distinct picture of this breed when he depicts its grand conformation in the following verse:� "For it so high was, so broad and long, So well proportioned for to be so strong, Right as it were a steed of Lombardy ". After the time of Richard the First there is little to record of impor- tance relative to the breeding, rearing, and importation of horses, until the reign of Richard the Third, when we learn for the first time that during 1483 post-horses and stages were first introduced, and that horses were specially employed in this service. Soon after the first Tudor ascended the throne we are put in possession of interesting facts relative to the treat- ment and disposition of horses by Polydore Virgil, who tells us how cattle and horses browsed over English pastures and common lands, and that horses, both mares and entire horses, were mingled together, which caused so much confusion and disorder that Henry VII enacted that no entire horse should be pastured out on fields or common lands. This law caused such horses to be kept within bounds and tied in stalls, whence the name " stallion " or " stalled one " was applied to the entire horse. The incon- venience of this enactment in causing so many horses to be stabled led to their emasculation, which from this date became a common practice. The exportation of stallions and of mares of less value than six shillings and eightpence was prohibited, but the importation of foreign horses was warmly encouraged as previously. Henry VIII, like his father, paid particular attention to the raising and the improvement of horses, and it is evident from the laws that were passed during his reign that small horses were too numerous. In his endeavour to obtain a stronger and better type of ^animal a law was enacted that no stallion less than 15 hands high and ⁿo mare less than 13 hands should run wild in the country. A colt two> years old and under 11-i hands high was not allowed to run on anv moor, torest, or common where mares were pastured; and at Michaelmastide th& Neighbouring magistrates were ordered to drive all forests and commons, ^aid not only to destroy such stallions, but also " all unlikely tits whether Glares or foals". Other enactments were passed during this reign with a view to obtain ^lore powerful horses. It was enjoined that every bishop and duke was to ^eep seven entire horses, each above three years old and not less than ^v<". m. ioo

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		THE HOKSE IN BKITA1N 543 this time private race-meetings were instituted, to be followed later by public ones, and that " nags " were in demand, and although carriages had been introduced they were used only to a very limited extent. Ben Jonson tells us how the grandees rode on horseback to the theatres, and that when the great Shakespeare fled to London, from terror of a criminal prosecution, his first expedient was to wait at the doors of theatres and bold the horses of those who had no servants, in order that they might be in readiness for their owners after the performance. In this capacity he became so conspicuous for his careful attention that in a short time all who alighted called for William Shakespeare, and scarcely anyone was trusted with a horse if William's services could be obtained. Accordingly he hired boys to act under his orders, who were called Shakespeare's boys, and for years afterwards those who took charge of horses at the doors of theatres were known as Shakespeare's boys. At this period a more active breed of horses began to be propagated as the effect of causes previously narrated, such as the disuse of heavy armour. This gave rise to the cultivation of light " nags ", the existence of which, a year after the Spanish Armada, Sir John Smythe deplores. He writes: " Their horsemen, serving on horseback with lances or any other weapon, think themselves well armed with some kind of head-piece and a collar, on a deformed, high-bellied beast". As the occupation of the great tournament horse was "going", its propagation in great measure was discontinued; yet ^an incentive to the breeding of stout horses still existed, as such animals "Were required to draw the lumbering and heavy vehicles of this era across countries and plains, over bad roads or where none existed. During the Stuart dynasty consignments of large horses continued to be imported from slanders and Northern Europe, together with Barbs, Turks, Persians, and Arabs, which by intermixture with our native breeds and between them- selves succeeded in forming the ancestral stocks from which all British ^e(luine breeds have emanated. The British cart-horse's descent can be traced from the great horse °riginally imported from Flanders and Lombardy, but much improved since those days by judicious crossing and careful selection of parents. The Stuarts first introduced quality, but size was wanting; for when William III ascended the throne, and sought to drain the Lincolnshire Fens, he found that the British cart-horse of this date was not strong enough for the tasks Wnposed upon him; consequently he imported large Dutch horses (the old Lincolnshire Blacks). The Dukes of Ancaster also brought over to this country similar breeds from Holland. This was the first step of any note ^which gave an impetus to the improvement of our coarser equine stock, and torrned the main root from which our cart-horses have proceeded. Our

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
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grandfathers have told us how their fathers expatiated on the merits of those horses, of their size and feats of strength, how the blacks with white legs and blazes were most esteemed. These animals or their descendants in time became located all over England, and thus a good cross of fresh blood found its way to the descendants of the old tournament horse, and procured that increase in size and strength for which our present breed of cart-horses are so celebrated. During Elizabeth's reign horse-racing was in vogue, but it was only of a private nature. Matches against time and trials of speed between two horses represented the racing of this period. It was left for James I to intro- duce into England the sport he had previously established in Scotland. He inaugurated races at Gatterley, in Yorkshire; at Croydon, and at Theobalds at Enfield Chase. He encouraged every kind of horsemanship, the impor- tation of foreign horses, especially of a racing type, and was the first to land upon our shores a pure-bred Arabian, which he bought of a merchant named Markham for �500. This animal turned out a failure, and well it might, if the description given of him by the Duke of Newcastle in his treatise on horsemanship was correct, " a little boney, bay horse of ordinary shape and almost worthless"; but James, nothing daunted, purchased of Pace, afterwards stud-master to Cromwell, a horse brought from the north coast of Africa, and know^rn as the White Turk. The example set by James was followed by his friends. The first Duke of Buckingham imported the Helmsley Turk, and Lord Fairfax the Morocco Barb. From this date improvement in our breed of light horses commenced. But although Eastern horses were in demand to effect this object, their qualifications had only been partially recognized, for we find Gervase Markham stating " the true English-bred horse to be superior to those of any other country. I do daily find in my experience that the virtue, goodness, boldness, swiftness, and endurance of our true-bred English horses is equal to any race of horses whatsoever. For swiftness, what nation has brought forth the horse which has exceeded the English? When the best Barbaries that ever were were in their prime, I saw them overcome by a black hobby at Salisbury? and yet that black hobby was overcome by a horse called Valentine, which Valentine neither in hunting or running was ever equalled, yet was a plain- bred English horse both by dam and syre." From this quotation it can he seen that among native stock good specimens existed, upon which th^eimported Oriental blood was about to give its impression of further excel- lence. These were the days when the love of racing created the demand for swift horses, and the turf an incentive to their importation and propa- gation. At this epoch the most successful performers on the turf, both horses and mares, were distinguished from common stock by being classified

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	THE HORSE IN BRITAIN
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as professional race-horses, and public race-meetings were formally gazetted as at this day. In the time of Charles I the importation and breeding of swift horses continued, for supplying both the turf and the hunting-field with good performers. The order of the day was for fast gallopers, who were rapidly supplanting the tournament horse, and to so great an extent as to have caused the presentation of a memorial to the king complaining of the great diminution of stout and powerful horses " fit for the defence of the coun- try", and urging that measures should be adopted in order to encourage the propagation " of this useful and important type of horse ". To promote the object sought, a law was enacted but never was put into execution, and consequently became a dead letter. It was impossible, therefore, to keep up a large supply, as the demand for this class of horse had considerably diminished. The turf had usurped the occupation of the tilting-yard, and the great horse had been supplanted by the racer. At the same time a necessity still remained for the production of weight-carriers to draw vehicles laden with heavy goods, and to carry men in armour�for even at this date armour formed no inconsiderable portion of the trooper's uniform,�and con- sequently a demand for " stout and powerful horses " still existed, but not to so great an extent as during the Tudor era. During the civil wars racing was neglected, but the importance of cavalry horses exercised a powerful influence in causing the production of horses possessing both strength and activity, and to the development of this type Cromwell gave his attention. He raised a cavalry regiment, the best in existence at that date, composed of powerful yeomen and stout horses. He on two occasions (February 24, 1654, and April 8, 1658) prohibited horse-racing, declaring all persons of what " estate, quality, or degree soever, who should appoint or assist at race-meetings, breakers of the public peace, and further requiring all civil and military authorities to seize all the race-horses and spectators"; but he generally encouraged the breeding of stout, active horses, with a view to procuring animals with speed and endurance, which he recognized were more useful on the march and on the battle-field than those chargers which possessed " mere bone and bulk ". It can, therefore, be seen that during the Commonwealth the demand for cavalry horses was the incentive which led to the production of animals possessing bulk combined with activity, and this result was obtained from crosses between the weight-carrier and racer of this era. Thus a new type of horse was created, namely the active cavalry horse, whose descendants at a later date drew the heavy springless vehicles of our forefathers over rotten and almost impassable roads. Although during the stormy days of civil war, horse-racing had been neglected, after the third Stuart was crowned king this sport became a

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
	546	THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

national institution. The Merry Monarch was the greatest supporter of the turf England has ever known. He not only encouraged and patronized the race-courses already in existence, but he also added to those established by his father at Hyde Park, Newmarket, and at other places, that at Datchet Mead, near Windsor, being the most celebrated. Newmarket became his favourite resort. There he built a palace and large stables, which he filled with Eastern horses obtained by his Master of the Horse for breeding pur- poses. These animals were Arabians and Barbs, both stallions and mares, which latter and also some of their produce were called royal mares. During this reign Oriental horses were numerously imported, and racing began to assume an improved character. Treatises on horses were issued from the press, and one on horsemanship, published by the Duke of Newcastle, gives descriptions of various foreign horses, and advice relative to breeding them for specific purposes�for war, the menage, and the turf,�and he selects the Barb as his ideal of what a horse should be. He writes: "The Barbary horses I freely confess are my favourites; I allow preference as to shape, strength, natural air, and docility. Mountain Barbs are horses of the best courage; many of them bear marks of wounds they have received from lions." The same author also suggests how an improvement can be effected upon native stock by careful selection of parents. " The best stallion is a well-chosen Barb or beautiful Spanish horse. Some people believe that a Barb or Jennet produces too small a breed. There is no fear of having a horse too small in England, since the moisture of the climate and fatness of the land rather produces horses too large. In choice of breeding mares I would advise you to take either a well-shaped Spanish or Neapolitan; when these are not easily obtained, then a beautiful English mare of good colour and well marked." Previously to this reign we may assume that winning mares and stallions were mated in order to secure and perpetuate a race of flyers; but when the imported Arabs and Barbs were discovered to be faster on the turf than the native stock, they were introduced to the harem with a view of procuring in the offspring that turn of speed which was common to the foreign horses. This combination resulted in success, which was pri- marily effected by such horses as Dodsworth Pace's White Turk, and numerous other Barbs and Arabians, whose stock in later reigns laid the foundation from which the superiority of the English horse arose. During the short reign of James II there is little about horses worth mentioning- Oriental horses were still imported. The Lister Turk was brought to England by the Duke of Berwick, being taken at the siege of Buda. This horse was the sire of many celebrated horses: Snake, Brisk, Conyskins, &c. The king was devoted to hunting, and kept a large stud of hunters. He is said to have been a fine horseman, and for this

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			THE HORSE IN BRITAIN 547

		reason the Irish gave him the name " Shamus-na-cappul" (James of the horses). William III was an enthusiastic horseman and lover of the menage horse. He built a riding-school, in which it pleased him to be an inspector of equestrian exercises. He also was a great supporter of the turf, and kept a magnificent stud of Oriental horses, and thus assisted in the gradual improvement in the breeds of horses that had been commenced by James I. During this reign the Byerley Turk was brought to this country. This animal was Captain Byerley's charger during William's wars in Ireland, and was the sire of Sprite, Black Hearty, Grasshopper, &c. Queen Anne gave every encouragement to horse-racing. She kept race-horses, which were entered for prizes in her own name; she added also several plates in dif- ferent parts of the kingdom. The importation of Oriental horses had now become quite a mercantile pursuit. Numerous Barbs, Turks, and Arabs were landed on our shores, but the most conspicuous of them was the Darley Arabian, which was brought to this country from Aleppo in 1715, the year after George I came to the throne. This animal was the sire of Flying Childers, the fastest horse over a long distance that ever ran; that is if his record be correct, which asserts that he ran over a course at Newmarket, a distance of 3 miles 6 furlongs and 93 yards, in 6 minutes and 40 seconds, the Beacon course of 4 miles 1 furlong and 138 yards in 7 minutes and 30 seconds, and also could run a mile in a little over one minute. This remarkable record of speed may be too good to be true, but whether exag- gerated or not, it is certain that this animal was the fastest horse of his day, and that from him the thoroughbred has derived a large proportion of its present excellence. In 1725 another celebrated horse, the Godolphin Arabian, arrived in this country, and from him have descended most of the notable horses now on the turf. In tracing the descent of thoroughbred horses it will be observed that they emanate from three distinct sources: " The Darley Arabian, 1720, from whom descended Childers, Squirt, Marske, Eclipse, King Fergus, Hambletonian; the Byerley Turk, 1689, whence came Jig, Partner, Tartar, Herod, Highflyer, Sir Peter, Woodpecker, Buzzard; and the Godolphin Arabian, 1725, whence came Cade, Matcham, Conductor, Trumpeter, Sorcerer, Dr. Syntax. From the first source our present stallions are Orlando, Wetherbit, Cossack, King Tom, Teddington, Touchstone, Stock- well, Voltigeur, and Rataplan. From the second, Sweetmeat, Alarm, Cowl, Flying Dutchman, Tadmor, Wild Dayrell; and from the Godolphin Arabian, Nutwith, West Australian, Sir Tatton Sykes, Tomboy, and Melborne. Wetherbit, Tomboy, and the Doctor are the eighth cross from the Arab; Bradsman, Touchstone, and Melborne the ninth; West Aus-

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		THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE
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tralian, Surplice, Voltigeur, Kingston, Chanticleer, and Fisherman the tenth; Cossack, Ignoramus, Pelion, Tadmor, Ellington, Longbow, are the eleventh generation." Florizel II, Persimmon, and Diamond Jubilee, three brothers by St. Simon out of Perdita II, bred by His Majesty King Edward VII, are among the living representatives of these famous sires. On the female side the royal mares consisted chiefly of importations of Barbs from the north coast of Africa when Tangiers was under the British flag, but many of them were English bred, and were selected because they had been successful performers on the turf. The late Admiral Eous was of opinion that the English race-horse has descended from "pure-bred Arabs", untainted by English blood, and whose pedigree might be traced for two thousand years�the true offspring of Arabia Deserta,�and the greater size and height that the produce of these animals attained to he ascribed to the climatic influence of "these damp, foggy islands", assisted by judicious management and good " pasture". But does our knowledge of the past history of the horse warrant us in accepting this assertion as a fact? Do not the writings of the Duke of Newcastle advise crossing with a fine English "mare"; and do not other sentences show that intermingling with different breeds was resorted to by our forefathers as the best means by which to improve the then existing British race-horse? The admiral attributes the superiority that the race-horse of the Stuart era obtained to our " damp, foggy climate", combined with good pasture and judicious management; and although he speaks of the first cross as producing our primary first-class race-horse, in the next sentence he asserts that the Turks, Barbs, and royal mares were pure Arabians, " pure Eastern exotics, without a drop of English blood in their veins". If climate and good pasture caused all the improvement which it is allowed did occur, how was it that previously to the days of the Stuarts the benefits derived from climatic influence had not been recognized by the Tudors? If environment alone was capable of producing greater size in our equine races, what need had Henry VIII to pass a law ordering the destruc- tion of small horses and " all unlikely tits", when the same " fog and damp" was ready to promote the same increase of size which we are asked to believe was the sole cause of the change? Every physiologist knows the benefit that arises from a " good cross of fresh blood ". Almost all the breeds of domestic animals have been brought to their present excel- lence, not by continuous breeding in a direct line in the same family, but by judicious out-crossing, and it was by the adoption of this system at the outset that the British thoroughbred has been produced. In 1618 Michael Barrett had noticed the benefit that arose from cross- breeding. He writes: "Although the Spanish jennet, and Irish hobby and

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	THE HORSE IN BRITAIN
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the Arabian courser are held by Maister Blundeville and Maister Markham to be the chief for racing and neat action, there is the bastard stallion be- gotten by one of them on our English mares which doth exceed either of them in swiftness and toughness ". Of course it is impossible at this distance of time to trace distinctly the pedigree of the horses and mares imported during the Stuart epoch, although it is certain that to these importations the superiority in our breeds is attributable. Some of the royal mares were purchased in Hungary, but Admiral Rous thinks the majority came from Morocco, and that the Barbs were brought during the sixth century from Arabia, when the Saracens overran and conquered Northern Africa. That all these were highly bred and were of Eastern origin cannot be doubted, and their introduction into this country resulted in the improvement of native breeds and in developing the British thoroughbred. Writers in the past bear testimony to this fact, and cite instances and describe the processes that have been adopted in their attempts to improve present or establish new breeds. Clive, "On the good effects of crossing", writes: " We are told that the great improvement in the breed of horses in England arose from the crossing with those diminutive stallions, Barbs and Arabians, and the introduction of mares from Flanders into this country was the source of improvement in the breed of cart-horses. " When the Asiatic horses were mated with native-bred English mares, there was size on one side and superior quality on the other, the mare ■exhibiting size and greater development of bone and muscle, but lacking that ' density of fibre' and vital energy which was possessed by the Barb in an eminent degree. From such combination it might be anticipated that the offspring would grow to greater size than the sire, and would show as it arrived at maturity a good proportion of the Eastern horse's quality. And this is exactly what did take place. Animals of size and quality were obtained from the first crosses, and from the Stuart epoch to the present day our race-horses have, decade by decade, increased in height. In 1730 the Oriental horse was denounced, and it was the opinion of sportsmen at this date that the immediate uncrossed descendants of Eastern horses had of late years, almost without exception, proved so deficient that breeders would no more have recourse to them than the farmer would to the natural oat, which is little better than a weed, to produce a sample that should rival that of his neighbours in the market. Were the finest Eastern horse that could be procured brought to the starting-post at Newmarket, with the ad- vantage of English training to boot, he would have no chance at any weight or for any distance with even a second-rate English race-horse." From this quotation we learn that the cross-bred English racer was a gustier racer on

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			550 THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

		the turf than the pure-bred Barb or Arabian, proving how great had been the influence of the incorporation of the old English blood with that of the Eastern horse. The celebrated horses, the Darley and Godolphin Arabians, impressed upon the British racing stock a vigour, a power, and a physical development which has been handed down through succeeding generations' " from sire to son". The great Eastern horse, to which we owe so much, has preserved through thousands of years a distinct line of descent from the days when Ninus, King of Assyria (2227 B.C.), marshalled his chariots- and horses in battle and Pharaoh pursued the Israelites to the Bed Sea. (1401 B.C.). This breed of horses, whose existence at the above dates is recorded, were the primogenitors of the Barb and Arabian, who have through countless ages improved the various indigenous species of the world; and at the present day the quality, whenever noticed in foreign horses, has always been obtained directly from the Arab or indirectly from the British thorough-bred, which has impressed his likeness on all our existing breeds from the cob to the cart-horse, to which the American trotter is indebted for much of his excellence, and which, into whatever country he enters, is acknowledged to be king of the equine race.

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		SARY
	GLOS	SARY
	GLOS

			Anthrax (Gr. anthrax, a coal, or carbuncle), a fatal disease due to the bacillus of anthrax. Antidote (Gr. anti, against, and didomi, to give), a drug that prevents or counteracts the action of poisons. Antipyretic (Gr. anti, against, and pyretos, fever), an agent which reduces the temperature in fever. Antiseptic (Gr. anti, against, and septos, putrid), an agent which prevents putrefaction. Antispasmodic (Gr. anti, against, and spasmos, a spasm), an agent that relieves spasm. Anus (Lat.), the fundament, the posterior opening of the large bowel. Aorta (Gr. aorte), the largest artery of the body. It arises from the heart, and divides into the anterior and posterior aorta. Aphthae (Gr. aphthai, an eruption), small white spots or vesicles occurring in the mouth, more espe- cially seen in young animals. Aponeurotic (Gr. apo, from, neuron, tendon), per- taining to a broad fibrous membrane or tendon pro- ceeding from a muscle, or used to bind down tendons. Apophysis (Gr. apo, from, and pliysis. growth), a process of bone produced from a separate centre of growth. Apoplexy (Gr. apoplexia, a striking down), loss of consciousness from breakage of vessels in the brain. Aqueduct (Lat. aqua, water; ductus, a leading), applied to ducts and canals in various parts of the body. Arthrodia (Gr. arthrodia, a kind of joint), a joint permitting a gliding movement. Ascites (Gr. as/cites, a kind of dropsy; askos, a bag), an abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in the cavity of the belly; dropsy of the belly. Ascococcus (Gr. askos, a leather bag; kokkos, a kernel), micro-organisms made up of round colonies surrounded by tough, thick, gelatinous envelopes. Aseptic (Gr. a, priv., and septos, putrid), free from pathogenic bacteria or septic matter. Aspergillus (Lat. aspergere, to scatter), a genus of fungi. Asphyxia (Gr. a, priv., and sphyxis, the pulse), suffocation, the effect produced by depriving the lungs of air. Assimilation (Lat. assimilare, to make like), the transformation of food into a condition in which it may be used up in the nutrition of the body. Astragalus (Gr. astragalos, a die), the bone upon which the tibia rests. Astringent (Lat. ad, to; strinyere, to bind), an agent which, by contracting organic tissue, arrests hsemorrhage or diarrhoea. Atavism (Lat. atavus, a forefather), the reappear- ance of an anomaly in an individual whose more or less remote progenitors were similarly affected, but in whose immediate ancestors it had not been shown.
A Abrus (Gr. abros, pretty), Indian liquorice, the seeds of A brus precatorius or wild liquorice. Abscess (Lat. absccssus, a separation of matter), a collection of pus in some of the organs or parts of the body, the result of local inflammation. Absorbent (Lat. absorbere, to suck in), a drug or medicine that produces absorption of diseased tissue. Acetabulum (Lat., a small cup), the cavity into which the head of the femur or thigh-bone fits and in which it moves. Actinomyces (Gr. aktis, a ray, and mykes, mush- room), a rayed fungus. Acute (Lat. acutus, sharp), pertaining to disease having a rapid and severe onset, progress, and ter- mination. Adenoid (Gr. aden, gland, and eidos, appearance), resembling a gland. ■ffistrum (Gr. oistros, gadfly), the heat or rut of ani- mals ; the sensation occurring at the time of coition. Afferent (Lat. afferens, carrying to), carrying some- thing to a centre; hence, applied to those nerves which conduct influences to the central nervous system. Ala (Lat., a wing), a name of various wing-shaped parts. Alveolus (Lat.), the bony socket of a tooth. Amaurosis (Gr. arnauros, dark), partial or total loss of vision. Amide {ammonia), a white crystalline solid often capable of combining with both acids and bases. Amphiarthrosis (Gr. amphi, around, and art/iron, a joint), a joint in which there is a disc of fibro- cartilage between the ends of the bones; it enjoys a limited movement. Amylolytic (Gr. amylon, starch, and lusis, solution), effecting the digestion of starch. Amylopsin (Gr. amylon, starch, and opsis, appear- ance), a ferment said to exist in pancreatin. Anaemia (Gr. an, priv., and haima, blood), de- ficiency or thinness of blood. Anaesthesia (Gr. anaislhesia), want of feeling, a nervous disease. Anaesthetic (Gr. an, priv., and aisthesis, feeling), a substance that produces insensibility to feeling or acute pain. Anchylosis, Ankylosis (Gr. ankylos, a stiff joint), union of the bones forming a joint, resulting in a stiff joint. Aneurism (Gr. aneurysma, widening), a dilatation or widening in the course of an artery. Animalcule (Lat. animalculum, a minute animal), a microscopic animal. Anodyne (Gr. an, priv., and odyne, pain), a medicine that relieves pain.

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		GLOSSARY
	552


Atlas (from the fabulous Atlas that supported the earth), the first bone of the cervical or neck vertebrae, supporting the head. Atrophy (Gr. atrophia, want of nourishment), loss of weight, size, and function of an organ. Auricle (Lat. auricula, the outer ear), the name for the two superior cavities of the heart. B Bacillus (Lat. bacillum, a small rod), a name for various microscopic organisms or microbes of a rod- like form, some of them associated with certain diseases. Bacterium (Gr. bakterion, a little stick), a genus of short cylindrical fission fungi; a bacillus. See above. Basilar (Gr. basis, base), pertaining to the base, usually of the skull. Biceps (Lat. bis, twice; caput, the head), a term applied to several two-headed muscles. Bicipital (Lat. bi, two; caput, the head), pertaining to the biceps muscle. Biologist (Gr. bios, life, and logos, discourse), one who is a student of life forms. Bishoping", the act of carving a cavity in the crown of a tooth and making it black by heat, for the pur- pose of making an old horse appear young. Blepharitis (Gr. blepharon, the eyelid, and itis, in- flammation), inflammation of the eyelid. Blepharophimosis (Gr. blepharon, the eyelid, and phimosis, a shutting up), constriction or narrowing of the opening of the eyelids. Brachial (Lat. brachium, the arm), pertaining to the upper arm. Bruit (Fr., a noise or report), a term used to desig- nate the specific sounds of auscultation. Bubonocele (Gr. bonbon, the groin, and hell, tu- mour), inguinal hernia, or hernia in the groin. Buccal (Lat. bucca, the cheek), pertaining to the cheek. Bulla (Lat. bulla, a bubble), a bleb or blister. c Calcaneus (Lat., the heel), the heel-bone; in veter- inary anatomy, the bone which forms the point of the hock. Calculus (Lat. dim. of calx, a small stone), a stone- like concretion found in the bladder and some other organs. Callosity (Lat. callus, hard skin), a hard, thickened patch on the skin produced by excessive accumulation of the horny layer. Capillary (Lat. capillus, a hair), a minute blood- vessel connecting arteries with veins. Carbohydrate (Lat. earbo, coal; Gr. hudor, water), a substance containing carbon with hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion to form water. Carboluria (carbolic, and Gr. ouron, urine), the presence of carbolic acid in the urine. Cardiac (Gr. kardia, the heart), pertaining to the heart. Caries (Lat. caries, rottenness), chronic inflamma- tion of bone, followed by pus formation and death of the part. Cariniform (Lat. carina, keel; forma, shape), applied to the keel-like cartilage in front of the breast-bone. Carotids (Gr. karotides), the principal right and left arteries of the neck. Carpus (Gr. karpos, wrist), the eight bones collec- tively forming the wrist; the knee of the horse. Carunculse myrtiformes (Lat. caruncula, a car-
			uncle; myrtum, a myrtle berry), projecting membranes near the orifice of the vagina�the remains of the hymen. Casein (Lat. caseum, cheese), the substance pre- cipitated from milk on the application of an acid or rennet. Cataplasm (Gr. kataplasma, a poultice), a poultice. Cavernous (Lat. carcrna, a cave), having hollow spaces. Cellulitis (Lat. cellula, a small cell; itis, inflamma- tion), a diffuse inflammation of cellular tissue. Cellulose (Lat. cellula, a little cell), wood fibre, the principal ingredient of the cell membrane of all plants. Cement, Cementum (Lat. cementum, a rough stone), the crusta petrosa or outer crust of the teeth next the root. Centimeter (Lat. centum, a hundred), a hundredth part of a meter, or about two-fifths of an English inch. Cerebritis (Lat. cerebrum, the brain; Gr. itis, in- flammation), inflammation of the brain. Chestnuts, the oval-shaped horny masses situated on the inner side of the legs of horses, below the hocks and above the knees. Cholesterin (Gr. chole, bile, and stereos, solid), a glistening white substance found in bile and nervous tissue. Chorea (Gr. choreia, dancing), a nervous disorder, characterized by convulsive twitching of muscles, especially of the limbs. Choroid (Gr. chorion, a membrane), the second outer or vascular coat of the eye. Chronic (Gr. chronos, time), long continued, slow of progress. Chyle (Gr. chylos, juice), the milk-white fluid ab- sorbed by the lacteals during digestion. Chyme (Gr. chymos, juice), food as it leaves the stomach after it has undergone digestion. Cilia (Lat. cilium, the eyelid or eyelash), the eye- lashes ; the minute hair-like processes on certain cells. Circumvallate (Lat. circumrallare, to surround with a wall), surrounded with a wall or prominence. Clitoris (Gr. kleitoris, clitoris), the homologue of the penis in the male, a small body situated at the entrance to the vagina. Coccidia (Gr. kokkos, a berry), minute oval struc- tures with a thick capsule and coarse granular con- tents, frequently found in the liver of the rabbit. Coccus (Gr. kokkos, a berry), a spherical bacterium, a micrococcus. Coccyx (Gr. kokkyx), a series of bones forming the terminal portion of the spinal column. Cochlea (Lat. cochlea, a snail-shell), a cavity of the internal ear resembling a small shell. Coition (Lat. coire, to come together), the act of sexual connection. Collapse (Lat. collabi, to fall together), extreme de- pression and prostration from failure of nervous force, as in shock, haemorrhage, &c. Comminution (Lat. comminuere, to break to pieces), the breakage of a bone into several fragments. Commissure (Lat. committere, to unite), a joining or uniting together; the line of junction of two parts. Complemental (Lat. complementum, that which completes or fills up), the air that can still be in- haled after ordinary inspiration. Congenital (Lat. con, together; genitus, born), ex- isting at birth. Contagion (Lat. contagio, contingcrc, to touch), the process by which a specific disease is communicated between animals, either by direct contact or by means of an intermediate agent. Convulsion (Lat. convulsio, from convellere, to con- vulse), a general paroxysm of involuntary muscular contraction.

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	GLOSSARY 553

		Diagnosis (Gr. dia, through, and gnosis, knowledge), the interpretation of a disease from its symptoms. Diagnostician, one skilled in making diagnoses. Diapedesis (Gr. diapedesis, a jumping through), the passage of the cells of the blood, especially the white ones, through the walls of the vessels. Diaphragm (Gr. diaphragma, a partition wall), the midriff, that is, the musculo-membranous partition that separates the chest from the abdomen. Diaphysis (Gr. dia, between; physis, growth), the middle part or shaft of a long bone. Diarthrodia, Diarthrosis (Gr. dia, throughout, and artlwosis, articulation), a form of articulation or joint allowing extensive movement. Diastema (Gr. diastema, a distance), a space or cleft; an interval between different kinds of teeth. Diathesis (Gr. diathesis�dia, through, and tithenai, to arrange), a condition of the body in which it is liable to certain disease. Dicrotic (Gr. dikrotos, double beating), having a double beat of the heart. Diphtheritic, relating to diphtheria. Diplococci (Gr. diploos, double, and kokkos, berry), a micrococcus whose rounded bodies are found two and two. Dipterous (Gr. dis, two, and pteron, a wing), two- winged, as a fly or a seed. Discus proligerus (Gr. diskos, a disc; Lat. proles, offspring; gerere, to bear), the elevated cells of the membrana granulosa of the ovum. Disinfectant (Lat. dis, neg.; inficere, to infect), an agent that destroys disease germs, and arrests fermentation and putrefaction. Distoma (Gr. dis, double, and stoma, a mouth), a genus of trematode parasitic worms; one of them, the liver-fluke, is common in sheep. Diverticulum (Lat. divertere, to turn aside), a small blind pouch or cul-de-sac, branching from some organ. Dyscrasia (Gr. dys, bad, and krasis, combination), an abnormal state of the blood due to general disease. Dyspnoea (Gr. dys, ill, and pneo, to breathe), difficult or laboured breathing arising from various causes. E Echinococcus (Gr. eehinos, a sea urchin, and kokkos, a berry), same as Echinococcus veterinorum, a parasite of the tape-worm kind affecting domestic animals. Ecraseur (Fr.), an instrument used in the amputa- tion of parts. Ectoparasite (Gr. ektos, outside, and parasitos, a parasite), a parasite that lives on the exterior of its host. Ectropium (Gr. ek, out, and trepein, to turn), an eversion or turning out of the eyelid. Efferent (Lat. effercns, carrying from), applied to those nerves which conduct impulses from the central nervous system to some tissue; applied to vessels carrying fluid from some centre. Electuary (Lat. electuarium, an electuary), a soft or pasty confection containing some drug. Embolism (Gr. embolos, an embolus), obstruction of an artery from a blood elot or embolus. Embryo (Gr. embryon), the fertilized germ of an animal. Emollient (Lat. emollire, to soften), a substance used to soften the skin, or to soothe an irritated internal surface. Emphysema (Gr. emphysaein, to inflate), an abnor- mal collection of air in the connective tissue of a part- Emulsion (Lat. emulgeo, emulsvm, to milk out), water or other liquid in which oil in minute sub- division of its particles is suspended.
Co-ordination (Lat. con, together; ordinare, to regulate), the harmonious activity and proper se- quence of operations of the various organs of the body. Copulation (Lat. copulare, to couple), the act of sexual intercourse. Coracoid (Gr. korax, a crow, and cidos, likeness), a beak-shaped process of the scapula. Cornea (Lat. corneus, horny), the transparent an- terior portion of the eyeball. Cornu (Lat. cornu, a horn, pi. cornua), a name applied to any excrescence resembling a horn. Coronet (Fr. coronette, dim. of corone, a crown), the second phalanx, or coronet bone. Corpora lutea (Lat. pi. of corpus, a body; luteus, yellow), the yellow spots seen in the ovary, due to change in the blood clots of the Graafian follicle. Corpora nigTa (Lat. pi. of corpus, a body; niger, black), the masses of black pigment attached to the inner border of the iris. Corpuscle (Lat. corpusculum, dim. of corpus, a body), any small round or oval body, as the minute corpuscles of the blood. Cortical (Lat. cortex, bark), pertaining to the outer or surface part of an organ. Cranium (Gr. kranion, the skull), the cavity that contains the brain. Creatin (Gr. kreas, flesh), a neutral organic sub- stance that occurs in the animal organism especially in the juice of muscles. Crusta (Lat., a crust), a thin layer of bone covering the fang of a tooth. Cryptorchid (Gr. Tcryptos, hidden, and orchis, tes- ticle), a horse with one or both testicles which have not descended. Cuboid (Gr. kybos, a cube, and eidos, resemblance), a bone of the hock joint. Cul-de-sao (Fr. cul, the bottom; de, of; sac, bag), a passage closed at one end; a closed bag or sac. Cuneiform (Lat. cuneus, a wedge), having the form of a wedge, said of a bone entering into the formation of the knee joint. Cyst (Gr. kystis, a pouch), a cavity containing fluid surrounded by a capsule. D Dartos (Gr. dartos, flayed), a contractile fibrous layer beneath the skin of the scrotum. Defecation (Lat. defecare�de, from, fax, dregs), the separation of dregs or lees; the discharge of faeces. Deglutition (Lat. deglutitio, a swallowing), the act of swallowing. Delirium (Lat. delirium, madness), impaired action of the brain, characterized by mental disorder, a stag- gering gait, &c. Deltoid (Lat. delta, the Greek letter A, and eidos, likeness), having the shape of a delta or a triangular form. Dentine (Lat. dens, a tooth), the bony structure of the tooth, lying under the enamel of the crown, and the cementum of the root. Deodorizer (Lat. de, priv.; odor, a smell), a sub- stance that destroys offensive odours. Dermatology (Gr. derma, skin; logos, discourse), the science of the skin in health and disease. Desquamation (Lat. desquamare�de, from, squama, ^a scale), the exfoliation or falling off of cuticle in scales. Dextrin (Lat. dexter, right), the soluble matter into ^which starch is converted by diastase or by certain acids.

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	554 GLOSSARY

Emunctory (Lat. emungere, to blow the nose, to wipe out), any organ that aids in carrying off waste matters from the body. Enamel, the vitreous or glassy substance of the crown of the teeth. Endarteritis (Gr. endon, within, and arteria, artery; itis, inflammation), inflammation of the innermost coat of an artery. Endermic (Gr. en, in, and derma, the skin), relating to the administration of medicines by rubbing through the skin. Endocarditis (Gr. endon, within, kardia, the heart, and itis, inflammation), inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart. Endometritis (Gr. endon, within, metra, the womb, and itis, inflammation), inflammation of the internal layers of the uterus. Endoparasite (Gr. endon, within, and parasitos, a parasite), a parasite living within the body of its host. Endosteum (Gr. endon, within, and osteon, bone), the vascular membrane lining the interior of a bone that contains marrow. Ensiform (Lat. ensis, a sword; forma, form), shaped like a sword. Entropium (Gr. en, in, and trepcin, to turn), inver- sion or doubling in of the eyelid. Environment (Fr. environner, to surround), the general conditions by which animals happen to be surrounded. Enzootic (Gr. en, in, and zoon, animal), a disease to which beasts are liable in a certain district. Enzyme (Gr. en, in, and zyme, leaven), any ferment found within the living organism. Epididymis (Gr. epi, upon, and didymos, testicle), the small body lying above the testis. Epileptic (Gr. epileptikos, epilepsis, a laying hold of), pertaining to or of the nature of epilepsy, or a sudden attack of unconsciousness. Epiphysis {epi, upon, and phycin, to grow), a pro- cess of bone attached to a bone for a time by cartilage, but soon becoming ossified. Epistaxis (Gr. epistaxcin, to distil), haemorrhage or bleeding from the nose. Epithelium (Gr. epi, upon, and thele, nipple), the outer cellular covering of the skin and mucous mem- branes that line the cavities and canals of the animal body. Epizootic (Gr. epi, upon; zoon, animal), a con- tagious or generally prevalent disease that may at times affect animals. Equilibrium (Lat. cequus, equal; libra, balance), an ■even balance of a body. Equinia (Lat. equus, a horse), glanders, farcy, a con- tagious disease affecting the horse and ass and com- municable to man. Ergot (Fr. ergot, spur), the horny projections situ- ated behind the fetlocks of the horse. Erythema (erythema, a blush), redness of the skin that is removed by pressure. Esophagus (Gr. oisophagos�oisein, to carry, and phagein, to eat), the tube extending from the mouth to the stomach; the gullet. Ethmoid (Gr. ethmos, a sieve, and eidos, likeness), the bone separating the nasal cavities from the cranium. Etiology (Gr. aitia, a cause, and logos, discourse), doctrine or theory as to the cause of a disease. Eucalyptus (Gr. en, well; kalyptein, to cover), a name of various Australian trees, especially the blue gum-tree, that by distillation yields a camphor which is highly antiseptic. Exanthema (Gr. exanthema, eruption), an eruption upon the skin.
		Excito-motor, pertaining to nerves that excite mo- tion, apart from the action of the will. Excrementitious (Lat. exeernere, exeretum, to sepa- rate), pertaining to fasces or excrement. Exomphalus (Gr. ex, out, and omphalos, navel), umbilical hernia, undue prominence of the navel. Expectant (Lat. expectare, to look out for), applied to a plan of treatment which awaits the development of symptoms that would justify interference. Extensor (Lat.), a muscle for extending or stretch- ing out. Extrinsic (Lat. extrinsecus, from without), external, outward. F Farcy-bud, a nodular swelling breaking out into an ulcer in glanders or farcy. Ferment (Lat. fermentum, yeast), any micro-organ- ism or other substance capable of producing the decomposition of large quantities of certain other substances by a process of fermentation. Fibril (dim. of Lat. fibra, a fibre), a small fibre; commonly applied to minute nerve and muscular filaments. Fibrin (Lat. fibra, a fibre), a substance common in animal bodies, and readily obtained from coagulated blood in a stringy form. Fibrinogen (Lat. fibra, a fibre, and Gr. gennan, to produce), one of the principal elements in the forma- tion of fibrin. Fistula (Lat., a pipe), an abnormal tube-like pas- sage in the body. Foramen (Lat. forare, to pierce), a passage or open- ing, especially such as exist in bones. Foramen lacerum basis cranii, a large opening at the base of the skull, between the basilar process of the occiput and the temporal bones. Formic acid (Lat. formica, an ant), an acid obtained from ants, nettles, the shoots of the pine, and various animal secretions. Frenum (Lat., a curb), a ligament formed of various tissues that checks the movement of an organ. Frenzy (Gr. plirenes, the mind), extreme and violent mania. Frontal (Lat. frontalis, of the forehead), applied to the superior bone of the face. Fungus (Lat. fungus, a toadstool), a plant of the class Fungi, which are parasitic plants without stems, leaves, or roots, made up of cells without chlorophyll or green colouring matter. Funicular (Lat. funis, a cord), having a cord-like structure or shape. G Ganglion (Gr. ganglion, a knot), a small nervous centre or knot in which nerves meet, connected with other centres. Gastrocnemius (Gr. gaster, stomach, and kneme, leg), a muscle of the leg having two heads, and form- ing part of the calf in man. Germ (Lat. germen, sprig, offshoot, embryo), (a) a portion of matter having a tendency to assume a living form, an embryo; (6) a microbe or bacterium. Glanders, a contagious disease more especially affecting horses, but sometimes communicated to man and some felines. Also called Equinia. Glaucoma (Gr. glaukos, sea-green), a disease of the eye, giving rise to a bulging or hardening of the eye- ball. Glomerulus (Lat. dim. of glomus, a ball), a coil of arterial blood-vessels projecting into the widened end of each uriniferous tubule.

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	GLOSSARY
	GLOSSARY		555
			555

Glycogen (Gr. glykys, sweet, and gennan, to pro- duce), a white amorphous powder occurring in the blood and the hair of animals. Graafian follicle (Oraaf, a Dutch anatomist; Lat. Jolliculus, a little sac), a name given to little sacs in which ova mature in the ovary of mammals; an ovisac. Gracilis (Lat., slender), a muscle placed superficially �on the inner part of the thigh. Granulation (Lat. granulum, dim. of granum, a grain), fleshy outgrowths by which wounds are re- paired. Gregarina (Lat. grex, a herd), a genus of parasitic protozoa of very simple nature. Gubernaculum testis (Lat.), the cord attached above the lower end of the epididymis to direct the descent of the testicle in foetal life. Guttural (Lat. gutturalis, from guttur, the throat), pertaining to the throat: in the horse, the large air- sacs lying behind the pharynx are termed the gut- tural pouches. H Habitat (Lat. habitare, to dwell), the natural lo- cality and geographical range of an animal or plant. Hemoglobin (Gr. haima, blood; Lat. globus, a round body), a colloid or crystalline substance existing in the corpuscles of the blood, to which their red colour is �due. Hsemoglobinuria (from haemoglobin, and Gr. ouron, urine), the presence of the red colouring matter of the blood in the urine. See above entry. Hemoptysis (Gr. haima, blood, and ptyein, to spit), discharge of blood from the stomach. Helminth (Gr. helming, worm), an intestinal worm. Hemiplegia (Gr. hemi, half, and plege, stroke), paralysis of one side of the body. Hepatic (Gr. hepatikos, hepar, liver), pertaining to the liver. Heredity (Lat. hereditas, from heres, an heir), the transmission of qualities or conditions possessed by the parent to the offspring. Herniotome (Lat. hernia, hernia; Gr. tomos, cut- ting), a hernia knife. Herniotomy (Lat. hernia, hernia; temnein, to cut), an operation for the relief of hernia by section of the constriction. Herpes (Gr. herpes, herpein, to creep), an acute disease of the skin in which groups of vesicles appear on a patch of inflammation. Hiatus (Lat. hiare, to gape), a blank space or open- ing, as the hiatus aorticus. Humerus (Lat.), the bone of the upper arm; in the horse, the bone between the knee and shoulder. Hyaloid (Gr. hyalos, glass, and eidos, likeness), trans- parent like glass. Hydatid (Gr. hydatis), a sort of bag or sac contain- ing fluid, being the form which a tape-worm may assume within an animal body; an echinococcus. Hydrogen (Gr. hydor, water, and gennan, to pro- duce), a gas occurring in nature chiefly in water, which consists of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrophobia (Gr. hydor, water, and phobos, dread), a symptom of rabies consisting of an inability to swallow water. Hygiene (Gr. hygicinos, good for health), the science of the laws of health. Hymen (Gr.- hymen, membrane), a fold of mucous membrane at the entrance to the vagina. Hyoid (Gr. hyoeides, similar to the Greek letter XTpsilon or our letter Y), a term applied to various parts in anatomy, from their peculiar shape. Hyperaemia (Gr. huper, over, and haima, blood), a condition of congestion or excess of blood.
		Hyperesthesia (Gr. hyper, over, and aisthesis, sen- sation), exalted sensibility of the skin. Hypertrophy (Gr. hyper, over, and trophe, nourish- ment), excessive growth in the size of an organ. Hypnotic (Gr. hypnos, sleep), pertaining to sleep; a remedy that causes sleep. Hypodermic (Gr. hypo, under, and derma, the skin), pertaining to the introduction of medicines beneath the skin. I Icterus (Gr. ikteros, jaundice), jaundice. Idiopathic (Gr. idios, own, and pathos, disease), not consequent on or dependent upon another disease, but having a known or recognized cause of its own. Idiosyncrasy (Gr. idios, own, syn, together, krasis, a mixing), the special temperament pertaining to a person or an animal. Ilium (Lat.), the haunch bone, or part of the inno- minate bone next the backbone. Incisors (Lat. ineidcre, to cut), the cutting teeth, the six most anterior teeth in each jaw. Incubation (Lat. incubare, to sit on eggs), the period which elapses between the implanting of the contagion and the development of a disease. Indigenous (Lat. indv, in; gignere, to beget), na- tive, not exotic. Indolent (Lat. in, not; dolerc, to feel pain), pain- less or sluggish, applied to ulcers, tumours, &c. In extremis (Lat. in, in; extremus, last), a term im- plying extreme danger, or at the point of death. Inflammation (Lat. injlammatio, a burning), a con- dition in which there is an abnormal accumulation of blood, with multiplication of the cells of the tissue or organ, attended with heat, pain, and swelling of the part. Infundibulum (Lat. infunderc, to pour into), the funnel-like depression on the crown of a tooth. Infusoria (Lat. infusum, an infusion), a class of microscopic ciliated protozoa, being minute organisms found in fluids. Inguinal (Lat. inguen, the groin), pertaining to the groin; inguinal canal, the canal which contains the spermatic cord in the male, and the round ligament in the female. Innominate (Lat. in, without; nomen, a name), the term given to an irregular-shaped bone, the os inno- minatum, forming the sides and floor of the pelvis. Insemination (Lat. inseminare, to plant seed), the introduction of the semen of the male into the uterus of the female. Insufflation (Lat. in, in; sufflare, to puff), blowing any powder upon a surface or into a cavity. Integument (Lat. integumcntum�in, upon, tegere, to cover), an outer layer or covering, especially the skin. Intercostal (Lat. inter, between; costa, a rib), applied to the space between the ribs. Intercurrent (Lat. inter, between; currere, to run), applied to a disease arising during the existence of another disease in the same animal. Intermaxillary (Lat. inter, between; maxilla, jaw- bone), between the maxillary or upper jaw-bones. Intertrigo (Lat. inter, between; terere, to rub), an eruption or soreness of the skin produced by friction. Intervertebral (Lat. inter, between; vertebra, a bone of the spine), between the vertebrae. Intralobular (Lat. intra, within; lobidus, a lobule), applied to vessels passing into the lobules of the liver. Intrinsic (Lat. intrinsecus, on the inside), inherent, inward. Intussusception (Lat. intus, within; suscipere, to receive), invagination or doubling inward of one part of the intestine within another part.

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	556 GL'

		Lymph (Lat. lympha, clear water), a colourless fluid allied to blood, and contained in vessels called lymphatics. Lymphangitis (Lat. lympha, lymph; Gr. angeion, vessel, itis, inflammation), inflammation of a lymphatic vessel. Lymphatic temperament, a condition of system characterized by flabby muscles, sluggish character, and a predisposition to diseases of a low type. M Macule (Lat. macula, a spot), discoloration of the skin due to hyperemia or extravasation of blood, or to pigmentation of the skin. Malar (Lat. mala, cheek), pertaining to the cheek or cheek-bone. Malarial (It. mala aria, bad air), pertaining to malaria, a feverish disease common in many marshy districts. Malic acid (Lat. malum, an apple), an acid formed in many plants and their fruit�apples, grapes, &c. Mallein (Lat. malleus, farcy), a fluid obtained from the bacillus mallei�the micro-organism of glanders. Malleolus (Lat. dim. of malleus, hammer), a process of bone having a hammer-like shape. Marasmus (Gr. marasmos, maraincin, to grow lean), a gradual, general deterioration in strength, with marked emaciation. Massage (Fr., from Gr. masscin, to knead), rubbing, kneading, and other manipulations of the superficial parts of the body. Mastoid (Gr. mastos, breast; eidos, shape), having the shape of the breast or of a nipple, applied to a part of the temporal bone. Meatus (Lat. mcare, to flow or pass), a passage, duct, or canal. Meconium (Gr. me.konion, lit. poppy juice), the first fEecal discharges of the new born. Mediastinum (Lat. medio stare, to stand in the middle), a middle portion or septum separating ad- jacent parts. Medulla (Lat. medulla, marrow), a structure en- closed in another structure, like the marrow of bone. Medullated (Lat. medulla, marrow), forming a medulla, as nerve fibres enclosed in a medullary sheath. Megacoccus (Gr. megas, large, and kokkos, a berry), a large-sized rounded bacterium or coccus: opposed to a micrococcus. Megastoma (Gr. megas, large; stoma, a mouth), a genus of infusorians. Megrims (Fr. migraine; Lat. hemicrania), neuralgia- of one half of the head. Melanosis (Gr. mclas, melan, black), a general ten- dency to the deposit of black pigment in various parts of the body, mostly seen in grey horses. Membrana nictitans. See Nictitating membrane. Meningitis (Gr. meninx, membrane, and itis, in^-flammation), inflammation of the membranes of the brain or spinal cord. Merismopedia (Gr. merismos, division; pais, child)) a bacterium multiplying by rectangular division, thus forming a group of four cells in one plane. Mesentery (Gr. mesos, middle, and enteron, bowel). a fold of peritoneum connecting the small intestm^eto the spine and keeping it in place. Mesorchium (Gr. mesos, middle; orchis, testicle), a fold of peritoneum containing the foetal testicle before its descent. Metacarpal (Gr. metalcarpion. wrist), pertaining}° the two bones between the knee and the fetlock join* of the horse.
Iris (Gr. iris, a coloured halo or circle), the anterior portion of the vascular tissue of the eye, surrounding the pupil. Ischium (Gr. ischion, hip), the bone forming the posterior part of the os innominatum. Isthmus (Gr. isthmos, isthmus), the neck or con- stricted part of an organ. J Jugular (Lat. jugulum, throat), pertaining to the throat, especially to two large veins of the throat. K Keratoma (Gr. keras, horn), a horn tumour; ap- plied more especially to a growth from the hoof of the horse. Kilogram (Fr. kilogramme, Gr. chilioi, one thou- sand, and gramma, a grain), a French standard weight, one thousand grams or 2'2 pounds avoirdu- pois. L Labial (Lat. labium, a lip), pertaining to the lips. Lachrymal (Lat. lacryma, a tear), having reference to the organs secreting tears. Lacteals (Lat. lac, milk), the lymphatics or vessels of the small intestine that take up the chyle. Lamella (Lat. dim. of lamina, a plate), a term applied to a thin scale or plate of tissue, as the lamella of the foot of the horse. Laminitis (Gr. lamina, plate; itis, inflammation), inflammation of the laminae of the horse's foot. Lampas (Fr. lampas, lampas), a fleshy swelling behind the upper incisor teeth in the horse. Larval (Lat. larva, a ghost), pertaining to the con- dition of a larva, the larva being the early form of an animal quite different from the full-grown form. Lecithin (Gr. lekithos, yolk of egg), a nitrogenous substance occurring widely throughout the body. Leguminous (Lat. legumen, pulse), pertaining to the Leguminosae or pea-flowered family of plants. Leptothrix (Gr. leplos, thin, and thrix, hair), a genus of bacteria whose elements form straight fila- ments often of great length. Leucin (Gr. leukos, white), a crystalline substance occurring in the pancreas, spleen, thymus gland, and other parts of the body. Lichen (Gr. leichen, a lichen), a skin disease in which there is an eruption of solid papules. Lingual (Lat. lingua, tongue), pertaining to or shaped like the tongue. Lithontriptic (Gr. lithos, stone, thryptein, to crush), applied to an instrument for crushing stone in the bladder. Lithotomy (Gr. lithos, stone, tcmncin, to cut), cut- ting into the neck of the bladder to remove a calculus or stone. Lithotrity (Gr. lithos, stone; Lat. terere, to rub), the operation of crushing a stone in the bladder by means of a lithotrite or crushing instrument, and removing it piecemeal. Lobule (Lat. lobulus, a lobe), a small lobe or division of an organ. Lumbricalis (Lat. lumbrlcus, a worm), a name of certain small muscles in the hands and feet. Lunare (Lat. luna, moon), a bone of the carpus. Lupus (Lat., a wolf), a chronic disease of the skin characterized by the development of nodules of granu- lation tissue.

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	GLOSSARY
	GLOSSARY		557
			557

Metro-peritonitis (Gr. metra, womb), peritonitis secondary to inflammation of the womb. Miasma (Gr. miainein, to pollute), a term having reference to germs generated in marshy districts. Microbe (Gr. mikros, and bios, life), a vegetable or other micro-organism, often a disease germ. Micrococcus (Gr. mikros, small, and kokkos, berry), a micro-organism having minute rounded elements, isolated, united in twos or in large numbers, or dis- posed in chaplets. Microstoma (Gr. mikros, small, and stoma, mouth), abnormal smallness of the mouth. Micturition (Lat. micturitio, micturire, to pass water), the act of passing water. Mitral (Lat. rnitra, mitre), resembling a mitre, said of a valve in the heart having two flaps. Modus operandi (Lat.), the manner of operating or proceeding. Molar (Lat. mola, a millstone), grinding or chewing; in the horse, relating to the twenty-four large teeth. Monorchid (Gr. monos, single, and orchis, testicle), an animal in whom only one testicle has descended into the scrotum. Morphology (Gr. morphe, form, and logos, discourse), the branch of science pertaining to form and structure. Motor (Lat. movere, to move), a term applied to a class of nerves which transmit the power of motion to certain muscles. Mucus (Lat.), a sort of slimy or viscid fluid secreted by membranes that line the mouth, intestines, &c.� hence called mucous membranes�and serving as a lubricant. Mutualism (Lat. mutuus, reciprocal), the living to- gether of organisms for mutual advantage; symbiosis. Myelitis (Gr. myelos, marrow, and itis, inflamma- tion), inflammation of the spinal cord. Myocarditis (Gr. mys, muscle, and kardia, heart; itis, inflammation), inflammation of the muscular tissue of the heart. Myopic (Gr. myein, to close, and ops, eye), near- sighted. N Nausea (Lat. nausea; Gr. nausia, sea-sickness), sickness of the stomach, with inclination to vomit. Navicular (Lat. navicula, a little ship), relating to the navicular bone, a bone in the foot of the horse, and to the synovial membrane of the navicular joint. Necrosis (Gr. nckrosis, from nekros, dead), death of a large portion of any tissue. Nematode (Gr. nematodes, thread-like), resembling a thread; applied to certain parasitic worms. Neoplasm (Gr. neos, new; plasma, form), a new growth or tumour. Neurectomy (Gr. neuron, nerve, ek, out, tome, a cutting), the operation of excising or cutting out part of a nerve. Neurilemma (Gr. neuron, nerve, and lemma, husk), the outer sheath of a nerve. Neuro-Keratine (Gr. neuron, nerve, and keras, horn), a substance found in connection with some nerves. Neurosis (Gr. neuron, nerve), a nervous disease, as epilepsy; a functional disease of the nerves or nerve centres. Neurotomy (Gr. neuron, nerve, and tome, a cutting), division of a nerve. Nictitating membrane, a piece of cartilage in the inner canthus or angle of the eye, used to displace foreign matter from the surface of the cornea. Nosology (Gr. nosos, disease; logos, discourse), scientific classification of disease. Nucleus (Lat. nucleus, from mux, nut), a small body situated in the middle of a cell. Vol. III.
		o Obturator (Lat. obturare, to stop up), a part that stops up an opening; applied to the obturator foramen on the floor of the pelvis. Occipital (Lat. occipitalis, occipital), pertaining to the occiput. Occiput (Lat. ob, against; caput, the head), the back or hinder part of the head in man, and the correspond- ing part in animals. (Edema (Gr. oidema, oidein, to swell), a swelling due to the effusion of serous fluid into areolar tissue. Oidium (Gr. dim. of Son, an egg), a genus of para- sitic fungi forming white disease of the vine; Oidium albicans, found in thrush on the tongue. Olecranon (Gr. olekranon�olene, elbow, and kranion, head), the large process at the head of the ulna. Olein (Lat. oleum, oil), a constituent of fat com- posed of oleic acid and glycerine. Omentum (Lat.), a fold of the peritoneum connect- ing the abdominal viscera. Ophthalmia (Gr. ophthalmos, eye), inflammation of the eye. Ophthalmic (Gr. ophthalmos, eye), pertaining to the eye. Orchitis (Gr. orchis, testis, and itis, inflammation), inflammation of the testicle. Osteo-porosis (Gr. osteon, bone, and poros, a pore), a disease of the bone which causes it to expand and to swell. Ostitis (Gr. osteon, bone; itis, inflammation), inflam- mation of bone. Ovariotomy (Lat. ovarium, ovary; Gr. tome, a cutting), the surgical removal of an ovary. Ovisac (Lat. ovum, egg, saccus, sack), the sac of an individual ovum ; a Graafian follicle. Oxalis (Gr. oxalis, sorrel), a genus of plants, the wood-sorrel, containing oxalic acid. Oxyuris (Gr. oxys, sharp; oura, tail), a genus of nematode parasitic worms found in the intestines. Ozone (Gr. ozein, to smell), an active oxidizing agent possessing antiseptic properties. P Palatine (Lat. palatum, palate), belonging to the palate, as the palatine bone. Palmitin (Lat. palma, palm-tree), a constituent of animal and vegetable fats. Palpation (Lat. palpare, to feel), the manipulation of a part with the hand or fingers. Papilla (Lat., a nipple), any soft conical eminence, such as the nipple. Papule (Lat. papula, a pimple), a pimple or small circumscribed elevation of the skin. Paracentesis (Gr. para, beside, and kentesis, punc- ture), tapping a cavity of the body, as in the case of dropsy. Paralysis (Gr. para, beside; lysis, a loosing), loss of faculty in nerves, with consequent loss of action in muscles. Paraplegia (Gr. para, beside, and plege, stroke), paralysis of the posterior half of the body. Parasitism (Gr. para, beside, and sitos, food), mode of life of a parasite; infestation by parasites. Paresis (Gr. para, from, and hienai, to let go), slight paralysis. Parietal (Lat. parietalis, paries, a wall), pertaining to the walls of a body cavity. Pari passu (Lat.), side by side, with equal progress. Parotid (Gr. para, near, and ous, otos, the ear), near the ear; as the parotid gland (which secretes saliva), parotid arteries, &c. 101

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	558 GLOSSARY

Parotitis (Gr. para, beside, ovs, ear, and itis, in- flammation), inflammation of the parotid gland. Paroxysm (Gr. para, beside, and oxys, sharp), a fit or sudden attack of pain or convulsion. Parturition (Lat. parturitio, parturire, to bring- forth), the act of giving birth to young. Patella (Lat., dim. of patina, dish), the knee-cap or small sesamoid bone in front of the stifle (where the thigh and leg bones articulate). Pathogenic (Gr. pathos, disease, and gennan, to beget), producing disease. Pathognomy (Gr. pathos, disease, and gnome, a sign), the science of the signs by which disease is recognized. Pathology (Gr. pathos, disease, and logos, discourse), that branch of medical science which treats of the modification of function and change of structure caused by disease. Pectin (Gr. pektikos, curdling), a vegetable body found in all plants. Pectineus (Lat. pecten, a comb), a muscle deeply placed in the inner part of the thigh. Pelvis (Lat. pelvis, a basin), the bony cavity of the posterior part of the trunk, in which are contained the rectum, bladder, and genital organs. Pentadactylous (Gr. pente, five, and daktylos, finger), having five fingers. Pentastoma (Gr. pente, five, and stoma, mouth), a genus of worm-like parasites. Pepsin (Gr. pepsis, digestion), the chief digestive principle of the gastric juice. Peptone (Gr. peptein, to digest), a product of the action of the gastric juice on albuminous substances, by which they are rendered soluble and capable of being absorbed. Perforans (Lat. per, through; forare, to bore), ap- plied to muscles whose tendon passes between the tendon of other muscles. Perforatus (L. per, through; forare, to bore), applied to muscles whose tendon is divided in order to allow another tendon or structure to pass through. Pericardium (Gr. peri, around, and iardia, the heart), the membranous sac enclosing the heart. Perineum (Gr. perineon), that portion of the body between the anus and the scrotum in the male, and the anus and vagina in the female. Periosteotomy (Gr. peri, around, osteon, bone, and tome, cutting), incision into the periosteum. Periosteum (Gr. peri, around, and osteon, bone), a fibrous membrane covering bones. Peristalsis (Gr. peri, around, and stalsis, con- striction), the peculiar vermicular movement of the intestines and other tubular organs carrying onwards their contents. Peroneus (Gr. perone, the tongue of a buckle), a muscle situated on the outer side of the tibia or leg bone. Pes anserinus (Lat. pes, a foot; anser, a goose), a plexus of nerves situated on the outer side of the face and resembling a goose's foot. Pessary (Gr. pessos, a pessary), an instrument placed in the vagina to hold the uterus in position. Petechise (It. petecchie), a name for small round blood-spots of a purple colour on the skin. Petrous (Gr. petra, a rock), stony, like a rock. Phagocytes (Gr. phagein, to eat, and Icytos, cell), cells which take up and digest the soluble parts of various other cells, organisms, and excretion products; white blood-corpuscles. Phalangeal, pertaining to the phalanges. Phalanx, pi. Phalanges (Gr. phalanx, one of the bones of the fingers or toes), in the horse, applied to the large or small pastern, and the foot bone.
		Pharyngitis (Gr. pharynx, pharynx, and itis, in- flammation), inflammation of the pharynx. Phimosis (Gr. phimoun, to constrict), enclosure of the penis within the prepuce so that the glans penis cannot be exposed. Phlebitis (Gr. phleps, vein; itis, inflammation), in- flammation of a vein. Phlegmatic (Gr. phlegmatihos, like phlegm), the same as lymphatic, in the sense of sluggish or dull. Phrenic (Gr. phren, diaphragm), pertaining to the diaphragm. Phthiriasis (Gr. phtheir, a louse), lousiness, the lousy disease. Pisiform (Lat. pisum, a pea; forma, form), re- sembling a pea in shape, applied to a small round bone of the knee. Pityriasis (Gr. pityron, bran), a disease of the skin characterized by the exfoliation of bran-like scales. Plantar (Lat. plantaris, planta, sole of the foot), pertaining to the sole of the foot. Plasma (Gr. plasma, a thing formed or moulded), the fluid part of the blood and lymph. Pneumogastric (Gr. pneumon, lung, and gaster, stomach), relating to the lungs and stomach. Polypus (Gr. polys, many, and pous, foot), a tumour found chiefly on mucous membranes, as the nose, uterus, bladder, &c. Popliteus (Lat. poples, ham), the ham or hinder part of the knee joint. Portal (Lat. porta, gate), relating to that part of an organ through which the blood-vessels enter. Post partum (Lat. post, after; partus, birth), fol- lowing parturition. Potential (Lat. potens, able), possible but not actual; possessing powers not yet manifested in action or effect. Predisposing (Lat. prac, before; disponere, to dis- pose), applied to that condition of the body which renders an animal especially liable to contract disease. Prehension (Lat. prehendere, to seize), the act of taking hold of or seizing. Premolar (Lat. prae, before; raola, millstone), situ- ated in front of the molar teeth. Prognosis (Gr. pro, before, and gnosis, knowledge), an opinion of the course and termination of a disease based upon a consideration of its symptoms. Prophylaxis (Gr. prophylassein, to keep guard before), prevention or warding off of disease. Prostate (Gr. prostates, prostate), the name of a gland situated in front of the mouth of the bladder. Protagon (Gr. protos, first, and agein, to lead), a crystalline substance discovered in nervous tissue. Proteid (Gr. protos, first), a general term for the albuminous and albuminoid constituents of the or- ganism. Protoplasm (Gr. protos, first; plasma, anything formed or moulded), the slimy albuminoid material resembling white of egg, constituting the basis of living plant or animal cells; living matter in its simplest form. Protozoa (Gr. protos, first; zoon, animal), the lowest class of the animal kingdom, which consist of simpl^ecells or colonies of cells. Prurigo (Lat. prurire, to itch), a chronic papular inflammation of the skin attended with severe itching. Pseudoplasm (Gr. pseudes, false, and plasma, ^athing moulded), a new growth or tumour. Psoriasis (Gr. psora, the itch), a chronic disease of the skin, distinguished by the presence of white scales on a red base; dry tetter. Psorosperms (Gr. psora, the itch; sperma, seed), ^aname for the sporozoa. Pterygoid (Gr. pteryx, wing; eidos, shape), wing- shaped.

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	GLOSSARY
	GLOSSARY		559
			559

		Sarcolemma (Gr. sarx, flesh, and lemma, husk), the membrane that envelops a muscle fibre. Sartorius (Lat. sartor, tailor), a long slender muscle situated on the inner and front part of the thigh. Scaphoid (Gr. scaphe, boat, and eidos, shape), a bone of the knee. Scarification (Lat. scarificare, to scarify), to punc- ture a swollen part with a sharp scalpel, to let out effused serum, blood, or gases. Schneiderian membrane (from a German anato- mist, Schneider), the membrane lining the nose. Scirrhus (Gr. skirrhos, a tumour), a kind of cancer, a hard cancer. Scleroderma (Gr. skleros, hard, and derma, skin), a disease in which the skin becomes stiff and hard. Sclerotic (Gr. skleros, hard), pertaining to the outer white, opaque, coat of the eye. Scrotum (Lat.), the pouch containing the testicles. Scutiform (Lat. scutus, a shield), shield-shaped. Sebaceous (Lat. sebum, suet, fat), pertaining to the fat-secreting glands of the skin. Semiology (Gr. semeion, sign; logos, discourse), all that is known in regard to the symptoms of disease. Sensory (Lat. sentirc, sensum, to feel), a term applied to a class of nerves which transmit sensation to certain parts. Septic (Gr. septikos, putrefying), relating to putre- faction. Septicaemia (Gr. septos, putrid; haima, blood), a condition of the blood induced by the absorption of septic products. Septum (Lat.), a partition or division wall sepa- rating one cavity from another. Sesamoid (Lat. sesamon, a kind of seed, and eidos, form), resembling a sesame seed, a term for small bones situated in tendons about joints, and others similarly situated. Sinus (Lat. sinus, a curve, fold, or hollow), a hollow excavation, recess, or pocket in any structure. Smegma (Gr. smegma, a cleansing substance), the fatty substance secreted by the sebaceous glands of the prepuce. Spasmodic (Gr. spasmodes), having the nature of a convulsion or spasm. Spavin, a disease of bones in which an enlargement appears on the inner and lower part of the hock joint. Specific (Lat. species, species; facere, to make), that which distinguishes a thing, or makes it of the species of which it is. Specific gravity, the measured weight of a sub- stance compared with that of an equal volume of another taken as a standard. Spermatic (Gr. spcrmatikos�spcrma, seed), relating to the semen. Spermatozoa (Gr. sperma, semen; zoon, animal), the essential elements of fecundation. Sphenoid (Gr. sphen, wedge, and eidos, likeness), wedge-shaped, relating to the sphenoid bone, an im- portant bone of the skull. Sphincter (Gr. sphingkter, sphingein, to squeeze), a muscle surrounding and enclosing an orifice such as the anus. Spirillum (Lat. spirillum, a curl), a bacterium whose elements are curved, often forming a spiral of several turns. Splint, applied to a bony excrescence on the canon bone of the horse. Sporadic (Gr. sporadikos, scattered), applied to diseases which may spread, but which are not epi- demic, and occur here and there. Sporozoa (Gr. spora, seed, and zoon, an animal), a class of parasitic protozoa.
Ptomaine (Gr. ptoma, corpse), any of the toxic or poisonous substances resulting from the decomposi- tion or decay of animal matter. Ptyalin (Gr. ptyalon, saliva), a ferment found in saliva, having the property of converting starch into sugar. Pubis (Lat.), the os ]iubis or pubic bone at the lower part of the abdomen and connected with the pelvis. Pupa (Lat. pupa, a doll), the second stage of de- velopment from the egg of those insects which undergo complete metamorphosis; the chrysalis. Pupil (Lat. pupilla), the round opening admitting light in the iris of the eye. Purpura (Lat. purpura), an eruption of purple spots in the skin. Purpura haemorrhagica, an aggra- vated form of purpura extending over the whole body. Pylorus (Gr. pyloros, gatekeeper), the outlet or opening of the stomach into the duodenum. Pyriformis (Lat. pyrus, pear; forma, a form), pear- shaped ; a term applied to a muscle within the pelvis. R Racemose (Lat. racemus, a bunch of grapes), having a shape resembling a bunch of grapes. Radius (Lat. radius, a staff, rod, spoke), one of the two large bones of the forearm : in the horse, a bone of the foreleg between the humerus and the knee. Receptive (Lat. reeipere, to receive), having the quality for receiving. Rectum (Lat. rectus, straight), the posterior part of the large intestine. Recurrent (Lat. rccurrere, to run back), recurring, reappearing. Reflex (Lat. refiexus, thrown back), applied to the action of a part upon the application of a stimulus to another and distant part. Regurgitation (Lat. re, again; gurgitare, to en- gulf), an eructation or throwing back. Renal (Lat. renalis�ren, a kidney), pertaining to the kidneys. Repellent (Lat. repelhre, to repel), having the power to repel morbid processes. Rete mucosum (Lat. rete, a net; mucus, mucous), the lower layer of living cells in the epidermis. Rhizome (Gr. rhiza, root), a subterranean stem having roots at its nodes and a bud at its apex. Rugas (Lat., wrinkles), foldings or creasings of an organ, as in the' mucous membrane of the stomach, &c. Rumination (Lat. ruminare, to chew the cud), the chewing of the cud, the returning of the food from the stomach and its remastication. s Saccharomyces (Gr. saccharon, sugar, and mykes, fungus), a unicellular vegetable organism similar to the yeast plant. Sacrum (Lat. sacer, sacred), a triangular bone com- posed of five pieces (vertebrae), forming a portion of the vertebral column (spine or backbone), and be- longing to the pelvis. Sagittal (Lat. sagitta, an arrow), referring to the suture uniting the parietal bones. Sanguine (Lat. sanguis, blood), applied to an active, energetic disposition. Sapid (Lat. sapere, to taste), capable of being tasted; having taste or savour. Sarcinococcus (Lat. sarcina, a bundle), a name of round or ovoid bacteria dividing in three directions, producing cubic masses of various sizes.

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	560 GLOSSARY

		Syncope (Gr. synkope, a cutting short), a swooning or fainting, a temporary suspension of the functions of respiration and circulation. Synovial (Gr. syn, together, and Lat. ovum, egg), relating to the synovia, which is a lubricating liquid connected with a joint. Synthesis (Gr. synthesis�syn, with; tithenai, to place), in chemistry, the formation artificially of a compound by combining its component elements. Systole (Gr. systole, contraction), the contraction of the heart and arteries, by which the blood is propelled along the vessels. T Taenia (Gr. tainia, a band), a flat parasite composed of a number of flat segments; a tape-worm. Taenia echinococcus (Gr. tainia, a band; echinos, a hedgehog; kokkos, a berry), a tape-worm J in. in length. Taenia perfoliata (Gr. tainia, a band; Lat. per, through; folium, a leaf), a tape-worm composed of consecutive segments, increasing in size posteriorly, measuring 2 in. long and § in. wide. Taenia plicata (Gr. tainia, a band; Lat. plicare, to fold), a tape-worm about 3^ in. long and § in. wide. Tarsus (Gr. tarsos, tarsus), the instep of man, the hock of the horse. Taxis (Gr. taxis, order; tassein, to arrange), the returning of a prolapsed structure, as a hernia or the uterus, by the hand. Telegony (Gr. tele, afar; gone, offspring), the in- fluence of a previous sire on the offspring of a sub- sequent one through the same dam. Temperament (Lat. tcmperamentum), disposition, general character as regards acting and feeling; the predominance of one group of constitutional functions over others in an individual. Tendo Achillis, the tendon of the gastrocnemius muscle connected with the heel; the tendon that is cut in hamstringing. Tenotomy (Gr. tenon, tendon; temncin, to cut), an operation of cutting a tendon to correct some de- formity of the limb. Tetanus (Gr. tetanos, teinein, to stretch), a con- tinuous spasmodic contraction of muscles. Tetrad (Gr. tctra, four), a group of four; a micro- scopic organism divided into four elements. Therapeutic (Gr. therapeutikos, curing), pertaining to therapeutics or the art of healing; curative. Thoracic (Gr. thorax, thorax), pertaining to the chest and to certain organs contained within it. Thrombosis (Gr. thrombos, clot), a elot of blood formed within the heart or blood-vessels, and causing an obstruction to the circulation. Thrush, a parasitic stomatitis presenting diffuse white patches, also called aphthce; a diseased con- dition of the horse's foot attended with a foul-smelling discharge. Tidal air, the quantity of air taken in during quiet breathing. Tourniquet (Fr. tourner, to turn), an instrument for controlling the circulation of blood in a blood- vessel by means of compression. Toxic (Gr. toxikon, poison), poisonous, due to poisoning. Trachea (Gr. tracheia, a windpipe), the windpipe a cartilaginous and membranous tube extending from the larynx to the lungs. Tracheotomy (Gr. tracheia, trachea, and tome, cut- ting), removal of a portion of the trachea, or incision into the trachea.
Squamous (Lat. squamosus, scaly, squama, a scale), a skin disease in which a scaly condition exists. Staphyline (Gr. staphyle, the uvula), pertaining to the uvula or the palate. Staphylococcus (Gr. staphyle, bunch of grapes, and kokkos, berry), a micrococcus of which for the most part the individual cocci in a culture are solitary. Staphyloma (Gr. staphyle, bunch of grapes), a giving way or bulging of the cornea. Steapsin (Gr. stear, fat), a ferment which resolves fats into glycerine and their corresponding fatty acids. Stearin (Gr. stear, fat), a substance contained in fat and composed of stearic acid and glycerine. Sterility (Lat. sterilis, barren), the condition of an animal or plant when it is incapable of reproduc- ing itself. Sterilize (Lat. sterilis, barren), to render sterile or barren; to destroy the vitality of germs and pre- vent their reproduction. Stertorous (Lat. stertere, to snore), breathing with a snoring sound. Stethoscope (Gr. stUhos, breast; skopein, to ex- amine), an instrument through which the organs of breathing, and the heart and arteries, are examined as to their sounds. Stomatitis (Gr. stoma, mouth; itis, inflammation), inflammation of the mouth. Strangles (Gr. strangale, a halter), an infectious disease of the air passages, especially of the nasal cavities, of the horse, ass, and mule, associated with a suppurative condition of the submaxillary and other glands. Streptococcus (Gr. streptos, twisted; kokkos, a berry), a genus of microbes in which the cocci are arranged in strings or chaplets. Streptothrix (Gr. streptos, twisted; thrix, the hair), an order of fungi the cells of which unite into simple or branching threads. Stricture (Lat. strictura, stringere, to compress), an abnormal contraction of a duct or passage from external pressure, or as a result of inflammation or other changes. Strumous (Lat. strumosus, struma, scrofula), having the nature of scrofula. Styloid (Gr. stylos, pillar), resembling a slender cylindrical column. Subcarpal (Lat. sub, under; Gr. karpos, the wrist), situated under the carpus or wrist: the wrist of the horse is spoken of as the knee. Sublobular (Lat. sub, under; lobulus, a lobule), situated beneath a lobule. Submaxillary (Lat. sub, under; maxilla, jaw-bone), lying beneath the lower maxilla or jaw-bone. Sudoriparous (Lat. sudor, sweat; parere, to beget), producing or secreting sweat. Suffrago (Lat. suffrago, hock), the hock; os suffra- ginis, the bone of the hock. Supplemental (Lat. supplementum), applied to the air that can still be exhaled after ordinary expiration. Suspensory (Lat. sub, under; pendere, to hang), a structure by which another part hangs. Symbiosis (Gr. syn, along with, and bios, life), the intimate association of living organisms, one of which is necessary to the other. Symbiotes (Gr. syn, with, bios, life), a small para- site infesting the legs of horses. Sympathetic (Gr. sympathetikos, sympathetic), effect- ing sympathy or consentaneous activity. Symphysis (Gr. syn, together, and phyein, to grow), a growing together, a union; especially, line of union of the two pubic bones, symphysis pubis. Synarthrosis (Gr. syn, together, and arthron, joint), a form of joint in which the bones are immovably united together.

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	GLOSSARY
	GLOSSARY		561

		from the bladder to the end of the penis, through which the urine is discharged. Urticaria (Lat. urtica, a nettle), nettlerash, a dis- ease of the skin characterized by wheals. V Vaccinia (Lat. vacca, cow), cowpox. Valvulitis (Lat. valvula, a small valve; itis, in- flammation), inflammation of the valves of the heart. Varicose (Lat. varix, a varix), showing varices or dilatations; abnormally dilated, as a vein. Vegetations (Lat. ■vegetatio, vegere, to grow), a name applied to morbid growths, such as abnormal granula- tions, excrescences, warts, &c. Vena cava (Lat. vena, vein, cavus, hollow), a name for the two large veins entering the heart. Ventricle (Lat. ventriculus, dim. of venter, a belly), the name for the two lower cavities of the heart. Vertigo (Lat. vertere, to turn), giddiness, dizziness. Vesicle (Lat. vesica, bladder or blister), a small blister-like formation. Vibrio (Lat. vibrare, to vibrate), a genus of Schizo- mycetes similar to Spirillum. Virus (Lat.), a poison that causes a morbid process or disease; any pathological microbe. Vitreous humour (Lat. vitrum, glass; humor, fluid), the transparent gelatin-like substance that fills the posterior chamber of the eye. Volition (Lat. volitio, will), determination to act; a willing to do or not to do something. Vomer (Lat., a ploughshare), the bone situated in the middle of the nostrils. Vulva (Lat.), the female pudendum, or posterior part of the genital passage. X Xiphoid (Gr. xiphos, sword; eidos, like), sword- shaped; applied to the flat piece of cartilage behind the sternum. z Zygomatic (Gr. zygoma, zygoma), pertaining to the zygoma or cheek-bone.
Trapezoid (Gr. trapeza, a table, and eidos, form), one of the bones of the knee. Traumatic (Gr. traumatikos�trauma, a wound), caused by a wound or injury. Trichiasis (Gr. thrix, a hair), abnormal direction of the eyelashes, producing friction and inflammation of the globe. Tricophyton (Gr. thrix, a hair, and phi/ton, a plant), a germ or vegetable organism, parasitic upon the hair �Tricophyton tonsurans is what causes ringworm. Tricuspid (Lat. tres, three; cuspis, point), having three cusps; as the tricuspid valve in the aortic and pulmonary artery. Trismus (Gr. trismos, trizein, to gnash), spasm of the muscles of mastication, locked jaw. Trochanter (Gr. trochanter, trochos, a wheel or pulley), the process of bone on the upper extremity and sides of the femur or thigh-bone. Trochlea (Gr. trochilea, a wheel or pulley), a part having the nature of a pulley. Trypsin (Gr. trlpsis, a rubbing), a substance which converts proteids into peptones; the ferment of pan- creatic juice. Tuber (Lat. tuber, a bump or swelling), a thickened portion of an underground stem, as the potato. Tuberculin (Lat. tubereulum, a tubercle), a gly- cerine extract of cultures of the Bacillus tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Lat. tubereulum, a tubercle), the infectious disease corresponding to what is commonly called consumption, and due to Bacillus tuberculosis, discovered by Koch in 1882. Turbinated (Lat. turbo, a top), top-shaped. Tympany (Gr. tympanon, drum), distension of an organ or part with gas. Tyrosus (Gr. tyros, cheese), a substance occurring in pancreatic digestion, a decomposition product of proteids. u Ulna (Lat., a cubit), the small bone of the forearm or horse's foreleg, its companion bone being the radius. Umbilicus (Lat.), the navel. Ungulate (Lat. ungula, a hoof), having hoofs. Urea (Gr. ouron, urine), the chief solid constituent of the urine. Urethra (Gr. ourethra, urethra), the canal extending

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		INDEX

			Action of a horse� All action and no go, i, 122. As symptom of�blindness, ii, 123; bone diseases, ii, 206, 207, 218, 219; curb, ii, 301; fractures, ii, 244, 245, 257, 258,^262; indigestion, i, 270; lamini- tis, ii, 377; sprains, ii, 294, 297, 299; stone in bladder, i, 357. Breeds�Cleveland bays, i, 132; Clydes- dales, i, 70, 192, 193 ; hackneys, i, 121-123; harness horses, i, 151, 152; hunters, i, 146; Holstems, i, 209; Oldenburghs, i, 208, 209; pack horses, i, 125; ponies, i, 160, 161, hackney and Wilson ponies, i, 170, 171; saddle horses, i, 147, 148; Shires, i, 70, 184; Suffolks, i, 194, 199, 200; Yorkshire coach horses, i, 134. Carriage of head and neck, i, 46, 47, 49. Cart-horse drawing a load, i, 68, 88. Conformation of various parts affecting action, i, 58, 59, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86; ii, 197. Defective action and injuries from�(see that title). Examination as to soundness, iii, 374. High action�forearm structure, i, 72; diseases due to, ii, 366, 391, 400. Muscles affecting, ii, 299, 320, 343. Show horses training, iii, 311-313. [See also titles Galloping, Locomotion, Shoulder Action, Trotting, &c.] Action Of muscles�names according to, and description of actions, ii, 306. Actionable fraud or misrepresentation, in sale of horses, iii, 408, 409-411, 425, 426. Acute diseases�definition, i, 213. Adductor mUSCleS�distinction, ii, 206; parvus and magnus forms, ii, 341, 34²- Adenoid tissue of absorbent system, i, 429. Adhesion Of Wounds�methods of heal- ing, ii, 404-408. Adulterated food�disease by, i, 221 linseed and cake food, iii, 115. Adventitia of arteries, i, 442. -ffistrum or heat, i, 18; iii, 247, 262; dis- orders and causes, i, 421, 479; ii, 91, 93 ; iii, 263; troublesome mares, iii, 180-184; drugs, iii, 13. Afferent nerve-fibres�form, i, 387. Afferent nerves�description, i, 374. African horses�history, &c, iii, 525, 528, 530, 531-535- After-birth�format ion, in, 251, 253; re- moval and disconnection from foal, iii, 220, 270, 271; in hemorrhage,, ii, 88. Age of a horse- Birthday and other guides, iii, 393;. form of back, i, 56, 58; nose audi eye, i, 9, ir. (See also Teeth.) Castration considerations, iii, 172.
	Abscesses�[Cant) Forms and causes�brain and poll evil abscesses, i, 409; ii, 431; eyelids, ii, 112; feet, ii, 375, 379, 386; shoulders, ii, 433, 434 ; speedy cutting, ii, 401 ; withers, ii, 435, 436. Pointing of abscess�description, i, 261; », 43i. Pressure and wound-poisoning causing, i, 220; ii, 406, 410. Pus in urine due to, i, 344. Sinuses communicating with, ii, 428, 433. Absorbent System- Definition and use, i, 425, 426. Skin action and uses, ii, 128-130. Structure, &c., of lacteal and lymphatic system and glands, i, 426-430; blood corpuscles formation, i, 433. Acari�diseases due to, ii, 142, 163. AcariasiS and its treatment, ii, 166-168. Accelerating nerves of heart, i, 441. Accelerator urinse muscle of penis, ii, 70; of urethra, ii, 72. Accessory flexor muscle of foot and pastern, ii, 345. Accidental dislocations�causes, &c, ii, 346, 349- Accidents�first aid and articles, ii, 437" 441; pregnancy, iii, 266-269; rupture, i, 278, 315; ship-board horses, iii, 463; warranty laws, iii, 417, 418, 425.' (See also Poisons.) Acetabulum�form and pelvis connec- tion, i, 83; ii, 192; fracture of, ii, 257) ²58, 259. Acetate of various drugs�medicinal uses of ammonia, ii, 469, 472; of am- monium, ii, 459 ; iii, 7, 10; lead, iii, r, 9; morphine, iii, 9; potash, ii, 448, 462; zinc, iii, 456. Acetic acid � medicinal uses, iii, 1; poisoning by, iii, 52. Acidity of stomach�remedies, ii, 449- 4⁶6. AcidS- Antiseptic and astringent properties and forms, ii, 420, 421, 454, 485. Blood composition, i, 435. Digestion and foods�production of acids, i, 235, ²43- Medicinal preparations, ii, 449,^466, 467, 468; iii, 9�antidote uses, iii, 45. Stone in bladder�solutions, i, 360. Aconite�medicinal uses, ii, 451, 461, 469, 471, 479�doses, iii, to, ii; poison- ing and antidote, iii, 57, 63, 64. ACOnitine�medicinal uses, ii, 461. ACOrnS�poison by, &c, iii, 104, 105, 106. Acquired dislocation�form, &c., ii, 346. Acquired rupture�classification, &c, h 315- Actinomyces�in food causing disease, iii, 103. Actinomycetes�description, ii, 161. Action in breach of warranty, &c� course to follow, iii, 425, 426. 563
A Abdomen or Belly - Breathing peculiar to pleurisy, ii, 14, 15. Conformation and defects, i, 3, 16, 17, 62, 91, 102; cavity and muscles, ii, 338, 341; pancreas and tunic, i, 241; ii» 335- Distension or swelling, i, 283, 290, 293, 3°3> 309. 31¹) 316; ii, 13, 25. Drugs for disorders, ii, 462, 464-468; iii, 3. Hemorrhage symptoms, i, 502. Muscles, ii, 335-338; respiratory uses, i, 492; rupture, i, 324. Nerves�distribution, i, 377. Pain�disorders indicated by, i, 270, 272, 274, 275, 278, 279, 281, 282, 288, 289, 290, 291, 293, 350, 471. Poulticing and mustard plasters, iii, 32, 33- Pregnancy and parturition�signs, &c, iii, 264, 269, 272. Rings, abdominal�form, &c., i, 17; ii, 65, 67; hernia treatment, i, 319, 320, 3²¹> 323- Show-horses' "let down" belly�treat- ment, iii, 310, 311. Tendons�forms, &c., ii, 306. Testicles in cavity�castration, &c, iii, 186-188. Tuberculosis affecting lining of, ii, 51. [See also Stomach; for special disease, see its name.] Abdominal aorta�formation, i, 451. Abdominal ascites or dropsy (see Ascites). AbdUCentes�nerves from brain, i, 385. Abductor muscles�action, &c, ii, 306. Aberdeenshire Clydesdales � origin, &c, i, 190. Abortion�causes and treatment, iii, 267- 269; drugs, ii, 463, 475; show horses, iii, 216; various influences, ii, 80; iii, 208, 209, 216, 217. Abscesses- Antiseptics and astringents for, ii, 421, 454- As symptoms of�bone and joint dis- eases, ii, 209, 211, 213, 282, 283; capped elbow, knee, and hock, ii, 359. 361, 362,363, 364; epizootic lymphangitis, ii, 59, 60, 62; facial paralysis, i, 423 ; fistula of parotid duct, &c, i, 259, 260, 261; heart disease, i, 464; kidney disease, &c, i, 344, 348; liver inflammation, i, 305, 306: mammary glands and udder, ii> 53, 95> 96 ; penis and testicle, ii, 8r, 86; pyaemia, i, 409, 481, 482; spinal inflammation, i, 418; strangles, ii, 40, 41, 60; tetanus, ii, 46; throat affections, i, 255, 256, 257; throm- bosis of jugular vein, i, 476, 477; tongue inflammation, i, 253; ventral hernia, i, 325.

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			INDEX
	564


Age of a horse�{Coat) Disease and fractures influence, i, 214, 218; ii, 223, 236, 279, 285. Longevity of breeds, i, 197, 198, 200, 206, 207. Medicinal doses according to, iii, 12. [See also title Old Horses.] Agents in sale of horses�warranty regu- lations, &c., iii, 414-417. Agricultural or farm horses- Breeds and their merits � Cleveland bays, i, 128, 129; Clydesdales, i, 186, 188 ; East Kriseland horses, i, 210; hackneys, i, 113, 114, 118; Percherons, i, 205; Schleswig breed, i, 210; Shires, i, 172, 181; SufFolks, i, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200. Classification as heavy horses, i, 172. Disease due to occupation, i, 219. Food�composition and amount, &c, iii, 89, 90, 347; indifferent feeding, i, 277. History on non-use of the horse, iii, 521, 524, 528, 529, 538. Overgrowth of hoofs, iii, 436. Royal interest in breeding, i, 173. Working mares during suckling, i, 287. [See also title Draught Horses.] Ailments classed as unsoundness and vices�list, &c., iii, 420-426. Air and Atmosphere- Air-pressure borne by horse and man, i, 488. Amount per horse, iii, 76, 78, 79; sick horses, iii, 142. Breathing uses, i, 487, 493; after respira- tion, i, 488, 493 ; changes in blood due to air, i, 489-491; entrance into lungs, i, 483, 484. Composition of air, i, 487, 493; bacillus, i, 228; examination, iii, 132, 133. Contamination due to stable and breath- ing influences, iii, 76-78, 79. Disease due to impure air, &c, i, 213, 2x4, 216, 222, 478; ii, 11; iii, 152. Ventilation of stables, &c, i, 495-497; »>. 329. 33¹- Alr-CellS�respiratory uses and formation, i, 486, 487; dilation, ii, 12. Air-passages�drugs for, ii, 468-470; iii, 14; stimulant and soothing remedies, ii, 470-472; irritation causing pneu- monia, ii, 7. Alse�coffin-bone, ii, 200; nostrils, i, 9. Albumen � astringents coagulating, ii, 448, 454, 455; presence in urine, analysis, &c, i, 345; ii, 26-29, 3¹- Albuminoids of body and in food, iii, 87, 88, 89; digestibility, iii, 91, 92, 96, 98; heat influence, &c, iii, 100. AlCOhOl �blood-vessels, effect on, ii, 462 ; medicinal uses, ii, 451, 460; iii, 25; poisoning and antidote, iii, 50, 52, 56, 57, 64. Ale for mares after foaling, iii, 227. Alfalfa causing poisoning, iii, 62. .Alfred the Great � horse-breeding, iii, 536, 537- JUgSe in water, iii, 127-129. Alimentary Canal � absorbent system connection, i, 425; progress of food through, i, 246, 247 (see also Diges- tion). Alkaline in intestinal digestion, i, 245, 246. Alkaline preparations�for digestion, ii, 467, 468; for lungs, ii, 469. Alkalinity of the blood�drugs for re- ducing, ii, 448-450. Allah�creation and care of the horse, iii, 518, 533. Allantoid sac�formation, iii, 251. Allantois membrane �formation, iii, 250, 251. Almaine horses�type, i, 175,176,177.
		Aloes�uses and doses, iii, i, 9; for show horses, iii, 311; preparation and giv- ing of ball, ii, 444, 445. AlOin�medicinal uses, iii, 1; doses, iii, 9. Alteration of structures�explanation of term in warranty, iii, 419. Alteratives as medicine�action and ex- amples, ii, 12; kinds acting on tissue change, ii, 452-454; mercury uses, ii, 489; prescriptions for balls or powders, ii. 15, 16; show horses, iii, 3"- Alternate generation�process of, &c, iii, 259-261, 480. Alum�medicinal uses, &c, ii, 439, 455, 456; iii, 1�dose, iii, 9; solution for sores, i, 248. Alumina � compounds used in medicine, ii, 455. 456. Aluminium�medicinal uses, ii, 454. Alveoli�of lungs, i, 486; of teeth, ii, 186; effect of fractured teeth, i, 330. Amaurosis�causes and detection, ii, 122, 123; iii, 51. Amber tinge in eye, ii, 116, 117. Amble�form of motion, iii, 195, 197. Ambulance�first aid directions, &c., ii, 437, 439, 44i- American bOil�treatment, ii, 150, 151. American horse-pOX or disease�nature, &c, ii, 142, 150, 151. American horses � breeding and im- portation, i, 153, 196, 207, 208; fossil remains and history, iii, 510, 550; il- lusts., iii,314; trainingandtreatment, i> 336; ii'j 3'3~3i6; water-supply, iii, 302 (see also Trotters). American "pink-eye"�nature, ii, 31. Ammonia and Ammonium�medicinal uses, i, 283; ii, 459, 469, 477; iii, 3, 7 ; doses, 9, 10; poisoning by and antidote uses, iii, 52, 56, 57, 64. Amnion membrane�formation, iii, 250, 251. Amoeba�formation, diseases due to, and evolution, ii, 161; iii, 258. Amphiarthrosis joints�form, &c, ii, 263, 279. Amputation of penis, u, 83, 85. Amyl, nitrite Of�medicinal uses, ii, 457. 4⁶3- AmylOlytiC action in digestion, i, 244. Amylopsin in digestion, i, 246. Angemia and its treatment, &c, i, 478- 480; ii, 159; heart sounds in, i, 459. Anaesthesia�local and general, ii, 479; recovery means, ii, 440. Anaesthetics and their uses, ii, 459, 479; iii, 12, 160; for nervous system, ii, 479-4⁸3- AnaphrOdisiaCS�medicinal uses, iii, 12. Ancestors Of the horse�fossil remains and origin, iii, 475, 509-513; from five- to one-toed foot, iii, 489, 491 ; bead and teeth formation, iii, 492- 495; marks and colouring, iii, 497- 500 (see also titles Back-breeding, Evolution, History of the Horse, Pedigrees, Telegony). Anchitherium�fossil remains of, iii, 512. Anchylosis�causes, &c, ii, 281, 431. Ancient Britons � horses used by, i, 154, 7²» 179; ⁿⁱ> 535- Anconeus muscle�form, &c, ii, 330. AndersCh'S ganglion on cranial nerve, i. 395- Aneurism�causes and results, i, 471, 473, 474. 477, 478; ii, 174- Angina pectoris* in horses, i, 469; drugs for, ii, 463. Angle Of the ilium�fracture, ii, 256-259. Animal body�composition of, iii, 87. Animal matrix in bone, ii, 175. Animal remains in earth's crust, iii, 471, 472.
				Animal World-the horse and its posi- tion in, iii, 471-513. Animals Act -transit regulations, iii, 466, 467. Animals and evolution, iii, 286, 287. Aniseed�medicinal uses, ii, 474 ; iii, 1; doses, iii, 9. Annular cartilage o( ear, ii, 310. Anodynes and their uses, i, 290, 294, 313; ii, 21; iii, T2. Antacids and their uses, ii, 449, 450; iii, 12. Anterior aorta -form, &c, i, 448, 449. Anterior crural nerve�form, i, 402. Anterior deep pectoral muscle- nerve to, and form of, i, 399; ii, 327. Anterior extremity of body, i, 16. Anterior gluteal nerves�formation, i, 4°3- Anterior ligament of hock, ii, 278. Anterior limb�(see Fore Limb). Anterior maxillary bones�form, ii, 186; fracture, ii, 242. Anterior mesenteric artery�diseases of, i, 471, 477; ii, 174; distribution of, i, 448. Anterior radial artery�form, i, 449. Anterior surface of head, i, 8-10. Anterior tibial artery�form, i, 453. Anterior tibial nerve�formation, &c, i, 404, 405. Anthelmintics and their uses, iii, 12, 13; for worms, ii, 465; iii, 16, 17; poison- ing by vermin-killers, iii, 49, 53, 57, 58. Anthrax and its treatment, &c, ii, 41-43; iii, 151; of gloss-anthrax, ii, 43, 44; contagion and bacteria causing, i, 223, 224, 225, 226; food contamina- tion, i, 221; horse sickness similarity, ii. 54- Antidotes to poisoning�action and ex- amples, iii, 45, 46; gastritis, j, 275; mercury, want of antidote, ii, 489; vomition difficulty preventing use of, i, 275 (for special poison, see titles Arsenic, Lead, &C). Antifebrin�medicinal uses, ii, 450. AntihydrOtiCS�action and examples, iii, 13- Antimony and its uses, ii, 453, 471, 472; poisoning by, iii, 50. AntiperiOdiCS and their uses, iii, 13. Antipyretics or febrifuges �their uses, &c, ii, 448, 450-45². 485; i", 13* Antipyrin�medicinal uses, ii, 450. Antiseptics�action, lists, &c.j ii, 420- 422, 483-488; iii, 13, 174; common articles used, ii, 439- Lister's system, ii, 407, 411; operations, iii, 162, 163, 171, i8t, 182, 185; uterine hemor- rhage, ii, 89; wounds and ulcers, ii. 386, 407, 411, 420-422, 427. Antispasmodics and their uses, ii, 479; iii, 13. AntitOXiC serum for tetanus, ii, 49. Anti-vivisection Act � knowledge of drugs retarded by, ii, 443- Anus�formation and muscles, &c, i, i5> 229, 238; worms and bot-flies infest- ing, ii, 169, 171. Aorta�construction and uses, i, 438, 44²> 448, 449, 451; diseases, i, 465, 47> 472; origin of other arteries, i, 44^8;sounds connected with, i, 440, 460. Aortic arch�formation and disease, U 45i, 472. Aortic Sigmoid�sound due to tension of, i, 440. Aortic valves�disease, i, 465, 471, 47² Aperient medicines�abuse of, ii, 44² �(see also Purgatives). Aphrodisiacs and their uses, iii, 13. Aphthse and its treatment, i, 250-252 > drugs used, iii, 2, 3, 5.

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INDEX

565

Arteries and veins�(Cant.)

As organs of circulation�(Cant.)

Systemic arteries � distribution and
names, i, 448-453.

Bleeding from�arrest, &c , i, 501-503;
ii, 409, 437-439 (see also title Bleeding
or Hemorrhage).

Diseases�aneurism, i, 477; arteritis and
atheroma, i, 471-473; heart disease
detection, i, 458; thrombosis�iliac,
and of jugular vein, i, 473-477 (see
also Blood Diseases).

Embryo and foetus formation, Iii, 255-257.

Of various organs, distribution, &c.�
bladder, i, 337; bones, ii, 176; eye,
ii, 105; limbs, i, 390, 398; liver, i,
239, 240; testicles, &c, ii, 66, 67, 70.

Pulse movement, &c, i, 443; iii, 146-148.

[For special artery or vein see its title,
as Aorta, Jugular Vein, &c]
Arteritis of arteries�treatment, i, 471.
Arthritis or joint-ill�forms of disease, ii,
285-288; origin of joint disease, ii,
280; symptoms of liver inflammation,
i, 306; of pneumonia, ii, 7.

Arthrodia joints-form of, ii, 263.

Arthropedes�forms of parasites, ii, 163.

Articular angles of hind limb, i, 83, 84.
Articular cartilage of knee, ii, 197.

Articular foramen in bone structure, ii,

176, 178.
Articular processes of vertebrae�

ligament and muscle connections,
ii, 265, 324.
Articular wind-galls�form, &c., ii, 355-

Articulations (see Joints, Joint diseases,
Sprains�special joint, see its name).

Artificial grasses�hay made from, iii,
in.

Artificial insemination � process of,

iii, 231-234.
Artificial ventilation of stables, iii,

74-76.

Artificiality in show horses, iii, 313.
Artlodactyla or even-toed animals, iii,

476, 477-
"Artist"�chestnut hunter (illus.), ii, 456.

Arytenoid cartilages�formation, &c,

i, 485; ii, 317.

Arytenoid muscles�forms, &c, ii, 317.
Arytenoideus muscle�form, &c, ii,
3*7-

Asafcetida�medicinal uses and dose, iii,

2, 9.
Ascarides�infesting intestines, ii, 170,

171; drugs destroying, iii, 8.
Ascites, abdominal�causes, treatment,

&c, i, 307, 308, 310-312.
ASCOCOCCUS�formation, &c, i, 226.
Ascot Races�founder of, i, in.
Aseptic probe for wounds, ii, 414.

Aseptic treatment of wounds, ii, 408,

409, 411, 414; sponges, &c , used in
dressing, ii, 415.

Ash in body and food, iii, 87, 89.

Asia�history of horses of, iii, 53^I-535:
British crosses, iii, 549.

Asphalt for coach-house floors, iii, 334.

Asphyxia- causes, &c, i, 494, 5°7-

Asses -ancient uses, iii, 519; glanders, ii,
35, 38: horny growths, chestnuts, &c,
iii, 478, 496, 504, 506, 507; stomach
worms, ii, 169; "stone" in, i, 355.

Association, a form of parasitism, ii, 160.

Asternal ribs�formation and respira-
tory use, i, 492.

Asthma and its treatment, ii, 11; drugs
for, ii, 463, 472; iii, 3, 5.

Astragalus-structure, i, 86, 87; ii, 203;
iii, 487; muscles connected, ii, 344.

Astringents -acting on tissue change, ii,
454-457; action and examples, iii, 13;
iron uses, ii, 448; prescriptions for
powders, &c, iii, 15, 16, 18.

AthelStane and horse-breeding, iii, 537.
Atheroma�symptoms, &c, i, 472, 473.

Atlas bone �form, &c., ii, 180, 181, 268,

269; muscle connections, ii, 322.

Atlo-axoid articulation�form, &c, ii,

268, 269.
Atmosphere�(see Air).

Atrophy�of heart, i, 467; of muscles due
to sprained back, ii, 298; of skin, ii,
155; of udder, ii, 95.

Atropia and atropine�medicinal uses,
ii, 473, 480, 481.

Attendants on sick horses�duties, &c,
iii, 23, 141, 154.

Attitude a sign of disease, iii, 145.

Auctioneer�warranty and the sale of
horses, iii, 415, 416.

Auditory Canal�formation, ii, 185.

Auditory nerves - formation, &c., i,

385, 395-
Auricles Of heart�growths causing dis-
ease, i, 464; rupture, i, 470; structure,
i, 438.

Auriculo-ventricular valves � con-
traction, &c., i, 439, 440.
Auscultation for detection of�bronchitis,

ii, 2; congestion of lungs, ii, 6; heart
disease, i, 454, 458, 469; horse sick-
ness, ii, 56; pleurisy, ii, 14.
Axe, Prof. �on hasmo-globinuria. ii, 26-
29; meningitis, i, 423, 424; seedy toe,
ii. 37°- 371; transit and tethering of
horses, iii, 464; water in animal tis-
sues, &c.j iii, 124; worms and para-
sites, ii, 169.

Axillary artery�formation, &c, i, 449;

ii, 322.

Axillary nerve�formation, i, 401.

Axillary region � muscles and nerves

connected with, ii, 322, 327.
AXIS Or dentata �bone and joints, ii,

180,^181, 263, 268, 269; muscle con-
nections, ii, 320.

Ayrshire Clydesdales-origin, &c, i,
190.

AzOtUria- analysis of urine and moisture
in tissue due to, ii, 27, 28; Epsom
salts uses, iii, 4; use of term, ii, 29.

Aponeurotic tendons and connections,

ii, 306, 323, 335.
Apophyses Of bone�formation, ii, 178.
Apoplexy and its treatment, i, 412; other

causes, i, 220, 222, 308; heart affected

by, i, 457-
Appetite�disorders affecting, i, 272, 276;

ii, 9; drug improving, ii, 451; food

inducing, iii, 94, 140-142; poisoning

symptoms, iii, 47,
Appliances�(see Instruments).
AquedUCtUS sylVii of brain, i, 384.

Aqueous humour of eye-formation,
ii, 105, 107; glaucoma causes, ii, 123.

Arab horses and blood-
Ancient pedigrees, "families", and his-
tory, i, 201, 202; iii, 518, 519, 524,

525, 528, 530, 531-535-
Belief on creation, and care by Arabians,

»>> 5i8, 533.
British thoroughbreds � origin and

crosses, i, 200, 203 ; iii, 538, 540, 544,

546, 549, 550.
Conformation, colour, and merits, i, 40,

201-205.
Crosses � Cleveland bays, i, 124, 128;

hunters and saddle horses, i, 138,

141, 148, 149; Percherons, i, 205;

ponies, i, 163, 165, 166.
Desertion by breeders, i, 200, 201, 203.
Illustrations, i, 294; ii, 412; face form,

i, 40.
Stud inspected by Lady Blunt at Hail,

i, 202, 203.
Arachnoid of brain and spine�formation,

i, 380, 384.
Arbor Vitse of brain, i, 385.

Arch of vertebrae�fracture, ii, 235.

Arched back � appearance and defect,
i, 57; fever causing, ii, 98.

Arched Crest�appearance, i, 28.

Arched face�appearance, i, 41.

Arched neck�appearance, &c, i, 45, 47,
48.

Architecture of stables�(see Stable).

"Ard Patrick "�thoroughbred (illust.),
i, 108.

Areca nut�dose, iii, 9.

Arm�(see Forearm).

Armadillo�horse-origin and history, iii,

497. 499-
Armour carried by old war-horses, &c,

i, 175; iii, 542, 543, 545.

Armoured mammals�origin of marks

from, iii, 497, 499.

Army horses�(see titles Cavalry, Mili-
tary, War).

Arnica�medicinal uses, iii, 1: doses, iii, 9.

Aromatic spirit of ammonia�stimu-
lant uses, ii, 459; dose, iii, 9.

Arseniates of iron and copper-
medicinal uses, ii, 447, 453, 472; iii,
1; doses, iii, 9.

Arsenic�as caustic, ii, 143, 155; medi-
cinal uses, ii, 453 ; iii, 1, 2, 9 ; for
various diseases, i, 500; ii, 14, 148,
431; poisoning by, and antidotes, ii,
448 ; iii, 48-50; gastritis due to, i,
274.

Arsenious acid and oxide�medicinal

uses, ii, 453; iii, 1, 2; doses, iii, 9.

Arteria innominata�formation, i, 449.
Arterial blood�composition, &c, i, 489.

Arterial Circle�"circle of Willis", for-
mation, i, 451.

Arterial hemorrhage�causes, &c, i,

501, 502.
Arteries and veins�

As organs of circulation�formation, &C,
i, 44^J-444-

Capillaries and connections, i, 446.

Chief arteries and veins and their dis-
tribution, i, 447-453.

Cold and heat effects, iii, 136.

Bacilli�description of, i, 226; of abortion,
ii, 80; anthrax and horse sickness, i,
225, 226, 228; ii, 41, 42, 54: epizootic
lymphangitis, ii, 59, 60; food, hay,
and digestion, i, 225, 228, 246;
glanders, ii, 34, 38, 39; tetanus,
diphtheria, and wounds, i, 228; ii, 46,
412; tuberculosis, ii, 50, 51.

Back�(see titles Spine and Back, Spinal
Diseases and Injuries).

Back-breeding�influences and opinions
on, iii, 211, 212, 213, 239-245, 480,
497. 499. 5^T3>

Back-raking�directions, iii, 34.

Back tendons�operation on, iii, 161,171;
soundness and warranty, iii, 379, 423.

Backing Of horses�examination for,
i'i. 374-

Bacteria� as cause of disease, i, 227-229;
causing anthrax, ii, 41, 42; blood-
poisoning, i, 481; tetanus, ii, 46; ul-
cers, ii, 427, 428; discoveries on and
forms of bacteria, 1,224-226; wounds
affected by, and disinfection of in-
struments, ii, 406, 407, 412, 415.

Bad doers�weak digestion, iii, 119.

Bad habits�as stable vices, iii, 341-343.

Bael fruit�medicinal uses, iii, 2.

Baker's horses liable to "stone", i, 300.

Bakewell era of heavy horse breeding,
i, 178.

Ball-and-socket joints�form, &c, ii,
262.

-ocr page 626-



	566 INDEX

Balling "iron" and "gun" for giving physic, iii, 20. Balls Of physic�faith in, ii, 442; for bitter tonics, ii, 466 ; for condition- ing, ii, 445, 446; preparation and administration, ii, 444-446; iii, 19- 21; prescriptions, iii, 15, 16; use of arsenic in, ii, 453. Balsams of Peru and Tolu�medicinal uses, ii, 469, 471. Balsams of sulphur, &c.�uses, ii, 474. BaniDOO as fodder, iii, 26. Bandages- Accidents�useful articles in, ii, 438, 439. Application and preparation, iii, 36-38. Bone diseases treatment, ii, 206, 208, 218, Fractures�fore-leg, ii, 231-233; humerus, ii, 244, 245; jaw, ii, 242; knees, ii, 247, 423; metacarpal bones, ii, 249; pastern, ii, 250; radius, ii, 247. Horses tearing�correction, iii, 341. Hunters and muddy legs, iii, 136, 310. Sick horses warmth, iii, 143. Sprains, wounds, &c, ii, 220, 291, 296, 357, 386, 4^l8- [See also Poultices.] Barbary horses�origin and history of the "Barb", iii, 525, 528,531-535; British thoroughbreds, crosses, &c., i", 538, 539. 544, 546, 549. 55°- Bare patches of skin � formation of chestnuts, &c., iii, 504, 506. Bar-iron�prepared for shoeing, iii, 445. Barley as food�composition and pre- paration, i, 243; iii, 89, 107; digesti- bility, &c., iii, 97, 99, 348; invalid diet, iii, 28. "Barley Harvest" family of Cleveland bays, i, 129. Barley Straw�as food, iii, 112; for bed- ding, iii, 355. Barley-water�as antidote, iii, 45. Barrenness�(see Sterility). Bars Of foot�corn on, and cutting of bars, ii, 374, 394; iii, 435, 441; struc- ture, iii, 434. Bars Of jaw�abuse by burning, i, 254; structure, disease, &c, i, 6; iii, 494; parrot mouth effect, i, 332. Barton - Gillette clipping-machine, iii, 137- Bartrum's tethering apparatus�use, &c, iii, 465, 466. Basilar process of occiput bone, ii, 184. Bastard strangles in old horses, ii, 40. Bay Colour�Arabs, i, 205; Morgans, i, 207; Suffolks, i, 195, 196; origin of "dappling", iii, 498 (see also Cleve- land Bays). Beak of ulna�formation, ii, 196. Beans�composition and use as food, iii, 89, 112-114, 345, 349 ; digestibility, iii, 90, 91, 97, 99; diseases due to, ii, 158. Bean-straw as food, iii, 88. Bearing-rein�abuse and use, iii. 359; diseases due to, i, 511; ii, 430. Beat Of heart�medicines aiding, ii, 458, 462; testing pulse, iii, 146-148. Bedding�eating by horses, iii, 139, 208, 265, 341; infectious diseases, iii, 154; materials used, iii, 138, 139, 354- 357; pregnant mares, iii, 208, 265; sick-box, iii, 24 Bed-SOreS�prevention, n, 237. Bees�poisoning by stings of, &c, ii, 414; iii, 61. Bees'-Wax�fracture uses, ii, 241. Beetroot�as invalid diet, iii, 27. BelgiC Stallions�breeding from, i, 178. Belladonna�medicinal uses, ii, 473, 474, 475, 480, 481; iii, 2; doses, iii, 10, n; for lungs and cough, ii, 470, 471, 472; for other diseases, i, 280, 294, 297, 347, 35° '� to reduce temperature, ii, 451 ; poisoning by, iii, 55.
		Belly�(see title Abdomen}. Benzoic acid � medicinal uses, iii, 2, 9. Benzoin�medicinal uses, ii, 469, 471. Bicarbonate�medicinal uses of potash, ii, 448, 472; potassium, iii, 2�doses, iii, 9; of soda, ii, 449, 450, 472; sodium, iii, 2�doses, iii, 9. Biceps femoris muscle�form, &c, ii, 340; fracture and dislocation effects, ", 245, 35i. Biceps Of man�flexor brachii muscle form, ii, 329. Bichloride of mercury�uses, ii, 488. Bicipital groove � form, &c, ii, 194, 195, 329; sprain effect, ii, 293. BiCUSpid Valve of heart, i, 438. Big head disease � symptoms, &c, ii, 214-216. Bile and bile-ducts � drugs affecting, ii, 465; iii, 13 ; formation and diges- tive uses, i, 240, 245, 246 ; liver dis- orders due to, i, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307; parasitic influences, i, 313, 314; secretion causing constipation, i, 284; urine affected by, i, 343. Bilious temperament-disease disposi- tion, i, 218. Biniodide of mercury�uses, ii, 421, 488, 489. Bioplasm of parasites, ii, 161. Birthdays�age and teeth tests, iii, 393. Births�(see Foals, Parturition). Bishoping of teeth, iii, 393. Bismuth�medicinal uses, i, 289; ii, 457. BiStOUry for lithotomy, &c, i, 362, 380. Bites�rabies due to, ii, 44. Biting�vice and warranty, iii, 424. Bits�care and kinds of, iii, 357-359; dis- eases and troubles due to, i, 151, 152, 248, 252, 258; ii, 209, 213; jumping influence, iii, 202; use in horse- training, iii, 30 [, 302�hunters, iii, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312�trotters, iii, 3>4- Bitter toniCS for stomach, ii, 466, 478. Black antimony and sulphur �medi- cinal uses, iii, 15, 16. Black horses�early types and origin, i, 178; iii, 543. Blackleg disease�inoculation, iii, 151. Black pepper�medicinal uses, iii, 2, 9. Black spots on eye�causes, &c, ii, 117; iii, 369. "Black Vulcan "�price and honours, i, 185. Bladder- Conformation, nerves and urinary uses, i. 333, 33⁶.. 337 : female, ii, 74, 76; embryo, iii, 251. Disorders of, and affecting bladder� bloody urine due to hemorrhage, i, 347; fistula, ii, 429; inflammation, i, 349; inversion, i, 371-373; irrita- tion, i, 344; retention of urine, i, 352; rupture, i, 343; spinal myelitis caus- ing distention, i, 419; tumours, i, 357; ulceration, i, 366; vesicular seminales, ii, 68; stone in the bladder (see that title). Drugs acting upon, ii, 473-475, 481. Emptying by catheter, washing-out, &c, i. 35²> 365; ii, 29, 30; iii, 178-180. Unsoundness and warranty, iii, 423. Bladders on skin, ii, 137. Bladder-WOrmS causing disease, i, 313, 35- Blade-bone�(see Scapula). Blanket Stitch* for wound-healing, ii, 416. Blanket Weed in water, iii, 127. Blastodermic membrane in breeding, iii, 249, 250. Blawtong�a form of horse-sickness, ii, 55. Blaze�appearance and origin, iii, 495, 499. Bleeders�on skin, ii, 158, 159.	Bleeding or Hemorrhage- Accidents and first aid, ii, 437-439. Bloody urine and its causes, i. 347, 348. Drugs for, ii, 448, 454, 456. 462, 463,, 464, 468 ; iii, 6, 7, 8, 14 Due to�apoplexy, 1, 412; brain and frac- ture, i, 407; ii, 234; dysentery, i, 290;. face sinuses and fracture, ii, 239; liver and heart rupture, i, 309. 310, 470; nose, i, 501, 503; poisoning, iii, 53; skin bleeding, ii, 158, 159; warts, ii, 154, 155; weak blood-vessels, &c._ri, 501, 502. Flooding in mares, ii, 87-89. Lungs and respiratory organs, i, 501-503; ii, 10. Operation precautions, iii, 162, 166, 174, 183. Prevention of death by�structure of arteries and veins, &c., i, 443, 445. Wounds and their treatment, ii, 402,. 408-410. [See also title Blood, Blood-letting.] Blepharitis ciliaris of eyelid, ii, 114. BlepharophimOSis of the eyelids, ii, 114. Blindness- Causes�bone tumours, i, 417 ; cataract, ii, 121; eye-teeth, i, 332; iii, 389, 494 ; lead poisoning, iii, 51 ; optic nerve, &c, ii, 117, 122, 123. Detection and tests, ii, 122, 123; ear movements, i, 43. Moon-blindness, ii, 116-118; heredity of,. ii, 121. Possibility of restoration of sight, ii, 121. Unsoundness and warranty, iii, 421. Blistering�directions and preparations, ii, 488, 490; iii, 5, 38-40, 167; after tenotomy, iii, 170; for hard mouth, i, 248; fractures and dislocations, ii, 250, 252, 348, 353; joints and sprains, ii, 283, 291, 293, 294, 296, 297, 298, 3°°? 355; trotters, iii, 316; vilHtis due- to, ii, 383. Blisters � gloss - anthrax and dourine symptoms, ii, 44, 53 ; on lips and" skin, i, 247 ; ii, 137. Blood� Air changes in, due to respiration, i_? 489-491. Bone nourishment, ii, 176, 177, 209. Circulation � heart and blood - vessels' agency, i, 436, 441; mare and fcetus, iii, 252, 254; lungs, i, 487; prevention of death by hemorrhage, i, 443, 445; pulse and blood-pressure, i, 443-445; testis supply, ii, 66 (see also Arteries and Veins, Blood-vessels). Composition, coagulation, &c, i, 430-436. Drugs, &c, acting upon, ii, 446; iii, 7', blood tonics, ii, 447, 448; cooling medicines, ii, 450-452 ; to reduce alkalinity and volume of blood, ii, 448-450, 471. (See also titles Bleed- ing, Blood-vessels.) Nervous system�blood supply and regu- lation, i, 374, 380. Parasites and other organisms�influence ^on, , 3^T3; ii, 4¹, 4²> 5²> 97, ^J66, 7²' 174, 287. Pressure in circulation, i, 444, 445, 495- Quantity in horse, i, 431, 433, 445. Respiratory process effect, i, 483, 487, 489-491. Skin influences, and diseases due to, »> 130, 131, 138, 139. [See also titles Bleeding or Hemorrhage, Blood Diseases, Blood-letting, Blood- poisoning, Blood-vessels.] BlOOd-Clot�healing wounds, ii, 405. Blood diseases and disorders- Anaemia and plethora, i, 478-481. Causing�arthritis, ii, 285; dropsy, i, 3^lX> 312; lymphangitis, ii, 22; skin affec- tions, ii, 138, 139, 145; ulcers, ii, 4^Z7' tetanus effects, ii, 48.

-ocr page 627-



		INDEX
		INDEX		567
				567

Blood diseases and disorders�(Cant.) Distribution�disordered, ii, 457, 458. Exercise and the causes of disease, i, 216. Haemo-globinuria�analysis, &c, ii, 26- 29; treatment, &o, ii, 29-31; fracture confusion, ii, 237. Purpura hemorrhagica, ii, 24, 25, 145; bleeding nose a feature, i, 503. Pus due to brain abscess, i, 409. [See also Blood-poisoning, Pyaemia.] Blood-flbrine powders for sick horses, iii, 141. Blood-letting�for apoplexy, i, 412; brain and staggers, i, 271, 407; enteritis, i, 294; exhausted horses, ii, 6; eye-vein, ii, 115; laminitis, ii, 337; plethora:, i, 480, 481; pleurisy, ii, 15; quantity safe for, i, 433; thrombosis due to, i, 473. 474. 475- Blood-poisoning� Causes and effects�bone diseases, ii, 211; castration, iii, 174; covering disease, ii, 53; food, iii, 101; inversion of rectum, i, 302; joint disease, ii, 284; jugular vein abscesses, i, 477; kidney disease, i, 348; parturient fever, ii, 97; pleurisy and pneumonia, ii, 7, 14; skin eruptions, ii, 142, 143; strangles, ii, 41; udder inflammation, ii, 97; wounds and bacteria, ii, 406, 407, 414. Forms of septicaemia or blood-poisoning, i, 481, 482. Quinine uses, ii, 451. Blood-spots on skin, ii, 24, 25, 156, 158, 159- Blood-stained discharges � causes, &c, of foam at mouth, ii, 213; foot discharge, ii, 211: nose, J, 499; ii, 24, 238; poisoning, iii, 48; pneumonia, it, 8; skin, ii, 25. Blood tonics�action, &c., it, 447, 448. Blood-vessels- Absorption of food�uses, i, 428. As organs of circulation�structure, &c, i, 436. 441-443; chief vessels and their distribution, i, 447-453. Causes or effect of broken vessels and rupture, i, 343, 347, 412, 420; cracked heels, ii, 424; fractures and sprains, ii, 228, 233, 255, 292; wounds, ii, 404, 408. Drugs acting upon, ii, 454, 457, 462-464. Nervous control of, i, 374. Parasitic influences, i, 313; ii, 174. Structure�in bladder, i, 337; bones, ii, 176, 177, 199, 200; brain and spine, i> 378, 380; eyes, ii, 105, 106, 108; hoof (model), ii, 491; intestines, i, 236; kidneys, i, 335, 336; liver, i, 239; lungs, i, 487; mare, embryo and fcetus, iii, 252, 254, 255; muscles, ii, 305, 306; skin, ii, 126. Weakness causing hemorrhage, i, 501. Bloody Urine�causes and treatment, i, 342, 343... 344, 347. 34⁸, 349, 35°, 356; ii, 475; iii, 60. Blowing�causes and disease symptoms, i, 480; ii, 5, 19. Blows as cause of disease, i, 220. Blue-green algse in water, iii, 127,128. Blueness of membranes�causes, &c, ii, 470. Blue pill�medicinal uses, ii, 488. Bluestone�medicinal uses, iii, 2. Bluetong�a form of horse-sickness, ii, 55. Board of Agriculture�epizootic lym- phangitis, ii, 64, 65. Boats for horse-transit, iii, 463. Body�conformation and defects, i, 00, 91, 103; ii, 180; head as unit of measure- ment, i, 99-101; height, weight, and other proportions, i, 91, 92, 93-98, 99; nutrition and constitution, iii, 87; water constituents, iii, 119, 120, 124.
			"BOZra"�Arab mare (illust.), i, 294. Brachial artery and veins�formation, i, 447, 449; operation, iii, 165. Brachial plexus of nerves�formation* &c, i, 398-402. Bracken for bedding, iii, 357. Brackets for harness room, iii, 332. Brain- Blood supply, i, 380. Connection with spine, ii, 184. Diseases�abscess and tumours, i, 408,, 409, 414, 415; age influence, i, 218; apoplexy, i, 412; cerebritis and men- ingitis, i, 405-407; collar pressure causing, i, 220; concussion, ii, 238; embolism, i, 473 ; fractured bones effect, ii, 234, 235, 238; indigestion and staggers effect, i, 268, 269, 271; jugular vein (thrombosis) effect, i, 476; nervous system causes, i, 405; paralysis, i, 420; pulse in, iii, 147; thickening of membranes, i, 417. Drugs affecting, ii, 463, 482; iii, 2, 3. Parasites, &c, infesting, ii, 163, 174, 175. Protection from injury�bone formation, i, 379- 380. Structure and functions, i, 8, 38, 39, 383- 386; arteries, i, 451, 452; capillaries, i, 446; examination of fragment, i,, 378; fcetus, iii, 257; ganglia, i, 383,. 390; nerves, i, 385, 3S6, 391-397, 494! weight, 1, 383. "Vital spot stopping breathing, i, 494. [See also Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Crani- um.] Bran�as food, composition, &c, iii, 89, 99, ^io9> 35o; disease due to, ii, 215; physic given in, ii, 445. Bran disease�treatment, ii, 137, 152. Bran mashes�preparation, &c-, iii, 26,. 109, 350. Bran poultice�preparation, &c., iii, 29. Brandy as a stimulant, i, 290; ii, 460. Brass fittings in stables, iii, 324. Bread poultices�uses, &c., iii, 28,29. Breakdown�due to fracture, ii, 251; tc- sprain of ligaments, &c, ii, 292, 354; firing ligaments, iii, 167; unsound- ness and warranty, iii, 421. Breaking-cart for training trotters, iii,, 34- Breaking-ln�(see Training). Breast and breast-bone* (sternum)� conformation and defects, i, 16, 61, 62, 64, 102; ii, 189, 190; muscles and. connections, ii, 320, 321, 327, 334, 336; poulticing, iii, 32; ribs connec- tion, ii, 191, 266, 267. Breast Collar for sore shoulders, ii, 436. Breast presentation in parturition, iii, 281. Breathing -� (see titles Respiration or Breathing, Respiratory Diseases). Breech presentations in foaling, iii, 276-279. Breeching-Strap�undoing on fallen, horses, ii, 441. Breeding- Aims and general requirements of a stud, iii, 205-208 ; foundation stock, &c.^ iii, 211-213. Back-breeding, or throwing back to- ancestors, iii, 211, 212, 213, 239-245, 480, 497, 499, 513. British early history, iii, 535-541; Tudor and subsequent periods, iii, 541-548. Colour and skin markings�influences, iii, 497. 499- Creation of the horse, and early history iii, 518, 522, 524, 525, 527, 531. Crossing�good influences of, iii, 549,. 55°- Development and impregnation of ovum,. growth of embryo, &c, iii, 245-257,. 261-264, 289-294, 295, 298. Disqualifying ailments of sires, ii, 302.
	Bog-Spavin and its treatment, ii, 216, 290, 291; other influences, ii, 278, 299, 357, 35^'- unsoundness and warranty, iii, 384, 420, 421. Boiled barley�preparation, iii, 28. Boiled roots as invalid diet, iii, 27. Boiler�stable fittings, iii, 322, 323, 332, 334. 337- BoilS on skin, ii, 750, 151. Bolting of food �oats, preparation, iii, 107. Bolting Vice�warranty, iii, 424. BolUS for physic balls, ii, 444; iii, 18. Bone-ash in the body, iii, 87. Bones- Arab merits, i, 202, 203. Blood circulation means, ii, 176, 177. Classification and number in a horse, ii, 177, 178. Composition and growth of bone, ii, 175, 176, 178, 208; before birth, iii, 255, 292-294; after birth, iii, 294-298. Diseases�food and water influences, iii, 103, 123, 124; joint disease origin, ii, 280, 281; metacarpal periostitis or sore shins, ii, 219, 220; necrosis and caries, ii, 212-214; osteo-porosis (big head) or soft bones, ii, 214-216; ostitis or inflammation, periostitis, ii, 208- 212; ring-bone and splint, ii, 205-208; spavin, ii, 216-218. Effects of epizootic lymphangitis, ii, 63; fistulous withers, ii, 433; rheumatism, ii, 21; tuberculosis, ii, 51. Model of hoof and limb bones, ii, 491. Muscles and tendons attachment, i, 33- 35; ii, 306. Odd- and even-toed animals, iii, 476, 477. Phosphorus uses, ii, 490. Protection of brain and spine from injury, ij 379. 380. Structure�as levers, i, 33-35; of fore-leg, i, 19, 20; ii, 192-197; hind-leg, i, 23; ii, 201-203; loins and hock, i, 15, 23; ii, 203-205; pelvis, ii, 192; skeleton division, ii, 176, 178; skull bones� cranium, ii, 183-186; face, ii, 186- 189; special features of horse struc- ture, iii, 485-490; thorax or chest bones, ii, 189 � sternum or breast- bone, ii, 190; ribs and costal carti- lages, ii, 190, 191; vertebral column and particular vertebrae, ii, 179-183. [See also titles Dislocations, Fractures, Joints, Ossification; also names of bones, as Humerus, Os Hyoides, Jaw, &c] Bone-spavin � form and treatment, ii, 216-218; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 385, 423. Bony growths�causing disease, i, 214, 417, 421, 473; firing, iii, 167; un- soundness, iii, 366, 380; water in- fluences, iii, 124. BootS�for canker, ii, 382; defective action and wounds, ii, 402, 414; poultice boot, iii, 30; training trotters, iii, 315. Borax�medicinal uses, ii, 449; iii, 2; for stings, iii, 61. " Border Lass " � fractured sesamoid bones, ii, 250. Boric or boracic acid�antiseptic uses, ii, 421, 485; medicinal uses, iii, 2; doses, iii, 9. Bot-fly � infesting stomach, ii, 169, 170; brain, ii, 175; tobacco destroying, ii, 4S1. Bottles used in giving medicine, iii, 21. BoUTgelat's splint for fractures, ii, 247. Bowed knees and legs � causes, mus- cles, &c, affected, i, 74, 89; ii, 303- 305; sprain influence, ii, 289, 296. Bowed tendon � defect and unsound ness, iii, 380. Bowels�(see titles Intestines, Inflamma- tion, Obstruction, Rupture). Boxes�(see Loose Boxes).

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	5$8 INDEX

Breeding�{Cont.) Evolution and other influences, iii, 286, 287. Food and water�during pregnancy, iii, 208-210, 215-217, 265, 266; after birth, iii, 227, 228, 285; hand-rearing and weaning of foals, use of cow's milk, iii, 222-226. Head formation indicating origin, i, 36, 37- Height limitations, i, 94, 95. King's premiums�conditions and objec- tions, i, 140, 141. Mating of mares and service of sires, iii, 213-215, 219, 234-238, 262, 297, 298; artificial insemination, iii, 231-234. Organs of generation�(see Reproduc- - tion). Points transmitted from parents, iii, 248, 249, 257. Rate of growth of horse, iii, 286-288 ; before birth, iii, 288-295; after birth, iii, 294-298. [See also titles Foals, Mares, Stallions, Hereditary Diseases, History of the Horse, Laws, Parturition and Preg- nancy, Reproduction, Sexual Inter- course, Sterility; for special breed see titles Arabs, Clydesdales, &c] Brewers' grains as food, iii, 89, 107. Brewers' horses�fatty livers of, i, 308. Bricks for stables, iii, 69, 70, 325, 326. Bridles � kinds and uses, iii, 358, 359; influence of conformation, i, 43, 45 ; poll evil due to, ii, 430, 432. Bridoon bits�uses, i, 151, 152; iii, 313. Brisket�structure, i, 16. British horses�history, iii, 530, 535- 550. (See also titles Thoroughbreds, English, SufFolks, &c) Brittle bones �fracture liability, ii, 223, 236. Brittle hOOfS � causes, iii, 394, 436 ; litter affecting, iii, 139; shelly feet, 368. Broken bones, &c�(see titles Fractures, Knees, Neck, Spine; for special bone see its name). Broken Wind and its treatment, ii, 12- 14; iii, 95; asthma distinction, ii, n; cough due to, ii, 19, 472; dietary special, ii, 13; drugs, &c, ii, 454, 463, 472; iii, 15. Bromides of potassium, sodium, and ammonium�medicinal uses, ii, 448, 477; iii, 2; doses, iii, 9. Bromine, salts Of�action on nervous system, ii, 477. Bronchi�form and uses, i, 486; diseases, &c. (see Bronchial affections, Bron- chitis). Bronchial affections �bleeding lungs due to, ii, 10; broncho-pneumonia and drugs, ii, 1; iii, 3; catarrh test and drugs, ii, 39, 469; iii, 3; glands affected by tuberculosis, ii, 51; tubes disorders, ii, 1, it. (See also titles Asthma, Bronchitis.) Bronchial arteries�form, &c, i, 452. Bronchial pleXUS and nerve connections, i, 39⁶- Bronchial tubes�disorders, ii, 1, n; muscles, ii, 306. Bronchioles�formation and uses, i, 486, ⁴⁸ V. Bronchitis and its treatment, ii, 1-4; climate effect, i, 222; complications, ii, 7, 10, 11; cough due to, ii, 18; iii, 149; drugs used, ii, 469, 472; iii, 2, 3; use of mustard, iii, 6. Broom tops for liver inflammation, i, 308. BrOWn water in yards � composition, &c., iii, 130. Bruises�drugs used, iii, 1; wounds due to, ii, 403, 423; iii, 315. Bruit of heart due to disease, i, 460.
		Brunner, glands of�in digestion, i, 245. Brushes for grooming, iii, 134, 135. Brushing as defective action, ii, 396; examination for soundness, &c, iii, 374, 375. 3^gO- Bubonocele�symptoms, &c, i, 318. Buccal glands�formation, i, 230. Buccal nerve�formation, &c, i, 393. Buccinator muscle�form, &c, ii, 308, 309 ■ Buffed clot of blood, i, 436. Bulb, The�of nervous system, descrip- tion, j, 382. Bulb, The�of penis, structure, &c, ii, 70. Bullse on skin, ii, 137, 149. Bullous inflammation of skin, 11,149. Bump Of locality in horses�strength and failure, ii, 439, 440. Burgundy pitch for fractured jaw, ii, 241. Burnett's fluid�uses and nature of, i, 500; ii, 449, 488. Burning the bars-cruelty, law, and results, i, 254. Burns and scalds�drugs for, iii, 3, 5; eyelids affected by, ii, 112, 113. Burnt alum and its uses, ii, 92, 456. Burnt hay�effects of, iii, no, 352, 353. Burrowing mite causing skin disease, &c., ii, 140, 167. "Bury Victor Chief"�breeding and price, &c., i, 185; iii, 214. Butter�antidote uses, iii, 45. Butter of antimony�poisoning by, iii, 5¹- ButtOCk�conformation and length mea- surements from, i, 22, 86, 95, 96; eruption on, ii, 141, Button-hole Stitch for wounds, ii, 416. Buying Of horses�guarantee of sound- ness, ike. (see titles Examination, Warranty). "Byerley Turk "-history and descend- ants, i, 111; iii, 547. C Cabbage�composition, iii, 89. Cab-horses�feeding, iii, 93. Cabs�Roman origin and uses, iii, 528. Caecum of intestine, i, 237; worms in, ii, 172. Celiac axis of aorta, i, 452. Cake food�disease due to, iii, 103. Calabar bean�medicinal uses, ii, 482, 483- Calcaneo-cuboid ligament, ii, 278; enlargement causing curb, ii, 300. Calcaneum or calciS�bone formation, i, 86, 87; ii, 203, 278; curb causes, ii, 300; fracture, ii, 221, 261, 262; muscle connections, ii, 344. Calcareous degeneration�of heart valves, i, 464; of tendon due to thoroughpin, ii, 358. Calcareous deposits�in brain, causing vertigo, i, 408; tuberculosis appear- ances, ii, 51. Calcic carbonate in urine, i, 353, 354. CalciS bone�(see Calcaneum). Calculi�character and causes, i, 298, 299; distinction from tumour, i, 357, 363; fistula and colic due to, i, 261, 279; intestinal obstruction, i, 296, 298-300; kidneys, i, 370, 371: pressure caus- ing, i, 220; penis and sheath, ii, 82, 83; salivary ducts, i, 263-265; urine indications, i, 344, 348, 351, 353; vesical calculus�origin and com- position, i, 354, 355, treatment, &c, i, 356-361; use of catheter, iii, 179; water influences, iii. 124. (See also title Stone in the Bladder.)
			Calf-knees�cause and recovery, i, 74; h, 3°3- Calkins�defective action due to, ii, 397; iii, 456; forms and uses, ii, 491; iii, 444. Callosities�origin and forms, iii, 500-508; on asses and zebras, iii, 496. Callous formations�fractured pastern, ii, 250; joint anchylosis, ii, 281; speedy cutting, ii, 401 ; ulcers, ii, 426, 427. Calomel�medicinal uses, ii, 488; iii, 3; doses, iii, 10. Calumba�medicinal uses, ii, 464, 466; dose, iii, 9. Camphor�medicinal uses, ii, 459, 469, 470, 471, 472; iii, 3; doses, iii, g. Camphorated Oil�medicinal uses, ii,46o. Canadian origin of Morgan horses, i, 207. CanaliCUli in bone structure, ii, 176, 177. Canals in eye structure, ii, 108. Cancellated tissue in bone, ii, 176,177. Cancer�as a disease of horse, ii, 156; fracture causing, ii, 224; penis glans, ii, 83. Canine teeth �formation, i, 6, 230; ii, 189; iii, 390, 494. Caninus muscle�form, &c, ii, 308,309. Canker Of feet and its treatment, ii, 381- 383; drugs, &c, for, ii, 456; iii, 7; horn appearance, ii, 133 ; unsound- ness, iii, 382. Canon and canon-bone (metacarpus)� conformation and defects, i, 20, 75- 78, 87, 88, 102; ii, 197; iii, 477; dis- eases of bones, ii, 209, 210, 213; dis- placement, ii, 222; fetlock joint for- mation, ii, 272, 273; fractures, ii, 223, 224, 229, 230; growth before birth, iii, 293; muscles and insertions, i, 21; », 339, 33.i) 343, 344, 345: soundness examination, iii, 376, 377; sprain of check ligament, ii, 295. Canter � action and forms, iii, 195-198; jumping from, iii, 199. Cantharides�diseases due to use, &c, i, 348, 349, 350; ii, 475; medicinal uses and doses, iii, 3, 8, 9, 11, 263; poison- ing by, iii, 60. CanthuS of eye�form, ii, 104. Capillaries�as organs of circulation, i, 446; of kidneys, i, 335, 336; of liver, i, 239, 240; of lungs, i, 487. Capillary hemorrhage due to weak- ness, i, 501; drugs used, iii, 6, 7. Capped elbOW�causes and treatment, 1, 19; i', 359; iii, 3431 unsoundness and warranty, iii, 376, 420. Capped hock and its treatment, ii, 362- 364; iii, 343; unsoundness and war- ranty, iii, 383, 420. Capped knee and treatment, ii, 360-362. Capsicum�medicinal uses, ii, 462; doses, iii, 9, 11. Capsular cataract�formation, ii, 120. Capsular ligaments-joint formation, ii, 279; elbow, fetlock, coronet, and coffin joints, ii, 270, 272, 273; head and neck, ii, 268, 269; hip and hock, ii, 274, 278; interspinous connections, ii, 265; jaw and temporal bone, »> 266; knee, ii, 272; ribs and sternum- ii, 267; rheumatic effects, ii, 286; shoulder joint, ii, 270. Capsules-ofkidneys, i, 334, 335: rupture of liver, i, 309, 310. Caput magnum, parvum, and medium of triceps muscle, ii, 330. Caraway seeds�dose, iii, 9. Carbohydrates�classed as foods, i, 24²- constituents, &c, in food, iii, 88, °9' 91, 96, 97, 98, 100. _ Carbolic acid�antiseptic and medicuia uses, ii, 420, 484, 487; i'", 3> 9? ^l55.' for dung, i, 292; inhalation of, ii, 47¹' poisoning effects, ii, 129, 130; in, 47> 48.

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		INDEX 569

	Castration operation-\Cont.) Casting and preliminary preparations, iii, 172, 173, 176. Diseases following, and reduction of liability to disease, ii, 60, 80, 81. Hernia treatment, i, 318, 319, 320, 323. Methods and instruments�by actual cautery, iii, 166, 172-174; by caustic clamps � covered and uncovered operations, i, 321, 323; iii, 175, 176; by standing operation, iii, 176, 177; by torsion and ligature, iii, 174, 175. Rigs or cryptorchids, iii, 184-186; results of operations, table, &c., iii, 186-188. Casts in urine, i, 345. Catalepsy* and its treatment, i, 410. Cataplasms�use, &c, ii, 474; iii, 30. Cataract�forms, causes, and detection, ii, 108, 119-122, 123; iii, 370; heredi- tary, iii, 215; spot mistaken for, ii, no; unsoundness and warranty, ii, 302; iii, 366, 370, 421. Catarrhal affections�climate effect, i, 222; common form of cold, i, 497; drugs, &c, used, ii, 448, 454, 468, 485; iii, 3, 8; influenza distinction, ", 3^!> 3²> nasal catarrh, i, 499-501; pneumonia complication, ii, 8; skin inflammation, ii, 146-148; strangles a form of catarrh, ii, 39, 40. CateChu�medicinal uses, ii, 455; iii, 3; doses, iii, 9. CatgUt for navel-string, ii, 288; for wound stitching, ii, 411, 415, 416. Catheter�operation of passing, ii, 71, 72; iii, 177-180; use in various diseases, , 352, 357! »> 29, 30,* 259. Cattle�foods and digestion, iii. 88, 89, 96, 97; glanders and lymphangitis, ii, 37, 60, 61; poisoning causes, iii, 48, 104, 105, 106; silage for, iii, 116, 117; water for, iii, 120, 130. Cattle plague�cause, &c, i, 223. Caudal branches of nerves from spine, i, 381. Cauliflower growths in valvular dis- ease, i, 464. Causes of disease�classification, &c, i, 214; the action of bacteria, i, 225- 229. (See also titles Exciting, Pre- disposing, Specific, &c.) Caustic alkalies�poisoning and anti- dotes, iii, 45, 48, 52. Caustic Clamps for castration, iii, 175, 176; in standing, iii, 176. Caustics�acids, &c, used, ii, 453, 468, 484; iii, 13; for quittor and canker, ii) 380, 382; for warts, ii, 155; lip troubles due to, i, 248. Cautery�application and uses, iii, 166, 167; for castration, iii, 172-174; fistulous withers, ii, 434; hemorrhage, i, 503; quittor, ii, 380; penis amputa- tion, ii, 85; poll evil, ii, 431; ring- bone, ii, 206; sand crack, ii, 367; ulcers, ii, 427. Cavalry�ancient history and uses, iii, 520, _ 52T, 523, 524, 525, 530, 532; British early history, iii, 535, 536, 537. 542, 545- Caveat emptor �sale of horses and warranty, iii, 407, 410, 412, 426. CavemOUS pleXUSes�formation, i, 376. CavesSOn for hunters, iii, 307. Cavity Of the belly�muscles and form of, ii, 338, 341. Ceilings�stable structure, iii, 320, 323. Cells�bacteria description, i, 226; in im- pregnation, &c, iii, 248, 249, 250, 257; structure of bladder, 1, 337, kidneys, i, 335, liver and fatty liver, i, 239, 308, 309; saliva, i, 232; skin, ii, 124, 125. (Nerve cells, see that title.) Cellulitis�causes, ii, 362, 387, 397. Cellulose in food, iii, 96, 97, 98, 100. Cement for stable walls and floors, iii, 70 3²5, 326, 327* 334-
			Cementum of teeth, iii, 494. Centaurs�origin of half-horse half-man, iii, 521. Centenarius�horse termed, iii, 527. Central canal of spinal cord, i, 382. Centre of gravity in a horse, i, 28-30; iii, 192-194. Cephalic artery�formation, i, 449, 450. Cercaria and alternate generation, &c., iii, 260, 480. Cereals�food properties and analysis, i, 241, 243; iii, 345. Cerebellum�disease causing giddiness, &c, i, 405; protection from injury, i, 379. 380; structure and nerves, i, 383-386. (See also Brain.) Cerebral arteries forming internal caro- tid, i, 451. Cerebral disorders�(see title Brain Diseases). Cerebral nerves�origin and names, i, 385- Cerebritis and its treatment, i, 405-407. Cerebro - spinal meningitis � form, &c.) i, 423-425. Cerebro-spinal system and nerves � (see title Nervous System). Cerebrum�formation and nerves, i, 383- 386; protection from injury, i, 379, 380. (See also Brain.) Certificates Of Soundness-(see War- ranty). Cervical crest and groove of neck, i, 12, 13. Cervical nerves�structure, &c, i, 375, 376, 381, 397. Cervical panniculus muscle�form, &c, ii, 320. Cervical trapezius muscle�form, &c, ii, 320, 322. Cervical vertebrae �formation, ii, 179, 181; fracture, ii, 235; ligament and muscle connections, ii, 265, 318-320, 321, 322; poll evil affecting, ii, 430. Cervico-auricularis muscles � forms of, ii, 312. CeSS-pools in stable drainage, iii, 320, 329. CestodeS causing liver diseases, i, 313. Chaff as fOOd�amount and mixtures, iii, 93, 107, 112, 344-346, 353. Chain for tying of horses in stalls, iii, 328. Chain snaffle�type of, iii, 358, 359. Chalk�medicinal uses, ii, 457; iii, 3; in water, iii, 122, 131. Chamois leather as a plaster, iii, ₄₃. Chamomile�medicinal uses, ii, 466, 474. Channel of the neck, i, 13. Channels in stable drainage, iii, 328. Chapman's horse�name for pack-horse, i, 127. Chapped heelS�applications for, ii, 456; iii, 4. Chapped skin�causes, ii, 127. Character in breeding, iii, 212, 213. Charcoal as an antidote, iii, 58. Chargers�origin of horses, iii, 539, 541, 543- Charges�application and uses, iii, 42, 43. ChariOt-racing�inauguration and his- tory of, iii, 521, 522, 524, 527, 537. Chariots for war, &c.-use of horses, iii, 517, 519, 520, 521, 523, 524, 525, 527, 528, 531, 535, 536, 538, 550. Charlier System of shoeing for speedy cutters, ii, 401, 402. "Cheadle JumbO"�measurements, i, 65. 66. Check ligament of canon, i, 75: muscles insertion, ii, 331, 332; sprain, &c, ii, 294, 346; soundness examination, iii, 380. Cheek and cheek-bone�formation, i, 11,17; ii, 185; fistula, ii, 429; muscles, ii, 308.
CarbOlUTia�causes, &o, of, ii, 420. Carbon diOXide�in air, iii, 78; lung dis- charge and action of blood, i, 431, 448, 494; respiratory uses, &c, i, 482, 4S3, 489, 490, 491; ventilation effects, i, 495. Carbonate (medicinal uses) of ammoni- um and ammonia, ii, 459; iii, 3; of iron, ii, 447, 456; of lime, ii, 450, 457; potash, ii, 448; soda, ii, 449; iii, 61; zinc, ii, 456; doses, iii, 9. Carbonate of lime in stone of bladder, i» 355- Carbonic acid�(see Carbon Dioxide). Carbuncles�antiseptics for, ii, 421. Carcasses of animals died of anthrax- destruction, ii, 43. Cardamoms�uses and dose, ii, 467; iii, Cardboard for fracture support, ii, 261. Cardiac region of stomach, i, 234; heart disease detection, i, 458, 462; par- alysis due to digitalis, ii, 461. Carditis-a form of heart disease, i, 454. Caries of bone�causes, &c, ii, 212-214, 390; tuberculosis classed as, ii, 51. Cariniform cartilage of breast-bone, ii, 190. Carminatives �medicinal uses, ii, 466; iii, 13. Carotid arteries of neck, i, 13, 376, 451; muscle separating jugular vein, ii, 321; pulse near, iii, 146. Carotid plexuses�formation, i, 376. Carpal articulation�form, &a, ii, 271. Carpo - metacarpal articulation � form, &c, ii, 271. Carpus�formation, &c, ii, 196, 271, 272; iii, 486. (See also Knee.) Carriage horses�breeding for, iii, 206; breeds used, i, 125, 126, 128, 132, 208, 209, 210; feeding, iii, 93; physic, ii, 445. (See also Harness Horses.) Carriage of a horse�head influences, i, 43, 46; neck affecting, i, 48-51; show and harness horses, iii, 312, 313. {See also titles Action, Defective Action.) Carriage of norses�(see Transit). Carriages�introduction and uses, iii, 521, 528, 542, 543. Carriage-washing stand � structure, iii, 335* Carron Oil and its uses, iii, 3, 5. Carrots as food, iii, 89, 91, 99, 115, 351; special diet, iii, 26, 27, 311, 463. Cart horses�(see Draught Horses). Cartilages�bone growth, ii, 178; chest, i, 63, 64; ear, i, 10; ii, 310, 311; foot, iii, 436; fore-limb, ii, 193, 194, 198; hind-limb, ii, 202; joint structure and diseases, ii, 262, 280, 281, 286; loose cartilages causing disease, ii, 284, 285; larynx, i, 485; nose, i, 9; qiuttor treatment, ii, 380 ; ribs and sternum, ii, 190, 191; side bones due to ossification, ii, 387; stifle-joint, ii, 276; trachea, i, 485; vomer bone, ii, 188. Cartilaginous quittor�form, &c, ii, 379- Carunculse myrtiformes of hymen, ii. 75- Cascarilla bark�uses, ii, 466. Caseous degeneration a form of tuber- culosis, ii, 50. Casting�'for operations, methods and hobbles, iii, 159, 160, 162, 168, 169, ^l7²> ^T73, %²> fractures, ii, 225, 229, 256, 261, 262; injuries and first aid, ii, 424, 437. Castor-Oil�uses and dose, ii, 444; iii, 9. Castors* on fore-limb, i, 19. Castration operation- Advantages, necessity, and age, iii, 171, 172.

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			INDEX
	570		INDEX
	570

				Closets�for stablemen, iii, 335. Clothing�advisability of, iii, 138; infec- tion and disinfection means, ii, 150, 151; iii, 24, 152; sick horses, iii, 24, 143; ship-board horses, iii, 462; tear- ing by horses, iii, 341 ; training horses, iii, 303. Cloths � for wound-dressing, disinfection of, ii, 415. ClotS Of folOOd causing apoplexy, i, 412; arteries obstruction, i, 473 ; cedema of choroid plexus, i, 416; uterine hemorrhage, ii, 87, 88. Clotting Of blOOd�(see Coagulation of the blood). Cloudy cataract�form, iii, 370. ClOVer � as food, iii, 89, 91, no, in» 35¹, 35²> f°^r invalid diet, iii, 26 > colic caused by, i, 283, 284. Clydesdale horses- Conformation, leading characters and action, &c.j i, 191-193; shoulder form, i, 70. Early breeding, origin, and distinction, 1, 186-191, 193. Galloway, Ayrshire, and other strains of, i, 190, 193. Illustrations of stallions, i, 280; ii, 321. Shire resemblance and crosses, i, 186, 190, 191. Suffolks compared with, i, 194, 196. Title of " Lanarkshire " applied to, i, 189. Clysters�administration and uses, i, 281; iii, 34- Coach horses�Cleveland Bays, i, 126, 128; harness and hunter breeding, i, 136, 152, 153; Percherons, i, 205; state coach horses, i, 177, 2o6j Suf- folks, i, 195; Yorkshire breed, i, i33"* 135- Coach-hOUSe�structure, iii, 334; plans, iii, 320-324. Coaches�origin of, iii, 543. Coagulation of the blood, i, 435, 43⁶; prevention of hemorrhage by, i, 445' thrombosis due to, i, 473, 474- Coalesce in wound-healing, ii, 405. Coal-tar�antiseptic uses, ii, 42T. Coaptation of wounds�means, &c, i» 410, 411, 412, 438; stitches, ii, 4^I°> 419. Coarse conformation�of head, i, 37; of withers, i, 52, 54 ; unsoundness, iii, 384, 385- CoatS�blistering, iii, 38, 39; drugs affect- ing, ii, 453, 474, 491; mustard plas- ters on, iii, 33; temperature affecting, iii, 362; trotters training, iii, 3^t6;washing in disease, iii, 35. (See also titles Clipping, Grooming, Singeing, Hair, Staring coat.) Coats�of arteries, i, 442; of eye, ii, 104, 105. Cobs�height, and distinction from ponies, i, 94- 153, 15S. Cocaine�medicinal uses, ii, 475, 479, 4⁸3^ iii, 4; for operations, iii, 160, 166. Cocci Of bacteria�cell formation, i, 226. CoCCidia* forms of parasites, ii, i6r, 169. Coccygeal arteries and nerves�fo¹" mation, i, 378, 402. Coccygeal bones or vertebrae�forms, ii, 179, 183. Coccyx�(see Tail). Cod liver Oil�medicinal uses, iii, 4- doses, iii, 9. Codeia�medicinal uses, ii, 480. Cod-Wax in sheath�removal, &C, ii, ⁸4- Coffin bone�(see Pedal bone). Cognizable forms of disease, i, 219. Coins as medicine weights, iii, 12. ColchiCUm �medicinal doses, iii, 9, ^Jl' poisoning by, iii, 62, 104. Cold�common ailment, i, 497; due to clip* ping, &c, iii, 136, 138; unsoundness
		Choroid tunic of eye, ii, 105, 106, 107; disease of veins, ii, 124. Chromic acid�medicinal uses, iii, 7. Chronic diseases � definition, i, 213; temperaments liable to, i, 218. Chyle in absorbent system, i, 427, 428, 429, 43°- Chyme in intestinal digestion, i, 245, 246. Cilia processes of trachea, i, 485. Ciliary processes of eye, ii, 105, 106. Cinchona�medicinal uses, ii, 451, 452, 467; iii, 4; doses, iii, 9, 11. Cinchonine�medicinal uses, ii, 452. Circle Of Willis�formation of arteries, i, 45. Circulation system and organs-* Disease and disorder�general causes, i, 215, 216, 218, 221; ii, 457, 458; iii, 136, 146; obstruction causes, i, 465, 466, 474, 477; poisoning effects, iii, 44, 45; sick horses stimulation, iii, 143; uterus inversion, ii, 101. Embryo and foetus growth, iii, 255-257. Mechanism of the circulation, i, 436; dia- gram of, i, 450. Prevention of death by hemorrhage, i, 445- Pulse and blood-pressure, i, 443-445; ii, 146, 147. [See also titles Arteries and veins, Blood. Blood diseases, Blood - vessels, Heart.] Circumferential fitting in shoeing, iii, 447- Circumflex nerve�formation, i, 401. Circus horses�diseases due to training, iii, 202; Roman uses, iii, 526, 527, 528, 530, 531. Cirrhosis of liver, i, 307; fatty liver influence, i, 308. Citrate of iron and ammonium- medicinal use, ii, 447; dose, iii, 9. Citric acid�dose, iii, 9. Clacking Of Shoes�(see Forging). Clamps and clamping�for castration, iii, 173-177 ; hernia, i, 317, 321, 322, 325; for sand crack, ii, 367. ClaWS�formation, ii, 131, 133; classifica- tion of animals by, iii, 475. Clean-CUt WOUndS �form and treat- ment, ii, 402, 410. Cleaning horses �(see titles Grooming, Washing). Cleanliness in the stable, iii, 323, 327. Cleansing of wounds � methods, ii, 409, ₄i₅. Cleft Of frog � discharge from, and wounds to, ii, 373, 385. Cleveland Bay "Speciality" (1562)�il- lust. of, i, 258. Cleveland Bays- Conformation, stamina, and action, i, I3I-I33- Crosses�hacknev, i, 130, 131; Scottish early breeding, i, 188; thorough- breds, i, 127, 128; Yorkshire coach horses, i, 133. Harness horse qualifications, i, 152, 153. Oldenburghs compared with, i, 208. Origin, uses, and districts breeding, i, 125-128. Stud-book introduction, &c, i, 129, 130. Clever jumpers�methods, iii, 200. Climate�as cause of disease, i, 213, 222, 292; breeding and size influences, iii, 53°, 53i. 53²> 535, 546, 548. Clinches used in shoeing, iii, 450. Clinker bricks for stable floors, iii, 326. Clipping and clippers for grooming, iii, 137, 138, 360. Clips for Shoes, iii, 449 ; injuries from, iii, 453- Clitoris of vulva, i, 18; ii, 74, 75. Close-coupled head�form, i, 44, 45.
Chemical causes of disease, i, 220. Chemical changes due to bacteria, i, 227. Chemical composition and stimuli of nerves, i, 387, 388. Chest or thorax- Bones and conformation, i, 3, 16, 62-64; ii, 189-191; compensating points, i, 102; height and width tables, &c, i, 64-66; narrow chest effects, ii, 400, 422; iii, 119. Disorders�fluid due to pleurisy, ii, 14, 16, 17; hemorrhage, i, 502; ii, 10; punctured or perforated chest, ii, 10, 255; tuberculosis, ii, 51; worms, ii, 174. (See also names of diseases, as Asthma, Bronchitis, &c.) Examination for heart disease, &c, i, 460, 466. Muscles connected with, ii, 323, 327, 335. Poulticing, &c, iii, 32, 33. Respiratory functions, &c, i, 491-494; breathing capacity affected by con- formation, i, 3g, 61. Chest-fOUnder�a form of navicular dis- ease, ii, 389. Chestnut colouring�of Arabs, i, 205; of Suffolk horses, i, 195, 196, 199. Chestnut hunter "Artist" (illust.), ii, 456. Chestnuts on limbs�formation and origin, i, 19; ii, 133; iii, 500-508; as digit remains, iii, 478. Chewing of food�observations on, i, 233, 246, 247. Chiasma of optic nerve, i, 392. Chilled water for sick horses, iii, 142. Chills�drugs used, iii, 3 (see also Cold). Chin�conformation, i, 12; fall and first- aid directions, ii, 438. Chin groove�position, i, 12. Chinese history on the horse, iii, 517, 518. CMnosol for wounds, ii, 421. Chloral hydrate � medicinal uses, ii, 476,477; iii, 3, 9; poisoning and anti- dote, iii, 45, 46, 58. Chlorate of potash and potassium �medicinal uses, ii, 448, 449; iii, 3; doses, iii, 9. Chloric ether � medicinal uses, iii, 3; doses, iii, 10. Chloride (medicinal uses) of ammonium, ii, 459; iii, 3; of mercury, iii, 3, 10; soda and sodium, ii, 449; iii, 9; zinc, ii, 456; iii, 4. Chlorinated lime�as a disinfectant, ii, 488; medicinal dose, iii, 9. Chlorine gas for disinfection, ii, 487; iii, 155. Chloroform�fracture treatment, ii, 225, 230; hernia, i, 320, 321, 323; medi- cinal uses, iii, 470, 479; iii, 9; opera- tions, iii, 166, 168, 181, 182, 184; poisoning and antidote, iii, 45, 46, 58; restorative use of ammonia, ii, 459- Chlorophyll-green algse in water, iii, 127, 128. Choking and its treatment, i, 265-267; as- phyxia causes, i, 494; formation of larynx, &c, preventing choking, i, 486. Cholera�water causing, iii, 130. Cholesterin in blood, i, 432, 435. CholOgOgUes and their uses, iii, 13. Chorda dorsalis�form, iii, 250, 255. Chorda tympani nerve of face, i, 233, 394- Chorea and its treatment, i, 410, 411; drug, iii, 3. Chorion of ovum�formation, iii, 251. Chorium of skin, ii, 124, 126. Choroid plexus of brain, i, 384; cedema or tumours of, i, 414, 415, 416.

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		INDEX 571

'Cold [Cont.)� and warranty, iii, 421. (See also Catarrhal affections.) 'Cold applications�astringent proper- ties, ii, 454; douche for sick horses, iii, 35; for various diseases, i, 412; ii, 208, 220, 431, 434; poultices cold, iii, 28. Cold, Climatic�causes of disease, i, 217, 219, 222, 497; cracked heels due to, ii, 424; eyes affected by, ii, 111, 114, 121; ponies'endurance, i, 156; urin- ary effects, i, 338. Cold fitting in shoeing, iii, 449. Cold v. ■warmth in stables�ventilation, &c, iii, 76, 80, 81. Cold-water injections for uterine hemorrhage, ii, 89. Cold-Water irrigation�for bone dis- eases, ii, 208, 218, 392; capped hock, ii, 363; curb, ii, 302; fracture, ii, 238; joint synovitis, ii, 283; laminitis, ii, 378; sore shins, ii, 220; sprains, ii, 291, 296, 297, 300, 354; wind-galls, ii. 357; wounds, ii, 408. Coldness Of body due to poisoning or disease, iii, 47, 54, 142, 143. �ColiC- Causes, forms, and treatment � spas- modic colic, i, 278-281; flatulent, i, 281-284; wheat and wind-sucking causing, iii, 109, 140. Distinction from enteritis, rupture, or heart pains, i, 293, 295, 469. Drugs and remedies for, ii, 459, 460, 462, 477, 481, 485; iii, 3, 6, 7, 8; prescrip- tions for draughts, iii, 18; unloading rectum, iii, 34. Symptoms or results of other diseases� anthrax, ii, 42; arteritis, i, 471; cribbing and wind-sticking, i, 414; enteritis, i, 292; intestinal obstruc- tion, i, 297; inversion of rectum, i, 301; liver and kidneys, i, 307, 349; parturient fever, ii, 98 ; poisoning, iii, 47; rupture, i, 295; spasm of diaphragm, i, 313; worms, ii, 171. Unsoundness and warranty, iii, 423. Collapse and syncope (fainting)� causes, ii, 222; ii, 158, 440; reme- dies, ii, 458, 477. Collar-bone�absence in horse and un- gulate mammals, iii, 476, 487. ¹ Collar-holder for harness room, iii, 332. Collar pressure. &c, causing disease, i, 220; boils, ii, 150, 151; erythema, ii, 145; fistulous withers, ii, 432; giddiness, i, 407, 409; sore shoulders, &c, ii, 145, 435, 436; tumours and ulcers, i, 415; ii, 426. Collateral ganglia of sympathetic nerves, i, 374. ' Collisions�first-aid directions, ii,437-439; fractures due to, ii, 254, 261. Collodion�castration uses, iii, 186. Colon of intestine, i, 236, 237, 238. Colour of a horse�ancestral and ner- vous influences, iii, 497, 498; diges- tion and water influences, iii, 119, 130; distinction of horse family, iii, 495 " 497 : washing light - coloured horses, iii, 137. ColtS�dropsy, i, 311; enclosure of penis, &c, ii, 81, 82: intestinal obstruction, i, 296; lip and wart troubles, i, 248; teeth shedding, &c., i, 326. (See also Castration.) "Coming Four"�age indications, use of term, iii, 393. Commensalism�a form of parasitism, ii, 160. Comminuted fracture�form and treat- ment, ii, 221, 225, 226, 228, 233, 249. Commissure of optic nerves, i, 392. Commissures�grey and white, of brain, i. 383- Common adder causing poisoned wounds, ii. 415. ¹ Compact tissue in bone, ii, 176.
	Companionship � requirements of horses, iii, 304. Compensating points in conformation �length and conformation, i, 97, 98; list of points and defects, i, iot-103. Compensation for glanders and farcy, ii, 37- Complemental air in breathing, i, 493. Complete dislocation�form, ii, ₃₄6. Complete fracture�form, ii, 221, 225. Complexus muscle�form, &c, ii, 318. Compound fracture�form, &&, ii, 221, 227, 228, 233-234. Compresses�for bog - spavin, ii, 291; thoroughpin, ii, 359; villitis, ii, 384. Compressor coccygis muscle�form, &c, ii, 326. Compressor urethrae muscle�form, ii, ₇r. Compulsory keeping of horses � ancient law, iii, 542. Concave shoe�form, &c, hi, 443. Concentrated food�danger as diet, iii, 344- Conception�(see Impregnation). Conchal cartilage of ear, ii, 310, 311. Concrete�for stable floors, &c, iii, 326, 334; manure-pit, hi, 335. Concretions � formation of internal, i, 300; difference of calculi or stones, i, 299; disorders due to, i, 279, 296; pus in guttural pouches, i, 504-507; water influence, iii, 124. Concussion � brain, due to fractured bones, ii, 234, 238; knee protection, ii, 197; sore shins due to, ii, 219; spinal cord, resulting in paralysis, ii, 236, 237. " Condition "�uses of terms "bad condi- tion ", "dealer's condition", &c., j, 457; i'. 445, 446. Conditioning�balls and powders, &c, ii, 445, 446, 452; iii, 1, 4, 16; breeding affected by, iii, 215, 237; causes and signs of disease, i, 221, 272, 275: ii, 290; iii, 145; fit condition recognition, iii- 339) 340: foals' diet, iii, 224, 225; feeding improvement, iii, 92, 93, 141; show horses, iii, 310, 313; skin improvement, ii, 473 ; training of thoroughbreds, &c., iii, 301, 305, 306. Condyles of various bones, ii, 181, 184, i8g, 198, 199, 2ot; fracture effects, ii, 244, 260. Condy'S fluid�antiseptic uses, ii, 486. "Confidence" (158)�pedigree, i, 122. "Confidence" (D'Oyley's 153), hackney stallion (Must.), i, 172- Conformation and defects- Acquiring knowledge of�value, i, 27. As predisposing cause of disease, i, 214. Bones as levers, i, 33-36. Breeding precautions for weak points, &c, iii, 213. Centre of gravity, and equilibrium, i, 28- 31; iii, 192-194. Compensating points for defects, lists, Sec, i, 101-103. Defective action due to, ii, 398, 399, 400. Distribution of weight of body, i, 91-93. Height, length, and width, i, 93-98; pro- portions of height to length, and head as unit of measurement, i, 99-101. Muscles in relation to power and speed, i, 3i-33- Soundness and warranty, iii, 375, 411- 4/3, 4²o-423- Special features and origin of a horse, iii, 484-497. [For special part or organ see its name; special breeds, see their titles.] Congenital diseases and formation �canon, i, 77; cystic ovary, ii, 103; eye growths, ii, 118; flooding, ii, 88; foot inequalities, i, 8t; hernia or rupture, i, 315, 316, 318, 322, 323;
			Congenital diseases [Cont.)� knees, bowed, i, 74; ii, 303; skin affections, ii, 153, 158, 159. (See also titles Deformities, Hereditary.) Congenital dislocation�form, &c, ii, 346, 347- Congestion � excitement and exertion causing, i, 215, 222; of liver, i, 303; iii, 3; of lungs, ii, 5-7�air in lungs, iii, 142�remedies for lungs, ii, 460, 470; heart affected by lungs, i, 457; of palate, i, 254. Conglomerate Calculus � appearance, &c, i, 300. Conical teeth�formation, iii, 494. Conium�medicinal uses, ii, 472, 483. Coni VasCUlOSi of testicle, ii, 67. ConjUgatse in water, iii, 128. Conjunctiva of eye, ii, 105; diseases, ii, 114, 116-118; eyelashesm contact, ii, 112, 113; plethora and horse- sickness effects, i, 480; ii, 56. Conjunctivitis and its treatment, ii, 114. Connective tiSSUein eye, ii, 105; muscle, ii. 305; trunk and spine, ii, 265 ; wound-healing, ii, 404, 406. Connemara ponies�form, &c, i, 168. Consciousness�drugs, &c, affecting, ii, 45⁸, 479: ^first aid for restoring, ii, 440; reflex movements, i, 389; symp- toms of brain disorder, i, 406, 424, of fractured skull, ii, 234. Constipation and its treatment, i, 284- 286; aperients and drugs for, ii, 442, 4⁶5.47⁸; hi. 1; difference of obstruc- tion, i, 296; foals, iii, 220, 224; in- version of rectum due to, i, 301 ; symptoms of diseases, i, 272, 293, 294, 306; ii, 100; iii, 149. Constitution and training considera- tions, iii, 301, 304, 305. Constitutional diseases � (see titles Hsemo-globinuria, Lymphangitis or weed, Purpura hemorrhagica, Rheumatism). Constrictor muscles�form, ii, 306. Constrictor nerves�influence on food, i. 444- Consumption�(see Tuberculosis). Contagious diseases � classification, definition, and causes, i, 219, 223; iii, 152 ; drugs and disinfectants, iii, 3'. ^x3> ²3. ²4; dourine or covering disease, ii, 52, 8o, 82; epizootic lym- phangitis, u, 59-65, 428; horse-pox, ij, 43, 44; isolation, iii, 140; mange, ii, 168; microbes producing, i, 228; pneumonia, ii, 7, 33 ; ringworm, ii, 149 ; skin affections, boils, &c, ii, 150, 151 ; sore throat, i, 254 ; South African sickness, ii, 53-59; stomatitis pustulosa, ii, 49, 50; tuberculosis, ii, 50-52. (See also titles Anthrax, Fevers, Glanders and farcy, Infec- tious diseases, Influenza, Rabies, Strangles, Tetanus.) Continental horses�(see title Foreign horses; also names of countries or breeds). Contractile substance of muscle, ii, 305. Contraction of arteries in circulation, i, 443- Contraction Of foot�causes, treatment, &C, ii, 389, 393~395; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 378, 382, 420. Contraction of muscle or tendon- causing deformity, ii, 346, 347, iii, 491, fracture, ii, 222, 224, 236, sprain, ii, 289; carriage of head affected by, i, 46, 50; contractility of muscle as regards power and speed, i, 32; foals at birth, iii, 221; operation for, iii, T68-171; substance of muscle caus- ing, ii, 305. Control Of horses�during operations, means of restraint, iii, 156-160. Contused WOUndS and their treatment, ii. 403, 412, 413; speedy cutting effects, ii, 401.

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	572		INDEX
			INDEX

Conveyance of horses�(see Transit). Convolutions of brain substance, i, 3G4. Convulsions�causes, i, 406, 410. 470; drugs, ii, 463; iii, 2, 3; heart and hemorrhage symptoms, i, 467, 502 ; ii, 88; sheep-dip effects, ii, 129. COOked fOOd as diet, iii, 346. Cooling drinks-preparation, iii, 28. Cooling medicines acting on blood, ii, 450-452. Co-ordinating nerve centres�forms, i, 389. Copaiba � medicinal uses and dose, ii, 47°> 47¹* 474; »»j 9- Copper�medicinal uses, ii, 454, 456; poisoning by, iii, 46. Copulation�diseases due to, ii, 52, 53, 80; hernia causes, i, 319; penis as organ of, ii, 69; seminal fluid con- veyance, it, 71, 72, 73 ; sterility and pregnancy, iii, 230. Coraco-humeralis muscle�form, &c, ii, 329. CoraCOid process�of scapula, and mus- cles, ii, 193, 329. Cord�for castration, iii, 175. Cordials�prescriptions for medicine, iii, 15, 17, 18. Com�as food, iii, 91, 118, 347 ; with hay as sole diet, iii, 344-346, 347. (See also titles Grain, Oats. J Cornea of eye, i, 11; ii, 104, 105; amber tinge cause, ii, 116, 117; diseases, ii, 115-117; examination for disease and soundness, ii, no; iii, 368; growths from, ii, 118. Corner teeth�form and wear, iii, 398, 399, 400, 401 ; space near, iii, 494. Corns�causes and treatment, ii, 374-376; iii, 435, 453, 454; canker due to, ii, 381; flat feet effects, i, 82; remains of digits, iii, 478; "unnerving" pre- caution, iii, 161; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 421, Cornu Of spine�formation, i, 382. Cornua of tongue bone, ii, 189; mus- cles, ii, 313. Coronal process of coffin-bone, ii, 200. Coronary arteries of heart, i, ₄₄8. Coronary cushion of coronet � form and disease, ii, 383. Coronet�conformation and bones, 1, 21, 22; ii, 199, 273; iii, 436; corn and abscess, ii, 375, 376; fistulous coronet or quittor, ii, 378, 379, 381, 435: foot striking due to defective action, ii, 396, 398 ; herpes disease, ii, 149; pricks and wounds, ii, 387; sand crack, ii, 366; seedy toe, ii, 370, 371; shelly feet, ii, 368; side-bones above, ii. 387 ; soundness examination, iii, 381; villitis affecting, ii, 383-385. CorOnoid process of jaw-bone, ii, 189; fracture, ii, 240. Corpora cavernosa of penis, ii, 70. Corpora nigra of eye, ii, 106, 107; iii, 369; examination, ii, no. Corpora quadrigemina of the pons, h 383- Corpora striata of brain, i, 383, 390. Corpus luteum of ovum, ii, 80. Corpus spongiosum of penis, ii, 70. Corpuscles Of blOOd�composition, &c, i, 431-434; diapedesis process, i, 434, 446; drugs affecting, ii, 447, 448, 449, 450 ; symptoms of diseases, i, 478; ii, 24. Corrosive poisons-list and treatment of poisoning by, iii, 46-54. Corrosive sublimate � antiseptic and other uses, ii, 420, 486, 488; iii, 4. Costal cartilages of ribs, i, 63, 64; ii, 190, 191. Costo-stemal ligaments�form, &c, ii, 267.		Costo-vertebral, and costo-sternal articulations of ribs, ii, 267. "Cottager "�steeple-chasing records, i, 124. Cotton cake as food, iii, 89, 94, 114, 115. Cotyloid cavity of coxa, ii, 274. Cotyloid ligament�hip-joint formation, », 275- Couching for cataract, ii, 121, COUgh�causes and treatment, ii, 18; dur- ing feeding, ii, 4, 12; drugs, ii, 454, 461, 472; iii, 3, 5; prescriptions, iii, 15, 17; "too sore to cough", and rest remedy, ii, 470, 471; symptoms of various diseases, i, 498, 501, 507, 509; ii, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 40, 51; iii, 149; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 421. COUnter-irritantS�uses and examples, ii, 469; iii, 14. Coupling of head and neck � various forms, i, 44-46. Covered operation in castration, i, 321; "', 175- Covered surface drains for stables, iii, 84-86. Covering disease �(see Maladie du Coit). COVert hacks�breeding, i, 149. COW-hOCkS�defect of conformation, i, 89; in harness horses and ponies, i, T51, 164; sprain due to, ii, 289; war- ranty, iii, 413. COW-POX due to grease disease, ii, T40, 141. COW'S milk for foal-rearing, iii, 224, 225. C0X8e Of pelvis�formation, &c, i, 58, 59; ii, 192, 274. COXO-femoral articulation, ii, 274, 275. Cracked heels�causes, treatment, &c., ii, 423-425; iii, 68, 136; remedies for, ii, 456, 464, 474, 484; unsoundness, iii, 381. Cracked hoof�term "sand crack" used for, ii, 365. Cracked mouth and lips�cause, &c, i, 248. Cracks of skin�causes, ii, 127. Cradle for fractures, &C, ii, 241; iii, 39. Cramp due to lead poisoning, iii, 51. Cranial nerves�names, structure and functions, i, 391-397. Cranium�formation and bones of, i, 8; ii, 183-186; iii, 493; fractures, ii, 234; muscles connection, ii, 184, 310; tumours on, i, 415, 417. Cream horses�origin, breeding, &c, i, 206, 207. Creasote�antiseptic and medicinal uses, ii, 485; iii, 4; doses, iii, 9; poisoning by, iii, 46. Creatinine from kidneys, i, 333. Creation of the horse �history and theories, iii, 518, 525, 531. Creation v. evolution�opinions, &&, iii, 482-484. Crepitus for fracture detection, ii, 225; false crepitus, ii, 226; difficulties in ulna, sesamoid, and pelvis fractures, ii, 245, 252, 258. Crest, arched�formation, i, 28. Crib-biting � causes and correction, i, 413-415.: »i, 3²7» 337. 343! troubles due to, i, 247, 272, 332; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 140, 424. Crico-arytenoid muscles � posterior and lateral forms, &c, ii, 317. Crico-pharyngeus muscle- form, &c, ii, 3T6. Crico-thyroid muscle �form, &c, ii, 3'7- Cricoid cartilage of larynx, i, 485. Criminal Offence�fraud and warranty of horses, iii, 411. Crops preserved in green state � silage method, iii, n6-n8.
				Crossing Of horses�!see titles Breed- ing, Telegony � for special breeds- see their names). Crotchets used in parturition, iii, 283, 284. CrOton-Oil�affecting bladder, i, 349; dose,. ni, 9; poisoning by, iii, 46. CrOUp�conformation and defects, i, 15,. 58-60, 102; ii, 183; height measure- ments, &c., i, 93-95: iii, 288, 297; length influences, i, 97, 98; muscles,, ii, 201, 339. Croup disease causing asphyxia, i, 495. CrOUp plexuses�nerves forming, i, 375, 378. Crucial ligaments of stifle-joint, ii* 276. Crura cerebri�formation, i, 383. Crura? of penis�form, ii, 70. Crural nerve�formation, i, 402. Crural region�muscles, ii, 34^I~343- Crushing the Stone in bladder disorder,. i, 365, 366. Crust Of the earth�formation, iii, 471,. 472. Crusta of teeth, iii, 494. Crutch for parturition aid, iii, 283. CryptOCOCCUS causing epizootic lymph- angitis, ii, 37, 59, 60, 61. CryptOrchidS�animals termed, i, 17; iii,. 184; castration (see that title;. Crystalline lens of eye, ii, 105, 108; diseases affecting, ii, 117, 119, 120; soundness of, iii, 369. Crystals�in blood hsemoglobin, i, 433; in urine, i, 345, 346. CubebS�dose, iii, 9. Cubic air-space per horse�stable struc- ture, &c, iii, 78-80, 8i. Cuboid bone�form, &c, ii, 204, 278. Cumberland Clydesdales � breed, i> *1 go.* Cunean tenotomy � position, &c, iii. 162, 168. Cuneiform bOneS�of fore-limb or knee,. ii, 193, 197; of hind-limb or hock, ii,. 204; muscles insertion, ii, 344. Cupped ClOt* of blood, i, 436. Curb and its treatment, i, 90; ii, 300-302; hereditary, iii, 215; unsoundness and¹ warranty, iii, 383, 384, 421. Curb bits�types and uses, iii, 359. Curby hOCkS�conformation and causes, i, 86, 90; ii, 301; unsoundness andi warranty, iii, 413, 420, 421. Curry-COmb �a cause of crib-biting, i, 414; for mange, ii, 168; form for grooming, iii, 134, 135- Curvator coccygis muscle�form, &c.� ii, 326. Curve Of back�conformation, i. 56, 57. Curve Of ribS�conformation, i, 64. Cushion bones�form and uses, iii, 487- Cutaneous - piliferous growths from cornea of eye, ii, 118. Cutaneous quittor�form, &c, ii, 379- Cuticle of skin, ii, 124, 125; iii, 504, 505; wound-healing, ii, 405. Cutis of skin, ii, 126. Cuts�a cause of disease, i, 220. Cutting � a form of defective action, ii> 396-398; speedy cutting, ii, 400-402;. injuries and prevention, iii, 455! soundness and warranty, iii, 420. Cutting the bars of foot�effects, &c» i»", 435, 44i- Cyanide of mercury and gauze for wounds dressing, ii, 411, 412, 413. Cystic calculus formed round stick, U 37°, 37i- Cystic Ovary�form and removal, &Cj- ii, 78, 79, 102; iii, 183, 184, 229. Cystic worms* in intestines and liver, i>» 172-174.

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		INDEX
		INDEX		573

	Degeneration of arteries and veins�dis- eases due to, i, 471, 475. Deglutition of food-process, i, 234. Delirium�due to brain inflammation, i, 406; indigestion, i, 271; rupture, i, 205- Delivery Of foal�(see Parturition). Deltoid muscle�form, &c, ii, 328. Demulcents�medicinal uses, iii, 13. "Denmark" 177 �pedigree, i, 118. Dental canal and nerves�formation, i> 393- 394: ii- 189. Dental operations, &c�(see Teeth). Dentata -(see Axis). Dentine of teeth, iii, 494, 495. Deodorizers�preparations used, ii, 449, 487. Deposits � causing aneurism and heart disease, i, 463, 478. Depressant drugs acting on lungs and air-passages, ii, 468, 470. Depressor coccygis muscle � form, &c., ii, 326. Depressor labii inferioris and superioris �forms of muscles, ii, 308, 309. Depressor muscles�action and distinc- tion, ii, 306, 307. Derma of skin, ii, 126. Dermatology�advances and classifica- tion, ii, 134, 136. Dermoid cyst�formation, &c, ii, 103. Descent Of the horse�(see History). Development of organisms � evolu- tion and other influences, iii, 479-484. Development of the horse � (see Growth). Dew-ladengrasS�horse-sickness caused by, ii, 54. 55, 58- Dextrin in digestion, i, 244. Diabetes and its treatment, i, 346; war- ranty, iii, 423. Diacetate Of lead�medicinal uses, ii, 464. Diagnosis of disease � definitions, i, 214; iii, 144, 145; general symptoms and examination, iii, 145-150; medi- cine and its use, ii, 442-444; skin diseases, ii, 135, 136. Diagnostic symptoms of disease, iii, 144. M5- "Diamond Jubilee "�descent, iii, 548. Diapedesis process in blood, i, 434,446. Diaphoretics�uses, ii, 472; iii, 13. Diaphragm or midriff�formation and uses, i, 16, 63, 491-494; ii, 337; paralysis of, ii, 235; rupture effects, i, 268; spasm of diaphragm, i, 312. Diaphragmatic nerve � formation, i, 398, 399- DlaphysiS�growth of bone, ii, 178. Diarrhoea and its treatment, i, 286-289; abuse of purgatives, i, 286, 289; diet errors causing, i, 218; drugs, &C, ii, 448, 45o, 454, 455, 45⁶> 457, 460, 465, 468, 480; iii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; foals at birth, &c, iii, 222, 223, 227; hunters, iii, 149; symptoms of various diseases, i, 272, 306, 471, 478, 479; iii, 149. Diarthrodial joints�forms, ii, 262,279. DiastatiC action in digestion, i, 244. Diastema�formation and use, iii, 494. Diastolic SOUnd of heart in disease, i, 459, 460. Dicrotic wave of heart, i, 440; diagram, iii, 148. Diet�(see titles Digestion, Digestive dis- eases, Food and diet). Digastricus muscle�form, &c, ii, 313, 314; connection, ii, 310. Digestion and Digestive System- Absorbent system influence, and fluids acting upon, i, 426, 427, 430.
Cystitis and its treatment, i, 349: un- soundness and warranty, iii, 423. CystS in capped knee, ii, 361; liver, i, 315; ii, 174; ovary, ii, 78, 79, 102; iii, 1S3, 184, 229. D Dale pony�appearance, &c, i, 169- Damaged OatS�recognition, iii, 347, 348. Damp�diseases due to, ii, r, 7, 20, 54, 55, 214; foal-rearing effect, i, 112; stable structure, iii, 326. Dandruff�grooming of coat, iii, 135. Dandy-brUSh for grooming, iii, 135. "Danegelt" 174�hackney stallion (il- lust.), i, 38. Danegelt Strain�breeding prepotency, iii, 212. Dappled horse�origin of markings, iii, 498. " Darley Arabian " - history, crosses, and descendants, i, in, 115, 128; iii, 547, 550. "Dart" family of Cleveland bays, i, 129. Dartmoor pony -history, breeding, and Conformation, i, 163, 164. Dartmoor pony stallion "Goldfinder" (Must.), i, 190. DartOS of scrotum, ii, 67, 68; iii, 175. Darwin on hereditary diseases, j, 217; on hybrid breeding, iii, 240. Dead bone�poll evil effects, ii, 431, 432; sinus due to, ii, 428. Dealer's condition � explanation of term, ii, 446; heart affections due to, i, 468. Dealers and warranty laws, iii, 414-419; patent defects, iii, 413. Death�of hired horses, liability, iii, 418 1 see also Mortality). Debility�causes of condition, i, 215, 216, 217; iii, 102; constipation and bowel disorders, i, 285, 296, 297; dropsy, i, 311; glanders and farcy, ii, 34; heart sounds in, i, 459; reproduction organs affected by, ii, 82, 83, 84. Decayed teeth�treatment, &c, i, 330. Deceit in sale of horses � warranty regulations, &c., iii, 409-411. DeCidua vera, reflexa, and serotina in uterus, iii, 253. Decomposition � causes of disease, i, 224; antiseptics arresting, ii, 483; dilation of stomach a sign of, i, 277; wounds poisoned by, ii, 403. Decoration of stables, iii, 319. Deep flexor Of foot�form, &c, of mus- cle, ii, 345. Deep flexor tendon�operation, iii, 162. Deep gluteus muscle�form, &c, ii, 339. Deep muscles of neck and trunk- forms, &c, ii, 326. Deep pectoral muscles � forms, &o, ii, 3²7- Defective action and injuries from�dish- ing, i, 122; interfering (foot in con- tact with foot), brushing and cutting, ii, 396-398; overreach and forging, ii, 398-400; speedy cutting, ii, 400- 402�shoes correcting, iii, 455-458; stringhalt or jerking limbs, ii, 395. Defective Ventilation � (see Ventila- tion). Defects Of Conformation � (see Con- formation). Deformities�contraction of muscles and limb deformities, ii, 346, 347�opera- tion for. iii, 168-171; cow-hocks, i, 8g, 164; foals at birth, iii, 221; foaling difficulty, iii, 273; foot, i, 74, 75, 81; ii, 348, 393, 394; iii, 436; kne^s, i, 74, 75; ii. 303-305; parrot mouth, i, 331; rigs or cryptorchids. iii, 184; roach back, i, 57; unsoundness and war- ranty, iii, 375, 413, 419, 420. (See also title Conformation and defects.) Vol. III.			Digestion and Digestive System - {Cont.) Alimentary canal, its appendages and work in digestion, i, 229, 230; stomach and intestines, i, 234-238; liver and pancreas, i, 238-240. Blood supply and the influence of meals, i. 443- Condition balls and their effects, ii, 445, 446. Digestibility and nutritive value of various foods�tables, &c.y iii, 90-92, 96-101. Diseases�(see titles Digestive diseases^ Gastritis, Indigestion, &c.) Drugs assisting, ii, 464-468; iii, 1, 2, 7; use of acids, ii, 467. Mixing of foods, and foods given first� effects, iii, 118, 119. Processes of digestion�action of saliva, insalivation and deglutition, i, 230- 234; gastric and intestinal processes, i, 244-247; medicinal treatment con- siderations, ii, 465. [See also title F"ood and diet.] Digestive Diseases and Injuries- Choking and vomiting, i, 265-268. Dilation and rupture of the stomach, i, 276-278. Food and water a cause of disease, i, 215, 216; ii, 51; iii, 101, 102, 123. Intestinal rupture and obstruction, i, 295- 298. Lips, mouth, tongue, and palate affec- tions, i, 247-254. Parasites, &c., causing disease, ii, 51, ^ 169-175. Poisons�effect of, iii, 46. Rectum inversion, i, 301-303. Salivation, or ptyalism, i, 258. Signs of disease�recognition, iii, 146,149. Stones (calculi) and other concretions- intestinal, &c, i, 298-301 ; salivary, i, 263-265. Temperaments liable to disease, i, 218. Throat and parotid glands, i, 254-263. Various diseases affected by digestive disorder�asthma, ii, 11; broken wind, ii, 13 ; filled legs, ii, 364, 365; herpes of skin, ii, 149; influenza, ii, 32; tuberculosis due to germs, ii, 51. [See also titles Colic, Constipation, Diarrhcea, Dysentery, Enteritis, Gastritis, indigestion, Liver, Super- purgation, Teeth.] Digital arteries�formation, i, 450, 453. Digital nerve�operation on, iii, 164. Digitalin�med.cinal uses, ii, 460. Digitalis�medicinal uses, ii, 451, 460, 461; iii, 4; doses, iii, 9, n; poisoning and antidote, iii, 56, 64. Digits and the evolution of the horse, iii, 286, 288, 476-478, 511, 512, 513 ; compared with hand of man, iii, 487- 490; chestnuts as remains, iii, 500, 50^r, 5°7- DikkOpaard-Ziekte form of horse-sick- ness, ii, 55, 56, 57. Dilatator nerves � influence on food, i, 443- Dilation�of arteries, i, 477; heart, and sounds due to, i, 459, 460, 466; stomach�chronic dilation, i, 276. Dilator for lithotomy, i, 363, 365. Dilator muscles �distinction, ii, 306; roaring due to, i, 510. Dilator naris muscles � lateralis, an- terior, superior, and inferior forms, ii, 308, 309. Diluted acids�as digestive tonics, ii, 467, 468 ; medicinal uses of various acids, in, 5, 6- 8; doses, iii, 9; as antidote, iii, 45. Diluted liquid ammonia�uses, ii, 459. Diphtheria � bacillus and cure, i, 228; causing asphyxia, i, 495. 102

-ocr page 634-



			INDEX
	574


				Dressings for wounds�antiseptics used, ii, 411, 412, 420-422, 483-488. Dried bracken for bectaing, iii, 357. Dried fOOd as diet, i, 241; iii, 108; grasses causing poisoning, iii, 62. Drinking water�(see Water). Driving�defective action due to, ii, 400; fracture due to pulling-up suddenly, ii, 245 ; management of horses, iii, 340 ; rule of the road, &c, iii, 418; staling opportunities, i, 351; war- ranty laws and accidents, iii, 417* 418, 424. Driving Horses- Breeds suitable, i, 122, 131,133, 207, 208, 209. Conformation�back and loins, i, 55; croup, , 59, 60; height, i, 94; neck, i, 51; hock, i, 90; pastern, i, 80; shoulders, i, 70. Training and action, iii, 312. [See also Carriage Horses, Harness Horses.] Driving-reins�use in training, iii, 305, 3°7, 3^]4- Dropping Of foalS�(see Parturition). Dropping on iame leg in action, iii, 375. Dropsy and dropsical swellings- abdominal or liver, i, 307, 310-312; anaemia, i, 479; drugs used, ii, 461; iii, 4, 5; heart disease, i, 457; ovary disease, ii, 102; pleurisy, ii, 14; sheath, ii, 83, 84; wind-galls, ii, 355. DrOWSineSS �diseases indicated by, i, 405, 406, 409, 412, 424; poisoning causing, iii, 54. Drugs�(see title Medicines and Drugs; for special drug or disease, see its name). "Druid, The", on hunter qualifications, i, 136, 142. Drum appearance of belly�causes, i, 283, 290. Duct of Stenson�form of, i, 261. DuCtS�reproduction organs, ii, 65, 66, 67; salivary glands, i, 231, 232; stone in, i, 298; ureters, i, 333. (See also Fistula, Parotid Duct.) Ductus arteriosus Botalll�formation, &c, i, 437, 448. Ductus venosus and arteriosus in fcetus, iii, 256. Dulcamara�medicinal uses, ii, 472. Dung or Faeces, and Manure- Concretions, internal�ordung balls, form of, i, 300. Drugs, ii, 448; iii, 14 (see also Purgatives). Expulsion � amount per day per horse, iii, 83; cause of pain, i, 284; foals at birth, iii, 220; involuntary escape, l* 419, 421; muscles connected with, i> 15, 16; ii, 336, 337. Flattened appearance due to stone, i, 298. Foul-smelling�disinfectants for, i, 292. Obstruction of intestines, i, 297. Removal by hand per rectum, i, 2711 281, 284; iii, 34. Removal from stables�facilities, regula- tions, and storage, iii, 78, 82, 83, 320, 322, 335, 33⁸- Worrns in, due to arteritis, j, 471. [See also titles Constipation, Diarrhoea, Dysentry, &c.] Dunpaard-Ziekte�a form of horse-sick- ness, ii, 55. Dura mater�of brain, i, 380, 384; thick- ening of, i, 417; of spine, i, 380. Dust�air contamination, iii, 76, 77; broken wind and pulmonary disease pr^e* cautions, ii, 13; iii, 24; eye affections, ii, 114; grooming of coat, iii, 134-137* laryngitis causes, i, 508. Dutch forms of horse-sickness, ii, 55' Dutch horses�British horse improve- ment, iii, 543, 544.
		DOgS�cataract of eye, ii, 121, 122; foot- pads, &c, iii, 503, 507, 508; parasitic diseases of liver, i, 313-315; poison- ing symptoms, iii, 48; rabies, ii, 44; worms, ii, 174; Zadig and the lost dog�story of, iii, 473-475- Domestication of the horse�history, &c, iii, 485, 517, 518, 519, 521, 524, 526, 528, 536. Doors Of Stables, &c. � structure, iii, 325, 334; ventilation by, iii, 74. "Dorothy Derby" (I and II), Wilson ponies�prices, &c, i, 171. Dorsal arteries�formation, i, 449, 452. Dorsal nerves�structure, &c, i, 376, 381, 401. Dorsal trapezius muscle�form, ii, 322. Dorsal vertebrae of spine, i, 13, 14; ii, 179, 180, 181, in embryo, iii, 250, 255; chest connection, ii, 189; frac- ture, ii, 236 ; muscles and connec- tions, ii, 318-320, 322, 334. DorSO-lumbar portion of supra-spinous ligament, ii, 264, 265. Doses�for various drugs, &c, iii, 9-12. Double bridle�use of, iii, 358, 359. Dourine disease�(see Maladiedu Coit). Dover's powder� medicinal uses, ii, 472; "i, 5- Down at the hip�causes, &c, i, 15; unsoundness due to, iii, 372, 373. Drainage�cause of disease, i, 222; ii, 24, 25. Drainage of stables�(see Stables). Drainage tube�for lithotomy, i, 366; for wounds, ii, 411, 412. Drain-pipe with flap for stables, iii, 85. Drains�animals in, extraction, ii, 439, 440. Dram physic balls�contents of, ii, 444. Draught bullOCkS for farm work, i, 173. Draught or Cart Horses- Action in drawing a load, &c, 1, 68, 88, 184; iii, 192. Breeding and crosses, i, 153 �ancient laws and early types, i, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 187, 188; crosses for Cleve- land Bays, i, 127, 128, 129; hunters, i. 136) ¹3^, ^J4²' recent lines, i, 180. Breeds suitable�Clydesdales,!, 189, 192, 193; Percherons, i, 205; Shires, i, 172; Suffolks, i, 194, 200. Classification as heavy horses, i, 172. Conformation�back and loins, i, 55, 57; breast and chest, i, 62, 65; canon, i, 76; croup, i, 59, 60 ; head and neck, 1, 37, 41, 44, 51; height, i, 94, 95; hock, i, 88; limbs, i, 67, 68, 71, 83, 182, 183; pastern, i, 80; shoulders, i, 70, 182, 183; withers, i, 55. Diseases, &c, common to cart horses, i, 219�bog-spavin, ii, 290; capped knee.ii, 360; fistulous withers, ii, 433; fractured pelvis, ii, 256 ; lymphan- gitis, ii, 22-24; mallenders, &c., ii, 158; navicular disease, ii, 389; ring- bone, ii, 205 ; ruptured stomach, i, 277; sand-crack, ii, 365; side-bones, ii, 387: skin inflammations, it, 152; sore shoulders, ii, 435; sprains, ii, 294, 295, 297 ; thoroughpin, ii, 357. Food�amount required, &c, iii, 347,348. History and origin, iii, 538, 540, 543, 545, 549- Physic ball for, ii, 445. Shoes for, iii, 443, 444, 447. Stable structure, iii, 323, 336. Teeth (illust.), iii, 396. [For special breed, see its name.] Draughts�prescriptions and administra- tion, iii, 18, 2t; colic treatment, i, 284; pulmonary affections�caution, ii. 9- Draughts in stables � prevention, &c, iii, 71-74, 80, 81, 361. Drenching�administration of the drench, iii, 21, 25; use in collapse, &c, ii, 440; for thrush, i, 251.
DiplOCOCCi�formation, &c, i, 226. Dipping Of Sheep�poisoning effects, iii, 48, 49. Diptera�form of flies, ii, 163. Dirt�cracked heels due to, ii, 424, 425; grooming coat, iii, 134-137 ; wound- healing retarded by, ii, 403, 408, 409, 412, 413. Dirty water�organisms in, iii, 127, 131. Discharges�astringents and alum uses, ii. 4S4i 456 ; broken knees, ii, 423 ; foaling, iii, 227; ulcers, ii, 426-428. (See also titles Blood-stained Dis- charges, Feet, Nose, Pus, &c.) Discus proligerus of ovum, ii, 79. Disease� Alternate generation and effects, iii, 259- 261. Definition and classification of causes, i, 213, 214�bacteria, &c, i, 224-229; ii, 160; exciting causes, i, 219-224; predisposing causes, i, 215-219. Food and water effects, iii, 101-106, 123, 124-126. Resistance and recovery, ii, 443 ; use of hygienics, iii, 66, 140-144. Signs and symptoms �definitions of terms, iii, 144, 145 ; general symptoms, pulse, &c, iii, 145-150; infectious diseases, iii, 150-152; prevention and suppression, iii, 152-156. Stable air � organic impurities causing disease, iii, 76-78. Unsoundness and warranty�list of dis- eases, &C, iii, 419-424, 425, 426. (See also title Examination as to Soundness.) Vivisection restrictions, ii, 443. [See also titles Contagious diseases, Diagnosis, Hereditary, Specific, &c.; for special disease, see its name.] Diseased animals�(see Sick Horses}. Dished face�appearance of, i, 41, 54. Dishing�faulty action, i, 122. Dishonesty in sale of horses�warranty regulations, &c, iii, 409-411. Disinfectants�action and examples, iii, 13; activity in destroying organisms, table, &c, ii, 486, 487 ; antiseptic and other preparations used, ii, 449, 484, 488, 491. Disinfection of stables, &c� foaling- box and parturition precautions, ii, 288 ; iii, 269, 284; foul dung, i, 292 ; horse-pox, ii, 142; infected premises and clothing, iii, 24, 154-156 ; rail- way boxes, iii, 153, 466 ; skin dis- eases, ii, 150, 151, 165 ; wounds and instruments, &c, ii, 415; iii, 185. Dislocation or displacement of hones �forms and treatment, ii, 346-349; accidental dislocation, ii, 349; frac- ture effects and distinction, ii, 222, 224, 226; patella dislocation, ii, 349, 351-353; shoulder slip, ii, 350; sound- ness and heredity, iii, 383. Displacement of heart �detection, i, 460. Distemper, a form of influenza, ii, 31; eye inflammation due to, ii, 115; St. Vitus' dance due to, i, 411. Distension of belly� causes, i, 283,290. Distomes causing liver diseases, i, 313; ii, 173, 174; development of, iii, 480. Ditches�animals in, extraction, ii, 439, 440; water causing disease, iii, 124, 125. Diuretics and their uses, ii, 473; iii, 13; prescriptions, iii, 15, 17, 18; prohibi- tion in diabetes, i, 347. Divine gift � horse considered so by Arabs, iii, 533. Divisions of a horse, i, 2-4; various views, i, 13, 14, 21, 22. Documents on sale of horse�use in breach of warranty, iii, 426. Dog-tOOth pea�poisoning by, iii, 58-60.

-ocr page 635-

575

INDEX

Dwarfing Of horses � evolution influ-
ence, iii, 286, 287.
Dynamical symptoms of disease, iii,

145-
Dysentery and its treatment, i, 290-292;

drugs, &c, for, ii, 455, 464; iii, I, 6.
Dyspepsia�(see Indigestion).

Embolism�arteritis and atheroma symp-
toms, i, 471, 473; lung affection, ii,
140.

Embrocations�application, &c., iii, 42;
mistaken uses, i, 249.

Embryo andfcetUS�development, bone,
and rate of growth, ii, 65, 76, 80,
178, 182, 192; iii, 249-257, 264, 288-
295, 480-483; growth of chestnuts
and ergots, iii, 504, 505, 506; re-
moval of dead foetus, and abortion
treatment, ii, 99; iii, 267-269, (See
also title Parturition�deliver;'-, &c.J

Embryos Of insects, &c, � alternate
generation, iii, 260; evolution and
other influences, iii, 480-483.

EmetiCS�restrictions for use, ii, 470.

Emir IbU Rashid�Arab stud owned by,
i, 202, 204, 205.

EnimenagOgUeS and their uses, iii, 13.

Emollients�medicinal uses, iii, 14.

Emphysema and its causes, &c, ii, 12-
14; heart disease connection, i, 460.

Emprosthotonos tetanus�form, ii, 47.

EmulSification of food in digestion, i,

242, 245, 246.
Enamel of teeth, i, 230; iii, 494, 495.

Encephalic nerves�forms, i, 391-397.

Enclosure of the penis, ii, 81.

Endarteritis deformans � symptoms,

&c, i, 472, 473, 478.

Endemic diseases � classification and

causes, 1, 219, 223.
Endocardial murmurs in heart dis-
ease, i, 463.
Endocarditis and its treatment, i, 463,

464; ii, 42; joints affected by, ii, 280.
EndO-metritiS and its treatment, &c,

ii, 89, 97.
Endosteum in bone structure, ii, 176, 208.
EndOStitiS a form of bone inflammation,

ii, 208,
Endothelium of blood capillaries, i, 446;

disease affecting, i, 472.
Enemas�(see Injections).
Enemata�medicine and food given by,

iii, 18, 25.

English Breeds of Horses-
Conformation, &c, of Cleveland bays,
i, 125-133; hackneys, i, 113-123;
hunters, i, 135-146; pack horses, i,
123-125; saddle and harness horses,
i, 146-153; thoroughbreds, i, 107-
113; Yorkshire coach horses, i, 133-
i35-
History on origin, &c, iii, 530, 535-550.
[See also titles Cleveland Bays, Thor-
oughbreds, &cj
Engorgement ~ (see titles Liver, Stom-
ach, Udder).

Enlargement of abdomen�(see Ab-
domen).
Enlargement of glands of groin, i, 17.
Enlargement of heart � detection, i,

460; symptoms, &c.j i, 465-467.

Enlargement of penis�treatment, &c,

ii, 82, 83.
Enlargements�plasters or charges for

reduction of, iii, 43,

Ensiform cartilage of breast-bone, ii,

190.

Ensilage as food�preparation, &c, iii,

89, 115-118.
Enteritis and its treatment, i, 292-294;

drugs for, iii, 6.
Entire horses�(see Stallions).
EntOZOa�development, iii, 480.
Entropium and its treatment, ii, 112.
Environment � influence on breeding,

&c_B, iii, 286, 287, 479, 484, 548.
Enzootic diseases � definition and

causes, i, 213, 223.
Eocene formation�horse origin, iii,

475. 509. 5i°> 5*3-

EohippUS� fossil remains, horse origin,

iii, 511, 512.
Epidemic diseases �classification and

causes, i, 219, 223.
Epidermis of the skin, ii, 124, 125.

Epididymis of testis, ii, 65, 66.

Epigastric portion of abdominal cavity,

ii, 338.

Epiglottis of larynx�formation, &c, i,

485; ii, 317.
Epilepsy and fits�causes, treatment,

&c, i, 410; megrims distinction, i,

410; skin dressings effect, ii, 129.
Epiphyses of bone, ii, 178.
EpistaxiS�uses and treatment, i, 501,503.
Epithelial cells�of bladder, i, 337; of

stomach, i, 235.

Epithelial lamellae of hair, ii; 132.
Epithelium in wound-healing, ii, 405.
EpiZOOtiC diseases � definition and

causes, i, 213, 223; covering disease

as, ii, 52; list of, iii, 152.

Epizootic lymphangitis-bacillus and

staining, ii, 59, 60; definition, causes,
distribution, and diagnosis, ii, 59-61;
symptoms and treatment, ii, 61-65;
prevention of spread, ii, 63-65; dis-
tinction from glanders and farcy, ii,
3⁶, 37, 59-

EpSOm Salts�medicinal uses, i, 309; iii,
4, n; use as antidote, iii, 50.

Equida^ or horse family�classification, iii,
475-

Equilibrium of a horse, i, 30, 31, 92; iii,
192.

Equine locomotion�(see titles Action,

Locomotion, Movements).
Equinia�a form of glanders, ii, 33.
EquUS asinuS�special features, iii, 496.
EquUS CaballuS�application of term,

iii, 478; colour and marks, iii, 495;

descent, iii, 513.
EquUS quagga�special features, iii, 496.
EquUS zebra�special features, iii, 406.

Erector coccygis muscle�form, &c,

ii, 326.

Erector penis muscle�form, ii, ₇₃.

Ergot�medicinal uses, ii, 89, 463, 475;
doses, iii, 10, n.

Ergotin�dose, iii, 10.

Ergots of fetlock-joint, i, 18, 21; ii, 132,
133; iii, 478, 500-508.

Eruptions�covering disease, ii, 53; lips
and tongue, i, 247, 248, 249; mouth,
i, 249; soundness and detection, iii,
374. (See also Skin Diseases.)

Erysipelas �singeing-lamp causing, iii,
360.

Erythema and its treatment, ii, 136, 144,
145, 148; mustard or ammonia caus-
ing, ii, 143-

Eschar due to small-pox, iii, 150.

EscharOtiCS�acids used as, ii, 468.

Ether�medicinal uses, ii, 459, 470, 479;
"i> 3> 7t 8; doses, iii, 10.

Ethmoid bone�form, &c, ii, 186.

Ethmoidal cells of sieve bone, ii, 186.
Etiology � definition, and causes of

diseases, i, 214; skin diseases, ii,

138, 139.
EtrUSCan horse-history, iii, 530.
Eucalyptus�uses, &c, ii, 471, 487.
European horses�history, &c, iii, 534.
Eustachian tube�formation, iii, 508.

Even-toed animals�classification, iii,

476-

Evergreens�poisoning by, iii, 55, 56.

Evolution�

As natural process, and explanation of
doctrine, iii, 478, 479, 484; objections
and defence of theory, iii, 481-484.

Environment and other influences in
development of ovum, iii, 255, 479,
480-483.

Ear used for heart disease detection, i,
455, 459-

Ears�bleeding, i, 501; conformation and
bones near, i, 10, 42, 43; ii, 184, 185,
310; disease symptoms, i, 260; ii, 430;
iii, 143; muscles and cartilages, ii,
310-312; nerves, i, 394, 398; syring-
ing antiseptics, ii, 421, 456; tempera-
ment signs, i, 42, 43; twitch injuries,
iii, 157. (See also title Hearing.)

Earth�antiquity of, and existence of man
on, iii, 517, 518; crust formation and
animal remains, iii, 471, 472.

Eased lieel in shoeing, iii, 448.

Eastern blood in hackney and pack-
horses, i, 115, 124; Percherons and
Holsteins, i, 205, 209; thoroughbreds,
i, no, in.

Eastern horses �history, &c, iii, 5^r9,
531- 549, 550.

East Friseland breed of horse, i, 210.

Easton'S syrup�medicinal uses, ii, 478.

EcbOllCS and their uses, iii, 13.

Echinococcosis of liver�causes, i, 314-

Echinococcus veterinorum infesting

liver, i, 307, 313.
Eclampsia and its treatment, i, 410.
"Eclipse"�history, &c, i, 109, hi; iii,

539> 547-
Ecraseurs�castration, iii, 177, 185, 186;

ovaries removal, iii, 181, 183.
Ecthyma � skin disease, ii, 150, 151;

American horse-pox form, ii, 142.
Ecto-parasites, epi-, en to-, and endo-

parasites�use of terms, ii, 160.
Ectropium and its treatment, ii, 112-114.
Eczema and its treatment, ii, 146-148;

drugs, iii, r, 7, 8; mallenders, &c,

a form of, ii, 157; recurrent nature,

ii, 140; ringworm distinction, ii, 164;

sore shoulders, ii, 435, 436.
Education in veterinary science, ii, 442.

Efferent nerves�form, i, 374, 386.
Efferent vessel in kidneys, i, 336.
Egg bandages�uses, &c, iii, 38.

EggS�as invalid diet, iii, 25, 141; use as

antidote, iii, 45.
Egyptian beans�use as food, iii, 349.
Egyptian horses�history, iii, 519, 520,

525. 531-

Eight-year-old�teeth, iii, 399, 400.
Ejaculatory duct of testicle, ii, 67, 69,
7*-

Elaterium�poisoning by, iii, 46.

Elbow and elbow-joint-capped, i, 19;

ii, 359; iii, 343; conformation and
defects, i, 19, 71, 72; ii, 195, 196, 270;
iii, 487; fractures, ii, 221, 245; height
at, and growth measurements, i, 90;
iii, 288, 294, 295-298; muscles, ii,
33°> 33^T> 333; pysemic arthritis affect-
ing, ii, 287,

ElbOW-pad�form, and uses, ii, 360.

Electric fan for ventilating stables, iii, 75.

Electricity � nervous stimulus, &c, use
of, i, 386, 387.

Electuaries�drugs and administration,
ii, 455; iii, 3, 18, 21; for month and
throat, i, 250, 258, 508; for lungs, ii,
3, 9-

Ellesmere, Earl Of�Shire horse prices,

h 185.

Elliman'S physic ball, ii, 445.

Eltham stud�history, i, no.

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INDEX

576

Extensor muscles�action, &c.,J, 19;

ii, 306; iii, 491; forms�bre vis, ii, 344,
metacarpi magnus and obliquus, ii,
332, pedis, ii, 332, 343, suffraginis,
ii, 333; fracture effects, ii, 244; mal-
formations, &c, due to, ii, 303, 304,
346.

Extensor tendons�forms, &c, i, 20;

pedis tendons, ii, 333, 343, contrac-
tion causing deformity, ii, 346, 347;
suffraginis tendon, ii, 333

Exterior of a horse-divisions, points,

and names, i, 2-4, views, i, 13, 14,
21, 22; structure�genital organs, i,
17, 18, head and regions around, i,
4-12, lateral and inferior regions, i,
16, 17; posterior, anterior, and fore
extremities, i, 15, 16, 18-22; posterior
or hind limb, i, 22 ; upper body or
top line, i, 12-15.

External carotid artery�form, i, 451.
External deep ligament of hock joint,

ii, 278.

External flexor of metacarpus �

muscle form, ii, 331.

External genital organs � (see title

Reproduction Organs).

External iliac artery�form, i, 452.
External intercostal muscles-form,

&c, ii, 334.
External oblique muscle of abdomen,

ii, 335. 33°-

External popliteal nerve�form, i, 403.
External respiration�form of, i, 483.
External saphenous nerve �forma-
tion, i, 404.
External tuberosity of humerus, ii, 194.

Extinct horses � remains and history,

iii, 47I-4S4, 509-513, 517-520-
Extracts of various drugs�doses, iii, 10.

Extravasation of blood �a form of

hemorrhage, i, 501, 502; ii, 156.

Extremities of a Horse-
Blood supply to nerves, i, 380.
Coldness due to disease, iii, 143.
Diseases affecting �bone diseases, ii, 210,
211; fractures, ii, 225; joints, ii, 279;
mange, ii, 167; sprain, ii, 289.
Names and structure, i, 2, 3; bones, ii,
177, 178; fore-extremity and muscles,
i, 18-22; ii, 328-333; head region, i,
4-8 ; posterior and anterior extremi-
ties and limb, i, 15, 16, 22.
Extrinsic Causes of disease, i, 214, 215,
220.

Eye and Eyelids, &c�

Dirt and injuries�first aid, &c, ii, 439;
iii, 157-

Diseases�(see titles Eye diseases, Eyelid
diseases).

Drugs and lotions, &c., ii, 454, 456, 457,
463, 464, 481, 483; iii, 14; quinine
impairing sight, ii, 451.

Examination of, i, 11; ii, 103, 109-111;
for soundness and warranty, iii, 367-
370, 422.

Head position, &c., affecting sight, i, 45,
46; iii, 78, 82.

Influence of sight on breeding, &c, iii,
497-

Parasites infesting, ii, 175.

Poisoning symptoms, iii, 47.

Structure, i, 8, 11 � divisions, muscles,
and movement, ii, 103-105, 308;
choroid tunic and ciliary processes,
ii, 105, 106, 107; humours and lens,
ii, 107, 108; iris, pupil, and retina,
ii, 106, 107; nerves, i, 383, 385, 391,
392, 393; ii, 104, 105; orbit, haw,
sclerotic, cornea, and lachrymal
duct, ii, 103-105, 107, 108, 187.

Temperament judged by, i, 41.

Eye diseases, &c � air and light in

stables, i, 45. 46; iii, 78, 82, 142;
bleeding for, ii, 1T5; cocaine for oper-
ations, iii, 160 ; cold of eye, i, 497; de-
fective sight, i. 43, 270: ii. 109. 451 .

Evolution�{Cont.)

Fossil ancestors of the horse, iii, 509, 510,

513-
Generation and evolution, iii, 257-261,

286, 287.
Horse a favourite subject for evolutionist,

iii, 485.
Jelly-fish and origin of man, iii, 258, 479,

482, 483.
Observation and its power, iii, 479�story

of Zadig and the lost dog, &c, iii,

473-475-
Rate of growth of horse, iii, 286, 287.
Shoeing of horses�history, iii, 429-432.
Skin markings and colouring�influences,

»i, 497, 499-
Time required to produce visible changes,

iii, 482-484.
Ewart, Prof., on telegony, iii, 240, 241.

Ewe-neck�appearance, &c., i, 45, 47,

48, 49.
Examination as to Soundness, &c�

Action, and wind, iii, 374, 385.

Defects of conformation and deformities,
iii, 375-

General examination and for eruptive
diseases, iii, 372-374.

Inspection by buyer�warranty regula-
tions, &c., iti, 410.

Introductory, and preliminary observa-
tions, iii, 365-367.

Special parts�eyes, nose, and mouth,
iii, 367-370; head, iii, 370-372; legs
and feet, iii, 376-386.

Training considerations, iii, 301.

[See also title Warranty.]

Examinations for disease � eyes, ii,

109- in; general symptoms and
eruptive diseases, iii, 145, 372-374;
heart, i, 458-461. (See also Post-
Mortem.)
Excitement�as cause of disease, i, 215;
heart rupture, i, 470; plethora, i, 480;
show horses, iii, 313.

Exciting causes of disease � classifi-
cation, &c, i, 214, 219; various
causes and influences, i, 219-224;
fractures and joints, ii, 222, 224, 279.

Excoriations on skin, ii, 137.

Excrescences�(see Growths).

Excreta�(see Dung and Urine).

Excretory ducts of testis, ii, 65, 66.
Exercise and exertion�air and blood

influences, i, 490; cause of disease,
i, 214, 216, 217, 222, indigestion, i,
272, rupture and spasm, i, 217, 313,
470; treatment of pregnant mares,
iii, 264, ship-board horses, iii, 462,
shoulder slip and laminitis, ii, 351,
378, show horses, iii, 311, sick
horses, iii, 143; trotters training, iii,
314-316; urine affected by exercise,
h 337-
ExniOOr ponies � appearance, &c, i,
165, 166; Dartmoor cross, i, 163.

ExomphalUS and its treatment, i, 316-
3'8.

Exostoses and their treatment, i, 417.

Expectoration�drugs, &c, used, ii, 3,
469, 470, 471; iii, 14; symptoms of
pneumonia, ii, 8; tuberculosis, ii, 51.

Expiration of breathing, i, 492, 493;

asthma difficulty, ii, ii; muscles
assisting in, ii, 323, 324, 334, 335, 336.

Exportation Of horses�early prohibi-
tions, i, 173, 174.

Expression of face, &c, as guide to

temperament, i, 41.

Exsiccated alum and iron�medicinal

uses, ii, 447, 456.
Extension in fracture setting, ii, 230, 233,
sprain causes, ii, 289.

Extension movements in locomotion,

iii, 194, 486.

Eye diseases�{Cont.)

examination for disease, unsound-
ness, and warranty, i, 11; ii, 109-111;
iii, 367-370, 422 ; fracture effects, ii,
238; glaucoma and removal of iris,
ii, 123, 124; hereditary effects, iii,
215; pink eye, ii, 31; retraction in
tetanus, ii, 48; seeds in eye, re-
moval, iii, 157; tear duct and watery
discharges, ii, 56, 114. (See also
Blindness, Cataract, Conjunctiva,
Cornea, Ophthalmia.)

Eyelid diseases, ii, in�laceration and
abscesses, ii, 112; inturned and out-
turned, ii, 112-114; loss of lashes,
&c, ii, 114; spotted with blood, ii,
25; swellings, ii, 32, 114.

Eye-teeth�appearance and origin, i, 332;
"i, 389, 39°, 497-

Face and facial region�conformation,

forms, and bones, i, 38-41; ii, 183,
186-189; iii, 493; diseased bone, ii,
215, 216; examination for soundness,
iii, 371 ; fractures and injuries, ii,
238, 438; markings and bkize, iii,
495, 499; muscles, ii, 307-310; nerves,
i, 382, 385, 394; poulticing, ii, 30, 32;
swellings, i, 476; ii, 24; trephining,
i, 500, 501.
Face Cradle for fractured jaw, ii, 241.

Facial nerve centre and nerves�

functions and origin, &c, i, 232, 233,

382, 385, 394.
Facial paralysis and its treatment, i,

422; covering disease effect, ii, 53.
Faeces�(see Dung).
Fainting �isee Collapse).
Fairs and the law of warranty, &c, iii,

417.
Fallen horses �first-aid directions, ii,

441.

Falling of the hips�causes, i, 15.

Fallopian tubes�formation and obstruc-
tion, ii, 77, 80; iii, 229.

False anchylosis�form of, ii, 281.

False nostrils�origin, form, and uses,
i, 10; iii, 508.

False quarter � causes, iii, 436; un-
soundness and warranty, iii, 379,
423-

False ribS�formation of, ii, 191.

False Statements in sale of horses�
warranty and fraud, iii, 410, 411.

False vertebrse�form, ii, 179, 180.

Fans�for stable ventilation, iii, 75.

Farcin de boeuf�similarity to epizootic
lymphangitis, ii, 60, 61.

Farcy�appearance (illust), ii, 1; distinc-
tion from glanders, ii, 33, 36, from
epizootic lymphangitis, ii, 59, 61;
unsoundness and warranty, iii, 422.
(See also title Glanders and farcy.)

Farcy buds�formation, &C, ii, 36-

Farm horses�(see Agricultural horses).

"Farmer's Glory"� type of Cleveland
Bay, i, 129.

Farmers�early breeding of horses, an-
cient laws, &c, i, 173, 174, 186, 188,
189; hackney and hunters breeding,
i, 113, 114, 136, 142; sale of horses
and warranty laws, iii, 414.

Farmyard ponds�water effects, iii, 130.

Farriers�Worshipful Company founda-
tion, &c.j iii, 430.

Fascia�loose in wounds, removal, &C, u>
413; symptoms of fistulous withers,
>i, 433, 434-

Fast traveller�Morgan horse as, i, 207.

Fastening of horses - during transit,

iii, 464-466; for operations, iii, 157;
in stables, iii, 328, 465.
Fasting before operations, iii, 162.

Fat-forming glands of.^kin, ii, 125,126.

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		INDEX
		INDEX		577
				577

Fatigue causing sprain, ii, 354. Fats�in blood and body, i, 435; iii, 87; in food and digestion, i, 241, 246; iii, S9, 96, 97, 98, 100. Fattening of animals �(see Conditioning). Fatty disease of heart � degeneration and infiltration, i, 467, 468-470. Fatty liver and its treatment, i, 308. Faults �(see titles Conformation and de- fects, Defective Action, Vices). Feather�on Clydesdales, i, 192 ; Shires, i, 181, 183; Suffblks, i, 197. Features peculiar to a horse � special structure, iii, 484-497. Febrifuges�(see Antipyretics). Feeding�(see Food). Feelers on lips and nostrils, i, 5, 9. Feet- Conformation, &c, i, 2r, 22, 81, 82; ii, 199; compared with man, iii, 487- 490; for shoeing, iii, 433-438; horny growths and pads, iii, 501-504, 506, 508 ; joints and ligaments, ii, 273, 274; model of hoof, &c, ii, 491; muscles, ii, 332, 333, 343, 345- Evolution and fossil remains�five-toed horses, &c, iii, 286, 476-478, 489, 491, S«, 512, 513. Grooming and healthy condition, iii, 67, 68, i35-r37» 139- Putting into manger�correction, iii, 342. Soundness and warranty, iii, 367, 372, 378, 379, 386, 420, 421, 422. Unnerving precautions, &c, iii, 161, 164, 165. [See also titles Hoof, Pastern, Shoes.] Feet Diseases and Injuries- Defective action causes, &c, ii, 396-402. Deformities, contracted feet, &c, i, 81, 82, 89, 90; ii, 346, 347, 348, 393-395; iii, 168, 439, 440; sprain liability, ii, 289. Discharges caused by various diseases, ii. 373, 374- 379. 381, 383, 384. 4²5> 426. Disqualifying ailments for sires, ii, 302, Fillings in crust�detection, iii, 386, 410. Moss-litter effects, iii, 138, 139. Poulticing directions, iii, 30, 31. Pricks and wounds, ii, 210, 380, 381, 3⁸5"3^S7, 4^I3i 44, 4²8- Soundness and warranty�(see Feet). Various diseases�fever in the feet, ii, 376-378 : horn tumour, ii, 372 ; sand crack, ii, 365-367 ; shelly feet and seedy toe, ii, 367-371; side bones, ii, 387. [See also titles Canker, Corn, Cracked heels, Lameness, Navicular dis- ease, Quittor, Thrush, Villitis.] Feetlock�meaning of term, i, 21; iii, 501. Fell pony�appearance and cross, i, 169, 171. Female genital organs �* (see title Reproduction). Femoral artery�formation, &c, i, 453. FemorO-tibial joint and ligaments, ii, 275-277. Femur bone�conformation, i, 22, 83, 85; ii, 201; fracture, ii, 226, 260; joints, ii, 274, 275-277; muscle connections, ii. 339-341. 342. 343-345- Fences�jumping methods, iii, 201. Fenugreek�medicinal uses, iii, 15, 17. Fermentation � a cause of disease, i, 216, 221, 283; in stomach, i, 270� drugs for, ii, 485; influence of bac- teria, i, 227. Ferments produced in digestion, i, 234, 235) 244, 245. Fetlock and Fetlock-joint� Conformation and defects, i, 21, 75, 76, 79; ii, 198, 199; malformations, ii, 346, 347. 348; ergots, i, 18, 21; ii, 132. 133; ii'. 478, 500-508; muscle connections, ii, 332, 333, 343, 345.
	*Fetlock and Fetlock-joint-(�"<?«.) Diseases and injuries affecting, ii, 60, 220, 286, 301, 386; bandages and poulticing, iii, 31, 38; fractures, ii, 251, 252; sloughing, iii, 103; sprains, ii, 294, 295, 297, 298, 355; wind-galls, ii. 355. 356- Examination for soundness, iii, 377, 380. Foot striking�due to defective action, ii, 396, 397; iii. 455, 45^- Knuckling over causes, &c, ii, 297, 298. Operation of unnerving, iii, 161, 164. Fever�*ailments due to, i, 254, 274, 468; i'. 3Si* 50. 57, 364; drugs, &c, ii, 451; iii, 7, 8, ¹5, 17, 18; food and appetite, iii, 141; poisoning and pasturage effects, iii, 48, 78; pulse indications, iii, 147, 148. (See also titles Con- tagious diseases, Infectious diseases, Temperature; for special fever, see its name.) Fever in the feet and its treatment, ii, 376-378; other causes and effects, i, 290; ii, 368, 369; iii, 109; unsound- ness and warranty, iii, 422. Fibres�bone structure, ii, 208; muscle structure, ii, 305, 306; rupture due to sprain, ii, 292; nerve fibres (see that title). Fibrillse of muscle, ii, 305. Fibrine Of blOOd�in powder for sick horses, iii, 141. Fibrinogen in blood, i, 435, 436. FibrO-Cartilages �joints structure, ii, 195, 199, 263, 275; loose cartilages around joints, ii, 284, 285. Fibroma and its treatment, ii, 155. FibrOUS tissue, &c.�aneurism causes, i, 478; joint disease, ii, 281; fiver capsule rupture, i, 309,310: sheath of tendons, ii, 306; testicle structure, ii, 66, 67; wound-healing process, 11,405. Fibula�conformation, i, 23, 85; ii, 203, 208; muscles connection, ii, 343, 344. Fields �disinfection, iii, 156. (See also Land, Pasturage.) Filaria causing disease, ii, 174, 7$- Filled legs�causes, treatment, &c., ii, 364; iii, 39, 462, 463; drugs, iii, 6; unsoundness, iii, 380. Fillings on fOOt�detection and fraud, iii, 386, 410. Filters* for rain-water, iii, 336. Fingers Of man�comparison with foot of horse, iii, 487-490, 500, 501. Fireplaces and fires � stable structure and ventilation, iii, 74, 332. "Fireway 249"�pedigree, i, 123. "Fireway" (West's and Read's)�records, i, 116, 117. Firing�advantages, methods, and instru- ments, hi, 166, 167; for castration, iii, 173, 174; sprains, ii, 294, 296, 297; various affections, ii, 218, 220, 291, 302, 359, 366, 388; use of drugs, ii, 483, 488; iii, 160. First-aid to sick and injured �articles useful in, ii, 438, 439; bleeding and its arrest, ii, 437-439; collapse, fallen and runaway horses, ii, 440, 441; horses in ditches, &c, ii, 439. 44°: poisoning, iii, 44-46. First inter-phalangial articulation, ii, 273- First phalanx of fore-limb, ii, 198. Fissure of spinal cord, i, 381, 382. Fistula�causes and treatment, i, 261-263; ii, 429, 430; disinfecting fluid for, ii, 488. Fistulous WOUndS and their treatment �poll evil, ii, 430-432; quittor on coronet, and fistulous withers, ii, 378, 379, 432-435; shoulders, ii, 435, 436�drugs for, ii, 449; iii, 2, 4. Fit Condition�meaning of term, ii, 44⁶- Fits�choking causing, i, 266; epileptic and apoplectic fits, i, 410, 413; un- soundness and warranty, iii, 422.
			Five-toed animals�horse evolution, &c, iii, 286, 476-478, 489, 491, 510,- Five-year-OldS�hunter's work, iii, 309; teeth of, iii, 389, 390, 395, 398, 399. Fixed joints�formation, ii, 279. Flanders�heavy horse breeding, &c, i, i73, 175. i7⁶. ^J77, 178; hi, 539. 540. Flank�conformation, i, 15, 17; disease effects, i, 17, 312, 320; muscles, ii, 335, 33⁶- Flannel bandages�for muddy legs, iii, 136; sick horses warmth, iii, 143. Flaps�in stable-drainage, iii, 329. Flat bones �description, &c, ii, 177, 178. Flat feet�shoeing, iii, 440, 448, 453, 454. Flat-WOrmS�in intestines, ii, 162, 172- 174. Flatulence�due to broken wind, ii, 13; indigestion, i, 273; liver disorders, i, 3°3> 3°7�drugs for, ii, 465, 466; iii, f ²> 3, 7, 8. Flatulent COliC* and its treatment, 1, 281- 284; drugs, ii, 459, 485; iii, 6. Fleam �use causing thrombosis, i, 475, 476. Fleming's tincture of aconite�dose, iii, 11. Flemish horses � hackney and pack horse breeding from, i, 115, 124; Shires and Clydesdale crosses, i, 779, 186, 187, 188, 189. Fleshy head�appearance, &c, i, 37. Flexion movements in locomotion, hi, j 94, 486. Flexor muscles�action, &c, i, 19; ii, 306; iii, 193, 491; bowed knees and malformations due to, ii, 303, 304, 34⁶- Flexor muscles�forms, &c�brachii, ii, 195, 329, sprain of, ii, 292, 293; brevis, iii, 492: metacarpi�internus, medius, and externus, ii, 330, 331; metatarsi muscle, ii, 343, 344; sprain, &c., ii, 299; pedis accessorius muscle, ii. 345; pedis perforans muscle, ii, 33) 345; ih, 193: pedis perforatus muscle, ii, 331, 344. FleXOr tendons* (perforans and perfora- tus)�forms, i, 20; ii, 331, 332; con- formation of canon and fetlock, i, 75, 76, 77, 79; contraction causing de- formity, ii, 346; curb causes, ii, 300; navicular fracture and disease effects, ii, 252, 253, 390, 392; iii, 193; opera- tion for division, iii, 168-171; pricks and wounds affecting, ii, 385; sprain of tendons, ii, 296; wind-gall causes, ii, 355, 35°: weight effects, ii, 78. Flies�horses infested with, ii, 163. Floating bones�form and uses, ii, 198; ih, 487, 488. Floats for horse-transit, iii, 464. Flood, The�Chinese history on, iii, 517. Flooding in mares, ii, 87-89. Floors for stables, iii, 69, 70, 326, 334, 337. 338; drainage, iii, 84, 86. Flowers of sulphur�uses, ii, 490. Fluid measure for medicinal uses, iii, n. Fluids�digestive juices, &c, i, 235, 245, 246; eye humours and disease, ii, 107, 108, 123; horse-sickness, ii, 56; joint diseases and sprains, ii, 283, 297 ; in muscles and tissues, ii, 27 ; in ovary and womb, ii, 79, 91 ; pleurisy symptoms, ii, 14, 16, 17; skin, ii, 22; absorption and poisonous action on skin of certain fluids and micro-organisms, ii, 129-131, 406. (See also title Discharges.) Fluke-worms�causing disease, i, 313, 315; ii, 162, 173, 174; generation of, iii, 260, 480. Flushing of stable drains, iii, 86, 87, 329. "Flying Childers" �descent and his- tory, iii, 539, 547. "Flying FOX"�illust. of thoroughbred, i, 112.

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	578
	578		INDEX
			INDEX

Flying jumper�methods, Hi, 200. Flying trot-action of, in, 195. Foaling - "bOX � cleansing and heating, &c, ii, 288; iii, 227, 228, 268. Foals� Ailments and diseases common to � aphtha; or thrush, i, 250-252; bowed knees, ii, 303-305; constipation, i, 284, 285; diarrhoea, i, 286, 288; hernia and trusses for, i, 316, 317, 322 ; hoofs�overgrown, iii, 436; intestinal obstruction, i, 296 ; joint ill, i, 306; ii, 280; liver inflammation, i, 305, 306 ; patella dislocation, ii, 352; pysemic arthritis, ii, 287-289; rectum plugging, i, 284, 285. Birth of� appearance and care at, iii, 220, 221, 270, 285; natural delivery and Representations, iii, 269-284; premature foals, iii, 221, 267; size measurements, iii, 294, 297; "slip- ping the foal", iii, 267-269; when foals should fall, iii, 285�ponies, i, 155) ^]56. Food�artificial after birth, i, 252 ; iii, 257; foster mothers, i, 287; iii, 222; hand-rearing and weaning, use of cows' milk, &c, iii, 222-226, 285 (see also Suckling). Growth of�rate before birth, iii, 245- 257, 261-264, 288-295; after birth, iii, 294-298. Navel-string � immediate dressing, ii, 288; iii, 285. Teeth � temporary and milk teeth, iii, 393-396. Thoroughbred rearing�conditions, &c, i, 107, 112, 113. [See also titles Embryo and fcetus, Par- turition and Pregnancy.] Foam at mOUth�due to bleeding lungs, ii, 10; bone disease, ii, 213; fits, i, 410, 413; horse-sickness, ii, 56; poisoning, iii, 47; salivation, i, 258. Fodder�(see Food). Fodder-rOOm�structure, &c, iii, 333. Foetal membranes �formation of, iii, 250-252. Foetus �(see title Embryo and fcetus). Follicles of ovary, ii, 78, 79. Fomentations�(see Hot applications). Fontana, Canal Of�in eye, ii, 108. Food and Diet� As cause of disease, i, 214, 215, 216, 221, 222; ii, 51; iii, 701-106; damaged fodder, ii, 20, 42; medicine v. judicious dieting, ii, 442. (See also title Food Errors.) Body needs and constitution�table, &c, iii, 87. Chewing and manner of eating�time, &c, i, 233,246,247,329. Choking prevention, &c, i, 486; ii, 17. Cleanliness in stable�removal of food, &c.; iii, 67, 142. Composition, assimilation, and functions of various foods�tables, &c., i, 241- 244; iii, 88, 89, 90-92, 96-101, 118, 119. Digestibility and nutritive value of various foods�tables, &c., iii, 90-92, 96-101, 118, 119. Digestion process�action of saliva, &c, 1, 230-234; food in stomach and alimentary canal, &c, i, 234-238, 246, 247; processes of digestion, i, 244-247�of various foods, iii, 118, 119. Effect of food�on blood, i, 433, 434, 443; ii, 447; lacteal system, i, 426, 427, 428; respiration, i, 490; "stone" formation, i, 298, 300; urine, i, 338, 339- Errors in feeding�(see title Food Errors). Feeding system�amount per day and arrangement of diet, i, 221, 241, 243; iii, 91-95, 346, 347; choice and preparation of food, iii, 106-118;
		Food and Diet�[Cont.) Feeding system��{Cont.) conditioning foods, ii, 446; cooked food, iii, 346, 350; green foods, iii, 95, 35^I-354; mixed diet, need, iii, 343- 345, 346; oats and hay only, iii, 346; steam power for cutting up foods, "i> 337; various grains, &c, used, iii, 347-351- (See also subheadings Special diet; for special food, see its name.) Fracture causing feeding difficulty, ii, 240. Rectum�food injections by, i, 253. Special diet for diseases�broken wind, ii, 13; constipation, ii, 442; gastritis, i, 275, 276 ; tetanus, ii, 48 ; use of arsenic, caution, ii, 453. Special diet�for hungry horses, i, 263; ponies, i, 155, 156; sick horses, iii, 25-28, 140-142; before operations, iii, 162, 181, 183, 184; ship horses, iii, 463; Shires, i, 181; show horses, iii, 310, 311; sires, iii, 238; Suffolks, i, 198; training, iii, 303, 316. (See also titles Breeding, Mares.) Wild horses�natural food, i, 24T. [See also titles Digestion, Indigestion, Pasture, Water; for special food, see its name.] Food Errors and Improper Feeding� As causes of disease, i, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 221, 222. Bed-eating�prevention, iii, 139, 208, 265, 34¹- Diseases influenced by�ansemia, i, 478; broken wind, ii, 12, 13; bog-spavin, ii, 290, 291; colic, i, 282; constipa- tion, i, 284, 285; dilation of stomach, i, 276; diarrhoea and dysentery, i, 286, 291; filled legs, ii, 364; gastritis, i, 276; glanders and farcy, ii, 34; hsemo-globinuria, ii, 26, 29; heart affections, i, 468, 470; laminitis, ii, 376; liver disorders, i, 303, 305, 308, 309; lymphangitis, ii, 22; cedema of sheath, ii, 84; plethora, i, 480; rheumatism, ii, 20; skin disorders, ii, 138, 139, 143, 145, 146; thorough- pin, ii, 358. Gorged food � antiseptic treatment, ii, 485. Medicine v. judicious dieting, ii, 442. Poison by food-stuffs, &c�(see Poisons). Foot�(see Feet). Foot and mouth disease�cause, &c., i, 223. FootlOCk of fetlock, i, 21; iii, 501. Footprints of various paces, iii, 197; of animals on rocks, &c, iii, 472. Foot Surface of shoes, iii, 442. Foramen dextrum and sinistrum of diaphragm, ii, 337. Foramen lacerum at base of skull, i, 45¹- Foramen magnum�cranium formation, ii, 184. Foramen of Monro�brain structure, i, 384- Foramen Ovale�formation, iii, 256. Force�as aid in foaling, iii, 284; in train- ing, iii, 301-303, 3°9- Forced respiration�conditions, i, 494; high blowing due to, ii, 19. Forceps � for castration, iii, 173, 174, 175, 185; for foaling, iii, 284; litho- tripsy or "stone", i, 364, 367; sand crack, ii, 367; tenotomy, iii, 169; wire cutting, ii, 419, 420. Forcing�(see Conditioning). Forearm � conformation, defects, and bones, i, 19, 71, 72, 102; ii, 194, 195- 197; disease due to sprain, ii, 293; dislocation, ii, 350; fracture, ii, 244, 246; joint, ii, 270; muscles and con- nections, i, 19, 72, 73; ii, 327, 329-333. Fore extremities�conformation, i, 3, 18-22; muscles, ii, 328-333.		Forehead�conformation and defects, i, 8, 38, 39, temper signs, i, 41, 42; muscles attached to ear, ii, 311. (Poll evil, see that title.) Fore-Limbs� Action�in drawing a load, i, 68, 88; de- fective action and injuries, ii, 396-402. Blistering, iii, 39. Conformation, defects and bones, i, 18- 22,66-68,90; ii, 192-195�of forearm bones, ii, 195-197 � of metacarpal and other bones, ii, 197-200; com- pensation for defects, i, 102; special structure and comparison to man, iii, 485-487, 49¹- Diseases � (see title Limbs � diseases and injuries). Fractures of various bones, ii, 243, 244- 246, 247,248-250, 250-253; bandaging for, ii, 231, 232; hi, 37; iron splint for, ii, 247. Functions of the limbs, i, 67. Growth before birth, iii, 288-294; after bir,th, iii, 294-297. Lymphatic vessels of, i, 426. Nerves, arteries, and muscles, i, 66, 447, 449; ii, 320, 328-333; iii, 491; illusts., i. 39°> 398. Soundness�examination, iii, 376-382. Strapping up in operations, iii, 157. Tendons and ligaments, i, 20; ii, 222, 223. Weight of body distribution, i, 91, 92. Foreign Bodies- Diseases, &c, due to�colic, i, 279; eye inflammation, ii, in, 114; gastritis, i, 274; heart inflammation, i, 461, 462; laryngitis and spasm of larynx, i, 507; ii, 17; penis affection, ii, 83; sinuses, ii, 428. Removal and results�cocaine uses, ii, 483; in tongue or throat, i, 253, 255; wounds, ii, 408-410, 412, 413, 439. [See also titles Calculi, Stone.] Foreign breeds of horses�(see titles Arab, East Friseland, Hanoverian, Holstein, Morgan,, Oldenburgh, Percheron, Schleswig, &c.) ForelOCk of head, i, 4. Forfeited Shoes�history, iii, 430. Forging as defective action, ii, 399, 400; i'i, 457- Forks�wounds caused by, ii, 413. Fossil horses�history on, iii, 286, 287, 288, 472, 475, 492, 494, 509-513. Fossilized teeth- identification of ani- mals, iii, 492, 494. Fossils�meaning of name, iii, 472. FOSter-mOtherS�use and effects, i, 287; iii, 222. Foundation StOCk�for breeding, iii, 211-213. Founder�a form of unsoundness, iii, 422. Four-Off�age indications, iii, 393. Four-year-Old.S � hunter training, iii, 309; mating, iii, 215; teeth, iii, 398. Fowler's Solution of arsenic � various uses of, i, 500; ii, 148, 157, 453. Foxglove�medicinal uses, ii, 460; poison- ing by, iii, 56. FOXy OatS causing disease, iii, 104. Fractures or Broken Bones- Bandaging of various fractures, ii, 231- 233, 242, 244, 245, 247, 249, 250, 423; iii, 43- Causes, and the influence of age, vio- lence, &c, ii, 222-224. Diseases of joints due to, ii, 280. Distinction from displacement or disloca- tion, ii, 222, 226; from sprain, ii, 298. Forms, and general symptoms and treat- ment, ii, 221, 222, 224-233. Particular fractures, and special treat- ment-compound fractures, ii, 233> 234; face and frontal bones, ii, 238; maxillary bone, ii, 242; skull, ii, 234*

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			INDEX		579
			INDEX

				Gilbey, Sir W.�early horse-history, i, 172, 175, 177; horses owned by, i, 123,185. Gin for colic, i, 281. Ginger�medicinal uses, ii, 445, 462; iii, 4; doses, iii, 10, n. Girth�position and measurements from, i, 16, 91; iii, 297. Glancer Stallion 335�Clydesdale breed- ing from, i, 189, 190. Glanders and Farcy- Appearance of (illust.), ii, 1, 34. Causes, infection, incubation, and symp- toms, ii, 34-37; iii, 151; organism or bacteria causing, i, 223, 224, 481; ii, 34, 160, 428. Communicable to human subjects, ii, 37. Complications�anaemia, i, 479; bleeding nose and lungs, i, 503; ii, 10; laryn- gitis, i, 507; nasal catarrh, i, 500. Designations and early history, ii, 33, 34. Distinction, ii, 36�from covering disease, ii, 52; horse-pox or pseudo-farcy, ii, 141, 142; stomatitis pustulosa, ii, 49, 50. Examination for, iii, 370, 371. Form of blood-poisoning, i, 481. Mallein test and syringe, i, 228; ii, 35, 37, 38, 39- ^ Mercury uses, ii, 489. Sale of horses�restrictions, &c, iii, 422. Suppression�act, and measures, ii, 37; iii, i5²- Unsoundness and warranty, iii, 422. Glands�absorbent system, i, 429; drugs affecting glands, ii, 464, 467, 489; iii, 5; structure�eye, ii, 108; groin, i, 17; intestines, i, 236, 245; pancreas, i, 241; reproduction organs, i, 17; ii, 66, 67, 69, 70, 74, 82; skin, ii, 126, 127- 131; soundness examination, iii, 372; symptoms of diseases, i, 500; ii,4i,50, 51; salivary glands (see that title). GlanS penis�formation and swelling, ii, 69, 70, 82. Glass causing feet injuries, ii, 386. Glass Of the eye�part known as, ii, 105. Glauber's salt�medicinal uses, ii, 450. Glaucoma and its treatment, ii, 123. Glenoid cavity, &c, of scapula, ii, 194, 270. Gliding joints�forms, &c, ii, 263. Globus major and minor of testis, ii, 66, 67. GlOSS-anthraX�symptoms, &c, ii, 43,44* GlOSSitiS and its treatment, i, 252-254, Glossopharyngeal nerve and connec- tions, i, 232, 376, 385, 395. GlOSSy skin�clothing uses, iii, 138; drugs. used, ii, 453, 474, 491; iii, 48; use of vitriol, i, 248. Glottis Of larynx, i, 485; muscle action, ii, 37- Glue bandages�uses, &c, iii, 38. Gluteal artery�formation, i, 452. Gluteal nerves�formation, i, 403. Gluteus mUSCleS�forms, &c, ii, 339. Glycerine�medicinal uses, ii, 444: iii, 4. Glycerine of carbolic acid�uses, &c, ii, 484. Glycogen* in digestion and muscles, &c, i, 241, 490. GlyptOdonts�animals termed,iii, 497,498. "Godolphin Arabian" � history and descendants, i, m, 115; iii, 547, 550. GOOd Stable�plan, &c, iii, 323. Goose-grease�uses, iii, 42. GOOSe-rump � conditions causing, i, 60,. 151, 166. Goubaux and Barrier on conformation, and defects, i, 39, 56, 57, 60, 62, 68, 71, 76, 80, 83, 91, 100; compensating. points, i, 101; centre of gravity and. equilibrium, i, 30; coupling of head, and neck, i, 45; defective action, ii, 396; height, length, and weight, i, 91,. 92, 95, 96, 97, 99.
		Galvayne'S teeth and age test, iii, 401. Gamboge�poisoning by, iii, 46. Game-hunting horses � prevention of horse-sickness, ii, 58. Games, ancient�uses of horses, iii, 522, 526, 527. Ganglia�brain structure and functions, i, 383, 390; cranial nerves�Gasserian, Andersch's, and jugular ganglion, i, 393, 3951 heart structure, ii, 458; semilunar or solar ganglion of dorsal nerve, 1, 377; spinal nerves, i, 397; sympathetic nerves, i, 374, 375. Gangrene�of mammary gland, ii, 95, 96; penis and sheath, ii, 83; vaginitis and parturient fever causes, ii, 91, 92. Gangrenous pneumonia due to influ- enza, ii, 32. Gargles and their uses, iii, 41; drugs for, ». 454, 455; »i, 2, 3. GaseS�air and water pollution, &c, iii, 78, 82, 121, 126, 127, 133; causing asphyxia and poisoning, i, 494; iii, 45; colic, i, 278, 281,283; eye diseases, ii, 114, 116; fatty liver, i, 309; indi- gestion, i, 269, 270; respiration ex- changes, &c, i, 482, 483, 487-491; skin absorption, ii, 129. Gaskin�conformation, i, 22, 23, 80, 86. Gasserian ganglion of cranial nerves, i, 393- Gastric artery�formation, i, 452. Gastric digestion and juice�compo- sition, uses, and action of juice, i, 235, 244; ii, 465; drugs affecting, ii, 449, 465, 466, 467; gastric irritation and effects, i, 258, 273; peptic glands for secretion of, i, 234, 235; process of digestion, i, 244. Gastric pleXUS�formation, i, 377. Gastritis and its treatment, i, 273-275; abuse of drugs causing, i, 276; rup- ture due to, i, 277. Gastrocnemii tendons�sprain, ii, 300. Gastrocnemius muscle-form, &c, ii, 344, 362- Gates�for stable-yard, iii, 334. Geldings�hernia rare in, i, 318; penis and sheath swellings, ii, 81. (See also Castration.) Gemelli muscle�form, &c, ii, 342. General examination as to soundness, iii. 372, 373- General symptoms of disease�defini- tion, hi, 144; diagnosis and examina- tion for, iii, 145-150. General warranty�form of, iii, 406. Generation�alternate process and influ- ences, iii, 259-261, 480. (See also titles Evolution, Reproduction.) Generative or genital organs�(see title Reproduction Organs). Genio-hyo-glossus muscle of tongue �form, &c., ii, 314. Genio-hyoideus muscle�form, &c, ii, ^313- Gentian�medicinal uses, ii, 464, 466; iii, 4; doses, iii, 10, n. Geology�horses of present and past, iii, 471-484. German boil-form, &c, ii, 150. German horses�description and types, i, 175, 176, 208-210; iii, 530. Germ-Cell�impregnation, &c, iii, 245, 246, 248, 298, 483, 484. Germinal vesicle and spot in ovum, iii, 247, 248, 258. Germs�air before and after respiration, i, 487, 488; antiseptic preparations and destruction of, ii, 420,421, 451. (For causes of disease see titles Bacteria, Organisms, Parasites.) Gestation�changes in uterus, and physi- ology of, iii, 252, 261-285, 483. Giddiness�due to brain, i, 405; megrims or vertigo, i, 407-409; quinine uses, ii, 451; worms causing, ii, 171, 174.
Fractures or Broken Bones�{Cont.) Setting procedure, ii, 228-233. Teeth�treatment, i, 330; ii, 239-242. Vertebrae or spine, ii, 235, 236 � sprain distinction, ii, 298. [For special bones see their names, as Jaw, Pelvis, Ribs, Ulna, &c.�also titles Fore-limbs, Hind-limbs.] Fraud in sale of horse�legal offences and warranty, iii, 408, 409-411. Free-moving joints�form, &c, ii, 262, 279; disease, ii, 279, 282. French breeds of horses, i, 205. French suture needle for wounds, ii, 419. Frenzy�due to brain inflammation, i, 406, 407; to "staggers" or indigestion, i, 268, 271; to parturition, iii, 271. Friar's balsam�various uses, i, 248; ii, 3; iii, 2. Fright�control of horses during, ii, 437. Frcenum of tongue, i, 7. Frog Of foot �anatomy, iii, 434, 437; canker, ii, 381; navicular disease affecting, ii, 392; paring evils, ii, 368, 373, 374, 394; preparation for shoeing, iii, 439, 441 ; pricks and wounds to, ii, 385-387; removal effects, ii, 394; unsoundness, iii, 381, 382. Front limbs�(see Fore-limbs). Frontal bones of cranium, ii, 186; frac- ture, ii, 238; muscles attached to, ii, 308 (see also Face). Frontal cranial nerve�form, i, 393. Frontal sinuses�form, i, 8; ii, 186; fracture effects, ii, 238, 239. Frost-bites causing quittor, ii, 379. Frost-nails used in shoeing, iii, 451. Froth�(see Foam at mouth). Fulcrum in locomotion, iii, 191, 194. Fullered fore-shoes�method, iii, 445, 447- Fumigation � (see title Inhalation and fumigation). Fundus of bladder�stone in, i, 358,359. Fundus Of eye�appearance, ii, no. Fungi�as cause of disease, i, 224; ii, 161; by food, iii, 102-104; digestive sys- tem parasites, ii, 169-175; ringworm due to, ii, 165; water pollution, iii, 126-129. Fungous growths on feet, ii, 366, 382. Furniture of harness-room, iii, 332. Furred tongue due to liver, i, 303. FurrOW Of torsion in humerus, ii, 194; muscle connection, ii, 330. FUTUnCUlUS�a skin inflammation, ii, 150.

	G Gag�fractured jaw due to, ii, 239; physic given by, iii, 20. Gag-bit�use of, iii, 359. Gait�(see Action). GaitS, Shortened�compensating points, i, 103. Gall-bladder not present in a horse, i, 240. Galled back�cause of, i, 220. Gallic acid�medicinal uses, ii, 455; iii, 10; as antidote, iii, 51. Galloping�equilibrium, action and forms, i, 30, 82, 84; iii, 192, 197, 198, in training, iii, 199, 305, 306; croup for- mation, i, 58; poisoning effects, iii, 54; respiration effects, i, 494; results or diseases due to, ii, 17, 19, 219, 354, 398, 400. Galloway horses�Clydesdale breeding from, i, 187, 190, 193. Galloway pony �wager won by Mr Sinclair, i, 169.

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			INDEX
	580


		Growth Of the horse � development of present and past types, &c, iii, 471 -484, 517-520; evolution and other influences, iii, 286-288, 298: rate before birth, iii, 288-295 ; rate after birth, iii, 294-298. Growths � bone diseases, ii, 205, 206; cornea of eye, ii, 118; drugs destroy- ing, &c, ii, 453, 468, 488; iii, 2, 4, 6, 7, 13; gut - thickening causing obstruction, i, 296; heart valves and aorta disease, i, 464, 472, 473; loose cartilages around joints, ii, 284, 285; keratoma, or horn tumour, ii, 372; larynx growihs, i, 507, 512; opera- tions for destruction, iii, 166, 167; ovarian cysts, ii, 103; penis and sheath, ii, 81, 82, 83; sterility causes, iii, 229; various diseases due to, i, 276, 277, 350, 351, 353; ii, 14. (See also titles Cancer, Cysts, Tumours.) Gruel�preparation, iii, 27; for hunters, iii, 113, 309; mares, iii, 227, 270; sick horses, iii, 141. Grunting�a test of roaring, i, 511. Guarantee as to soundness�(see titles Examination, Warranty). Guard "bit�type and use, iii, 359. Guinea-pigS � inoculation for various diseases, iii, 37, 38, 42, 45. Gullet�obstruction, i, 265. Gullies for stable drainage, iii, 85, 86. Gum acacia�medicinal uses, iii, 5, 11. Gum-arabic as an antidote, iii, 54, 60. GumS�astringents for soft gums, ii, 457; blueness due to poison, iii, 51; in- flamed, due to teeth, i, 326, 330; spots on, i, 249; wound due to bone disease, ii, 213. Gustatory nerve�formation, i, 394. Gut�colic effects on, i, 278, 295 ; hernia or rupture treatment, i, 317, 319-323; inversion of rectum, i, 301, 302; ob- struction due to thickening or twist- ing, i, 296; operation uses, iii, 163, 164, 175, 185. (See also Cat-gut.) Gutta percha�for fracture uses, ii, 241; for tooth filling, i, 331. Gutters for stable drainage, iii, 84, 86, 329. Guttural pOUChes�form, and diseases due to pus in, i, 504-507, 511; iii, 508. H Habits, bad� (see Vices). Hackney Horses� Action�points and importance, i, 121- 123. Appearance and conformation, i, 116, 118-121. Breeding and crosses, i, 114, 115; Arab cross, i, 203; Cleveland bay, i, 130, 131; Oldenburghs and Holsteins, i, 208, 209; pack horse resemblance, i, 125. Early uses and origin, i, 113-118. Harness horse qualifications, &c, i, 152, 153- Height and speed�trotting pace, &c, i, 116-118. Illustrations�mare, i, 306; stallions, i, 38, 172, 180; teeth, iii, 396. Hackney pony�appearance and origin, i, 170; breeding uses, i, 160, 161, 162, 171. Hacks � conformation, &c, i, 147-149; Arabs as lady's hack, i, 203; show horses, iii, 310, 312. HsematemesiS a form of bleeding, i, 501. HsematiniCS�medicines termed, ii, 447. Ha^matOgraph showing pulse waves, iii, 148. HsematopinUS on skin, ii, 166. Hematuria and its treatment, i, 347, 348. Haemoglobin�in blood, i, 432, 433; air- changes, i, 489; in urine, i, 344.		HsemO-globinuria and its treatment, &c, i, 344; ii, 29-31 ; analysis of urine, &c, ii, 26-29; fracture symp- toms mistaken for, ii, 237. Haemophilia and its treatment, i, 501; ii, 158, 159. Haemoptysis�description and treatment, i, 501; ii, 10. Haemorrhage�(see Bleeding). Haemorrhagic diathesis and its treat- ment, ii, 158, 159. Hail�Arab stud at, i, 202, 204, 205. HaiT�composition and growth, ii, 125, 126, 131, 132; iii, 495, 504, 505, on ear, i, 10, groin, i, 17, lip, i, 5, nos- trils, i, 9; eggs of bot-fly on, ii, 170; loss�due to erythema, ii, T44, mange, ii, 166-168, nettle rash, ii, 146, ring- worm, ii, 164-166, senile decay, ii, 155; removal for wounds and blister- ing, &c, i, 482; iii, 38, 39; washing in disease, iii, 35. (See also titles Coat, Feather, Staring coat.) Hair follicles�structure and secretions, ii, 125, 126, 131. Hairy growths on eye, ii, 118. Half-man half-horse-fable on origin of, iii, 521. Halt-and-gO-lame due to "speedycut", ii, 401. Halters�for stalls, iii, 328; operations, iii, 157; training trotters, iii, 314. Hampton Court stud�foundation, i, no. Hamstrings � conformation, i, 23, 86; sprain and thorougbpin effects, ii, 300, 357. Hand-gallop--form of, iii, 196, 197. Hand-rearing of foals, i, 287; iii, 222- 224. Hands�cleansing for operations, &c, h, 421, 484, 487, 488; iii, 4, 154, 182, 185; driving influences, iii, 312; structure compared with foot of horse, iii, 491, 501-504, 508. Hanoverian horses � origin, appear- ance, &c, i, 206, 207, 209; illust. of, i, 320. Hard ground causing disease, ii, 207, 219, 220, Hard liver�cause of, i, 307. Hard-mouths � production causing lip troubles, i, 248. Hard palate�structure, i, 7. Hard Water�analysis, disease cause, and softening, iii, 122-124, 131. Hard work�too early, effects, ii, 348, 349; training for, iii, 302. Harness�accidents and liability, iii, 418: adjustment, choice, and care, iii, 357-359; friction causing disease, Hj 144, 145, 433, 435; infection from, ii, ¹5°, 5^j; iii, ^I52; putting on a cause of diarrhoea, i, 287: show horses, iii, 313 ; undoing on falling horses, ii, 441; training trotters, &c, iii, 314. Harness Horses-* Breeding and crosses, i, 152, 153; iii, 206; comparison of British and foreign breeds, i, 208, 209. Breeds suitable�Cleveland bays, i, 125, 126, 129, 131, 133; hackneys, i, 122; Morgans, i, 207; Yorkshire coach- horse, i, 133. Conformation, action, and training, 1, 149-152; ii, 320; iii, 310-313. Diseases common to�brain tumours, h 415; due to occupation, i, 219; sore shoulders, ii, 435. Illustration of type, i, 222. Shoes suitable, iii, 443, 445. Harness pony�use of type, i, 160. Harness room�structure, &c, iii, 33¹" 333. 337: plans, iii, 320-324. "Harold"�Shire stallion (illust.), i, 9⁸-__ Harold Strain�breeding prepotency, i»» 212.
Goulard's extract�as a lotion, ii, 464. Gout�heredity influence, ii, 20 (see also Arthritis). GOWing'S parturition instrument, iii, 283. Graafian follicles of ovary, ii, 78, 79,80; iii, 184, 246-248; dilatation, ii, 102. Gracilis muscle-form, &c, ii, 341. Grain as food�choice, mixture, &c, iii, 107, 108, 344-347; for show horses, iii, 311; boiling, iii, 28; disease due to, iii, 102. (See also titles Corn, Oats, Wheat, &c.) Grains of Paradise�medicinal uses, ii, 462. Granolithic paving for stables, iii, 327. Granulation � ulcers covered with, ii, 426, 427; wound-healing and drugs used, ii, 405-407, 412, 413, 457, 463; tissue in stone of bladder, i, 358. Grass�(see title Pasture and Grass). Grass-woven shoes�uses, iii, 429. Gravel�(see Stone). Gravity�(see Centre of gravity). Gray powder�medicinal uses, ii, 488. Gray substance of brain and spine, i, 381, 383, 384, 387- Grazing�(see Pasture). Grease disease � causes, &c, ii, 127, 140, 141; iii, 68, 349; drugs, &c, ii, 448, 456, 464, 474, 485; iii, 7; horse- pox distinction, ii, 43, 140, 141; mange-mite in, ii, 167; similarity of canker, ii, 381; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 374, 381, 422. Great anterior cranial nerve-for- mation, i, 393. Great crural nerve�formation, i, 402. Great horse�origin and history, i, 173- 176, 179, 180; iii, 539, 540, 543. Great hyo-glossus muscle�form, &c, *», 34- Great metatarsal artery�formation, >. 453- Great portal vein�circulation through, i, 447- Great splanchnic nerve�form, i, 376, 377- Grecian horses�history, &c, iii, 520, 521-525- Green fOOd � composition and advan- tages, use of silage, &c, i, 243, 244; iii, 89, 115-118,351; digestibility, iii, 90, 91, 97, 99; invalid diet, iii, 26; for various diseases, i, 273, 285; ii, 23, 24. (See also title Pasture and Grass.) Green paints causing poisoning, iii, 49. Green SCUm on water�causes, iii, 129. GregarineS�form of parasite, ii, 161. Grinders � structure of teeth, i, 6; in- flammation due to, i, 252. Grinding Of food � teeth and muscles acting in, i, 329; ii, 310. �Gripes�causes and treatment, i, 278-281; flatulent colic, i, 2S1-284; drugs for, iii, 1, 4; enteritis mistaken for, i, 293; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 423. Gristle�structure of bone, foot, &c, ii, 178, 197, 262, 379; iii, 437. GrOggineSS�a form of unsound foot, iii, 422. Groins�structure and swelling, 1, 17; ii, 22, 144; examination for soundness, iii, 373- GrOOming�appliances and methods, iii, ^I34~^I37> ^J39, 360; horses in training, iii, 303; sick horses, iii, 143; tram- way horses, iii, 338; trotters, iii, 316. GrOOmS�qualifications and management, iii. 339, 340. Grooves in shoes�uses, &c, iii, 443, 445. Grooves in teeth�age evidence, iii, 401, 402. Ground surface** of shoes, iii, 443.

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		INDEX
		INDEX		581
				581

-Haunch and "bones�conformation, &c, i, 15,98; muscle connections, ii, 325, 336, 339> 340; point position and fracture, i, 15; ii, 222, 223; "sinking of" causes, &c, i, 15; sitting on due to rupture, i, 295, 319. .Haversian canals in bones, ii, 176,177. Haw Of eye�structure and examination, i, it, 12; ii, 103, 104, 109, no; iii, 367, 368. Hay- As food � amount, composition, kinds, i, 241, 243; iii, 89, 93, 97, 98, 99, 110- it2, 346, 351-354 ; digestion of, i, 246, 247; iii, 90, 91, 96, 97, 99, 118; heat and force influences, iii, 100, 101; horses'in training, iii, 303, 304; oats and long hay as sole diet, iii, 343, 346 ; special diet for broken-wind, ii, 13. Bedding uses, iii, 355. Chewing, and choking due to, i, 233, 266. Diseases due to bad hay, i, 221, 273, 346; ii, 42; iii, 102,104; poisoning, iii, 62. Organisms in hay, i, 224, 225, 228. Bay "bacillus�discoveries, &c, i, 224, 225, 228. -Hay-loftS � structure, &c, iii, 320, 322, 323. 326, 331. Hay-rackS�stable fittings, iii, 327. Hay tea�preparation, iii, 27. Hayes, Capt.�on conformation, i, 42, 43) 55, 57, ⁶²- ⁶3, 65, 70, 77; on bone disease, ii, 214. Head� As a unit of measurement for body pro- portions, i, 99-101, Birth presentations, iii, 274, 279-282. Carriage and position, \, 46, of show and harness horses, iii, 312, 313; diseases influenced by, 1,476, 502; influence on weight of body distribution, i, 91, 92. Conformation, i. 2, 3, 4; compensating points for defects, i, 102; divisions� extremities of head, i, 4-8, surfaces and soft parts, i, 8-12; forms of heads and various views, i, 4, 9, 36, 37, 38- 42; general aspect and volume of head, i, 37, 38; length proportions, i, 43; nerves, glands, veins, and arteries, 1,402, 449; muscles, ii, 307-310, 318- 320; special features, iii, 492-495. Connection or coupling to neck, &c, i, 44-46; ii, 264, 265, 267-269; bones supporting head, ii, 180, 181; mus- cle connections, ii, 318-320. Examination as to soundness, iii, 370-372. Growth�rate, iii, 297. Joints or articulations, ii, 265, 279. Poulticing, iii, 30, 32. Spasm due to tetanus, ii, 47, 48. Striking�a cause of poll evil, ii, 430. Swelling due to horse-sickness, ii, 55, 56. [For special parts see titles Brain, Crani- um, Ears, Nose, Skull, &c.] Headache�horses suffering from, ii, 478. Head-Stall for horse-training, iii, 307. Head to tail attachment in operations, iii, 157- Healing Of WOUndS�natural processes, ii, 404-407, 412. Health�definition, degrees, and hygienic principles, i, 213; iii, 64, 65, 66-69. Hearing�bones connected with, ii, 184, 185; nerves, i, 385, 391,395: muscles and cartilages, ii, 311 (see also Ears). Heart- Absorbent system influence, i, 429. Anatomy, action, and functions, i, 436- 441, 458; in embryo, iii, 251, 252, 255; nerves and arteries, i, 440-444, 448; ii, 458; pulse-feeling and kinds, iii, 146-148 ; systolic action and other sounds, &c., i, 439, 443, 460� diagram, iii, 148; sound due to poisoning, iii, 57. Drugs and examination (see Heart dis- eases).	Heart Diseases, &c� Classification, and indifference shown by veterinarians, i, 454, 460, 461. Considerations on pathology and general symptoms of, i, 453-458. Drugs affecting heart, ii, 452, 457; as stimulants, ii, 458-460; as tonics and sedatives, ii, 460-462; iii, 4. Enlargement, atrophy, and rupture, i, 465-467, 470. Examination of heart�general remarks, i, 454-458; difficulties and methods, i, 458-461. Fatty degeneration and infiltration, i, 467-470. Inflammation�of heart sac (pericarditis), i, 461-463; of lining membrane (en- docarditis], i, 463, 464; of muscular structure (myocarditis), i, 464. Pulse�feeling and kinds, iii, 146-148. Valvular diseases, i, 464, 465; liver affected by, i, 303. Various diseases affecting heart, or re- sulting from heart disease�blood- poisoning, i, 482; circulation de- ranged, i, 456, 457, 458; dropsy, &c, i, 3^]o, 3"» ,3?²> 457; fi"ed legs, ii, 364, 365; joints affected, ii, 280; lungs congested and bleeding, ii, 5, 10; rheumatism, ii, 21; spasm of diaphragm, i, 312. Heat as cause of disease, i, 216, 219, 222; food influences, iii, 88, 99, 100; giddiness and inflammation due to, i, 407; iii, 136; nerve controlling, i, 389; respiratory process effect, i, 490; stimulation of heart, &c, ii, 459; ventilation uses, iii, 74, 76, 80, 81; water purification, iii, 121. Heat, period Of�(see jEstrum). Heating apparatus for stables, &c, iii, 320, 323, 332, 333, 334. Heavy horses �classification, i, 172. (See also title Draught or Cart Horses; special breed, see Clydes- dales, Shires, &c.) "Hedon Squire"�show success of, i, 123. Heels�cracked, ii, 423-425, other causes, &c., ii, 60, 144, 145; defective action injuries, ii, 398, 399; fracture symp- toms, ii, 253; poulticing, iii, 31; shoeing preparations and injuries, iii, 439, 440, 441, 448, 457; soundness examination, iii, 381; sprain, ii, 294, 300; ulcers, ii, 426 (see also Grease). Heels Of Shoes�forms, iii, 444. Height of a Horse- Conformation and measurements, i, 93- 95; body and limbs, i, 90, 91; chest, l, 64, 65; elevation at croup, i, 93, 94, at withers, i, 13, 52, 93, 94; pro- portions to length, i, 99. Increase, &c, due to climate, i, 201, 202; iii, 530, 531, 532, 535, 546", 548. Ponies� difficulties and measurements, i, 94, 154. i55, ^J5%> various breeds, i, 164, 165-169, 170, 171. Rate of growth, iii, 287, 288, 294-298. Roaring influenced by, i, 511. Various breeds � Arabs, i, 201, 202; Clydesdales, i, 192; hackneys, i, 116; heavy horses increase, i, 180; Hol- steins, i, 209; hunters, i, 139; Mor- gans, i, 207; Percherons, i, 206; Scottish "large horse", i, 186, 187; Shires, i, 174, 175, 178, 181, 184; Suffolks, i, 194, 199; Yorkshire coach horse, i, 134. Helminths�forms and diseases due to worms, ii, 162, 169, 170, 171-175. "Helmsley Turk"�history, i, m; iii, 544- Hemiplegia and its symptoms, &c, i, 420. HemlOCk�medicinal uses, ii, 483; doses, iii, 10, 11. Hemorrhage�(see Bleeding). Hemorrhages on skin, ii, 156, 158.
			Hemp�(see Indian hemp). Henbane�medicinal uses, ii, 481; iii, 10, 11. Henle, loop Of-formation, &c, i, 334, 335- Henry VII and VIII�horse-breeding, &c, i, 173-175. 79; ii', 54i, 54^ Hepatic artery and vein� forms, j, 447, 452; liver structure, i, 239, 240. Hepatic pleXUS�formation, i, 377. Hepatic tissues�analysis for disease, &C, ii, 27, 28; in health, ii, 28. Hepatitis and its treatment, i, 305-308. Hereditary Diseases* and Influences- Breeding precautions and transmission, iii, 215, 248, 249, 257, rate of growth, iii, 286, 287; colour and markings, iii, 500. Causes of disease, i, 214, 217. Diseases � bleeding from nose, i, 503; bog-spavin, ii, 290; bone-spavin, ii, 217; broken wind, ii, 12; brittle hoof, ii, 383; curb, ii, 300, 302; crib-biting and nervous habits, i, 413; epilepsy, i, 411; eye affections, ii, 116, 121; filled legs, ii, 364; hernia, i, 318; laminitis, ii, 376; mallenders, &c, ii, 158; navicular disease, ii, 390; rheumatism and gout, ii, 20; roaring and whistling, i, 510; shelly feet, ii, 368; side-bones, ii, 387, 388; skin affections, ii, 139, 140, 153, 158, 159; sore shins, ii, 219; splints, ii, 207; windgalls and thoroughpin, ii, 356, 357- Evolution modification, iii, 484. "Hermit" (1864) �pedigree, i, no;growth measurements, iii, 292, 293; rearing and hereditary influences, i, 112, 503. Hernia � definition, i, 315. (See also Rupture.) Herniotomy for hernia, i, 321. Herpes of the skin, ii, 149. Herpetic ringworm � cause, &c, ii, 149. HiatUS aortiCUS of diaphragm, i, 451; ii, 338. High blowing and its treatment, ii, 19. High in front�conformation, i, 95. High neurectomy � method, &c, iii, 161-164. High ring-hone�form of disease, ii, 205. High Stepping�training, iii, 312. Hilum of ovary, ii, 78, 79. HilUS of kidney, i, 334, 336. Hind Limbs and Extremities- Action�in drawing a load, i, 68, 88; defective action and injuries, ii, 396- 402. Blistering, iii, 39. Body-weight distribution, i, 91, 92. Conformation and defects, i, 3, 22, 23, 66-68, 82-85, 9°: bones, ii, 201-205; compensating points, i, 102, 103; nerves, arteries, and muscles, i, 390, 398, 402, 447; ii,343-345; iii, 491; special features, iii, 487-490. Diseases�(see title Limbs�diseases). Fractured bones, ii, 260-262; causing paralysis, i, 388; ii, 236, 237. Functions of the limbs, i, 67. Growth before birth, iii, 288-294; after birth, iii, 294-297. Soundness�examination, iii, 382-385. Hinge joints�form, &c, ii, 262; iii, 491. Hip and Hip-joint� Conformation and bones, i, 67, 85; ii, 182, 183, 201, 262, 274; iii, 487; hip girdle and " point of the hip ", ii, 192. Dislocation rare, ii, 349. Examination for soundness, iii, 372, 373. Fractures, ii, 256, 257, 258, 259; pelvis fracture effects, ii, 256. Ligaments and muscles, ii, 274, 275, 339- 34i, 342.

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	582		INDEX
			INDEX

Hipparion � fossil remains and horga origin, iii, 286, 512, 513. Hippidium � fossil remains and horse origin, iii, 513, Hippodrome�Grecian performances and origin, iii, 522, 523, 531. HippomaneS�formation of, iii, 251. HippuriC acid�in blood, i, 435; in urine, h 34i» 353- Hired horses�law of warranty, iii, 417, 418. History of horse-shoeing, iii, 429-432. History of the horse�ancestors, past and present types and records, iii, 471-484, 509-513, 517-520; horses of Asia and Africa, iii, 531-535, of Britain, iii, 535-550, of Greece, iii, 521-525, of Rome, iii, 525-530; posi- tion in animal world, iii, 471; Scotch history, i, 186, 187. (See also titles Arabs, Evolution, Thoroughbreds, &c.) Hobbles�for restraint in operations, iii, 159, 160, 166, 172; preventing kick- ing, iii, 341. Hobday's castration table and details, iii, 186-188. Hock and Hock-joints (Tarsus)� Chestnuts growth, i, 19; ii, 133; iii, 478, 500-508. Conformation and bones, i, 23, 86-89; ^u\ 201, 202, 203-205, 277-279; iii, 487; compensating points for defects, i, ^io3; ligaments and muscles, ii, 277- ²79, 343. 344, 345- Difficulty in diagnosis of disease, ii, 217, 218. Diseases, &c, affecting�arthritis, ii, 286, 287; bog-spavin, ii, 290; bone-spavin, ii, 216-218; capped hock, ii, 362-364; iii, 343; loose cartilages in, ii, 284; mallenders and sallanders, ii, 157; stringhalt, ii, 395; thoroughpin, ii, 357, 358; wind-galls, ii, 355. (See also titles Bowed knees and legs, Cow-hocks, Curb.) Fractures and sprain, ii, 221, 261, 262, 300. Growth measurements from birth, iii, 295-298. Poulticing and bandaging, iii, 32, 37. Soundness and warranty, iii, 374, 383, 420, 421. Hollow "back�from age and natural conformation, i, 56, 57, 58; harness horse defect, i, 150. Hollow of the eye, i, 8, 10. Hollow of the flank, i, 17. Holstein horse�appearance, &c, i, 209. "Holyrood" Clydesdale stallion (illust.), ii, 321. Hoof and Horn- Conformation and growth, i, 22; ii, 199, 200; hi, 433-436, 487; contracted, ii, 393-395; horn structure, ii, 133, 368, 383; iii, 433, 434, 504, 5°5. 506; muscle insertion, ii, 333; model and nerves of hoof, ii, 491; overgrowth of horn, iii, 436, 438, 439; rings on hoofs, iii, 420. Cutting or rasping�for quittor, ii, 380; for side-bones, ii, 388; for sand crack, iii, 455. Diseases causing brittleness, &c.�can- ker, ii, 382; corn, ii, 375; indigestion, i, 272; ring-bone, ii, 205, 206; sand crack, ii, 365, 366; seedy toe, ii, 368- 371; shelly feet, ii, 367, 368; thrush, ii, 373; villitis, ii, 383, 384; wounds, ii, 414; tumour, ii, 372. Evolution and five-toed ancestors�(see Five-toed animals). Fracture, ii, 252, 253�causing separation of horn from skin, ii, 253. Healthy condition preservation, iii, 67, 68, 139, 140. Moss-litter affecting, iii, 138, 139. Origin of�ungulate mammals formation, iii, 476, 477.
		Hoof and Horn�{Cont) Poulticing the heel, iii, 31. Shoeing preparations and injuries, iii, 438, 44°. 44i. 446-450, 454- Sloughing due to unnerving, iii, 165, 166. Soundness examination, iii, 378, 379, 386, 420. Wearing and hardening�early practices, iii, 523. 524, 529- [See also titles Cleft, Feet, Frog.] Hoof ointments�use of, iii. 139. HOOfed mammals�classification and horse-origin, &c, iii, 475, 476, 510. Hooks for various uses, iii, 134, 160, 283. Hopper Windows for stables, iii, 80, 81. Hops�medicinal uses, ii, 466, 467, 474. Horn as appendage to skin, ii, 125, 132, 133- Homcastle Fair�warranties, iii, 413. Horn Of hOOf�(see Hoof). Horn tumour of feet, ii, 372. Horny growths�origin, &c, iii, 478. (See also Chestnuts, Ergots.) Horse balls�(see Balls). Horse-ChestnutS�poisonous quality, iii, 104. Horse-gag for giving physic balls, iii, 20. Horse-hair�growth, ii, 132; for wound- stitching, ii, 416. (See also Hair.) Horse-hair crupper as means of re- straint, iii, 158. Horse-pOX and its treatment, ii, 43, 140- 142; appearance (illust.), ii, 42; Ameri- can form, ii, 142; communication to man, ii, 43; lip troubles due to, i, 248. (See also Grease disease.) Horse-Sickness�(see title South African Horse-sickness). Horse thane�ancient appointment, iii, 537- Horse-training�(see Training). Horsing�(see iEstrum). Host in parasitic diseases, ii, 160, 162. Hot applications, fomentations, &c. �effect on blood-vessels, and making of, i, 275; ii, 462; for bone- and bog- spavin, ii, 218, 291; capped elbow, &c.,ii, 360, 361, 363; colic, i, 281; curb, ii, 302; eyes, ii, 115; fractured verte- brae, ii, 237; hemorrhage, i, 503; ii, 89; lymphangitis, ii, 23; intestinal obstruction, i, 298; inversion of rec- tum, bladder, uterus, i, 302, 372; ii, 101; kidneys internal fomentation, ii, 474; male reproduction organs, ii, 82, 87; pneumonia and pleurisy, ii, 10, 15; poll evil, ii, 431; rheumatism, ii, 21; ring-bone, ii, 206; skin poison- ing, ii, 129; spasm of larynx, ii, 18; speedy cutting wounds, ii, 401; sprains, ii, 293, 294, 297, 354. (See also titles Blistering, Firing, Inhala- tion.) Hot fitting in shoeing, iii, 449. Hot-water heating apparatus for stables, iii, 76. Human OVUm�formation and develop- ment influences, &C, iii, 251, 252, 258, 480-484. Human subjects �horse diseases com- municable to, ii, 37; iii, 151. Humeral artery and branches, i, 449. Humeralis externus muscle�form, &c, ii, 330. Humero - radial joint�form, &c, ii, 270. Humerus bone�conformation, i, 71; ii, 194,195; dislocation, ii, 350; fracture, and setting difficulty, ii, 229, 244; muscles connected with, ii, 328, 329, 333; sprain due to disease of bone, ii, 293. Humours Of the eye�description and disease, ii, 105, 107, 108, 123. Hungry horses�diet restrictions, &c, i, 269.
				Huns�horses Of, description of breed, iii, 528. Hunters and Hunting- Accidents, &c� first aid, ii, 437, 438, 440; treatment of "pumped-out" animals, ii, 6; iii, 309. Action, jumping, and training, i, 146; iii, 199-202, 307-310; show horses, iii, 310-312; staying powers, i, 140, 141, 144. Breeding and crosses�Arab uses, i, 141, 203; Cleveland bay, i, 131; Irish breed excellence, i, 137, 138; pack- horse cross, 1, 125; thoroughbred cross and uses, i, 108, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 143; distinct breed, produc- tion difficulty, i, 135, 140, 143, 144; king's premiums distribution, i, 140, 141. "Condition"�use of term, ii, 445. Condition or physic ball for, ii, 446. Conformation�early types, i, 137-139; modern types, i, 144-146; of canon, i, 76, forearm, i, 73, head, i, 37, shoulder, i, 70, thigh, i, 85. Diseases, &c, common to, i, 219; bleed- ing nose, i, 503; bowed knees, ii. 303; congestion of lungs, ii, 5, 6; curb, ii, 300, 302; diarrhcea, iii, 149; filled legs, ii, 364; navicular disease, ii, 391 ; pleurisy and tetanus due to swimming, ii, 14, 45; skin and mud fever, ii, 139, 144; iii, 135-137; spasm of diaphragm, i, 313; thrombosis, i, 474- Food and pasturage, iii, 95, 113, 114, 309, 3^IO> 347- Fractures common to, ii, 228, 235, 236, 249, 250, 256. Grooming and care of feet, iii, 135, 136, 139- Illustrations of hunters, i, 214; ii, 456. Origin and early history, iii, 523, 531, 538, 540, 545, 547- Pony breeds suitable, i, 165, 166, 170. Railway boxes�infection and washing, iii, i53- Shoes and shoeing, iii, 443, 444, 446, 447, 457- Sprains common to, ii, 294, 295. Stable plans and harness room, iii, 320, 332, 333. Husk�a form of bronchitis, iii, 149. Hyaloid membrane of eye, ii, 108. Hybrid horse-breeding, iii, 239, 241. Hydatids � infesting brain, ii, 162, 163, 174, 175, liver, i, 313, 315; ii, 174; alternate generation, iii, 261. Hydrated oxide of iron�as antidote to poisoning, ii, 448; dose for per- oxide of iron, iii, 10. Hydrocele�iodine uses, ii, 490; unsound- ness, iii, 373. Hydrqchlorate of morphine � dose, iii, 10. Hydrochloric acid�digestive uses and production, i, 235, 245; ii, 464, 465, 467; iii, 5; doses, iii, 9; poisoning by, iii, 46, 48. Hydrocyanic acid�dose, iii, 9. Hydrophobia�indications, ii, 44. Hydrops-pericardii�a form of heart disease, i, 454. Hygiene�(see Veterinary hygiene). Hymen of reproduction organs, ii, 74, 75- Hyo-epiglottideus muscle�form, &&, ii, 316. HyO-glOSSUS muscles of tongue�forms of, ii, 306, 314, 315. Hyo-pharyngeus muscle�form, &c, », 35- Hyoid bone�(see Tongue). Hyold process of temporal bone, ii, 185. Hyoid region�muscles, ii, 312-314, 3²¹/ Hyoidal articulations�form, &c, »»* 266.

-ocr page 643-

INDEX

583

Hyoideus transversus muscle�form,

&c, ii, 313.
Hyoscyamus for lungs, ii, 470, 471.
Hyoscyamus � medicinal uses, ii, 474,

481.
Hypertrophies � skin diseases, ii, 154,

'55-

Hypertrophy of heart, i, 465-467.

Hypnotics�medicinal uses, ii, 476, 477;
iii, 14.

Hypochondriac portions of abdominal

cavity, ii, 338.

Hypodermic syringe for injections-
use, iii, 21.

Hypogastric portion of abdominal
cavity, ii, 338.

Hypoglossal nerve�description, i, 376,

3^s6, 397-
Hyposulphites�medicinal uses of soda,

ii, 449, 450, sulphur, ii, 490.
HyraCOtherium�fossil remains, iii, 510,

5". 512-
Hysteria � hsmo-globinuria termed, ii,

26.

Indian hemp�medicinal uses, ii, 482;

iii, 5, 10, 11; poisoning by, iii, 54.
Indian pea�poisoning by, iii, 58-60.

Indian pease as food, iii, 350.

Indian vetches as food�danger of, iii,
35°-

Indigestion�acute or "staggers", i,
268-271, 406; chronic form, i, 271-
273; drugs, ii_,_448, 449, 459, 465,
466, 467, 468; iii, 2, 3, 4, 5; abuse of
drugs, i, 272; food and errors caus-
ing, i, 272; iii, 102, 108, 109; saliva
secretion due to, i, 258, 259; various
diseases associated with, i, 278, 311,
346, 457; ii, 140; signs of disease, iii,
149; water effects, iii, 123.

Individual hygiene�definition of term,

iii, 133, 134; processes of grooming,
&o, iii, 134-140.

Indolent Ulcers and their treatment, ii,
426, 427; drugs for, ii, 448, 489; iii, 7.

Indolent wounds�drugs, iii, 4.
Infectious Diseases-
Classification, causes, and list, i, 219,
223; iii, 133, 151, 152; special char-
acteristics and recognition, iii, 150-
152.

Medicines v. maintenance of strength,
iii, 150, 151.

Prevention and suppression � general
care, iii, 140, 152, 153; railway boxes,
iii, 153,466; stamping-out by slaugh-
ter and isolation, iii, 140, 153-156;
washing, disinfection, and occupa-
tion of premises afterwards, &c, iii,
24- ^3-156-

Telegony�mare affected by first sire,
iii, 240.

Various diseases which are infectious, i,
424, 425, 464, 481, 497; ii, 32, 35, 287;
iii, 267, 269.

Warranty laws and sale of horses, iii,
422, 423.

[See also titles Contagious Diseases,
Fevers, Inoculation; for special
disease see its name.]

Infective ulcers�form, &c, ii, 427.
Inferior cervical ganglion�structure,

&c, i, 376.

Inferior extremity of head � struc-
ture, i, 5-10.

Inferior laryngeal nerves�formation,
i» 396.

Inferior lumbar region � muscles, ii,
324-326.

Inferior maxillary bone�form, ii, 188.

Inferior maxillary joint�form, ii, 185.

Inferior maxillary nerve � form, i,

393-

Inferior region of body�structure, i,

16.
Inferior sesamoid ligament � form,

ii, 273.
Inflammation and its causes, &c, i, 215,
222; arteries and veins, i, 471; blad-
der, i, 349; bone disease, ii, 208-212;
bowels, i, 292-294; brain and spine,
i, 405-407, 418; cracked heels, ii,
424, 425; eyes, ii, 31, in, ii4-i_i8,
121 ; female organs of reproduction
�uterus or womb, ii, 89-91, 97, 98,
vaginal passage, ii, 91, 92, udder,
ii, 93-97; firing, iii, 166, 167;
glands�lymphatic, ii, 36, parotid, i,
259-261; heart forms, i, 460, 461-464;
hernia, i, 320, 324, 3²5'- joints and
sprains, ii, 280, 281, 282-284, ²97^
kidneys, i, 348; lips and mouth, i,
248, 249-252; liver, 1,305-308; lungs
and complications, ii, 5, 7^_l°) ^J4,
462; iii, 142; male organs of repro-
duction, ii, 82, 86; paralysis due to,
i, 420; skin diseases (see that title);
teeth, i, 330; temperaments liable to
inflammation, i, 218; temperature as
cause, iii, 136; tongue and throat, i,
252, 254-257, 507; unsoundness and
warranty, iii, 423; wounds, ii, 408.

Influenza�causes, treatment, &c, i, 223;
ii, 3^I-33: iii, ^J44, ^T5²; contagious
pneumonia a form of, ii, 7, 33; drugs,
ii, 451, 467, 487; iii, 3, 4, 6, 7; joints
affected by, ii, 280, 282, 286; "pink
eye ", ii, 31.
Various complications�ansemia, i, 479;
bladder, i, 350; bronchitis, ii, 2; eyes,
ii, 115; filled legs, ii, 364; glanders,
ii, 36; heart, i, 461; liver, i, 303;
lungs, ii, 5; ccdema of choroid plexus,
i,4i6; parotid glands, i, 259; pleurisy,
ii, 14; pneumonia, ii, 7, 33; purpura
hsemorrhagica, ii, 24; pus formations,
i> 5°4, 506; roaring, i, 510, 512;
rheumatism, ii, 20; shelly feet, ii,
368; skin purpura, ii, 145; sore
throat, &c, i, 225, 507; wind-galls,
", 356.

In~foal mares � (see Parturition and
Pregnancy, Mares).

Infra-orbital nerve�formation, i, 393.

Infraspinatus muscle�form, &c. ii,

328.

Infundibulum on teeth, iii, 395.
Infusoria�forms and diseases due to, i,

246; ii, 161, 169; generation, iii, 259;

water purification, iii, 127.
Inguinal canal�structure, i, 17; ii, 65;

castration effects, &c-, iii, 186-188.
Inguinal hernia � bubonocele form, i,

318; strangulated, i, 319-322.

Inhalation and fumigation�for bron-
chitis and asthma, ii, 3, 12; catarrh,
i, 500, 501; laryngitis and spasm of
larynx, i, 509; ii, 18; parotid glands,
i, 260; strangles, ii, 40, 41; throat
abscess, i, 258�drugs and antiseptics
used, ii, 471, 485, 487, 491; iii, 18;
horse-sickness due to inhalation, ii,
54> 55;premises and infectious dis-
eases, iii, 155.

Inhibitory nerves of heart, i, 441.
Injections and Enemas-
Administration, and medicines given by,
iii, 18, 21, 22.

Antiseptics and drugs used, ii, 454, 456,
459, 466, 486, 489; iii, 1, 6, 8.

Bacteria experiments�causes of disease,
i, 227.

Bladder-washing after stone, and for
stone solvents, i, 360, 365, 366, 367,
368.

Foals at birth, iii, 220, 224.

Glanders� mallein test, ii, 35, 37, 38, 39.

Guttural pouches � removal of pus, i,
506.

Horse-sickness, ii, 57, 58.

Intestinal troubles and treatment�colic,
i, 280; constipation, i, 271, 285; en-
teritis, i, 294; obstruction, i, 297;
ovaries, iii, 181; parturient fever, ii,
99; uterine hemorrhage, ii, 89�hold-
ing tail down to retain, ii, 474.

Nasal injections for catarrh, &c, i, 500,
504-

Pneumonia�injections into lungs, ii, 33.

[For skin injections, &c, see also titles
Intra- tracheal, Intra-venous, Sub-
cutaneous Injections.]
Injuries�accidents, and articles useful in,
ii, 437-441; bone diseases due to, ii,
209, 210; defective action (see that
title); eye injuries, ii, in, 112, 114,
121; foals at birth, iii, 227; fracture
and dislocation causes, ii, 224, 349;
joint diseases, ii, 279, 281, 282, 286;
nervous system�effect and protec-
tion from, i, 379, 380; shoeing results,
iii, 45²-458-
In-knees�defect, i, 74, 75.
Inoculation in infectious diseases, iii,
150-152; anthrax, ii, 42, 43; con-
tagious pneumonia, ii, 33; glanders
and farcy, ii, 37, 38, 39; horse-pox
and small-pox, ii, 43; horse-sickness,
ii, 54, 55, 58; stomatitis pustulosa, ii,
49; strangles, ii, 40; tetanus, li, 45,
47; tuberculosis, ii, 51.

Ice�for brain disorders, i, 271; for he-
morrhage of nose and lungs, i, 504;
ii, 10.

Ichthyosis and its causes, &c, ii, 153,
154; heredity influence, ii, 139, 140.

Icterus and its treatment, i, 304.

Idiopathic pericarditis�form, i, 462.

Idiopathic Symptoms of disease, iii, r44.

Idiopathic tetanus�form, ii, 45, 46.

IleO-CSecal valve of intestine, i, 237.
Iliac arteries�form, i, 452; disease, i,

474, 475.' ". ²37-
Iliac portions of abdominal cavity, ii,

338-
Iliac thrombosis � cause, symptoms,

&c, i, 474.

Iliaco-muscular nerve tranches-
formation, i, 402.
Iliacus muscle�form, &c, ii, 325.
Ilio-femoral artery�formation, i, 452.
Ilio-lumhar artery�formation, i, 452.

Ilium � formation, &c, i, 15; ii, 192;
fracture, ii, 221, 256-259; muscles
insertion, ii, 325, 336. (See also
Haunch.)

Illness, sudden�directions, ii, 437-441.

Immediate union�method of wound-
dealing, ii, 404.

Immovable joints�form, &c, ii, 263,
279.

Impacted fracture�form and treat-
ment, ii, 22i, 225, 226.

Impetigo�drugs for, iii, i, 8.

Impregnation�process, and changes in
ovum due to, iii, 246-249, 261-264;
telegony and hybrids, iii, 239, 240.

Impregnation-tube�use of, iii, 263.
Impressions and impulses due to

nervous system, &C, i, 373, 374,
379, 382, 386, 387, 388, 389; paralysis
effect, i, 420.

Inbreeding�ponies success, i, 156, 161;

thoroughbreds, i, 109.

Incised WOundS �their treatment, ii,
402, 410-412.

Incisor teeth�form, growth, &c, i, 6,
²3°. 3²7i i". 3891 3QO-302, 396-399,
494; temporary teeth, iii, 393-395,
wear and grooves in, iii, 399-402;
fracture and other effects, i, 330, 332;
ii, 242, 243.

Incubation in infectious diseases, ii, 35;
iii, r5o.

India�Arab uses in, i, 203; parasite in-
festing horses, ii, 174.

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584 INDEX

			Iron pipes, &c, used for stable drains, iii, 85, 86. Iron splint for fore-limb fractures, ii, 247. Iron stable fittings �use of, iii, *6g,* 324, 325. Irons�for castration, iii, 173; for firing, iii, 166. Irreducible hernia�description, i, 316. Irregular bones�formation of, ii, 177. Irritant poisons�list, and treatment of poisoning by, iii, 46-54. Irritants as medicine, iii, 14. Irritation�of bladder, remedies, ii, 475; skin diseases due to, ii, 139, 140, 142, 143- Ischial tuberosity of buttock, i, 22; muscle connections, ii, 340, 341, 342. Ischio-urethral muscle�action, ii, 73. Ischium Of pelvis �formation, ii, 192; fracture, ii, 257, 259. Isolation in infectious disease, iii, 140, 153-156- ISOlation-bOXeS�disinfection and struc- ture, iii, 154-156, 320-324. Itching�due to barley diet, iii, 384, bed- ding, iii, 355, parasites, ii, 166, skin diseases and other symptoms, ii, 140, 149, 156, 164, 167; drugs relieving, iii, 2; stamping caused by, iii, 341.
		Intersesamoid ligament of fetlock- joint, ii, 272. Inter-spinous ligaments�trunk con- nections, ii, 263, 265. Intertransversales colli muscles- forms, &o, ii, 319. Intertransverse muscles of loins- forms, &c, ii, 326. Intervertebral articulations of the trunk, ii, 263. Intervertebral foramina of spinal column, ii, 180. Intestines- Description and digestion process in, &c, i, 235-238, 245-247, 272; flow of bile, i, 240; foals at birth, iii, 220; lacteal system villi, i, 427; muscle structure, ii, 306; nerves, i, 236. Diseases and disorders�calculi or stones, i, 298-300; cough, ii, 18, 19; debility, i, 296, 297; foreign bodies, i, 279; in- flammation, i, 292-294; inversion of rectum, i, 301; obstruction, i, 296- 298, 300; paresis of bowel, i, 296; pasture causing distension, iii, 95; poisoning and post-mortem appear- ances, iii, 45, 46, 47, 48, 54; rupture, i, 295; tuberculosis, ii, 51; ulceration, i, 290, 306. Drugs affecting, ii, 454, 455, 456, 457, 464-468, 477, 480, 483; iii, 4, 8, 13, 14. Unsoundness and warranty of internal organs, iii, 423. Worms or parasites in, ii, 162, 170-174; drugs destroying, ii, 465, 466, 481; iii, 6, 12, 13�prescriptions, iii, 16, 17. [See also titles Colic, Constipation, Diar- rhoea; special organ, see its name.] Intoxication�septic form and poisoning, i, 481; iii, 55. Intralobular vein of liver, i, 240. Intra-membranous and intra-cartila- ginous ossification of bones, ii, 178. Intra-tracheal injections � adminis- tration of drugs by, iii, 18, 21; for horse-sickness, ii, 57; purpura he- morrhagica, ii, 25; tetanus, ii, 49. Intra-VeUOUS injections�administra- tion of medicine by, iii, 18, 22; for horse - sickness, ii, 57; parturient fever, ii, 99, 100. Intrinsic Causes of disease, i, 214, 215, 220. In-turned hocks�defect of, i, 89. Invalid food�kinds, preparation, and administration, iii, 25-28, 140-142. Invalid horses�(see titles Invalid Food, Nursing, Sick Horses). Inversion�of bladder, 1,371-373; rectum, i, 301-303; uterus or womb, ii, 100- 102, drugs for, ii, 475, 481. Involuntary muscle�form of, ii, 305, 306. Iodides�medicinal uses and action, ii, 475) 49°; °f arsenic, ii, 489; iron, ii, 447, 489; mercury, ii, 488; iii, 5; potash and potassium, ii, 448, 469; iii, 5, 10; sulphur, iii, 5. Iodine �medicinal uses, ii, 489; iii, 5; doses, iii, 10, 11; poisoning by, ill, 53- Iodism�conditions producing, ii, 490. Iodoform � antiseptic uses, &c., ii, 421, 486, 489; iii, 186. Ipecacuanha�medicinal uses, ii, 469, 471, 472; iii, 5; doses, iii, 10. Iridectomy�operation on eye, ii, 124. Iris Of eye�form, muscle-fibres, and dis- ease, i, 11; ii, 106, no, 122, 124. Irish horses as hunters, i, 137, 138; iii, 201. Irish ponies�appearance, &c, i, 168. Iron�medicinal uses, ii, 447, 448, 454, 456; iii, 1, 7, 9, 10, n; as antidote, iii, 50. Iron for horse-shoes, iii, 442.
	Insalivation of food�digestive process, i, 233, 244; teeth influence, i, 326. Insects�causing disease, iii, 78; horse- sickness, ii, 55, 58; poisoning of wounds, &c, ii, 403, 414; iii, 61; skin diseases, ii, 142, 163; stings, and drugs soothing, i, 249, 250, 252; ii, 81, 82, 414, 415; iii, 7, 61. Insemination�artificial process, iii, 231- 234- Inseminator�use, &c, iii, 231-234. Insensitive laminee of foot, iii, 434. Insipidus diabetes and its treatment, i, 346. Inspection of horses�(see Examination). Inspiration of breathing, i, 492, 493; asthma condition, ii, 11; muscles assisting in, ii, 322, 334, 335, 338. Instruments and appliances�anti- septics and cleansing of, ii, 415, 484, 486; iii, 162; ball administration, iii, 20, 21; bandage roller, iii, 36; blood- letting results, i, 475, 476; foaling aids, iii, 282-284; firing, iii, 166, 167; grooming and clipping, iii, 134, 135, 137, 138; hernia trusses, &c, i, 317, 318, 321, 322, 325; neurotomy or un- nerving, iii, 163, 164, 165; operation restraints, iii, 156-160; ovaries re- moval, iii, 181, 182; sand-crack clamps, ii, 367; stone in bladder, i, 362-364, 366-368; tenotomy, iii, 168- 170; tooth rasps and shears, i, 329. (See also Castration; for special in- strument see its name, as Catheter, Trochar, &c.) Insufflator for nasal catarrh, i, 500. Integument- (see Skin). Intelligence�bead formation and nervous influences, i, 39, 374. Interarticular fibro - cartilages of stifle joint, ii, 276. Intercepting tank in stable drainage, iii. 33o. Inter-condyloid fossa of thigh bone, ii, 201. Intercostal arteries--formation and hemorrhage, i, 452; ii, 255. Intercostal muscles � formation and uses, i, 63, 65, 492; li, 334. Intercostal nerves from spine, i, 381. Interfering�forms of defective action, ii, 396-402; injuries and shoes, iii, 455. Interlobular veins of liver, i, 240. Intermaxillary space of head, i, 12. Internal carotid artery�formation, i, 451. Internal flexor of the metacarpus� form, &c, it, 330. Internal iliac artery�formation, i, 452- Internal intercostal muscles�form, &c, ii, 334. Internal ligaments of hock-joint, ii, 278. Internal maleolus of tibia, ii, 278. Internal oblique muscle of abdomen, ». 335, 33⁶- Internal organs � unsoundness and warranty, iii, 423. Internal popliteal nerve�formation, i, 403, 404. Internal pterygoid muscle and nerVS �formation, i, 394. Internal respiration�form of, i, 483. Internal saphenousnerve�formation, i, 404. Internal tuberosity of humerus, ii, 194. Inter-osseous arteries�formation, i, 450- Inter-osseous ligaments of knee-joint, ii, 272. Inter - phalangeal articulations � forms, &c., ii, 273. Interrupted sutures for wound-stitch- ing, ii, 416.

				Jaborandi�medicinal uses, iii, 5, 10. JaCOb�horse-breeding, &c., iii, 497, 519. Jacobson, nerve of�origin, &c, i, 395. James I and horse-racing, iii, 544. Jaundice and its treatment, i, 304. JaW and jaw-bones �conformation, i, 6, 12, 40; ii, 185, 186, 188; disease of bone, ii, 186, 209, 210, 213, 215, 216; fracture and face cradle, ii, 239-242; joint, ii, 265; muscle connections, ii, 307-310, 312-314, 321; "lumpy "jaw, iii, 103; soundness examination, in, 37°) 372; swelling due to various causes, i, 264, 330; ii, 35, 40, 41, 44, 49. (Locked Jaw, see Tetanus.) Jelly-fish and the evolution of man, &c, iii, 258, 479, 482, 483. Jennet descent from horse, hi, 533, 534. Jerking Of limbs due to stringhalt, ii, 395- Jibbing due to bone disease, ii, 213. JOb-masterS�law of warranty, &c, iii, 417, 418. Job's description of war horses, iii, 520. Joint ill�(see Arthritis). Joint Oil�(see Synovia). Joints and Articulations�anatomy, ligaments, &c. Classification and forms of joints, ii, 262, 263, 279. Fetlock, coronet and coffin joints, U> 272-274. Glands causing flexibility of, ii, 127. Head joints, ii, 265; head with neck, n» 267-269. Hip or coxo-femoral, i, 67; ii, 274, 275. Hock-joint or tarsus articulations, O, _ 277-279. Joint oil�(see Synovia). Long- and low-jointedness�association between, i, 80. Ribs�articulations of, ii, 266, 267. Shoulder, elbow, and knee joints, Hj 270-272. Special features in structure as compared with man, iii, 485-490, 491. Stifle-joint or femoro-tibial, and tibio- fibular, ii, 275-277. Tongue or hyoidal joints, ii, 266. Trunk articulations, ii, 263-265. Warranty and soundness, iii, 420.

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INDEX

585

Joints, Muscles, Tendons, and Liga-
ments�diseases and injuries�

Accidents and first aid, ii, 439.

Breakdown of ligaments or sinews, ii,
251. 354-

Capped elbow, knee, and hock, ii, 359-
364.

Causes and symptoms of joint diseases,
ii, 279-281.

Contraction and spasm of muscle-
causing fracture, ii, 222, 224, 226; in
colic, i, 278; in rabies and tetanus,
ii, 45, 48.

Defective action�causes of stringhalt,
&c, ii, 395, 396.

Filled legs or oedema, ii, 364; lymphan-
gitis or weed, ii, 22.

Fistula and pus among muscles�causes,
&c, ii, 428, 430, 431, 433.

Fracture�muscle influence, &c, ii, 222,
224, 236, 237, 251, 252, 257; diffi-
culty of setting due to large muscles,
ii, 228, 233 ; prevention of fracture
by thickness of muscle, ii, 243, 244,
²54-

Hasmo-globinuria effects on muscular
tissues�analysis, &c, ii, 27, 28.

Heart muscles�inflammation, &c, 1,464,
468, 469.

Hernia due to rupture of muscular struc-
ture, i, 324.

Inflammation of joint membrane (syno-
vitis), ii, 282-284.

Loose cartilages, or growths in joints, ii,
284, 285.

Paralysis and effects, i, 418, 419; urine
retention, i, 353; slight movement
produced by drugs, ii, 478.

Poulticing directions, in, 31, 32.

Roach back due to weak muscles, i, 57.

Skin cracks and swellings, ii, 141, 152.

Wasting of muscles due to disease, i,
3"; ". 3°-

[See also titles Anchylosis, Arthritis or
"Joint 111", Bone diseases, Bowed
knees, Curb, Dislocations, Frac-
tures, Knuckling over, Rheuma-
tism, Sprains, Thoroughpin, Wind-
galls.]
Judging horses�acquiring knowledge

for, i, 27.
Jugular ganglion�formation, i, 395.
Jugular Vein of neck, i, 13; bleeding, i,
271; ii, 377; drugs injection, iii, 22;
examination for soundness, iii, 372;
muscle separating carotid artery, ii,
321 ; obstruction and thrombosis, i,
473) 475~477; pulse near, i, 462; iii,
146.
Jumping � action, forms, and hunters
training, iii, 199-202, 308, 309; croup
formation, i, 58; muscles used in, ii,
324; resulting in fracture, ii, 235,
236, 248, 249, overreach, ii, 399,
sprains, ii, 289, 297, 354, throm-
bosis, i, 474.
Juniper�medicinal uses, ii, 474; oil dose,

Lachrymal nerve�formation, i, 393.
Lacteal system�composition, &c., i, 425,

426-428; intestines, i, 236, 237; drugs

affecting, ii, 2.
Lacunae in bone structure, ii, 176, 177.
Lady's hack�Arab merits, i, 203.
Lair suitable for breeding purposes, iii, 208.
Lake Water�plants polluting, iii, 129.
Laky blOOd�composition of, i, 433.

"Lamb, the"�height, &_c., i, ₉₄.

Lamellar portion of ligamentum nuchas,
ii, 264, 265.

Lameness-
Causes and general treatment, ii, 388;

acid used, ii, 452.

Corns, contracted feet, broken knees, and
cracked heels, ii, 375, 394, 422, 425.

Defective action causing, ii, 401.

Diseased bone causing, i, 20; ii, 206, 207,
208, 209, 2ir, 215, 218; side-bones
and navicular disease, ii, 388, 389,
39i.

Fractures causing, ii, 225, 244, 249, 250,
²5^r> ²57> 258, 259, 260, 261.

Joint diseases causing, ii, 280, 281, 282,
284, 286, 287; loose cartilages, ii,
284, 285.

Operations for�firing, iii, 166, 167; un-
nerving, iii, 161, 164, 165.

Pricks and wounds to feet causing, ii,
386, 387.

Shoeing causing, iii, 453, 454.

Sprain symptoms, ii, 289, 290, 293, 294,
295, 296, 297, 299, 300, 301, 302�
chronic sprain not showing lameness,
ii, 296.

Symptoms of various diseases�canker,
ii, 382; hasmo-globinuria, ii, 26, 29,
30; liver, i, 307; lymphangitis, ii, 22;
quittor, ii, 379; rheumatism, ii, 21;
sand crack, ii, 366; seedy toe, ii, 369;
thoroughpin, ii, 358; thrush, ii, 374;
villitis, ii, 384; womb inflammation,
ii, 90.

Unsoundness and warranty � examina-
tion for and diseases producing, iii,
374- 375, 377, 412, 420, 421, 422, 423.
Lamina of sieve bone, ii, 186.

Laminae dorsalis and ventrales�

formation, iii, 250.
Laminae of hair and horn�form, ii,

132, 133; iii, 434, 435, 436 ; diseases

affecting, ii, 368, 372, 376.
LaminitiS and its treatment, &c., ii, 376-

378; other causes and results, i, 82,

290; ii, 90, 368, 369; iii, 24, 109;

stallions, iii, 237, 238; unsoundness

and warranty, iii, 378, 422.
Lampas � causes, treatment, &c, i, 7,

254> 3²⁶-
Lanarkshire origin of Clydesdales, i, 190.
Lancet�use for blood-letting, 1, 407, 475,

476; for rectum inversion, i, 301, 302.
Land�for breeding and rearing, i, 112; iii,

207, 208, 210, 216; ponies, i, 155, 1^9,

Land carriage of horses�facilities

and apparatus, iii, 464-467.
Lanoline as an ointment, iii, 42.
Large horses of Scotland�history, &c,

i, 186, 1S7.
Large intestine�description and uses,

i, 237, 238.
Large metacarpal bone �formation,

ii, 197.
Large pastern bone�formation, ii, 198.
Laryngeal nerves�formation, i, 396.

Laryngitis and its treatment, i, 507-509;
iii, 6; cough, ii, 18, 19; cause of
asphyxia, i, 495.

Larynx�conformation, bones and uses, i,
5, 484, 485; ii, 189; diseases and
spasm, _ i, 507-509; ii, 2, 17, 18;
drugs, hi, 6, 8; muscles, ii, 313, 315,
316, 317; removal for roaring, &c,
i. 5°7j 5°9, S", 512; soundness, iii,
386.

Kidneys-
Conformation and functions, i, 333-336;

nerves and arteries, i, 377, 448.
Diseases�diabetes or polyuria, i, 346;
embolism, i, 473; inflammation, i,
348; ii, 475; rupture and abscess, i,

343, 344; stone or calculus, i, 298,
370, 371; urine indications, i, 343,

344, 345-

Drugs affecting, ii, 449, 461, 473, 474, 475,
481; iii, 3; cantharides abuse, ii, 475.
Effects of disease � diarrhoea, i, 286;
dropsy, i, 311, 312; filled legs, ii, 364,
365; hasmo-globinuria, ii, 30; horse-
sickness, ii, 57; skin disorders, ii,
138; spinal myelitis, i, 419; tubercu-
losis, ii, 51.
Warranty as to condition, iii, 423.
King's interest in thoroughbred rearing

and racing, j, 110-112.
King's premiums for horse-breeding-
conditions, &c, i, 140, 141-
Kino�medicinal uses, ii, 455.

Kintyre Clydesdales � origin, &c, i,

190.
Knees and Knee-joint-
Action�capabilities of hackney and har-
ness horses, i, i2r, 122, 152; defective
action, ii, 400, 401; disease symp-
toms, ii, 391; flexion and extension,
ii, 196.

Bandaging, iii, 37.

Bones and conformation, i, 19, 73-75; *J,
193, 196, 197; knee-cap and joints, i,
23; ii, 201, 202, 263, 271, 272, 275;
muscles connected with, ii, 331, 332;
special features and comparison to
man, iii, 485-487, 489.

Bowed knees and other defects, i, 74, 75;
i'i 303-305; iii, 375; sprain tendency,
ii, 289.

Broken knees, ii, 422, 423, 437; fraud and
warranty, iii, 410, 418, 420, 421.

Capped knees, ii, 360-362.

Fracture of bones, ii, 247.

Growth measurements � table, &c, iii,
297.

Loose cartilages in joint, ii, 284.

Soundness and warranty, iii, 372, 374,
375- 379. 383, 410, 4'8, 420, 421.

Sprain of ligaments, &c, ii, 294, 354.

Sprung knee condition, i, 74; iii, 375.

Stable vices�injuries, hi, 342.

Various diseases affecting�arthritis, ii,
286, 287; mallenders and sallanders,
ii, 157; splints, ii, 207�operation for,
iii, 164; wind-galls, ii, 355.
Knives�for castration, iii, 173, 185; neur-
otomy, hi, 163; ovaries removal, iii,
181, 182; tenotomy, iii, 169, 170.
KnUCkle-hone�(see Astragalus).
Knuckling Over at fetlocks, &c�causes,
ii, 53,..297, 298, 347, 355; unsound-
ness, iii, 372.
Koch's discovery of tubercle bacillus, ii,
50; use of antiseptics, ii, 487.

Konigsherg beans as food, hi, 349.
Kreatin and kreatinine in urine, i,

341, 342.

Kairln�medicinal uses, ii, 450.

Keeper of the Barbary horses�origin

of title, i, tio.
Kell in scrotum due to hernia, i, 319.
Keratitis and its treatment, ii, 115, 116.

Kerato-hyoid muscle-form, ii, 313.

Keratoma and treatment, ii, 372.

Key hit for hunters, iii, 307.

Kicking�at night and in stables, iii, 140,
34t; mange symptoms, ii, 167; mares
during "horsing", iii, 181; muscles
connected with, ii, 334, 339; preven-
tion at operations, iii, 34, 159; war-
ranty, iii, 424.

Labia�structure and glands, i, 18, 73, 74,
230; swelling and eruption on, ii, 53,
140.

Labour pains in foaling, iii, 270; drugs
for, ii, 475, 481; flooding, &c, due
to, ii, 87, 91.

Laceration�of eyelids, ii, its; of mus-
cles of thigh, ii, 395.

Lachrymal bone�form, &c, ii, 187.

Lachrymal fossa, sac, and duct�for-
mation, &c., ii, 187.

Lachrymal gland of eye�diseases, ii,
114.

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	586		INDEX
			INDEX

Latches for loose-boxes, iii, 325. Lateral crico - arytenoid muscle- form, &c, ii, 317. Lateral ligaments of various joints, ii, 272, 273, 276. Lateral region of body, i, 16. Lateral surface of head, i, 10-12. Lateral ventricle of brain, i, 384. Lateralis sterni muscle�form, &c, i>, 334- Lathyrus sativa as food, iii, 350. LatiSSimUS dorsi�nerve and muscle, i, 399; ») 3²3- Latrines for stablemen, iii, 320, 335. Laudanum�medicinal uses, ii, 480. Laws, &c.�ancient breeding, i, 173, 174, 187; iii, 537, 54a 541, 54², 545; manure removal, ill, 335; medicine and vivisection, ii, 441, 443; poison- ing by yew, iii, 56 ; railway box dis- infection, iii, 153; regulations for diseases, ii, 37, 64; warrant and soundness (see Warranty). Laxative fOOdS for sick horses, iii, 26. Laxatives�medicinal uses, iii, 14. Lead�medicinal uses, ii, 454, 464. Lead compress for villitis, ii, 384. Lead-poiSOning and its causes, &c, ii, 464; iii, 51; drugs as antidotes, iii, 1, 8; paralysis due to, i, 420. Lean head- form of, i, 36. Leaping�action and forms, iii, 199-202; hunter training, iii, 308, 309. Leather shoes�uses, iii, 429. "Leave his legs behind him"�con- formation causing, i, 85. Lecithin in blood, i, 432, 435. "Leedes Arabian "�history, i, m. Left heart�structure, &c, i, 437. Left portions of abdominal cavity, ii, 338. Left surface of head, i, 10. Leg (or second thigh of hind limb)�con- formation, i, 23, 85; nerves, arteries, and muscles, i, 398; ii, 343-345. Legs�(see titles Fore-limbs, Hind-limbs, Limbs). Length Of a horse�determination, &c., i, 95-98; of back, 1, 55, 56, croup, i, 58, 59, head, i, 43, shoulder, i, 69, 70; proportions to height, i, 99. LenS Of eye, "i 108; spots and disease, ii, 117, 119, 120; soundness, iii, 369, 370- Lenticular cataract�formation, ii, 120. Lentils as food, iii, 112-114. Let down at belly�treatment of show horses, iii, 310, 311. Letters on sale of horse�warranty, &c, regulations, iii, 407, 425, 426. Leucocytes � in blood, i, 434, in urine, i, 343- Leucorrhcea and its treatment, ii, 92; drugs, iii, 5, 8. Levator muscles�distinction, &c, ii, 306, 307; forms�anguli scapulas, i, 399, ii, 318, costarum, ii, 334, labii superioris and alasque nasi, ii, 308, menti, ii, 309, palati, ii, 316, palpebral superioris, ii, 308. Levers in equine locomotion�bones, &c, i, 33-35; »'> 93> 194. Lice* and their treatment, ii, 163, 166; iii, 357 ; drugs destroying, ii, 491; iii, 4, 7- Lichen of the skin, ii, 148. Licking the walls of stable�a sign of disease, i, 272. Lieberkiihnian follicles of intestine, i, 236, 237, 245. Life�vital activity, existence, and evolu- tion, iii, 479, 483, 484.
		Ligaments- Diseases and injuries�(see title Joints, Muscles, &c, diseasesj. Displacement of bones prevented by, ii, 222, 223. Ligamentum nucha?�(see that title). Ossification causing "side-bones", ii, 387, 388. Structure of canon, i, 75, 76; fore-limb, i, 20; ii, 199, 223; neck, i, 12; pas- tern and foot, ii, 274; penis and sheath, ii, 71, 72; uterus, ii, 77, 78. [See also titles Capsular, Check, Sus- pensory ligaments, Joints�anatomy, Sprains.] Ligamentum nuchse � formation and use, i, 53; ii, 264, 265; muscle con- nections, ii, 312, 318, 322. Ligatures�for castration, iii, 175, hernia, ii 3²5) penis, ii, 85, veins, i, 502, wounds, ii, 408, 409, 415. (See also Sutures.) Light�eye examination, &c, ii, 107, 109, 111; iii, 142, 367; nervous influence, i, 387. Light-coloured horses � bedding, iii, 356; feet diseases, ii, 365, 389; wash- ing of, iii, 137. Lighting Of Stables�(see Stables). Limbs�Conformation, &c. � Defective action and its causes, ii, 396- 402; iii, 455-458. Development in embryo, iii, 255, 288-294. Feather or hair�(see Feather). Flexion and extension�bones assisting in, ii, 203. Functions of the limbs, i, 67, 68. Grooming, washing, &c, iii, 68, 135-137, 138. Height proportions, and weight of body distribution, i, 90-95. Length and rate of growth�before birth, iii, 288-294, after birth, iii, 294-297. Model of hoof and limb, ii, 491. Soundness and form�examination and warranty for, iii, 372, 373, 376-386. Special structure and comparison to man, iii, 485-490, of muscles, iii, 491, 492. [See also titles Fore-limbs, Hind-limbs, Action, Locomotion.] Limbs-Diseases and Injuries- Bandaging, blistering, and firing, iii, 36-38, 39, 166. Bone diseases, ii, 206, 207, 210, 213, 219. Defective action injuries, ii, 396-402; iii, 455-458. Enlargement or swelling�due to dropsy, i, 311; filled legs, ii, 364; glanders and farcy, ii, 36; liver disease, i, 314: purpura hasmorrhagica, ii, 25; lym- phangitis, ii, 22-24, 62; rheumatism, ii, 20, 21; thoroughpin, it, 357�drugs for swellings, ii, 449; iii, 1, 7. Jerking and stringhalt, i, 411; ii, 395; iii, 215, 3<57> 374, 423- Lime causing skin inflammation, ii, 143. Operations�for contraction and straight- ening, iii, 168-171; for unnerving, iii, 161, 162; means for restraint, iii, 157) 159- Paralysis and crippling causes, i, 388; ii, 26, 30, 236, 237, 298. Poulticing directions, iii, 31, 32. Trotters�bruises on, iii, 315. Various diseases affecting limbs, ii, 22- 24, 60, 62, 64, 143, 148, 157, 219, 376. [See also titles Deformities, Dislocations, Fractures, Lameness, Sprains; for special parts of limb, see titles Feet, Knees, &c] Lime�as a medicine, ii, 448, 450; iii, 5, 9; antidote, iii, 45, 51, 52; " stone" for- mation influences, i, 34s, 346, 354; iii, 124; skin inflammation due to, ii, 143; water tests, iii, 131, 132.		Lime juice, &c.�as antidote, iii, 51, 52. Limit Of Confusion�skin as organ of touch, ii, 127, 128. Limited warranty�form of, iii, 406. Lincolnshire horses�history, &c, iii, 54- Lincolnshire Lad II (1365)�pedigree, &c, i, 184; illust., i, 266. Linea alba of abdomen, ii, 335, 336. Lines transversa of abdomen, ii, 336. Linen bandages�uses, &c, iii, 36. Lingual glands and nerves�descrip- tion, &c, i, 230, 232. Liniments�application, &c, iii, 42; drugs used, ii, 459, 460; mouth trouble due to, i, 249. Lining membrane of heart�inflamma- tion, i, 461-463. Linseed and cake�as food, composition, &c., iii, 27, 89, 94, 99, 114, 115,350; for broken wind, ii, 13; for medicine balls, iii, 15, 18. Linseed mashes�preparation, &c, iii, 26, 114. Linseed Oil�medicinal uses, ii, 444; iii, 5, 10; sick horse diet, iii, 27. Linseed poultice � preparation, and with bran, iii, 29. Linseed tea�preparation, iii, 27, 114. Lips- Conformation and uses, i, 5, 229; muscle connections, ii, 307, 308, 309; nerves, i, 395; touch sensibility, ii, 128. Diseases, injuries, and eruptions, i, 247- 249; bot-fly eggs on, ii, 170; frac- tured jaw, ii, 239, 240; herpes, ii, 149; horse-pox, ii, 43; pustules, ii, 141; stomatitis pustulosa, ii, 49; swellings due to diseases, i, 476; ii, 24, 55- Twitch application, iii, 157. Liquid ammonia�as stimulant, ii, 459; poisoning by, iii, 52. Liquid fOOd�cause of disease, i, 221. Liquid medicines�administration, iii, 21. Liquor arsenicalis�uses, &c, ii, 453; iii, 1. Liquor folliCUli of ovary, ii, 79. Liquorice�uses in medicine, iii, 15, 17. "List" on back of Cleveland bays, i, 127, 132. "Lister Turk"�history, iii, 546. Lister's antiseptic system for wounds, &c, ii, 407, 411, 420-422, 487. Lister's strong mixture for wound treatment, ii, 410, 420. Lithotomy operation�(see Stone in the bladder). Lithotomy tube�uses, &a, i, 366. Lithotripsy�operation and instruments, i, 366-368. Lithotrite�uses, &c, i, 367. Litter�(see Bedding). Liver� Condition balls effect on, ii, 446. Conformation and digestive uses, i, 238- 241; bile-flow, &c, i, 245; capillaries and arteries, i, 447, 448; nerves, i, 377- Liver Diseases and Injuries- Abdominal ascites�dropsy, i, 310-312. Congestion of liver, i, 303. Drugs affecting, ii, 459, 465-468, 488; iii, 6. Fatty and ruptured liver, i, 308-310, 470. Inflammation or hepatitis, i, 305-308. Jaundice, icterus, the yellows, i, 304. Mustard plasters over liver, iii, 34. Signs of disease, iii, 149. Spasm of the diaphragm, i, 312. Temperaments liable to disease, i, 218. Tuberculosis and bacillus affecting liver, *ii, 5°- 5-**

-ocr page 647-

INDEX

587

Liver Diseases and Injuries�{Cont.)

Various diseases due to, &c� diarrhcea,
i, 286; digestive disorders, 1, 272, 303,
307; filled legs, ii, 364, 365; giddi-
ness, i, 409; heemo-globinuria, ii, 27,
28, 29; influenza, ii, 32; oedema of
sheath, ii, 84; skin diseases, ii, 139.

Worms and parasites causing disease, ii,
169, I7*,..i73i ^T74, Wtt*$\ genera-
tion of, iii, 260, 261, 480.
Liverpool bit�type and use, iii, 359.
Livery Stable OWnerS-law of warranty,

&c, iii, 415, 417, 418.

Loads�drawing and position of limbs, &c,
i, 67, 68, 88; hernia causes, i, 316,
319; merits of various breeds, i, 192,
193, 199, 206.

Lobelia�medicinal uses, ii, 472.

Lobules�of liver, i, 239, 240; of salivary
glands, i, 230, 231; of testicle, ii, 66.

Lobulus Spigellii�position, i, 239.

Local authorities�disease regulations,
ii, 37- ⁶4-

Local diseases � classification, &c, i,
223; iii, 144.

Local dropsy of sheath, ii, 83, 84.

Local inflammations of the skin, ii,
143-146.

Local paralysis�causes, treatment, &c,

i, 422.
Local Symptoms of disease�definition,

iii, 144.
Locality�bump of, in a horse, ii, 439;

disease influences, i, 213, 214.
Lock-jaw�(see Tetanus).

Locomotion, Equine-
Bones as levers, and effect of air, i, 33-

35, 49°-

Footprints of various paces, iii, 197.

Forms and position � in amble, canter,
and trot, iii, 195-198; galloping, leap-
ing, and jumping, iii, 198-202; stand-
ing and walking, iii, 191, 192, 194.

Muscles and head influences, i, 31, 36.

Nervous diseases causing failure, i, 405.

Organs of locomotion (see titles Bones,
Limbs, Vertebra!:, etc.).

Speed and centre of gravity, &c, i, 28-
30; iii, 192-194.

[See also titles Action, Movements.]
LoftS�structure, iii, 320, 322, 323, 326, 331.
LoinS�conformation and defects, i, 14, 56,
57, 102; bones and fracture, ii, 179,
²35j ²3^; lumbar nerves, i, 375, 377;
muscles, ii, 319, 322-324; rheumatism
in, ii, 2i; spinous processes of, ii,
179, 180; sprain, ii, 298.
London regulations�on stable matters,
iii) 83, 335; sale of horses and war-
ranty, iii, 417.
Long bones�description and ossification,
ⁿ> ^J77; ^J78; fracture setting, ii, 229,
230.

Long conformation � of back, i, 54,

56; neck, i, 48, 50; pasterns, i, 80;

shoulders, i, 69, 70.
Long lOW horse�appearance, &c, i, 99.
Longevity of cream Hanover horses, i,

206, 207, of Sufiblks, i, 197, 198, 200.

Longissimus dor si muscle�form, &c,

ii, 3°6, 323, 324-
Longitudinal fracture�form, &c, ii,

221, 222.

LongUS COlli mUSCle�form, &c, ii, 322.

Loose cartilages in joints, ii, 284.
Loose-boxes�

Bedding causing heat and injury, iii, 356.
Care of hunters in, iii, 310; mare and

foal, iii, 265, 268, 285; sick horses,

iii, 23, 24, 143; trotters, iii, 316.
'Conveyance of horses�by land and rail,

iii, 464-467; by sea, iii, 461, 462.
Infection, disinfection, and occupation

afterwards, iii, 153, 154-156.
-Shoes for animals in, iii, 139.

Loose-boxes�(Cont.)

Structure, &c, iii, 69, 70, 323, 325�drain-
age, iii, 84, 85; plans, iii, 320-324,
325; racing stables, iii, 338; railway
boxes, iii, 153, 464-467; sick-boxes,
iii, 23, 24, 143; tramway stables, iii,
337-

"Lord Derby" (415) �hackney stallion
(illust.), i, 172.

"Lord Derby II" (417)�pedigree, i, 119.

"Lord Stewart" �Clydesdale stallion
(illust.), i, 280.

Lost dog and horse�story of Zadig,

iii, 473-475-
Lotions�application, &c, iii, 42; lead

preparations, ii, 464. (See also Em-
brocations, Eyes, Liniments.)

LOUSiness�(see Lice).

LOW in front�conformation and effects,
ii 95-

Low neurectomy�method, &c, iii, 161,
162, 164.

LOW ring-bone�form of disease, ii, 205.
LOW Withers�character of, i, 52, 54.

L-shaped stables�plan, &c, iii, 322.
Lucerne hay�composition, &c, iii, 89,

90, 91, 97, 99, no, in.
Lumbago and its causes, &c., ii, 21.

Lumbar arteries�formation, i, 452.

Lumbar muscles of inferior region, ii,
324-326.

Lumbar nerves�formation, &c, i, 381,
401, 402-405.

Lumbar portions of abdominal cavity,
ii, 338.

Lumbar rheumatism�symptoms, &c,
ii, 21.

Lumbar vertebrse or spine�forma-
tion and bones, ii, 179, 181, 182;
fracture, ii, 236; iliac diseases affect-
ing, i, 474, 475; kidneys position, i,
333; muscle connections, ii, 324, 326.

LumbO-aortiC pleXUS � formation, i,

377.
Lumbo-sacral plexus �formation, i,

402-405.
Lumbricales muscle�form, &c., ii, 332.

Lumps on skin, ii, 137, 146.
Lumpy jaw�causes, iii, 103.

Lunar bone�form, &c, ii, 193* ^T97-

Lunar caustic�uses, &c, ii, 457.

Lunging in hunter-training, iii, 307, 308.

Lungs-
Blood distribution through�capillaries
and arteries, &c, i, 446, 448, 487;
heart's action, i, 438.
Conformation and respiratory uses, i,
482-484, 486, 491, 493, 494; confor-
mation showing good lungs, i, sg,
207, 208 ; consideration in prescrip-
tion of drugs, ii, 468, 469; fcetal lungs,
formation, iii, 256.
Diseases and injuries�(see title Lung

diseases and injuries).
Drugs affecting, ii, 462, 468-470; stimu-
lant and soothing remedies, ii, 470-
472.

Lungs�Diseases and Injuries-
Bleeding or hemorrhage, i, 501, 502; ii,

10, 159.

Broken wind, ii, 12-14; sound for detec-
tion, i, 460.

Bronchitis and asthma, ii, 1-4, 11.

Classification and general considerations,
ii, 1.

Congestion and inflammation (pneumo-
nia), ii, 5-10; heart affected, i, 457,
462.

Drugs for, ii, 462, 468-470; iii, 1; stimu-
lant and soothing remedies, ii, 470-
472.

Embolism of lungs, i, 473; ii, 140.

Illustrations of diseases affecting, ii, 34,
42, 140.

Pleurisy or pleuritis, ii, 14-17.

Lungs�Diseases and Injuries-

(Cont,)
Punctured�effect and causes, i, 493; ii,

²54, 255-
Sick-box bedding and temperature, &c.,

iii, 23, 24, 142.
Tuberculosis and bacillus, ii, 42, 50, 51.
Various diseases associated with�diar-
rhoea, i, 286; glanders and farcy,
"> 34,.36, 39; heart affection, i, 457,
462; liver, i, 303; tetanus, ii, 48.
Worm infesting lungs, ii, 174.
LupUS affecting the horse, ii, 156.
Luxation Of bones�(see Dislocation).
Lying down a cause of capped knee and

hock, ii, 360, 362; iii, 343.
Lymph � composition, &c., i, 428, 429,

430; liver spaces, i, 239.
Lymphadenoma�a form of tuberculosis,
ii, 50.

Lymphangitis and its treatment, ii, 22-
24; drugs, iii, 4; epizootic form, ii,
59-65; distinction from glanders, ii,
36, 37; green food causing, iii, 351;
other effects, ii, 158, 428.

Lymphatic animals-disease liability,
1, 218; ii, 356, 424.

Lymphatic glands and system �com-
position, &c, i, 425, 428-430, of
bladder, i, 337; disease or "weed",
ii, 22-24, 36; drugs for swellings, ii,
474; effects and swellings due to dis-
eases, ii, 49, 51, 59, 62; soundness
examination, iii, 371.

Lymphocytes in blood, i, 434.

Lysol for wounds, ii, 421.

Machine-made shoes�uses, iii, ₄₄6.

Maculae of skin, ii, 136.

Mad Staggers�a form of indigestion, i,
268, 270, 271.

Maggots causing skin disease, ii, 163.

Magnesia � medicinal uses, ii, 448; as

antidote, iii, 45; water constituent,

iii, 122.

Magnesium, sulphate of (see Epsom

salts).

Maize as food�composition, &c, i, 241,
243; iij.. 89, 108, 348, 349; digesti-
bility, iii, 90, 91, 97, 98, 108, 109.

Maladie dU COit and its treatment, &c,
ii, 52, 80, 82, 428.

Malar hone�formation, &c, ii, 185, 187.

Malarial fevers�causes, i, 223; iii, 78.
Male fern�dose, iii, 10.

Male Organs Of generation�(see Re-
production).

Male pelvis�arteries of, i, 452.

Male teeth�number, &c., i, 230.

Malformations�(see Deformities).

Mallein for detection of disease, i, 228;
i'. 35, 37, 38, 39, 61.

Mallenders �causes, &c, ii, 157, 158;
chestnuts as, iii, 501 ; remedies, ii,
464; unsoundness, iii, 374.

Malleolus of tibia, ii, 203.

Malpighi, capsule Of�formation, &c,
>. 334. 335. 336-

Malpresentations in foaling, iii, 274-

279, of head, iii, 279-282.
Malt liquors�stimulating uses, ii, 460.
Malt sprouts as food, iii, 89, 108.
Maltose in digestion, i, 244.

Mammalian OVUm�formation and fer-
tilization, iii, 251, 252, 258, 480-484.
Mammary glands �conformation and

development, i, 16, 17; ii, 94, 335;
diseases affecting, ii, 53, 93-97/98;
fractured pelvis effect, ii, 257; use of
alum, ii, 456; weaning effects, iii,
226. (See also Milk.)

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			INDEX
	588		INDEX

Mammitis�treatment, &c, ii, 93-97. Man�comparison of skeleton of horse, ii, 176; iii, 485-490; foot pads, iii, 502, 503, 507, 508; origin from jelly-fish, evolution influences, &c, iii, 257, 258, 479, 482-484. Mane�characteristic of horse, growth, &c, ii, 132; iii, 495; mange, ii, 167; washing in disease, iii, 35. Mange and its treatment, ii, 166-168; iii, 35; cure for, and mange-mites causing disease, ii, 140, 163, 166, 167; drugs used, ii, 481, 484, 491; iii, 4; skin dressing causing, ii, 129; unsound- ness and warranty, iii, 422. Mangel-wurzel�poisoning by, iii, 51. Mangels-as food, iii, 89, 115. Mangers �construction and tying in, iii, 327, 328, 338; cribbing and feet in, i, 414; iii, 342; food left in, and in- fection precautions, iii. 1 (.2, 154, 155; lip troubles due to wu«<j, i, 247. Mangolds�food uses, iii, 350. Manholes�in stable drainage, iii, 85, 86, 329. 33o. Manure-(see Dung). Mares - Blistering while "in season", iii, 39. Breeding and origin of various types of horses�-ancient laws, i, 173, 174; Arabs, i, 201, 202; Clydesdales, i, 187, 189, 190; Flanders, i, 175, 176, 177; hackneys, i, 115, 119; harness horses, i, 152, 153; hunters, i, 125, 135' ¹3&, M°> ^I4²» ^r43> ponies, i, 157, 158, 16r, 162, 163, 171; Shires, i, 172, 174, 177, 178, (illust.) iii, 268; Suffolks, i, 195. Care and food, &c, of in-foal mares, iii, 208-210, 215-218, 264-266; after foaling, iii, 226-228, 285; constipa- tion, i, 285 ; weaning after fresh service, iii, 225 ; working during suckling and pregnancy, i, 286, 287; iii, 217, 264, Catheter insertion and uses, iii, 177, 179. Causes of disease�sex influences, i, 218. Growth of foals�influence of mares, iii, 297, 298. Mating and impregnation, iii, 213-215, 219, 234 - 238, 262, 263, 297, 298; artificial insemination, iii, 231-234; cantharides abuse, iii, 60; influence of first sire on further offspring, iii, 239-245. Period for foaling, iii, 285. Stone in bladder, or vesical calculus, i, 368. Troublesome mares, removal of ovaries, iii, 180-184. [See also titles iEstrum, Parturition and Pregnancy, Reproduction Organs, Sexual Intercourse, Suckling of Foals.] Market sales of horses�warranty as to, iii, 417. "Markham Arabian " �history, &c, i, 110, in. Markings � forms and origin of special marks on horses, &c, iii, 495, 497- 500; on Cleveland Bays, i, 127, 132; Clydesdales, i, 192; Suffolks, i. 196, 197 ; Yorkshire coach-horse, i, 134; teeth "mark", iii, 392, 393, 395, 400. Marrow�of bone, ii, 176. Marsh lands�fever causes, iii, 78. Marston�shire horse, price, i, 185. Martingale�use for harness and show horses, i, 151; iii, 313. Masculine features � effect of castra- tion, iii, 172. Massage�diseases benefited by, ii, 286, 357, 365- Masseter muscle�form, &c, ii, 309. Masseteric nerve�formation, i, 393. Master of the horse or stud�ancient appointment, i, no; iii, 537.				Medicines and Drugs�[Cent) Treatment of�pregnant mares, iii, 266;, ship - board horses, iii, 463 ; show- horses, iii, 311; trotters in training, &c, iii, 316. [For special drugs, Sec, see their names.]. Medulla, and medullary cavity and fora- men in bone-structure, ii, X76. Medulla oblongata�formation, &c, i, 3S2, 389, 494. Medullary Sheath, &C, of nerve-fibres,. b 379- MegacOCCi of bacteria, i, 226. Megastoma�a form of worm, ii, 169. Megrims�(see Vertigo). Melanosis�unsoundness due to, iii, 374. Mellitus diabetes and treatment, i, 346.. Membrana decidua in uterus, iii, 253. Membrana granulosa�form, iii, 248. Membrana nictitans of eye, i, n; ii, 103, 104. Membranes�blue colour of, ii, 470; bone: structure and disease, ii, 176, 208; brain�thickening of, i, 417; heart inflammation, i, 461-463; joint struc- ture and inflammation, ii, 262, 282-- 284; lining stomach and intestines, h 235, 236; lung diseases, ii, 1; poi- soning and disease signs, iii, 46, 47, 48, 145; spinal cord diseases, i, 418;. uterus during gestation, iii, 252, 253. (See also Mucous membranes.) Memory of a horse, i, 390; ii, 439, 440. Meningitis�of brain, i, 405-407; spinal. and cerebro-spinal forms, i, 418, 423- 425; drug for, ii, 477. Mental nerve�formation,!, 394; fracture effect, ii, 240. Menthol�antiseptic uses, ii, 487. Mercurial poisoning�causes, &c, ii, 489; iii, 45. Mercury and preparations � used medicinally, &c, ii, 454, 486, 488; iii, 3, 5�doses, hi, 10; poisoning and. antidote, iii, 489; iii, 45. Merismopedia of bacteria, i, 226. "MesaOUd" �Arab stallion (illust.), it, 412. Mesenteric arteries � formation and. diseases affecting, i, 448, 452, 471, 477; parasites in, ii, 174. Mesentery of intestine, i, 236; hernia. causes, i, 317, 322. MesohippUS � fossil remains and horse origin, iii, 512. Mesorchium of testis, ii, 65. Metacarpal arteries�formation, i, 450. Metacarpal bones (shin or splint bones) �formation, &c, i, 20, 75; ii, 197- 200; iii, 477, 478, 487; former uses- and fossil remains, iii, 477, 478, 511, 513; bone diseases affecting, ii, 209, 210, 213, 216, 219; fracture, ii, 223, 248; joints formation, ii, 271, 272. Metacarpal periostitis and its treat- ment, &c, ii, 219, 220. Metacarpi muscles�forms, ii, 330,331, 332- Metacarpo-phalangial articulation, ii, 272. Metacarpus�(see Canon). Metal Shoes�introduction, iii, 429. Metallic sutures, &c, for wounds, ii,. 419. Metatarsal artery�formation, i, 453. Metatarsal bones-formation, &c, ii,. 204, 278; iii, 487. Metritis and its treatment, &c, ii, 89-91, 97, 98; iii, 180. MetrO-peritonitlS and its treatment, &c, ii, 89, 91, 97, 98. Microbes and micro-organisms�(see Organisms). Micrococci�formation, &C, i, 226, 246. Microscopical discoveries on causes- of disease, i, 224-226.
		Mastication process and time, i, 233, 244, 246, 247; imperfect�effects, i, 272, 282, 286; loss of power and difficulty due to diseases, i, 420, 504; ii, 44, 48, 49; mixed food, iii, 346; nerves and muscles assisting in, i, 385; ii, 310, 313; teeth effects, i, 326, 327, 330. Mastoid process of temporal bone, ii, 185. Mastoido-auricularis muscle�form, &c, ii, 312. Mastoido-humeralis muscle � form and uses, i, 46, 49, 50; ii, 306, 320; fracture effects, ii, 245. Materials for stable structure, iii, 319, 320, 323- Mating Of mares�(see titles Breeding, Mares). Matter�(see title Pus or Matter). Maxillary articulation�form, ii, 185. Maxillary bones�forms, &c, ii, 186, 188; fracture, ii, 242. Maxillary nerves�forms, &c, i, 393. MeadOW hay�quality, &c, iii, 351, 352. Means of restraint of horses during operations, iii, 156-160. Measures for drugs, &c, iii, n, 12. Mechanical apparatus�bowed knees, ii, 304, contracted feet, il, 394, 395, malformed limbs, ii, 346, 347. Mechanical causes of disease, i, 219, 220; ii, 426. Meconium plugging rectum of foals, i, 284. Median nerve and branches�formation, i, 400. Median neurectomy�method, &c, Hi, 161, 162, 164, 165. Mediastinum testis�form, ii, 66, 67. Medicinal plants � appearance of (il- lust.), ii, 466, 470. Medicines and Drugs- Action and uses, ii, 441-444�fist of drugs, iii, 1-8; therapeutical action of medi- cines, iii, 12-14. Administration and preparation of physic, ii, 444-446; iii, 18; balls, draughts, drench, &c., iii, 19-22; electuaries, in- jections, and suppositories, iii, 21, 22, 41; refusal of horses, means of forc- ing, iii, 157, 158. Antiseptics and wound treatment, ii, 420- 422, 483-488. Diseases due to abuse of drugs, i, 272, 276, 286; ii, 84, 143, 473, 475. Doses, measures, and weights for various drugs�list of, iii, 9-12. External remedies � gargles, liniments, &c, iii, 41-43- For acting on tissue change�alteratives, ii, 452-454; astringents, ii, 454-457. For blood, affecting nutrition of entire body, ii, 446; tonics and reducing drugs, ii, 447-450; cooling medicines, ii, 450-452- For blood-vessels, ii, 457, 462-464. For heart and blood-vessels, ii, 457-462. For kidneys, bladder, and generative organs, ii, 473-475- For lungs and air passages, ii, 468-472. For nervous system�hypnotics, tonics, and stimulants, ii, 476-478; anaes- thetics and anodynes, ii, 479-483. For skin and " sweating ", ii, 472, 473. For stomach, digestive system, bowels, and liver, ii, 464-468. Infectious diseases � little value of, iii, 150, 151- Miscellaneous drugs for various ailments, ii, 488-491. Operations, iii, 156, 157, 160,182 (see also Anaesthetics). Poisons and Poisoning�[see that title). Prescriptions � horse balls for various purposes, iii, 15, 16; powders, iii, 16, 17; draughts, iii, 18.

-ocr page 649-

INDEX

589

Monorchid�description of, iii, 184.

Monro, foramen of�in brain, i, 384.
Moon-Dlindness and its causes, &c, ii,

116-118, 121.
Moorish horses�history, iii, 527, 530,

533, 534. 535-
Morbid conditions a sign of disease, i,

213, 214.
Morgan horses � appearance, origin,

&c._f i, 207.
Morphia�injections and medicinal uses

of, i, 280, 303; ii, 16, 480; iii, 5, 463

�doses, iii, 10; fracture setting, ii,

230.

Morphine, acetate of�dose, iii, 9.

Mortality due to castration, iii, 186;
epizootic lymphangitis, ii, 61, 63 ;
influenza and pneumonia, ii, 32, 33;
pyemic arthritis, ii, 287, 288; par-
turient fever, ii, 99; worms in young
animals, ii, 172.

Mortification of reproduction organs, ii,
83, 91, 92.

Mosquitoes causing horse-sickness, ii, 55,
58; paraffin-oil as protection against,
ii, 58.

Moss-litter�use of, iii, 138,139.

Motion�gurgling sound during, ii, 71;
nerves of motion, i, 392, 397; para-
lysis and causes, i, 419; ii, 236, 237.
[See also titles Locomotion, Move-
ments.]

Motor nerves�formation, i, 374, 385,386.

Motores oculi nerves�formation, i, 385.

Motores oculorum nerves�formation,
&c, i, 392, 394.

Mould causing disease, i, 216, 221; ii, 169,
371; iii, 102, 103.

Mouldy hay�effects of, iii, 102, 352, 353.

Moulting�arsenic uses, ii, 454; rheu-
matism during, ii, 21.

Mountain ponies�breeding lands for,
iii, 216.

MOUth-
Conformation and examination, i, 5, 6-8;
iii, 371, 372 ; bones and cavity, ii,
183, 186, 187; deformity, " parrot
mouth", i, 331; harness horses, i,
151; muscles, ii, 307-309, 314.
Discharges�bleeding causes and aid, ii,
10, 439; froth and foam, ii, 56, 213;
saliva secretion, &c, i, 258.
Drugs for mouth-washes, &c, ii, 50, 455,
457, 484, 485; iii, 2, 3, 5; application
of mouth-washes, and poisoning treat-
ment, iii, 41, 52.
Eruptions and diseases�facia] paralysis,
ii, 423; fungi or parasites, ii, 169;
herpes, ii, 149; horse-pox, ii, 43;
stomatitis and thrush (aphthae), i,
249-252; ii, 49, 50.
Poisoning effects, iii, 46, 47, 52.
Space between teeth�formation of, iii,
390, 494-

Mouth-gag for physic giving, iii, 20.

Movements�

Absorbent system affecting muscular

movement, i, 429.
Blindness and its tests, ii, 123.
Centre of gravity and equilibrium of a

horse, i, 28-31; iii, 192-194.
Excitability denoted by ears, i, 42, 43.
Muscles in relation to power and speed,

i, 3i, 32.
Nervous system and brain influences, i,

373i 374, 39° � diseases affecting

power of movement, i, 405; reflex

movements, i, 388, 389.
Poisoning effects, iii, 54.
Unsteady�due to heart, i, 458, staggers,

i, 268, thrombosis, i, 474.
[See also titles Action, Defective action,

Locomotion, Motion, &c]

Mucous casts and mucus in urine, i,

345; poisoning signs, iii, 47, 48.
MUCOUS glands�description, i, 232.

Mucous membranes �bladder, i, 337;

drugs affecting, ii, 454; iii, 2, 13;
genito-urinary organs disease, &c.,
i, 344, 345; intestines, i, 236; liver
disorders, i, 303, 304,307; poisoning
and disease signs, iii, 45, 145;
stomach, i, 235, 273.

Mud�grooming of coat, &c, iii, 134-137,
310.

Mud fever�causes, &c, ii, 139,144, 145,
158; iii, 135-137; remedies and pre-
cautions, ii, 464, 474; iii, 4, 310.
(See also title Lymphangitis.)

Mule feet � formation and advantages,
ii, 393-

Mulling Of horses-early practice, iii,
172.

Multiplication processes in genera-
tion, iii, 258, 259.

MumpS in horses, i, 259.

Muscles and Muscular System-
Action, origin, and insertion of muscles,
ii, 306.

Appearance (illusts.), i, 390, 398; ii, 310,
314, 326.

Attachment to bones�tendons for, ii, 306.

Breathing uses, &c, i, 492.

Composition and kinds of muscles and
fibre, ii, 305, 306�kreatin and gly-
cogen in muscle, i, 341, 490.

Digestive influences, i, 235, 246.

Diseases and injuries�[see title Joints,
Muscles, &c, diseases).

Drugs affecting, ii, 449, 478, 481; iii, 6,13.

Examination for soundness, iii, 373.

In relation to power and speed, i, 31, 32;
iii, 193; to locomotion, i, 33-35; iii,
191.

Moisture in tissue�analysis, &c, ii, 27,
28.

Nervous and absorbent systems affecting;
muscular movement, i, 373, 374, 429.

Regions�axillary, ii, 327; hyoid, ii, 312;
lumbar, ii, 324; pharyngeal, ii, 315;
scapular, ii, 328.

Skeleton attachments, i, 53; ii, 178, 180..

Special functions and structure as com-
pared with man, iii, 490-492.

Sprains�(see that title).

[For muscles of special organ or part,,
see its title, as Abdomen, Fore-limbs,
Neck, &c; for particular muscle see
its name.]

Musculo-cutaneous nerve �form, i,.

404.
Musculo-spiral nerve�form, i, 400.

MuSgrave'S�gutters for stables, iii, 329^
horse-tying in stables, iii, 328.

Mustard�medicinal uses, iii, 6.

MUStard plasters, &c. � preparation
and application, iii, 33; for various-
uses, ii, 462, 469, 471; irritation due
to, and question of use, ii, 3, 7.

Mutualism�a form of parasitism, ii, 160.

Muzzle for preventing bed-eating, iii, 139.

Muzzle Of head, i, 5; warts and lip
troubles, i, 248.

Mydriatics and their uses, iii, 14.

Myelitis, spinal�causes, &c, i, 418.
Mylo-hyoid muscle�form, &c, ii, 312,

3*3-
Mylo-hyoidean nerve�form, i, _3g4.

Myocarditis and its treatment, &c, i,.

464, 468.
Myotics and their uses, iii, 14.
Myrrh�medicinal uses, ii, 471; iii, 6_

Microstoma�a form of worm, ii, 169.

Middle cervical ganglion�formation,

i. 376-
Middle flexor of metacarpus or canon

�muscle form, &c, ii, 331.

Middle gluteus muscle�form, &c., ii,

339-
Midriff�(see Diaphragm).
Military Horses-
Air-space in stables, iii, 80.
Disease treatment � epizootic lymphan-
gitis, ii, 64; horse-sickness, ii, 53-58.
History on, i, 176, 270.
Maize diet, iii, 108.
Shoeing�history and injuries, iii, 429,

452.
Water amount, iii, 120.
[See also titles Cavalry, War.]
Milk�absorption by skin, ii, 130; antidote
uses, iii, 45; foal-rearing with cow's
milk, iii, 224, 225; sick horses' diet,
iii, 25, 141.
Milk Of mares�alum for drying up, ii,
456; hand-milking practice, i, 287;
ii, 94, 96; microbes causing disease,
i, 225; refusal of mare to feed foal,
ii, 94; suppression causes, ii, 90, 93,
94-96, 98; various effects of dis-
ordered milk, i, 251, 285, 286, 287,
288, 289.
Milk-glands�(see Mammary glands).
Milk-syphon�use of, ii, 96.

Milk teeth�appearance, &c, iii, 393,
476; shedding causing tongue inflam-
mation, &c, i, 252, 326.

Milky Streaks across eye�disease signs,
ii, 120; iii, 368.

Mill-duSt for bedding, iii, 356.

Millers' horses liable to "stone ", i, 300.

Mineral acids�food and digestion, i,
243; medicinal effects, &c, ii, 454,
467; poisoning effects, iii, 48.

Mineral matter in bone, ii, 175.
Mineral poisons and their effects, ii,

403; iii, 48.
Mines�contamination of air in, iii, 76, 77.
Miocene formation�horse origin, iii,

512.
MlOhippus � fossil remains, and horse

origin, iii, 512.
"Mischief"�Yorkshire coach horse (il-

lust.), ii, 161.
Misrepresentations and fraud in sale

of horses, warranty, iii, 410.
Mistakes in sale of horses � warranty

regulations, &c., iii, 409.
Mites causing skin diseases, ii, 163, 166-

168.
Mitral valves�sounds and disease, i,

460, 464, 465.

Mixed concretions�forms, &c, i, 300.

Mixed food�advantages and uses, iii,

343-346.

Mixed hemorrhage�causes, &c.,i, 501.
Mixed joints�form, &c, ii, 263.

Modern horses�descent and position
in animal world, iii, 471-484.

Mohammedan belief and uses of horse,
»i> 533- 534-

Moisture in tissues � during "azo-

turia", ii, 27; in health, ii, 28; in
hoof, iii, 140.

Molar glands�description, &c, i, 230.

Molar teeth�form, defects, and growth,
i, 6, 230, 327-329- 332; i'i, 389, 39°>
397-399, 476, 494, of temporary teeth,
iii, 394-396; fracture and decay, i,
33o, 33*-

Monads�generation of, iii, 259.

Monday morning disease � causes,

&c., ii, 22, 364.
Mongolian horse�appearance, &c, iii,

5*3-
Monk'S-hOOd �medicinal uses, ii, 461;

poisoning by, iii, 63.

Vol. III.

Nags�uses of, i, 113, 118; iii, 543.
NailS_f as Skin appendages, ii, 131, 133-

"i. 504, 505.
Nails in fOOt�diseases and injuries by,.

ii, 210, 253, 385, 403, 412, 413; iii, 453.

103

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			INDEX
	590		INDEX
	590

Nails and nailing on of shoes, Hi, 444, 450, 451; injuries, iii, 453. Nape of head�(see Poll). Narcotic poisons and treatment of poisoning by, iii, 54-64. NarCOtlCS�drugs used as, ii, 476, 481. Narrow conformation�of breast, i, 6r, 62, croup, i, 59, face, i, 39; digestion influences, i'u, 119. Nasal DOneS �formation, i, 9; ii, 186; fossil remains, iii, 513; muscles at- tached to, ii, 308, 309. Nasal catarrh or gleet�causes, treat- ment, &c, i, 498, 499-501; drugs, ii, 489; iii, 5, 7; mallein test, ii, 39; pus extraction, ii, 186; soundness exam- ination, iii, 371. Nasal dUCt�position, i, 10. Nasal nerve�formation, i, 393. Nasal peak�formation, i, 9; it, 186. Nasal process � fracture of maxillary bone through, ii, 242. Natural ventilation�use of term, &c, i, 496. Navel and umbilical opening � for- mation and dressing, i, 17 ; ii, 288, 335> 338; liver and hernia effects, i, 306, 316; "navel ill" and pyemic arthritis, ii, 280, 287-289; separation at birth, iii, 270, 271. Navicular bone � formation, i, 22; ii, 200; fracture, ii, 224, 252; wounds affecting, ii, 385. Navicular disease�its treatment, &c, ii, 389-393; fracture and other effects, ii, 200, 252, 280, 373; operation for, iii, i6t, 164, 165; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 379, 382, 422. Navicular ligaments � coffin-joint, ii, 273- NaviCUlarthritiS (seeNavicular disease). Near Side �explanation of term, i, 3. Neck- Carriage and coupling of head and neck, i, 44-46, 48-51; ii, 267-269. Conformation and bones, i, 12, 13, 47, 102; ii, 179, 181; arteries and veins, i, 447, 449; joints and ligaments, ii, 264, 265- joint with head, ii, 267-269; muscles, ii, 318-322, 326; nerves, i, 375. 376; spinous processes of, ii, 179, 180; weight of body influenced by length, i, 91. Diseases and injuries affecting�covering disease, ii, 53; eczema, ii, 148; frac- ture, ii, 235; horse sickness, ii, 55, 56; mange, ii, 167; nettle-rash, ii, 146; poll evil, ii, 430; roaring, i, 511; roping to extract horse from ditch, ii, 440; spasms, ii, 45, 47, 48. Neck cradle used after blistering, iii, 39. Neck presentations in parturition, iii, 272, 279, 280. Necrosis of bone, ii, 212-214; other causes, ii, 386, 431, 432; tuberculosis classed as, ii, 51. Needles causing heart disease, i, 461. Needles�for hernia, 1, 318; lithotomy, i, 366; neurotomy, iii, 163, 164; skin injections, iii, 21; wound-stitching, ii, 418, 419. Negative Symptoms of disease, iii, 145. Nematodes causing disease, &c, ii, 170, 171, 172, 370; drugs destroying, iii, 12. Nephritis and its treatment, i, 348; un- soundness and warranty, iii, 423. NerVe-CellS�composition and uses, i, 375, 378, 386. Nerve energy or stimulus � generation, &c, i, 373, 387, 388; heart action, i, 441; ii, 458. Nerve-fibres � composition and uses, i, 375, 378, 379. 385. 386, 387, 494- Nerve tOniCS and stimulants �drugs used, ii, 448, 477, 478; iii, 6.
		Nerves and Nervous System� As essential to life, and composition of nerve tissue, &c, i, 373, 378, 387; in muscles, ii, 305. Blood supply, i, 374, 378, 380. Cerebro-spinal system, i, 373,378; nerves �cranial, i, 391-397, spinal, i, 397, brachial plexus, i, 398-402, lumbo- sacral plexus, i, 402-405; structure-� of cells and fibres, i, 378-380, of spinal cord, i, 380-382, of the bulb, pons, and brain, i, 382-386. Development in embryo, iii, 255. Diseases � (see Nervous Diseases, also names of diseases). Drugs affecting, ii, 476; anaesthetics and anodynes, ii, 479-483; sedatives and hypnotics, ii, 461, 467, 476; iii, 2; tonics and stimulants, ii, 448, 460, 477, 478; iii, 6. Functions and stimuli of the system, i, 373. 374, 386-390; generation of energy, i, 373; heart influence, i, 440; ii, 458 ; impressions and impulses conduction, i, 379, 386; perspiration regulation, ii, 130; respiration func- tions, &c, i, 494. Plexuses of nerves�formation, &c, i, 398. Sympathetic system and ganglia, i, 374, 375; nerves of cervical, dorsal, splanchnic, lumbar, and sacral re- gions, i, 375-378. [For nerves of special organ, see its name; for particular nerve, see its title.] Nervous Diseases and Influences- Affections classed under, i, 405. Apoplexy and sunstroke, i, 412. Breeding influences�colour and mark- ings on animals, iii, 497, 498. Causes of disease�excitement, i, 215, 222, 287; iii, 54, 149; shock, i, 220; temperament, j, 218, 511; ii, 477; temperature, i, 216, 217. Cerebritts or brain inflammation, i, 405- ⁴⁰⁷". Crib-biting, wind-sucking, and weaving, i, 4I3-4I5- Digestive disorders and saliva secretion, i, 232, 233, 258; gastritis, i, 274. Division of nerves�(see Neurotomy). Drugs�(see title Nerves). Epilepsy, eclampsia, and chorea, i, 410, 411. Fracture and sprain influences, ii, 228, 233, 252, 292; protection of nerves from injuries, i, 379. Giddiness, megrims, or vertigo, i, 407-409. Heart disease detection difficulties, i, 456. Loss of power�(see Paralysis). Meningitis�brain, i, 405-407 ; cerebro- spinal, i, 423-425; spinal, i, 418. Myelitis and spinal inflammation, i, 418. Parasites infesting nerve-centres, ii, 174. Poisoning effects, iii, 54. St. Vitus dance and stringhalt, i, 411; », 395-_ Spasm of diaphragm, i, 313. Tumours and abscess in brain, bone, &c, i, 409, 415, 417; oedema or blood clot, i, 416 ; thickening of mem- branes, i, 417. Unsoundness and warranty�"nerved" horses, &c, iii, 376, 377, 419, 422. Various diseases associated with ner- vousness�anasmia, i, 479; asthma, ii, 11; collapse, ii, 477; cough, ii, 19; diarrhoea, i, 287 ; larynx affections, i, 507, 510, 511; skin diseases, ii, 139; roaring and whistling, i, 511; tetanus, ii, 45, 48. Nervous temperament of horses, i, 218, 511; ii, 477; blistering restric- tions, iii, 39; feeding and training considerations, iii, 94, 302, Nettle-rash�causes and treatment, ii, 143, M5i H^.
				Neural arch of spinal column, ii, 179, 180. Neuralgia causing saliva disorders, i, 258. Neurilemma of nerve-fibres, i, 379. Neurokeratin of nerve tissue, i, 387. Neurosis of skin, ii, 156. Neurotomy or neurectomy �advan- tages, methods, and instruments for "unnerving¹', iii, 161-164; for navi- cular disease, ii, 392; after-effects and detection, iii, 165, 376, 377, 419, 422. New Forest�extent, and pony-breeding in, i, 166, 169. New Forest pony�origin, appearance, &c.j i, 166; teeth (illusts.j, iii, 390, 400, 402. Newmarket�origin as a race-course, iii, 546. Newminsters�rearing and training me- thods, i, 112; iii, 304. "Nimrod" on hunter qualifications, i, 136, 138, 139. Nippers�(see Incisor teeth). Nitrates�medicinal uses of amyl, ii, 463; mercury, ii, 488; potash, ii, 448, 462, 474; potassium, iii, 6; silver, ii, 457; iii, 10; poisoning by, iii, 53. Nitre for glossy skin, ii, 453. Nitric acid�medicinal uses, ii, 467; iii, 6; doses, iii, 9. Nitrogen�in air, iii, 132; in food, i, 244. NitrOgenOUS fOOdS�value, &c, iii, 87, 89, 92. Nitro-glycerine�medicinal uses, ii, 463. Nitrous ether�medicinal uses, ii, 462, 474; iii, 7; doses, iii, 10. Noah � Arab horses chosen by, i, 201; Chinese history on The Flood, iii, 517- NOCard, Prof.�on glanders and farcy, ii, 36; maladie du coit, ii, 52; valvular disease, i, 465. Nceud Vital of brain, i, 494. Non-articular bones-forms, ii, 178. Non-COgnizable forms of disease, i, 219. Non-striated muscle�form of, ii, 306. Norman Conquest and horse history, i, ¹95< ⁿⁱ, 537, 53⁸- Nose and Nostrils- Bleeding, i, 501, 503, 504; ii, 10; first aid, ii, 439; hereditary cause, ii, 158, 159- Conformation and examination, i, 9, 10, 39, 483; ii, 186; false nostril, i, 10; iii, 508; fossil remains, iii, 513; muscles, ii, 307-309. Discharges�due to catarrh, i, 497, 498, 499; glanders, ii, 36; horse-sickness, ii, 56; influenza, ii, 32; lungs, ii, 10; purpura hemorrhagica, ii, 24; strangles, ii, 40. Eruptions and ulceration due to diseases, i, 503; ii, 35, 43, 49, °². Hi- Examination as to soundness, iii, 370, 37i- Injections, and inhalation by nose-bags, i, 260; ii, 471; for bleeding nose, i, 504; catarrh, 1,498, 500, 501; ii, 489; horse-sickness, ii, 58; use of alum, ii, 456. Obstruction causing roaring, i, 511. Poking-out nose a sign of disease, i, 260, 266. Nosology�definition of, i, 214. Nuclei of nerve centres, i, 389. Nucleus and nucleolus of nerve cells, i, 378, 379- Nursing�aid and attendants' duties, ii, 381, 442; iii, 23, 24, 141, 154; cloth- ing, water, and food for horse, iii, 24-28; unloading rectum per hand, iii, 34, 35; various applications used in, iii, 4T, 42; washing the horse, i'i. 35- (See also titles Bandages, Poultices, Sick-horses, Slings.) Nut-galls�medicinal uses, ii, 455.

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		INDEX
		INDEX		591
				591

Nutrient artery in bones, ii, 176. Nutrition Of body�definition, and use of food, iii, 87, 102; value of various foods, iii, 96-101; embryo and fcetus, iii, 252, 253, 257; health maintenance, iii, 66; medicines affecting blood, &c, ii, 446-452; alteratives, ii, 452; ulcers due to defect of, ii, 426. Nutritive value of various foods�tables, ike., iii, 96-101, 102. Nux vomica�medicinal uses, ii, 475, 478; iii, 6�doses, iii, 10, 11; poison- ing by, iii, 57. O Oak bark�medicinal uses, ii, 455; iii, 10; as antidote, iii, 51. Oat-hair concretions�forms, i, 300. Oatmeal-and-water as food, iii, 28. Oatmeal gruel-preparation, &c, iii, 27. Oat-StraW�as food, iii, 354; for bedding, iii. 354- Oats as food�amount and advantages, i, 241, 243; iii, 93, 107, 346, 347; chewing, i, 233; composition, iii, 89, 97, 98, 99; digestibility, &c., iii, 90, 91, 97, 99, 118, 119, indigestion re- strictions, i, 273; diseases due to, i, 221; ii, 42; iii, 104; hay and oats as sole diet, iii, 343, 346; heat and force influences, iii, 100, 101; special diet for horses in training, iii, 303, 304, pregnant mares, iii, 265, 266, 285, trotters, 316. Obesity�breeding and sterility influenced by, iii, 215, 216, 237. Objective symptoms of disease, iii, 145. Oblique fracture�form, &c, ii, 221, 222; of various bones, ii, 226, 249, 254, 260. Oblique muscles of eye, ii, 104. Oblique pasterns�form, &c, i, 80. Oblique processes of spinal column, ii, 180,182. ObliqUUS abdominis externus and in- terims muscles�forms, &c , ii, 336. ObliqUUS capitis superior and inferior muscles�forms, &c, ii, 319, 320. Observation � power in evolution, iii, 479; story of Zadig and the lost ani- mals, iii, 473-475- Obstruction�choking and gullet, i, 265, 266; circulation, due to diseases of arteries, &c, i, 471-478; dilation of stomach, colic, and constipation causes, i, 277, 282, 284; eye tears, ii, 114; foaling difficulties, iii, 271-274; heart valves, &c, i, 463, 465, 466; ii, 5, 10; intestinal obstruction, i, 296- 298, due to "stone" and worms, i, 300; ii, 171; liver, causing dropsy, i, 311; nasal, causing roaring, i, 511; skin, ii, 127; sterility causes, iii, 229; urine and urethral passage, &c, i, 301, 350, 357; use of catheter�pre- cautions, iii, 178. (See also Foreign bodies.) Obturator artery�formation, i, 452. Obturator externus and internus muscles�forms, &c, ii, 342. Obturator foramen of pelvis, ii, 192. Obturator nerve�formation, i, 403. Occipital artery�formation, &c, 1,451. Occipital condyles and the support of head and neck, ii, 181, 184, 267. Occipital crest of head, i, 4. Occipital or occiput bone�form, &c, ii, 184; fracture, ii, 234. Occipito - atloid articulation � form, &c., ii, 267-269. Occipito-styloid muscle�form, &c, "> 3M- Occult spavin�form of disease, ii, 216; unsoundness, iii, 385. Occupation a cause of disease, i, 218.	Odd hOCkS�defect, iii, 384. Odd-toed animals �horse-origin, &c, iii, 476, 511. Odontoid process of axis, ii, 181, 263, 268, 269. (Edema�of brain or choroid plexus, i, 414-416; eyes due to horse-sickness, ii, 56; larynx, i, 507; legs, ii, 364; iii, 7; opium uses, ii, 480; sheath, ii, 83; ulcers and granulations due to, ii, 427. (Esophageal nerve�formation, i, 396. (Esophagus�formation, &c, i, 16, 229; dilation causing vomiting, i, 268. (Estrus equi and hsemorrhoidalis infesting digestive system, &c, ii, 169, 170. Offers�early uses of oxen, &c, i, 173. Off-Side�explanation of term, i, 3. Offspring reverting back in breeding� (see Back breeding). Oidium albicans�a cause of " thrush ", i, 250. Oil-cake as food, iii, 89, 94. Oil globules of liver, i, 239, 309. Oils�digestive processes and emulsifica' tion, i, 241, 245, 246; iii, 91,97; food properties, &c, i, 241, 242, 243; medicinal uses and doses, i, 297, 303, 304; iii, 6, 10; vitriol for glossy skin, i, 248; ii, 453. Ointments �application, &c, iii, 42; for ringworm, ii, 165. Old horses�dilation of stomach, i, 276; dropsy, i, 312; hernia, i, 322; inver- sion of rectum and uterus, i, 301; ii, 100; intestinal obstruction, i, 296; liver inflammation, i, 307; cedema of sheath, ii, 84; parturition difficulty, iii, 272, 273; teeth and age test, iii, 401. "Old Traveller" �breeding history, i, 128. Oldenburgh horse �appearance. &c, i, 208. Oleate of zinc and mercury, medi- cinal uses, ii, 456, 488. Olecranon process of ulna, ii, 196; fracture, ii, 245; muscles attached ^to> i', 33o_} 331. Olfactory nerves and bulbs�form and uses, i, 385, 391, 484; bones con- nected with, ii, 186, 188. Olympic games�inauguration, and uses of horses at, iii, 522. Omenta of stomach, i, 235; hernia causes, i, 316, 319. One-toed animals �horse-origin from, iii, 511, 512. Opacity of eye�disease symptoms, ii, 108, 115, 119, 120; examination for, iii, 368, 369. Open surface drains for stables, iii, 84-86; gutters, iii, 329. Opening the heels�in shoeing, iii, 441. Operations- Antiseptics and drugs used, ii, 483, 484, 486, 487, 488; iii, 3, 4, 156, 157, 160; restorative in ammonia, ii, 459. (See also title Anaesthetics.) Control of horses and means of restraint, iii, 156-160. Deformed limbs and contracted tendons, iii, 168-171. Depriving certain part of sensation�un- nerving methods, iii, 161-166. Foaling � malpresentations, iii, 272-282; mechanical aids, iii, 282-284; use of force, iii, 284. Lameness and foot diseases, iii, t66, 167. Shoes and shoeing�(see that title). Table for, iii, 160. Urine removal, iii, 177-180. [See also titles Anesthetics, Castration, Catheter, Cautery, Firing, Litho- tomy, Neurotomy, Ovariotomy, *'Stone", Tenotomy.]		" Ophelia" �hackney mare (illust.), i, 306. Ophthalmia �forms and treatment, ii, 114, 116-118; hereditary, iii, 215; unsoundness�examination and war- ranty, iii, 368, 422. Ophthalmic nerve and branches- formation, &c., i, 393. Ophthalmoscope�use of, ii, 109, 119, 120, 122, 123. Opisthotonos tetanus�form of, ii, 47. Opium � medicinal uses and effects, ii, 470, 471, 472, 474, 475, 476, 479; iii, 5, 6� doses, iii, 10, 11; colic and in- testinal disorders, i, 280, 289, 292, 294, 297; hernia, i, 323; poisoning by, in, 55- Optic nerves�formation and uses, i, 385, 39i. 39²) ^ey^e structure, ii, 105, 107; examination and disease, ii, no, 122, 123; iii, 368. OptiC thalami of brain, i, 383, 384, 390. Optical appliances for examination of eye, ii, 109-111, 119; difficulty in using, ii, 109. Oral evidence and warranty regulations, iii, 405, 407-409, 413, 426. Orbicularis oris�form of muscle, ii, 307, 309- Orbicularis palpebrarum muscle of eyelid, ii, 308. Orbit�cavity formation, i, 11; ii, 183, 187; eye anatomy, ii, 103. Orbital arch and process�formation, i, n; ii, 184; fracture affecting, ii, 238. Orbital maxillary nerves�formation, i> 393- Orchitis and its treatment, ii, 86. Organic acids and food digestion, i, 243. Organic bodies�constitution of, iii, 87. Organic life�nervous system of, i, 374. Organic matter in bone, ii, 175. Organisms (Germs, Microbes, &c.)� Air�beforehand after respiration, i, 487; composition and pollution in stables, &c, iii, 77, 78, 131, 132. Antiseptics, disinfectants, and drugs de- stroying, ii, 420, 452, 483, 484, 488; iii, 2, 3, 13�table showing strength, ii, 486, 487. Causes of disease, i, 214, 216, 223, 224; ii, 160; iii, 78, 102-104, 124-126; in- fectious diseases, iii, 150-152. Digestion and food�forms infesting, i, 216; ii, 169-175; iii, 102-104; uses in intestinal digestion, i, 246. Diseases due to�anthrax, ii, 41, 42, 43; aphthx, i, 250; covering disease, ii, 52; dysentery, i, 290; epizootic lym- phangitis, ii, 59, 6o, 6r; glanders and farcy, ii, 34, 35» 37! joint diseases, ii, 280, 287, 288; Hver, i, 306, 313- 315; South African horse-sickness, ii, 54; strangles, ii, 40; tetanus, ii, 46; tuberculosis, ii, 50, 51; ulcers, ii, 426; womb and parturient fever, ii 90, 97. Distinction of parasites, ii, 159, 160. Generation and evolution�growth, &c, iii, 258, 286, 479-484; alternate gene- ration, iii, ^259-261; spontaneous generation, i, 225. Hygienic destruction of, iii, 65. Staining for examination, ii, 54, 60. Water composition and pollution, iii, 126- 129, 132; disease influence, iii, 124- 126. Wounds infested by, ii, 406, 407, 411, 412, 43, 44- [See also titles Bacteria, Parasites; for special organism, see its title.] Organs having no obvious use�evolution and other influences, iii, 509. Orifices of stomach and intestines, i, 234, ²35> 238�rupture, i, 315.

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			INDEX
	592		INDEX
	592

Origin Of mUSCleS�description of term, ii, 306.' Origin Of the horse �(see titles An- cestors, Evolution, History). "Orme"(^IE>8o)�pedigree, i, in; tongue inflammation case, i, 252, 325. "Ormonde"�chest measurements, i, 65. OrOhippUS�fossil remains, iii, 510, 511, 512. Os CalClS�(see Calcaneum). OS cervix�sterility causes, iii, 263. OS COronSB�form of bone and joint, ii, 193, 199, 273; deformity caused by, ii, 346, 347. Os femoriS�form of bone, ii, 201 (see also Thigh). Os hyoides�form of bone, i, 6; ii, 189. Os magnum bone of fore-limb, ii, 193, 197- 0S metacarpi magnum�form of bone, ii, 197. OS naviCUlare�form of bone, ii, 193, 200. Os pedis�form of bone, ii, 193, 199; mus- cle insertion, ii, 332, 333, 343. OS SUfEraginiS�bone formation, ii, 193, 198; disease affecting, ii, 210; frac- ture, ii, 224, 249; joints formation, ii, 272, 273. Os uteri externum of uterus, ii, 76. Osmosis process�in breeding, iii, 252, 254; in food solution, i, 427. Ossa innominata of pelvis, ii, 183, 192. Ossification of bones, ii, 178�of skull, radius, and ulna, ii, 183, 195, 196; before birth, iii, 255; conformation and action causing, i, 80; ii, 397; fracture influences, ii, 223, 248; joint disease, ii, 281; side-bones and liga- ments, ii, 387, 388; sprained muscle and spavin, ii, 293, 299; unsoundness and warranty, iii, 422. OsteO-porOSiS and its symptoms, &c, ii, 214-216; fractures due to, ii, 224, 250. Ostitis and its treatment, ii, 208, 210-212. Ottorhsegia�a form of bleeding, i, 501. Outer maleolus of tibia �ligaments attached to, ii, 277. Ovaries�construction and ligaments, ii, 77-79; arteries, i, 452; development of ova in, iii, 246, 248; removal- causes and operation, iii, 180-184; sterility and a^strum causes, iii, 229, 262. (See also titles Cystic ovaries, Ovum.) Ovariotomy in troublesome mares, iii, 180-184. Overreach as defective action, ii, 398; injuries, and shoes for correction, iii, 457; unsoundness, iii, 381. Ovisacs of ovary, ii, 78, 79. Ovum, human�development of, iii, 251, 252, 258, 480-483. Ovum Of mare�formation and fertiliza- tion, &c, ii, 79, 80; iii, 2^5-249, 258, 479, 480-483; sterility causes, iii, 230. Oxalate Of lime�in calculus or stone, 354; in urine, i, 345, 346. Oxalic acid�in urine, i, 346; poisoning by, iii, 51. Oxaluria and its causes, &c, i, 346. Oxen�choking, i, 265; digestive powers, iii, 96, 97; farm uses, i, 172, 173, 187; foot formation, iii, 476, 477. Ox-gall in jaundice treatment, i, 305. Oxide Of zinc�medicinal uses, ii, 456; dose, iii, 10. Oxidizing agents�antiseptics, ii, 421. Oxygen�in air, iii, 132 ; water purifica- tion, iii, 126. Oxyurus CUrvula infesting intestines, ii, 171. Ozcena�causes, &c, i, 499; alum uses, ii, 456.				Parasites and Diseases due to- Alternate generation of worms, &c., iii, 260, 261. Causes of disease, iii, 149�aneemia, i, 478, 479; aneurism, i, 477; arteries and veins, i, 471, 472; colic, i, 279; diarrhoea and dysentery, i, 286, 291; epilepsy, i, 411; epizootic lymphan- gitis, ii, 59, 60; infectious diseases, iii, 152; indigestion, i, 272; seedy toe, ii, 370, 371. Circulatory system, blood, and eye, ii, 174, 75- Classification, introductory remarks, and terms used, ii, 159-161. Digestive system, stomach, and intes- tines, ii, 161-163, 169-174. Drugs and antiseptics destroying, ii, 453, 481, 483, 484, 485, 488, 491; iii, 5, 7, 8. Food and water as causes of disease, iii, 102-104, 125. Liver diseases, i, 307, 313-315; parasites causing, ii, 169, 171, 173, 174. Skin and external parasites, &c, ii, 140, 142, 163, 166; lice and mange, ii, 166-168; ringworm, ii, 149, 163-166. Washing in parasitic diseases, iii, 35. Parental influences in breeding, iii, 211, 212. Paresis of the bowels, i, 296. Parietal bones�forms, ii, 184; fracture, ii, 234. PailetO-auricularis externus and in- tertills muscles�forms, &c, ii, 311, 312. Paring the Crust�in sand crack, iii, 455. (See also title Shoes and shoe- ing) Park hacks �appearance, &c, i, 148, 149, 209. Parole evidence and warranty regula- tions, iii, 405, 407-409, 413, 426. Parotid duct�fistula of, i, 261-263; ii, 429.* Parotid glands�formation and use, i, 5, 11, 230, 231, 244; inflammation, i, 259-261; muscle connection, ii, 312. Parotido-auricularis muscle�form, &c., ii, 312. Parotitis and its treatment, i, 259-261. Parrot mouth�deformity, i, 331. Partial dislocation�form, &c, ii, 346, 349- Partial fracture�nature and treatment, ii, 221, 225, 249, 261. Parts Of a horse�names and divisions, i, 2-4; various views, i, 13, 14, 21, 22, Parturient fever � causes, complica- tions, symptoms, &c, ii, 90, 97-100. Parturition and Pregnancy- Accidents, abortion, premature foals, &c, iii, 221, 226-269 �twins and deformi- ties, iii, 273, 282. After-birth�removal, &c, ii, 88; iii, 220, »5*» ²53> 270, 271. Artificial insemination, iii, 231-234. Birth of foal, iii, 219-222, 269-271; diffi- cult delivery, iii, 271-274; malpre- sentations. iii, 274-279, of head, iii, 279-282: mechanical aids and use o( force, iii, 282-284. Care and food of in-foal mares, iii, 208- 210, 215-218, 228, 264-266; after foaling, iii, 226-228, 285. Drugs assisting, &c, ii, 449, 451, 463, 475- Expansion of passage and muscles assist- ing in parturition, ii, 74, 336, 337- First signs of pregnancy and foaling, 1H» 263, 264, 269, 270. Growth of embryo and fcetus, iii, 249- 257, 288-295. Impregnation and changes in ovum, «» 79, 80; iii, 245-249, 261-264. " Slipping the foal ", iii, 267.
		Pacing�form of motion, iii, 195. Pacing Stallion " Star Pointer" (illust.), h 33⁶- Pack horse "Triumph II" (illust.;, i, 190. Pack horses�appearance, &c, i, 123- 125; Dartmoor and Arab crosses, i, 163, 203. Paddocks for thoroughbreds, i, 112. Pads in formation of foot�man and ani- mals compared, iii, 501-504, 506, 508. Pain�control of horses during, ii, 437; drugs subduing, ii, 479; iii, 5, 8, 12; poisoning symptoms, iii, 47. Paint�poisoning by, iii, 49. Palate�conformation, i, 7 ; congestion, i, 254; muscles, ii, 1S8, 315, 316; parrot mouth effect, i, 332. Palatine bones of face, ii, 187. Palatine nerves�formation, i, 393. Palatine process of jaw-bones, ii, 186. Palato-glossus muscle�form, &c, ii, 315- Palato-pharyngeus muscle �form, &c, ii, 316. Palmar pad�formation, iii, 502-504, 506, 508. Palpation test for dropsy, i, 311. Palpebro-nasal nerve�form, i, 393. Palpitation of heart, i, 467, 468; due to dropsy and anaemia, i, 311, 479; sound mistaken for, i, 312. Pancreas �description and digestive uses, i, 241, 245, 246; drugs affecting, ii, 264; worms in duct, ii, 171, Panniculus carnosus muscle�form, &c., ii, 335. Papillae�of foot, iii, 436; of skin, ii, 125, 126; growths causing disease, ii, 372, 381. Papules�on skin, ii, 137, 147, 148. Paracentesis for dropsy treatment, i, 312. Paraffin-Oil as protection against mos- quitoes, ii, 58. ParagOric elixir�medicinal uses, ii, 460, 480. Paralysis- Definition of term, i, 419. Drugs�as remedies, ii, 490; iii, 6; caus- ing paralysis, ii, 463; producing slight movement, ii, 478. Eyes and lids�tests for, iii, 367, 368. Forms of cerebral, spinal, and nerve paralysis, i, 405, 420-423; spinal meningitis, i, 418; cerebro- spinal meningitis, i, 423-425; penis para- lysis, ii, 82, 83, "85. Fracture effects � back, broken or sprained, i, 388; ii, 235, 236, 208: hind-quarters, ii, 236, 237; jaw and lip, ii, 240; skull, ii, 234. Larynx affections, i, 507, 509, 510; ii, 17. Litter or bedding for, iii, 24. Poisoning causing, iii, 51, 59, 60, 64. Use of catheter in, iii, 179. Various causes or results�bladder, i, 298; covering disease, ii. 53: hasrno- globinuria, ii, 26; indigestion and staggers, i, 268, 269, 270; reflex movements, i, 388, 389; respiratory muscles, i, 495; roaring and whist- ling, i, 396, 510, 512; shoulder slip, ii. 350; thrombosis, i, 474; urine and fasces retention, &c, i, 16, 351. [See also Facial paralysis, Local para- lysis.] Paramecium�generation of, iii, 259. ParaphymOSiS and its treatment, ii, 80. Paraplegia and its causes, &c, i, 421; ii, 236. 237.

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		INDEX
		INDEX		593
				593

Parturition and Pregnancy� {Cont.) Time for dropping of foals, iii, 219, 285. Various diseases due to, i, 218�anaemia, i, 479; diarrhcea, i, 286; flooding, &c, ii, 87; iii, 266-269; hernia, i, 324; mammary glands, ii, 94; inflam- mation of bladder and womb, i, 349; ii, 89, 90, 91; inversion of bladder, i, 371; rectum, i, 301; uterus, ii, 100; joints synovitis, ii, 280 ; parturient fever (see that title;. [See also titles Embryo and foetus, Foals, Mares, Uterus or Womb.] Past horses�ancestors, forms, and his- tory, iii, 47i-4⁸4. 5°9-53> 517-520. Pasterns-* Conformation and bones, i, 21, 79-81; ii, 198, 199; compensating points, i, 103; joints formation, ii, 272, 273 ; liga- ments, ii, 274; measurements from, i, 91; muscle connections, ii, 331, 332, 333, 343. 344, 345- Diseases affecting, &c.�bone-spavin, ii, 217; broken knees, ii, 422; horse-pox, ii, 43; ostitis, ii, 210; ring-bone, ii, 205, 206; stringhalt, ii, 395. Displacement or dislocation, ii, 222, 349, 352. Fracture and effects, ii, 205, 223, 224, 226, 229, 230, 249; ''split" pastern, ii, 249. Pasteur�bacteria researches, i, 225, 226. Pasture and Grass� Advisability of turning horses out to grass, iii, 95. As food�composition and properties, i, 241; hi, 89, 90, 91�for breeding stock, iii, 208, 210, 216, 217, 548; hunters and at night, iii, 307, 310; pregnant mares, and foals afterwards, iii, 208, zi6, 228, 265, 266, 285; sick horses, iii, 26; use of ensilage or "pitted" grass, iii, 115-118. Diseases due to or treated by�anEemia, i,479; anthrax, ii, 42,43: ''big head", ii, 214; colic, i, 283; dropsy, i, 310; hsemo-globinuria, ii, 30; horse-sick- ness, ii, 54, 55, 58; indigestion, i, 272; liver, i, 308, 309; parasitic diseases and worms, ii, 161, 173, 174; pus in guttural pouches, i, 506; thrombosis prohibitions, i, 476. Disinfection after disease, iii, 156. Lands best for breeding, iii, 207, 208, 216, 217, 548. Lime and the sources of calculi, i, 298, 355- Poisoning contracted on, iii, 51, 53, 62. Pony-rearing on commons, &c, i, 154, 157, 162, 163; iii, 541. Quality and disease causes, iii, 102. Shoes and the care of feet during pastur- ing, iii, 139. Teeth and urinary effects, i, 327, 338. [See also Hay, Clover, &c] Patella �conformation, &c, i, 23; ii, 202, 351; iii, 487; dislocation, ii, 349, 351- 353; joint formation, ii, 275, 276; muscles connection, ii, 340, 341; soundness, iii, 383. Patellar ligaments of stifle-joint, ii, 276. Patent defects � warranty restrictions, &c, iii, 411-413. Pathetici nerves-forms, i, 3S5, 392. Pathognomonic symptoms of disease, iii, 145. Pathology�definition and scope, i, 213, 214; heart diseases, i, 453-458, 460. Paving of stable floors, iii, 326, 327. Pawing in stable�correction, iii, 342. Peak of the elbow, ii, 195. Pearl parley as cooling drink, iii, 28. Peas�as food, iii, 89, 112-114; digesti- bility, i, 273; iii, 99. Pease as food, iii, 350. Peat-mOSS as bedding, iii, 24, 356.	Pectineus muscle-form, &c, ii, 341. Pectoral muscles�forms, &c, ii, 327; nerve connected with, i, 399. Pedal artery�formation, i, 453. Pedal or coffin bone�form and joint, i, 22; ii, rgg, 200, 273, 4gi; iii, 436, 437; corns, ii, 375; flexure and de- formity, ii, 346, 347;.horn tumour, ii, 37², 373; lameness and navicular disease, ii, 390; lam in ids, ii, 376, 377; pricks and foot-wounds, ii, 385; side- bones, ii, 387, 388. Pedigrees- Ancient history and origin of horses, iii, 5i8, 519, 533> 534- Famous horses � Confidence and Fire- away, i, 122, 123 ; Denmark and Lord Derby (II), i, 118, 119; Hermit and Orme, J, no, in; Speciality, i, 128; Stockwelland St. Simon, i, 114, "5- Records, &c.�Arabs, i, 201, 202; Cleve- land Bays, i, 128-130; "creams and whites", i, 206, 207; hackneys, i, 114, 115; hunters, i, 135; Morgans, i, 207; Suffolks, i, 194, 195; York- shire coach horses, i, 134. Thoroughbreds�tracing from three dis- tinct sources, iii, 547, 548, 549. Peduncles of brain, i, 385. Pelham bit�use of, iii, 358, 359. Pelias berus causing poisoned wounds, ", 4i5- Pelodera Axei causing seedy toe, ii, 370, ^3yi" Pelvis�bone and conformation, i, 58, 59, 82, 83, 84; ii, 191, 192; female ar- teries and cavity, i, 452; ii, 193; fracture, ii, 225, 226, 256-260: male arteries, i, 452; muscle connections, «, 3²5, 340, 34i, 34²; nerves, i, 377- Pelvis Of kidney�form and uses, i, 334, 335; stones in, i, 298. Penis�amputation or castration, ii, 85; iii, 173; catheter insertion, iii, 177- 179; conformation and use, i, 18; ii, 69-71; covering disease, ii, 52, 53; enclosure and inability to withdraw, ii, 80, 82; ligaments, muscles and tunic, ii, 72, 73, 335; paralysis, ii, 85; urinary tube, i, 333. Pepper�medicinal uses, ii, 462. Peppermint�medicinal uses, ii, 464; oil of, dose, iii, 10. Pepsin�medicinal uses, ii, 464, 465; iii, 7. Pepsine in digestion, i, 235, 245. Peptic gland�form, &c, i, 234, 235. Percheron horse-appearance, &c, i, 205, 206; Scbleswig cross, i, 210. Perchloride (medicinal uses) of iron, iii, 456; mercury, ii, 486, 488�doses, iii, ic, 11. PerCUSSiOn for detection of heart disease, i, 458; for pneumonia, ii, 8. Perforans and perforatus muscles and tendons �(see Flexor per- forans, &c). Pericarditis and its treatment, i, 461-463. Pericardium of heart, i, 436; disease and inflammation, i, 454, 457, 460, 461-463. Perineal needle for lithotomy, i, 366. Perineum � conformation, i, 15, 16; "stone" affecting, i, 368. Periodic Ophthalmia and its treatment, ii, 116-118. Periosteotomy for splints, ii, 208. Periosteum of bone, ii, 176, 208; dis- eases affecting, ii, 207, 208, 210, 219; preservation in fracture treatment, ii, 233- Periostitis and its treatment, ii, 208-210; metacarpal form, ii. 219, 220. Peripheral paralysis�form,&&, i, 420, 422. Peris SOdactyla or odd-toed animals, iii, 476, 477, 510, 511.
			Peristalsis of food in stomach, i, 235. Peristaltic action of bowels � drug affecting, ii, 483; iii, 13. Peritoneum�of liver, i, 238 ; stomach and intestines, i, 235, 236; uterus and inflammation, ii, 77, 90, 91 ; testis, ii, 65. Peritonitis�colic and "tapping" caus- ing, i, 283; drupsy sequel, i, 310. Permanent teeth-form, &c, iii, 389, 390-392, 393, 396-399. Permanganate of potash �antiseptic, uses, &c., ii, 421, 449, 486. Peroneus muscle-form, &c, ii, ₃₄₃. Peroxide of hydrogen as an antiseptic, ii, 421. Peroxide Of Iron as an antidote, iii, 50. Persian horses� hisu.rv and uses, iii, 528,529,532. "Persimmon"�descent, iii, 548. Perspiration and patchy sweats � (see Sweating), Peruvian bark-medicinal uses, ii, 467. Pessaries�bladder treatment, drugs for, i'. 475- Petrifactions -horse remains in, iii, 47t, 472. Petrous temporal bones � formation and joints, ii, 184, 185, 266. Phagedenic ulcer- form, &c, ii, 427. Phagocytes in blood corpuscles, i, 433. Phalanx of fore-limb and foot�formation, &c, i, 22; ii, 198-200, 272, 273; iii, 476, in comparison with man, iii, 487-490; fossil remains, iii, 513. Pharyngeal nerves�form, i, 395, ₃₉6. Pharyngeal region�muscles of, ii, 315, 316. Pharyngitis and its treatment, i, 254- 257; abscess and pus due to, i, 257, 5°4- Pharynx�conformation, i, 5. 229; mus- cles, ii, 315, 316; obstruction causing choking, i, 266. Phenacetin�medicinal uses, ii, 450. PhenaCOdUS �form and horse origin, Hi, 510. PheniC acid, &c�forms of carbolic acid, ii, 484. "Phenomena"�hackney records, i, 117. Phlebitis�treatment, &c , i, 475-477. Phosphates of lime, iron, &c�uses, ii, 447, 490; iii, 10. Phosphoric acid�digestive uses, ii, 467. Phosphorus � medicinal uses, ii, 490; poisoning by, iii, 53, 54. Photography�horses in motion, iii, 198, 199. Phrenic artery�formation, i, ₄₅₂. Phrenic nerve�formation, i, 399. PhthiriasiS�causes and treatment, ii, 166. PhymOSis and its treatment, ii, 80. PhysiC-(see titles Balls, Medicines and Drugs�forspecial drug seeks name). Physiology-of foot for shoeing, iii, 433- 438; of gestation and parturition, "iii, 261-285. Physostigma venenosum � appear- ance of, ii, 482. Pia mater of brain and spine�formation i, 380, 383. Picrsena excelsa�appearance of, ii, 466. Picturation Of animals�horse mark- ings origin, iii, 497. Piebald horses�colour and markings, iii, 498. Pigeon-toe-causes and disqualification, 1, 72, 139; ii, 347. Pigmy horses�evolution and breeding, iii, 286, 287. Piles�remedies for, ii, 463. Pillar reins for broken knees, ii, 423; for fractured jaw, &c, ii, 241, 243.

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			INDEX
	594		INDEX

				Ponies and Pony-breeding�[Cant.) History on origin and size, iii, 496, 530, 535- 536, 538, 54°- Mange and parasites on, ii, 168, 175. Stallion (illust.), iii, 193. Teeth formation, iii, 390, 391, 400, 402. [For special breeds see Dartmoor, Ex- moor, New Forest, Welsh, &c] Pons, The�of nervous system, i, 383. Popliteal artery�formation, &c, i, 453. Popliteal nerves�formation, i, 403,404. Popliteus muscle-form, &c, ii, 345. Poppy-headS�medicinal uses, ii, 474. PoroUS bones due to disease, ii, 21 r, 214. Portal Vein�liver structure, i, 239. Porte-COrd in difficult parturition, iii, 276. Porter-coloured water � composition and as drink, iii, 130. Portio dura nerve�formation, i, 394. Portland cement for stable floors, iii, 70, 326, 327. Position for stables, iii, 319, 320. Position Of horse �influencing distri- bution of body-weight_; i, 91, 92; soundness indications, iii, 366; stand- ing, trotting, &c. (see Locomotion). Position Of horse in the animal world, iii, 471-484. Positive symptoms of disease, iii, 145. Posterior bowel�(see Rectum). Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle- form, &c, ii, 317. Posterior deep pectoral muscle- form, &c., ii, 327. Posterior extremity of body, i, 15, 16, 22, 23. Posterior gluteal nerves�formation, i, 403- Posterior ligamentand joints structure, ii, 276, 278. Posterior palatine nerve�formation, h 393- Posterior presentations in foaling, iii, 276-279. Posterior radial artery�form, i, 449. Posterior surface of head, i, 12. Posterior tibial artery�form, i, 453. Posterior tibial nerve�form, i, 404. POSt horses � British uses, iii, 541; Roman uses, iii, 526, 528. Post-mortem appearances�after an- thrax, ii, 42, 43; blood due to pur- pura, ii, 24; bone diseases, ii, 216; congestion of lungs, ii, 7; dislocation of patella, ii, 352; eye diseases, ii, 117, 119; fractured skull and sesa- moid bones, ii, 234, 251; hemo- globinuria and tissues, ii, 27; horse- sickness, h, 57; loose cartilages in joints, ii, 284; poisoning, iii, 54, 55, 57, 105; tetanus, ii, 48; tuberculosis, ii. 5i, 52. Post-mortem examinations�restric- tions as to parturient fever, ii, 99. Post sphincter muscle�form, &c, ii, 73> 75- Potash and potassium � medicinal, &C.j uses, ii, 421, 448, 449, 477, 486; iii, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8�doses of various preparations, iii, 9, 10; poisoning and antidote, iii, 45, 53. Potassio - tartrate of antimony � dose, iii, 10. Potatoes�composition and use as food, iii, 89, 115; digestibility, iii, 91, 92, 97; disorders dne to, i, 282, 287; invalid diet, iii, 27; poisonous nature, iii, 104, 115. POUltiCe-bOOt�form, &c, iii, 30. Poultices and Poulticing� Application and preparation, iii, 28-31, 33; to various parts of body, iii, 31, 3²- Blood-vessels affected by, ii, 462. Pneumonia treatment�question of ex- ternal applications, ii, 9.
Pillars of the diaphragm�position, &c, ii, 337. PilliOHS in riding�early uses, iii, 542. Pills�administration, iii, 19. Pilocarpine�medicinal uses, ii, 473. Pimento�medicinal uses, iii, 7, 10. Pimples on skin, ii, 137; mange and other causes, ii, 49, 62, 63, 167. Pink eye�a form of influenza, ii, 31. PlUS for closing wounds, ii, 417, 438. Pipes for stable drainage, iii, 86, 329. Pisiform of knee, ii, 193, 196, 197; muscle insertion, ii, 331. Pit ponies�size, iii, 496. Pitch for shoe-nails, iii, 445. Pitch-plaster�for fractures, ii, 260, 261; for wind-galls, ii, 357; preparation, &c, iii, 43. Pits on pressure�use of term, ii, 364. Pitting Of Skin due to small-pox, iii, 150. Pityriasis and its treatment, ii, 152. Pivot joints�form, &c, ii, 263. Placenta�formation, iii, 251, 253; re- moval, ii, 88; iii, 220, 270, 271. Plain and easy snaffle�type of, iii, 358, 359- Plans for stable structure, iii, 320-323. Plantar arteries�form, i, 453; ii, 200. Plantar foramina of coffin-bone, ii, 200. Plantar nerves�formation, i, 403; ii, 200; division and injury, ii, 392, 397; operation, iii, 161-164. Plantar pads�formation, &c, iii, 503, 504, 506, 508. Plant world�parasites from, ii, 161. Plants � as food, causing disease and poison, i, 274; iii, 102, 104; medi- cinal plants (illusts.), ii, 466, 470; water purification and pollution, iii, 127-129. Plasma Of blOOd � composition and analysis, i, 430, 431, 434, 435; air changes, i, 489; eye nourishment, ii, 105; wound-healing, ii, 405. Plaster for stable walls, iii, 326. Plaster of Paris�for fractures, ii, 232; preparation, &c., iii, 38. Plasters�application and uses, iii, 42; for fractures of various bones, ii, 232, 241, 245, 247, 260, 261; for wounds, ii, 419. (See also Mustard.) Plastic inflammations of the skin, ii, 148, 149. Platelets in blood, i, 432, 434. Pleistocene�fossil remains of horses, iii, 5i3- Plenum system of ventilation, iii, 75. Plethora and its treatment, i, 480. Pleura Of lungs, i, 484; diseases and puncture, ii, i, 254, 255. Pleurisy Or pleuritiS and its treatment, ii, 14-17; fractured ribs complication, ii, 254, 255; mallein and mustard uses, ii, 39; iii, 6. PleUTO-pneumonia�cause, and heart complication, i, 223, 462; use of term, ii, 1, Pleurosthotonus tetanus �form of, ii, 47. Plexuses of nerves�formation, i, 398. Ploughing�sprain of muscles and shoul- der-slip due to, ii, 293, 350. Plugging � of iliac arteries, ii, 237; of nostrils, i, 504; of wounds, ii, 439. Plumbism and its treatment, iii, 51. Pneumogastric nerve�form, &c, i, 376, 377. 395* 396; ii, 458; disease, &c, 1, 313, 510. Pneumonia and its treatment, ii, 7-10, 18; gangrenous and contagious forms, ". 3²> 33^ fractured ribs effect, ii, 254, 255; influence of climate, i, 222; mustard uses, iii, 6; various compli- cations, i, 464; ii, 7,10, 20, 24, 36, 356.		Point Of the elhOW�fracture, ii, 245. Point of the haunch or hip, i, 15; ii, 192; fracture, ii, 222, 223, 256, 257. Point Of the hOCk�conformation, i, 23, 87 ; ii, 362 ; cow-hocks and capped hock, i, 89; ii, 362; fracture, ii, 221, 261, 262; muscles insertion, ii, 344; soundness, iii, 383. Pointing Of feet�in navicular disease, ii, 392; soundness defect, iii, 367. Points for feeling the pulse, iii, 146. Points Of a horse�divisions and names, i, 2-4; compensating points, i, 101- 103; various views, i, 13, 14, 21, 22. Poisons and Poisoning� A poison�natural instinct of animals to avoid, and liability of owners, iii, 43, 56. Common symptoms, and what to do m poisoning, iii, 43-46. Disease causes�chemical and specific, i, 221-223; microbes, bacteria, &c, causing poison, i, 214, 227, 228; ii, 41, 42, 406, 407, 414; water, iii, 46. Diseases due to�dysentery, i, 291; enter- itis, i, 292; gastritis, i, 274, 275; par- alysis, i, 420; parturient fever, ii, 98; pyemic arthritis, ii, 287; rheumatism, ii, 20; tetanus, ii, 46, 47; tongue in- flammation, i, 252. Food and plants, iii, 46, 55, 56, 104-106; cake food, iii, 115; hay, iii, 62; Indian or dog-tooth pea, and vetches, iii, 58- 60. Forms of poisons, their treatment, and antidotes � corrosive or irritant poisons, iii, 46-54; narcotic poisons, iii, 54-60. (For special poison, see its name, as Arsenic, &c.) "Orme" case�tongue inflammation, i, 252. Overdose of chloral�recovery, ii, 477. Skin�absorption of poison, &c, ii, 129- 131; diseases due to, ii, 138, 139, 142, H3- Stings of wasps and insects, iii, 61. Urine composition, i, 335. Vomition�difficulty in producing, i, 275; iii, 44, 45, 47, 48, 64. Wounds�due to bacteria, &c., ii, 403, 406, 407, 414. [See also titles Antidotes, Blood-poison- ing; for special poison, see its name, as Arsenic, &c] Poland horses�early Scotch crosses, i, t8₇. Poll, The�formation, i, 4; fracture, ii, 234, 235 ; muscles attached to, ii, 319. Poll evil and its treatment, &c, ii, 430- 432; drugs, iii, 2, 4; pus among muscles, ii, 428. Pollock's obstetric forceps�use, iii, 284. "POlOniUS" (4931)�hackney stallion (il* lust.), i, 180. PolO ponies�Arabs as, i, 204; breeding, iii, 287. Polypus�heart affected with, i, 454; lar- ynx, i, 507 ; nose, due to lymphan- gitis, ii, 63; examination for, iii, 371. Polyuria and its treatment, &c, i, 346; colour of urine, i, 343; use of nut- gall, ii, 455. Ponds as drinking water, iii, 124, 125, 126, 130, 209. Ponies and Pony-breeding� Distinction as class, and of breeds, and group of varieties, i, 94, 153, 154, 158, 162, 163. Evolution influences, iii, 286, 287. Foals�"sibbing" and other breeding principles, i, 155-157, 161. Food and rearing land, i, 155, 156; iii, 216; undesirability of grazing on common lands, i, 154, 157, 162, 163. Founding a stud�advice on, i, 158-163; iii, 216. Height and size restrictions, i, 94, 154, 155. 158; iii, 49⁶-

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		INDEX
				595

	Prognosis of disease�definition, i, 214; skin diseases, ii, 139. Prognostic symptoms of disease, iii, 144. Proliferous cysts�form of, ii, 102. Prophylaxis of disease-hygiene effect, iii, 66. Propulsion�ventilation by, iii, 75. Prostate gland and portion of urethra, ii, 71; enlargement, &c, i, 351, 357; use of catheter, iii, 179. Protagon of nerve tissue, i, 387. PrOteidS�foods and digestive action, i, 241, 246; in body, iii, 87. Protohippus�fossil remains and horse origin, iii, 512, 513. Protoplasm�of nervous system, i, 373, 378, 387; development of life from, iii, 479, 482, 483, 484, 509; undifferenti- ated�formation, iii, 479, 484, 509. Protozoa�description and generation, ii, 161; iii, 259; disease due to, ii, 52; evolution of man from, iii, 483, 484. PrOtOZOOn�evolution of man from, iii, 483, 484. Protrusion of cornea, ii, 115,116. PrOUd flesh�antiseptics and drugs re- moving, &c, ii, 449, 485, 488; iii, 2, 8; due to bone disease, ii, 2T4; larynx and roaring, i, 512; sand crack, ii, 366; stone in bladder, i, 358; ulcers, ii, 427; wounds, ii, 406. (See also Growths.) Provender�(see Food). Provenderroom�structure, &c, iii, 320- 324. 333- Prurigo and its treatment, ii, 149; drugs, iii, 7. Pruritus�nature, and neurosis form, ii, 140, 156; drugs, iii, 1, 2; stamping due to, iii, 341. PrUSSiC acid�medicinal uses, iii, 7, 9. Psammoma tumours in brain, i, 415. Pseudo-farcy�horse-pox mistaken for, ii, 142. Psoas magnus and parvus muscles �form, &c, ii, 324, 325. Psoriasis and its treatment, ii, 152; drugs, iii, 1; hereditary influence, ii, 139, 140. Psoroptes on skin causing mange, ii, 166. PsorospermS infesting the skin, ii, 163. Pterygoid bones of face, ii, 188. Pterygoid muscle�nerve of, i, 394. Pterygoid processes of sphenoid bone, ii, 185. Pterygoideus internus and exter- nus�forms of muscles, ii, 309, 310. Pterygo-pharyngeus muscle � form, &c, ii, 315. Ptomaine poisoning in horses, iii, 46. Ptyalin in digestion, i, 234, 244. Ptyalism and its treatment, i, 258. Pubio-femoral ligament of hip-joint, ii, 275. Pubio-femoral muscles � forms, &c, ii, 325- Pubis�formation, ii, 192; fracture, ii, 256, 257; muscles connections, ii, 336, 34¹. 34²- Pudic artery�formation, i, 452. Puffing in sale of horses�illegality, iii, 416. Pulleys for slinging, iii, 4°, 4- Pulling UP* suddenly a cause of fractured ulna, ii, 245. Pulmonary affections � apoplexy af- fecting heart, i, 457; confusion be- tween congestion and inflammation, ii, 469; congestion and plethora, i, 481; ii, 5, 6, 7; ii, 460; draughts for, caution, ii, 9; drugs and mustard uses, ii, 460, 463, 4°9> 47*'� hemor- rhage symptoms, ii, 10; oedema of sheath, ii, 84; sick-box bedding and temperature, &c, iii, 24. (See also titles Asthma, Bronchitis, Lungs, Pneumonia, &c.)		Pulmonary arteries, veins, and Valves�formation and uses, i, 437, 438, 442, 448, 487; obstruction of valves, i, 466; sound due to action of, i, 440. Pulmonary heart�form, &c, i, 437. Pulmonary plexus�formation, i, 396. Pulse- Description and forms in health and dis- ease, i, 440, 443; iii, 146-148; con- ditions causing pulselessness, i, 494. Drugs and stimulants, ii, 460, 462. Heart disease detection, &c, i, 454, 458, 462, 463, 464, 467, 470. Poisoning symptoms, iii, 47, 54, 57, 64. Symptoms in various diseases�anaemia, i, 479; blood-poisoning, i, 481; bron- chitis, ii, 2; congestion of lungs, ii, 5, 6; horse-sickness, ii, 56; influenza, ii, 32; pleurisy, ii, 15; rheumatism, ii, 20; thrombosis, 1, 474; uterine hemorrhage, ii, 88; womb disorders, ii, 90, 98, 101. Pumiced foot � unsoundness and war- ranty, iii, 422. Pump water causing disease, iii, 130. Pumped-OUt horses �treatment, ii, 6: iii, 309. Punches, Suffolk � appearance, &c, i, 195, 198, 199, 200. Punching for wind testing, iii, 386. Puncture for bone disease, ii, 208, for lymphangitis, ii, 23, for pus in gut- tural pouches, i, 506. Punctured lungs or chest � causes and effects, i, 493; ii, 10, 254, 255, Punctured WOUndS and their treatment, ii, 403, 413. Pupil Of eye�conformation, i, n; ii, 106, 107; diseases and examination, ii, 110, 122, 123, 124; drugs affecting, ii, 481; iii, 2, 14; soundness tests, iii, 369- Purchase Of horse�warranty and ex- amination for soundness (see those titles). Purgatives or Aperients- Action and examples, ii, 465, 471, 491; iii, 14�drastic purgatives, ii, 465. Foals at birth, iii, 220, 224. Poisoning treatment, iii, 51, 52, 53; re- strictions, iii, 53, 54, 56, 59, 60, 63, 64. Preparation and prescriptions for balls and draughts, ii, 444-446; iii, 16, 18. Purpura hemorrhagica and its treat- ment, ii, 24, 25; affection of skin, ii, 3⁶> ^J45. ^I56; diseases due to, i, 503, 507; ii, 280; drugs used, ii, 448, 451, 487; »i>* 3» 6. Purse�structure, &c, i, 17; ii, 67, 68. Pus or Matter- As cause of disease, i, 224. Astringents effect on, ii, 454, Diseases affected with�bone diseases, ii, 209, 2n; bowel obstruction, i, 296; brain abscess, i, 409; corn, ii 375; epilepsy, i, 411; epizootic lym- phangitis, ii, 62; eye inflammation, ii, 115; guttural pouches, i, 504-507; fistulous withers, ii, 433, 434; joint diseases, ii, 280, 282, 283, 287; liver inflammation, i, 306; milk secretion, ii, 95, 96; nasal catarrh, i, 499, 500; poll evil, ii, 430, 431 ; pyeemia or blood-poisoning, i, 409, 481; quittor, »» 379> 380, 381; roaring, i, ₅ir; sand crack, ii, 366; skin affections, ii. *37>. M7; strangles, ii, 40, 41; throat inflammation, i, 255; throm- bosis, i, 476; urine composition, i, 344, 349- Shoes causing pus in foot, iii, 453, 454. Sinuses for escape of, ii, 428. Wound-healing agency, ii, 406, 412. [See also titles Abscesses, Fistula, Tumours.]
Poultices and Poulticing�{Cont) Poisoning treatment, iii, 60. Various diseases�cracked heels, ii, 425; enteritis, i, 204; gastritis, i, 275; hasmo-globinuria, ii, 29; intestinal obstruction, i, 297; kidney disease, i, 349; laminitis, ii, 378; laryngitis, i, 509; paralysis, i, 422, 423; parotid glands, i, 260; penis, sheath^ and testicle, ii, 83, 87; pleurisy, ii, 16; strangles, ii, 41; throat, i, 256, 258; thrombosis, i, 477; udder, ii, 96, 97; urine retention, i, 352; ventral her- nia, i, 325. Poupart's ligament�formation, &c, "j 336. Powdered galls�medicinal uses, ii, 455- Powders as medicine�prescriptions, iii, 16, 17; blood-fibrine powders, iii, 141; use of arsenic, dangers, 11, 453- Power�food influence, iii, 99,100; muscles and lever action in relation to power, i> 31-34; height influence, i, 94; loss of power (see Paralysis). Precipitated powders, chalk,. &c.� medicinal uses, ii, 488, 490; iii, 3. Precursory symptoms of disease- definition, iii, 144. Predisposing causes of disease�clas- sification and definition, &c, 1, 214, 215; various influences, i, 215-218. Predisposing causes of fractures, ii, 222-224. Pregnancy� (see title Parturition and Pregnancy). Prehension, muscles of�description, ii, 307- Prehistoric horses�evolution, iii, 286. Premature "births�causes and treat- ment, care of foals, &c, iii, 221, 222, 267-269. Premises � disinfection after infectious diseases, iii, 154-156. Premolar teeth�structure, iii, 494- Premonitory symptoms of disease- definition, iii, 144. Preparation Of food�(see Food�feed- ing, also Invalid food). Prepotency in breeding, need of, iii, 212. Prepuce�(see Sheath). Prescriptions�(see title Medicines and Drugs). Present types of horses�descent and position, iii, 471-484. preservation of green foods�silage method, iii, 115-118. Pressure�air, borne by horse and man, i, 488; bandaging care, iii, 36; cause of disease, i, 220, 311, of fractured spine, i, 235, 236; hemorrhage treat- ment, i, 502; "pits on pressure", use of term, ii, 364; shoes causing in- juries, iii, 448, 449, 453. Pricked ears�muscles in play, ii, 311. Pricks�of feet, ii, 385-387, canker and sinus due to, ii, 3S1, 428; punctured wounds, ii, 403. Primary adhesion method of wound- healing, ii, 404. Primary teeth�(see Milk teeth). Primeval horses�(see Fossil). "Prince Of Wales" (673)�Clydesdale breeding from, i, 191. Private persons�position as to war- ranties, iii, 414-419. Prize horses�(see Show horses). Frobang for treatment of choking, i, 267. Processes�of cranium and face bones, ii, 184, 185, 186; fore-limb bones, ii, 193, 200; lacteal system, i, 427; nerve-fibres, i, 379; trunk articula- tions, ii, 263; vertebral column� spinous and transverse processes, ii, 179, 180, 181, 182. Profile Of head�conformations, 1, 39-42. Profuse Staling and its treatment, i, 346; nut-gall uses, ii, 455.

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596 INDEX

Pustules on skin, ii, 137, 150; dressing
causing, ii, 421; horse-pox symp-
toms, ii, 43, 141, 142.

Putrefaction�agents arresting, ii, 483,
485-

Pysemia and its causes, &c, i, 409, 481,
482; due to thrombosis and strangles,
i, 477; ii, 41, to wound-poisoning, ii,
407; joints affected after, ji, 282.

PysemiC arthritis and its treatment, ii,
287, 288; " navel ill " resulting from,
ii, 280.

Pylorus and orifice of stomach, i, 234,
²35> 236; action in digestion, i, 245;
closure and tumours, i, 268, 276, 277.

Pyramidal process of os pedis�mus-
cles insertion, ii, 333.

Pyriformis muscle�form, &c, ii, 342.

Pyro-Catechin�in urine, i, 339.
PyrO^eniC fever�a form of strangles,
ii, 39-

Race-horses�{Cont.)

Stables�structure, iii, 338.

Water supply in America and in England,

iii, 302.
[See also title Thoroughbreds.]

Racemose glands�form, &c, i, 230.

Races and racing � foundation, con-
duct and time-tests, &c, i, 107-m;
early history, iii, 522, 526, 527, 531,
539, 542, 543. 544, 54^, 5471 prohibi-
tion by Cromwell, iii, 545; trotting,
i, 117, 118; iii, 313, 314.

Racks for stables, iii, 327.

Radial arteries and veins �forma-
tion, i, 447, 449.
Radial ligament�sprain, ii, 294.
Radial nerve�formation, i, 400.

Radial portion of flexor pedis perforans
muscle, ii, 33 r.

Radio-carpal articulation�form, &c,

ii, 271.
Radius�conformation, i, 19, 72; ii, 195,

196; fracture, ii, 246; inflammation,

ii, 212; muscle connections, ii, 330,

33i, 333-
Railway horse-bOXeS � infection and

cleansing, iii, 153; structure and

drawbacks, iii, 464-467.

Rain-water � composition, &c, i, 224;

iii, 121, 122; filtration and storage,

iii, 125, 336.
Rape-cake -composition and use, iii, 89,

114.
Rape-Oil�in physic balls, ii, 444.
Rarefying Ostitis�form of disease, ii,

211.

Rasping�of foot, evil effects and method
for shoeing, ii, 394; iii, 434, 438, 439,
441; of teeth, i, 329.

Rat tails disease, ii, 148.

Rate Of growth in a horse�(see Growth).

Ready-made physic halls�nature of,

ii. 444-
Rearing�croup muscles, &c., assisting

in, i, 58; ii, 324, 325, 339, 340, 341;

means of checking, iii, 158; warranty,

iii, 424.
Rearing Of foals�(see Foals).
Recapitulation and horse-breeding, iii,

288.
Receipts for sale of horses�forms, &c,

iii, 405, 426.
Recti muscles of eye, ii, 104.

Rectified spirit�dose, iii, 10.
Recto-vaginal ligament, ii, 77.

Rectum�conformation, &c, i, 237, 238;
ii, 74, 76; drugs destroying worms,
&c, iii, 8, 12; examination for hernia,
i. 320, 323, "stone", i, 363, throm-
bosis, i, 475; inversion, i, 301-303;
nourishment per, i, 253; plugging in
foals, i, 284, 285; suppositories in-
sertion, iii, 41; unloading per hand
and before operations, i, 271, 281,
284; iii, 34, 35, 181, 184.

Rectus muscles � abdominis, ii, 336;
capitis antlcus, major and minor, ii,
321; capitis lateralis, ii, 322; capitis
posticus, major and minor, ii, 320;
femoris. ii, 339; parvus, ii, 340.

Recurrent disease�definition, i, 213.
Recurrent nerve�formation, i, 396.

Recurrent Ophthalmia and its treat-
ment, ii, 116-118; examination for,
iii, 368.

Recurrent rheumatism�treatment, ii,

21.
Red corpuscles of blood, i, 432, 433;

air-changes in, i, 489; changes due
to disease, i, 478; ii, 24; drugs affect-
ing, ii, 447, 448, 449, 450.

Red oxide of mercury�uses, ii, 488.

"Red Robin"�draught stallion 1759,

price, i, 188.
Red WOrmS in arteritis, i, 471.
RedidS and alternate generation, iii, 260,

Redness of eyelids�cause, h, 114.

RedneSS Of Skin�(see Erythema).
Reduced iron�medicinal uses, ii, 447.

Reducible hernia�description, i, 316.

Reflex action of nervous system, i, 388;

389; muscles control, ii, 306.
Reflex epilepsy�form of, i, 410, 411.
Reflex paralysis�form of, i, 421.

Refusing to gO in direction desired-
warranty and vice, iii, 424.

Reins�influence on carriage of neck, i, 49
(see also Bearing rein).

Relaxation stitches for wounds, ii, 419.
Reliance castrator�use, iii, 176, 177.
Remains of horses � past types and
fossils, iii, 471-484, 509-513, 517-520-

Remedies for ailments � (see title

Medicines and Drugs).

Renal arteries and veins�formation

and uses, i, 334, 335, 452.
Renal CalCUlUS�in kidney, i, 370.
Renal pleXUS�formation, i, 377.
Repeller�used in foaling, iii, 283.
Repositories�warranty regulations, &c,

iii, 416, 417.
Representations that are not warranty,

iii, 407-409.

Representatives selling horses �

warranty as to, iii, 414-417.

Reproduction and evolution, iii, 257-

261, 286, 287; alternate generation,
iii, 259-261.

Reproduction Organs�Anatomy, &c.

(Female)�

Changes in ovum due to impregnation,
iii, 245-249, 261-264.

Development and rate of growth of em-
bryo, iii, 249-257, 288-295.

Labia, clitoris, vulva, hymen, vagina and
passage, i, 18; ii, 73-76; foaling diffi-
culty, iii, 273.

Muscular fibres, ii, 74, 75.

Ovary and ovum, ii, 78-80.

Urinary passage and urethra, ii, 74, 75, 76.

Uterus or womb aiid attachments, ii, 75-
78.

Reproduction Organs�Anatomy

(Male)�
Enumeration and appearance, ii, 64, 65.
Inguinal canal and gland substance, ii,

65, 66.
Penis, prepuce or "sheath ", i, 18; ii, 69,

70�muscles, ii, 73.
Spermatic cord, scrotum or purse, and

vesicular seminales, ii, 66-69.
Testicles, testis, and tunica albuginea, i,

17; ii, 64, 65, 66.
Urethra and openings, ii, 71�muscles of,

ii, 72, 73-

Reproduction Organs�Diseases, &c.

Castration and Ovariotomy (see those
titles).

Catheter insertion and uses, iii, 177-180.

Covering disease, or maladie du coit, ii,
52, 80, 82.

Drugs affecting, ii, 473, 475. 47⁸, 481.

Eruption due to variola, ii, 141.

Female�cystic ovary, ii, 102; flooding,
ii, 87-90; inflammation of uterus, ii,
89-91, 97, 98, of vaginal passage, ii,
91, 92; inversion of uterus, ii, 100-
102; parturient fever, &c, ii, 97-
100; udder troubles, ii, 93-97;
"whites" or leucorrhcea, ii, 92.

Male � comparative immunity, ii, 80;
penis and sheath � enclosure and
inability to withdraw, ii, 80, 82,
cedema or dropsy, ii, 83; paralysis
and amputation of penis, ii, 85; tes-
ticles inflammation, ii, 86.

Sterility causes, iii, 229, 230.
Residual air in breathing, i, 493.
Resin�medicinal uses, ii, 474; iii, 10.

Resistance to disease � observations,

ii, 443-
ResOrCin�antiseptic uses, ii, 485.

Quadratus femoris muscle � form,

&c, ii, 342.

Quadratus lumborum muscle�form,

&c., ii, 326.
QuaggaS � cross-breeding with mare, iii,

239; special features and origin, iii,

49⁶> 525-

Qualified warranty�form of, iii, 406,
407.

Quarantine in infectious diseases, iii, 152.

Quarters�conformation, i, 22, 80, of
croup, &c, i, 58-60; deformity due
to fracture, ii, 257; eczema, ii, 148;
length determination, i, 97, 0,8; spa-
vin in straight quarters, ii, 217;
soundness examination, iii, 373, 374.

Quassia�medicinal uses, ii, 466.

Quick Of fOOt�formation, iii, 436; pricks
and injuries, ii, 385, by shoeing, iii,
453-

Quicksilver�medicinal uses, ii, 488.

Quidding the food�mouth and teeth
troubles causing, i, 249, 330; un-
soundness, iii, 422.

Quiet to ride and drive�kicking due

to treatment after purchase, iii, 424.

Quilled suture for wound-stitching, ii,
417, 418.

Quinidine�medicinal uses, ii, 452.

Quinine�medicinal uses, ii, 451; iii, 8, it.

Quittor and its treatment, ii, 378-381,
435; drugs, iii, 2, 4; canker and
villitis due to, ii, 381, 383; pricks and
wounds causing, ii, 386, 414; un-
soundness and warranty, iii, 378, 422.

Babies of the horse, ii, 44.

Race on face�form, &c, iii, 495, 499.
Race-horses�

Condition�use of term, ii, 445.

Condition or physic balls, ii, 446.

Conformation�breast, i, 62; canon, i, 76;
croup, i, 59, 60; forearm, i, 73; hind-
limb, i, 83; height and chest mea-
surements, i, 65, 90, 94; hock, i, 88;
neck, i, 50; pastern, i, 80, shoulders
and muscles, i, 69; thigh, i, 85.

Diseases and injuries common to, i, 219;
bleeding nose and skin, i, 503; ii,
158) ^T59: hone disease or "sore
shins", ii, 209, 2tq, 220; congestion
of lungs, ii. 5; filled legs, ii, 364;
fractures, ii, 235, 236, 249; roaring,
i, 510, 511; sprains, ii, 294, 295, 354.

Evolution influences, iii, 287.

Merits and training-of Arabs, i, 203,
204; of thoroughbreds, i, 107-113;;
iii, 304-307.

Origin of the race-horse, iii, 531, I

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		INDEX		597

Respiration or Bieathing� Act of, and description of internal and external respiration, i, 482-484; num- ber of breaths taken by a horse, i, 494. Air and its composition, &c, i, 487, 493; iii, 132; after respiration, i, 488, 493; iii, 76-78, 79; air-changes in the blood, i, 489-491; impure air causing disease, i, 216, 222; ventilation, i, 495-497- Amount of air required per horse, iii, 76, 78, 79- Conformation affecting �breast and chest, i, 62, 63, 64; forehead, i, 38; nostrils and jaw, i, 9, 41; false nostril, iii, 508. Effects of respiration -gases, &c, t, 482, 483, 487-491; iii, 76-78, 79. Foals at birth, iii, 220, 285; prematurely born, iii, 221. Formation and uses of lungs, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and air-cells, i, 484- 486; chest, ribs, and diaphragm, &c, i, 491-494; muscles, ii, 308; nerves, i, 383, 494; skin functions, ii, 129, 131. Hygienic conditions necessary for, iii, 67. Mechanism of respiration, i, 491-494. Soundness�examination of wind, iii, 385. Water evaporation, iii, 120. Respiratory Diseases and Influ- ences- Asphyxia or suffocation, i, 494. Bleeding �internal and from nose, i, 501- 503- Broken wind as distinct from asthma, ii, 11, 12. Bronchitis and asthma, ii, 1-4, 11. Catarrh or cold, i, 497�nasal catarrh or gleet, i, 499-501. Causes and diagnosis for signs of disease, i, 216, 222, 260; iii, 146, 148, 149; for poisoning, iii, 47. Choking due to obstruction, i, 266. Cough and high blowing, ii, 18, 19. Drugs, ii, 459, 468-470; stimulants and soothing, &c, ii, 470-472. Pus in guttural pouches, i, 504-507. ■Symptoms in various diseases�heart, i, 456, 457, 467; hernia, i, 320; horse- sickness, ii, 56; indigestion, i, 270; influenza, ii, 32 ; pleurisy, ii, 14 ; pneumonia, ii, 8; rheumatism, ii, 20; tetanus, ii, 48; tongue inflammation, i, 253. [See also titles Larynx, Lung diseases, Roaring, Tuberculosis.] HestiveneSS� warranty as to, iii, 424, .Restraining nerves of heart, i, 441. Restraint Of horses�during medicine administration, iii, 18-22; during operations, iii, 156-160. Rete mucosum�of skin, ii, 125, 132. Rete testis�formation of ducts, ii, 66, 67. Retention of urine�causes, &c, j, 350- 353; withdrawal by catheter, iii, 177- 180. Retina of eye�form, &c, ii, 107. Retractor muscles�ani, i, 238; bulbi ot eye, ii, 104; costas, ii, 324; penis, ii, 73- RetumOf horses�warranty regulations, &c., iii, 406, 425, 426. Reverting hack in breeding�(see titles Back-breeding, Telegony). Rheumatism and Rheumatic Affec- tions- Causes and treatment of rheumatism, ii, 20, 21; of rheumatic arthritis, ii, 285, 286; of rheumatismal tetanus, ii, 47. Diseases due to�heart, i, 461, 463; joints, ii, 280, 282, 285; skin, ii, 138, 139; wind-galls, ii, 356. Drugs for, ii, 452, 461; iii, 2, 3�for rheu- matic poison, ii, 490. Influence of age, i, 218.	Rhododendron�poisoning by, iii, 56. Rhomhoideus muscle �form, ii, 318; nerve connected, i, 399. Rihhed-up horse�defects, i, 65; diges- tion, iii, 119; show horses, iii, 311. RiDS�conformation and bones, i, 56, 57, 61, 63-65; ii, 189, 191�composition and disease of bone, li, 175, 213; fractures, ii, 225, 226, 229, 254; joints or articulation of, ii, 190, 266, 267; muscles and connections, i, 63 ; ii, 322, 323, 324, 333~335; mustard plas- ters over, hi, 33, 34; respiratory uses, &c, i, 491-493- Rice�analysis as food, i, 243; iii, 89. Rickets�fracture liability, ii, 224; phos- phorus uses, ii, 490. Ridge ventilation in stables, iii, 331. Riding�early history on, iii, 521, 522, 528, 535, 54²> 543, 547 \ management of horses, iii, 201, 340; warranty, iii, 417, 424. (See also titles Hunters, Saddle horses.) Right heart�structure, &c, i, 437. Right portions of abdominal cavity, ii, 338. Right surface of head�structure, i, 10. Rigidity Of body�drug producing, ii, 478. Rigors or shivering�in blood poison- ing, i, 48r, bronchitis, ii, 2, catarrh, i, 498, dysentery, i, 291, enteritis, i, 293, kidney disease, i, 349, lymphan- gitis, ii, 22, parturient fever, ii, 98, pleurisy, ii, 14, poisoning, iii, 47, spinal meningitis, i, 418, womb in- flammation, ii, 90; examination for soundness, iii, 374; heredity of, iii, 214, 215. RigS or ridglingS�description of, i, 18, iii, 184; castration (see that title). Ring-hone�causes and treatment, i, So; ii, 205, 250; ostitis form, ii, 211; hereditary, iii, 215; operation for, iii, 161; unsoundness and warranty, ii, 302; iii, 378, 422. Rings�in bone structure, ii, 177; on hoofs, unsoundness, &c., iii, 420, 436. Ringworm and its treatment, ii, 140, 163- 166 ; contagious form and herpes, ii, 149; remedies, &c, ii, 484, 485, 489; iii, 5, 8. Rise � inability to, due to broken or sprained back, ii, 298. "Rising Star"�Suffolk prize, i, 198. River water as drinking water, iii, 121, 122, 125, 209. Roach back�appearance, &c, i, 57, 60. Road�accidents and first aid, ii, 437-441; British uses of horses, iii, 541, 545; Roman roads and uses of horses, iii, 526, 529. Roan horses�colour origin, iii, 498. Roaring and whistling � causes and treatment, i, 510-512, due to confor- mation, i, 41, 44, to diseases, i, 260, 396, 506, to heredity, iii, 215, to poisoning, iii, 59; high blowing dis- tinction, ii, 19; operation for, causing laryngitis, i, 507, 509: unsoundness and warranty, ii, 302; iii, 366, 386,423. ROCk Water�analysis, iii, 122, 123. Rocks�animal remains in, iii, 471, 472. Rod for preventing tearing of horse clothes, iii, 342. Rodent ulcer�form of, ii, 156. Rodway bar-iron for shoeing, iii, 445. Rodway iron shoe�form, &c, iii, 443. Rokeby Fuchsia�champion Shire mare (iliust.), i, 165. Roman horses�history, &c, iii, 525- 53o» 535- 536. Roman nose�appearance, i, 41. Roman rradS�construction, and use of horses on, iii, 526, 529.
			ROOtS�as food, iii, 89, 97, 115; for preg- nant mares, iii, 208, sick horses, in, 27; poultices made irom, iii, 28, 29. Ropes�for dislocation treatment, ii, 352; for operations, casting, &c., iii, 40, 159, 160, 172; horses in ditches, ex- traction, ii, 440; tethering of travel- ling horses, iii, 465. ROSetteS as markings, iii, 497, 498. ROUghing of shoes, iii, 451. ROUleaUX in blood, i, 435. Round ligament of hip-joint, ii, 275. Round Worms- forms and di seases due to, ii, 162, 169, 170, 171; drugs de- stroying, iii, 12. "Royal Albert" (i88₅;.-pedigree, &c, i, 77- Royal Commission on horse-breeding� disqualifying ailments, ii, 302, Royal Commissioners* distribution of king's premiums for hunter breeding, i, 140, 141. Royal cream horses � origin, &c, i, 206, 207. Royal Interest in Horse-breeding- Clydesdales, i, 186, 187; hackney and pack horses, i, 116, 124; hunters and premiums, i, 140, 141; bhire and war horses, i, 172-175; thorough- breds and racing, i, 110-112. Early history on, iii, 535-541; Tudor and subsequent periods, iii, 541-548. Rubefacients and their uses, iii, 14. RUg�e of bladder, \, 337. RUgS-chafingeffects, ii, 432, 435; horses eating, iii, 341, 342; hot applications and poultices, u, 10, 15; iii, 32; sick horse clothing, iii, 143. "Ruler" (2453)�Suffolk stallion (iliust.), i, 202. Rum pony�origin, form, &c, i, 169. Rump bone (see Sacrum). Run "big" and " light" � training of thoroughbreds, iii, 306. Run down�horses susceptibility, ii, 477. Runaway horses � injuries, ii, 440; warranty, iii, 424. Running horses � early uses, iii, 537, 54°, 543- Running sores�due to bone disease, ii, 213. (See also titles Fistula, Fistu- lous wounds.) Ruptures or Hernia� A definition of hernia and kinds of rup- tures, i, 315. Bleeding nose, i, 504. Brain blood-vessels, i, 412, 420. Forms of hernia and treatment�exom- phalus or umbilical hernia, i, 316- 318; inguinal hernia, bubonocele and strangulated, i, 318, 319-322; scrotal and ventral hernia, i, 322-325; sound- ness examination and warranty, iii, 373, 4²3- Heart rupture, i, 470. Intestines, i, 295; colic causing, i, 282. Ligaments, tendons, and muscles, ii, 292,299, 354, 395. (See also Sprains.) Liver rupture, i, 309, 310. Lungs�broken wind due to, ii, 12. Poisoning symptoms similarity, iii, 44. Stomach, i, 277�indigestion and dila- tion causing, i, 270, 271, 277; vomit- ing due to, i, 268. Unsoundness and warranty, iii, 373, 423. Various effects, &c. � aorta disease, i, 473; blood in urine, i, 343; enlarged groins, i, 17; inversion of bladder, i, 372; uterine hemorrhage, ii, 87. Rutherglen fairs�early history, i, 188. Rutting�(see CEstrum). Rye and grass�as food, i, 243: iii, 89, 352: invalid diet, iii, 26; medicinal uses of ergot of rye, &c, ii, 89, 463, 475; iii, 10, 11.

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	598 INDEX

			Scirrhous cord�examination for, iii, 373. SCirrhUS�a form of tuberculosis, ii, 50. Sclerotic of eye�anatomy and examina- tion, i, n; ii, 104, 105, 107, 109. SCOOP for lithotripsy, i, 367, 368. Scotland�early history on horse-breed- ing, i, 186, 187, 189, English restric- tions, i, 174; racing instituted in, i, no; iii, 544. Scraper for grooming, iii, 134- Scraping in stable�vice of, iii, 342. Scratching�skin disease due to, ii, 149. Scriptural references to the use of horses, iii, 518, 519, 520, 532. Scrofula�a form of strangles, ii, 39. Scrotal hernia and its treatment, i, 322- 324; hereditary, i, 318. Scrotum�conformation, i, 17; ii, 67, 68; grey masses in, ii, 71; hernia and castration, i, 319, 320, 322; iii, 173, 176; muscles insertion, ii, 336; sper- matic cord and testicles "not down'' in, ii, 67; iii, 184. Scurfy Skin due to curry-comb, iii, 135. Scutiform cartilage of ear, ii, 310. Scuto-auricularis externus and in- ternus�forms of muscle, ii, 311, 312. Sea carriage of horses�facilities, diet,. &c, iii, 461-464. Sea-Weed�medicinal uses, ii, 489. Seated Shoes�form and uses, iii, 442,. 443- Sebaceous glands�of sheath, i, 18; ii, 71; of skin, ii, 126, 131. Sebiparous glands of skin, ii, 130. Second inter-phalangial articula- tion�form, &c., ii, 273. Second phalanx bone of fore-limb� formation, ii, 199. Second thigh�conformation and bones, i, 85; ii, 202. (See also titles Fibula and Tibia.) Secretion�a cause of disease, i, 222; of fluids by skin, ii, 130, 131; of saliva in digestion, i, 232; of urine, i, 352. Secretory nerves�description, ii, 374. Sedative drugs�action, &c, iii, 14; gastric, ii, 465; heart, ii, 457, 461;. nervous system, ii, 476, 477, 479-483. Seeds as diet, i, 241, 242. Seedy toe and treatment, ii, 368-371;, shoeing precautions, iii, 455; un- soundness and warranty, iii, 423. Segmentation�process in breeding, iii, 249. Self-fiXing base for stall-pillars, iii, 324. Selling Of horses �guarantee as to- soundness (see titles Examination, Warranty). Semen�(see Seminal fluid). Semilunar cartilages of stifle-joint, ii� 275, 276. Semilunar crest of coffin-bone, ii, 200. Semilunar ganglion of dorsal nerve, i,. 377- Semilunar valves of heart, i, 438, 448. Semimembranosus muscle � form,. &c, ii, 341. Seminal dUCtS�formation, &c, ii, 66, 67, 69. Seminal fluid or semen�conve3;ance, &c, ii, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73; iii, 229,. 230, 246; artificial insemination, iii, 231-234. Semiology�definition, i, 214. Semispinalis of back and loins�form, &c, ii, 324. Semitendinosus muscle �form, &c, ii, 340. Sensation�drugs affecting, ii, 479; iii, 4,, 8, 12, 14; nerves affected by fracture, ii, 252; paralysis of sensation, i, 419; ii, 236; skin powers, &c, ii, 127, 128, 156; depriving certain part of sensa- tion�operation (see Neurotomy).
		SallanderS and its causes, ii, 157, T58; remedy, ii, 464; "chestnuts " as, iii, 501; unsoundness, iii, 374. Salt�medicinal uses of common salt, ii, 449; iii, 92; on roads, causing disease, ii, 424; water constituent, iii, 122. Salted horses � immunity from horse- sickness, ii, 59. Saltpetre�uses and dose, iii, 3, 10. Salts in blood, i, 435; in food and diges- tion, i, 241, 243; in urine, i, 338, 339, 342, 353- 354, 355� medicinal uses of various drugs, ii, 448, 454, 477. Sal Volatile�stimulant uses, ii, 459. Sand for bedding, iii, 357. Sandals used as shoes, iii, 429. Sand Crack and its treatment, ii, 365-367; iii, 436; canker and villitis due to, ii, 3^1, 383; shoeing precautions, iii, 455; stopping up, fraud, unsoundness and warranty, iii, 379, 410, 423. "Sandflake "�artificial insemination, iii, 231. Sanitas as an antiseptic, ii, 487. Sanitation�foaling and sick boxes, ii, 288; iii, 23, 24; hygienic treatment of diseased animals, iii, 140�144; rheumatism and influenza influenced by, ii, 20, 32; washing of sick horses, iii, 35- (See also title Veterinary hygiene.) Santonin�dose, iii, 10. Saphenous nerves�formation, i, 403, 404. Saponification of oils and fats in diges- tion, i, 242, 246. Saprophytes�water purification, iii, 127. SarcinaCOCCUS�formation, &c, i, 226. Sarcolemma of muscle fibre, ii, 305. Sarcoptes causing mange, ii, 167. SarcoptiC mange�treatment, &c, ii, 140, 167. Sarcous element of muscle fibriila, ii, 305. Sartorius muscle�form, &c, ii, 341. Savin�effect on uterus, ii, 475. Saw-dUSt as bedding, iii, 24, 355. Scabs�ringworm and mange, ii, 164, 165, 167; wound-healing process, ii, 404, 407. 457- Scalenus muscle�form, &c, ii, 322. Scales on skin, ii, 137, 152. Scalpel and its uses, i, 362, 365; ii, 304, 349. Scandinavian CrOSS of Cleveland bays, i, 127. Scaphoid bone and ligaments connec- tion, ii, 193, 197, 278. Scapula or blade-bone�form, ii, 193; iii, 487; fracture, ii, 221, 243; joint, ii, 270; muscle attachments, ii, 318, 327, 328, 329, 330, 333. Scapular cartilage�formation, ii, 193. Scapular regions�muscles of, ii, 328, 329- Scapulo-humeral joint�form, &c, ii, 270. Scapulo-humeralis gracilis muscle �form, &c, ii, 329. Scapulo-ulnaris muscle�form, &c, ii, 33°- Scarification�of bowel in rectum inver- sion, i, 301; of limb in lymphangitis, ii, 23; of sheath, i, 353; ii, 82, 83; of tongue, i, 253; of uterus, ii, 102. Scarlatina�disease similar to, ii, 25. Scarring under a s-cab�method of wound- healing, ii, 404, 407. " Sceptre " �bay thoroughbred filly (il- lust.), i, 112. Schizomycetes�description of, ii,"i6i. Schlemm, canal of�in eye, ii, 108. SChleswig horses�appearance, &c, i, 210. Schwann�white substance of, i, 379. Sciatic nerves and fibres�formation, &C, i, 379, 403.
Saccharated carbonate of lime as antidote, iii, 51. Saccharated iron � medicinal uses, ii, 447�dose, iii, 10. Saccharine compounds as food, i, 241. Saccharomycetes�description, ii, 161. Sacral artery�formation, i, 452. Sacral nerves and plexus�forms, &c, i, 375-377, 381, 402. Sacro-coccygeal division of vertebrse, ii, 179, 180. Sacro-iliac ligament � connections, it, 264, 333- Sacrum�conformation and bones, i, 15, 58; ii, 179, 180, 182; connection with pelvis, ii, 192; muscle connections, ii, 3²3, 324, 3?6> 340- Saddle�diseases due to pressure, &c., i, 220; ii, 426, 432. Saddle-backed horse�appearance and defect, i, 57. Saddle galls, &c.�causes, i, 220; ii, 426, 432; use of boric acid, ii, 485. Saddle holders�types, iii, 332, 333. Saddle Horses- Ancient history, iii, 521, 522, 528, 535. Breed not distinct, except in America, i, 147. Breeds used and merits of�Arabs, i, 203; hackneys and hacks, i, 122, 147-149; Holsteins, i, 209, 210; pack horses, i, 124, 125. Conformation, action, &c, i, 147-149; of back, i, 55, croup, i, 59, 60, forearm, i, 73, height, i, 94, neck, i, 51, pas- tern, i, 80, shoulder, i, 70, thigh, i, 85, withers, i, 54. Crossing with thoroughbred or Arab blood, i, 148, 149. Fractured back, and navicular disease liability, ii, 235, 391. Training, &c, iii, 201, 307-310, 312, 340. Warranty�hired horses, &c, iii, 417, 424. [See also title Hunters.] Saddle room�fittings, &c, iii, 331-333. Sainfoin hay�composition, iii, no, in. St. Albans�royal stud foundation, i, no. "St. Simon"�chest measurements, i, 65; illust. of, i, 1; pedigree and stock, i, 115; iii, 548. St. Simon Strain�breeding prepotency, iii, 212. St. Vitus' dance and its treatment, i, 410, 411. Sale Of horses�(see Warranty, also Ex- amination as to soundness). SaliCine as a cooling medicine, ii, 450-452 �dose, iii, 10. Salicylate of soda and sodium�medi- cinal uses, ii, 452; iii, 7�doses, iii, 10. Salicylic acid�medicinal uses, ii, 452; iii, 7�doses, iii, 10; for warts, ii, 143. Saline aperients and uses, ii, 449, 450, 471; for liver, i, 303, 305, 308. Saliva � action in digestion, i, 232-234, 244; drugs affecting, iii, 14; exces- sive secretion, i, 258; fistula of paro- tid duct affecting, i, 261-263 ; jaw, diseased or fractured, ii, 213, 239, 240; poisoning symptoms, iii, 47; stomatitis effects, ii, 49, 50; tongue inflammation, i, 252. Salivary calculi � formation and re- moval, i, 263-265. Salivary glands or ducts�description and uses, i, 7, 230-234; drugs affect- ing, iii, 14; fistula effects, i, 261-263; "stones" in, i, 263-265, Salivation and its treatment, i, 258; iod- ism and mercurial poisoning as, ii, 4S0, 4Q0.

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INDEX

599

Sense, Organs Of�foetal formation, iii,
257; nervous system and nerves af-
fecting, i, 373^ 374, _385, 386, 391;
parasites infesting, ii, 174, 175 (for
special organ, see its name).

Sensibility�(see Consciousness).

Sensible perspiration �� nature of, ii,

130.
Sensitive laminse of foot, iii, 435, 436;

injuries by shoeing, iii, 453, 454.

Sensory impressions of nervous system,

i, 374-
Sensory nerves and fibres, i, 374. 385,
386; division by operation, iii, 161.

SeptiC33Hlia and its treatment, i, 481, 482;
due to�castration, iii, 174, to hemo-
globinuria, ii, 27, to strangles, ii, 41,
to wound-poisoning and microbes, ii,
407; eucalyptus for, ii, 487; heart
inflammation, i, 464.

Septic glossitis�distinction, ii, 43.

Septic infection and intoxication-
forms and causes of disease, i, 227,
481; ii, 406.

Septic pneumonia�causes, &c, ii, 7.

Septic poisoning and organisms-
causes of disease, i, 216, 222, 227,
481; iii, 174; joint diseases and

wound-poisoning, ii, 280, 287, 288,
406, 414, 421; ulcers, drug, ii, 421;
womb inflammation and parturient
fever, ii, go, 97, 98.
Septum nasi of vomer bone, ii, 188.

Septum pectiniforme of penis, ii, 70.

SerOUS abscess�due to capped hock, ii,
362, 363, 364, to speedy cutting, ii,
401.

SerOUS Covering of uterus�form, ii, 77.

Serous fluid�in dropsy, i, 310, villitis,
ii, 384, wounds, ii, 411.

SerOUS gland�description, i, 232.

Serratus anticus and posticus mus-
cles�forms, ii, 323.
Serratus magnus muscle�form, &c,

"» 333; fracture affecting, ii, 255;
nerve to, i, 399.
Serum in blOOd, i, 435; disease due to

urea in, &c, ii, 27, 56; wounds, ii,

411.
Servants�driving and accidents liability,

iii, 418, 419; sale of horses by, and

warranty, iii, 415. (See also titles

Attendants, Grooms.)
Service season�number of mares, and

condition of sires in, iii, 234-238;

period and indications, iii, 262, 263;

refusal of mares or sires, iii, 180, 235,

236 (see also titles Breeding, Sexual

intercourse).

Sesamoid bones�formation, &c., i, 75,

78, 79; ii, 198; iii, 488; disease and
injury, ii, 250, 397; fracture and
sprain, ii, 250-252, 295 ; joints and
ligaments, ii, 272, 273.
SetOning and Setons�for bone diseases,
ii, 208, 218; frog of foot, for disease,
ii, 392; poll evil, ii, 432.

Setting of fractures, &c., ii, 228-233;
compound, ii, 233, 234; metacarpal
bones, ii, 249.

Seven-year-old-teeth of, iii, 399, 400.

Sewage fungUS�in water, iii, 126, 127.
Sewage gas�disease causes, iii, 78, 82.
Sewerage system � connection with

stables, iii, 84, 329, 330.
Sex as cause of disease, i, 214, 218; ii, 80.

Sexual intercourse �diseases due to,

"1 53i 80, 86, 376; drugs�abuse, and
affecting, i, 348, 350; ii, 86, 475,478;
iii, 7, 12, 13, 60; sterility causes, ii,
102 ; iii, 229, 230 (see also titles
Breeding, Service season).

Shaft of long bones, ii, 177�ossification,
ii, 178.

SbaftS for ventilating stables, iii, 71, 330.

Shakespeare taking charge of horses, iii,
543-

ShamuS-na-cappul �meaning of title,

i'i, 547-
Shank bone�formation, iii, 477.
Sharp Withers�character of, i, 52.

Sharpening of shoes, iii, 452.

Sheath of muscle - fibre � composi-
tion, ii, 305.

Sheath of penis � conformation and
ligament, i, 18; ii, 69, 70, 71, 335;
diseases�enclosure and withdrawal
of penis, ii, 80, 82; cedema or dropsy,
ii, 83; swelling due to urine and
fracture, i, 351, 353; ii, 257; washing-
out, ii, 82, 83, 85.

Sheep�digestive powers, &c, iii, go, 91,
96, 97; dipping and poison effects, ii,
129, 130; iii, 48, 49; gid or rot dis-
ease, ii, 173, 174; sheep-pox, i, 223;
yew poisoning, iii, 104, 105.

Sheep-dip�poison by, ii, 129, 131; iii, 48,
49.

Shelly feet and their treatment, ii, 367,

368; unsoundness, iii, 379.
Shelters for horses out to grass, iii, 95.

Shetland ponies � appearance, &c, i,

168, 234; evolution and breeding, iii,

286, 287.
Shifting-pieces in stable-stalls, iii, 324,

325.
Shin bones�diseases, ii, 209, 2ro, 213.

(See also titles Canon, Metacarpal,

Sore shins.)

Shipment of horses � facilities, diet,

&c, iii, 461-464.

Shire Horse Society�work of, i, 182,

184, 185.

Shire Horses-
Breeding�ancestry and early history, i,
172-178 ; descent from war horses,
i, 178-180; present breeding, &C, i,
180-182; telegony influences, iii, 241,
242.
Classification, and prices paid for, i, 172,

185.
Clydesdale crosses and resemblance, i,

186, 190, 191.
Conformation�chest and shoulder, i, 65,
70; defects and "feather", i, 180-
182; genera] appearance and action,
i, 182-184.
Illustrations � mares, 1, 165; iii, 268;

stallions, i, 98, 266.
SufTolks compared with, i, 194, 197.
Shivering�examination for action of,
iii, 374; hereditary disease, iii, 214,
215. (See also title Rigors.)
Shock as cause of disease, i, 220, 222;
drugs, ii, 458; iii, 3; poison effects,
iii, 46, 6r; rupture effects, i, 295.

Shoes and Shoeing�

Abuses�as rasping, cutting the bars, &c.,
results, ii, 375, 393, 394.

Anatomy and physiology of the foot, iii,
433-438.

Bad shoeing and injuries, iii, 446, 452-
458; causing broken knees and stum-
bling, ii, 422; contracted feet, ii, 393;
corns, ii, 375; cutting action, ii, 396;
navicular disease, ii, 390; ring-bone,
ii, 205; side-bones, ii, 388; splints,
ii, 207; thrush, ii, 373, 374.

Fitting of shoes � feet preparation, iii,
438-441; general care and methods,
iii, 446-450; nails and nailing, iii,
444> 450» 45i-

Forms of shoes�early types, iii, 430,
43r, 441; materials, modern and
special types, iii, 441-446.

Healthy feet�preservation, iii, 67, 68.

History of horse-shoeing, iii, 429-432.

Model of hoof showing details, ii, 491.

Pricks and wounds of feet and their
treatment, ii, 385, 386, 413, 414.

Removal for examination of foot, iii, 386.

Roughing or sharpening, iii, 451.

Shoes and Shoeing�[Com.)

Special treatment � harness horses and
hacks, iii, 312; horses at grass, iii,
139, 310; ship-board horses, iii, 464,
467; travelling horses, iii, 467; trot-
ters, iii, 314-316.

Specially-formed shoes or treatment, hi,
441-446; for contracted and mal-
formed feet, ii, 346, 393, 394; curb,
ii, 303; defective action as cutting,
&c., ii, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401; dis-
location, ii, 353; division of tendons,
iii, 170; fracture, ii, 252; horn
tumour, ii, 373; laminitis, ii, 378;
shelly feet, ii, 368 ; sprains, ii, 289,
295, 296, of back sinews, ii, 354, 355;
villitis, ii, 384.
ShOOtS�for hay, &c, iii, 333.

Short conformation-of back, i, 54-56,

neck, i, 48, 50, pasterns, i, 80.
Shortened gaits�compensating points,
i, 103.

Shoulder and Shoulder-joint�

Conformation and bones, i, 18, 68-70, 71,
182; ii, 194, 270; iii, 486, 487; defects
and compensation, i, 102 ; length
from, i, gs, 96; muscles and connec-
tions, i, 69, 70; ii, 318, 320, 328, 329,
333, 335-
Diseases, &c.�abscesses, ii, 435, 436;
fistulous wound, ii, 432, 434; galls,
or sore shoulders, ii, 145, 435, 436;
sprain and slip, ii, 293, 350; ulcers,
ii, 426.
Shoulder action, i, 49, 121, 122; ii, 320.

ShOW "condition"�meaning of term,
&c, ii, 446; iii, 215; medicines used,
ii, 452, 453-

ShOW horses�breeding advice and back
breeding^ iii, 205, 212, 213, 215;
classification at shows, i, 130, 170;
defective action in ring, ii, 395; dis-
eases and rejection, ii, 116, 302; pre-
paration methods, iii, 310-313; Shire
successes, i, 185; sterility of, iii, 237,

Shuttle bone�(see Navicular bone).

Shying�due to cataract, ii, 119; war-
ranty, iii, 424.

SialOgOgUeS and their uses, iii, 14.

Sibbing in pony breeding, i, 156, 161.

Sick-bOXeS�construction, &c., iii, 23, 24,
70, 320-324, 337; disinfection and
occupation after infection, iii, 154-
156; light, ventilation and tempera-
ture, iii, 142-144, 154.

Sick horses�first aid, ii, 437-441; food
and forcible administration, iii, 140-
142, 351 ; isolation, air, grooming,
&c, iii, 140-144; transit by land, iii,
464; warranty and hiring liability,
iii, 418. (See also Invalid food,
Sick-boxes, Nursing.)

SiCk-nUrsing�(see Nursing).

Sickening for something�symptoms

of disease, iii, 144.
Sickle hOCkS�causes, &c, i, 90, 150; ii,

301.

Side-bones�causes, &c.,j, 219; ii, 387;

iii, 437; hereditary, iii, 215; opera-
tion and firing, iii, 161, 167; war-
ranty and unsoundness, iii, 381, 422.

Side-line�used in operations, iii, 159.

Side-rod�use in stable vices, iii, 342.

Sides, "near" and "off"�meaning of

terms, i, 3.

Sides of body�poulticing, &c., iii, 32,33.
Sieve bone�form, &c, ii, 186.

Sight�(see titles Eye Diseases, Eyelid

Diseases, Eyes and Eyelids).
Signs of disease�(see Disease).
Silage�preparation, kinds, and uses as

food, iii, 89, 115-118.
Silk, &c, for castration and operations,

iii, 163, 164, 175, 185; for wound

stitching, ii, 411, 416.
Silky hair on legs�(see Feather).

Silver � medicinal

uses, 11, 454, 457_;

poisoning by, iii, 46,

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			INDEX
	600		INDEX

Simple fracture�form, &c, ii, 221, 225, 227. Simple Ophthalmia and its treatment, ii, 114. Simple Sutures for wound-stitching, ii, 416. Simple Ulcer�form and treatment, ii, 426, 427. SineWS, "back�sprain or breakdown, ii, 354- Singeing�methods, iii, 137, 360. Single-hoofed animals �foot forma- tion, iii, 477. Sinking of haunch bones � causes, &c, i, 15. Sinuses�fistulous wounds and withers, ii, 428, 432, 433; frontal bones, ii, 186; plugging, ii, 434; poll evil, ii, 430, 431; quittor of foot, ii, 378, 379, 380. " Sir George"�pony stallion, breeding, &c, i, 156, 170; illust., iii, 193. "Sir Horace "�pony stallion, price, &c, i, 170. Sires�(see Stallions). Sites�for stables, iii, 60, 70, 206, 207, 319, 320. Six-year-old�teeth of, iii, 399. Size Of horses�characteristics and his- tory of the horse, iii, 496, 530; cli- matic influences, iii, 530, 535, 546, 548. (See also title Height.) Skeleton�appearance and bones of horse and man, ii, 176, 178; iii, 485-490; fossil remains and horse origin, iii, 511-513; growth of foetus, ii, 178. Skewbald horses�colour, iii, 498. Skewers�for accidents, ii, 438, 439; for hernia, i, 318. Skin- As external covering of body, ii, 124. Bare patches�formation, iii, 504, 506. Blistering and firing, iii, 38-40, 167. Castration after-treatment, iii, 186. Cuticle or epidermis, and cutis or derma, ii, 124-126. Formation of hair, horn, chestnuts, &c, »> '31-133; ^m> 504. 5°°- Glands�fat-forming and sweat glands, and hair follicles, ii, 125-127, 131. Glossy skin�abuse of drugs for, i, 348, 349; ii, 143, 474; drugs producing, ii, 446, 453, 474, 491. Grooming, washing, and keeping healthy, iii, 68, 69, 134-137. Injections under�(see Subcutaneous in- jections). Markings�origin and forms of stripes, &c, iii, 497-500. Nerves and sensibility of skin, i, 385; ii, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128. Parasites infesting, ii, 163, 166-168; iii, 103; drugs destroying, iii, 7, 8. Poisoning through, iii, 45, 60. Poulticing precautions, iii, 31. Soundness�inspection for, iii, 374. Uses � as protective covering and as organ of touch, ii, 127; for absorp- tion and secretion of fluids, &c., ii, 128-131; respiratory uses and sum- mary, ii, 131. Water evaporation, &c, iii, 120, 123. [See also titles Staring coat, Sweating.] Skin Diseases, &c� Classification and general observations and signs, ii, 134, 135; iii, 145, ¹5°, 152. Diagnosis and description of various eruptions, ii, 136-138; iii, 150. Drugs, lotions, &c, ii, 472, 473�abuse causing disease, i, 348, 349; ii, 143, 474; alteratives and astringents, ii, 453) 454' 456, 457; antiseptics, ii, 420, 483: various drugs for eruptions, &c, ii, 488, 489, 490; iii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8.
		Skin Diseases, &c�(Cmt.) Eruptions and discharges due to disease � bleeding and hemorrhage, i, 501; ii, 24, 25, 156, 158; covering disease, ii, 53, 82; epizootic lymphangitis, ii, 60-63; fistula, ii, 429; glanders and farcy, ii, 36, 37; horse-pox or variola, ii, 43, 140-142; infectious diseases, iii, 150; lymphangitis fluid, ii, 22, 23; stomatitis pustulosa, ii, 49; swelling of capped knee, ii, 361. Eruptions due to insects, blood-poison, &c, ii, 142. Eye growths � congenital formations, &c., ii, 118. General causes and treatment, ii, 138-140. Grooming causing injuries, iii, T35. Hypertrophies (warts) and atrophies (senile decay), ii, 154, 155. Infectious diseases � signs and list, iii, 150, 152. Inflammations � bullous, ii, 149; catar- rhal, ii, 146-14S; local, ii, 143-146; plastic, ii, 148, 149; squamous, ii, 152-154; suppurative, ii, 150, 151. Inspection for disease, iii, 374. Mallenders and sallanders on legs, ii, 157. New formations�cancer, &c, ii, 156. Not attended with eruption�diagnosis, ii, 136. Parasitic diseases and causes, ii, 140, 163, 166-168; drugs, iii, 7, 8. Sensibility of skin�neurosis and itching affecting, ii, 156. Urine and diabetes affected by activity of skin, i, 337, 346, 347. Washing as curative agent, iii, 35. [For special skin disease see its title, as Eczema, Herpes, &c] Skull and bones-classification, ii, 183; cranium formation, ii, 1S3-186; iii, 492-494; fracture, ii, 234, 235; mus- cle connections, ii, 314, 321; views of, i, 38; ii, 184, 185, 187. Slack in the loin�appearance, i, 57, 65. Slaughter Of horses �ancient law on, iii, 541, 542, 548; diseased and in- fectious ailments, ii, 63, 64; iii, 153. Sleep�drugs inducing, ii, 476, 478; iii, 3, 5, 14; poisoning effects, iii, 54; prematurely-born foals, iii, 221. Sleepy Staggers and its treatment, i, 268, 269, 270, 406, 407. Slings and Slinging � directions and materials, iii, 40, 41; for capped and broken knees, ii, 361, 423; disloca- tion of patella, ii, 353; fractures, ii, 231, 246, 247, 249, 250, 255, 258, 259, 260, 261; joint synovitis, ii, 283; laminitis, ii, 378; sprains, ii, 297, 298; testicle, ii, 86, 87. Slipping�shoeing precautions in winter, iii, ₄₅r. Slipping the foal � causes and treat- ment, iii, 267-269. Sloping conformation�of croup, i, 58; pasterns, i, 80; shoulders, i, 69, 70. SlOUghing�of bone due to disease, &c, ii, 210, 213, 249, 253, 380, 386; for- mation of sinus, li, 428; food causing, iii, 103; hoof due to neurectomy, iii, 165, 166; poisoning effect, iii, 47, 48; skin sloughing, i, 249; ii, 25, 232, 233, 435; udder, ii, 95, 96; ulcers and abscesses, 1, 502; it, 421; un- soundness due to, iii, 372. Small heads�conformation, i, 38. Small hyo-glossus muscle of tongue �form, Sec, ii, 314. Small intestine�description and uses, i, 235-237. Small-pOX�signs of, iii, 150. Small stables�plans, &c, iii, 322. Smashed bone�form of fracture, ii, 221. Smegma in sheath, ii, 74. Smell�nerves of, i, 385, 391, 484; ii, 188; test of water and air, iii, 131, 133.		Smithfleld horse sales � history, iii 539- Smootn Calculi in bladder, i, 359. Smoothing-iron for pneumonia, ii, 10. i Snaffles�types of, iii, 309, 358, 359. Snake-bites�causing poisoned wounds, ii, 414, 415. Sneezing-due to catarrh, i, 498. " Snorer "�pony mare, price, &c, i, 171. Snorting�due to indigestion, i, 270. SnOW � causing cracked heels, ii, 424; skin diseases, ii, 144. Soap�medicinal uses, ii, 474; skin erup- tions due to, ii, 142. Soap liniment for water tests, iii, 131. Society of Improvers, Edinburgh � work of, i, 188. Soda and sodium � medicinal uses, ii, 448-450, 452, 477; iii, 2, 8�doses, Hi, 9, 10, 11; poisoning and antidote, i"> 45, 53; sulpbo-carbolates as anti- septics, ii, 485. Soft bones � causes, &c, ii, 214-216; drug for, it, 490. Soft food�for horses in training, iii, 303. Soft palate�formation, i, 7. Soft SOap�causing skin eruption, ii, 142; in physic balls, ii, 444; iii, 15, 16; washing of skin diseases, iii, 35. Soft warts�treatment, &c, ii, 155. Soft Waters�analysis, &c, iii, 122, 123. Solar ganglion of dorsal nerve, i, 377. Solar pleXUS beneath aorta, i, 377. Sole Of foot�anatomy and preparation for shoeing, iii, 434, 440, 441, pared- out sole, iii, 441; canker and quittor, ii, 381; "drop" causes, ii, 377; pricks and wounds to, ii, 385-387; removal causing contraction, ii, 394; unsoundness, iii, 381, 382. Soleus muscle�form, &c, ii, 344. Solidungula�mammals classed as, iii, 477- Solomon�horses kept by, iii, 518, 520, 5²5- Solution Of arsenic�(see Fowler's). Solutions Of VariOUS drugs �medi- cinal uses, iii, 7; doses, iii, 10. Solvents for "stone", i, 360. Somerset pastures�disease causes, iii, 102. Something the matter�symptoms of disease, iii, 144. Soot as an antidote, iii, 58. Soothing medicines�for heart, ii, 457, 461 ; kidneys and bladder, ii, 474, 475; lungs and air-passages, ii, 471, 472; nervous system, ii, 476, 477. SOporifi.CS and their uses and action, 476, 477; iii, 14. Sore lips�causes, &c, i, 247, 248. Soreness Of joints�warranty, iii, 420. Sore Shins and their treatment, ii, 219, 220; form of periostitis, ii, 2ro; race- horse susceptibility, i, 219; ii, 209; unsoundness, iii, 376, Sore Shoulders and their treatment, ii, 435> 436. Sore throat and its treatment, i, 254-257; due to bronchitis, ii, 3, laryngitis, i, 507, 508, strangles, ii, 40; drugs, antiseptics and electuaries for, ii, 452, 455, 485; iii, 3, 5, 6, 21; mustard and poultice uses, iii, 6, 31, 32, 33. Sores�running, due to bone disease, ii, 213. (See also titles Fistula, Skin Diseases�eruptions.) SOUnd- Breathing�disease symptoms, ii, 2, 5 8, 12, 14, 15. Crepitus in fracture, ii, 225, 226. Ear muscles and cartilages for trans- mission of, ii, 311. Gurgling during motion�cause, ii, 71.

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		INDEX
				601


	Sphincter muscles�formation, &c, i, 15, 238, 337; ii, 73, 75; paralysis, i, 419, 421; soundness, iii, 373. SphygmOgraph � for testing pulse, iii, 146, 147, 148. Spices�for conditioning, ii, 446; inducing appetite, iii, 94. Spinal accessory nerve � origin and form, i, 376, 385, 3⁸⁶> 39⁶- Spinal Diseases and Injuries- Broken or fractured vertebras, ii, 235- 237; distinction from disease or sprain, &c, ii, 237, 298; setting difficulty, ii, 228. Dislocation, concussion, and sprained back, i, 421; ii, 236, 237, 298. Drugs used, ii, 463, 477, 4⁸3: "i> ²> 3- Meningitis or inflammation of membranes of cord, i, 418; cerebro-spinal form, i, 423-425- Myelitis or inflammation of cord itself, i, 418. Nervous diseases effects, i, 405. Paralysis and its causes, i, 421; ii, 236, 237- Parasites in spinal canal of ponies, ii, '75; Poulticing the back, iii, 32. Protection of cord from injuries, i, 379, 3⁸o. Soft bones due to osteo-porosis, ii, 216. Tetanus effects, ii, 47. Spinalis colli muscle�form, ii, 319. Spine (Vertebral Column) and Back� Arteries and blood supply, i, 380, 449, 45i, 452. Bones (vertebras) and conformation of back, i, 3, 13, 14, 15, 55-58, 380-382; ii, 179-183; compensation fordefects, i, 102; spinal canal, i, 382; ii, 179. Cord or marrow�composition and func- tions, i, 378, 380-382, 388, 389; ii, 179. Diseases and injuries�(see title Spinal Diseases and Injuries). Embryo and fcetus growth, iii, 250, 255, 257- Eruptions, &c, on back � boils and ulcers, ii, 150, 151, 426; fistulous withers, ii, 433, 434; ringworm, ii, 164. Joints and ligaments of vertebrae, ii, 263, 279 ; rib connections, ii, 266, 267 ; stifle-joint, ii, 276, 277; trunk, ii, 263-265. Length measurements, i, 96, 97. Muscles and connections � back and loins, ii, 322-324, 336; fore-limbs, ii, 328; ribs, ii, 334; neck attachments, ii, 318-320. Nerves�forms and functions, i, 380-382, 397. 39⁸ ; lumbo-sacral plexus, i, 402-405; reflex movements, &c., i, 388, 389; sympathetic ganglia, i, 374, 375- Processes of vertebrae�formation, ii, 179, 180, 181, 182; muscle connections, ii, 3^l8> 324- Spine of scapula hone�form, ii, 193. Spirilla of bacteria�form, i, 227. Spirits of camphor�uses, ii, 460. Spirits of nitrous ether � uses and doses, iii, 7, 10. Spirits as stimulants, ii, 460; in accidents, &c, ii, 439, 440. Spiroptera infesting stomach, ii, 169. Splanchnic nerves�forms, i. 376, 377. Spleen�nerves and arteries, i, 377, 44^s! skin diseases due to, ii, 139; tuber- culosis affecting, ii, 51. Splenic artery�formation, i, 452. Splenic fever�(see Anthrax). Splenic pleXUS�formation, i, 377. Splenius muscle and connections, ii, 3I⁸- 319- Splint hones�(see Metacarpal bones).
			Splinters Of WOOd �in eye, ii, 112; tongue, i, 252; wounds, ii, 409, 412, 413- SplintS�bone disease, ii, 206-208�drugs, iii, 5, 8; other causes and forms, i, 20, 219; ii, 210, 211, 301; operation and firing for, iii, 164, 167; unsound- ness and warranty, iii, 366, 377, 412, 420. Splints for fractures, ii, 232, 233, 247; various bones, ii, 244, 245, 247, 249, 250. Split pasterns�form, &c., ii, 249, 250. Split-up quarters and thigh �ap- pearance, i, 60, 85. Sponges � disinfection, ii, 415; feeding foals by, i, 252; water pollution, iii, 129. Spongy hones due to disease, ii, 211, 216. Spongy tissue in bone, ii, 176, 177. Spontaneous epilepsy�form of, i, 410. Spontaneous generation of microbes, i, 225. Spoons used as medicine measures, iii, 12. Sporadic disease�definition, i, 213. SpOrOCyst �formation of, iii, 260. SporOZOa�forms and diseases due to, ii, 161, 169. SportS�early history on, iii, 522, 526, 527. SpOtS�on aorta, i, 472; eyes and sound- ness, ii, 56, 117, 119, T20; iii, 369, 370; facial "blaze", &c; iii, 495; lips and mouth, i, 247, 249; special markings, iii, 497 - 500. (See also titles Blood-spots, Skin diseases.) Sprains � Joints, Tendons, Ligaments, and Muscles� As cause of disease, &c, i, 220; of an- eurism, i, 477; bone-spavin, ii, 218; dislocation, ii, 349; joint diseases, ii, 279, 281, 282, 286; thrombosis, i, 474. Definition, and question of sprain or strain, ii, 291, 292. Drugs used, ii, 480; iii, r, 3, 5, 7, 8. Examination for soundness, iii, 380. First-aid directions, ii, 439. General causes and symptoms, ii, 289, 290; galloping, iii, 199; hereditary, iii, 215. Particular sprains � back sinews or "breakdown", ii, 354; check and suspensory ligaments, ii, 251, 252, 294, 295; fetlock joint, ii, 298; flexor muscles, ii, 292, 299; perforans and perforatus tendons, ii, 296; radial ligament, ii, 294; sprained back, ii, 298. Plasters or charges for, iii, 43. [See also Bog-spavin, Bowed knees,Curb. ] Sprays for nasal catarrh, i, 500. Spring hOOk for hobbles, iii, 160. Spring-Water�analysis, iii, 122. Sprinter and thoroughbred condition, iii, 306. Sprung heels in shoeing, iii, 448. Squamse and squamous inflammations of skin, ii, 137, 152. Squamous eczema�form of, ii, 148. Squamous temporal hone�form, and muscles from, ii, 184, 311. Squills �medicinal uses, ii, 469; iii, 15, 17. Stahle equilibrium of a horse, i, 30. Stablemen � apartments structure, iii, 321, 322, 323. Stable Management- Accidents�first aid, ii, 437. Complete supervision�importance of, iii, 339^341- Diseases of stabled horses�bowel and liver,_i, 285, 287, 308; due to damp premises, i, 1, 7, 12, 20; poll evil prevention, ii, 432. Fastening of horses, iii, 328, 465. Hygienic treatment of coat, feet, &c, iii, 133-140.
Sound�(Cant.) Heart's action in health and disease, i, 440, 454, 459- 4.6o, 463, 465, 467, 469, 470�anaemia, i, 459, 479. Nerves sensible to, i, 383, 387. SOUIld for lithotripsy, i, 368. Soundness �- ailments disqualifying, i, 414; ii, 302; iii, 140�list of diseases, iii, 420-423, 425, 426; definitions of "sound" and "unsound", iii, 419, 425; future unsoundness and law, iii, 409, 412, 420; high blowers'sound condition, ii, 19; iii, 140; sight con- dition, ii, 109; thoroughbreds,!, 113; training considerations, iii, 301; un- nerving precautions, iii, 164, 165. (See also titles Examination, War- ranty.) SOUP for sick horses, &c, iii, 94, 141. SOUT silage�preparation, &c, iii, 117. South African horse sickness � causes, and modes of infection, &c, ii) 53-55; prevention, ii, 58; symp- toms, forms, and treatment, ii, 55-58. South African war�horse-disease ap- pearance during, ii, 59. South's rational Shoe for speedy cut- ters, ii, 401. Spanish-fly�poisoning by, iii, 60. Spanish horses�history and crosses, i, 187; iii, 528, 530, 533, 534, 535, 536, 53⁸> 546. Spasmodic COliC and treatment, i, 278- 281; rupture and heart pains mis- taken for, i, 295, 469; drugs, iii, 6. Spasms�air passages, drugs relieving, ii, 472; iii, 3; asphyxia, i, 495; dia- phragm, i, 312; larynx, i, 507, 512; ii, 17, 18; heart and drugs, i, 469; ii, 461, 463; rabies, ii, 45; tetanus, ii, 45, 46, 47, 48; warranty as to, iii, 4²3- Spavin�forms and treatment, ii, 216-218; 290, 291; curb form, ii, 300; drug for, iii, 8; firing, iii, 167; ligament affected, ii, 278; neurectomy operation, iii, 165; sprain effects, ii, 299; unsoundness and warranty, ii, 302; iii, 367, 384, 385, 420, 421, 423. Spavin-punch for firing, iii, 167. Special features in structure of a horse, iii, 4⁸4"497- Special warranty-form, &c, iii, 407. " Speciality " (1562) � Cleveland bay, pedigree and illust., i, 128, 258. Specific diseases and fevers�causes of disease, i, 214, 222, 223; ii, 471; drugs, iii, 3, 6; skin eruptions due to, ii, 140-142; ulcers infective, ii, 427. Specific drugs used in veterinary prac- tice, ii, 442, 490. Specks on eye due to cataract, ii, 119, Speed and pace in locomotion, iii, 192- 194; conformation affecting, i, 62, 72, 78, 85, 86; muscles in relation to, i, 31, 32, 34; qualifications and training of hackneys, Arabs, and harness horses, i, 117, 118, 201, 203; iii, 313; thoroughbreds and trotters, iii, 305, 3i4- Speedy cutting as defective action, ii, 400-402. Spermatic arteries and vein�form, &c., i, 452; ii, 66; hemorrhage in castration, iii, 174. Spermatic COrd�anatomy, ii, 67; en- larged glands, i, 17; hernia, &c, i, 3r8, 320, 321. (See also Castration.) Spermatic fluid�(see Seminal fluid). Spermatozoa�contact with ovum, iii, 248; artificial insemination, iii, 231- ²34- Sperm-Cell�impregnation of ovum, iii, 245, 246, 248, 298. Sphenoid hone�form, ii, 185; fracture, ii, 234. Spheno-palatine nerve�form, i, 393.

-ocr page 662-



			INDEX
	602


Stable Management�[Cont.) Infectious diseases�disinfection and pre- vention, i, 292; ii, 488; iii, 3, 8, 152; horse-sickness and horse-pox, ii, 58, 142; influenza, ii, 32; nasal catarrh, i, 500; skin diseases, ii, 150, 151, 165. Treatment of�horses in training, iii, 303; hunters after work, iii, 309, 310; pregnant mares, iii, 218, 265, 268; ship-board horses, iii, 461, 462, 463; thoroughbreds, i, 107, 109, 112, 113. (See also Training.) [See also titles Food, Bedding, Groom- ing, Harness, Stable vices, Ventila- tion, Temperature.] Stable Structure, &c� Choice of site and materials, iii, 6g, 70, 206, 319. Coach-house, tool-house, and carriage wash-stand, iii, 334, 335. Drainage�construction and systems, iii, 84-87, 326, 328-330; flushing and cleaning out, iii, 86, 87; manure and urine�effect and removal, regula- tions, &c, iii, 82, 83, 335; town v. country stables, iii, 82, 83, 84. Flooring which dispenses with drainage, »i, 337- General decoration, accommodation, and materials used, iii, 319, 320, 323. Harness and fodder rooms, iii, 331-333. Horses in training�accommodation, iii, 303, 304- Lighting and position of windows, iii, 70, Plans, iii, 320-323; a good stable, iii, 323; illust., iii, 324. Special structure for cart-horses, tram- way, and racing stables, iii, 336-338. Ventilation and air-space�common de- vices and direction of air-currents, iii, 71-74, 76, 326, 330, 331; artificial ventilation, iii, 74-76; contamination of air and organic impurities due to breathing, &c, iii, 76-78; cubic air- space per horse, table, &c, on, iii, 78-80, 8r; drain openings, iii, 85, 86; examination of air, iii, 132; warmth v. cold in stables, iii, 76, 80, 81. Water supply, iii, 336. Yard and latrines, &c, iii, 334, 335. [See also titles Loose boxes, Sick boxes, Stalls.] Stable Vices and their correction, iii, 140, 341-343; soundness and warranty, iii, 3⁶7, 43> 424-426. Stage-Coaches�horses for, 1, 195, 205. Staggering�due to anthrax, ii, 42; heart stimulants for, ii, 458 ; hemorrhage symptoms, i, 502; poisoning causing, iii, 47. Staggers�cause and treatment, i, 268, 270, 406. Stagnant pools�purification, iii, 127. Staining of organisms* �methods, ii, 54, 60. Stakes�wounds caused by, ii, 403, 413. Staling�(see titles Urine, also Retention of urine). Stallions and Sires- Breeding and origin of various breeds� ancient laws, i, T73, 174; iii, 541, 542; Cleveland bays, i, 128; Clydes- dales, i, 186, 192; hackneys, i, 115, 116-118, 119, 123; harness horse, i, 5²j ^I53>* hunters, i, 108, 135, 136, ^T38, 139-142; Shires, i, 172-176, 185; Suffolks, i, 195; thoroughbreds, i, 109, no, in�present stock of thor- oughbreds sources, iii, 547, 548. Castration�(see that title). Catheter insertion and uses, iii, 177-180. Definition of term "stallion", iii, 541. Disqualifying ailments�list of, ii, 302. Drugs affecting generative organs, i, 348; ii, 475, 478; iii, 4, 7, 60.		Stallions and Sires�(Cent.) Early mating and service limitations, &c, iii, 213-215, 234-238. Generative organs�(see titles Repro- duction organs�anatomy and dis- eases). Growth of offspring�influence, iii, 297, 298. Hernia or rupture, i, 318, 319, 320, 323. Illustrations � Arab, ii, 412; American trotters, i, 336; Cleveland bay, i, 258; Clydesdales, i, 246, 280; ii, 326; hackneys, i, 38, 172, 1S0; pack horse, i, 190; pony stallions, i, 190; iii, 193; Shires, i, 98, 266; Suffolks, i, 202; thoroughbred, i, t, 108, 112; York- shire coach horse, ii, 166. Indifference to mares, iii, 235, 236. Influence of first sire on mares�opinions On telegony, iii, 239-245. Period of puberty, iii, 262. Pony breeding and "sibbing", i, 156, 161; crosses, i, 160, 161, 163; grazing on common lands, i, 154, 157, 162, 163; origin of famous breeds, i, 165, 170, 171; polo pony, Arab sire, i, 204. Soundness�examination, iii, 373. Use of artificial insemination, iii, 232. Working in Paris, iii, 171. Stalls in stables, &c. � construction, iii, 70, 324, 325, 327, 328,337; drain- age, iii, 84, 85; pillars, iii, 324, 325; plans, iii, 320-324; railway boxes, iii, 465; ship fitments, iii, 461, 462; tying-in arrangements, iii, 328, 465. Stamping in stables�correction, iii, 341. Stamps on warranties, iii, 405, 426. Standing�diseases due to, ii, 356, 364, 3^9) 373, 394; equilibrium and posi- tion of a horse, i, 30, 31; iii, toi, 192; soundness guide, iii, 366; toss of power (see Paralysis). Standing leap�method, iii, 200. Standing Operation for castration, iii, 176, 177. Stands OVer�knee formation, i, 74. Staphyline glands�form, &c, i, 230. Staphyline nerve�formation, i, 393. Staphylococcus�formation, &c, i, 226. Staphyloma and its treatment, ii, 115, . 116. Starch�food properties and digestibility, i, 241, 242; iii, 87, 89, 90, 91, 96; use as antidote, iii, 53. Starch bandages for fractures, ii, 250; preparation, iii, 38. Staring Coat�diseases causing, i, 293, 304, 311, 498, 499; ii, 90; iii, 145; poisoning symptoms, iii, 47; water causing, iii, 123. Starvation a cause of disease, i, 222. Starwort causing poisoning, iii, 63. State coach horses�description, &c, i, 177, 206, 207. Statical symptoms of disease, iii, 145. Stealing Of horses�ancient law on, iii, 54²- Steam inhalation�(see Inhalation). Steapsin�in digestion, i, 246. Stearin�composition of, i, 242. Steel�for horse-shoes, iii, 442. Steel drops�medicinal uses, ii, 447. Steel Sharps�for shoes, iii, 452. Steeplechasing �training methods, iii, 201, 305, 311. Stenson, duct of�fistula of, i, 261. Steps in walking, iii, 194, 197. Sterility and its causes, &c, iii, 229, 230; due to cystic ovary, ii, 102; to neck of uterus, iii, 263; to obesity, iii, 216; service and sires, iii, 180, 236, 237. Sternal articulations and cartilages, ii, ²67, 334- Sterno-maxillaris muscle�form, &c, ii, 321.
				Sterno - thyro - hyoideus muscle � form, &.c., ii, 321. Sternum�(see Breast). Stethoscope for heart disease detection, i, 455, 458. Stick�causing choking, i, 265, 266; stone in bladder, i, 370, 371. Stiffness due to glanders and farcy, ii, 36; to poll evil, ii, 431; rheumatic joints, ii, 286; sore shins, ii, 220; thrombosis and tetanus, i, 474; ii, 48; of spine, i, 418. Stifle and joint�conformation, i, 23, 85, 90; ii, 275-277; iii, 485, 486; patella as part of, ii, 202, 353; muscles and connections, ii, 340, 341, 343, 345; soundness, iii, 382, 383; various dis- eases affecting, ii, 284, 285, 286, 287, 395- Stimulants- Accidents and exhausted horses�uses of, ii, 6, 439, 440. Drugs to stimulate heart, ii, 457, 458-460; lungs and air-passages, ii, 470, 471; nerves, ii, 477, 478; stomach and liver, ii, 465, 488. Invalid diet, iii, 25. Treatment of apoplexy, i, 413; asthma, ii, 11; blood-poisoning, i, 482; colic, i, 280, 281, 284; diarrhoea, i, 289; pleurisy, ii, 16; pneumonia, ii, 9; poisoning antidotes, iii, 50, 52, 56, 57, 64; purpura hemorrhagica, ii, 25; spasm of diaphragm, i, 313; super- purgation, i, 290. StingS Of insects, &c �drugs allaying pain, iii, 7; mouth and tongue in- flammation, i, 249, 250, 252; penis and sheath affections, ii, 81, 82; poisoned wounds, &c, ii, 414, 415; iii, 61. Stitching Of WOUndS �directions and stitches used, ii, 411, 412, 416-419; disinfection of materials, ii, 415, 416; fistula treatment, i, 262. Stock medicines kept in studs, ii, 444, 446. Stocking of breeding stud, iii, 210-213. "StOCkwell" (1849)�pedigree, i, 114. Stomach- Blood supply before and after meals, i, 443- Conformation and digestive uses, i, 91, 229, 234, 235; ii, 465; food progress, &c, i, 246, 247; iii, 118, 119; gastric digestion, i, 244, 245; muscular coat- ing, &.C., i, 235; ii, 306; nerves and arteries, i, 377, 448. Worms and parasites infesting, ii, 169- 174; causing tetanus, ii, 45. [See also title Abdomen or Belly.] Stomach bOt and its effects, ii, 169, 170. Stomach Diseases and Disorders- Bleeding or hasmatemesis, i, 501. Cough due to, ii, 18; remedy, ii, 470. Dilation and rupture, i, 276-278; indi- gestion causing, i, 270, 271; pasture causing, iii, 05; vomiting due to, i, 268. Drugs and tonics, ii, 451, 457, 460, 464- 468, 470, 478; iii, 5, 6, 7. Engorgement and overloaded, i, 271; other causes and results, i, 268, 269, 270, 274, 278, 470; iii, 101, 102. Poisoning effects, iii, 44, 45, 46, 48�in- fluence of food in stomach, iii, 49, 55, 58; post-mortem appearances, iii, 54, 55- " Staggers", a form of indigestion, i, 268, 270, 406. Stomatitis, or mouth inflammation, i, 249. [See also titles Gastritis, Indigestion, Ulceration.J Stomatitis (Simple) and its treatment, i, 249. Stomatitis pustulosa contagiosa� appearance and treatment, ii, 48-50; distinction from glanders, ii, 50.

-ocr page 663-

INDEX ₆₀₃

Stone in the Bladder-
Analysis and composition of calculus and
urine, i, 353-356; pus, &c., in urine,
i, 344. 34⁸-
Formation and causes of stone, i, 220,

298, 354. 369-371; in mares, i, 368.
General symptoms, diagnosis and treat-
ment, i, 356-360.
Inflammation due to, i, 349.
Internal remedies and solvents, i, 360.
Operation of lithotomy�general prepar-
ations, &c, i, 361-363; exploring the
bladder, removal of stone, &c, i,
363-366.
Operation of lithotripsy or crushing, i,

366-36S.
Tumour distinction, i, 357, 358.
Warranty as to, iii, 423.
Stone pipes, &c, for drains, iii, 85, 86.
Stone solvents and their uses, i, 360.
Stone walls�jumping methods, iii, 201.
Stones�bloody urine due to, i, 348; con-
cretions not stones, i, 300; intestinal
obstruction, i, 296; salivary duct, i,
263-265; fistula due to, i, 261. {See
also titles Stone in bladder, Calculi.)
StoneWOrtS in water, iii, 129.
St0p-n00Se used in parturition, iii, 283.
Stopping of feet, iii, 68, 139.
StOraX�medicinal uses, ii, 470, 471.
StOtS�use of oxen and meaning of term,

h ^T73-
StOVeS for stable heating, iii, 334.

Straight conformation�of back, j, ₅₇;

croup, i, 58; face, i, 40; neck, i, 47,
48; shoulders, i, 70.
Straight muscle of abdomen � form,
&c, ii, 335. 336.

Straight muscle of thigh � form, &c,

ii. 339-

Strain or sprain � definition, &c., ii,

29T, 292.

Straining�causing inversion of rectum
and uterus, i, 301; ii, 100; kidney
disease, i, 348; rupture and hernia,
i, 3^r5. 3²4>

Stringhalt and its treatment, i, 411; ii
395; hereditary, iii, 215; unsound

ness, examination, and warranty, iii

3^7, 374, 423-
Stripes as skin markings, iii, 497-500

asses and zebras distinction, iii, 496.
Strokes due to paralysis, i, 420.

Strongylus armatus and tetracan-
thus�diseases due to, i, 471, 477,
479; ii, 171, 172, 174.

Strongylus axei in stomach, ii, 169.

Sudoric sweat�form of, ii, 130.

Sudorifics�drugs classed as, ii, 472.

Sudoriparous glands�formation, &c,

ii, 126, 127, 130.
Suffocation�due to asphyxia and laryn-
gitis, i, 494, 507, 508 ; punctured
lung, i, 493; tongue inflammation, i,
253.

Suffolk Horses�

As distinct breed, origin and early types,

i, 194-196.
Comparison with Shires and Clydesdales,

i, 177, 178, 194, 196, 197; with

Schleswigs, i, 210.
Conformation, age, action, uses, i, 194,

197 - 200 ; colour, markings, and

feather, i, 195, 196, 197, 199.
Crosses�early, i, 195, 196; for Arabs, i,

204; harness horses, i, 153.
Illustration of stallion, i, 202.

Suffolk Stud-book Association�re-
strictions, i, 196.

Sugar�as food constituent, and digestion
of, i, 242; iii, 87, 89, 96; in blood, i,
435; in urine, i, 346.

Sulky for trotter-training, iii, 314, 315.

Sulphates � medicinal uses, ii, 490; of

StrophanthuS�medicinal uses_;

45i.

461. ^^^^^^^^

" Stroxton Tom" {15871)�bay horse

(illust.), i, 246.

Structure Of a horse�(see Conforma-
tion).

Structures�alteration and ossification,
warranty as to, iii, 419, 422, 425.

Strychnia�medicinal uses, ii, 475, 478;
iii, 10; poisoning by, iii, 57; tetanus
due to, ii, 47.

Stud bOOkS or records � Cleveland
bays, i, 129, 130; Clydesdales, i, 186,
189; hackneys, i, 114, 115; Hol-
steins, i, 209; hunters, i, 135, 143;
Shires, i, 182, 184; Suffblks, i, 196;
Yorkshire coach horses, i, 134.

Stud for breeding�aims, needs, and
foundation stock, &c, iii, 205-213;
medicines, ii, 444, 446; pony-breed-
ing, i, 158-163. (See also titles
Breeding, Reproduction, Stable man-
agement.)

ammonia and alumina,

, 455; atro-

pine,
iron,

u, 11; copper, ii, ₄₅6.

j 447, 456; iii, 7; magnesium,
111, a; quinine, iii, 8; soda and

sodium, 11, 449, ₄₅o; iii_} 8
456; iii, 8�doses, iii, 1_:

zinc, 11,
use of

magnesia as antidote, iii, 51.

Sulphides and sulphites - medicinal

uses, ii, 490.

Sulphocarbolate of sodium � medi-
cinal uses, iii, 8.

Sulphocarbolates of soda and zinc

as antiseptics, ii, 485.

Sulphur � medicinal uses, ii, ₄₅₃₎ _4QO;
ii'. 5. 7. 8; premises disinfected by'
»t, *55-

Sulphurated antimony � medicinal

uses, iii, 8, ir.

Sulphurated potash � medicinal uses
ii, 490; iii, 8.

Sulphuretted hydrogen�uses, ii, _49i;

stable air contamination, iii, 78, 82. '
Sulphuric acid � medicinal and other
uses, ii, 453, 467, 468; iii, 8�doses,
111, 9; poisoning and antidote uses
I", 45, 46, 51.

Sulphuric ether�medicinal uses, iii, 8
10.

Sulphurous acid �medicinal and anti-
septic uses, ii, 467, 485, 491; iii, 8�
doses, iii, 11.

Sunday � warranty regulations, sale of

horses, &c, iii, 414.
Sun rays�disorders due to, i, 407, 412.

Superficial ligament of hock-joint ii
277, 278.

Superficial muscles � appearance (il-
lust.), ii, 310; forms�of flexor muscle,
», 344, gluteus muscle, ii, 339, _pec.
toral muscle, ii, 327.

Superficial temporal nerve � forma-
tion, i, 394.

Superior cervical ganglion - struc-
ture, i, 376.

Superior extremity of head, i, ₄.
Superior maxillary bones of face ii,
186.

Superior maxillary cranial nerves

�formation, &c, i, 393.

Supernumerary teeth-presence of i

3²7-
Superpurgation and its treatment, i

289; action of mercury causing, iii', ₃.'
Supplemental air in breathing, i, 493.
Support in equilibrium of a horse, i, 31.
SuppOSitories-insertion and.uses, iii, 41.

Suppression of infectious disease�

(see Infectious diseases).

Suppurating corn�form, &c, ii, ₃₇₅.

Stumbling�due to conformation, i, 45,
72,81; defective action, ii, 401; navi-
cular disease and broken knees, ii,
391, 422.

Stye in eye, ii, 112.

Stylo-glossus muscle�form, &c, ii,

3'4-

Stylo-hyoid muscle�form, &c, ii, 313.
Stylo-maxillaris muscle�form, &c,

ii, 310.

Stylo_:pharyngeus muscle�form, &c,

ii, 316.

Styloid processes of occiput and tem-
poral bones, ii, 184, 185.

Styptics and their uses, ii, 456; iii, 14;
in accidents, ii, 439.

Subcarpal arch of arteries, i, 450.

Subcarpal ligament of fore-limb, i, 20.

Subcutaneous injections�administra-
tion of drugs by, iii, 18, 22; drugs
used, ii, 459, 480, 481, 483; iii, 6, 160;
mallein test, ii, 35, 37, 38, 39; poison-
ing by, iii, 45.

Subcutaneous thoracic nerve-for-
mation, i, 400.

Subcutaneous tissue � condition in

capped knee and hock, ii, 361, 363.
Sub-horny quittor�form, &c, ii, 379.
Subjective symptoms of disease, iii,

M5-
Sublimed SUlphur�medicinal uses, ii,

490; iii, 7; doses, iii, n.
Sublingual glands-formation, &c, i,

230, 231.
Sublobular Veins�liver structure, i, 240.

Submaxillary glands �form, &e. i,

²3o, ²3^l '� enlargement due to dis-
ease, i, 499; ii, 63; pulse in, iii, 146.
Subscapulars muscle�form, &c, ii,
328; nerve to, i, 399.

Subscapulo-hyoideus muscle�form,

&c, ii, 321.

Subzygomatic nerve � formation, i,

394-

Suckling Of foals � constipation and
diarrhoea during, i, 285, 286, 287,
288, 289; difficulties due to thrush, i,
251, 252; pyaemia symptoms, ii, 287;
refusal to feed foals, ii, 94; teats and
udder attention, iii, 226; weaning
process, iii, 225, 226; working mares
during, i, 287. (See also Milk.J

Suckling teeth�(see Milk teeth).

- medicinal uses, &c, ii,

Stramonium -

469, 470.
Strangles�

Causes, forms, and treatment, i, 224, 481;
ii, 36, 39-41; infectious nature, and
mallein test, ii, 39; suppression, iii,
i5², 154-

Drugs used, ii, 4⁸7I "i> 3. 4> 6, 7.

General remarks, and terms used, ii, 39.

Various complications, &c.�bronchitis,
ii, 2; heart, i, 461; nasal catarrh, i,
499; joint diseases, ii, 280, 282, 286;
liver, i, 303; parotid glands inflam-
mation, i, 259; pneumonia, ii, 7;
purpura, ii, 24, 145; pus accumula-
tion, i, 504, 506; rheumatism, ii, 20;
roaring, i, 510, 512; throat affections
and laryngitis, i, 255, 257, 507.

Warranty and unsoundness, iii, 423-

Strangulated rupture or hernia-
treatment, &c., i, 316, 319-322.

Strangulation�penis and sheath, ii, 83;
respiration, i, 292, 494.

Strangury due to use of cantharides, ii,
475-

Strapping-Up limDS, &c., in operations,
iii, 157-

Stratified rocks�animal remains in, iii,
472.

Straw�as food, composition, &c., iii, 89,
96, 97, 99, 112, 354; for bedding and
horses eating, iii, 24, 138, 139, 265,
354. 355; wisps for grooming, iii, 134.

Stream Water causing disease, &c, iii,
125, 127.

Streptococci as cause of disease, i, 224,
226; ii, 40.

Striated and non-striated muscle-
description of, ii, 305, 306.

-ocr page 664-

604

INDEX

Suppurating lymphangitis�form of,

ii, 36.
Suppuration�(see title Pus or Matter).

Suppurative inflammations of skin,

ii, 150, 151.

Supra-carpal ligament�sprain, ii, 294.

Supra-condyloid fossa of bones, ii, 195,
202, 344.

Supra-orbit of eye, i, «.

Supra-orbital nerve�formation, i, 393.

Supra-scapular nerve�form, i, 399;

shoulder slip due to injury, ii, 350.

Supraspinatus muscle�form, &c, ii,
328.

Supra-SpinOUS ligament - trunk con-
nection, ii, 263, 264.
Surcingle for horse-training, iii, 307, 314.

Surface drainage and gutters for stables,
iii, 84-86, 329.

Surface fitting, &C, in shoeing, iii, 442,

443, 448-
Surfaces Of bead�structure of parts, i,

8-12.

Surgical instruments � (see Instru-
ments, for special instrument see its

name).

Surra parasite infesting Indian horses,

ii, 174.
Suspenders for slinging, iii, 40, 41.

Suspensory ligament of fore-limb�

form, &c, i, 20, 75, 78, 79; ii, 199,
273; former uses and structure, iii,
491, 492; sprain of, ii, 251, 252, 295;
iii, 380; unsoundness and warranty,
iii, 380, 423.

Suspensory ligaments of penis and

sheath�form, &c._f ii, 71, 72, 335.

Suture forceps for wound-stitching, ii,
420.

Suture needles for wound-stitching, ii,
418, 419.

Sutures for wound-stitching, ii, 416-419;
disinfection, ii, 415; use of pins, &c,
ii, 438.

Swabs Of WOOl for wound-dressing, ii,
415.

Swallowing�choking and prevention, i,
265, 486: muscles assisting in, ii,
313, 316, 317; various diseases affect-
ing, i, 251, 255, 257, 260, 504, 508;
ii, 44.

Swan neck�form, &c, i, 47, 48.

Sway-backed horse�causes of defect, i,

58.
Sweat glands of skin�forms and action,

ii, 126, 127, 130, 131.

Sweating or Perspiration, and Patchy

Sweats�

Clipping the coat for, iii, 137, 138.

Drugs producing and checking, ii, 472,
473, 485; iii, 5, 7, 13.

Nervous influences, i, 389; ii, 130.

Skin as organ of secretion, ii, 130, 131.

Symptoms of diseases, &c.�anthrax, ii,
42; congested lungs, ii, 5: diabetes,
i, 347; enteritis, i, 293; fractured ver-
tebras, ii, 236; gloss-anthrax, ii, 44;
hernia, i, 320; indigestion, i, 270, 271,
273; inversion of uterus, ii, 101; kid-
ney disease, i, 349; laminitis, ii, 377,
laryngitis, i, 508; liver rupture, i,
310; poisoning, iii, 47; rupture of in-
testines, i, 295; spasm of larynx, ii,
17; tetanus, ii, 48; thrombosis, i, 474;
uterine hemorrhage, ii, 88; womb in-
flammation, ii, 90.

Training of thoroughbreds and trotters,
iii, 304-307, 316.

Urinary effects, i, 337.

Ventilation affecting, i, 497.
Swedes�as food, iii, 89, 115.
Sweet birch�medicinal uses, ii, 452.
Sweetbread�description, &c., i, 241.
Sweet Silage�preparation, &c., iii, 117.

Sweet spirit of nitre�dose, iii, 10.

"Sweet William"�Shire horse, price,
i, 185.

Swellings-
Drugs used, ii, 449, 461, 489.

Food causing, iii, 103.

Fractures symptoms, ii, 225.

Joint diseases, ii, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287,
301.

Male organs of reproduction, ii 81, 82,
84, 86.

Plasters or charges for reduction of, iii,
43-

Sprain symptoms, ii, 291, 293, 294, 295,
296.

Tongue and palate, swollen, i, 252, 254.

Various diseases causing swellings�an-
thrax, ii, 42; covering disease, ii, 53;
glanders and farcy, ii, 35, 36; hernia,
i, 325; horse-sickness, ii, 56; influ-
enza, ii, 32; liver, i, 314; lymphan-
gitis and filled legs, ii, 22, 62, 364;
poll evil, ii, 430, 431; purpura hae-
morrhagica, ii, 24, 25; quittor, ii,
379; rheumatism, ii, 20, 21; salivary
calculi, i, 264; stomatitis pustulosa,
ii, 49; strangles, ii, 40.

Swine fever�cause, &c., i, 223.

Swinging bars as stable fittings, iii, 337.
Symbiosis a form of parasitism, ii, 160.

Symbiotic mange�symptoms, &c, ii,

.67.
Symmetry of a horse, i, 28, 41, 119, 121.

Sympathetic nerves�heart influence,
ii, 458; lumbar connections, i, 402;
saliva uses, i, 232, 233. (See also
title Nervous system.)

Symphysis pubis of pelvis, ii, 192.
Symplepharon of eye, ii, 114.
Symptomatic epilepsy�form of, i, 410.
Symptomatic tetanus � causes, &c,

ii- 45-
Symptoms Of disease-(see Disease).
Synarthrosis joints�form, &c, ii, 263.
SynCOpe�(see Collapse).

Synovia or joint-oil in joints, ii, 262;

diseases due to, ii, 286, 290, 355; dis-
charge in fracture, ii, 247.

Synovial articulations of ribs, ii, 191,

266; tongue, ii, 266.
Synovial bursse�description of, ii, 307.

Synovial membrane of joints � com-
position of tendons, ii, 306; diseases
due to distention, &c., ii, 280, 281,
355, 356; loose cartilages, ii, 284.

Synovitis and its treatment, i, 282-284.

Syphilis and covering disease similarity,
ii, 52.

Syringes and syringing � antiseptics

for, ii, 421 ; artificial insemination,
iii, 231-234; mallein test, ii, 39: skin
injections, iii, 21. (See also title In-
jections.)

Systemic arteries � distribution and

names, i, 448-453.
Systemic heart�structure, &c, i, 438.
Systemic veins�circulation through, i,

438.
Systems of feeding�(see Food).
Systems of horse-training � general

methods, iii, 301-304.

Systole and systolic sound, &c, of

heart�description, i, 439, 440, 459,
460; diagram, iii, 148.

Tail Or COCCyX�bones and structure, i,

15 ; ii, 132, 179, 183, 192 ; before
birth, iii, 291, 292; examination for
soundness, iii, 373, 374; muscles and
connections, ii, 326, 327, 341; tetanus
causing elevation, ii, 48; tying and
whisking during operations, i, 366;
iii, 174.

Taking-OfF in jumping, iii, 199.

Tank in stable drainage, iii, 330.

Tannic acid and tannin �medicinal

uses, ii, 455; iii, 8 - dose, iii, 11;
poison antidote, iii, 51.

Tanno-gelatin -composition, ii, 454.
Tape used in poll evil, ii, 432.
Tape-worms in intestines, ii, 162, 172-

174, liver infested with, i, 314, 315;

drugs destroying, iii, 13; generation

of, iii, 260, 261.
Tapping�for colic, i, 283 ; for dropsy, i,

312; for liver inflammation, i, 308;

for pleurisy, ii, 16, 17.
Tar�dressing for thrush, ii, 374; inhaling

in horse-sickness, ii, 58 ; medicinal

uses, ii, 471.
Tarsus�(see Hock).
Tartar emetic�dose, iii, 10.
Tartrate of iron and potash�medi-
cinal uses, ii, 447, 448.
Taste�nerves of, i, 385, 391, 394; water

test, iii, 131.
Tattersall'S sales�warranties, &c, iii,

406, 413.
Taxis for hernia, i, 321, 323.
Tears from eye�secretion, &c, ii, 112,

113, 114, 175.

Teat-syphon�use of, ii, 96.

Teats and udder�cleansing, iii, 222,
227 ; development and diseases af-
fecting, ii, 93-97; glycerine uses, iii,
4; pregnancy signs, iii, 264: spong-
ing in "thrush", i, 251, 252; wean-
ing effects, iii, 226.

Technical education � horse - shoeing,

iii, 432; veterinary medicine, ii, 442.

Teeth-
Advent of horse dentists, i, 325, 331;
"Orme" case influence, i, 325.

Age-tricks and birthdays, iii, 392, 393.

Conformation and changes due to age,
i, 6, 229, 230, 326; iii, 389-392, 494;
of milk" and temporary teeth, iii,
393-396; of permanent set, iii, 396�
399, after ten years, iii, 4or; special
features and identification uses, iii,
49²-495-

Diseases and irregularities, i, 325-327;
decay or caries, parrot mouth and
wolves' teeth, i, 330-333 ; filling, i,
331; loose in sockets, ii, 216; molar
teeth, special defects, i, 327-329;
numerical excess and deficiency, i,
327-

Diseases due to condition of, i, 218;
congestion of palate, i, 254; indiges-
tion, i, 272 ; inflammation of mouth,
tongue, and throat, i, 249, 252, 253,
255; nasal catarrh, i, 499.

Examination for soundness, iii, 372.

Food and parasites causing disease, iii,
103.

Formation of artery and nerve supplying
sensation, &c, i, 393, 394; »> 189;
of jaw-bone and muscles, ii, 186, 187,
189, 308, 309.

Fractured jaw causing displacement,
&c, ii, 239-242.

History and origin of the horse�fossil
teeth, &c, iii, 476, 510, 511, 512, 513.

Illusts. of dentition at various ages, iii,
390, 394, 396, 400, 402.

Stable vices injuring, iii, 140.

Wear effects, iii, 399, 401, 495.

[See also Model of Teeth�separate
pamphlet.]

Teeth rasps and shears�uses, &c�

i, 329; ii, 242.

Tactile papillae of skin, ii, 126.

Taenia echinOCOCCUS infesting liver,

&C, i, 313, 314: ii, 174-
Taenia perfOliata, plicata, and mamil-

lana in intestines, ii, 172, 173.

-ocr page 665-

INDEX

605

Telegouy in breeding �opinions on effect
of, iii, 239-245; evolution, &C, in-
fluences, iii, 480.

Temper and temperament � disease
causes, i, 214, 217, 218; head, face,
and ear guides, i, 36, 41, 42, 43;
stable vices, iii, 140; training con--
siderations, iii, 301, 304, 305.

Temperature, climatic �influence on

breeding and size of horses, iii, 531,
532, 535, 546, 548.

Temperature of Body�

Causes of disease and nervous stimulus,
i, 214, 216, 217, 387.

Mud fever and the cause of inflammation,
iii, 136.

Reduction�by alcohol, ii, 460; by drugs,
ii, 443, 447. 450» 452; iii, 7, 8, 13; by
sweating, ii, 130, 131, 472, 473.

Sick horses�regulation, iii, 142, 143.

Symptoms in disease � blood-poisoning,
i, 481; dysentery, i, 291; horse-sick-
ness, ii, 56, 57, 58; parturient fever,
ii, 98; pleurisy, ii, 14; pneumonia,
ii, 8; pyemic arthritis, ii, 287; rheu-
matism, ii, 20, 21.

Temperature of stables � influence

and management, iii, 362, for bron-
chitis, &c, ii, 2, 3, 9, for sick-box,
iii, 23, 24, for training horses, iii,
303; warmth v. cold in ventilation,
iii, 76, 80, 81.

Temperature of water for sick ani-
mals, iii, 25.
Tempero-maxillary articulation of

head, ii, 265, 266.

Temple of head�formation, i, 10.

Testicles�{Com.)

Castration�(see that title).
Diseases, &c.�cysts, ii, 103; inflamma-
tion, ii, 86; hernia effects, &c., i,
318, 319, 321; not "down" in scro-
tum, iii, 184; wasting due to drugs,
ii, 475-

Testis�anatomy, &c, ii, 65, 66; castra-
tion, iii, 174, 176.

Tetanic spasm of muscles�causes, &c,
ii, 46, 47, 48; poisoning effects, iii,
45, 58.

Tetanus and its treatment, &c., ii, 45^_4⁸;
bacillus or worm of, ii, 171, 412;
drugs used, ii, 483; iii, 3, 6, 7; un-
soundness and docking, iii, 373.

Tethering of travelling horses � means,
&c, iii, 464-466.

Therapeutic symptoms of disease, iii,
144.

Therapeutical action of medicines,

&o, ii, 443; iii, 12-14.

Thickening of membranes, &c.,�

brain, i, 417; heart valves and walls,
i, 459, 463, 464, 466; jugular vein, i,
475~477; lymphatic glands, ii, 23, 24;
sinews, back�unsoundness and war-
ranty, iii, 423.

Thigh and Thigh-bone-
Conformation and defects, i, 22, 83, 85,

86; ii, 201, 202; compensating points,

i, 102, 103; joint with hip, ii, 274;

nerves, arteries, and muscles, i, 84,

Three-year-olds � as hunters, iii, 308;

mating, iii, 213, 214, 235, 236; rate
of growth, tables, &c, iii, 295-297;
teeth of, iii, 396, 397.
Throat�formation, i, 5; muscles, ii, 310,
312, 313; soundness, iii, 372. (See
also titles Neck, Larynx, Pharynx.)

Throat diseases and disorders�ab-
scess, i, 257 ; inflammation or sore
throat, i, 254-257; larynx diseases,
ij 5°7~5ⁱ⁰'> poulticing and mustard
plasters for, iii, 31, 32, 33; symptoms
of various diseases, i, 506; ii, 3, 40,
42, 43, 44. (See also Roaring.)

Throat-Strap for crib-biting, i, 413, 414.

Thrombosis�iliac, and of jugular vein,
i, 473-477^ fractured vertebrae con-
founded with, ii, 237.

Thrombus�formation of, i, 473.

Throwing back in breeding�(see title
Back breeding).

Throwing Of rider by hunters�training
precautions, iii, 309.

Thrush � of feet, ii, 373; influence of
canker and navicular disease, ii, 381,
392; of mouth, i, 249, 250; remedies
for, ii, 456, 485; iii, 4, 7; soundness
and warranty, iii, 382, 420.

Thymol as an antiseptic, ii, 487.

Thyro-arytenoid muscle�form, &c.,

ii, 3*7-

Thyro-hyoid muscle�form, &c, ii, 316.
Thyro - pharyngeus muscle � form,

85, 39°, 398; ", 339-

&c, 11, 315. ^^^^^^^^^^

Thyroid cartilage of larynx, i, ₄8₅.

Tibia�conformation of thigh and bone
ij 23, 83, 85; ii, 202, 20S; iii, 487; frac-
ture, ii, 261; joints with hock, &c.,
i, 87, 88; ii, 275, 278; muscle con-
nections, 11, 332, 340, 341, 343.

Tibial aponeurosis�muscle action, ii,

341*

Tibial artery�formation, i, 453.

Tibial crest�formation, ii, 202.

Tibial nerves�formation, i, 404.
Tibial spine�formati on, ii, 202.
Tibio-fibular articulation�form, &c,

ii, 277.

TibiO-tarsal joint�formation, &c, ii,

263.
Tic�nervous habit described as, i, 413.
Ticks�on skin, ii, 166.
Tidal air�in breathing, i, 493.
Tied-in hOCkS�curb causes, ii, 301.
Til cake�composition, iii, 114.
Tiles for stables, iii, 69, 81, 325.
Time and evolution influences, iii, 483.
Time tests�in racing, i, 108, 117.
Tincture Of iron�medicinal uses, ii, ₄₄₇.
Tinctures of various drugs�doses, iii, n.
Tlnn, zonule Of�in eye, ii, 108.

Tissue respiration�form of, i, 483.

Tissues�bone structure, ii, 176, i_77;health and repair of tissue, iii, 66-
hEemo-globinuria or azoturia results'
ii, 27, 28; medicines acting on tissue
change�alteratives, ii, 452-454, as-
tringents, ii, 454-457; sprain causes,
n, 292; water as body constituent,
iii, 119, 120, 124; wounds and heal-
ing, 11, 403, 407�use of cautery, iii
166.

TobaCCO�medicinal uses, ii, 481, 482.

Tobin'S stable ventilation, iii, 331.

Toe, seedy�(see Seedy toe).

Toe-Clips in shoeing, iii, 449.

Toe-pieces for shoeing, iii, 444.

Toeing knife�use of, iii, ₄₃8.

Toes�ancient conformation, and classifi-
cation of animals, i, 2t; iii, 476; de-
fects of in- and out-turned toe's, i,
74, 75 ; examination for soundness'
»>, 375.; fracture effects, ii, 252, 253;
operations effects, iii, 165, 171. (See-
also titles Feet, Hoofs.)

104

Dressing after castration, iii, 174.

Fracture and setting difficulty, ii_;

224,

225, 229.

Lacerated muscles causing stringhalt, ii,
395-

Thin horses-appetite, and want of flesh,
iii, 94.

Third phalanx bone of fore-limb, ii, 199.
Third ventricle of brain, i, 384.

Thirst�as symptom of disease, ii, 2, 44;
sick-horse treatment, iii, 142.

Thompson's Black Horse �origin of

Clydesdales, i, 190.

Thoracic aorta�formation, i, 451.

Thoracic dUCt of absorbent system, i,

425-

Thoracic nerve�formation, i, 400.

Thorax�(see Chest),

Thorns�causing choking, i, 265, 266.

Thoroughbreds-
Ancient and modern types�comparison,

&c, i, 107, 109.
Arabs' speed against, i, 203.
Breeding, origin, and history, i, 107-111,

112, 113; iii, 528, 531, 538, 539, 540,

544, 547, 548, 549, 550�modern stock

from three distinct sources, iii, 547,

548.
Conformation�of canon, i, 76; head and

face, i, 36, 40; withers and shoulders,

i, 52, 69.

Crosses�Arab, i, 200, 203. 204; Cleve-
land bays, i, 127, 128; hackneys, i,
115; hunters, i, 135, 136, 138, r39,
141, 143; Percherons, i, 205; ponies,
i, ^J57» ^J58, 160, i6r, 162, 163, 165;
saddle horses, i, 148, 149; Yorkshire
coach horses, i, 133, 134.

Disqualifying ailments for sires, ii, 302.

Illustrations, i, 1, 108, 112.

Ring-bone and curb liability, ii, 205, 300.

Teeth at various ages (illusts.), iii, 39°»
394-

Training methods and trials, i, 112, 113;
iii, 304-307.

[See also titles Pedigrees, Race horses.]

ThOrOUghpin and its treatment, ii, 357-

359; unsoundness and warranty, iii,

379, 420.

Thread-W')rms infesting the skin, ii, 163.

Three-quarter shoe � form and uses, j

iii, 454, 456.

Temporal artery of head, i, n.
Temporal bones of cranium, ii, 184,185;

joint with jaw, ii, 265; muscles, j, 38,
39; ii, 310, 311.

Temporalis muscle�form, &c, ii, 310.
Temporary teeth�formation, &c, iii,

389, 39°, 393"39⁶-

Tendinous quittor�form, &c, ii, 379.
Tendo Achilles � form, i, 23; fracture

effects, ii, 262; thoroughpin, en-
largement, ii, 357.

Tendons-
Attachment of muscles to bones, use
and structure of tendons, ii, 306;
displacement of bones prevention, ii,
222, 223.
Conformation�of ahdomen and hip-jojnt,
i, 16; ii, 275; canon and ^litying-in"
of tendons, i, 75, 76, 77; fore-limb,
knee, and arm, i, 19, 20; ii, 196;
hind-Iiinb, i, 23.
Injuries due to broken and fractured
knees, ii, 247, 422, 423; to wounds,
"\ 413-
Operation by division, iii, 165, 168-171.
[For diseases see title Joints, Muscles,
and Tendons diseases; for sprains
see Sprains ; for special tendon see
its name.]
"Tennis Ball"�hunter (Must.), i, 214.
Tenotomy�uses and methods of opera-
tion, jii, 168-171; localities for, iii,
162.

Tensor palati muscle � action and

form, ii, 188, 316.

Tensor vaginae femoris muscle �

form, &c, ii, 339.
Tentacul83�hair growths, ii, 132.

Ten-year-olds�teeth of, iii, 400, 401.

Teres minor and major muscles-
forms, &c, ii, 328, 329; nerve to, i,
399-

Termination of disease-prognosis, i,

214.
Tertiary formation�horse history, iii,

475, 483, 484* 494, 509, 5io-
Testicles-
Anatomy and glands, &c, i, 17; ii, 65,
66; descent diagram, ii, 64; muscles
insertion, ii, 336.
Vol. III.

-ocr page 666-



			INDEX
	606


				Tuberculin produced by bacteria, i, 228. Tuberculosis�causes, appearance, and symptoms, i, 223, 224; ii, 42, 50-52, 160; other terms used, ii, 50, 51; use of tuberculin, i, 228; various com- plications, i, 464; ii, 10, 139; wounds treatment, ii, 421, 422. Tuberosities of bones � humerus, ii, 194; ischium fracture, ii, 257; tibia ligaments, ii, 277, 278. Tubes for ventilating stables, iii, 72. Tubuli seminiferi of testicle glands, ii, 66. Tubuli uriniferi � formation, &c, i, 334, 335- Tucked-up appearance�a sign of dis- ease, i, 17, 251; show horses, iii, 311. Tumours- Caused by disease, pressure, and worms, i, 214, 220; ii, 169, 171; by food and water, iii, 103, 124. Distinction of stone or calculus, i, 357, 358, 363- Forms and treatment�aneurism, i, 477; brain and cranium, i, 414, 415; eye, ii, 115, 116; born of feet, ii, 372-; larynx, i, 507, 509; sore shoulders, ii, 435* 436; spinal tumours, i, 418; stomach and intestines due to worms, &c, ii, 169, 171. Sterility due to, iii, 229. Symptoms or causes of disease�capped elbow and knee, ii, 359, 360, 361; dilation of stomach, i, 277; glanders and farcy, ii, 36; intestinal obstruc- tion, i, 296; inversion of bladder, i, 372; liver and jaundice, i, 304; penis enclosure, ii, 81 ; paralysis, i, 420, 423; roaring, i, 511; valvular disease, i, 465; vertigo, i, 408. Tunic of abdomen�description, ii, 335. Tunica albuginea�form, &c, ii, 66. Tunica fibrosa and granulosa of ovary, ii, 79. Tunica vaginalis, &c, of testis, ii, 65; castration and hernia treatment, i, 321. Tunica VaSCUlOSa�formation, ii, 66. Tunics of arteries�formation, i, 442 Tunics of eye�form, &c, ii, 104, 105. Turbinated bones of face�forms, ii, 188. Turmeric as aid to appetite, iii, 94. Turnips�as food, composition, &c, iii, 89, 115, 350; disease due to frozen turnips, iii, 104; poultice uses, iii, 28, 29. Turpentine�medicinal uses, ii, 469, 471, 474; oil of, iii, 6 � doses, iii, 10; poisoning by, iii, 60. Tusks in male horses, iii, 390, 395, 396, 398, 400, 494. Tuson's physic ball formula, ii, 444. Twins�foaling difficulty, iii, 273, 282. Twisted snaffle�type of, iii, 358, 359. Twisted Suture for wound - stitching, ii, 417. Twists Of bowel�cause, &c, i, 297. Twitches for operations, &c, iii, 156, 157, 166, 176. Twitching due to heart disease, i, 458. Two or more persons conspiring to defraud in sale of a horse, iii, 411. TW0-St0ried stables�structure, iii, 338. TwO-year-oldS � breeding and mating capacities, iii, 213, 234, 236, 262; racing prohibition, i, 107, 108; rate of growth, &c, iii, 295-297; teeth of, iii, 305, 396, 397 ; training � hunters, Hi, 307, 308, thoroughbreds, iii, 306. Tylng-ln of canon tendons and hock, i, n, 87- Tying Of horses�during operations, iii, 157; in stables, iii, 328; in transit, iii, 465. Tympanitis causing heart rupture, i, 470.
Tongue- Conformation and bone, i, 6; ;i, 185, i8g; muscles and connections, ii, 312-314, 315, 316, 321; nerves, i, 386, 397. Diseases and disorders�furred, due to liver, i, 303; inflammation of tongue, i, 252-254; spots on, i, 249; symp- toms of gloss-anthrax, ii, 43, 44, of horse-sickness, ii, 55, of poisoning, iii, 47. False tongue in foal, iii, 251. Injuries�first aid, ii, 438; use of alum, ii, 456; use of twitch, iii, 157. Skin sensibility, ii, 128. Tonics�action, examples and prescrip- tions, iii, 14, 16, 17, 18; for blood, ii, 447, 448; heart, ii, 457, 460; nerves, ii, 477, 478; stomach and digestion, ii, 466, 467, 468. TOOl-hOUSe�stable structure, iii, 334. Toothless space in mouth�use, &c, iii, 494. Top-line Of body �i, 3; structure of neck, &c, i, 12-15. Torsion�to arrest bleeding, ii, 409; for castration, iii, 174. Touch�skin as organ of, ii, 127, 131. Tournament horses�origin and uses, »i, 538, 539, 54°, 54i, 543, 545- Tourniquet-for arrest of bleeding, ii, 409; for neurectomy, iii, 162. TOWelS�disinfection of, ii, 415. Town horses�Clydesdale and Suffolks merits, i, 192, 193, 194, 199, 200; diseases common to, i, 272, 296, 300. TOWn-StahleS�removal of dung, regula- tions, &c, iii, 82, 83, 84. TOXiC agents�poisoning effects, iii, 45, 46, 48, 54. TOXiC fluid�bacteria producing, i, 228. TOXiC tetanus�form of, ii, 47. Trace-harness�undoing on fallen horses, ii, 441. Trachea�(see Windpipe). Trachelo-mastoideus muscle�form, &c, ii, 319. Tracheotomy�for laryngitis, i, 509; for poisoning, iii, 52, 59, 62. Trails of various paces in locomotion, iii, 197. Training and Breaking-in Horses- General�application of whip and bit, and of system, iii, 301-303; food and water, iii, 302, 303; grooming, sta- bling, &c., iii, 303, 304. Hard mouth due to training, i, 248. Means of restraint, iii, 157, 158. Show horses and harness horses, iii, 310- 313. Special breeds � hunters, iii, 307-310; thoroughbreds, iii, 304-307; trotters, iii, 313-316- [See also Domestication.] Tramway horses�amount of food per day, iii, 347; influenza or pink eye, ii, 31; poisoning by Indian pea, iii, 59; stables for, iii, 337. Transit Of horses�facilities and diet, &c., by land, iii, 464-467, by sea, iii, 461-464. Transversalis abdominis muscle- form, &c, ii, 337. Transversalis costarum muscle- form, &c, ii, 324. Transverse fracture �form, &c, ii, 221, 222; of various bones, ii, 249, 250, 254. Transverse muscle of abdomen� form, &c, ii, 335, 337. Transverse perinei muscle�action on urethra, ii, 72. Transverse processes of vertebrae, ii, 179, 180, 182; ligament and muscle connections, ii, 265, 324, 334. Trapezium bone�of knee, ii, 197. Trapezius muscle�form, &c, ii, 322.		Trapezoid bone�of knee, ii, 193, 197. Traps in stable drainage, iii, 84, 85, 86, 329, 33°- Traumatic epilepsy�form, i, 410, 411. Traumatic tetanus�form of, ii, 45. Travelling of horses (see Transit). Travis�used in operations, iii, 158, 159. Treacle�in poultices, iii, 29. Trefoil�composition, &c, iii, 99, in. Trembling�disease symptoms, i, 480; ii, 44, 88; heart stimulants for, ii, 458; poisoning causing, iii, 47. Trepanning or Trephining�fractured frontal bone, ii, 239; nasal, for ca- tarrh, i, 500, 501. Triachlasis�of eyelid, ii, 114. Trials of race horses, iii, 306. Triangularis sterni muscle �form, &c., ii, 334. Triceps extensor cubiti muscle � form, &c.j ii, 330. Trichodectes�on skin, ii, 166. Trichophyton tonsurans causing ring- worm, ii, 163, 164. Tricks on teeth for age, iii, 392, 393. Tricuspid valve of heart, i, 438. Trigeminal nerves�formation, &c, i, 392, 393- Tripping � [see titles Defective action, Stumbling). Trismus tetanus�form of, ii, 47. "Triumph II"�pack horse (illust.), i, 190. Trochanter (great and small)�of hu- merus, ii, 194. Trochanter (major and minor) of thigh- bone, ii, 201; fracture effects, ii, 260; muscle connections, ii, 339, 342. Trochanteric fossa�formation, &c, ii, ²0> 342, 343. Trochar�for relief of colic, i, 282, 283. Trochlea�of thigh-bone, ii, 201. Trochlearis�of eye, ii, 104. Trotters* � descent, iii, 550; illusts., iii, 314; shoeing, iii, 457; training and general treatment, iii, 313-316; water supply, iii, 302. (See also American horses.) Trotting�action and forms, iii, 795, 197, of Clydesdales, i, 193, hackneys, i, 116-118, 121, T22, hunters, i, 146, pack horses, i, 124, Percherons, i, 206, Shires, i, 184, show and harness horses, iii, 312, Suffolks, i, 195, 199; jumping from the trot, iii, 199; sport popularity, iii, 313, 314, Troughs�cleansing precautions, iii, 209; stable fittings, iii, 327. Trucks for transit of horses, iii, 464, 467. True anchylosis�form of, ii, 281. True hOCk joint � formation, ii, 202, 203, 263; ligaments, ii, 277, 278; spavin of_t ii, 290. True ribs�formation of, ii, 191. True Skin�formation and inflammation, ii, 126, 131, 146. True vertebra? of spinal column, ii, 179. Trunk�divisions and structure, i, 2, 3; ii, 178, of chest and abdomen, i, 62- 66; height, &c, proportions, i, 52, 53, go, 91 ; joints or articulations, ii, 263-265; muscles and connections, i» 53; ii, 326, 334; supply of blood to nerves, i, 380. Trusses for bog-spavin, ii, 291; hernia, i, 317; uterus inversion, ii, 102. Trypanosoma equipedum causing dourine, ii, 52. Trypsin in digestion, i, 246. Tsetse fly causing disease, iii, 78. Tubercle bacillus causing disease, ii, 50, 160. Tubercle in bone formation, ii, 191,194, IQS- TuberCUla on skin, ii, 137.

-ocr page 667-

INDEX 607

TypllOid fever � causing congestion of
lungs, ii, 5; food during, iii, 141;
water as cause of, iii, 124.

Urethra and Urethral Canal-
Forms and uses, i, 333, 337; female

organs, ii, 74, 75, 76; male organs

and muscles, ii, 71-73.
Maladie du coit, or covering disease

affecting, ii, 53.
Obstruction due to stone in bladder, i,

357, 358; dilating the urethra, &c,

i, 362, 363-366; opening for crushing

stone, i, 366-368.
Urine disorders due to rupture, injury,

or stone in canal, i, 343, 347, 348,

35^T, 353-
Use of catheter, iii, 178.
Urethral tube�formation, ii, 71.
Uric acid�in blood, i, 435; in urine and

"stone", i, 341, 353.

Urine and Urinary Apparatus�

Anatomy and functions of urinary organs,
i, 333-336; female, i, 18, 73-75; male,
ii, 68, 70, 71, 72; nerve centre, mus-
cular tissue and muscles, i, 337; ii,
7^Z» 33⁶> 337-

Colour of healthy urine, i, 342, 343; ii,
28; discoloration not a sign of dis-
ease, ii, 474.

Coloured and thick urine due to disease,
ji 34²-34.6; iii, 149, 150; bloody urine,
i, 347; "> 475;. dropsy, i, 311, 312;
ha:mo-gIobinuria or "azoturia", ii,
26-29; horse-sickness, ii, 57; indiges-
tion, i, 271, 272; liver diseases, i,
303, 394, 305, 3°6; lymphangitis, ii,
22; poisoning, iii, 47; pneumonia, ii,
8; purpura hemorrhagica, ii, 25; pus,
i, 344, 349; wounds treated with car-
bolic acid, ii, 420.

Composition and quantity of urine-
amount per day, i, 338; iii, 83; ana-
lysis and conditions affecting, i, 337-
34°. 353, 354; ", 26-31; chief consti-
tuents of urine, i, 340-342; poisonous
nature, i, 335.

Discharge and retention of urine�appa-
ratus and muscles, i, 336, 337; ii, 70,
7*3 72, 33⁶» 337; custom of horses
driving, i, 351; diseases causing re-
tention, &c, i, 350-353; ii, 29, 30, 53,
81, 82,_ 91, 364, 365; involuntary es-
cape, i, 419, 421; profuse staling, i,
343, 346.

Drugs affecting, ii, 473, 474�abuse of
cantharides and tobacco, ii, 475,
482.

Mares during " horsing "�trouble with,
iii, 180.

Stable air and drainage considerations,
iii, 78, 82, 85.

Various disorders�colic mistaken idea,
i, 278; obstruction causing rectum
inversion, i, 301; skin inflammation
causes, ii, 152.

Withdrawal by catheter, i, 29, 30, 259;
iii, 177-180.

[See also titles Bladder, Cystitis, Dia-
betes, Hematuria, Kidneys, Poly-
uria, Staling, Stone.]

Uriniferous tubules �formation, k,

i» 334, 335.
Urticaria and its treatment, ii, 145, 146;
in covering disease, ii, 53; drugs for,
iii, 2.

Uterine arteries�formation, i, 452.

Uterine hemorrhage and its treatment,
ii, 87-89.

Uterus or Womb-
Anatomy, use, and attachments, ii, 76-78;

nerves and muscles, ii, 77, 306.
Changes during gestation, iii, 252.
Diseases, &c.�hemorrhage or flooding,
ii, 87-89; inflammation or metritis,
ii, 89-91, 97, 98; injuries and pro-
lapsus, ii,97, 456; inversion of uterus,
ii, 100-102; parturient fever, ii, 97-
100; pressure causing dropsy, i, 311;
pus causes, i, 344; removal of ovaries,
iii, 182, 183; sterility causes, iii, 229,
230, 263.

Uterus or Woml)-(G«/.)

Drugs affecting, ii, ₄₅6, 463, 475, 481;
i", 3-

Entrance of semen and causes of impreg-
nation, iii, 230, 246; artificial inse-
mination, iii, 231-234.

Growth of embryo and foetus�(see Em-
bryo).

Removal of after-birth, iii, 270, 27T.

Udder�(see title Teats and udder).

Ulceration and Ulcers-
Antiseptics and drugs for, ii, 421, 448,
454, 456, 457. 464, 484, 485. 486, 489;
»i, 3, 5. 8.
Forms of ulcers and general treatment,
ii, 426-428; nasal formation mistaken
for an ulcer, iii, 371.
Organs affected with ulceration�bladder,
i, 366; bowel, i, 290; eyelids and eye,
ii, 114, 115; larynx, i, 507, 509;
mouth and lips, i, 248, 249; nostrils,
i. 5°3 I ", 35, 36; skin, ii, 36, 137,
143; stomach (sec Gastritis); tracheal
or bronchial membrane, ii, 10.
Symptoms of diseases�bone "caries",
ii, 212; covering disease, ii, 53; epi-
zootic lymphangitis, ii, 63; glanders
and farcy, ii, 35, 36, 37; liver inflam-
mation, i, 306; navicular disease, ii,
390; stomatitis pustulosa, ii, 50;
stringhalt, ii, 395; vaginitis, ii, 91.
Ulna�form of bone, i, 19, 72; ii, 196;
fracture, ii, 245, 246; joint, ii, 270;
muscle connections, ii, 330, 331, 333.
Ulnar nerve�formation, i, 400; division
operation, iii, 162, 164, 165.

Ulnar portion of flexor pedis per-

forans muscle, ii, 331.

Umbilical arteries in foetus, iii, 256.
Umbilical cord and opening�(see

Navel).
Umbilical hernia and its treatment, i,

316-318.
Umbilical vesicle�formation, iii, 250.

Unciform bone of knee, ii, 193,197.

Unconsciousness�(see Consciousness).

Uncovered operation of castration, iii,

175, 176-
Underground drainage of stables, iii,

86, 329.

"Under himself behind"�conforma-
tion and compensation, i, 90, 103.

" Under himself in front"�compen-
sating points, i, 103.

Undiiferentiated protoplasm�gener-
ative changes, iii, 479, 484, 509.

Undulating face�appearance, i, 40.

UnguiCUlata�animals classed as, iii, 475.

Ungulate mammals�description, &c,

iii, 475, 476; teeth, iii, 494.

Uninterrupted suture for wound-stitch-
ing, ii, 416.

University instruction in veterinary
medicine�remarks, ii, 442.

Unloading rectum�(see Rectum).

Unnerved horses � examination for
soundness, and warranty as to, iii,
377, 419, 422; operation of unnerving
(see Neurotomy).

Unsoundness�(see titles Examination,
Soundness, Warranty).

Unstable equilibrium of a horse, i, 30.
Unstitched condition due to sprain of

tendons, ii, 296.

Upper aspect of body�top-line, struc-
ture, i, 12-15,

Upright conformation of feet and pas-
terns, i, 80, 82.

Upright dislocation�form, &c, ii, 349.

UrachUS�formation of, iii, 251.

Urea�in blood, i, 335, 435; diseases due
to, i, 480; ii, 26-29; discharge from
system, i, 431, 490; sweat glands
secretion, ii, 130, 131 ; urine con-
stituent and " stone", i, 338, 340,
34¹, 342, 353-

Ureters�form and uses, i, 333, 336; rup-
ture, i, 343.

Vaccination and vaccine�infection of

cow-pox, ii, 140, 141.
VaChette Clamp for sand-crack, ii, 367.

Vagina and vaginal passage � con-
formation, ii, 75, 76; discharges, ii,
92, 93, 98; diseases affecting�cover-
ing disease, ii, 52, 53, fistula, ii, 429,
inflammation and contraction, ii, 90,
91, 92, irritability, i, 344, rupture,
i, 372; dressing of wounds, syring-
ing, and use of catheter, ii, 99, 421;
iii, 180; removal of ovaries, iii, 181-
183; semen injection, iii, 246, arti-
ficial process, iii, 231-234.

Vaginascope�use, &c, ii, 93.

Vaginitis and its treatment, ii, 91, 92.

VagUS nerve �formation, &c, i, 385,
395, 396.

Value of a horse, i, 27.

Valves�heart structure and sounds, i,
436-440, 460; neck and limbs, i, 447.

Valvular diseases�causes and appear-
ance, &c, i, 461, 464, 465; ii, 42;
digitalis effects, _ ii, 461; diseases
associated with, i, 303, 312, 463; ii,
5; sounds accompanying, i, 440, 460;
thickening and obstruction of valves,
i, 463, 465, 466.

Valvulitis�a form of inflammation of
heart, i, 461.

Van "Work�horses suitable, i, 194, 199,
200, 205, 210.

VapOUr�respiratory uses, i, 488, 491 (see
also title Inhalation).

Varicose veins�thrombosis causes, i,
475-

Varieties of the horse �English, i,

107-149; foreign, i, 200-210; heavy
horses, i, 172-193; ponies, i, 153-170;
stock for breeding, iii, 211. (See also
titles History of the horse; for special
breed see Clydesdales, Thorough-
breds, &c.)
VariOla equina and its treatment, &c,
ii, 140-142; medicines, ii, 443.

Variolous diseases � medicinal treat-
ment, ii, 443.

Variolous eruption on labia, ii, i₄o.

Varnish on coat�injurious effect, ii, 131.

Vas deferens of testis, ii, 66, 67.

Vasa recta and vasa efferentia of testicle,

ii, 67-
VasCUlar_ system � bleeding nose and

villitis causes, i, 503; ii, 383 (see also

Blood-vessels).
Vaseline as an ointment, iii, 42.

Vastus externus and internus mus-
cles�forms, &c., ii, 340.
Vegetable acids �as food, i, 241; for

antidotes, iii, 52.
Veins�(see title Arteries and Veins).

Velum interpositum of brain, i, ₃8₄.

Ven* CaVSB�circulation through, i, 437,
438; liver structure, i, 239; mam-
mitis causes, ii, 94.

Vense vorticosse of eye, ii, 105.

Venesection�(see Blood-letting).
Venice turpentine for fractured jaw, ii,

241.
Venous blood and system �composi-
tion, &c, i, 439, 489; hemorrhage,
', 501; pulse in disease, i, 462.

-ocr page 668-

INDEX

608

Ventilation-
Breathing process�need and regulation

of ventilation, i, 495-497.
Disease caused by defective ventilation,

i, 222; ii, 24.
Sick-box ventilation, iii, 23.
Stable management and structure, i, 495-
497= ⁿⁱ: 33°, .361; drains, iii, 329, 330;
horses in training, iii, 303; laryngitis
treatment, i, 508; plans of stables,
iii, 320.
Ventral hernia and its treatment, i, 324.

Ventral laminse�formation, iii, 250.
Ventricle of larynx�muscle action, ii,

317-
Ventricles of brain� conformation, i,

384.
Ventricles of heart � conformation, i,

438; dilatation sounds, 1,459; growths
and rupture, i, 464, 470; valves ob-
struction effects, i, 466.

Veratrium�medicinal uses, ii, 479.

Verdigris as an antiseptic in castration,
iii, 173, *74-

Vermicides and vermifuges�(see An-
thelmintics).

Vermin-killers�poisoning of horses by,

iii, 49, 53. 57, 58.
Verrucse�(see Warts).
Vertebrae and vertebral column�

(see Spine, also titles Dorsal, Lum-
bar, &c).

Vertebral arteries�formation, &c, i,

380, 449.
Vertical fracture of ribs, ii, 254.

Vertigo Or megrims and its treatment,
i, 407-409; collar causing, i, 220; dis-
tinction from epilepsy, i, 410; symp-
toms of heart disease, i, 458, 464,
467; of poisoning, iii, 59; of throm-
bosis, i, 476; unsoundness and war-
ranty, iii, 422.

Vesical calculi�(see title Stone in the
bladder).

Vesicants in blistering, iii, 39.

Vesicles�of lungs, i, 487, of ovum, ii, 79,
80; on lips, i, 247; on skin, ii, 137;
symptoms of diseases, ii, 44, 53, 63,
147, 149.

Vesico-vaginal fistula�form, ii, 429.
Vesico-vaginal ligament near uterus,

»> 77-

Vesiculae seminales � formation, &c.,

ii, 68.
Vesicular calculus�(see Stone in the
bladder).

Vestigial remains of horses�evolution

theories, iii, 485.
Vetches�as food, composition, &c., iii,
110, in, 113, 350, 351; for indiges-
tion and sick diet, i, 273; iii, 26;
poisoning by Indian pea, iii, 58-60.

Veterinary College, Royal �founda-
tion, iii, 430.
Veterinary Hygiene and Hygienic
Conditions-
Application, and general considerations,

ii, 442; iii, 64-66.
Conditions of health, iii, 64, 65�ordinary
conditions for maintenance, iii, 66-69.
Disease�due to bad conditions, i, 478,
480; hygienics applied to diseased
animals, iii, 140-144; signs and
symptoms of disease, iii, 144-152,
prevention and suppression, iii, 152-
156; special treatment of pneumonia
and purpura hemorrhagica, ii, 9, 25.
Examination of air, iii, 132.
Grooming, bedding, &c., or "individual
hygiene", iii, 133-140; sweating, ii,
473-
[See also titles Food, Nursing, Stable
management, Stable structure, Ven-
tilation.]
Veterinary science�technical and uni-
versity instruction in, ii, 442.
VibriOS a form of bacteria, i, 227.

Vices and nervous habits�ear and

eye guides, i, 41, 43; forms and cor-
rection of stable vices, &c, i, 413-
415; iii, 140, 341-343, 424-426; mares
during "horsing", iii, 180; sound-
ness and warranty, iii, 367, 413,
424-426.

ViciOUS mares�removal of ovaries, iii,
180-184.

Villi�in intestines and lacteal system, i,
237, 427 ; of coronary cushion and
horn, ii, 383; iii, 505; on human
ovum, iii, 251.

VillitiS and its treatment, ii, 383-385.

Vinegar�dose, iii, n; use in accidents,
&c, ii, 439, as antidote, iii, 45, 52;
use of vinegar of cantharides, iii, 8.

Virulent diseases � cause and trans-
mission, i, 219, 223.

Virus�as cause of disease, . 221, 222;
ii, 52; iii, 150, 151, 155, in wounds
and ulcers, ii, 402, 403, 427; inocula-
tion and destruction, iii, 150,151,155.

Vision�(see titles Eye diseases, Eyes).

Vital activity�foundation and evolu-
tion, iii, 479, 484.

Vital capacity in breathing, i, 493.

Vital Spot arresting respiration, i, 494.

Vitality and the causes of disease, i, 216,
218, 222.

Vitelline membrane in breeding, Hi,

249.

VitellUS of ovum, ii, 79.

VitreOUS humour of the eye�confor-
mation, ii, 105, 108; diseases affect-
ing, ii, 117, 123.

Vitriol for glossy coats, i, 248; poisoning
and antidote, iii, 45, 46.

Voice�organ of, i, 484, 485.

Volatile Oils�food constituents, i, 243.

Voltaire on Zadig's method of observa-
tion, iii, 473-475-

Volume of the head, i, 37.

Voluntary muscles�description and
movements, i, 31, 32; ii, 305, 306;
drugs affecting, ii, 478, 483.

VolVOX globator in water, iii, 128, 129.

Vomer�form of bone, ii, 188.

Vomiting�causes, rarity, and difficulties
in, i, 235, 268, 275; antidotes use and
poisoning, iii, 44, 45, 47, 48, 64; due
to indigestion and rupture, i, 270,
271, 278; stimulants used, ii, 470.

Vulva�conformation, i, 16, 18; ii, 74;
diseases causing swelling, &c, ii,
53, 91, 98; flooding and inversion of
uterus through, ii, 88, 100.

Warmth v. cold in stables, iii, 76, Bo, 81.
Warranty of Horses-
Dealers and private persons and others�
special laws, iii, 414-419.

Defects that are patent, iii, 411-413, 414.

Definitions and forms used, iii, 405-407,
419, 425, 426.

Fraud in various forms, iii, 409-41 t.

Horse not answering to warranty� course
to follow, iii, 425, 426.

Lists of diseases, Sec, disqualifying or
constituting " unsoundness" � and
what constitutes "soundness", i,
414; ii, 302; iii, 419-424, 425, 426.

Representations not amounting to war-
ranty, iii, 407-409.

Vices and other faults, iii, 424-426.

[See also titles Examination for sound-
ness, Soundness.]
Warts and their treatment, ii, 154, 155,
on lips, i, 248, penis, &c, ii, 81, 82,
83; fluids and drugs destroying, ii,
^I43, 453. 468; iii, 1, 4, 6, 8.
Washing Of horses � advisability and
processes, cause of mud fever, &c.,
iii, 135-137; before operations, iii,
173, 181, 182, 185; sick horses, iii,
35; strangles, iii, 154.

Washing of railway horse-boxes, iii,

^I53-
Washing-places, &C, in stable-yard�

structure, iii, 320-324, 335, 338.

Washy horses � formation of withers,
i, 55; indigestion and diarrhcea, i,
272, 287.

Wasps�stings causing inflammation and
poisoning, i, 249, 250, 252; ii, 414;
iii, 61.

Waste from body�action of skin and
blood, ii, 131, 447; hygiene influence,
iii, 66; water excreted, iii, 120.

Wasting�due to arteritis, i, 471; covering
disease, ii, 53; dilation of stomach
and dropsy, i, 276, 311; food, iii, 102;
hsemo-globinuria, ii, 30: tuberculosis,
ii, 51; udder disease, ii, 93-97�iron
effects, ii, 448; soundness examina-
tion, iii, 372, 373.

Water-
As drink�amount per day, and analysis,
i, 241, 243, 273; iii, 120; digestive
uses and before meals, iii, 118, 119;
for breeding studs and mares, iii,
209, 266; restorative in accidents,
&c, ii, 440; sick horses, iii, 24, 142;
"sippers", i, 273; training of horses,
iii, 302; travelling horses, by sea and
rail, iii, 463, 467.

Body constituents and requirements, iii,
87, 119, 120; in various organs, iii,
124.

Breathing process and uses, i, 491.

Causes of disease, &c, 1, 216, 224; iii,
124-126; anthrax, ii, 42; colic, i, 279;
dysentery, i, 291; joint inflammation,
ii, 282; nettle-rash, ii, 145, 146; stone
in bladder, i, 354; superpurgation, i,
289.

Composition, purity, and impurities of
rain and other waters, iii, 121-123;
disease influences, iii, 124-126; ex-
amination means, iii, 129-132; natu-
ral processes of purification, iii, 126-
129; organisms in and hygienic de-
struction, i, 224; ii, 161; iii, 65.

Hard water�disease influence, iii, 123,
^I24-

Health maintenance, iii, 66, 67.

In food�percentage of, iii, 89.

Physic preparation uses, ii, 445.

Poisoning by, and pollution of water, iii,
46, 209.

Rabies in horse�thirst, ii, 44.

Skin sensibility and absorption, ii, 128,
129.

Stable supply and fittings, iii, 336�pots,
iii, 327, 328, 337.

Storage systems, iii, 125, 126.

Walker's face cradle for fractured jaw,
ii, 241.

Walking�action and steps, iii, 192, 194,
197; of Clydesdales, i, 192, 193;
hackneys, i, 123, hunters, i, 146,
Shires, i, 184, Suffolks, i, 199; equili-
brium of a horse, i, 30, 31, 92; iii, 192.

Wall Of fOOt�anatomy, &c, iii, 433, 434.

Walls Of Stable-structure, &c, i, 496;
iii, 323-325.

Waltham royal stud � foundation, i,

no.
Want a rib�appearance of horse, i, 57.

War Horses-
Ancient history and uses, iii, 485, 517,
519, 520, 521, 523, 524, 525, 528, 529,
53°, 53¹, 53²> 533. 534-
British�breeding and history, i, 172-176;
"i>. 535. 53⁶> 537, 542, 545, 550; con-
formation and crosses, i, 124, 126,
173; descent of bays and Shires, i,
125, 126, 178, 179, 180; weight of
armour, &c, i, 175.
[See also titles Cavalry, Chariots, Mili-
tary horses.]

-ocr page 669-

INDEX

609

Water�{Cout)

Swimming in water, &c.�diseases due

to, i, 292; ii, 14, 45.
Treatment of indigestion and gastritis, i,

²73» ²76; pneumonia, ii, 9.
Urine constituent, &c, i, 337, 338, 342.

White corpuscles of blood�composi-
tion, &c, 1, 432, 434, 446; changes
due to disease, ii, 24.

White horses�origin, breeding, Sec, i,
206, 207.

Withers-(CW.)

Fractures in region of, ii, 236.
Poulticing, iii, 31, 32.
Rate of growth after birth, iii, 295-

White line across eye due to

injury,

Wolves' teeth�formation, &c, i

332;

i«\ 389, 39o. 494-
Womb�(see Uterus or Womb).
Wood�mangers and infection by, iii, 154,
^T55: pavements causing fractures, ii,
224, 256; stable stalls and walls, &c,
iii, 324, 325.

Woollen bandages�uses, &c, iii, 36.

Word Of mouth�warranty regulations,
&c., iii, 405, 407-409, 413, 426.

Work�food regulation, &c., during, iii,
93, 94, 99, 100; selection of horses
for particular work, iii, 339, 340;
treatment of pregnant mares, iii, 217,
264, of show horses, iii, 311; training
of horses, iii, 302, of thoroughbreds,
iii, 304-306, of trotters, iii, 315, 316.

Working power�food influence, iii, 99,

100.

Worms�

Description and forms of, ii, 159, 162,
169-175; generation, iii, 260, 261.

Drugs, ii, 453, 465, 466, 481; iii, 6; ball
and powder prescriptions, iii, 16, 17;
abuse of arsenic, iii, 48.

Liver, stomach, and intestines�worms
infesting, i, 3i3-3^x5; ", 169-174.

Symptoms or causes of ansemia, j, 479;
arteries and vein diseases, i, 471;
cough, ii, 18; eye, ii, 175; indiges-
tion, i, 273; seedy toe, ii, 370, 371;
spinal paralysis, i, 421; tetanus, ii,
45-

[See also Fluke-worms, Tape-worms,
&c.; for special worm see its title.]

Wounded animals�first aid, &c, ii,

437-441-
Wounds and their Treatment-
Antiseptics and drugs for, ij, 420, 42r,

456, 485, 486, 488, 489; iii, 2, 3, 4, 6,
7,8-

Arrest of bleeding and general treatment,
ii, 408-410, 415.

Closing and cleansing, ii, 410, 438�dis-
infection of instruments used, ii, 415;
first-aid, ii, 437-439; stitches, needles,
&c, ii, 416-419.

Feet wounds�danger and cleansing, ii,
380, 381. _

Forms of incised, lacerated, contused,
punctured, and poisoned wounds, ii,
402, 403; special treatment for, ii,
410-414.

Healing�natural processes, ii, 404-407.

Symptoms or causes of disease�blood-
poisoning, i, 482; epizootic lymphan-
gitis, ii, 59, 60, 62; fractured ribs, ii,
254; joint diseases, ii, 279, 280, 282,
283, 287, 288; liver inflammation, i,
306; speedy cutting, ft, 401; vaginitis
and vagina wounds, ii, 91, 92, 99;
tetanus and danger of dressing, ii,
45, 4⁶, 47-
[See also titles Broken knees, Cracked
heels, Fistula, Fistulous wounds,
Quit tor, Sinus, Ulcers.]

Wrist of horse and man�comparison,

iii, 485, 486, 489.

Written warranties � forms, &c, iii,
405, 4*3, 426.

Wrung Withers or shoulders�cause and

drugs, i, 220; iii, 1,
"Wykeham Mabel" and foal (Must),

Water bath�for physic, ii, 445.

Water bladders�on skin, ii, 137.

Water-potS�stable fittings, iii, 327, 328337-

Water wash�for neurosis, ii, 156.

WaterhOUSe'S system of stable ventilation, iii, 331.

Weak fore-legs�appearance, i, 66.

Weak points�breeding precautions, iii,
213.

Weak Ulcers�form and treatment, ii,
427.

Weakness due to heart disease, i, 465.

Weaning of foals, iii, 225, 226; American
trotters, iii, 314.

Wear�change of teeth due to, iii, 399,
401, 402.

Weather as cause of disease, i, 213, 222,
292.

Weaving as a vice, i, 413-415; iii, 140;
warranty, iii, 424.

Wedge-heel Shoe for sprain of back
sinews, ii, 354, 355.

"WedgWOOd " � Suffolk measurements,
&c, i, 197.

Weed disease�(see Lymphangitis).

Weed killers�poisoning by, iii, 48, 49.
Weeds causing water contamination, iii,

129.
Weight Of a horse�conformation and
distribution�tables, &c, i, �1-93,
locomotion and distribution, iii, 191,
194; lever action and functions of
limbs, i, 33, 34, 67; standing position,
iii, 191; weight for hunters, i, 135,
143; saddle horses, i, 149; Suffolks,

i, 200.

Weights for various drugs, &c, iii, n, 12.
Weights in training show horses, iii, 312.
"Well let down" thigh conformation,

h 85.
"Well ribbed UP" conformation, i, 56,

White line of abdomen � form, &c

ii) 335-

White markings on SufTolks, i, 196.

White Of the eye�(see Sclerotic).
White SpOtS on eye�disease signs, iii,
36"9> 37°-

White substance of Schwann�nerve

structure, i, 379.

White substance of spine and brain,

i, 381, 382, 383, 385, 387-

"White Turk "�history, iii, 544.
White WOrm in intestines, ii, 170, 171.
"Whites" in mares, ii, 92�drugs, iii, 5, 8.
Whitewash�as an antidote, iii, 51; for

stable walls, iii, 338.
Width�conformation and determination,

i, 98, of chest, i, 66, of croup, i, 58, 59.
Wild horses�Arabian history on, iii, 518;

fossil remains of Mongolian horse,

iii, 513; natural food, i, 241; rarity

of, iii, 496.

Will power of a horse, i, 388, 390; mus-
cles control, ii, 305.

"William the Conqueror" (2343)�

pedigree, &c, i, 185.
Williams, Prof., on various diseases,

&c, i, 321, 417, 459, 469; ii, 26, 27,

29. 39, 152, 289.
Willow bark�medicinal uses, ii, 452.
Wilson pony�breeding, appearance, and

prices, i, 156, 161, 170, 171.
Wilson's muscle of urethra, ii, 73.
Winan's trotters (Musts.), iii, 314.

Wind and the ventilation of stables, iii,
72, 73-

Wind Of horse�examination of sound-
ness, iii, 385.

Wind-galls � forms and treatment, ii,
355-357; unsoundness and warranty,
iii, 381, 421.

Wind-SUCking�causes and treatment, i,

4^I3^_4^I5; ii,_T>466; iii, 140, 343; un-
soundness, iii, 140.

Winded animals � treatment in field,
&c, ii, 6.

Windows�stable structure and ventila-
tion, iii, 70, 71-74, 76, 8c, 81, 330,
33 *�

Windpipe or Trachea-
Formation and uses, i, 13, 485�muscles

connected, ii, 319, 321.
Injections�(seelntra-tracheal injections).
Mustard plasters on, iii, 33.
Treatment in disease, &c.�laryngitis

and tracheotomy, i, 509; roaring and

tube insertion, i, 511, 512; tongue

inflammation and opening, i, 253;

ulceration effects and appearance, ii,

10, 34.
Windsor stud�foundation, i, no.
WingS of coffin-bone, ii, 200.
Winser'S gullies and trap for stable

drainage, iii, 85, 330.
Winter-green�medicinal uses, ii, 452.
Wire�for wound-stitching, ii, 41 z, 413;

injuries due to, ii, 386, 413.
WiSpS of straw for grooming, iii, 134.
Witch-hazel�medicinal uses, ii, 4⁶3-

Well-water�purity and analysis, &c.,
iii, 122, 124, 126.

Welsh pony�origin, appearance, &c, i,
166.

Westmoreland pony �origin, appear-
ance, &c, i, 167.

Wetting Of fOOd to induce appetite, iii, 94.

Weymouth bridle�type of, iii, 358,359.
Whalebone probe for lithotomy, i, 363.

What tO dO in cases of poisoning, iii,

44. 45-
"What's Wanted" (2332) � pedigree,

&c, i, 176.

Wheals on skin, ii, 136.

Wheat�as food, composition, &c, i, 242,
243; iii, 89, 109, 349; poisoning
caused by dressing, iii, 49.

Wheat-straw�as food, iii, 89, 97, 99,

112, 354; for bedding, iii, 354.

Wheezing due to bronchitis and asthma,
ii, 2, 11.

Whip�dislocation treatment, ii, 352; eye
injury, ii, in; training uses, iii, 301,
3*5-

Whip-rack�fittings, iii, 332.

Whip-WOrm�in intestines, ii, 171.

Whisky�accidents and stimulant uses,
ii, 440, 460; for colic, i, 281, ex-
hausted horses, ii, 6, mares after
foaling, iii, 227; pneumonia and
pleurisy, ii, 9, 16.

Whistling�fsee Roaring and Whistling).

Whistling by grooms during grooming,
iii. 135-

White arsenic�medicinal uses, ii, 453.

Withers�

Conformation and forms, i, 13, 52-55;
defects compensation, i, 102; height
influences and measurement tables,
&c, i, 92, 93-95; iij, 288,^294-297;
muscle connections, i, 53; ii, 322.

Diseases, &c, affecting�boils and ulcers,
ii, 150, 151, 426; fistulous withers, ii,
432-434; ringworm and mange, ii,
164, 167; wrung withers, i, 220; iii, 1.

Xeroderma�skin disease, ii, 153.

Xiphoid cartilage�of breast-bone, ii,

190.

Xiphoid region�conformation, i, 91.

-ocr page 670-

610

INDEX

Yard Of Stables�plans and fittings,
&c, iii, 320-324, 334, 335.

Yearlings �castration, iii, 172; forcing
for sale, i, 107, 112, 113; rate of
growth, tables, &C, iii, 294-296, 297;
teeth of, iii, 395, 396; training�
hunters, iii, 307, 308, thoroughbreds,
iii, 305, trotters, iii, 314.

Yellow discoloration due to liver, i,

303, 3°4- 3°7-

Yellow fluid due to horse-sickness, ii, 56.

Yellow masses in glands due to tuber-
culosis, ii, 51.

Yellow OXide of mercury�uses, ii, 488.

YellOW Scabs due to ringworm, ii, 165.

YellOW Worm infesting intestines, ii, 170,
171.

YellOWS, The�causes, treatment, &c, i,

304-
Yew poisoning and its treatment, iii, 55,

104, 105; gastritis due to, i, 274.
Yolk Of OVum�formation, &c, ii, 79, 80.
Yorkshire boots�use in " cutting ", iii,

455-

Yorkshire coach horses�appearance

and crosses, &c., i, 133-135; as
hunters and harness horses, i, 136,
152; comparison with Oldenburghs,
i, 208; illustration of, ii, 161.

Zebras�cross in horse-breeding, iii, 241;
horny growths, iii, 478; origin, iii,
525; special features as distinct from
horses, iii, 496.

ZlnC�medicinal uses, ii, 454, 456; iii, 4, 7,
8�doses, iii, 10, 11; sulpbo-carbolates-
as antiseptics, ii, 484; poisoning by,
iii, 46.

Zinc gauze for wound dressing, ii, 411,
412.

Zona pellucida of ovum, ii, 79.

Zonule Of Tinn in eye, ii, 108.
Zygomatic arch � formation, ii, 187;
pulse near artery, iii, 146.

Zygomatic process of temporal bone,.

ii, 185.
Zygomatico - auricularis muscle�

form, &c, ii, 311.
Zygomaticus muscle -form, &c., ii, ?o8.

Zad-el-Rakeb "breed of horses �origin,

iii, 518-
Zadig and the story of the lost dog and

horse, iii, 473~475-

542 THE HISTORY OF THE HORSE

14 hands high; those failing to obey this law were subjected to heavy
penalties. Every clergyman holding a benefice of �100 per annum, and all
those whose wives wore French hoods or velvet bonnets, were liable to a
fine of �20 unless they kept one stallion " and kept and rode upon stallions
not less than 15 hands high". Edward VI passed a law prohibiting the
importation of stallions less than 14 and mares less than 13 hands high,
and horse-stealing was made a felony. It is certain, therefore, that in 1550
great attention was bestowed by Englishmen in attempting to secure a
better type of horse than had previously existed in the country. Yet the
progress to perfection was very gradual, since we learn from Blundeville,
who lived in the days of Elizabeth, that two classes of horses existed,
" very indifferent, strong, slow, heavy-draught horses, or light and weak ".
Moreover, it is a notorious fact that during this reign horses were scarce.
Whether this was owing to the destruction of the " unlikely tits " or some
other causes cannot be determined, but history informs us of the scanty and
meagre display the British cavalry made at Tilbury Fort when assembled
there to be inspected by Elizabeth; and Carew in his History of Cornwall
suggests that it was to the wholesale slaughter-laws of Henry VIII that the
almost total loss of small horses was attributable, " formerly so common in
that part of England and Wales ".

During the Plantagenet and the Tudor periods two classes of horses
existed in England, "running horses" as they were called, and war or tourna-
ment chargers; but the great horse of the past was as inferior to the Shire
horse of to-day as the Barbs and Arabians of the Stuart epoch would be
to the thoroughbreds of this era. During the reign of the first Tudor the
demand for great horses was on the wane; battles being fought with artillery
rendered heavy armour defenceless, and led to the employment of armour
of a lighter description. This, however, was only partially adopted, and
then more for ornament than use. Ladies of high rank who had been
accustomed to ride by the side of gentlemen on pillions soon discontinued
this practice after the appearance of carriages, which were introduced by
the Earl of Arundel in 1580. Heavy horses, no doubt, were primarily
attached to these cumbrous vehicles. Their novelty attracted the attention
of the rich, which ultimately led to better designs in the construction ot
coaches, and as they were made to decrease in weight the demand fo^rlighter horses increased. During Elizabeth's reign the days of the tourn»'
ment were drawing to a close, consequently one of the incentives to the
propagation of heavy horses was vanishing away. Whether the discon-
tinuance of this pastime or the introduction of carriages assisted in causing
the decrease in the horse supply which was noticed in the scanty display °
cavalry at Tilbury Fort, it is impossible to determine. We know that a