aDU i^m> JJ f₀

The MUSCLES of the posterior Extremity of the HORSE and other Domestic
Quadrupeds, with the Synonyma to Human and Veterinarian Authors.

Quis vituperationi det id posse curare, quod laudi ducitur possidere ?

Vegetius, lib. i.

These dissections and remarks were made in my very
early studies, at the opening of the Veterinary College
about the year 1793, and were contributed to Dr.
Rees's Cyclopaedia about the year 1808, of which the
following, with a few alterations is nearly a transcript.

Psoas magnus
Iliacus major

Flexors, advancing the thigh for-
ward.

Adductor teres

magnus
parvus

Musculus fascice latce

/'From their situation, they
appear to act as drawing
the thigh and limb closer
to the body, but probably
in conjunction with the
common muscles on the
opposite side, which ter-
minate about the stifle;
they are thus cooperating
in the great general pur-

\ pose of removing the body.

On dissecting the muscles of a man'sthigh and leg, and
those of the thigh and leg of the horse, and comparing
them together, the dissimilarity has been found so great,
that it would only create confusion to apply the same
names to both; where they agree, we gladly embrace the
same names, but where they are not at all alike, we do
not attempt to make them appear so, by imposing the
same names, but have given them names expressive of
their situation, attachment, or shape. Where the com-
parison between the human and the horse was doubt-
ful, we have taken some intermediate animal, not so
distantly removed from man in structure, by which we
could more easily detect the coincident part, and transfer
it more securely to the horse.

The different movements of the hind extremity of
the horse are performed by the means of about thirty-
two muscles: 15 proper to the thigh ; 3 to extend; 3
to bend it; 4 termed adductors; and 5 called rotators.

2 common to the thigh and leg; 1 to bend and turn
them inwards; one to extend and turn them outwards.

8 proper to the leg; 3 extensors; 2 flexors; 3 ad-
ductors.

2 proper to the hock and shank; 1 to the os calcis,
called an extensor ; and the other to the anterior side
of the head of the shank, called its flexor.

1 to the coronet, bending it backwards.

4 to the foot; 1 extensor; 1 flexor; and their lateral
muscles, one to each.

The 15 muscles of the thigh appear to be distributed
as follows:

/To straighten the thigh, by draw-

Obturator extemus
internus
Pyramidalis internus
M. parvus articulationis
Gemelli

/'Termed rotators, a pur-
pose they cannot serve
in this animal. They
appear to cooperate, ac-
cording to their situation
and direction, with the
muscles above enumer-
ated. The obturators
compress the contents of
the pelvis apparently.

The uses assigned to these muscles by human ana-
tomists, much of which would be useless almost to the
brute, convey, we conceive, but a feeble idea to the
mind of the student of their real purposes. In the
horse their uses are more striking and strongly marked,
which suggested to the author the explanation of their
effects here given, though we are convinced much more
remains to be done than has been hitherto, to arrive at
satisfactory details on this complicated and interesting
subject.

Previous to entering on a description of these mus-
cles, it may be well to advert to a description of the
thigh bone more especially, previously given in the
Osteology, to which we must refer the reader.

Glutceus extemus.�This muscle lies the most exte-
riorly of all the muscles of the buttock, and is of a
small size: it extends from the second and third spin-

Glutceus extemus
magnus
parvus

ing it backwards, or rather for
moving the body forwards to
the limb already carried for-

wards by the flexors and resting
on the gronud as a fixed point.

ANATOMY.

ous processes of the sacrum to the anterior angle of
the inferior ramus of the ilium, where it joins the
fascia lata; from thence it extends to the processus
recurvatus externus of the thigh. This muscle is sur-
rounded on all sides by aponeurosis ; that on the su-
perior part, covering over the muscles of the rump, is
affixed to the spinous processes of the loins; the apo-
neurosis of its posterior part passes underneath the
sacrotibialis externus, to which this muscle is contigu-
ous in passing to the external curved process of the
thigh.

The glutasus externus is so small in quadrupeds, that
a doubt might arise whether this was not a part of the
fascia lata, and the muscle beneath it the correspond-
ing one to the glutceus maximus of the human anatomy.
From a farther investigation of this subject, we believe
that not to be the case, and that it is the real repre-
sentative of the glutceus maximus.

The singular diminution of this muscle in the qua-
druped, may be, perhaps, explained on the following
principles of the difference of structure necessary to
the two animals. In the man, an erect animal, the
legs have to perform a greater variety of motions, as
abduction, adduction, rotation, &c. which the horse,
whose motions are principally confined to going straight
forwards in a line, does not require, so we see this
great abductor of the human anatomy becoming com-
paratively a very small one in this animal, while the
muscles of the rectilinear progression are vastly in-
creased in bulk, as we may see by looking on the glu-
tceus medius, which is the maximus of the horse in
point of size, and, from its attachments, is evidently a
direct extensor of the thigh. Others might say the
externus was diminished on account of the increase of
the purchase obtained by its insertion into the extended
point of the curved process of the thigh being taken far-
ther for the centre of motion, which would compensate
for its want of size and power; for it seems pretty nearly
the same thing whether we make a muscle very large,
or give it a powerful insertion; sometimes bulk, some-
times power only is necessary; but the consideration
of the circumstance in which power should be obtained
by accumulated muscular fibres, or by favourable in-
sertion would lead us beyond our present purpose. It
is these actions under an erect position that causes
probably the difference in us.

This point once admitted, viz. that it is the glutceus
maximus of the human body, the others follow naturally,
and admit of a nearer comparison; and the anatomy
of the thigh of the dog, which has no curved process,
would seem to confirm this opinion.

Its use.�The direction of this muscle seems to point
it out as an abductor; the best way, however, of con-
sidering it is to regard it in this animal as a tensor
aponeurosis of the buttock, assisting the other muscles
of this part, by its gentle compression and springing
elastic reaction, to their motions.

In the ox, it exists with pretty much the same cha-
racters.

In the dog, it is much larger than in the horse, cat.
par. and more fleshy, having a strong attachment to
the sacrum underneath the muscles of the tail, and
terminating in the back of the thigh by a long tendon.

In the cat, the same as in the dog; but here it might
well be denominated the gluteus posticus.

Synonyma.�Stubbs, Anat. Horse, p. 23, Tab. II.
m, n, o, o, p. Glutajus externus.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 118. Le moyen
fessier. Lafosse, Dictionnaire, p. 456.

Bourgelat, El<5mens d'Hippiatrique, p. 278. Le petit
fessier extenseur de la Cuisse.

Vitet, torn. i. p. 181. Le fessier externe.

Winslow, Exposition Anatomique, p. 135. Le grand
fessier.

Gluteus magnus, seu maximus, omnium auctorum
humanse anatomias.

2. Glutceus medius.�This vast muscle lies immedi-
ately under the preceding, occupying great part of the
upper surface of the ilium. It takes its rise by a point
on the lumbar muscles, growing more fleshy as it
reaches the ilium; it takes a strong adherence, by
fleshy fibres, to the external angle of the inferior ramus ;
after passing the ilium it becomes smaller, and dividing
itself into two bodies, one terminates on the superior,
posterior trochanter, the other by a very strong tendon
on the inferior external trochanter, and which is covered
by the tendon of the external glutajus. This muscle
may be divided into two distinct parts, one of which
might be considered by some as the maximus of the
human; however, the nature of its attachments seems
fully to prove its agreement with the medius. It is
the weightiest muscle perhaps of the whole body

Its use.�To draw back the thigh, or (the leg being
made a fixed point on the ground) to advance the body
upon it.

In the ox.�This muscle is more distinctly divided
into two bodies, nor does it pass so far over the muscles
of the loins. Is not this muscle a chief contributor to
the buttock of beef, where it takes its rise on the
lumbar muscles, at the place of the commencement of
the sirloin, which takes a share of the longissimus dorsi
muscle ? There is also a small, almost linear, muscle
not found in the horse.

In the dog.�It is not at all attached to the muscles
of the loins, but fills up the ilium entirely, and term-
inates on the posterior trochanter; and in the cat the
same.

Synonyma. � Stubbs, Anat. Horse, p. 18, tab. 3,
a, a, a, b, b, b, c, d. Glutseus medius.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 18. Dictionnaire,
457.

Vitet, Medecine Veterinaire, i. Le grand et le
moyen fessier.

Bourgelat, Elemens d'Hippiatrique, p. 278. Le
grand fessier.

M. Sainbel, first professor of the Veterinary College
of London, in his lectures, principally adhered to the
names and arrangement given by Bourgelat.

Douglas, Myographia comparata, p. 130 Glutasus
medius.

Winsloio, Exposition Anatomique, p. 329. Le
moyen fessier.

Glutajus medius omnium auctorum humanas ana-
tomic.

ANATOMY.

3. Gluteus parvus.�This is a short, strong (and
though small, compared with the former) not inconsi-
derable muscle, of a square figure, lying immediately
over the joint; it takes attachment round the posterior
ramus of the ilium ; passing over the head of the femur
it fills the anterior concavity formed by the superior
trochanter of the thigh.

Its use.�It operates in the combined effect of ex-
tending the thigh. Its position is that of an abductor.
These glutei muscles appear to be employed to draw
the body to the advanced limb carried forwards by the
adductors and the sacro tibialis muscles, the ilium per-
forming in some degree the office of pulley block in
diverging their direction from a straight line, and thus
increasing their power.

In the ox nearly the same. Le petit fessier. Vitet,
p. 185.

In the dog, it is of a different shape, being more
pyramidal, and attached at the anterior superior part
of the thigh.

In the felis, it is attached to the inferior and poste-
rior ramus of the ilium, and terminates at the anterior
part of the thigh in a nick or excavation.

Slubbs, Anat. Horse, tab. 4, h, i, k, k, k, I, I.

Vitet, Med. Vet. p. 181. Le petit fessier.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 118. Dictionnaire,
p. 457. Le petit fessier.

Bourgelat, il n'a rien dit la dessus.

Douglas, Myologia comp. p. 131. Gluteus in-
ternus.

Winslow, Expos. Anatomique. Le petit fessier.

Gluteus minor, Albinus. minimus, Innes.

4. Psoas magnus.�On removing the intestines from
the abdomen and peritoneum, this beautiful muscle
presents itself; it is attached to the inside of the two
last ribs, and to the transverse apophyses of the lum-
bar vertebra?; passing to the edge of the pelvis, it
joins the iliacus, and is with it inserted into the little
trochanter, running between the iliacus major and
minor: this muscle can never be mistaken for any other
in any animal; it is rather depressed at its origin, but
becomes cylindrical and pointed going to its termina-
tion ; this muscle, near its insertion, is confined by a
ligament which binds it and the iliac muscles in their
situation.

The psoas parvus we consider as a flexor of the
loins, by bending the pelvis (to which it is always
attached) on the lumbar vertebras.

Veterinary writers have mostly described this muscle
as belonging to the thigh ; it, however, generally ter-
minates where the sartorius begins, forming together a
digastric muscle of great length.

Ox, nearly the same.

Le grand Psoas. Vitet, p. 188.

Dog.�It is attached to the four last lumbar verte-
bra?, is vastly larger, and more fleshy in proportion to
the animal; it terminates in the same place: but the
iliacus parvus, we may observe, does not in this animal
terminate where the sartorius begins, for this muscle
rises from the anterior angle of the ilium.

In the cat there are three very distinct muscles of
this description.

Vitet. Med. Vet. Le grand Psoas, i. 179.
Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique. Le grand Psoas,
p. 117. Diet. 455.

Bourgelat, Elemens d'Hipp. Le Psoas, 281.

Stubbs, p. 18. tab. 9, a, a, b, p. 34.

Psoas magnus omnium auctorum hum. anat.

5. Iliacus major.�This muscle takes attachment to
the whole inferior ramus of the ilium, growing cylin-
drical, and tapering, it is joined to the psoas magnus,
passing with it through Poupart's ligament to the little
trochanter of the thigh.

In the ox it is more intimately blended with the
iliacus parvus.

In the dog it is remarkable that this muscle is en-
tirely wanting. The ilium is elevated so far above
the lumbar vertebra?, that the muscles of the back
occupy its place: it is singular, that this circumstance
should have escaped the notice of Douglas, who has
expressly treated of the anatomy of this animal.

In the felis the same as in the dog.

Stubbs, Anat. Horse, p. 18. tab. 3. tab. 9, p. 34.
Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 117. Diet. Hipp.
455.

Bourgelat, p. 281. Elem. d'Hipp. LTliaque.
Iliacus internus, auctorum hum. anat.

6. Iliacus minor.�This muscle, which in general,
is quite separate from the iliacus major, takes its rise
from the inside of the first sacral apophyses all the
length of the posterior ramus of the ilium ; passing
over the head of the femur, it terminates with the
psoas and iliacus on the little trochanter; it permits
the psoas to pass between it and the iliacus major, and
might be considered as a portion of the latter; it is
connected by aponeurosis with the muscles which line
the pelvis, and traverses the insertion of the gemini.

These three last muscles have all the power of bend-
ing the femur; the two last on the pelvis, the psoas on
the loins, bending both femur and pelvis.

Ox.�Not a distinct muscle.

Dog.�Is altogether wanting, but appears to be com-
pensated for by having three psoas muscles.

Cat.�The same as in the dog.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique. Planche, 22.
Dictionnaire, p. 456.

7. Adductor teres, is a cylindrical muscle, which
makes its appearance on the inside of the thigh; the
integuments being removed, it takes its rise on the os
pubis, near the symphysis, attached to the same liga-
ment with the rectus abdominis; it terminates, along
with the adductor magnus, about half-way down the
inside of the thigh, or rather on the back part of this
bone.

Stubbs, Anat. Horse, tab. 5. s. s. Le pectineus.

ANATOMY.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 118. Le pec-
tineus.

Vitet, Med. Vet. p. 180. Le petit pectine.
Bourgelat, Elem. Hipp. Le pectineus.
Douglas, Pectineus, p. 153.

Comparison of this muscle with the human pectineus.
�We see by its attachments that it is by no means the
same muscle; it is much more nearly allied to the tri-
ceps adductor primus, which it also differs from; it
rises too near the symphysis instead of the brim of the
pelvis to be the pectineus, and terminates by insertion,
along with the large adductor, low down the thigh ; it
is also a more external muscle than the pectineus; but
as there is no real pectineus in the horse, nature seems
to have united in this one muscle the properties of the
pectineus and adductor longus, so that we have chosen
to call it by a different name from either, viz. adductor
teres.

The ox has a much flatter muscle, and sends off a
slip to the ligaments of the knee, or stifle, patella.

Dog.�This muscle is rounded, and much resembles
the human long head of the triceps.

The cat.�There are four adductors, one of which
resembles more nearly the human pectineus.

Adductor magnus.�There are three distinct muscles
of this description in the horse; this portion of it is
seen very distinctly by removing the adductor planus
of the leg, taking attachment to the symphisis pubis,
it extends down to the posterior and inner part of the
thigh, and sending off another portion which is attached
to the tibia, or rather to the joint of the femur and
tibia by a flat tendon. This muscle may be divided
into two portions; one has been called by veterinary
writers la portion moyenne, the other la portion ante-
rieure; but this we consider as unnecessary and un-
natural ; for after such division it does not correspond
to the three portions of the triceps muscle in the hu-
man. See our large coloured section, numero 88, a
fine figure it.

Stubbs, Anat. Horse, p. 18, 15, 36, 36, 36, &c.
tab. 3. p. 46, tab. 14. p, p, q, r, s, t.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, le gros et le moyen
extenseur, p. 117. Diet. 454.

Bourgelat, Elem. Hipp. p. 282. triceps.

Vitet, Med. Vet. La portion anterieure et moyen
du triceps crural, p. 182.

Comparison with the human.�On actually comparing
this muscle with those of the human thigh, it is difficult
to decide whether it most resembles the short or great

head of the triceps, but it certainly is not much like
either of them; therefore, to prevent confusion, we
have given it a different name, and left out the term
triceps altogether; this muscle and the sacro-ischio
tibialis internus, both agree in some points with the
great head of the triceps, and differ in others. Stubbs
considers it one, and the French writers the other ; in
this confusion I think it best, for distinctness, to avoid
the comparison, and give it a name that will not inter-
fere with either.

Dog.�This muscle lies underneath the long head of
the triceps, and is the largest of the extremity.

Cat.�In this animal the artery perforates the ten-
don of the adductor magnus, as it does in the human
body, to pass to the gastrocnemius, which serves to
identify the muscle in this animal.

Ox.�No such portion appears.

9. Adductor brevis seu quadratus.�This muscle
lies immediately underneath the former, and is of a
linear figure, being throughout of nearly equal size,
rising on the os ischium near the edge of the foramen
ovale; it takes an oblique direction, and terminates on
the posterior flat part of the thigh, on the back of the
posterior trochanter.

Ox.�It exists of the same figure. Vitet. LTschio-
crural, p. 186.

The dog possesses it, and also a muscle which ex-
actly corresponds to the short head of the triceps in
the human.

Stubbs, Anat. Horse, tab. 15. p. 47.
Vitet. Le rond. p. 183.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 117. Le petit
extenseur. Diet. 454.

10. Tensorius, or M. fascia lata.� This is con-
sidered by some as a muscle of the leg, by others of the
thigh; in this animal, however, it is common to both,
and might be very well placed with the common mus-
cles before mentioned. This muscle often varies in
figure, but is generally of a triangular shape, formed
of two or three fleshy bodies. The superior point of
the triangle is affixed to the os ilium on the exterior
angle of the inferior ramus. Its posterior point is
affixed to the processus externus curvatus with the glu-
teus externus, with which it forms an intimate union.
Its inferior angle terminates by aponeurosis which
covers all the muscles inside the thigh on its anterior
part, extending also over the patella, and tibia.

ANATOMY.

Ox.�This muscle not so completely divided in to two portions.

Dog.�Besides this muscle there is another strong muscle
above it, and which has been noticed by Douglas. Myolog.
Comp. 164. Fascia lata superior

Cat.�The same as in the dog.

Stubbs, Anat. horse, tab. 2, fascia lata.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 120. Le fascia lata
abducteur de la jambe.

Vitet Med. Vet. p. 180. Lileo-crural.

Bourgelat, Elem. d'Hipp. abducteur de la cuisse.

Tensor vagina femoris, Innes et aliis.

Obturator externus.�This is a pretty considerable muscle,
extending its fleshy fibres from the symphysis of the pubis
over the foramen ovale. Its fibres concentrate as they approach
the hollow on the back part of the great trocanter of the thigh,
into which they are inserted. This muscle is separated by a
very thin ligament, from the internal obturator, which has the
name of ligamentum Thyroideum, and the nerve going to the
adductor magnus, passes through it. Name from obturo, to
stop up.

Use.�To draw the thigh, its posterior part, towards the
anterior part of the pelvis, and of course to turn its anterior
and lower part outwards.

Ox.�Vitet obs. that in this animal the internal and external
obturator form but one muscle, of two plans of fibres. It may
be divided into two portions, an anterior and posterior, they
both terminate at the same point, one above the other.

Dog.�In the dog and cat the same.

L'obturateur externe, Lafosse Cours d'Hip. 118. Dictionaire
raisonne, 458.

Vitet Med. Vet. 182. Bourgelat L'obtur. ext. Stubbs
Obtur. externus.

Douglas takes no notice of it in the dog.

Obturator internus.�This is a thin fleshy expansion on the
inside of the pelvis over the foramen ovale, its fibres, collecting
together, pass over the ramus of the Ischium, and its tendon,
passing over the tendon of the Gemelli, is terminating in the
same place with the former.

Use.�I consider this as rather a muscle of the pelvis than
of the thigh, it can have little action on so large a member,
but when it contracts into a straight line, it will compress the
contents of the pelvis so as to evacuate them.

Ox.�This and the former appear to form but one muscle,
there being no ligament between.

Dog.�It is very strong in the dog, perhaps, on account of
his hard fasces.

Cat.�Quite as strong as in the dog.

Pyramidalis or Piriformis.�This muscle, if intended to be
the same as the one in the human, bearing that name, does
not exist in the horse, but it does very finely in the dog.
There is a muscle, however, running down the inside of the
posterior ramus of the ilium which St. Bel used to call
pyramidalis, which seems to be the pyramidalis or pyriformis
of the French writers, though it is quite a distinct muscle
from the human, and exists in the dog as well as the true
pyramidalis.

Pyramidalis internus.�This is a thin expanse of muscular
fibres, lining the posterior ramus of the ilium, its fibres meeting
together terminate by a pretty strong tendon with the obtu-
rator internus, in the same depression in the back of the thigh
bone; it extends upwards as far as the first transverse pro-
cesses of the Sacrum, so that by mere description, without
seeing the muscle, onemighttakeit to be thehuman pyramidalis.
Is it proper to consider this indeed as truly distinct from the
obturator internus?

Use, acts with the other in compressing the contents of the
pelvis.

Lafosse Cours d'Hippiatrisque, 118.

Bourgelat, Le pyriforme.

Vitet has not described it, or Stubbs, who seems to have
given a portion of one of the Glutei muscles for it, see p. 42.

Dog.�Where it exists, but what is remarkable, it does not
pass to the thigh, as in the horse, but to the muscles of the
coccyx crossing the pelvis, it is a very strong muscle.

Articularis.�This small muscle is very likely to be des-
troyed in dissecting the glutei, or the patellaris anterior; when
dissected with care we see a very complete distinct little
muscle, no way connected with any other, having a rounded
fleshy belly, and tapering to each end. It rises by fleshy
fibres on the posterior ramus of the ilium, its inferior part
underneath the tendon of the patellaris anterior, it passes over
the joint in the nitch or neck of the head of the femur, and
neither Lafosse, Bourgelat, or Vitet have described it.

Douglas, musculus parvus in articulatione situs, p. 161.

Stubbs has followed Douglas in the same name, p. 47,
plate 15.

Use.�Winslow supposes it prevents the capsular ligament
from being pinched, we do not venture a suggestion; it is too
small to operate where it is situated, in the centre of motion,
in the motions of the limb, with much effect.

Gemelli.�On removing the tendon of the obturator internus
we see two muscles underneath it, passing across each other,
from the external ridge of the Ischium, to the hollow in the
back of the head of the femur, one larger than the other, it
requires a careful dissection not to destroy them. They do
not appear strictly to agree with the same, so named in the
human, though similar in attachs and situations, enough so
to receive the same name.

Use, same as the Obturator internus.

Ox.�There is one only of a pyramidal shape, lying above
the obtur internus. Vitet, le pyramidal, it has not, however,
any of the characters of the pyramidalis, not being attached
to the sacrum, and terminating with the obturator, which the
pyramidalis does not.

Lafosse, Cours. L'Ischio, Diet. p. 458.

Bourgelat, les deux jumeaux.

Vitet, le quarre. Stubbs' Gemini, plate 5, 13, 14.

We do not conceive these muscles, scarcely any of them,
ever act separately, but in combination with others. We
cannot have an idea of the use of abductor and adductor
motions of the limbs of the horse, singly considered, a horse
rarely or never having use for them in this way; the only
motion a horse has to make in a general way, is to go forward
in a straight line nearly, making perhaps a small curve
outwards, which, acting in both limbs, at the same time cor-
rects itself and pi'eserves a rectilinear direction. And this
motion, outwards, will serve also to prevent any interference of
the two limbs inwards, towards which they would probably
otherwise gravitate. And this forward motion is not effected
as generally imagined, by flexors and extensors only, the
abductors and adductors lying idle masses the while, or merely
steadying the limb, as others say, but are actually promoting
the progression forwards in a most essential manner, which
important principle is farther developed at the conclusion of
the description of the framing of the horse, and seen with his
section, p. 11, 12.

Of the Patella, Tibia, and Fibula.�The patella is an
irregular mass of bone, neither square nor round, convex on
its outside, concave on its inside, with a ridge internally for
passing between the condyles of the thigh bone. It is held
to the tibia by strong ligaments, and to the thigh bone, by
muscle. Its ligaments are four, two to the inside, attached
to the femur, one anteriorly to the top of the tibia, and one
external. The patella gives great power, like a pully block,
by removing the motor powers, viz. the muscles, farther from
the centre of motion, making the attachments of the muscles
form a considerable angle with the head of the tibia, and is
facilitating this motion of the tibia very much, aided by its
highly lubricous, or smooth cartilaginous surfaces inside
the bone.

Ox.�The most striking difference in this animal is the
entire want of the fibula. The hog, however, has both tibia
and fibula, the latter singularly forming an oblique line to
the former, from top to bottom, perhaps, for routing over the
ground in search of food; the boar, however, scoops and rips
up the ground, as we have observed on Mount Jura, with his
tusks principally.

Dog.�The patella is double.

ANATOMY.

The tibia, we may remark, corresponds in figure more with
the human than the thigh bone does, though, it is also cteteris
paribus, considerably shorter, as is the femur also, than the
human, and is not so sharp on its anterior upper edge, which
part may be called its anterior Crista. The external side of
it is concave, in which lie the bodies of several muscles; its
internal side is convex, and the ligaments appear all attached
to the epiphysis, none to the bone itself, in the young animal
at least. Its back part is flat. Its epiphysis may be divided
into two condyles, an external and internal. From the
external arises a small thin bone, which is corresponding to
the human fibula.

The inferior extremity of the tibia is flattened before and
behind, having below a double hollow of articulation, for
articulating with the astragalus of the tarsal bones.

Dog possesses a distinct fibula, and so does the cat, for the
purposes of convenient rotation.

MUSCLES OF THE PATELLA, TIBIA, AND FIBULA.

I Patellaris externus

In man longer, and in other animals, otherwise much the
same. These four muscles might be called the quadriceps in
all these animals, and the term vaste should be carried to the
large sucro tibial muscles which from their extent and size
are really so. (See large section, No. 86.)

Adductor planus tibia:.�This is a very broad nearly square
muscle, and very flat, whence its distinctive name. It covers
nearly all the muscles on the inside of the thigh with its
aponeurosis and fleshy fibres. It takes its rise from the
whole length of the symphysis pubis, and passes with a flat
even surface to join the tendon which envelopes the inner
head of the tibia. It is the most general superficial muscle
seen on the inside of the thigh. (See large section of the
horse, fig. 88, a good view of it.)

Use.�Its direct single action is to draw the thigh and leg
inwards towards the pelvis.

Ox.�It sends off a strong aponeurosis, which, joining with
the aponeurosis of three other muscles, viz. the ischio tibialis
externus, posticus, and gastroenemius, envelopes the tendo
Achilles, and terminates with a very strong tendon in the os
calcis internally of the other tendons on the inner notch, so
that these all meet together, and may be called muscles of the
os calcis; and this confirms the idea of these all being con-
gener muscles, which seems to have escaped observation.

Acting singly to draw the legs inwards together, giving
that awkward, wabbling, round-about motion, which the cow
in galloping is seen to have, a feminine sort of effect and
weakness, or may it not be that the abductors are acting more
strongly, and this muscle drawing the limb back again, which
movement of abduction may save in these animals the large
full udder from being disagreeably compressed between the
two legs.

Dog much the same ; cat ditto. Its aponeurosis is attached,
however, to the whole line of the internal edge of the tibia,
it envelopes also the tendo Achilles.

Man.�It is a very small long thin muscle, from which it
has been called the gracilis.�Lafosse, Cours d'hippiatrrique,
p. 119. Le large adducteur. Diet. 3, p. 5. Vitet le Crural
interne, p. 188. Stubbs' Anat. Horse, tab. 2. Gracilis.

Adductor longus.�This muscle takes its rise from the
posterior ramus of the ilium, extending over the muscles on
the inside of the thigh, forming a thin body of muscle, it
terminates by tendon to the internal head of the tibia.

Use is to draw the thigh and leg inward.

Compared with man, it differs in no particular respect; the
artery, veins, and nerves, pass immediately underneath it as
in man.

Ox.�It has two origins, one from the iliacus internus
muscle, and the other from the margin of the pelvis where
the psoas pan. terminates; its fibres admit the vessels and
nerves to pass through.

Dog.�Its attachment is to the external angle of the ilium,
not to the brim of the pelvis, as in the horse.

Cat.�Rises inseparably connected with the fascia lata su-
perior one third of its length, terminating as in the others.�
Lafosse Cours d?hippiatrique; Le grele adducteur, Diet. p. 5 ,-
Bourgelut le Couturier muscle adducteur; Vitet Med. Vet.
L'ileo tibial; Stubbs Sartorius et omnium auctorum hum. anat.

Poplitalis.�This is rather a singular insulated muscle,
distinct and placed under the others on the back of the tibia ;
it is thick, short, and fleshy, taking rise on the internal edge
of the tibia, passing obliquely upward, its tendon terminates
in the external condyles of the thigh. Its tendon running
from below upward, makes it appear like a muscle inverted :
indeed it seems rather to belong to the thigh than the leg,
because in that its tendon is inserted.

Use is to twist internally the tibia on the thigh, and its in-
ternal condyles externally.

Man, and in all other animals I have examined, it is
present, and with the same characters.

Ox, the same. It is well seen in the large section, fig. 93.
� Vitet Le Popliti, p. 191, et omnium auctorum.

Sacro-tibialis externus. This immense muscle lies posteriorly
to the glutaei taking its origin to the third, fourth, and fifth,

Extensors.

. . intern us

. . anterior
. . subterior
Adductor planus

Adductors.

. . . longus

. . . poplitceus
Saero-tibialis exterior
. . . . posterior
. . . . interior
Patellaris externus.�In man it is much longer, and very
thin in other respects, like that of the horse. There are two
muscles, indeed, which cannot be very well separated. This
muscle covers the whole external part of the thigh bone. It
is attached to the great trocanter, exteriorly, and to the neck of
the femur, and passing downward it entirely fills up the pro-
cessus externus recurvus, taking a fleshy adhesion all the length
of the thigh to the linea aspera, uniting inseparably, with the
other two patellares muscles in surrounding the patella.

Use.�To extend the leg by drawing upon the patella, which
acts the part of a pully block, in forcibly extending the limb.
X)o(/, cceteris paribus, much as in other animals, c«< the same.
Patellaris anterior.�These two muscles being inseparable
we shall describe them as one, an object, however, in dividing
them is not to have too great a mass of flesh under one name,
and that we might describe more precisely the situation of
blood vessels, and nerves.

These three muscles to which are given the name of vast
generally, and which cover the sides and anterior part of the
femur, forming a handsome plumpness of appearance to these
parts exteriorly, especially in the human, they are thick and
fleshy, but not so large or extensive as some others we shall
presently describe, and are all attached to the patella, which
affords them a better name. The anterior takes its attach-
ment to the anterior edge of the posterior ramus of the ilium ;
on its sides it is attached to the patellaris internus and ex-
ternus, and terminating inferiorly upon the patella, where it
unites with the other two, forming a strong arched tendon,
keeping the patella firmly in its place.

P. Subterior or Subinterior.�This lies underneath the
former, inseparably connected with it, rising from the neck of
the femur, is terminating with the preceding, and is more
inseparably connected with the patellares than is the anterior.
Use, as the former, to extend or carry forwards the whole
leg, by means of the patella. In man longer and thinner.

Dog.�There is, as Douglas has observed, a fifth extensor
of the leg, which I have mentioned under the name of the
Fascia lata superior, which, perhaps, should come more pro-
perly in this place. It extends from the spine of the ilium,
adheres to the Sartorius by a fascia, and terminates in the
patella, see large section of the horse, No. 85.
Felis the same.

Ox, ditto, le triceps tibial, Vitet, p. 191.
Patellaris internus.�This muscle takes attachment to the
neck of the femur, where we observe tendinous asperities,
passing down the inside of the thigh it terminates with the
former, filling up the space formed by the inner trocanter.

ANATOMY.

spinous processes, or apophyses, of the os sacrum, becoming
fleshy, it passes down and takes attachment to the processus
triquetrus of the os ischium. Then dividing into three por-
tions in the horse, or sometimes only two, the superior being
inserted into the patella, and passing over it, it forms a
broadish aponeurosis which covers the muscles of the leg, and
afterwards terminates on the anterior crista of the tibia. Its
third portion embraces the muscles of the cannon or shank.
This third portion might form a separate muscle ; but as we
find it only one in the dog, we think it better not to make it
distinct, that one name may apply to as many animals as pos-
sible. Slubbs makes it a separate muscle.

Use.�Draws the tibia and femur outward, its power being
increased by passing over the patella.

Man.�No such muscle. The biceps might be considered
its nearest relative, terminating on the outside of the thigh, as
this does; but it is only attached to the ischium by one origin,
and to the back part of the femur for its other, and is a very
simple muscle compared with it. In the horse it is divided
into three portions, in the ass into two only, and in the dog
and cat the same.

Ox.�It is not divided distinctly into portions, otherwise like
the horse, but is more fleshy. Its posterior portion sends off
a very strong tendon to the tendo Achilles, which unites with
that of the posterior and planus muscles, and is inserted into
the lower notch of the os calcis, or its tubercle. Its rise from
the ischium Vitet has not observed, in which it is similar to
the horse. It must especially contribute to the rump of beef.

Cat, as in the dog. Lafosse, Cours, p. 120, le long, lenwyen,
et le court abducteur, Vitet, 287; Le Sacro tibial; Bourgelat,
le long vaste; Stubbs, Biceps cruris; Douglas, p. 171.

Dog.�It cannot well be divided, and is attached, as in the
human, simply to the tuberosity of the ischium, as are the two
following muscles; whereas in the horse, &c. they are attached
to the sacrum.

Sacro-tibialis posticus.�This muscle forms the posterior
profile line of the buttock. It takes attachment to the sacrum
behind the preceding muscle under the muscles of the tail,
forming a cylindric body, it passes over the ischium, leav-
ing a depression, called the poor line, between it and the
exterior sacro tibialis muscle, which we see so strikingly
represented by the painters. It is then joined by a round
branch of muscle coming from the under side of the ischium,
(v. great sect. 91.) These unite and form a single muscle which
passes down to the back part of the leg, forming an apo-
neurosis and enveloping all the muscles of the leg, viz. the
gastrocnemius and perforatus, and terminates on the inside
of the tibia. Its tendon runs down and binds together the
tendons of the gastrocnemius.

Use.� This muscle is a true flexor evidently to bend the
leg, and its aponeurosis to bind and unite the muscles of every
class in one common action of flexion.

Man.�There is no muscle can compare with it: the semi-
tendinosus is the one most allied to it.

Ox.�Rises wholly from the ischium, its external tuberosity
terminating on the anterior part of the tibia, and sends off a
tendon to the outside of the os calcis. Its form is much like
the horse's muscle.

Bog.�The same, very large and strong.

Cat.�Precisely as in the dog.

Bourgelat, Le Biceps. Stubbs, Vitet. p. 191. V Ischio-tibial
posterieur et Biceps tibial. Cours d'Hippiatrique, p. 120, le
long adducteur. Semitendinosus, great section, fig. 91.

Sacro-tibialis internus.�This, like the two preceding, arises
by two heads, one from the point of the sacrum, the other
from the point of the ischium, thence it takes a pretty strong
attachment to the symphysis of the pubis, going internally,
it then passes down the inside of the muscles of the thigh to
terminate on the internal superior part of the tibia.

Use.�Singly, to bend the leg and thigh backward and
inward.

Man.�There is no muscle much like it; whether it be
most like the semitendinosus or the long head of the triceps it
is difficult to determine ; and we may see how ridiculous it is

to try to make those things agree that never can agree, and
about which a perpetual difference of opinion will arise; and
if we call them by the human names, we shall only mislead
and bring on ultimate confusion.

Ox.�It does not adhere to the sacrum, and like as in the
dog it may be divided into two muscles.

Cat.�As in the dog.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 119; le gros adducteur de la jambe,
Diet. p. 6.

Bourgela t, Le demimembraneux ! St. Bel, semimembranosus !

Vitet, Med. Vet. p. 182. Le portion posterieure du Triceps.
Le biceps crural, 186.

Douglas is silent on this head entirely.

Stubbs, Anat. Horse. Adductor magnus femoris. So that
we have an equal division of opinion among these writers,
whether it be the representative of the head of the triceps, or
the semimembranosus, of Stubbs, what muscle is it ? Short
head of the posticus ? Semimembranosus.

These three immense muscles evidently co-operate to one
effect, and are better denoted and understood by considering
them in this way, and by the above names than by the human
names, even supposing their corresponding muscles in the
human body could be clearly ascertained, as those names
would only serve to convey the confused and erroneous idea
of a detached office to each of those muscles, and as though
they were in no way connected ; it was the consideration of
the three muscles last mentioned that first gave us the idea of
the real effect of abductor and adductor muscles, in pro-
moting animal locomotion. That such vast masses of muscle
as these should be carried about by the animal to perform
such trivial offices as abduction or adduction, it would be
highly absurd to imagine; for it may be laid down as an
axiom that the bulk of the muscle always bears some pro-
portion to the importance of its office, and pursuing this
reasoning a step farther, we may conclude that even abduc-
tion and adduction itself are often performed by the coopera-
tion of what are termed extensor and flexor muscles.

Muscles of the tarsus and shank are four.

Tibialis anticus, or magnus.�This muscle fills the exten-
sive hollow on the outside of the bone of the tibia, the extensor
pedis lying before it, therefore, perhaps anticus should be ex-
changed for magnus, or some other designation for this muscle.
It is attached to the superior external parts of the tibia, and
passing down its lateral external hollow side, diminishing
near its inferior part, and becoming tendinous, is inserted into
the triangularis bone, and upper part of the cannon or shank;
sending off a lateral tendon which is inserted into the supe-
rior part of the internal styloid bone, its tendon is strongly
confined with that of the extensor of the foot by a transverse
ligament which is not in the fore foot.

Use.�Obviously to bend the metatarsus on the tibia.

Man.�Placed outwardly of the extensor of the foot.

Ox.�It is attached to the external condyles of the thigh
with the extensor longus.

Dog.�As in the human ; that is, this present muscle is
situated before the extensor of the foot, and has only one
termination by tendon to the internal metatarsal styloid "bone,
felis, the same.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 121. Le muscle du cannon.
Diet.'p. 174.

Vitet. Med. Vet. p. 193. Lejambier anterieur.

Stubbs, Tibialis anticus !

Douglas, p. 177.

Tibialis internus.� This muscle I should rather consider as
part of the anticus. In the ox, however, it is very distinct,
lying close to the bone. It is very flat, going from the ex-
ternal to the internal side, and passing through the annular
ligament in a sheath formed by the tendon of the tibialis an-
ticus, it terminates by aponeurosis on the inside of the tarsal
and metatarsal bones. Vitet, p. 195. Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp.
p. 120. Le flechisseur du jarret. Diet. 24. Vitet, rien la
dessus.

Gastrocnemius.�The extensors of the hind leg are placed
behind and the flexors before, exactly reversed to the fore leg.

ANATOMY.

If placed the same in both legs, the animal would fall for-
wards or backwards as it might be, making the calf of the
leg in man. It takes rise in the hollow we observe in the
inferior external part of the thigh along with the perforatus, a
little above the condyles, inclosing the perforatus between
them. About half way down the back of the tibia they unite
and form one strong tendon, which is inserted into the notch
observable in the posterior superior part of the os calcis, and
is kept down by the tendon of the perforatus passing over it,
having previously formed an union with the tendon of the
posterior tibialis muscle which wraps it round and incloses
it all the way to its insertion. There is also a very strong
tendon from the patellaris externus passes down with them to
be inserted into the os calcis.

Use.� To act on the thigh, cannon, and foot, but apparently
not the tibia, as not being attached to it; and the same in
others, where a whole bone is interposed between the origin
and insertion of a muscle. The insertion of these muscles
is at such an angle from the leg, that they must act most
powerfully in bringing the shank and tersus forward to a
straight line with the leg after it has suffered flexion, and the
greater the distance the more the power.

Man.�Much the same.

Ox.�There is a very strong tendon to the middle division
of the gastrocnemius, which may be saparated, and is no doubt
the representative of the tendon of the human soleus, but the
fleshy body is not to be divided from the gastrocnemius.

Dog.�Felis the same, but possesses, which the dog does
not, a very large muscle, the linearis, but which has not the
characters of the human soleus. It rises on the posterior part
of the head of the fibula and passes underneath the gastroc-
nemius and perforatus, and terminates by distinct tendon on
the os calcis, and appears to be a very distinct muscle, is it
not like the linearis enlarged, or is it the soleus representative ?

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 120, les jumeaux. Vitet, les ju-
maux. Bourgelat, Extenseur du canon.

Stubbs, Gemellus. Douglas, Extensor tarsi suralis. Extensor
magnus, p. 173.

Linearis.�This small muscle had escaped my observation
a long time; it rises from the outside of the tibia, near the
fibula, passing obliquely backward, it joins the tendo Achilles,
and is with it inserted into the top of the os calcis.

Use.�To turn the tarsus and cannon inwards.

Man.�It agrees in many respects with the human plan-
laris, still that is attached to the external condyle of the os
femoris.

Felis do not perceive it.

Ox.�Vitet states its existence, but I do not find it; there is
a muscle, however, attached to the tendon of the flexor longus.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 120. Le Grele extenseur. Dic-
tionaire, p. 25.

Stubbs has not noticed it. The perforatus he calls the
plantaris!

Douglass says the true human plantaris exists in the dog,
p. 175.

Extensor brevis pedis.�This is a small muscle which takes
its rise on the tarsus, so small that it might easily escape no-
tice. In the horse it passes over to the anterior part of the
shank, passing down the inside of the tendon of the extensor
longus, and reaching the pastern it there divides into a broad
aponeurosis passing underneath the extensor of the foot,
covering over the whole anterior surface of the head of the
pastern, it frequently joins to the extensor longus of the foot
without reaching the pastern. I have seen it go to the pastern
in one leg, and terminate in the tendon of the extensor longus
in the other leg.

Use.�To extend the foot in combination with other muscles.

Man.�A more considerable muscle.

Bog.�Much as in the human.

Ox.__More distinct than in the horse, terminating in the

tendon of the extensor longus.
Felis as the Dog.

La/osse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 122 Die. p. 438. He makes three
flexor muscles one, viz. of the suspensor ligament, and two

others belonging to the styloid bones.

Vitet, n'en dit rien.

Stubbs, Flexor brevis digitorum pedis.

Douglass describes it in the dog, p. 184, and tells us the
dog has two muscles of this sort.

Extensor longus pedis.�This muscle lies the most anterior
of the muscles on the fore part of the leg, its body being
lodged in the same channel with the tibialis, on the outside
of the tibia; it begins at the external condyle of the femur
by a strong tendon, it passes down the anterior of the shank,
pastern, and coronet bones, and terminates on the anterior re-
curved summit of the coffin bone ; it is also strongly attached
to the pastern and coronet bones.

Use.�Obviously to extend the three bones which compose
the foot phalanx, although the extension of the foot in stand-
ing is chiefly performed by the weight of the body.

Man.�It is something similar to the human extensor
pedis or digitorum com. but that rises from the tibia.

Ox.�Has three muscles, all rising from a single tendon on
the external condyle of the femur, the tibialis anticus and
two extensors; one lies on one side, and the other rather
behind the tibialis anticus. They are small, making together
the same size as that of the horse; degenerating into tendons,
they pass through the annular ligament, and passing the tarsus
and metatarsus, are joined by the extensor brevis; it then
divides into two, lodging in the channel of the bone, and the
other tendon again divides into two thin, round tendons, which
passing down the inside of the pastern, coronet, and foot,
terminate on the prominent or curved point of the two claws.
The other, or internal tendon, terminates by aponeur. cover-
ing all the anterior of the pastern and coronet, and terminating
on the edge of the foot bone. Vitet, p. 197. L'extenseur externe.
He says, though wrongly, that they terminate on the second
phalanx.

Dog.�It lies behind the tibialis anticus, taking rise on the
head of the tibia, passing with the tibialis anticus through a
restraining ligament, it splits into four tendons, one going to
each extreme phalanx of the toes.

Cat.�The same, except that it is confined at the tarsus by
a singular floating loose loop of ligament.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp p. 122. Diet. p. 37. L'extenseur
anterieur. Bourgelat, ditto.

Stubbs, Extensor longus digitorum pedis.

Peroneus longus.�This small muscle is situated on the out-
side of the leg, taking rise on the head of the fibula, passing
down the outside of the tibia and tarsus, where it is confined
by a ligament, passing forward to the front of the shank, it
then joins the extensor longus of the foot. Vitet observes:
It sometimes terminates on the pastern, p. 193. L'Extenseur
du paturon. Stubbs, Peroneus anticus. Bourgelat, L exten-
seur lateral.

Use.�To act on the extensor longus as an auxiliary, di-
recting it a little outward.

Man.�There are three tendons, of which this performs the
united office. Vitet, L'extenseur externe, p. 197.

Ox.�The tendon of this muscle does not join the extensor
longus as in the horse, but expanding and passing down the
anterior part of the pastern and coronet, terminates on the last
phalanx, performing the same office, being like the internal
division of the tendon of the extensor longus, passing through
two annular bands in the cow, and but one in the horse, near
the tarsus. It is improperly called peroneus here, as there is
no proper fibula to this animal.

It has also another, the pero-metatarsalis, from the external
condyle of the tibia, anterior to the longus, passing through
the annular ligament with the longus, it terminates by an ex-
tended tendon on the outside of the metatarsus. Vitet, p. 196.
Dog.�The same, but connected with & fibula.

Cat.�The same, goes fleshy halfway down.

Perforatus.�This muscle is seen on removing the gastroc-
nemius ; it rises from the same place, the fossa perforigera, or
deep excavation in the femur a little above the external con-
dyle. About half way down the back of the leg it becomes
tendinous, and passing over the gastrocnemius tendon, it

ANATOMY.

takes a strong adherence to the os calcis, wrapping round and
inclosing the tendo Achilles with its expansion; becoming
again cylindrical, it passes down the posterior part of the
shank and through an annular ligament behind the ossa sesa-
moiclea, where it forms a ligament anteriorly for the tendon of
the perforans to pass through; at length it terminates upon the
inferior part of the pastern, and to the sides of the coronet bone.

Use.�To bend the phalanx of the three foot bones, or rather
the pastern and coronet, the foot being fixed on the ground.

Man.�The perforate rises from the os calcis; in other
respects it agrees with our animal, except in its divisions to
every toe. This muscle, like several others in this more simple
animal, unites the power, and uses, and situations of several
muscles. In this we may detect the soleus in taking its attach-
ment near to the condyles of the femur, and the os calcis, and
from this bone it much resembles the human perforate.

It may be considered as the principal muscle which keeps
all the animals which walk on the last phalanx of the toes from
touching the ground with their fetlocks. For in the human
anatomy we find the soleus muscle, a muscle of the same
nature and attachments as our perforatus, but which is termi-
nating on the extreme end of the os calcis; and there is an-
other muscle totally distinct from this, and which rises from
the os calcis, and which is perforated by the tendons of the
perforans, and which resembles the lower part of our perforatus
from the os calcis downwards.

Now, in the horse it appears that these two muscles are
joined in one which is extending from the back of the tibia
to the toes, resting in its course against the os calcis as against
a lever of considerable length, and this lever yielding to the
pressure of the horse when in action, must cause an easy
springing motion of all the lower parts of the limb, regulated
elastically by the degree of tension of the fibres of these mus-
cles, and the very great extent of their tendons and moveable
bones attached to them ; so that this double muscle, or double
attachment, rather gives the properties of both soleus and
perforatus to this muscle. In the broken-down horse, there-
fore, this is perhaps the muscle most injured. The number of
divisions in its tendon is known by the number of toes or
claws, one in every animal being sent to each of them.

The hollow cylindrical sheaths, or canals, formed by our
perforatus are widely different to the mere fissures or slits
formed in the human, being vastly stronger, more compacted,
and embracing. These slits permit the final tendons of the
perforans to pass through them, one to every claw or finger,
as we have said.

Ox.�Like the horse, but divided into two tendons, one
going to each coronet. Vitet, p. 198, le perfori.

Dog.�Divided into four tendons. Douglass,p. 132,says five.

Cat.�This muscle rises from the two sesamoid-figured
bones belonging to the condyles of the femur, passing under
the gastrocnemius and over the os calcis, it becomes fleshy,
and then divides into four tendons, going to each toe.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 122. Diet. p. 409. Flechisseur
de couronne. Bourqelat, le sublime. Vitet, p. 194. Le perfori.
Stubbs, Anat. Horse, Plantaris. Douglass, p. 184.

Perforans.�This muscle rises on the back head of the tibia,
close behind the fibula and partly to the external condyle of
the tibia, passing down the back of the tibia in taking adhe-
sion to it forms a strong tendon which passes over a sinuosity
in the os calcis on its inside, next passing under an annular
ligament down the back of the shank and through the channel
ring or annulus formed by the perforatus, down the back of
the pastern, coronet, and nuciform bone, it then expands and
forms a strong adhesion to the retrossa, and whole inferior
surface of the coffin bone, and is then covered by the furch.

Use.�Flexors of the last phalanx of the foot. There appears
a little incongruity in calling these muscles flexors which
bend the foot backwards, since in the bone above, viz. the
femur, we call those flexors which carry it forwards, and ex-
tensors that straighten it and bring it backwards or in the
opposite direction. Now, in the fore foot no such difficulty
occurs, since the humerus in its flexion is taking the opposite
direction to the femur, viz. backwards. We are compelled,

however, to make these same muscles in the two limbs to ac-
cord by using the same terms to them, as their functions and
directions are the same in all respects. We believe, however,
other a.nd better terms than those of flexion and extension
might be resorted to, for to express the actions and performance
of the upper muscles of the limbs, and with great advantage,
as affording more clearness as to their real functions and
effects. Perhaps gonufaeients and rectofacienls, or the im-
pellers ; and those below grimpers or protensors and their
sustainers. For in the act of going forwards the body is acted
upon in two different ways ; the upper bones and muscles ad-
vance or throw the whole limb forwards, whilst the lower bones
and muscles are extending and fixing it on the ground, then
the upper muscles again acting or continuing their action,
obliterates the angle so formed, and the body thus becomes
advanced.

Use.�With the perforatus to restrain the too much exten-
sion forwards of these podal bones.

Man. �These muscles and the tibialis posticus both pos-
sess characters of the flexor longus pollicis pedis, but this
muscle, when about the middle of the sole of the foot, divides
into four tendons.

Ox.�This muscle arises by two heads from the back inter-
nal head of the tibia, the external portion unites with the
middle portion before it reaches the grooves of the os calcis.
This middle portion is the most considerable, and forming a
tendon it passes along the back side of the os calcis and down
the shank (being there joined by the tibialis posticus), it di-
vides near its bottom into two tendons, sending one to each
claw after passing through the annular of the perforatus.

Vitet, 199. Le perforant.

Dog.�It divides into five, one going to the great toe, which
in these animals is the least. Douglass, 188. The dog has
little thin strings of tendons which he considers as represent-
ing the lumbricales.

Cat.�Differs in hardly any respect from the dog. It serves,
however, these final tendons, to draw the claw out of its sheath,
and at the same time bring it at right angles with the meta-
tarsus, and holding it firm in this situation empowers it to
rend or scratch forcibly, and on the muscle relaxing it is drawn
partly back again by the extensor longus and partly by the
leg, coming to a right line with the foot, when being relaxed
it loses all power of holding.

It has been conceived that there was a muscle on purpose
for this effect, but there appears no other, in this animal at
least, than the perforans; and the claws of the dog are much
the same, but without so much sheath. In the lion there is
an excavation in the last bone of the toe to admit the claw ;
in the cat the claw is fixed in the bone immoveably, a liga-
ment is placed on one side, running round the enlarged end
of the second phalanx as round a pully block, and is then in-
serted into the last phalanx. The perforans in all these ani-
mals is passing through a cartilaginous cylinder, or canal, or
sheath, formed for it by the perforatus. Now, in the human
the perforatus is simply slit to permit these tendons to pass
through.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. 122. Le gros flechisseur. Diet. 438.
Vitet, 195. Le perforant. Bourgelat, Le profond. Stubbs,
Flexor longus digitorum pedis ! Douglass, p. 186.

Perforans minor.� It is rather a small muscle which has its
beginning on the external condyle of the tibia, passing down
its back part to the inside of the perforans, crossing over the
inside of the tarsal bones, in its proper groove and down the
back of the shank, it there joins the tendon of the perforans.

Use.�To assist the perforans, and incline the lower parts
of the limb outward.

Man.�Whether it best represents the tibialis posticus or
the flexor longus pollicis pedis, is difficult to assign.

Dog.�Much the same.

Cat.�Ditto. There is, however, another muscle super-
added, which rises on the tibia, immediately behind the po-
plitceus, and is terminating on the root of the metatarsal bone
of the great toe, or at least internal toe.

Ox.�This muscle forms the internal portion of the muscle

ANATOMY.

which in that animal is representing the triceps, so in the
horse this and the perforans may be considered as a biceps
single muscle. It passes the same through bands differing
in no respect from that of the horse.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 122. Le grele flechisseur.

Stubbs, Anat. Horse, tibialis posticus. Douglass myol.
comp. p. 178.

LIGAMENTUM METATARSI INTEROSSEUM.

This notable ligament, which has been made a muscle of
by some writers, and is really so in the digitated animals, and
is called there the inlerossei. It lies between the two styloid
bones, and takes its rise on the second layer of bones of the
tarsus at its posterior part, passing down the back of the
shank; when near the fetlock it bifurcates, a branch going to
each side of this strong joint, and next surrounding the sesa-
moides, it terminates on the anterior inferior part of the pas-
tern bone, and there is joining the extensor of the foot. Its
upper part is somewhat muscular, which by yielding at times
may save it from rupture under strong impression, the power
of the fetlock joint depending much upon it. Underneath it
lies the artery.

Use.�To resist the too great extension of the angle of the
fetlock by the weight and actions of the body, urged by the
foot and juxta-podal bones being in certain cases exerted with
surprising force. This ligament perhaps gives way also with
the perforatus tendon when the horse fully breaks down, as in
racing, &c. It is much strengthened by going to the anterior
part of the foot.

Man.�It no doubt chiefly corresponds to the interossei
muscles, but here the joint requiring strength rather than
motion or action, a ligament is made of it to supply the place
of a muscle, or series of muscles.

Dog.�Differs essentially from both human and horse ; from
the human in the interossei muscles not being placed between

Remarks on some peculiarities

Of the lungs of the horse.�This viscus in the horse consists
of three lobes, two large ones which occupy the sides of the
chest, having at their anterior presentation two elongated
auriform appendages which closely envelope the heart; the
third or central lobe is much smaller, lying between the other
two, and presents itself to the sternum. It is not unfrequent
in the lungs of horses that small red patches are observable
that will not inflate like the other parts of the lungs, and are
therefore, not improbably, obliterated cells from colds, in-
flammation, &c.; the settling of the blood will also give an
appearance of this kind, but this does not prevent the lungs
from inflating.

The trachea of the horse, where it passes into the chest,
and previous to its entering the lungs, has a singular dupli-
cature of the cartilaginous rings, which is more flexile than
the rest of this tube, so as to admit, by very slight pressure,
of the sides of the tube being brought in contact, and the total
obliteration of its cavity: this structure may perhaps adapt
the diameter of the trachea to any quantity of air that is
passing through it to the lungs.

Of the liver.�This viscus in the horse is large, deeply cleft
into lobes, and possessing no gall-bladder. The ductus veno-
sus of the human foetal circulation is also wanting in the
equine foetus.

Of the stomach.�The stomach of the horse consists of a
pouch or bag of the usual obcordate or reniform figure with-
out ; within, it is lined with membranes, which more resemble
the coats of the different stomachs of ruminating animals
than the inside of the generality of stomachs of this ex-
ternal figure. See pi. 4, fig. 1.

There is distinguishable on the inside a white rugose che-
quered coat, which is not very vascular, being a continuation
of the elastic insensible white tissue, which lines the oeso-
phagus ; this spreads over the upper part and broad end of
the stomach, till it abruptly terminates about its middle; this

but underneath or behind the bones of the metatarsus, and
from the horse in being very muscular, uniting perhaps the
lumbricales and interossei, having the shape of the interossei,
and situation and action of the lumbricales; but there appears
something like lumbricales also in these animals.

Now these muscles seem to keep the animal erect on the
phalanges of the toes, not suffering the tarsus to come to the
ground, elastically springing and afterwards assisting in en-
forcing their rebound from the sod, and at times in burrowing,
scraping, and removing the ground, but ligamentous in the
horse, who has little or no want of this sort; they are there-
fore muscidi raptorii as well as suspensorii in these smaller
creatures. In the horse being ligamentous there is a saving
of muscular action and of sensorial expenditure, from three
sets of muscles as they are in man.

Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 121. Les greles fleehisseurs. Diet.
377. Le gros flechisseur du paturon.

Vitet, Le grand ligament posterieur du canon, p. 106.

Stubbs, Interosseus. Douglass, Interossei, p. 137.

Ox.�This ligament divides into four parts, surrounding
four small friction bones or sesamoids, to ease the two articu-
lating surfaces of the two pasterns. There is more appearance
of muscularity in this ligament in this animal chiefly near its
upper part.

Cat.�Same as dog.

Obs.�The ligamentum plantare of the human foot agrees
much with this ligament in its use, but it is situated above
the muscles or over them ; whereas in the horse it is next the
bone, the tendons passing over it. The interossei act in the
human in drawing closer or separating the toes, not at all
wanting in the horse ; therefore converted to a ligament as
we see it.

The dog has a strong rank smell during dissection, after
a few days especially; and the cat still more faint and
disagreeable.

in the Viscera of the Horse.

part of the stomach corresponds very much to the paunch, or
first stomach of ruminating animals.

The second division, occupying the lower part or great
arch of the stomach, extending high up the sides towards the
small arch, and reaching nearly to the cardiac orifice, is lined
with a smooth red membrane, and is highly vascular, resem-
bling more the stomach of carnivorous quadrupeds ; the rest
of the stomach, extending from the termination of the former
to the entrance into the duodenum, consists of a pale red
membrane, extremely loose, and thrown into longitudinal
folds or duplicatures, intermixing with the former coat by
almost imperceptible gradations of colour; this coat is thickly
covered with a slimy mucus, not observable on the other
coats ; this part of the stomach has a strong resemblance to
the fourth, or last stomach of ruminating quadrupeds.

The exact purpose of these three constructions of mem-
brane in the same stomaeh is not easily assigned; whether
they all unite in one common purpose, as though the stomaeh
consisted of one common membrane for its lining, or whether
the food is changed by the successive operation of each of
these membranes, we know not: we may observe on opening
the stomach that the food makes pretty much the same ap-
pearance against whatever part of the stomach it may lie, that
one should be hardly led to conclude they have in the horse
distinct functions, but combine in one common effect, and
are in reality the rudiments only of the structure of the
stomach, peculiar to the generality of graminivorous qua-
drupeds, without producing any precise effect here; for it
seems difficult to imagine how the different operations should
take place in the same sac without disturbing each other.
Nature seems to observe a connected system, not only in the
entire animal but also in each particular organ, forming a
catenated system of structure and operations.

It is generally imagined there is some valvular apparatus
to this viscus, which prevents the horse from vomiting, and

Stamaoli
Spleen.

Intestines

^?*&,

J. Gardner &> 09 Li&u Xm

ANATOMY.

much has been written on this subject. We never could dis-
cover anything of the kind, and are disposed at present to
believe, that as the form of the horse would render vomiting
inconvenient, the power of receiving the impression which
excites to this operation is withdrawn from the animal, as it
would be idle to suppose a power given to vomit with a struc-
ture of parts not admitting of it; it would be as inconsistent
as placing the head of the lion on the shoulders of the hare,
or giving the disposition of the hare to the lion's form, by
which the very purposes of nature would be defeated. It was,
however, an opinion entertained with some confidence, at the
veterinary college of Copenhagen, that the root of the white
hellebore (veratrum album) would occasion a horse to vomit,
being placed under the skin !

In an ass's stomach I have seen a valvular apparatus at the
cardiac orifice, and the insensible white membrane extended
into the inside of the stomach, about one inch, forming a
loose fold, which served to mark the divisions of the stomach
more strongly, but could not in the smallest degree operate
as a valve ; this lusus is, however, not very frequent. The
stomach of the hog also partakes in degree of this sort of
structure, though not so distinctly marked as in the horse.

The spleen also is here seen attached to the stomach, whose
use is not yet well made out; it probably serves the office of
warming-pan to this viscus in aiding and facilitating the di-
gestive process by its close embrace, as also by the large vessels
passing from it to its large curvature. Its numerous ab-
sorbents and cells may also assist in regulating the consistence
of its contents from being too fluid or too solid for easy diges-
tion, as either of these conditions would much impede the
course of it.

Intestines.�A pretty good view of the intestines of the horse
is seen fig. 2. The colon, caecum, ilium, and rectum, with their
ligamentous constricting band forming them into sacculi or
pouches.

Of the chi/le duct of the horse.�This duct in the horse is
not very difficult to find, both from its magnitude and situa-
tion, lying on the aorta at the loins very much exposed, as
it passes forward towards the thorax it dips lower beneath the
surface, passing nearly under the aorta; it is much smaller
in the middle, and enlarging to each end ; about the fourth,
fifth, and sixth ribs, it is as large as a man's thumb, it becomes
narrower again as it passes into the axilla, but enlarges
again at its termination, where it enters the vena cava, or
rather the vessel formed by the union of the two jugular
veins, and anterior to the subclavian, it there forms a large
round head or cyst, and is provided with a valvular apparatus
to prevent the return of the chyle or the blood from entering
the duct. Toward the loins it has a strong adherence to the
coats of the aorta, and lower down is strongly embraced by
the tendon of the diaphragm; it then enlarges, and passing
upon and by the side of the lumbar veins, discharges itself by
several openings into them, which openings are also provided
with valves.

The openings of this duct into the lumbar veins, which we be-
lieve have never been before remarked,seem to point out a double
circulation in this vessel, viz. from the middle to each end,
as the smallness of it in the middle would also seem to indi-
cate ; we have, however, in some subjects found a valve open-
ing anteriorly, or towards the jugular veins, within six inches
of its anterior termination; this duct, however, is subject to
very great variation.

In another subject we found this duct terminate about the
second lumbar vertebra, where it divided one branch forming
a sharp curvature, circumscribing a portion of the insertion
of the diaphragm ; the other seemed to be lost about the
fourth or fifth lumbar vertebra in smaller ramifications. In
another subject which we injected, the duct was discovered
on the left side, about the situation of the last dorsal vertebra ;
it crossed the aorta and passed to the right side, immediately
before and resting against the superior mesenteric artery; it
then divided into several small canals which appeared to be
passing to their termination in the lumbar veins.
Parts of generation.�No animal whatsoever is more richly

provided with the various apparatus belonging to these parts
than the horse, for nature here seems to have lavished with
profusion whatever can tend to perfect the generative act;
and there is no part of the human construction of these parts
but is found in the horse; the most essential difference
appears to us to consist in the male, of the penis being
suspended from the integuments of the abdomen, and not
immediately from the pubis, as in the human; hence the
acuteness of the angle where it passes the pubis, is such as
to render the passage of the catheter almost impracticable.
We have remarked that the penis of the horse possesses a
voluntary power of erection, not known to the human, or
perhaps most other animals ; this power is exerted on making
water; and though the erection is not very considerable, it is
yet sufficient to bring the penis from its sheath, which is
effected apparently by its increased gravity from blood accu-
mulating in the cavernous cells of this part. After staleing
this semi-erection of the penis subsides, and it again is re-
tracted within the sheath: this operation, though occurring
daily to the sight of every one, has not, it is apprehended,
been noticed by any veterinary writer.

The urethra of the horse is muscular from one extremity
to the other, being formed on the outside of strong transverse
fleshy fibres, and supported by a strong ligament.

Naturalists were long at a loss to discover the mamma, or
teats of this animal; in the male they were at length detected
by Buffon, on the sheath of the penis. Mr. John Hunter
also made the same remark without knowing that Buffon had
previously noticed it; these teats are largest in the foetus and
young foal, dwindling with age.

In the glans of the penis, immediately over the opening of
the urethra externally, there is a large cell or cavity, smooth
on the inside, and lined with a membrane, which secretes a
brown unctuous substance for the lubrication of the penis,
and defending it from the corrosive effects of the urine;
another cell, of a similar description with the former, is ob-
servable on the side of the urethra, and nearly surrounding
it; it is separated from the former by a membranous partition.
The apparently unctuous secretion above described, is mis-
cible with water; it burns, however, in the fire like an oily
substance, and is not soluble in spirits of wine or nitrous
acid, nor does it dry on exposure to the air during several
weeks.

There is nothing resembling a frsenum to the penis of the
horse.

The cavernous body of the penis has no longitudinal septum ;
its cells are divided by transverse fibres, which are probably
muscular; it terminates in a point near the extremity of the
glans, where it is surrounded on every side by the venous
body, termed in the human, corpus spongiosum.

Another singularity in the genital parts of this animal is,
that there is an immense congeries of veins, lying on the back
of the penis, which are filled during copulation, forming an
elevation nearly as large as the penis itself; these veins com-
municate with both the cavernous and spongious bodies.

The vesiculai seminales, and the bladders attached to them,
are very large in the horse, having integuments of consider-
able thickness.

There is a great peculiarity in the structure of the vas
deferens of the horse, which, in passing over the bladder, en-
larges to the size of the human thumb; this amplification
extends from its entrance into the urethra, to the distance of
five or six inches from this point, where it again becomes of
its ordinary diameter.

The inside of this enlargement is composed of cells, and
somewhat resembles in construction the cells of the corpus
cavernosum penis, passing in a transverse direction across the
tube. In the centre of this enlargement passes the small
canal of the vas deferens ; each cell communicates by one,
two, or more small pores with the general canal of the vas
deferens; these cells diminish as they approach the neck of
the bladder, till they are lost in a smooth passage entering the
urethra.

What the purpose of this structure is, does not appear ; it

ANATOMY.

must retard the passage of the semen, and probably adds some
fluid to it, secreted from the cells themselves.

On a first view of the pudenda of the mare, the position
of the Clitoris appears to be inverted, compared with the
position of the same part in the human, being found on the
lower part of the vagina ; this apparent difference is removed
when both are considered in the same position.

In dissecting the horse's penis, about the year 1792, I
found in a general way the glans was not fully injected from
the injection of the spongeous or cavernous bodies of the
penis, but required a distinct operation. I have lately ob-
served, in seeing the act of copulation with the horse and
mare, that the penis was erected without the glans becoming
injected, and that in a very celebrated stallion (Camel), and
that the penis entered the vagina with the glans uninflated,
but on its coming forth it was inflated, and of considerable
magnitude, to wit, the full rose, as it is called, and then ap-
peared to be sufficiently large to fill the whole bottom or end
of the vagina, when probably the end of the urethra, which is
projected forward to some distance in the horse by a sort of
nipple, would be found in contact with the os tincai, so as to
inject the semen perhaps into it most effectually, and leaving
little doubt of the semen actually entering the cavity of the
womb. This projection from the urethra in the horse is a little
lower than the middle part of the glans, and perhaps the
opening of the os tincai also is so disposed, from whence the
semen is taken up by the fallopian tube and carried to
the oviary by a reverse action of it.

I mention this curious matter the more, because in a com-
munication respecting the penis of the horse, read at Cam-
bridge in 1833, before the British Association, by Mr. Earl,
the surgeon, it was asserted the glans of the horse was not
large, he probably not having succeeded in fully iujecting it;
for it is of all the generative organs of the quadruped world
perhaps the most magnificent example.

I have supposed there was a convenience in its not filling
at first, that the presentation of the penis, which is somewhat
difficult and precarious in these animals unassisted, would
have been increased had such enlargement been the case, and
the possibility of error on the direction of the effort have been
increased if of its largest dimensions. Nor am I sure such
is invariably the case, as I think I have seen the glans more
than once fully injected before copulation, and this perhaps
where the act was not done with usual vigour. We know the
back stroke of the penis in the vagina is particularly calcu-
lated for filling' the glans by meeting the crest of the penis,
and by its pressure against the pubis perfecting more efficiently
the performance of the act. The glans also we have thought
was longer in subsiding than the cavernous bodies.

The ass appears nearly, or quite destitute, of the corpus
spongiosum ol the penis.

The cumulated veins on the dorsum of the penis of the
horse have perhaps their office in distending the vagina of the
mare, and thereby shortening its length, bringing its fundus
more fairly into contact with the extremity of the penis.

On the ossa spongiosa equina.�There has always appeared
to me some perplexity respecting the construction and com-
munication of the facial cavities of the horse. June 1st, 1807.
In a newly-foaled filly, that died in the foaling, I found un-
expectedly, and whether it be new or not I cannot tell, as
these cavities always appeared to me closed and without com-
munication with each other.

On making a transverse section of the head or face, near
the lower edge or margin of the orbit of the eye, the saw was

found to pass through the lower part of the frontal sinuses, or
rather cavities in the horse, and through the upper part of the
maxillary cavities ; on inspection of which, there presents in
such section, a lap or duplication of a partition which is partly
closed and partly open. On following the open part and
breaking away the side of the maxilla, this opening was found
to lead over the os spongiosum internum, or minus the slit or
opening was immediately over the high projecting summit or
top of the third grinder reckoning from the front of the mouth;
so that any fluid formed in this cavity and falling downwards
would distribute itself over the surface of this bone, and
would arrive at a kind of blind end in the nose, through
which as it could not pass it must distribute itself on the
surface of the cavity, or if the horse threw his head or nose
high it would apparently be carried to the throat over the
palate. The utility or necessity indeed of moisture for the
propagation of both taste and smell is sufficiently understood.
And the air drawn through the nostrils, if drawn through
these cavities, would keep them in too dry a state ; and there-
fore access is thus limited by an approach only in the opposite
direction, and that not immediately. In this way these con-
volved crustaceous bones appear to receive in diminished but
sufficient quantities the odorant particles, and only in larger
quantities by a sonorous snort or snifting with the nose, their
very extended surfaces in this way conveying an ample im-
pression, of which travellers relate instances of their giving
plain notice of the presence of rivers in arid countries at two
miles distance. And it would appear that when the head is
held perpendicularly these fluids would accumulate to some
inches in depth, but when the head is at an angle of 45° these
fluids must overflow into these slits at half this depth, being
nearly on a level with the bottom of the cavities, such would
readily empty their contents, and which passing over the tur-
binated bones would flow into the chamber before described.

On laying open the upper turbinated bone, another semi-
osseous, very thin, flexible, and almost transparent, bone was
found inside, with numerous vessels on its surlace, partly
filled with air and partly with a dark sanguineous fluid; these
vessels had much the appearance of absorbents.

This smaller internal spongious bone terminated in a point
at either end, the lower more like a fleshy tube, the upper
more bony. This being laid open was found hollow, irregular,
and transversely divided by two bony partitions. The lower
about its middle nearly double, the upper surface of the inner
bone appeared nearly devoid of any membranous covering;
its inferior surface, however, exhibited a membrane. The
lower extremity of it terminated in a tubular or convoluted
chord, having strong muscular fibres going to the nostril, the
upper end seemed to finish in a blind tube of bone having
small perforations. There is considerable obscurity about
these parts. Thus much is clear, that the opening outwards
into the nostril is behind the transverse partitions, and not at
their bottom.

The lower turbinated bone has two of these crustaceous
bones within it, but considerably smaller than the above. The
superior part of this cavity is not covered by membrane ; on
the front of it rises a process like a thin cup or acorn, a larger
cell of a triangular figure lies behind this, and an elevated
line of bone shows the duct or conduit for the nerves of the
lips. From these cavities there appears a gradual percolation
to moisten the parts leading to the external nostril.

For a splendid representation of the crustaceous bones, see
Large Section of the Horse's Head, pi. 2; and for a section
of these bones, see Frontispiece to the Bits, or pi. 1,



	I

	ANATOMY.

	If placed the same in both legs, the animal would fall for- wards or backwards as it might be, making the calf of the leg in man. It takes rise in the hollow we observe in the inferior external part of the thigh along with the perforatus, a little above the condyles, inclosing the perforatus between them. About half way down the back of the tibia they unite and form one strong tendon, which is inserted into the notch observable in the posterior superior part of the os calcis, and is kept down by the tendon of the perforatus passing over it, having previously formed an union with the tendon of the posterior tibialis muscle which wraps it round and incloses it all the way to its insertion. There is also a very strong tendon from the patellaris externus passes down with them to be inserted into the os calcis. Use.� To act on the thigh, cannon, and foot, but apparently not the tibia, as not being attached to it; and the same in others, where a whole bone is interposed between the origin and insertion of a muscle. The insertion of these muscles is at such an angle from the leg, that they must act most powerfully in bringing the shank and tersus forward to a straight line with the leg after it has suffered flexion, and the greater the distance the more the power. Man.�Much the same. Ox.�There is a very strong tendon to the middle division of the gastrocnemius, which may be saparated, and is no doubt the representative of the tendon of the human soleus, but the fleshy body is not to be divided from the gastrocnemius. Dog.�Felis the same, but possesses, which the dog does not, a very large muscle, the linearis, but which has not the characters of the human soleus. It rises on the posterior part of the head of the fibula and passes underneath the gastroc- nemius and perforatus, and terminates by distinct tendon on the os calcis, and appears to be a very distinct muscle, is it not like the linearis enlarged, or is it the soleus representative ? Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 120, les jumeaux. Vitet, les ju- maux. Bourgelat, Extenseur du canon. Stubbs, Gemellus. Douglas, Extensor tarsi suralis. Extensor magnus, p. 173. Linearis.�This small muscle had escaped my observation a long time; it rises from the outside of the tibia, near the fibula, passing obliquely backward, it joins the tendo Achilles, and is with it inserted into the top of the os calcis. Use.�To turn the tarsus and cannon inwards. Man.�It agrees in many respects with the human plan- laris, still that is attached to the external condyle of the os femoris. Felis do not perceive it. Ox.�Vitet states its existence, but I do not find it; there is a muscle, however, attached to the tendon of the flexor longus. Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 120. Le Grele extenseur. Dic- tionaire, p. 25. Stubbs has not noticed it. The perforatus he calls the plantaris! Douglass says the true human plantaris exists in the dog, p. 175. Extensor brevis pedis.�This is a small muscle which takes its rise on the tarsus, so small that it might easily escape no- tice. In the horse it passes over to the anterior part of the shank, passing down the inside of the tendon of the extensor longus, and reaching the pastern it there divides into a broad aponeurosis passing underneath the extensor of the foot, covering over the whole anterior surface of the head of the pastern, it frequently joins to the extensor longus of the foot without reaching the pastern. I have seen it go to the pastern in one leg, and terminate in the tendon of the extensor longus in the other leg. Use.�To extend the foot in combination with other muscles. Man.�A more considerable muscle. Bog.�Much as in the human. Ox.__More distinct than in the horse, terminating in the tendon of the extensor longus. Felis as the Dog. La/osse, Cours d'Hipp. p. 122 Die. p. 438. He makes three flexor muscles one, viz. of the suspensor ligament, and two	others belonging to the styloid bones. Vitet, n'en dit rien. Stubbs, Flexor brevis digitorum pedis. Douglass describes it in the dog, p. 184, and tells us the dog has two muscles of this sort. Extensor longus pedis.�This muscle lies the most anterior of the muscles on the fore part of the leg, its body being lodged in the same channel with the tibialis, on the outside of the tibia; it begins at the external condyle of the femur by a strong tendon, it passes down the anterior of the shank, pastern, and coronet bones, and terminates on the anterior re- curved summit of the coffin bone ; it is also strongly attached to the pastern and coronet bones. Use.�Obviously to extend the three bones which compose the foot phalanx, although the extension of the foot in stand- ing is chiefly performed by the weight of the body. Man.�It is something similar to the human extensor pedis or digitorum com. but that rises from the tibia. Ox.�Has three muscles, all rising from a single tendon on the external condyle of the femur, the tibialis anticus and two extensors; one lies on one side, and the other rather behind the tibialis anticus. They are small, making together the same size as that of the horse; degenerating into tendons, they pass through the annular ligament, and passing the tarsus and metatarsus, are joined by the extensor brevis; it then divides into two, lodging in the channel of the bone, and the other tendon again divides into two thin, round tendons, which passing down the inside of the pastern, coronet, and foot, terminate on the prominent or curved point of the two claws. The other, or internal tendon, terminates by aponeur. cover- ing all the anterior of the pastern and coronet, and terminating on the edge of the foot bone. Vitet, p. 197. L'extenseur externe. He says, though wrongly, that they terminate on the second phalanx. Dog.�It lies behind the tibialis anticus, taking rise on the head of the tibia, passing with the tibialis anticus through a restraining ligament, it splits into four tendons, one going to each extreme phalanx of the toes. Cat.�The same, except that it is confined at the tarsus by a singular floating loose loop of ligament. Lafosse, Cours d'Hipp p. 122. Diet. p. 37. L'extenseur anterieur. Bourgelat, ditto. Stubbs, Extensor longus digitorum pedis. Peroneus longus.�This small muscle is situated on the out- side of the leg, taking rise on the head of the fibula, passing down the outside of the tibia and tarsus, where it is confined by a ligament, passing forward to the front of the shank, it then joins the extensor longus of the foot. Vitet observes: It sometimes terminates on the pastern, p. 193. L'Extenseur du paturon. Stubbs, Peroneus anticus. Bourgelat, L exten- seur lateral. Use.�To act on the extensor longus as an auxiliary, di- recting it a little outward. Man.�There are three tendons, of which this performs the united office. Vitet, L'extenseur externe, p. 197. Ox.�The tendon of this muscle does not join the extensor longus as in the horse, but expanding and passing down the anterior part of the pastern and coronet, terminates on the last phalanx, performing the same office, being like the internal division of the tendon of the extensor longus, passing through two annular bands in the cow, and but one in the horse, near the tarsus. It is improperly called peroneus here, as there is no proper fibula to this animal. It has also another, the pero-metatarsalis, from the external condyle of the tibia, anterior to the longus, passing through the annular ligament with the longus, it terminates by an ex- tended tendon on the outside of the metatarsus. Vitet, p. 196. Dog.�The same, but connected with & fibula. Cat.�The same, goes fleshy halfway down. Perforatus.�This muscle is seen on removing the gastroc- nemius ; it rises from the same place, the fossa perforigera, or deep excavation in the femur a little above the external con- dyle. About half way down the back of the leg it becomes tendinous, and passing over the gastrocnemius tendon, it