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G�TEBORQS

HANDLINGAR

A NEW ETYMOLOGICAL GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS ANDnbsp;THEIR DERIVATIVES

A STUDY ON SEMANTICS

K. F. SUND�N

In the Germanic family of languages there is a group of verbs and their derivatives whose phonetic shapes point to a weak basenbsp;nut in Common Germanic and whose semantic aspects seem to havenbsp;some affinity so as to invite an investigator to search for a primarynbsp;signification that may have given rise to the factual meanings. Itnbsp;is true that this genetic category is unknown in the world of scholarship. It is also true that the senses may diverge to such a degreenbsp;that there seems to be no glimmering of an idea how to bring themnbsp;into etymological contact with one another. But the more the researcher extends the range of his investigation, the more he obtainsnbsp;valuable items of information which facilitate his task of geneticallynbsp;unravelling the skeen of senses and of proving their etymologicalnbsp;relationship.

There are three features which, on a cursory examination, seem to be distinctive marks of the group of verbs we have in view. The firstnbsp;characteristic is the inflectional fact that all the verbs have weaknbsp;conjugation, a state of things not suggestive of a very high age.nbsp;The second characteristic is a stylistic fact. It is the quality thatnbsp;most of the factual senses of the verbs have no dignified associations. But that is practically equivalent to saying that theynbsp;usually have a disparaging tone, i. e. they have an atmosphere aboutnbsp;them indicative of the speaker�s contempt or disapproval. It is onlynbsp;natural that the bad connotation of the verbs should be extendednbsp;to their derivatives. The third characteristic of the group is ofnbsp;another type. It is the circumstance that the vast majority of itsnbsp;members have never attained general currency but are dialectal words,nbsp;a quality explaining why they have been overlooked by etymological research. It is only Dutch neutelen and some of its derivativesnbsp;which have from dialectal obscurity been raised into common parlance and literary use. But when Franck and van Wijk, the editors of ^Etymologisch Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal�, hadnbsp;to deal with the genetic problem of these words, they refused to donbsp;their duty on the unacceptable plea that this was a laborious under-

taking. So it is doubtless, for the etymological explanation whatever it be must cover the whole ground. Otherwise said, whosoever wants to find out the basic sense of the group must pay attention to all its significations. Hence an isolated genetic interpretation of any member of the group is likely to be erroneous or else uncertain even though the real primary sense should happen to benbsp;found.

But, before proceeding further with our introductory remarks, it is meet to relate how the present writer chanced to come acrossnbsp;the group of words whose etymological interrelation he is going tonbsp;demonstrate. This is all the more appropriate as we shall then benbsp;in a position to eke out the group with a member whose occurrencenbsp;is of an early date but whose sense and origin have hitherto beennbsp;wrapped in impenetrable obscurity.

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XjM-

�V,*� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;.

There is a Middle English alliterative poem, now called 'Purity� or 'Cleanness�, w'hich was written about 1375 in the Lancashirenbsp;dialect by the unknown author of the finest romaunt of the period,nbsp;to wit, Syr Gawayne and the Grene Kny3t. In the former poemnbsp;there occurs once the verb nytel, a diraC hy�yevov in English evidently called into play by the needs of alliteration. But when wenbsp;are confronted with a word whose sense and origin are obscure,nbsp;the only course open to us is to find out its congeners by meansnbsp;of its own contextual sense and phonetic shape. In the presentnbsp;case the latter may point to a base nut, and the context is illustratednbsp;by the annexed quotation: �-

Day lest of Lote3 logyng any lysoun to fynde Bot nyteled J)er alle Jse ny3t for no3t at Jje last.

These lines represent a fragment of the Biblical tale in Genesis xix, the gist of which is as follows: �There came two angels to Sodomnbsp;at even in order to save Lot and his family from the impending destruction of the town. But soon a mob surrounded his house clamouring for the new arrivals, whom they wanted to know. It wasnbsp;in vain that Lot resorted to expostulations and subterfuges. Henbsp;was even ill-treated by the mob, though promptly rescued by thenbsp;angels. Thereupon it says in the Bible (Gen. 19,11): �And theynbsp;[= the angels] smote the men that (were) at the door of the housenbsp;with blindness, both small and great: so that they wearied them-

selves to find the door.� It is this very passage that is paraphrased by the fragment quoted above. Its meaning is as follows: �Theynbsp;[= the angels] dealt the accursed people a blow by breathing anbsp;blast so that they strayed about as blind as Bayard ever was. Theynbsp;failed to find any trace of Lot�s dwelling but ^nyteled� there in vainnbsp;all the night at the last.�

From the view-point of contextual evidence, then, it would seem that the proximate sense of ME. nytel was 'to nose about in quest ofnbsp;something�. But if the fact is stressed that the people were strucknbsp;with temporary blindness, then one is willing to accept as anothernbsp;possibility the sense 'to be busy in a trifling manner� (= Sw. 'ga ochnbsp;pyssla�), tentatively given by the N. E. D. An acceptable meaning isnbsp;also 'to dawdle, loiter� (= Sw. 'ga och sola�, 'ga och driva�), but thenbsp;significations 'to struggle� and 'to make ado�, suggested by R. J.nbsp;Menner and I. Gollancz respectively, are unworthy of attention.i)

Thus, in looking about for etymological cognates we should start from the contextual senses postulated above. If we do, itnbsp;will turn out that both in Continental Germanic and in Scandinaviannbsp;there are verbs whose stems point to a base nut in Common Germanic and whose semantic aspects present inter alia the meanings 'tonbsp;be busy in a trifling manner�, or 'to dawdle or loiter�, or even 'tonbsp;nose about in quest of something� in a literal or a figurative sense.nbsp;Hence, previous to any special examination, there is a strong presumption that ME. nytel is genetically connected with the group ofnbsp;verbs we are going to discuss.

Under such circumstances it was a matter of course that our etymological interest should be extended from a single instance tonbsp;the whole group of words that appeared to be its congeners. Onnbsp;further examination it turned out that the demonstration of thenbsp;genetic affinity between the members of this group was still a problem that called for solution. This meant that there was muchnbsp;hard work to be done. For it implied not only the pains of col-.lecting the words with the base nut, though the material be comparatively limited in amount, but also the selection of a primarynbsp;signification from which all the factual senses might have takennbsp;their rise, be it proximately or ultimately. But this involved innbsp;its turn that the demonstration of the sense-development should benbsp;made in a manner that carries conviction. Hence we thought that

Cp. R. J. Menner (editor) Purity^ New Haven, London 1920 (Yale Studies in. English). Cp. I. Gollancz (editor) Cleanness, London 1921.

this task would best be carried out under guidance of the principles established by semantic research, a discipline which had been a focal centre of interest during the last few decades. But we alsonbsp;thought that it was a most favourable occasion for testing the suitability of these principles. But if so, it was necessary to devote anbsp;couple of chapters to giving some information about the mechanism of speech and the notion of meaning, and to taking a short butnbsp;critical survey of the latest system of semantic changes.

The validity of our semantic demonstrations is dependent on their intrinsic probability. But though this evidence be sufficientnbsp;to convince our own mind, it may to others perhaps appear as merenbsp;wanton conjectures. If so, we are able to adduce another evidencenbsp;in support of our semantic postulations, a testimony that cannotnbsp;be ignored by an honest mind since it is too strong for doubt ornbsp;denial. This evidence is given by the derivatives from the Germanicnbsp;base nus, which runs parallel with nut and in our opinion has thenbsp;same primary signification. Hence we have found it appropriate tonbsp;devote a chapter by itself to the cumulative evidence afforded bynbsp;the sense-development arising from the base nus. And when thisnbsp;development deviates from that starting from the base nut, we havenbsp;again tried to'give an explanation under guidance of now prevailingnbsp;scientific principles. In this way it came about that we venturednbsp;to turn this etymological investigation into a study on semantics asnbsp;well, though in miniature.

The Linguistic Material.

SCANDINAVIAN.

Swedish: � Nata [notaf) V. 1905 H. Vendell Ordbolc over de �stsvensJca Dialekterna (Helsingfors). Dr�ja, sola, i. e. to loiter,nbsp;dawdle, to delay, be long about getting a thing done (Finnby in Finland). � Ndttla^) V. c 1929 heard in actual use by the present writer.nbsp;Halla pa med petg�ra, i. e. 'Etwas Kleines, Schwieriges arbeiten� =nbsp;sense 2 of Swiss Ger. nusle^ (Bj�rketorp, a parish in Vasterg�tland,nbsp;and Ryssby, a parish in the Calmar district).

Norwegian: � Nuta v. 1895 H. Ross Norsk Ordbok (Christiania). Stikke Snuden frem; sserlig: stikke Snuden frem (ned) i Eod-ret uden at sede, i. e. to push forth the snout; esp. to push forth (down) the snout into the fodder but without eating (Hardang).

In Norwegian dialects there is a verb nutla meaning (1) 'soge Foder, finde sig noget at aide, om Dyr�, i. e. to search for food, said of animals (Sondmore and othernbsp;districts)�); (2) 'pusle, arbeide smaat�, i. e. to be busy in a trifling manner (Jsedren,nbsp;Hardang)^). Taken at its face value, the word seems to be formed from the basenbsp;nut. But it must be ruled out since it only occurs in districts noted for the peculiarity of having turned the consonantal combination al into tl. Otherwise said,nbsp;nutla is a mere phonetic variant of nusla, which has the same senses.�)

Danish: � Nuta v. 1908 J. C. S. Espersen Bornholmsk Ordbog (K0benhavn). Nysle, smaasysle, have travlt med Ubetydeligheder,nbsp;i. e. to be (eagerly) busy with trifling work; it. vsere langsom, ikkenbsp;rask til sit Arbeide, i. e. to be slow, to be tardy in beginning or doingnbsp;something. � Nytle \_n0tel nailer (Lindknud sogn),�) naddl nodlenbsp;(Sundeved)] v. 1894�1904 H. F. Eeilberg Ordbog over Jyske Almuesmdl

K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HAVDL. F. 6. SEE. A. BD 1. N:0 3 (Kj0benhavn). Vsere nsevenyttig, i. e. to be deft or clever of hand. �-Notie [ndUl, ndthr, ndtht (Andst, Moss), impf. tidt?U (Vensyssel),nbsp;nopl nothr (Vejrum sogn; Hammerum herred)] v. 1894�1904nbsp;Ibid. (1) Sysle med al slags smaarbejde; vaere nsevenyttig, i. e. to benbsp;busy with all sorts of trifling work; to be skilful or expert in w'orkingnbsp;with the hands or in handicraft; (2) vsere langsom til sit arbejde,nbsp;i. e. to be tardy in beginning or doing anything. � Nutte \_midt see,nbsp;nutw nutdt (Braderup)] v. 1894�1904 Ibid. 'Skultre sig� = udtryknbsp;for den bevsegelse som et mske g�r, nar han bevseger overkroppennbsp;for at klo sig el. ryste noget af sig (Feilberg), i. e. to give one�s uppernbsp;body shakes or twists because of an itching or in order to get rid ofnbsp;something. � Noddre [wd^ar, noder, -�rdr, -drat (Darum sogn, Ribenbsp;herred; Lindknud sogn. Malt herred),^) ndr (Angel)] v. 1894�1904nbsp;Ibid. (1) Smasynge, nynne, i. e. to hum an air, to croon; (2) om uty-delig tale, i. e. to mutter, to utter in a low voice and indistinctly;nbsp;(3) han gor o nodrar a'd (Andst) tilbringer tiden med al slags sma-syssel, i. e. spends his time in doing all sorts of petty jobs. � Nodlenbsp;[norl ar at] v. 1894�1904 Ibid. Smasynge, nynne, i. e. to hum an air,nbsp;to croon.

Der ivatives (see H. F. Feilberg Ordbog over Jyske Almues-mdl): � Nytleri [notlarij (Lindknud sogn. Malt h.)] sb. Smaarbejde, i. e. work comparatively small and unimportant. � Notleri [ndthri-jnbsp;(vestjysk)] sb. Nottelvserk, i. e. smat handarbejde, i. e. work ornbsp;thing comparatively small and unimportant done or made by thenbsp;hands. � Nottel [notal (Rogen)] sb. Nottelvserk. � Nottelarbejdenbsp;[natalarbad (vestjysk)] sb. Nottelvserk. � Nottelgavn \natalgawn (vestjysk)] sb. Nottelvserk. � Nottelvserk [ndtalvcvrk (vestjysk), notalvcerknbsp;(Rogen)] sb. Smat handarbejde (see above). � Notteltang [ndtalta%nbsp;(Andst) notaltd% (Holstebro)] sb. Niptang, i. e. (a pair of) pliers,nbsp;tweezers; skadenseb, i. e. lille niptang med cyUndriske ksebernbsp;[ = jaws]. Orig. doubtless = tweezers used when Mottelvserk� wasnbsp;being done. � Notler [ndtlar (Vensyssel, Mors), ndtlar (Thy)] sb. Ennbsp;handslov, nsevenyttig person; en kluddrer, som kan gore alslags,nbsp;men intet godt (Thy), i. e. a person deft or clever of hand; a bunglernbsp;who can do or make work of any kind but in a clumsy or unskilfulnbsp;manner; also 'person som kan gore handvserksarbejde uden at havenbsp;staet i Isere, husflidsarbejder�, i. e. a person who can do or make thenbsp;w'ork of a craftsman without having been an apprentice, a personnbsp;occupied with domestic industries, also 'nalemager�, i. e. needle-maker

*) A horizontal stroke under a consonant or a vowel denotes length oJ the sound.

(Agerskov, Sonderjylland). � Notlitot [nd�itdt (Han herred; Mors)] sb. En ligegyltig og tabelig person, i. e. a listless and foolish person.

� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Nottelvom [ndt3lipr3n (S. Sams)] a. Handslov, i. e. deft or clevernbsp;of hand. � Nodder [noddr (Darum, Ribe lierred)] sb. Nynnen, utyde-lig tale, i. e. humming (an air), crooning; indistinct speech. �nbsp;Noddreri [nodrdri'j (Darum, Ribe herred)] sb. Utydlig tale (see above).

� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Noddregj�g sb. Bekkasin, i. e. a snipe. � Noddrehors sb. == noddre-gi�g. Cp. Swed. horsg�k (lit. horse-cuckoo) 'enkel beckasin�, i. e.nbsp;a jacksnipe or judcock. � Noddresynge [noddrsj0ti (Lonborg sogn,nbsp;N. Horne h.)] v. Nynne, i. e. to hum a tune, to croon. � Noddresangnbsp;[noddrsati (Lonborg sogn)] sb. Nynnen, i. e. humming (an air), crooning.

GERMAN.

Low German. Low German or 'Niedersachsisch� has a large geographical extent. To that idiom belong part of the north of thenbsp;Low Countries (the Netherlands), the province of Westphalianbsp;(except the district of Siegen), the province of Hannover (except Frisiannbsp;remnants and the Middle German colony at Klaustal), Waldeck, Lippe,nbsp;the northernmost corner of the former Electorate of Hessen,nbsp;Brunswick, the bulk of Oldenburg, Sleswig-Holstein (unless it benbsp;Danish or Frisian), Hamburg, L�beck, Bremen, the administrativenbsp;district of Magdeburg (except the southernmost part), parts of Anhalt,nbsp;Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg (except the southernmost part).nbsp;West and East Prussia (except a small Middle German district).^)nbsp;H. Paul points out that �die Grenze des alten niedersachsischennbsp;Gebietes gegen das Mitteldeutsche ist ziemlich konstant geblieben�,nbsp;and that primitive Teutonic Jgt; )gt;hat auf hoch- und niederdeutschemnbsp;Gebiete die gleiche Entwicklung durchgemacht, aber so, dass die-selbe vom Siiden ihren Ausgang genommen und sich erst allmahlichnbsp;weiter nach Norden verbreitet hat�.^)

Schleswig-Holstein: � N�teln \ngdlnY) v. 1931 Otto Mensing Schleswig-Holsteinisches W�rterbuch (Neum�nster) Bd III.nbsp;Langsam sein, zaudern, schlendern (i. e. schlecht und nachlassignbsp;arbeiten). In the diet, n�teln is erroneously adduced as a variant ofnbsp;n�len [n^ln\ v. with the same senses (Sdtm., Elmsh., E�hr). � N�d-dem [nodanl v. 1931 Ibid. Schwach wiehern (vom Fiillen), (Hus.,nbsp;Ang.).�Nuddeln \nudln'\ and uutelu \nudln'\ v. 1931 Ibid. (1) Zaudern,

10 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HAKDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. KIO 3 nicht vom Fleck kommen; (2) undeutlich spreclien, unverstandlichnbsp;murmeln. � N�ddeln [nydln] and n�ddern [nydan] v. 1931 Ibid.nbsp;Brummen, Holst. 1797; n�rgeln (i. e. to grumble, to nag, to findnbsp;fault), �berlaunig Vorw�rfe rnachen (Elbm).

Derivatives (see Otto Mensing Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wb. Bd. Ill): � Nottelig a. Unsauber. � Nuddel [nudl] sb. Schmutzigernbsp;Mensch (Schlesw.). �Nuddelig [nudsU], auch n�ddelig (Dtm.), a. (1)nbsp;Langsam, trage; (2) unordentlich, unsauber, schmutzig; (3) undeutlich.nbsp;� N�ddelig {ny'dgK] a. (1) Saumig, langsam, ungewandt (i. e. clumsynbsp;or unskilful); (2) geschickt im Verfertigen von allerlei IHeinkram,nbsp;anstellig (i. e. skilful), brauchbar, t�chtig (Ang., vereinz. auchMh.).i)

Bremen and the adjacent district: � Netela \r]f) V. 1768 Versuch eines bremisch-niedersdchsischen Worterbuchs hrsg. vonnbsp;der bremischen deutschen GeseUschaft (Bremen) Bd III. Zaudern,nbsp;moras nectere; it. nicht aufhSren kbnnen von einer Sache zu reden,nbsp;einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben. Es ist ein Wort, welchesnbsp;den Bremern besonders eigen, und dessen Abstammung noch unbe-kannt ist. In Hamb. nohlen und nusseln. � N�teln [oy]^) v. 1768nbsp;Ibid. Zaudern. S. Neteln.

Derivatives; see the dictionary mentioned above; � Beneteln v. In einem verdrusslichen Ton und Stil etwas tadeln. �nbsp;Beneteld ppl. a. Verlegen, verwirrt; ungewiss, wie man sich helfennbsp;soil. � Vor neteln v. Enem wat vor neteln: einem was vor tS,ndeln,nbsp;vor plaudern � Neteler sb. Zauderer, langsamer Mensch, es sey innbsp;der Arbeit, oder im Reden. � Netel-gOOS sb. Dasselbe � Netel-haftig und Netelig a. Zauderhaft, verdrusslich-langsam. Doch wirdnbsp;der Unterscheid beobachtet, dass das erstere mehr von Personen,nbsp;letzteres nur von Sachen gebrauchet wird. � Netel-kutte sb. Einnbsp;Zauderer. � Netelije sb. Das Zaudern, Gezauder.

Mecklenburg and Hither Pomerania: � Nud-deln V. 1876 Mi W�rterbuch der Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommerschen Mundart (Leipzig). Saumen, langsam arbeiten. Cp. nusseln ==nbsp;nuddeln. � N�te sb. Nase, Hans N�te = ein possirlicher Mensch.

1) The adjectives niddel st�ssig, vom Rindvieh (Hus.); niittel atossig, wild, vom Rindvieh (Dtm.); also niddelig (Dtm.) and nottlig (Dtm. 1755); also n�ddelig [nydal�],nbsp;nuddelig, and n�Uli (no dialectal source is given), do not belong to the base nut. Cp.nbsp;OE. hnitol adj. addicted to butting (of an ox) and OE. hnitan str. v. to thrust, gore,nbsp;butt; cp. also Goth, hnup-o, hnut-o sb '�spitzer Pfal� and Swed. stdnga(s) to gore, buttnbsp;(said of cattle), from stung sb. Pfal; cp. also the Germanic base hnud 'stossen,nbsp;schlagen�.

Westphalia: � N�ttlick a. 1756 J. Ch. Strodtmann Idioticon Osnabrugense (Leipzig u. Altona) Een n�ttlick keerl = ein wunderlicher sonderlicher Kerl (see s. v. Nettlick).

W al d eek. The idiom of Waldeck, earlier a principality, is by H. Paul taken to be Low German, and the Hessian dialect is bynbsp;him classed as Middle German, except the northernmost corner ofnbsp;the former Kurhessen, which is Low German. Luise Bertholdnbsp;includes the vocabulary of Waldeck in her 'Hessen-Nassauischesnbsp;Volksw�rterbuch�, which embraces the Prussian province of Hessen-Nassau, the Hessian province of Oberhessen, the Rhine district ofnbsp;Wetzlar, the Westphalian district of Wittgenstein, and the Treenbsp;state� of Waldeck. � N�t�l�n^) v. 1902 Karl Bauer Waldeckisches W�rterbuch, hrsg. von H. Collitz (Norden u. Leipzig).^) Murren, brummen.nbsp;Nutteln [nut9hn, Rhoden in Waldeck] v. 1935 Luise Berthold Hessen-Nassauisches Volksw�rterbuch (Marburg). Nasein (Willersdf.�Fk),nbsp;knurren (Rhoden). � N�t�r�n v. 1902 Karl Bauer Waldeck. Wb. Sichnbsp;ungehalten �ber etwas aussprechen; brummen, murren.

Derivative: � N�ttelpeter sb. 1935 Luise Berthold Hess.-Nass. Volksw. Griesgram, i. e. a grumbler, grovder, (Niederm�rsb. � Ow.).

Livonia (and E s t h o n i a). As to the dialectal nature of the German language as until recently occurring in Livonia (andnbsp;Esthonia), we get the following information in W. von Gutzeit�snbsp;dictionary of 1886 foil. (vol. I p. iii): �Die Sprache der deutschennbsp;Bev�lkerung Livlands war anfangs die niederdeutsche, da Bremer,nbsp;Westfalinger, Magdeburger, Braunschweiger, L�neburger, Holsteiner.nbsp;Schaumburger den gr�ssten Theil der Bezwinger und Ansiedler diesesnbsp;Landes ausmachten . . . Noch bis in die achtziger Jahre des ver-flossenen Jahrhunderts, und spater selbst wurde sie [= die niederdeutsche Sprache] von dem B�rgerstande und auf den Edelh�fennbsp;� am langsten von den Frauen und im vertraulichen Kreise � innbsp;Gebrauch gezogen . . . Eine nicht unbedeutende Zahl von nieder-deutschen W�rtern, Ausdr�cken und Wortformen ist noch [= 1886]nbsp;bei uns im Gebrauch ... In der Schrift dagegen brachte sich nebennbsp;und nach der lateinischen und plattdeutschen Sprache schon fr�hnbsp;die hochdeutsche zur Geltung . . . War somit das Hochdeutsche innbsp;Livland bereits vor der Reformation bekannt und benutzt, so er-

�) = Vol. IV of W�rterb�cher hrsg. vom Verein fiir niederdeutsche Sprachfor-schung.

bl�hte dasselbe doch erst seit ihrer Zeit, wenn auch noch ein Jahr-hundert verfloss, bis die Niederdeutsche Mundart in den Hinter-grund gedrangt war.�

N�teln V. 1889 W. von Gutzeit W�rterschatz der Deutschen Sfrache Livlands (Riga) zweiter Theil, Dritte Lieferung. Zaudern, tr�deln,nbsp;i. e. to dawdle, to loiter. Also in Esthonia, see K. Sallmann Neuenbsp;Beitrage zur deutschen Mundart in Estland (Reval) 1880 p. 37. �nbsp;Nitteln v. Gadebusch sagtd) �niitteln, mussitare [i. e. in den Bartnbsp;murmeln], iterum iterumque aliquid segre ferre atque id verbis expri-mere. Ein echt lieflandisches Wort . . . Pictorius hat niiseln, innbsp;Hamburg sagt man nuckernD. von Gntzeit says, p. 291: )gt;Nittelnnbsp;bedeutet: an Allem etwas auszusetzen haben, und mit einer ge-wissen Kleinigkeitskramerei oder Spitzfindigkeit dabei verfahren.�nbsp;Also in Esthonia, see K. Sallmann op. cit. p. 37. He explains thenbsp;word as follows: �n�rgeln [i. e. to grumble, to find fault], in krit-telnden Tonen murren, bekritteln. �¹ ²)

Derivatives: � Benitteln v. 1880 K. Sallmann Neue Beitrage zur deutschen Mundart in Estland (Reval) p. 97. In verdriess-lichem Ton kleinlich bekritteln (see von Gutzeit�s diet. s. v. nitteln).

� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The following derivatives are adduced in von Gutzeit�s dictionary: � Nittler sb. Einer der nittelt. � Nittelei and Nittlerei =nbsp;nomina actionis. � Nittlerisch a. Immer etwas zu nitteln habend.

The base nut does not seem to have been widely spread over the Low German territory. In point of fact, we have consulted quitenbsp;a number of Low German vocabularies but without meeting withnbsp;the base nut. These are:

1781 Johann Carl Damp;hnert Platt-Deutsches Worter-Buch {nach der alten und neuen Pommerschen und Rugischen Mundart (Stral-sund).

1) Cp. F. C. Gadebusch Zusatze zu Frischens Deutschem W�rterbucke (in dem ri-gischen gelehrten Anzeiger von 1763�1767. But in the present case we are concerned with his Zweite Sammiung von Zusatzen zu Frischens Deutschem W�rter-buche. See also von Gutzeit�s dictionary s. v. nitteln.

In the dictionary compiled by von Gutzeit there is a verb Nudeln = �murcheln, qualen�. This verb is, doubtless, connected with the base hnud, stossen, schlagen�,nbsp;see Alf Torp Wortschatz der Germanischen Spraeheinheit, Gottingen 1909 p. 100nbsp;(= August Fick, Vergleichendes W�rterbuoh der Indogermanischen Sprachen III).

1858 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Georg Schambach W�rterbuch der niederdeutschen Mundart dernbsp;F�rstenth�mer Gottingen und Grubenhagen (Hannover).

1859 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;J. F. Daneil W�rterbuch der altmdrkiscJi-plattdeutschen Mundart (Salzwedel).

1882 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Fr. Woeste W�rterbuch der Westfalischen Mundart (Nordennbsp;und Leipzig). = W�rterb�cher brsg. Vom Verein f. nieder-deutscbe Spracbforscbung Bd I.

1882�3 H. Friscbbier Preussisches W�rterbuch. Ost- und West-preussiscbe Provinzialismen in alpbabetiscber Folge (Berlin). 1896 E. L. Fiscber Grammatik und Wortschatz der Plattdeutschennbsp;Mundart im preussischen Samlande (Halle a. S.).

1910 W�rterbuch der Elberfelder Mundart nebst Abriss der Formen-lebre und Spracbproben (Elberfeld).

1883 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Heinricb Bergbaus Der Sprachschatz der Sassen oder ein TF�V-terbuch der Plattdeutschen Sprache in den hauptsachlichsten ihrernbsp;Mundarten (Berlin) Bd II 1883.

Tbe dictionary compiled by Bergbaus was evidently meant to be tbe chief representative of the Low Germannbsp;vocabulary. But our base nut gets no valuable illustration.nbsp;True, the delabialised form netelen and its derivatives arenbsp;adduced but with reference to Wersuch eines bremisch-nieder-sachsischen W�rterbuchs�. The form n�teln and its derivatives are also quoted but with reference to the East Frisian�nbsp;Saxon dictionaries compiled by Stiirenburg and ten Doornkaatnbsp;Koolman respectively. He adduces the Mecklenburg formnbsp;nuddeln also, but he gives no other item of informationnbsp;except the following word, which is, doubtless, connected withnbsp;the base nut (Note its pejorative sense!): �

Nuttig a. and adv. Unbedeutend, schlecht (Richt. Berl. S. 56). The form and sense of the word presuppose the former existencenbsp;of a verb *nutten meaning To be slow and ineffective when working�.

Middle German comprises two main dialects, viz. Frankish and East Middle German. Through the High Germannbsp;consonant-shift Frankish is subdivided into categories. We havenbsp;to note (1) Middle Frankish [= the chief part of the Rhine Province,nbsp;Luxemburg, Siegen in Westphalia, the north-western part of Nassau], Comprising

14 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. �EO 3 two subclasses, viz. Ripuarian Frankish (Cologne) andnbsp;Mosel Frankish (Trier), said to be the fundament of thenbsp;German language in Siebenbiirgen; (2) Rhine Frankish [= the southernnbsp;part of the Rhine Province, the German Lotharingia, the Bavarian Palatinate, thenbsp;northernmost part of Alsatia, Hessen except the northernmost comer of the formernbsp;Kurhessen, where Low German is spoken, Hessen-Darmstadt, a northern partnbsp;of Baden and W�rttemberg, and Aschaffenburg in the Bavarian Franconia];

(3) Southern Frankish, forming a transition to Alemannic; (4) East Frankish, which together with Southern Frankish is denoted as Uppernbsp;Frankish (Oberfrankisch) [= the bulk of the Bavarian Franconia, parts ofnbsp;W�rttemberg and Baden, the duchies of Meiningen, the Thuringian Hildburghausen,nbsp;Koburg, and das Vogtland, i. e. Reuss and part of the former Kingdom of Saxony].

Again, East Middle German comprises three dialects: (1) Thuringian [= the former duchies of Weimar-Eisenach, Gotha, Altenburg,nbsp;the former principalities of Schwarzburg, part of the province of Saxony, Klaus-tal]; (2) Upper Saxon (Obersachsisch) [= the former kingdom of Saxonynbsp;except das Vogtland and the Lusatia (die Lausitz), parts of the province of Saxony,nbsp;viz. Merseburg with the surrounding district and the southern strip of the districtnbsp;of Magdeburg, Anhalt, the southern part of Brandenburg, part of Bohemia];nbsp;(3) Silesian [= the Prussian and the Austrian Silesia, the Saxon Lusatia, parts ofnbsp;Bohemia, Moravia (Mahren), probably also Posen and a small Middle Germannbsp;district in Prussia].^)

Cronenberg and the adjacent district. In his dictionary of this dialect E. Leihener says (p. ii) that it partlynbsp;�sozusagen auf der Schwelle liegt zwischen ripuarischem und nieder-deutschem Sprachboden�. Hence he points out: �ihre Mundart undnbsp;ihr Wortschatz ist mittelfrankischen, niederfrankischen und west-falischen Kreuzungen ausgesetzt und findet hierin, und oft nur hierin,nbsp;die richtige Wertung.�

N�t(e)lig \ny'e.tldx, cp. ny'e.dsgsn � n�tigen] a. 1908 Erich Leihener Cronenberger W�rterbuch (Marburg).^) '�Verdriesshch�, i. e.nbsp;vexed, annoyed, grieved; peevish, sulky. Cp. Du. dial, n�telik.

Hessen: �Notteln v. 1886 Hermann v. Pfister Nachtrage zu A. F. G. Vilmar�s Idiotikon von Hessen (Marburg). In Bart vornbsp;sich hin brummeln: zumal am Westerwalde und im Unter-Maingauenbsp;�blich.

Lip sic: � Nuddeln v. 1881 Karl Albrecht Die Leipziger Mundart (Leipzig). Schlecht, hederhch, ohne Ernst und Nachdruck

arbeiten; auch: schleclit, langsam fahren. � Nudeln sb. 1881 Ibid. Halblautes, undeutliches, schlechtes Reden; auch Singen oder st�m-perhaftes Spiel auf einem Instrument; davon: die Nudelei. Thenbsp;stem-vowel is evidently = �.

Bavarian Franconia with Aschaffenburg (= Rhine Frankish): � Notzen v. 1872�1877 J. A. Schmeller Bayerischesnbsp;W�rterbuch, zweite Ausgabe bearbeitet von G. Karl Frommannnbsp;(M�nchen). Langsam seyn, nicht vom Fleck kommen. Gehen Sienbsp;weiter, notzen Sie nicht so lang herum (Aschaff.). See columnnbsp;1776.

As to the occurrence of the base nut in Middle German, we are unable to give definite information beyond what has already beennbsp;adduced. For the great Badenese dictionary (editor Ernst Ochs,nbsp;1925 foil.) is still in progress, and there are other dialectal dictionaries that we have not been in a position to examine. Let usnbsp;state, however, that there is a number of vocabularies examinednbsp;where there is no representative of the base nut and that hence thisnbsp;base seems to be of rare occurrence in Middle German. These vocabularies are: �

1793 W. F. H. Reinwald Hennebergisches Idioticon etc. [= the dialect of Saxe-Meiningen], Berlin u. Stettin.

1825�48 K. G. Anton Alphabet. Verzeichniss mehrerer in der Ober-lausitz ublichen Worter u. Bedensarten (Progr.), G�rlitz.

1890 Friedrich Liesenberg Die Stieger Mundart, ein Idiom des Un-terharzes, besonders hinsichtlich der Lautlehre dargestellt, Gottingen.

1925 Fritz Hoffmann Niederhessisches W�rterbuch, Marburg = Deutsche Dialektgeographie hrsg. von Ferdinand Wrede,nbsp;Heft XIX.

High or South German (Oberdeutsch). This idiom comprises two main dialects, viz. Bavarian and Alemannic. The former dialect is divided into (1) Northern Bavarian, or Upper Palatinenbsp;(Oberpfalzich) [spoken in Upper Palatinate, the adjacent part of Bohemia, andnbsp;part of Franconia with Nuremberg]; (2) Nliddle Bavarian [spoken in Uppernbsp;and Lower Bavaria (except the southernmost strip of land), the northern partnbsp;of Salzburg, and Upper and Lower Austria]; (3) South Bavarian [spoken in thenbsp;southern strip of Upper Bavaria, in the southern part of Salzburg, the Tyrol,nbsp;Carinthia (Karnten), and Styria (Steiermark)].

in the chief part of W�rttemberg, in Hohenzollern, and the Bavarian province of

Swabia]; (2) Alemannian, or Alemannic in a restricted sense [comprising the vernaculars in German Switzerland, Vorarlberg, south Baden and Alsatia except its northern (Frankish) part]. The latter dialect is in itsnbsp;turn divided into High Alemannian, i. e. the Germannbsp;vernaculars in Switzerland, except Basel, and Low Alemannian, i, e. the dialect in Basel, adjacent parts of Baden, andnbsp;Alsatia.^)

Swabian: � Nottere� [but the actually recorded form seems to be A^oderequot;] v. 1914 Hermann Fischer Schwabisches Worterbuchnbsp;{T�bingen) Bd IV. W�hlen, schnattern, i. e. to cackle (of ducks,nbsp;geese) or to chatter (of apes and women); �wenn man etwas sucht,nbsp;noderet man �berall; die Ente noderet im Schlamm (Rav Ringg.)�^)nbsp;� Nottle� V. Ibid. In sense Tangsam, unsicher gehen� n. is mostnbsp;probably a formation from the base nut (not from hnud 'stossen,nbsp;schlagen�, as is obviously the case when it denotes V�tteln,nbsp;sch�tteln ).

Derivatives: � Nottler sb. Alter Mann; Schelte; wer schwankend geht. �Nottlig a. Schwankend, altersschwach. �Nottletenbsp;[-ade] sb. 1914 Ibid. Hakelarbeit, i. e. crotchet-work. The subst.nbsp;seems to presuppose the former existence of a verb *nott(e)le^ To benbsp;busy in a trifhng manner�, To be deft and clever of hand�.

2) It is postulated by H. Fischer, though hesitantly, that nottere^ is genetically connected with the Swabian verb nottle^ 'r�tteln, sch�tteln*; Vackeln, unfest stehen�;nbsp;^langsam, unsicher gehen* and, of course, also with its derivatives: Nottler sb.nbsp;'Alter Maim; Schelte; wer schwankend geht*, and Nottlig a. 'Schwankend, altersschwach�.

Alsatia: � Nutt�le� [nyfld Roppenzw. Ruf. Geberschw. Lo-gelnh. Ingersh.] v. 1899 E. Martin und H. Lienhart W�rterhnch der Elsdssischen Mundarten (Strassburg) I 795. (1) Laiigsam thun, langsamnbsp;an etwas herumarbeiten, herumzerren (i. e. to haul or pull about);nbsp;(2) behaglich arbeiten, aus Langeweile, zuni Zeitvertrieb arbeiten.^)nbsp;� NotHe� [notie Lutterb. Wh. Dehli] v. Ibid. Langsam gehen.

Derivative; � Scbiffsnottel sb. Ibid. Bezeichnung f�r Schiffs-leute, welche das Schift selbst ziehen, wegen ihres langsainen, schwer-falligen Ganges.

Switzerland (except Basel); � Nodern v. 1812 Franz Joseph Stalder Ver such eines Schweizerischen Idiotikonnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Stiinkern ,

i. e. herumschn�ffeln (= to nose about, to pry about), 'w�hlen , mit den Compos, auf-, ver-, unternodern, von Biichern, Feuer, selbst auchnbsp;von fhissigen und halbfl�ssigen Dingen (Bw. Zg. Z. Gl. Schf.). N�-dere� I, nbdere^ (ZO), nottere^ (GrHe., Mai.) v. 1901 F. Staub undnbsp;L. Tobler Schweizerisches Idiotikon. Worterbuch der Schweizerdeut-schen Sprache (Frauenfeld) Bd IV 675 f. (1) W�hlen (to root up thenbsp;ground), stochern (to poke the fire), st�bern (to nose or rummagenbsp;about, to hunt in every corner), eig. und bildl. AaF.; Ke., Ap, VO,nbsp;�G1�; G; Sch; SB.; Th; ZAuss., 0., S., Stdt; (2) einer Sache nach-suchen, aufspiiren; (3) korrigieren; widersprechen, mit einem quot;Vor-gange nicht zufrieden sein (G Id. 1790).^) � Nodem v. 1812 Franznbsp;Joseph Stalder Schweizerisches Idiotikon (Aarau). Knarren, vonnbsp;Th�ren, Fensterladen (St. Anth.). Nodere� II v. 1901 F. Staub undnbsp;L. Tobler Schweizerisches Idiotikon . . . Bd IV 676.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;(1) Knarren,

b The Germanic base hnut is also represented in the dialect, viz. by the verb nottHe.^ {notie Lutterb. Wh. Dehli.] in sense 1, i. e. rutteln, seh�tteln, bewegen; butnbsp;not in sense 2 = langsam gehen.

b The following senses are by the compilers of the dictionary conceived of a.s belonging to Nodere^ I although they doubtless represent the Germanic base hnud,nbsp;viz. 'an Etw. herum r�tteln' (Gr He., Mal., Pr.); 'mit aussester Anstrengung arbeiten�,nbsp;'tiichtig drein schlagen�, 'Alles bemeistern wollen� (G. T). As to the form with t thenbsp;dictionary says (iv 676): ))Zu der Form mit t [i. e. nottere�] vgl. fladeren: flattern,nbsp;jluderen: flutteren, lederen: letteren.� But nattere^ seems to contain the base hnudnbsp;(cp. the localities), and hence /-form is to be expected.

V. 1901 Ibid. IV 677 == noderen I BU. (auch dim. n�derle�); S.; Z. (Dr. Fahrner). ,Je mehr man im Licht n�dere, desto schlechternbsp;brenne es.� N. B. Kal. 1840. � N�dere� II v. 1901 Ibid. Undeutlich,nbsp;leise reden. Mussare, n�selen oder n., durch die zan reden wie einnbsp;stumm. jMussitare, n�selen, n., linss reden, sehweigen; vern�selen,nbsp;als wenn einer f�rcht, man h�re in reden.� Fris.; Mal. � N�ttere�nbsp;V. 1901 Ibid. IV 876. Halblaut, unverstandlich sprechen (Schw.).nbsp;Syn. m�tteren (IV 579), which seems to have given rise to the tt innbsp;niitteren.

Derivatives (see F. Staub and L. Tobler Schweizerisches Idiotikon, Vol. IV 676�7): � ��nodere� v. Aufw�hlen, eig. nndnbsp;bildl. (Ap; Th; Z.). � Ernodere� v. Durchst�bern, erlesen (ZO). ��nbsp;Vernodere� V. Zerw�hlen, z. B. von Mausen (AaZein.; Ap; Z.);nbsp;�s Fur V., darin herum stochern nnd es dadurch ausl�schen (Sch;nbsp;S; Z.). � Noderer (GStdt; Z.), Noderi (S; Z.), N�deri (ZO) sb. W�h-ler, Gr�bler. � Noderete� (Ap; Th; ZS.), N�derete^�� (ZO.), Notterete�-(GrHe.) sb. Abstr. (1) Zu noderen I (Ap; Th; Z.); (2) zu noderen IInbsp;(GrHe.). � N�derle� v. Dim. zu nodere�^, (im Feuer oder in gl�hendennbsp;Kohlen) herumstochern (AaHl.). � Vem�dere� v. = vernodere��nbsp;(AaF., Ke.).

The fundament of the Dutch and Flemish idioms is Low Frankish (Niederfrankisch). Low Frankish is spoken in half Belgium, in Holland as far as its language is not Frisian, or Saxon, or has an admixturenbsp;of them, and in the northern part of the Rhine province beyondnbsp;D�sseldorf. �Germanische Mundarten �, says H. Paul (Deutsche Gram.nbsp;I 89), �wohl teils frankische, teils sachsische, erstrecken sich auch etwasnbsp;nach Frankreich hinein nnd haben sich fr�her noch weiter erstreckt�nbsp;But, as already intimated, there are within the kingdom of the Netherlands territories, also, where Frisian or Saxon is the dominantnbsp;idiom. As to Saxon M. J. van der Meer says as follows)^: �Es wirdnbsp;am reinsten gesprochen in der alten Grafschaft Z�tphen, in SaUandnbsp;nnd Twente, weiter in Ostdrenthe.� Concerning Frisian he gives thenbsp;following piece of information: �Das Friesische . . . wird jetzt nochnbsp;ziemlich rein gesprochen in der Provinz Friesland n�rdhch von demnbsp;Fl�sschen der Kuinre oder Tjonger . . . nnd auf den Inseln Schier-

') Cp. M. J. van der Meer Historische Qrammatik der Niederldndischen Sprache Bd I, Heidelberg 1927 p. XXX.

monnikoog und Terschelling, ausser in dem Dorfe Midsland. In den friesischen Stadten hat das Hollandische grossen Einfluss aus-ge�bt; dort hat sich eine friso-frankische Mischsprache, stadtfrie-sisch (fri. stetkers �die stadtische Sprache�) gebildet.� Lastly, itnbsp;may be mentioned that it is the idiom of the province of Holland,nbsp;i. e. the Holland Frankish, that was gradually established as thenbsp;standard language. Other Dutch dialects in Holland are the Brabantnbsp;Frankish and the Limburg Frankish.

Dutch: � Neutelen v. 1701 Pieter Marin Niew Nederduits en Frans Woordenboek (Amsterdam). 'Hutselen� (vide infra) quot;lambinernbsp;(i. e. agir lentement, Littr�), Hracasser (i. e. aller et venir sur place,nbsp;pour de petites occupations, Littr�); 1777 Cornelii Kiliani Dufflaeinbsp;Etymologicum Teutonicce linguce: sive Dictionarium Teutonico-La-tinum, Antwerpiae MDXCIX, . . . curante Gerardo Hasselto Arn-hemiensi, qui et suas adnotationes adjecit. Trajecti Batavorumnbsp;MDCCLXXVII (= Cornelis van Kiel, generally quoted as Kilian(us)).nbsp;'Frivola agere�, i. e. to be busy in a trifling way. 1924 van Dale�snbsp;Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, zesde uitgave (�s- Graven-hage amp; Leiden). Talmen, futselen, zich met beuzelingen ophouden,nbsp;i. e. 'talmen� = met de uitvoering van iets wachten, langzaam werken; 'futselen� = zich met beuzelingen [= trifles] ophouden, langzaam verken.

Derivatives in Pieter Marin: � Neutelaar sb. Futselaar [i. e. a slowcoach], lambin, ouvrier mal habil. � Neuteraar^) sb. Neutelaar. � Neutelary sb. Lambinage, tracasserie.

Derivatives in Kilian: � Neuteler, Neutelerken sb. homuncio frivolus, assiduus in rebus frivolis agendis: multse sedu-htatis in re frivola. � Neutken (oud n.), Neutelersken sb. aniculanbsp;curax, multee sedulitatis anus.

Derivatives in van Dale: � Neutel sb. Klein mannetje, dreutel (= (1) keutel, hoopje dreck; (2) ventje, i. e. a puny person, often contemptuous). The word is denoted as dialectal bynbsp;Franck and van Wijk^) but not by van Dale. � Neutelaar sb. Talmer,nbsp;i. e. a slowcoach. � Neutelaarster sb. Talmster, i. e. a female slowcoach. � Neutelarij sb. Talmerij, getalm, i. e. the action or qualitynbsp;of dawdling. � Neutelig a. Talmachtig (i. e. slow to act), verdrietignbsp;(i. e. displeased; annoying), gemelijk, i. e. misnoegd (= displeased).

Note that in Germanic both I and r had iterative, intensive, or diminutive function.

20 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SEE. A. BD 1. N:0 3 knorrig (= cross, sour, ill-tempered). The word is in Molema�snbsp;dictionary denoted as characteristic of Z. Holl. (= the South ofnbsp;Holland) and as meaning ^netelig van humeur�. In Franck�s Etymologisch Woordenboek the adjective n�telik (s. v. neutelen) is described as belonging to the Achterhoeksch dialect (in the county ofnbsp;Z�tphen) and as meaning �verdrietig�. � Neuteligheid sb. Neutelarij,nbsp;talmerij.

West Flemish: � Treuteneuten v. 1892 L.-L. De Bo West-vlaamsch Idioticon (Gent). Treuten en neuten, trutselen en nutselen (nusselen), neuteltreuten, met beuzelwerk zijnen tijd verslijten, fr.nbsp;chipoter, v�tiller. �Neuteltreuten v. 1892 L.-L. De Bo op. cit. Nutselennbsp;en trutselen, fr. lambiner [= agir lentement] chipoter [= faire un travail,nbsp;une besogne avec negligence ou lenteur, Littr�]. The compoundnbsp;presupposes the existence of the verb neutelen in Flemish, just asnbsp;'treuteneuten� states the existence of neuten. � Neutenaatje sb.nbsp;1892 Ibid.', dimin. see Neuteraar; also = Kilian�s neuteler, neute-lericen sb. Homuncio frivolus. -� Neuteraar sb., dimin. Neuteraartjenbsp;1892 Ibid. Dwergje, een verneuteld ventje, fr. petit homme rabougrinbsp;(i. e. ch�tif, d�bile).

FRISIAN.

lt;))

The Frisian idiom, whose territory has been more and more encroached upon chiefly by Low Frankish and Low German, isnbsp;ordinarily divided into three main dialects. We have to notice Westnbsp;Frisian, still spoken in the Dutch province of West Friesland.nbsp;We have further to note East Frisian, which in the Middle Agesnbsp;was spoken in the Dutch province of Groningen, in the Hannoverian East Friesland, and in the chief part of Oldenburg. Butnbsp;now its territory is reduced to two small districts, viz. the isle ofnbsp;Wangeroog and the Saterland.^) But the East Frisian idiom has considerably influenced the Low German dialect in the Saxonized districts. We have to distinguish two such idioms. One is the Groningen dialect in Holland. �Bis ins 15. Jahrhundert�, saysnbsp;M. J. van der Meer (op. cit. p. XXXI), �wurde auf dem plattennbsp;Lande von Groningen noch friesisch gesprochen. Durch Kolonisa-tion aus der sachsischen Stadt Groningen wurde die friesische Be-v�lkerung saxoniert.� The other composite dialect is the Eastnbsp;Frisian-Saxon idiom in Prussian East Friesland,

where the Saxonizing process began at a still earlier date. Lastly, we have to distinguish Northern Frisian, spoken on the North Seanbsp;coast of Schleswig-Holstein and on the Halligen [= low-lying isletsnbsp;which become submerged in high tides], but the territory has beennbsp;encroached upon by Low German and Danish. Also the vernacularsnbsp;in the islands of Amroem, F�hr, Sylt, and Heligoland are countednbsp;as Northern Frisian.

West Frisian: � Neutelen v. 1903 Waling Dijkstra Friesch Woordenboek (Leeuwarden). Talmen, dralen, sukkelen, i. e. talmennbsp;= met de uitvoering van iets wachten, langzaam werken; dralen =nbsp;talmen; sukkelen = inter alia 'traag, gebrekkig voortgaan�. ��nbsp;Neutelje v. 1903 Ibid. Neulen, zaniken; neulen = (1) binnenmondsnbsp;brommen; (2) zaniken, i. e. to dwell tediously on the same subject;nbsp;(3) zeuren, i. e. to be slow or tardy in performing a task; to harpnbsp;on the same subject.

The Groningen {East Frisian � Saxon) idiom: �� Neutelg a. 1888 H. Molema W�rterbuch der Groningen Mundartnbsp;im neunzehnten Jahrhtmdert (Norden und Leipzig).^) Brommig,nbsp;knorrig, slecht gehumeurd. itFriesch neutelig = misnoegd, kribbignbsp;[i. e. quarrelsome], half verstoord [i. e. half angry]. ZHoll. neutelignbsp;= netelig van humeur.� � Nutel a. 1888 Ibid. Nuffig, fatterig; nuffig = als eene nuf, i. e. a conceited and overnice girl (especially onenbsp;very proud of her hair and dress), fatterig, not in van Dale but evidently = fattig a. like a Tat� = modegek, modepop.^) �n nutelnbsp;man = iemand, die zich met vrouwehjke angstvalligheid kleedt.nbsp;Bij Hf ft. beneutelen, iets met meer aandacht, dan het verdient be-neuzen, beneuzelen.� The adjective presupposes the former existence of a verb *nutelen meaning To waste time on trifles, esp. onnbsp;one�s toilet�; To be foohshly attentive to one�s appearance and dress�.nbsp;To deck oneself�.

The Prussian East Frisian � Saxon idiom: � Noteln V. 1857 Cirk Heinrich St�renburg Ostfriesisches W�rterbuch (Aurich). Zaudern, z�gern, langsam arbeiten, nichts beschicken.nbsp;The verb is erroneously adduced in connection with nolen as if thenbsp;Verb represented a phonetic variant of this word since they have

1) = W�rterb�cher hrsg. vom Verein f�r Niederdeutsche Sprachforschung, Bd. III.

Our supposition is correct, for the word is given in G. Strom Nederlandsch-Zweedsch Woordenboeky Gouda 1916, where fatterig means ^snobbig�, ^sprattig�, i. e. foppish.

here the same meaning. N�teln v. 1882. J. ten Doornkaat Koolman^) W�rterbuch der Ostfriesischen Sprache (Norden). Sich lange WO u. wobei aufhalten u. womit beschaftigen, zaudern, saumselignbsp;sein, trandeln, tr�deln; seine Zeit unn�tz od. mit kleinlichen u.nbsp;nichtnutzigen Dingen verschwenden etc. These significationsnbsp;admit of being reduced to the two leading senses To be slow ornbsp;tardy in performing a task� and To be busy in a trifling manner�.

Derivatives: � Gen�tel sb. 1882 J. ten Doornkaat Koolman op. cit. Getrandel. Gezauder etc. �Notelee sb. 1857 Cirk Heinrich St�renburg op. cit. Zauderei. N�tel� sb. 1882 J. ten Doornkaat Koolman op. cit. Trandelei, Zauderei, Saumseligkeit etc. � Notelernbsp;sb. 1857 Cirk Heinrich St�renburg op. cit. Zauderer. N�teler sb. 1882nbsp;J. ten Doornkaat Koolman op. cit. Trandeler, Zauderer, saumseligernbsp;Mensch etc. � NStelkraam sb. 1857 Cirk Heinrich St�renburg op.nbsp;cit. Zauderei. � Notelkutte sb. 1857. Ibid. Zauderer. � N�telig a.nbsp;1867 Ibid. Zauderhaft. Notelig a. 1882 J. ten Doornkaat Koolmannbsp;op. cit. Trandelig, zanderig, saumselig, langsam.

OstfriesiscJies W�rterbuch (Aurich)

nolen, noteln. Zaudern,

z�gern, langsam arbeiten (Ditmarschen). N�teln \n^dln\ v. 1931 Otto Mensing Schlesvig-Holsteinisches W�rterbuch (Neum�nster). Langsam sein, Zaudern, schlendern (F�hr). � Niddeln [nidlnl v. 1931nbsp;Otto Mensing Schleswig-Holsteinisches W�rterbuch (Neum�nster).nbsp;N�rgeln, kritisieren (Dtm.). Niddelig a. Ibid. N�rgelnd, immernbsp;scheltend (Dtm.). � Niiddelig a. Ibid. � nuddelig in Schlesw.-Holst.nbsp;(Dtm.).^)

Neither St�renburg nor ten Doornkaat Koolman give any information as to the relation between the Frisian and the Saxon linguistic elements. They do not evennbsp;tell us from what sources they have drawn their materials. But we may safely postulate that their chief territorial source was the Prussian province of East Friesland.

Whether it be right or wrong, we count here the idiom of Ditmarschen as Northern Frisian, seeing that this district was formerly Frisian territory and isnbsp;adjacent to the district which is nowadays taken to represent the Northern Frisiannbsp;idiom. Hence the idiom of Ditmarschen is likely to bo a composite language.nbsp;In his valuable dissertation Die nordfriesische Mundart des Dorfes Ockholm und dernbsp;Halligen (Lund 1928, page v) Ernst L�fstedt says as follows: �Das Nordfries.nbsp;zerfallt in das Festlandsnordfries. an der Westk�ste Sohleswigs zwischen Tondernnbsp;und Husum. . . und das hiervon in wichtigen Beziehungen ziemlich stark abweichendenbsp;Inselnordfries. auf den Geestinseln Sylt, F�hr und Amrum sowie auf Helgoland.nbsp;Zu dem festlandischen Nordfries. gehoren auch die Maa. der sog. Halligen.� Let itnbsp;be noted that the verb n�teln is met with in the idiom of the island of F�hr, consequently in genuine northern Frisian.

ENGLISH.

North East Yorkshire: � Nutil a. (obsolete). 1898 Joseph. Wright The English Dialect Dictionary (London) Useless, effeminate.

Lancashire: � Nytel V. a 1375 Cleanness line 1388. Contextual senses: (1) To nose or move about in quest of something; (2) to benbsp;busy in a trifling manner; (3) to dawdle, loiter.

Oxfordshire and Berkshire: � Nutter [we�lt;a(r)] v. 1898 Joseph Wright The English Dialect Dictionary (London). To whinny softly,nbsp;as a mare and colt to one another (Oxf.). �� Nuttering vbl. sb. 1898nbsp;Ibid. The whinnying of a colt; the hard, discontented noise madenbsp;by a horse before whinnying (Oxf. Berks.).

Devonshire: � Nottle a. (obsolete). 1874 James Orchard Halli-well Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words, 8th edit. vol. II (London). Foolish, trifling, absurd, wanton.^) Milles� MS. Glossary.

*) The authority of this scholar is not quite unimpeachable, according to a private letter which the present writer received many years ago from Professor W. A. Craigie, the well-known lexicographer. But in the present case there can be nonbsp;doubt whatsoever about the authenticity of the word nottle, seeing that both formnbsp;and sense class it as a derivative from the base nut. The author himself points outnbsp;as follows (vol. I p. XIV); �My principal guide, however, for the dialectal words ofnbsp;this county [i. e. Devonshire] is a large MS. collection stated in Mr. Thomas Rodd�snbsp;Catalogue of MSS. for 1845 (No. 276) to have been written by Dr. Milles, Dean ofnbsp;Exeter, and quoted in this work as Dean Milles� MS. I have been since informednbsp;that it was compiled by the late Rev. Richard Hole, but in either case its integritynbsp;and value are undoubted.�

Comments on the Linguistic Material.

From the preceding survey it is apparent that the group of Germanic words we want to establish as an etymological categorynbsp;cannot be said to be scantily represented. And yet we do not claimnbsp;to have exhaustively given the linguistic material. For there arenbsp;dialectal vocabularies which we have not had at our disposal, andnbsp;there are dialects insufficiently examined by scientific research. Butnbsp;we do maintain that the material adduced is quite sufficient tonbsp;work upon for carrying out the purpose we have in view. Andnbsp;that aim is to prove the existence of a Germanic base nut but withnbsp;a semantic aspect other than the sense To catch or capture�. Thenbsp;latter sense is the primary meaning of the Teut. base nut as occurringnbsp;in Goth, nuta sb. catcher, fisherman, and in the weak verbs OE notiannbsp;to use, enjoy. Germ, niitzen, Sw. nyttja, etc., and, with another ablaut-grade, in OE neotan to use, enjoy. Germ, ge-niessen, Sw. njuta, etc.,nbsp;all strong verbs.

The geographical spread of the base nut is considerable since it is met with in Scandinavia but also found in Alsatia and Switzerland and since it occurs in England and, until recently, also in Livonia and Esthonia. But there is a distinct territorial predilectionnbsp;distinguishable. For the chief occurrence of the base as manifested innbsp;a large number of derivatives is to be sought in the Continentalnbsp;Germanic countries along the North Sea coast and in Switzerland.nbsp;In the east of Germany we have found the base nut only in Lipsicnbsp;and Aschaffenburg, but there may be other instances.

But before we embark upon our semantic undertaking, there are three points of view from which the linguistic material shouldnbsp;be commented upon. There is first the phonetic aspect of the base.nbsp;Secondly, there is the nationality of some words. Thirdly, therenbsp;is the etymological attitude adopted by scientific research towardsnbsp;some of the words adduced.

The phonetic shape of the base has by us been postulated to be mit with a short u. In the generalit}^ of instancesnbsp;there can be no doubt whatever as to the correctness of this view.nbsp;But what about the quantity of u in Norw. nuta and Dan. nuta?nbsp;The dialectal dictionaries give no direct information on that point.nbsp;Yet there is a strong presumption that we are faced with a short u.nbsp;For Swed. dial, nata, whose d is short, should be derived from thenbsp;root-verb *n�t-�n, and the verb has a parallel in Norw. dial, nosanbsp;with a short d 'vaedre, snuse�, i. e. to scent, to sniff or snuff,nbsp;whose source is the root-verb *n�s-�n, a formation from the parallelnbsp;base nus}) We have to state, however, the existence of a few Germannbsp;instances where nowadays the base nut actually has a long u. Thisnbsp;is the case with the Schleswig-Holstein verb nutelix [== nudln] (1) Zau-dern, nicht vom Fleck kommen; (2) undeutlich sprechen, unverstand-lich murmeln. Such is also the case with the Lipsic sustantive Nudelnnbsp;(1) Halblautes, undeutliches, schlechtes Reden; (2) Singen odernbsp;stiimperhaftes Spiel. But the former word appears to be a latenbsp;phonetic variant of uuddeln, a verb with the same semantic area innbsp;the Schleswig-Holstein dialect. The Lipsic subst. presupposes thenbsp;former existence of a verb *nudeln with corresponding senses. It isnbsp;true that the semantic discrepancy does not seem to allow that this verbnbsp;be apprehended as a phonetic variant of the Lipsic verb nuddeln,nbsp;which denotes (1) schlecht, liederlich, ohne Ernst und Nachdrucknbsp;arbeiten; (2) schlecht und langsam fahren. But none the less itnbsp;is true that semantically both verbs go back to the the base mitnbsp;with a short u. It should be noted that in the phonetic historynbsp;of German speech we meet with the phenomenon, unheard-of innbsp;English, that a short u and il may be lengthened in an open syllable, e. g. MHG jugent, mille (OHG muU(n) f. vulgar L. molma) �nbsp;Ger. Jugend, Muhle (cp. Plug, g. Fluges, pi. Fluge Tlight�). It wasnbsp;this phonetic tendency that gave rise to the sporadic appearance ofnbsp;the long u in German derivatives from the base nut.

In several of the German instances the stem of the words under discussion ends in -d. But since Prim. Teut. p gradually becamenbsp;d over the whole of the German territory, the question arises whethernbsp;or not it is necessary to postulate the form nu^ as a phonetic variant of the base nut. To this question an answer in the negativenbsp;is given by all the other Germanic languages, and on closer examination the same seems to be the case with the German idioms, too.

As to the Schlesvig-Holstein dialect so rich in representatives of the base nut, viz. n�ddem, nuddeln and nuteln [= nudln], n�ddem, n�ddeln,nbsp;niddeln, u�teln [= n/^dln] with their derivatives, we find that all instances have a stem ending in -d. It is obvious that this fact is due to anbsp;phonetic tendency to turn t into d between voiced sounds, an indication also met with in the Danish part of the peninsula. The samenbsp;tendency may have operated in point of nuddeln 'saumen, lang-sam sein� met with in Mecklenburg and Hither Pomerania, or elsenbsp;we may be concerned with a loan from the Schlesvig-Holstein dialect. But in respect of nuddeln and nudeln in the Lipsic idiom, it isnbsp;possible to ascribe the stem in -d to the confusion of tenuis andnbsp;media so characteristic of Middle German dialects. Again, the stem-forms in -d generally found in Switzerland, viz. nodere� I and II,nbsp;n�dere� I and II, are evidently the result of the tendency to turn tnbsp;into d between voiced sounds. The legitimacy of this view is provednbsp;by the fact that the Alsatian verb nottHe^ �riitteln, schiitteln, bewegen� is in Swiss German represented by nodere^ in the sense �annbsp;Etwas herumr�tteln, mit ausserster Anstrengung arbeiten, t�chtignbsp;dreinschlagen�. Both verbs are derivatives from the Prim. Teut.nbsp;base hnu� �stossen, schlagen�, which in OHG was turned into hnut-(= LG hnud-), e. g. OHG hnutt�n �vibrare�, MHG n�tteln �sich binnbsp;und her bewegen, etw. schwingend zuschlagen, r�tteln�. We find,nbsp;then, that the Gform is retained in Alsatian but that it was turnednbsp;into d-form in Swiss German.

In this connection we have to state another thing in point of Swiss German. The verb nodere^ formed from the base hnud- coincided in form with the verb nodere'^ that was formed from the basenbsp;nut, both being derived by means of the intensive, iterative, or diminutive suffix r. Consequently the prehistoric appearance of thenbsp;verbs was *hnu�-r-�n and *nut-r-�n. Now t before r did not join innbsp;the OHG consonant-shift, but later on this t passed into d betweennbsp;voiced sounds so that the form n�dere� originated. But since thenbsp;editors of the great �Schweizerisches Idiotikon� (published in 1901nbsp;foil.) had no knowledge of a base nut other than that meaningnbsp;�to catch�, they made no distinction between nodere^ as formednbsp;from Jinud and nodere� as formed from nut- but classed both undernbsp;the heading Nodere� I. But there was also a verb nodere^ which hadnbsp;a semantic area different from that presented by Nodere� I. Thatnbsp;verb was established by the editors as Nodere� II and as a verbnbsp;disconnected with the former word, though it is formed from the

base nut. It is impossible to imagine a genetic presentation more remote from the factual state of things.

When the Suabian dialect presents the form nodere� 'wiihlen, schnattern�, which is formed from the base nut, we may again benbsp;faced with the phonetic tendency to turn t into d between voicednbsp;sounds. We have found, then, that in German there is no unequivocal example of the base *nup. It is worthy of note that thenbsp;occurrence of this variant and of a variant n�t would not have disagreed with our view of the origin of the base nut. Note, however, p. 244.

There are some forms in our material whose nationality is doubtful or should be discussed. If we turn to the Scandinaviannbsp;idioms, attention is drawn to the Jutland verbs nytle [nepl netternbsp;(Lindk.); nedal nedh (Sundeved)] and notle [natsl nathr ndtbt (Andst;nbsp;Mors); ft. tf. n�talt (Vensyssel); notal tf. notlar (Vejrum, Hammerum)].nbsp;Por it should be noted that in the Jutland dialect the consonantalnbsp;combination tl passed via dl into ll by ordinary phonetic progression.nbsp;Thus, for instance, ON vatli 'whey� appears there as \wal, wamp;l, etc.]^)nbsp;= Dan. valle, Sw. vassle, -a, dial, valle] Prim. Teut. *natil�n 'nettle�nbsp;appears there as [na�, nah, etc.] == Da. ncelde, MSw. ncetla, Sw. nassla,nbsp;dial, nalla (the f-mutation is due to analogy).^) Hence the absencenbsp;of this phonetic development in point of nytle and notle arrestsnbsp;attention. It may be argued that in the substantives just quoted tlnbsp;has no particular semantic function, whereas in the verbs adducednbsp;it denotes intensity, iteration, or diminution. But this differencenbsp;is obviously no obstacle to the operation of what is called phonetic law.nbsp;For if we take Prim. Teut. *kitil5n, whence Continental Old Saxonnbsp;kitilon, OE citelian (lt; *kitil�jan) 'to tickle� (with metathesis fornbsp;*kittle), that word appears in the Jutland dialect as [cilar cihr cilarnbsp;citer (Vensyssel),�) kihr -ar -at (Darum, vestjysk. Thy; Banders,nbsp;Sundeved, Agerskov)] = Da. kilde, kildre, earlier kidle, Swed. kittla.nbsp;Hence the tl of the Jutland verbs nytle and notle appears to suggestnbsp;that they may be Low German loans. But to that assumption isnbsp;opposed the mere fact that they have cognates in the other Scandinavian idioms. The true explanation is instead that the assimilativenbsp;process did not take place in the combination ttl, i. e. a long t I was

Note that the length of a sound is by Feilberg indicated by a horizontal stroke ^nder it and that � denotes palatalized 1. See H. F. Feilberg�s Diet. vol. I pp. JX^ X,

The i of *natil�n fell away before the operation of the i-umlaut in Scandinavian.

28 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HA�JDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 retained in the Jutland dialect.i) For that reason we must assumenbsp;that there once existed in the dialect the forms *nytte (lt; *nutjan) andnbsp;*notte (lt; *nut�n) and that it was from these verbs that nytle and notlenbsp;were formed by means of the Z-suffix of intensive or diminutive force.nbsp;As to the doubling of t in *nytte and *notte, it must have arisen fromnbsp;the same motive, to wit, a wish to denote intensity or diminution, justnbsp;as Alf Torp postulates intensive or diminutive doubling of s in Norw.nbsp;dial, nyssa v. �'plukke, snappe, rapse, plukke bort noget� as compared to nysja v. 'plukke, pille, pusle med smaat arbejde�.^) Thenbsp;same explanation is used by Elof Hellquist when accounting fornbsp;the doubling of d in MSw. nudda 'to beat, pound� as compared to thenbsp;form ndda, both being derivatives from the Teut. base hnud 'tonbsp;beat, hammer�.�) It should also be noted that the Rhine-Fran-kish verb notzen (Aschaffenburg) 'langsam seyn, nicht vom Flecknbsp;kommen� presupposes the form *nott�n for *nut�n, formed from thenbsp;base nut, and that the doubling of t doubtless had intensive or diminutive function. The legitimacy of postulating the forms *nyttenbsp;and *notte in the Jutland dialect is corroborated by the factual occurrence in this dialect of the verb nutte [nuat see, nutdr, nuM (Braderup)]nbsp;'skultre sig�. For this is another derivative from the base nut, butnbsp;representing another line of semantic development.

We have previously pointed out that the Low German idiom as until recently spoken in Livonia and Esthonia was chiefly takennbsp;from the north-western part of Germany, i. e. Schleswig-Holstein,nbsp;Hamburg, Bremen, and so on, i. e. the very centre of the vitalitynbsp;of the base nut on German soil. This fact explains the richnbsp;representation of the base nut in Baltic German.

If it is true of the Swabian and the Alsatian idiom that through the operation of the High German consonant-shift the t in suchnbsp;a set of sounds as not-l- or nut-l- was turned into ts, then we mustnbsp;consider not only the Swabian words nottle� 'langsam, unsicher gehen�nbsp;and Nottlete 'Hakelarbeif but also the Alsatian verbs nutt�le� [ = nyth^nbsp;'langsam thun, langsam herumarbeiten, behaglich arbeiten� andnbsp;nott�le� [notle\ 'langsam gehen� as loan-words from Low Frankish.

That was the view of our friend and teacher, the late Professor Evald Lid�n, who was an eminent expert on Scandinavian languages, also.

We should call to mind H. Paul�s words that Low Frankish and Saxon (= LG) idioms formerly penetrated deep into the northnbsp;of France. In actual fact, the northern part of the Alsatian dialectnbsp;is considered to be Low Frankish.

Let us now turn to the representation of the base nut in England. The earliest instance of this base, i. e. ME nytel of about 1375, is a (ijiaC �keyofievov in English. It is only met with in the Lancashire dialect, consequently in an idiom noted for its strong admixturenbsp;of Scandinavian elements. But in the present case we are quitenbsp;unwilling to postulate this influence, since the form of the ME verbnbsp;presupposes *nutil�n as its prehistoric source and the latter wordnbsp;Would in Scandinavian have appeared as *mttla, i. e. with absence ofnbsp;i'Umlaut;^) cp. the phonetic development of *natil5n p. 27. Perhapsnbsp;it is not phonetically impossible to identify ME nytel with Dan. dial,nbsp;uytle, but if so, this militates against the fact that the Scandinaviannbsp;settlers in Lancashire chiefly consisted of Norsemen, as is also provednbsp;by the place-names of the county. But cannot ME. nytel be a Flemishnbsp;loan-word? From the point of view of historical facts there is nothing to prevent this possibility. G. Brodnitz points out that in thenbsp;reign of Henry III a large number of Flemish weavers had settlednbsp;down in England and had been received in a friendly manner.^) Itnbsp;is also a fact that Lancashire was not destitute of Flemish weaversnbsp;in the ME period. But what about the hypothesis from a phoneticnbsp;point of view? Let us discuss that question.

Both ME nytel and Du. neutelen presuppose *nutildn as their prehistoric source. In the Dutch idiom Prim. Teut. m when appearing in an open syllable and influenced by an i or j in the nextnbsp;syllable passed into [y] and thereupon into [o], which was at the samenbsp;time lengthened and subsequently written eu. As example: Prim.nbsp;Teut. *ubilaz (Goth, ubils) passed via into obit, which thereuponnbsp;Was written euvel = Germ, iibel. But if � appeared in a closednbsp;syllable, it passed into \uquot;'\ written u, e. g. Prim. Teut. *J)^mkjannbsp;(Goth, pugkjan) became dunken = G. dunken. It is worthj^ of note,nbsp;however, that, irrespective of the occurrence or non-occurrence ofnbsp;an i or � in the following syllable, there are some Du. dialects whichnbsp;always turn every u when appearing in an open syllable into [o] andnbsp;others that turn them into [5]. As examples: Prim. Teut. *fuyla-sb. 'bird� passed into Du. vogel, in some dialects into veugel] Prim.

Teut. Huyin� sb. 'a lie� passed into Du. leugen, in some dialects into logen,^) Hence in some dialects neuteleu might have hadnbsp;^nutal�n as prehistoric source.

Let us now return to ME nytel. If the word actually were a Low Frankish loan, then the latter word would have appeared asnbsp;*nytelen [y = �). In the Lancashire dialect OE y { = �) mostlynbsp;appears as i [but written t/] in ME, a delabialization taking placenbsp;about the 12th century or earlier. But often, i. e. mostly before or afternbsp;labials, OE y [� r] was retained, and it was then written u like �nbsp;in French loan-words. Hence it is next to certain that Low Frankishnbsp;� in ¹nytelen would have been retained and rendered by u if thenbsp;word had been adopted by the dialect of the poem. Thus therenbsp;seems to be no alternative left but to look upon ME nytel as a nativenbsp;verb, in spite of its localization. In this connection let us statenbsp;that the existence of the ME word agrees with the fact that nowadays the idioms of the ancient Continental home of the Angles, i. e.,nbsp;in our opinion, the southern half of the Jutland Peninsula, are prolific in derivatives from the base nut.

There is a strange semantic correspondence between two derivatives from this base, one occurring in English and the other found in the Schleswig-Holstein idiom. For we have to state the fact thatnbsp;in the Oxfordshire and Berkshire dialects there is a verb nutter 'tonbsp;whinny softly as a mare and colt to one another� and that exactlynbsp;the same verb and the same sense occur in Schleswig-Holstein, viz.nbsp;n�ddern 'schwach wiehern (vom Fiillen).� The meaning of the twonbsp;words seems to be entirely unique, and yet there is apparently nonbsp;reason whatever for supposing that one of them is an adoption ofnbsp;the other. Hence the question arises whether we ought to look uponnbsp;the two verbs as an evidence in favour of Bede�s view in his Historianbsp;Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum that the Continental home of thenbsp;Angles was Angeln in Schleswig-Holstein and � let us add �nbsp;adjacent districts of the Jutland Peninsula. Or shall we unromanticallynbsp;ascribe the striking harmony to the long arm of coincidence? Provided there be no obstacle, we are personally inclined to adopt thenbsp;former view since we do not distrust Bede�s authority as to thenbsp;Continental home of the Angles. But, in actual fact, there is anbsp;hindrance, viz. the Dan. dial, name of the jacksnipe, i. e. noddrehorsnbsp;and noddregjok. For in this case noddre is meant to denote the

Sounds of the bird, which resemble the soft neighing of a horse. Hence it is most likely, nay certain, that the Danish verb once also denotednbsp;to whinny�. But if so, Eng. dial, nutter may be understood as anbsp;Danish loan-word since there are perhaps no insurmountable difficulties arising from the phonological aspect of the verbs. This may benbsp;the correct explanation of the co-existence in the two languages of anbsp;Word formed from the same base nut and presenting an unique meaning. But, on the other hand, there is no denying the fact that thenbsp;Eng. verb may be a Continental inheritance, all the more as n�ddemnbsp;occurs only in �Hus.� and �Ang.� i. e. Husby and Angeln, both innbsp;Schleswig-Holstein. In addition, Oxfordshire and Berkshire nevernbsp;belonged to the Danelagh. Hence we believe that the Eng. verb isnbsp;likely to be a corroborative evidence for the legitimacy of Bede�snbsp;view mentioned above.

Let us discuss the nationality of the English dialectal adjective nutil �effeminate�, �useless�, formerly occurring in north-east Yorkshire but now obsolete. The word is only met with in A Glossarynbsp;of Words used in the neighbourhood of Whitby, compiled by F. K.nbsp;Robinson (in E. D. 8. 1876). But it is significant that Whitby isnbsp;a seaport in the North Biding at the Esk�s mouth in the North Seanbsp;and that it is noted for its important fisheries. We have previouslynbsp;seen that right across the North Sea in the Dutch province of Groningen there is an adj. nutel denoting �nuffig, fatterig�, i. e. nuffig =nbsp;like a conceited, overnice girl, esp. one proud of her hair and dress;nbsp;fatterig = foppish. The sense of the Groningen word, then, may benbsp;considered to mean �effeminate�, and the sense �worthless� of the Englishnbsp;Word should be taken to be due to Permutation, or else we are concerned with Adequation since �effeminate� and �useless� may benbsp;Understood as Notions of Interference. All these facts go to provenbsp;that Eng. dial, nutil is a (comparatively recent) loan from the Gro-ningen dialect. And if somebody wants to get further particulars,nbsp;We can safely maintain that we are faced with no Low Frankishnbsp;^ord since its u would not then have been left phonetically intact.nbsp;Hence the Continental adj. nutel must be either of Frisian or ofnbsp;Saxon origin. The latter alternative is perhaps to be preferred.

The problem of nationality is far more complicated in point of the Devonshire adjective nottle �foolish, absurd, trifling, wanton�, anbsp;Word now obsolete but assuredly formed from the base nut. The merenbsp;fact of its isolated occurrence in a southern county and the phoneticnbsp;appearance of the stem divergent from the other stems met with

32 K. VET. O. VITTEKH. SAMH. HAIfDL. F. 6. SEE. A. BD 1. STrO 3 in English are suggestive of foreign origin. On further examinationnbsp;it will turn out that w'e may have to count with either Lownbsp;Frankish or Scandinavian provenance. Let us discuss the tw'onbsp;alternatives.

The first considerable immigration of Flemings into England in ME times was made in the reign of Henry I. It was directed tonbsp;Rhos and Pembroke in South Wales, and it w as caused by the encroaching of the sea on their own territory. There is excellent documentary evidence for this event.i) As to immigration of Flemishnbsp;weavers into medieval England, the present writer read once (aboutnbsp;15 years ago) an article on that point in the English Historical Review. It was there stated that Flemish weavers took up theirnbsp;abodes in England chiefly in four places. One was East Anglia, andnbsp;this explains why Promptorium Parvulorum, a vocabulary originating in this district in 1440, teems with Continental Germanic loans.nbsp;Another place w'as the town of York, a third was the county ofnbsp;Lancashire, and the fourth place was somewhere in the south ofnbsp;England. The reality of the last settlement is borne out by thenbsp;dialect of Sir Ferumbras, a southern romaunt appearing aboutnbsp;1350 and showing many traces of Continental Germanic influence.nbsp;As examples; d. and a. pi. hymen or hemen Them�, very commonnbsp;beside the native �hem�; dadest (MDu. dddes �didst�); sere (mostlynbsp;sare or sore): Oliver; ons (= �us�): barons. Note especially thenbsp;endings -ap, -ia^ (= OE and OFris. -a^, -iajgt;) in the present indie.,nbsp;and infinitives in -ia (= OFris. -ia). Such forms are absolutelynbsp;unique in the ME period, e, g. 3 pres. sing, louaf)-, hauajgt;, pres. pi.nbsp;and imperat. wollaj), nemaj)-, pres. pi. of wk. vbs. class II lokea^,nbsp;loueap, herlcnyap, prikeap; infinitives prikea, trussyam (= trussyanbsp;-j- hem).i)

As to the source of all these peculiarities. Heuser opines that their proximate source was probably the Frisian and LowFrankishnbsp;composite idiom of West Flanders. He goes on to say (op. cit. p. 181):nbsp;�Eigenthiimhch (west)fries. ist das f�rwort hymen, wenn auch dasnbsp;gebiet der verbreitung der form fiber das eigentliche Friesisch hinaus-geragt haben mag; auf das Fries, weisen auch die ratselhaftennbsp;verbalendungen -ath, -iath im prs. {-ia im inf.). Das Fries, abernbsp;reichte ehemals bis nach Westflandern hinein, die tradition weist

*) See W. Heuser Festldndische Einfl�sse im Mittelenglischen = Bonner Beitrage zur Anglistik hrsg. von Professor Dr M. Trautmann. Heft XII (1902) p. 174.

K. F. STJND�N, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 33 dem �Vrij von Br�gge� verhaltnismassig lange bewahrung dernbsp;fries, sprache zu und noch der hautige westvlamische dialekt zeigtnbsp;fries, z�ge im gegensatz zu dem rein niederfrank. dialekte des �stl.nbsp;Planderns.� He is also of opinion that the Flemings who immigratednbsp;into South Wales were from the same territory.

Now it should be noticed that the ME pronoun hymen {hemen), which is almost exclusively met with in Sir Ferumbras, is still to be foundnbsp;in the modern Devonshire dialect but as min, mun (see N. E. D.).nbsp;Hence it cannot be said to be a wanton conjecture to assume that thenbsp;obsolete adjective nottle, which also is a characteristic of the Devonshire idiom, should be explained as a Continental Germanic loan-word,nbsp;probably adopted in the form of a substantive; 'cp. Kilian�s neutelnbsp;sb. 'homunicio frivolus� and mod. Du. neutel sb. 'klein mannetje,nbsp;dreutel (often contemptuous)�. And the idiom that is likely to havenbsp;been the loan-giver is the Low Frankish dialect, since it embracesnbsp;dialectal varieties which have turned � into [o] in an open syllable andnbsp;since in English a suhs. or an adj. *n�tel adopted from a foreignnbsp;idiom is likely to have been turned into nottle (cp. OE lytel gt; ME,nbsp;NE little). This explanation appears to be preferable to postulatingnbsp;Danish influence, which in ME times is but scantily represented innbsp;the southernmost part of England. Cp. also the Swabian wordsnbsp;hottle� Tangsam, unsicher gehen� and Nottlete 'Hakelarbeit�, whichnbsp;must be Low Frankish loan-words.

Scandinavian origin of the adj. nottle should only be looked npon as being a mere abstract possibility. We may argue that atnbsp;the time of the Danish invasion of England there may have existednbsp;n Danish verb *nottla denoting 'to work slowly and inefficiently�nbsp;and that on English soil this word was the source of further sense-development. We may also call to mind that in the days ofnbsp;Edward I half Devonshire was still a Cornish-speaking district,nbsp;and that it was later on Anglicized by English immigration chieflynbsp;from the western parts of the Midlands. It is a fact that in thisnbsp;'''^ay some Scandinavian loan-words came to appear in the southwestern part of England, i. e. in Devonshire and Cornwall.^) Butnbsp;since there is no other trustworthy trace of Scandinavian influence

��I Cp. J. O. Halliwell Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words, 8th ed., London 1874, vol. i, p. xiv. See also K. F. Sund�n The ME verb Nuyse (= G�teborgs Hogskolas arsskrift XXXIX (1933); 2, p. 66) and K. F. Sund�n The Etymology ofnbsp;the ME verbs ro'^e, ropele, and rujgt;e {= A Grammatical Miscellany offered to Ottonbsp;Jespersen, 1930, p. 115.)

on the derivatives from the base nut in English, we must reject Scand. origin in point of nottle, too. Hence this word should benbsp;understood as a Low Frankish loan.

We have still to discuss the etymological speculations made in point of some words of our group.

The Scandinavian material has not been exposed to etymological attempts except Norw. dialectal nuta v. 'to push forth the snout, esp. to push forth (or down) the nose into the fodder butnbsp;without eating�. This verb is by Alf Torp, though hesitantly, connected with the Goth, subst. Jinujio (variant Jinuto) 'a pointed pole�,nbsp;ON. hnudr sb. Tog, pole� and, outside Germanic, with Latvian knutenbsp;sb. 'diinne Stange�.^) Semantically, the guess is not a bad one ifnbsp;it is meant that the primary notion of the Norw. verb was 'to pokenbsp;with a stick or the like� involving or in the lapse of time assumingnbsp;the sense of gentle activity. For in that case it is possiblenbsp;to explain several of the senses presented by the verbs of ournbsp;category.

Let us take OE potian 'to push�, 'butt�, 'goad�, all senses implying more or less a pushing with force or violence. The idea of slight activity did not attach to the verb until the 17th c., when it assumednbsp;the sense 'to poke with a stick or the hke�. But this sense broughtnbsp;about the extinction of the word, because in the 16th century thenbsp;idea of gentle poking began to be expressed by creating the derivative potter, whose r had iterative and diminutive force. Now notenbsp;that the verb potter could denote not only 'to poke again and again�nbsp;but also 'to occupy oneself in an ineffectual or trifling way; to worknbsp;or act in a feeble or desultory manner, to walk about or work slowly,nbsp;idly, or aimlessly; to dawdle, or loiter� (N. E. D.). In mod. Eng.nbsp;dialects the verb potter means, inter alia, 'to do anything in a feeble,nbsp;ineffectual way; to work in a lazy or inefficient manner; to wastenbsp;time, to busy oneself with trifles� (cp. Eng. Dial. Die.).

Take further the Eng. verb to poke (Du., LG poken), not evidenced before the 14th century. The starting-point of its semantic development was the sense 'to thrust or push (anything) with one�snbsp;hand or arm, the point of a stick or the like so as to move or stirnbsp;it� (N. E. D.). Later on it also signifies, amongst other things, 'tonbsp;go prying into corners or looking about one�, or fig. 'to make cu-See Alf Torp Nynorsk Etymologisk Ordbok, Kristiania 1919 s. v. Nuta and

rious investigation, to move abont in a desultory, ineffectual, or dawdling way� (N. E. D.). In modern dialects the verb means,nbsp;inter alia, �to dawdle, loiter�, �to perform work such as digging ornbsp;quarrying in a slow, clumsy manner�, and its agent noun, i. e. anbsp;poke, denotes �a dawdle^-, a slow inactive person� (Eng. Dial. Die.).

We find, then, that from the idea of �poking gently� there may arise several senses also presented by verbs formed on the base nut.nbsp;It is significant that this sense-development is absent when thenbsp;immediate point of departure is �to push with some force�. Hencenbsp;this development is not met with in the case of Eng. to thrust, annbsp;adoption of ON prysta.

The primary sense of the base nut, however, cannot have been to push or to poke� since, apart from Norw. dial, nuta, this sensenbsp;is not often met with, whereas it is retained alongside of the newnbsp;meanings when it is the primary signification. Let it also be notednbsp;that there are meanings developed from the sense �to push or tonbsp;poke� which are never found in the descendants of the base nut,nbsp;e- g. �to struggle, gen. of some one lying down�; �to make repeatednbsp;efforts to reach anything� (= dial, senses offered by pote)-, to project, to bulge out�; �to make fun of� (= dial, meanings presentednbsp;by poke). On the other hand these verbs never denote to producenbsp;a set of sounds�, a sense often a characteristic feature of verbsnbsp;formed on the base nut. Hence it is obvious that the primarynbsp;signification of the latter base cannot have been 'to push or tonbsp;poke�.

The Continental representatives of the base nut have never been made the object of genetic explanation with the sole exception of the Dutch substantives neutken and neutel. But since theirnbsp;connection with the Dutch verb neutelen is not to be denied andnbsp;fhe etymology of the latter word is disregarded, it hardly needsnbsp;saying that this etymological attempt began at the wrong end andnbsp;hence resulted in a failure. But let us quote the attitude of Dutchnbsp;etymologists towards this verb; �Neutelen ww., sedert Kil. = ndd.nbsp;�f^^teln, n�teln ,,talmen, zeuren, zaniken�, fri. neutelje ,,neulen, zaniken .nbsp;In Welke genetische verhouding dit woord staat tot het rijmwoordnbsp;^'^(.utelen, tot neuten en tot Kil. neutken (ook neutelersken)nbsp;!gt;bedrijvig vrouwtje�, is bezwaarlijk uit te maken. Kil. neutken kannbsp;'Wel evenals ndl. dial, neutel ,,klein mannetje� van neut �noot�nbsp;komen, dat ook zelf voor kleine personen en voorwerpen gebruiktnbsp;�Wordt (vgl. ook dreutel). Neuten zoowel als neutelen zijn

�/

wsch. jonge woorden. Vgl. ook achterh. n�(te)lik �verdrietig� �.Cf. Franck�s Etymologisch Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, Tweedenbsp;Druk door Dr. N. van Wijk, 'S-Gravenhage 1912 s. v. neutelen, p. 457.

In these statements everything is erroneous except the meanings of the words to be explained. The expression 'sedert Kil.�, i. e.nbsp;since Kilian�s dictionary of 1777, implies ignorance of the existencenbsp;of Pieter Marin�s dictionary of 1701. The subs, neutel is not dialectal if we can trust van Dale�s 'Groot Woordenboek der Neder-landsche Taal� of 1924. To the view that neutelen is hkely to be anbsp;young word is opposed the wide spread of the base nut over thenbsp;Germanic territory. Besides, it should be noted that this base is oldnbsp;enough to have passed through the Old High German consonant-shift, as is proved by the Aschaffenburg verb notzen (lt; *nott5nnbsp;lt; *nut�n). The very writing n�{te)lik is suggestive of the false viewnbsp;that there is a genetic connection between the adjectives n�teliknbsp;and nolik. The interpretation of Kilian�s neutken and neutel asnbsp;derivatives formed from neut ,,noot� (= Eng. nut, Lat. nux) cannotnbsp;be accepted. For how could it be possible for neutken 'a little nut�nbsp;to pass into the meaning 'bedrijvig vrouwtje�? This word shouldnbsp;instead be understood as connected with the verb neuten 'to benbsp;busy in a trifling manner�, which evidently gave rise to a subst.nbsp;*neut. This root-verb is still found in 'Westvlaamsch�, a factnbsp;obviously unknown to Franck and van Wijk. As to the subs.nbsp;neutel it may be regarded as a back-formation from neutelen. Thenbsp;dialectal adjective n�telik is evidently a Saxon (= Low Ger.) wordnbsp;since it occurs in 'Achterhoeksch�, a dialect in the county of Ziitphennbsp;(cf. p. 18). Of course no attempt is made to explain its sense 'verdrietig�.

Lastly, we are unable to realize that the etymology of Du. neutelen is so closely bound up with the etymology of dreutelen and neulen, its semantic congeners, that it should be a categorical imperative for us to deal with the genesis of the latter verbs also. Butnbsp;it is true that these words semantically largely agree with neutelen,nbsp;as is apparent from the following descriptions in van Dale�s dictionary; � Dreutelen v. (1) Drentelen [i. e. langzaam heen en weernbsp;wandelen, zich drentelend ergens heen begeven]; (2) talmen [i. e.nbsp;dralen, i. e. met de uitvoering van iets wachten], treuzelen [i. e.nbsp;langzaam werken]; (3) (gew.) onhandig te werk gaan. Neulen v.nbsp;(1) (Gew.) binnenmonds brommen; (2) zaniken [i. e. gedurig herhalen, aanhoudend en op eene vervelende wijze over iets spreken.

iets vragen], zeuren [i. e. zaniken]. Neutelen v. (1) Talmen; (2) zich met beuzelingen ophouden, futselen [also = treuzelen].

The semantic harmony between dreutelen and neutelen is still more striking outside Dutch. In actual fact, nearly all the meaningsnbsp;presented by the former verb are also denoted by verbs containing the base nut. In Richey�s Idioticon Hamburgense of 1755,nbsp;where n�teln is absent, droteln denotes 'zaudern, z�gern, andnbsp;Droteler means 'Zauderer, der langsam arbeitet�. In the Bremennbsp;dictionary of 1768 droteln signifies 'zaudern, zSgern�, Droteler meansnbsp;ein Zauderer, and Drotelgoos quot;dasselbe, eine langsame Frauensper-son�. Woeste�s W�rterbuch der Westfalischen Mundart of 1882 givesnbsp;the form drqtelen meaning 'schwatzen�, and in Leihener s Cronen-berger W�rterbuch of 1908 we come across the form drgdeln denotingnbsp;dangsam gehen, z�gern, zaudern�. If we turn to ten Doornkaatnbsp;Koolinan�s W�rterbuch der Ostfriesischen Sprache of 1879, we findnbsp;that dr�tel[e)n means 'sioh (wo, wobei u. womit) aufhalten, tr�deln,nbsp;Zaudern, z�gern etc.�, and that it has derivatives and compounds, e. g.nbsp;Gedr�tel (Gezauder, etc.), Dr�tel� (Zauderei), Dr�t�ler and Dr�telmdrsnbsp;(Zauderer, etc.). In Waling Dijkstra�s Friesch Woordenboek of 1900 foil.nbsp;dreutelje means '�dreutelen, talmen, luieren (i. e. lui in iets te werknbsp;gaan, traag iets verrichten�, and there are derivatives, viz. dreuteldernbsp;= dreutelaar, and dreuteltsje = weinig je (= weinigheid). In Mole-ma�s W�rterbuch der Oroningenschen Mundart of 1888 dreuteln signifies Talmen, dralen, treuzelen, en, eenmaal begonnen, langzaam doorwerken�, and there are also compounds containing dreutel.

If we now turn to Kilian�s dictionary of 1777, we find that dreutelen and its variant drotelen have a totally different sense,nbsp;quot;^iz. pumilionis passus facere, gradi instar nani = kleine schredennbsp;doen als een dwerg�, whereas the substantives dreutel and drotelnbsp;denote �pilula stercoria�; op. mod. dreutel = (1) hoopje drek , (2) eennbsp;klein mannetje, een dwerg�. If we consult De Bo s Westvlaamschnbsp;Idioticon of 1892, we find that treutelen and neutelen form rimingnbsp;combinations, viz. neuteFrewtera = �nutselen en trutselen , fr. lam-biner, chipoter, treutennevAen � Treuten en neuten, trutselen ennbsp;Hutselen (nusselen), neuteltreuten, met beuzelverk zijnen tijd verslijten�, Fr. chipoter, v�tiller, i. e. chipoter = fane un travail, unenbsp;besogne avec negligence ou lenteur; s�arreter a de riens, fane des diffi-cult�s pour se decider (Littr�); v�tiller � s amuser d des v�ti�les ( bagatelles); faire des difficuU�s sur de petites choses (Littr�). This Westnbsp;Flemish fact goes to show that treutelen, trutselen and neutelen.

38 K. VET. O. VITTBRH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SBB. A. BD 1. N:0 3 nutselen were largely synonymous verbs. As to the form nutselen,nbsp;which has not been recorded elsewhere, it is obviously an intentional modification of nusselen 'talmen, beuzelen; beuzelarijen verrichten, prutsen [= onhandig bezig zijn]�. Otherwise said, we seemnbsp;to be concerned with an intentional formative contamination between neutelen, treutelen on the one hand and nusselen on the othernbsp;hand, a contact due to semantic similarity.

But whatever may be the semantic history of Kilian�s dreutelen and drotelen and whatever semantic or genetic contact there maynbsp;have been between neutelen on the one hand and dreutelen ornbsp;treutelen on the other hand, one thing stands out as being beyondnbsp;dispute, viz. the circumstance that the semantic aspect of neutelennbsp;has experienced no influence whatsoever from this contact. Thisnbsp;is evident from the fact that those meanings which neutelen has innbsp;common with the verbs mentioned, also occur in verbs formed fromnbsp;the base nut but met with in countries outside the Netherlands,nbsp;e. g. Scandinavia and Switzerland. But if so, there is no reasonnbsp;for an inquirer who is dealing with the Germanic base nut tonbsp;examine also the origin of the verbs dreutelen and treutelen and theirnbsp;interrelation.

The semantic harmony between neulen and neutelen is so considerable that there are lexicographers who believe that the former verb is a reduced form of the latter. This was evidently the view ofnbsp;C. H. St�renburg since in his Ostfriesisches W�rterbuch of 1857 henbsp;deals with the two verbs at the same time and assigns to them thenbsp;same senses: molen, noteln zaudern, z�gern, langsam arbeiten, nichtsnbsp;beschicken.� This etymological opinion is expressly pronouced bynbsp;ten Doornkaat Koolman�s W�rterbuch der Ostfriesischen Sprache ofnbsp;1884 s. V. n�len, where we read; �cf. n�telen, wovon es zweifellosnbsp;contrah. ist.� And if we turn to Grimm�s Deutsches W�rterbuch, Bdnbsp;VII, in 1889, s. v. n�{h)len, n�teln, we find that the same opinionnbsp;is pronounced.

This genetic view is doubtless erroneous. For it is a priori most unlikely that such a contraction, in itself very doubtful undernbsp;the circumstances, should get the upper hand so as to be spread overnbsp;large territories where there is no trace of n�teln but where its supposed contraction manifests great vitality by constituting the basenbsp;of derivatives or by being a member of compounds. As examples:nbsp;1781 J. C. Dahnert Platt-Deutsches W�rterbuch nach der alten u.nbsp;neuen Pommerschen u. Bugischen Mundart (Stralsund): � Nolen v.

Zaudern, saumen. Derivatives and compounds: � Nolerij f. das Zaudern. Nolert, Nolbartel, Nolfotze, Schimpfnamen auf zauderndenbsp;eute. � 1882 H. Drischbier Preussisches W�rterbuch (Ost- undnbsp;Westpreussische Provinzialismen), (Berlin): � Nalen {a lang) v. (1)nbsp;Zogern, zaudern, saumselig u. langsam seine Arbeit f�rdern, einenbsp;Sache zustandebringen; (2) langsam trinken. Derivatives and compounds. Naler m. Zauderer, Z�gerer, Paulpelz. Nalerei f. Saumselig-keit. Nalerig adj. saumselig. Benalen v. sick b. 'sich allgemachlichnbsp;nahlend betrinken�. Nathans, -peter, -lize, trm. � 1858 G. Scham-bach W�rterbuch der niederdeutschen Mundart der F�rstenth�mernbsp;Gottingen u, Grubenhagen (Hannover); � Nolen v. (1) Ungebiirlichnbsp;langsam sprechen; (2) ohne Aufh�ren wovon spreohen; (3) zogern,nbsp;Zaudern, in seinem Thun �bermassig langsam sein. Derivatives; �nbsp;N�lerie f. (1) Das allzu langsame Sprechen; (2) das immer wiedernbsp;'^on neuem begonnene u. daher langweilige Reden; (3) das Hin-zogern, die iibergrosse Langsamkeit. Nolig adj. Uebermassig langsam im Sprechen oder Thun.

It should be noted, however, that there are vocabularies which maintain that in Low German and Frisian the quality of the vowelnbsp;of the stem is exactly the same in n�teln as in noten. So doesnbsp;^^emisch-Niedersachsisches W�rterbuch of 1767 foil, which for bothnbsp;quot;^erbs employs the Greek letters [ogt;;] to indicate the quality of thenbsp;Vowel. So does St�renburg�s Ostfriesisches W�rterbuch of 1857 innbsp;using for both the transscription [o], and the same does also Mending s Schteswig-Hotsteinisches W�rterbuch of 1929 foil, when in bothnbsp;cases symbolizing the sound by means of the sign [#]. A comparisonnbsp;between these transscriptions and those employed when close �nbsp;IS to be denoted appears to prove that the former are meant to indicate, not an open � as in German G�tter, Swed. b�ssa (a gun), but anbsp;distinctly flat vowel. With the latter term is generally meant anbsp;Vowel produced when the tongue lies in the neutral position with nonbsp;part active = Eng. Vocal murmur�, phonetically written [a] andnbsp;described as a �'mid (low-mid) flat slack neutral� vowel. In the present case, however, we must assume that the sound is a little lessnbsp;�iack than [a] and that the middle parts of the tongue are somewhatnbsp;more raised. Hence the sound should be described as a 'mid flatnbsp;slack neutral� vowel. This type is represented by Swed. � beforenbsp;Iquot;� C- g. h�ra, b�rd (with long vowels), f�rr, forst (with short vowels).nbsp;That we are concerned with this vowel in point of noten and n�teln,nbsp;too, where the vowel is long, seems to be obvious also from the

fact that, if the neutral position of the lips is only slightly widened, there originates a long a. This explains the form nalen (in Prussia)nbsp;and neteln (in Bremen) whose e is denoted as equivalent to Greeknbsp;[?j], which doubtless was by the author meant to denote [a]; cp.nbsp;naeteln, naelen (Ditmarschen, Stiirenburg). In British Enghsh therenbsp;exists, in addition to vocal murmur, a flat vowel but with longnbsp;quantity, phonetically described by Jones as a mid flat tense neutralnbsp;vowel, e. g. birth, first = [ha: J)], [fa: st]. The quality of the vowelnbsp;in these words is distinctly different from that of the vowel in thenbsp;Swedish words bord and f�rsf), which is due to the fact that in thenbsp;former case there is some compression of the vocal cords. In Northnbsp;American English the Swed. short vowel is used before r followednbsp;by a consonant or before r final, but only in the speech of thosenbsp;Americans who use '�inverted r, i. e. the point of the tongue is liftednbsp;up and slightly inverted towards the roof of the mouth. But sincenbsp;this tongue position is practically taken while the vowel is beingnbsp;pronounced, the quality of the vowel is somewhat influenced. Thenbsp;symbol used by G. Ph. Krapp^) for this sound is [o], e. g. mercynbsp;\mQji,si\, sir [s0.{]. Let us employ this symbol in order to denote thenbsp;fiat vowel we are here concerned with, though the colouring of annbsp;inverted r be absent.

Prom these items of phonetic information it is evident that we have to state that in Low German and Frisian the verbs n�len andnbsp;n�tein have the same long stem-vowel, i. e. [o:]. Judging from Richey�s Idioticon Hamburgense of 1755 it is not easy to determinenbsp;the exact distribution of this flat vowel. As examples: m�ten {or])nbsp;must = OE motan; Koche (or]) Kuche lt; Lat. coquina; scholen,nbsp;solen (orj) � sollen lt;( *skulan; mohr (orj) murbe lt; *murwia; glorennbsp;{or]) 'glimmen� = Norw. dial, gl�ra; Klove {or]) Spalte, fissura. But,nbsp;on the other hand, we meet with a close � (= oe) in kloben spalten,nbsp;lt;( *klauhjan; b�ten Feuer machen lt; *b�tjan 'to better�; t�ven Swed.nbsp;t�va lt; *t5hjan; etc. Anyhow, it is most likely that n�len and n�telnnbsp;obtained their flat vowel independently of each other. The short flatnbsp;stem-vowel, i. e. [o], in Swedish dial, uattla is due to spontaneousnbsp;phonetic progression of d.

It is obvious that in Dutch both neulen and neutelen are pronounced with a real �-sound. Let us also point out that Du. neulen

is by Hj. Falk and AK Torp�^) considered to be an adoption of �LG. n�len langsam sein, zaudern; knarren, brummen�. If we modify thisnbsp;opinion so as to mean liG. and Fris. n�len, then their allegation isnbsp;quite acceptable since the word appears to be absent in West Flemishnbsp;(cp. De Bo�s dictionary) and wanting in derivatives in standardnbsp;Dutch (cp. van Dale�s dictionary). But if so, it is obvious that fromnbsp;the point of view of the Dutch idiom there is no genetic relationshipnbsp;between Du. neutelen and Du. neulen.

The two scholars mentioned above flatly deny that there is any genetic connection between LG n�len and LG n�telnd) Andnbsp;later on Torp declares that n�len is of onomatopoeic origin, beingnbsp;connected with Swiss German nilele^ [muele^) ^to jerk out inarticulate sounds�, and that n�len originally meant ^gni�, i. e. to rub,nbsp;and thereupon 'brumme�, i. e. to grumble.^) This etymologicalnbsp;view was evidently adopted hy 0. Mensing who says:^) �Dasnbsp;Wort [= n�len] ist wohl urspriinglich lautmalend und hedeutetnbsp;�Knurren�, �brummen�, �miirrisch sein� (und darum widerwillignbsp;und langsam bei der Arbeit.� The etymology given within parentheses cannot be said to be quite unacceptable, but it does not seemnbsp;to be a common type of sense-change, that is, of Permutation.nbsp;Besides, it should be noted that 'langsam arbeiten� is a very common sense. Hence it really appears that the onomatopoeic base wasnbsp;also meant to symbolize 'slowness in speech�, and that slowness innbsp;action in general is a later semantic aspect, a change probablynbsp;favoured by influence from the semantic area of n�teln. In actualnbsp;fact, 'slowness of speech� is more often represented by n�len and itsnbsp;derivatives than by n�teln. The sense is met with in Dutch neulen,nbsp;which means (accord, to van Dale�s dictionary) not only 'binnenmondsnbsp;brommen� but also 'zaniken�, i. e. to dwell tediously on the samenbsp;subject, and 'zeuren�, i. e. to be slow or tardy in performing a task,nbsp;to harp on the same subject. It is also represented by Low Germ.nbsp;n�len, which denotes (1) ungebiihrlich langsam sprechen, ohne Auf-h�ren woven sprechen; (2) z�gern, zaudern, in seinem Thun �ber-massig langsam sein (G�ttingen and Grubenhagen)*); or else lang-

Cp. H, S. Falk u. Alf Torp Norwegiscli-D�niscJies Etymologisches Worterhuchy Heidelberg 1919 s. v. nele.

Cp. G. Schambach Wh. der niederdeutschen Mundart der F�rstenth�mer Gottingen w. Grubenhagen, Hannover 1858.

weilig erzahlen (= nT^len, Rhoden in Waldeck; == nahlen (Cass.)^). Note the derivatives N�ler langweiliger Erzahler (Mardf.-Ki, Rho.),nbsp;N�lerei langweilige Erzahlerei (Rhoden), and the compound N�l{e)-peter einer der (langsam und) langweihg erzahlt. Note also N�l-trine langweilige Erzahlerin (Rhoden), whence n�ltern [= n^ltdrayi]nbsp;ungehalten reden, knurren, �ber Abwesende (B�ses) reden (Rhoden)i,nbsp;obviously a back-formation from N�lt(e)rine lt; n�len Katarine. Thenbsp;sense is also represented by n�U'n? in Baltic German (Esthonia), wherenbsp;it denotes Tangsam knarrend, eint�nig und langweihg reden� (accord,nbsp;to Sallmann). In Baltic German we also come across nalen {nahlen,nbsp;nehlen)^ zaudern, langsam eine Sache betreiben, tr�deln, tandeln. Butnbsp;nalen in Esthonia = 'eint�nig und langsam reden�.^) In Posen nalen =nbsp;langsam und lahgweilig sprechen.^ In Unterharz neln = 'langsamnbsp;reden oder arbeiten�, 'trage und langsam etwas betreiben�^), and innbsp;Silesia nelen = zaudern, langsam handeln, langweilig reden.

It is very possible, then, that, when Low Germ, and Fris. n�teln denote 'to harp on the same subject�, this sense is due to influencenbsp;from n�len. Such is probably also the case when West Fris. neuteljeisnbsp;explained as meaning 'neulen�. Such is also likely to be the case when,nbsp;in Baltic German, u�tteln (18th c.) means 'iterum iterumque aliquidnbsp;segre ferre atque id verbis exprimere�, and when nitteln (19th c.) denotesnbsp;'an Allem etwas auszusetzen haben, und mit einer ge wissen kleinigkeits-kramerei oder Spitzfindigkeit dabei verfahren� (cp. the sense of n�len innbsp;Esthonia). It is even possible that the Bremen verb neteln (18th c.),nbsp;when denoting 'nicht aufhbren kSnnen von einer Sache zu reden�,nbsp;'einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben� (also = zaudern, morasnbsp;nectere), got this semantic aspect from n�len, though thisnbsp;verb is not recorded by Versuch eines bremish-niedersichsischennbsp;WSrterbuchs (of 1768). In all these cases we may be confrontednbsp;with a semantic loan from n�len due to 'semantic contagion�, i. e.nbsp;proportional Analogy. But it should also be noted that these casesnbsp;readily admit of being explained in another way not suggestive ofnbsp;any influence from the outside. This will be the only explanationnbsp;given when we deal with the semantic development starting fromnbsp;the base nut.

Cp. W. von Gutzeit W�rterschatz der deutschen Sprache Livlands, Riga 1887, s. V. n�len, nalen.

�) Cp. Friedrich Liesenberg Die Stieger Mundart, ein Idiom dea Unterharzes . . . , Gottingen 1890 p. 181

There are several other semantic problems connected with the etymology of Low Germ, and Frisian n�len. For both in dialectalnbsp;Scandinavian and German there are verbs whose phonetic shapenbsp;suggests genetic connection with Low Germ, n�len but whose semantic area forbids this connection or else is due to influence fromnbsp;this verb. Thus, for instance, there is Norw. dial, nela which means onnbsp;the one hand Ta knapt til, knipe, toie, vsere omtrent nok� (i. e. tonbsp;skimp, to be about sufficient, etc.), and on the other hand 'gi sig tid,nbsp;drose, sole, pusle, vente, bie� (i. e. to be slow in performing a task,nbsp;to dawdle, to be busy in a trifling manner, to wait, etc.).^) Thenbsp;senses of the former semantic type is by A. Torp explained asnbsp;derivatives from the Germanic base hno Teiben� (cp. Norw. dial.nbsp;nola 'arbeide sent og smaat, i sser med kniv�). The form nola isnbsp;by him understood as a diminutive of a verb answering to MHG.nbsp;n�ejen 'durch schaben glatten� (also � genau zusammenfiigen) =nbsp;OHG. nden lt; *hn�jan. This base is also represented by the verbsnbsp;ndln, noln (im Unterinnthale), meaning 'eine unniitze Arbeit thun�nbsp;but by Grimm�s W�rterbuch (Bd VII, in 1889) identified withnbsp;LG n�len, though it is evident that the sense should be understoodnbsp;as a contextual synonym for the sense 'durch schaben glatten� (orig.nbsp;schaben um zu glatten), a fact that gave rise to the semantic changenbsp;called Permutation. The senses of the latter semantic type of Norw.nbsp;dial, nola is by Torp understood as due to semantic influence fromnbsp;Danish nole 'tove, drose, smole, vsere sendrsegtig, se tiden an, opssette,nbsp;udskyde�.^) The Danish verb is by Torp explained as an adoptionnbsp;from Low German. Note also Swed. dial, nola which means (1)nbsp;sola med nagot som skall g�ras, dr�ja, vara senfardig, i. e. tonbsp;dawdle, to tarry, to be slow in performing a task (Scania, Helsing-land, Finland); (2) gnola, i. e. to hum an air (Scania).�)

Furthermore, there are Alemannian verbs that must be considered when we deal with the semantic aspect of LG n�len and its cognates. Swiss German verbs are: nule�' (1) mit dummen oder un-n�tzen Dingen seine Zeit vertreiben oder sich durch solche Dingenbsp;an der Arbeit hindern lassen; (2) sanft schlummern, schlafrig sein;nbsp;nuele^ or niiele� (1) w�hlen, von Tieren (insbes. Schweinen) undnbsp;Menschen; (2) niiele^ = wohll�stig sein; (3) trandeln, langsam ar-

Cp. B. T. Dahl og H. Hammer Dansk Ordhog for Folket, Kobenhavn og Kristiania Bd II 1914.

beiten, and there are compounds.^) Alsatian verbs are; nuele�, niiele^ (1) w�hlen, (2) gr�beln; dur'^^n�ele'^ durchw�hlen, vfn�ele'^ aufw�hlen,nbsp;and other compounds.^) Besides, we have to observe Bavarian niielennbsp;'mit dem Nueteissen oder Fughobel aushohlen� (evidently from thenbsp;base hn�-). And there are certainly also other words worthy of note.

With all these problems, however, we have nothing to do since we are satisfied that LG. n�len and n�teln, and hence alsonbsp;Dutch neulen and neutelen, are of different etymological origin. Thenbsp;chief duty of an etymologist in the present case is to pay attentionnbsp;to the representatives of the base nut outside Dutch. But this axiomatic truth has been wholely disregarded by Franck and van Wijk.nbsp;They have preferred to make a series of allegations, every onenbsp;of which is entirely destitute of foundation. We cannot fully suppress the thought that such an attitude is unworthy of scientificnbsp;researchers.

There only remains for us to deal with the etymological theory put forward by I. Gollancz in point of ME nytel. In hisnbsp;Explanatory Notes on the text of Cleanness, edited by him, henbsp;makes the following remark: myteled: probably a frequentativenbsp;form, cp. OE nytian to make use of; cp. ^al wat3 nedles hernbsp;note�, 381. 'They made ado there all the night�; cp. also Patience,nbsp;220. )gt; It is true that nyteled is a frequentative form, but it is difficult to realize its connection with OE nyttian 'to make use of, enjoy�nbsp;(the form nytian is a figment) since it never meant 'to make ado�.nbsp;Add to this the fact that the contextual sense of the verb had mostnbsp;probably an aspect other than 'to make a fuss�, and it hardlynbsp;needs saying that the explanation suggested by Gollancz is merelynbsp;a wanton conjecture. But it has the merit that it presupposes thenbsp;Germanic base nut as the phonetic source of the word.

Cp. F. Staub und L. Tobler Schweizerisches Idiotikon, Frauenfeld 1901 Bd IV, Sp. 717, 718.

Cp. E. Martin und H. Lienhart Worterbuch der Elsdssischen Mundarten, Strass-burg, 1899 I 768.

Prolegomena to the Semantic-Genetic Interpretation I.

If we want to base the semantic-genetic interpretation of our material on scientific principles, it is indispensable to give somenbsp;preliminary information on the mechanism of speech, on the notionnbsp;of meaning, and on the classification of semantic changes we intend tonbsp;employ. Science is but organized knowledge of what has already tonbsp;some extent been brought within the range of comprehension. Wenbsp;are well aware of the slender foundation upon which its theories arenbsp;frequently built, and the science of language certainly makes nonbsp;exeption. But none the less it is the only way in which to get anbsp;better understanding of the realities we are confronted with.

A. The Mechanism of Speech and the Notion of Meaning.

For the student of semantic development it should be of primary importance to have a correct conception of the very notion of meaning. But this is impossible to get without realizing thenbsp;actual difference between language and speech and without knowledge of the outer mechanism of the latter.

/r -A /.

The principal point of the difference between speech and language is the manner in which they have their being. Articulate languagenbsp;is speech in abeyance. It is a codified system of words, of mannersnbsp;how to pronounce and form them, and of schemes how to combinenbsp;them so as to make them form syntactical units. Otherwise said,nbsp;language represents habits of speech, and these have man�s memorynbsp;as their place of deposit. They are slumbering there and heldnbsp;together by the finest net-work of criss-cross associations, which makesnbsp;if possible for man to master the linguistic material and its employ-naent. It is obvious that the units of language are not sentencesnbsp;but words; for these are the smallest comparatively independentnbsp;Units into which a sentence admits of being broken up. Let it benbsp;noted, also, that language is a system of linguistic habits serving as a

means of communication within a geographical territory of greater or less extent.

Speech, on the other hand, is language as employed. It is the actual use of language as a means of communication. This usenbsp;consists in forming actual speech on the model of the mental pictures of former speech that constitute a language. The choice ofnbsp;the words is conditioned by the meaning that forms part of theirnbsp;semantic area and that is meant by - the speaker to cover, i. e.nbsp;to he fairly identical with, the semantic aspect in which the thingnbsp;spoken about is viewed. But speech also implies the use of thenbsp;schemes of sentence-form stored up in man�s memory. It is evident,nbsp;then, that the words and forms employed are none of the speaker�snbsp;making but are drawn from language. But he has made his choicenbsp;of them out of a great material at his disposal.

It is the interest of a community of speech that the speaker generally follows the beaten tracks of linguistic communication. But,nbsp;on the other hand, it is the nature of man to give vent in his speech tonbsp;his own individuality as much as is possible without the risk of beingnbsp;misunderstood. It should also be noted that the activity of speechnbsp;is generally performed on the spur of the moment and that hencenbsp;the choice of words may not always hit the exact mark. But adjustment to the sense actually meant immediately takes place, andnbsp;context and situation are helping so that also in these cases thenbsp;listener has ordinarily no difficulty in identifying the sense meant bynbsp;the speaker. If semantic deviation in a certain case is repeated andnbsp;becomes accepted by a linguistie community, then we are faced withnbsp;a permanent semantic change of the word, i. e. with a fact of language. This is no rare phenomenon, though as a rule words are usednbsp;in the way that language has decreed that they shall be used. Thusnbsp;there is always a give and take between language and speech.i)

Lastly, it should be noted that the activity of speaking is always meant to consist in forming sentences. Hence sentence is the unit of speech, and therefore it is the central notionnbsp;of linguistics. It is strange that the real nature of this notion shouldnbsp;be a matter of dispute ever since the days of Dyonysios Thrax, anbsp;distinguished Greek grammarian living about 100 B. C. Personallynbsp;we are absolutely convinced that its secret is as follows: Sentencenbsp;is such a portion of speech as is putting for-*) Cp. A. H. Gardiner The Theory of Speech and Language, Oxford 1932 p. 136�7.

ward to the listener a state of things {a thing-rn eant) as having validity, i. e. as being tr u e4)

This definition is of modal nature, and hence it is applicable to any form of human articulate speech, nay to any form of humannbsp;utterance even such a speech as the quipu, the knotted-cord records of the Inca people. In fact, this wide applicability is an unavoidable criterion of the correctness of the definition of the sentence. For truth represents the modal fundament of any discursive train of thought, of any human communication, and it is thenbsp;nature of things that this must be the case, or else no reasonablenbsp;purpose can be served, no human progress can be obtained. Butnbsp;if so, truth or would-be truth must be the leading attribute, thenbsp;Unavoidable quality of any normal utterance or thinking irrespective of its origin. And hence every sentence is an item of truth,nbsp;and every item of truth, if expressed, is a sentence. They are equipollent notions, and therefore they are interchangeable. But if so,nbsp;the essence of the sentence must be that it is putting forward a statenbsp;of things as true. But a scientific truth has mostly to fight an uphill battle against prejudice and ignorance. And the same will benbsp;the fate of our definition, though its truth be of axiomatic nature.

The outer mechanism of speech is primarily composed of a speaker who clothes in words his mental content for the moment. Otherwise said, he identifies the aspect in whichnbsp;each thing mentioned in a sentence is to be viewed, i. e. itsnbsp;class, with the class expressed by the portion of the semanticnbsp;range of the word employed that is applicable. In this piecemealnbsp;Way, done bit by bit, a many-word sentence is built up. In pointnbsp;of fact, we are concerned with a series of small sentences of identity.nbsp;But thanks to the mechanization of speech they are not felt asnbsp;such, and hence they do not obscure the thing meant by the wholenbsp;sentence. In such an utterance as Pussy is beautiful it is 'Pussy�snbsp;beauty� that is the state of things (the thing-meant) that is beingnbsp;put forward as having validity. But in the case of a many-wordnbsp;Sentence we had better say with Gardiner that the thing meant bynbsp;fhe sentence is the sentence itself. Lastly, let us remember that anynbsp;act of speech owes its existence to the exertion of the speaker�s will.

The outer mechanism of speech is also made up of a li s t en-c r, i. e. a person to whom the speaker�s utterance is addressed.

q Cp. K. F. Sund�n Linguistic Theory and the Essence of the Sentence, G�teborgs H�gskolas Arsskrift XLVII, 1941: 5, p. 40.

From his view-point each word is a stimulus to performing the act of understanding it, i. e. the act of identifying a portion of itsnbsp;semantic range with the sense actually meant by the speaker. For wenbsp;should admit with Gardiner that the words pronounced by the speaker and conveyed to the listener are semantic clues from the viewpoint of the latter, whose intelligence has to make busy with thenbsp;search after whatever can have been meant by these clues. In thenbsp;present case, too, we are confronted with a series of one-word sentences of identity or rather with their predicates. And here, also, thenbsp;process is mechanized so as to make the comprehension of the statenbsp;of things meant by the whole sentence take place at lightning speed.

The third outer factor constituting the mechanism of speech is the thing spoken about. This is by Gardiner called the thing-m e ant but by Ogden and Richards 'the referent�.i) It ought tonbsp;be an axiom of linguistic theory that speech always refers to something, whether we be concerned with sentences or with the individual words of a sentence. But this was an idea beyond the depthnbsp;of linguists until Professor Karl Biihler of Vienna, a psychologist,nbsp;pointed out this factor, indispensable from a semantic point of view.

For a fruitful linguistic theory it is in Gardiner�s opinion necessary to apprehend the things-meant as things. Also such notions as is, very, and in in the sentence It is very cold in this room may benbsp;conceived of as things. In his opinion �the thing meant by is maynbsp;fairly be characterized with the words 'the affirmed^) existence ofnbsp;cold in this room�, the thing meant by very with the words 'thenbsp;high degree of cold in this room�, and the thing meant by in withnbsp;the words 'position in this room of great cold��.�) But if so, it followsnbsp;as a corollary that the relation between is, very, and in, and their corresponding things-meant, which also are conceived of as things, is thatnbsp;represented by the members of a predication of identity since it meansnbsp;'what is implies = the existence of cold in this room�, and so forth.nbsp;We readily admit the legitimacy of understanding what is spokennbsp;about as a thing, and it would be interesting to know whether thisnbsp;view is mirrored in the external form of primitive idioms. Thenbsp;Indo-European languages far from always present the things spoken

Cp. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards The Meaning of Meaning, London, 1923 (pp. 418 foil.).

The expression '�affirmed� implies that the indicative expresse.s the mood of reality, whereas it is the sentence itself that performs this function.

about as things. Thus, for instance, is is presented as a verb, very as an adverb, and in as a preposition. It is the disparity in presentation that forms the basis of the distinction between separate word-classes. And this very distinction is a permanent characteristicnbsp;that appears to be inherent in the notions represented by the words,nbsp;and hence it is a fact belonging to language. But this does not prevent the notions mentioned from being conceived of as things whennbsp;they are the centre of our attention in thinking.

Let it be particularly noted that the things-meant exist outside the word-signs. If we call a spade a spade, the spade itself is extraverbal and should be kept apart from the word with which we talknbsp;about it. The speaker, the listener, and the thing-meant are factorsnbsp;of speech but not parts of it. Gardiner points out (p. 24 f.) thatnbsp;one of the proofs that the things-meant are extra-verbal is the factnbsp;that one and the same thing can be expressed (i. e. referred to) innbsp;different ways, i. e. by several different sentences. Instead of Pussynbsp;is beautiful there might be substituted Your cat is very lovely. Henbsp;also emphasizes (p. 27) that abstractions, feelings, and fictions maynbsp;appear as things-meant and are then extra-verbal. �That 'religion�nbsp;is a real thing�, he says, �is vouched fof by the millions to whomnbsp;it is an all-pervading influence. That 'enthusiasm� can be sharednbsp;is a sign that it is no individual emanation. And 'centaurs� havenbsp;amused and inspired generations of artists�. These, too, are mirrorednbsp;in the mind and were not there to start with.

There is another point to be noticed, viz. the fact that it is necessary to make a distinction Between the ultimate thing-e ant and the proximate thing-meant. If somebodynbsp;�ays Let us run to that tree, his objective is, as Gardiner points outnbsp;(p. 258), the ultimate thing-meant, which belongs outside bothnbsp;speech and language. But if he says The thing you imagined was anbsp;signpost is only a tree, his objective is the proximate thing-meant.nbsp;The difference may with Gardiner be termed in the following waynbsp;(p. 257): �A meaning is said of a thing-meant; but the listener maynbsp;be induced to stop at the meaning, in which case the thing-meant,nbsp;though still there, fades into momentary insignificance [2nd ex.];nbsp;or else he may have his attention drawn on to the thing-meant,nbsp;passing clean through the meaning, which is then merely a stationnbsp;^Pon the way [1st ex.].� To use again Gardiner�s wording we maynbsp;maintain (p. 258): �In more commonplace parlance, the proximatenbsp;thing-meant is the aspect in which the ultimate thing-meant isnbsp;i

50 K. VET. O. VITTBRH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. ]Sr:0 3 seen.� He points out that in some words, especially in those whichnbsp;play a subsidiary part in the sentence, e. g. prepositions, the balance is held so evenly between the proximate and the ultimatenbsp;thing-meant that it is impossible to say w'hich of the two was thenbsp;more intended. If the proximate thing-meant is to be emphasizednbsp;at the expense of the ultimate thing-meant, a vocal stress will achievenbsp;that end, e. g. 'She looked over her spectacles�. Of such a stressednbsp;employment of a word Gardiner says (p. 259) that in grammar it isnbsp;called a 'predicative use. In our opinion the type of predicationalnbsp;nexus then involved is always a predication of identity.

There is another subdivision of the things-meant that should also be instituted, viz. the distinction between things-meantnbsp;expressed and things-meant implied. For the legitimacy of the following dictum made by Gardiner can hardly benbsp;called in question (p. 82): )gt;The thing meant by any utterance is whatevernbsp;the speaker has intended to be understood from it by the listener.�nbsp;But if so, the binary division given above cannot be dispensed with.nbsp;His formulation is purposively made wide so as to comprise alsonbsp;such circumstances as are not expressed by the act of speech butnbsp;have been referred to by implication only. As an example in pointnbsp;he takes (p. 71 ff) the picture of a married couple sitting in theirnbsp;home completely absorbed in reading. At a given moment thenbsp;husband becomes aware that there is a heavy downpour outside andnbsp;that this ruins their plan to walk over to Riverside for tea. Henbsp;calls his wife�s attention to the state of the weather and its consequences by uttering the monosyllable Rain\ In itself the expressionnbsp;means 'There is rain!�, i. e. a sentence of existence. But in the present case the thing-meant also comprises the consequences of thenbsp;rain, i. e. the upsetting of their plans. That such is factually thenbsp;case is clearly proved by his wife�s rejoinder What a borel It is obvious, then, that we should hold the two cases of things-meantnbsp;apart so as to denote one of them as a thing-meant referred to bynbsp;words and the other as a thing-meant referred to by implicationnbsp;only. The latter type is generally connected with the thing meantnbsp;by a whole sentence. It is obvious that the thing-meant impliednbsp;may be very complex. In the present instance it comprises thenbsp;thought of the walk, the disappointment at its abandonment, andnbsp;a good deal else as well. It is chiefly the thing meant by implication that may be a heavy tax on the listener�s intellectualnbsp;powers.

Let it further be noted that a thing meant by implication may also attach to an individual word of a sentence. In thisnbsp;case it may play a part in the semantic development of the words.nbsp;This fact is disregarded by the systematizations of the semanticnbsp;changes we have come to know, but none the less it is a fact, asnbsp;is proved by the linguistic material we are going to examine andnbsp;explain.

We can state, then, that things-meant are to be held separate from the words with which we talk about them since they arenbsp;extra-verbal. For they must occur to our minds before they cannbsp;be clothed in words. Says Gardiner (p. 142): �If I ask for a piecenbsp;of cake, the thing I refer to is primarily the piece of cake as perceivednbsp;by me, and only secondarily the piece of cake itself.� Let it further benbsp;noted that things-meant may be expressed in different ways andnbsp;that they may be entertained without being expressed at all. Thenbsp;existence of a thing-meant need not even be a material reality butnbsp;only a figment of the imagination, e. g. centaur})

Before leaving the section dealing with the thing-meant, let us with Gardiner point out (p. 45) that there are exceptions to thenbsp;rule that every word of a sentence has a thing-meant. Here belongnbsp;more or less stereotyped expressions such as formulas ofnbsp;courtesy, e. g. I beg your pardon, {Pray) don�t mention it, or ideo-syncracies as Don�t you know? or I mean when often repeated innbsp;speech. In such cases it cannot be appropriate to say that thenbsp;Words represent separate and successive clues cumulatively workingnbsp;towards a given result. The same is true of set phrases whichnbsp;approximate the nature of compound words, e. g. to hold one�s tonguenbsp;or to keep silent (= Lat. tacere), to trample under foot (= to disregard), to split the difference (= to compromise), to set the ball rollingnbsp;(= to initiate). �A11 these expressions�, says Gardiner (p. 46),nbsp;�come to the speaker ready-made. As composite units they arenbsp;clues� which he can choose, but their component words are notnbsp;clues� to anything except to the phrase itself.�

There are also idiomatic expressions where a word is used without achieving a specific end and hence is mere uselessnbsp;balast, a habit or mannerism accepted by an entire speaking community. This is, as Gardiner points out (p. 46), the case when thenbsp;definite article is used in point of abstract nouns, e. g. Swed. naturennbsp;(Eng., Nature), Germ, die Wahrheit and Fr. la v�rit� (Eng., truth).

�Habits grow out of acts which at the start were deliberately purposed and then possessed a real utility. In their later state such acts may become mere superfluities. In mechanized bits of languagenbsp;we can usually discern a rational intention at the outset. In thenbsp;French ne.. . . fas the word pas, Latin passum, originally hadnbsp;emphasizing force; not a ^pace� further will he or she go. So, too,nbsp;with the definite article; this has everywhere arisen from an identifying and locating demonstrative, while the indefinite article,nbsp;originating in the numeral 'one�, has now chiefly the negativenbsp;function of indicating to the listener that the thing it qualifies isnbsp;in no need of closer identification. The teaching afforded by thesenbsp;examples may be generalized. In contemporary use it cannot benbsp;maintained that every single word has deliberate significance ornbsp;semantic importance, but in all cases we may be sure that thenbsp;historic original was properly motivated and purposeful. The accumulation of old rubbish is so easy.��-)

There is another factor belonging to the external apparatus of speech, an agent always at hand and indispensable for makingnbsp;speech effective. This element is called the Situation, and itnbsp;consists in the setting in which the process of speech takes place.nbsp;It is a matter of course that speaker and listener should be in thenbsp;same spatial and temporal situation and have a common means ofnbsp;communication. It is chiefly in the situation that the listener�snbsp;alert intelligence has to discover the things meant by the speaker�snbsp;sentences. Hence it is plain that we are faced with a factor highlynbsp;simplifying and facilitating the task of communication and the actnbsp;of understanding.

The situation can be of many kinds. There is, as Gardiner points out (p. 51), a Situation of Presence, e. g. Firel,nbsp;Encorel There is also the Situation of Visible Presencenbsp;(die Situation der Anschauung), i. e. a situation that makes the thingsnbsp;spoken about immediately perceptible. We might also speak of anbsp;Situation of Common Knowledge as in Napoleon wasnbsp;victorious at Austerlitz, and there is a Situation of Imagination, as when an anecdote is being related (p. 51). On hearingnbsp;the sentence Two and two make four, the listener attunes his mindnbsp;to the Situation of Mathematical Verities, as wenbsp;might call it.�)

ifb

Let US just take a look at the central factor of speech, the linguistic material itself. We have previously pointed outnbsp;that words are the units of language, that language consists ofnbsp;habits of speech, and that speech draws its linguistic material fromnbsp;these habits, i. e. puts them into practice. Hence it follows thatnbsp;words are units in speech, also, inasmuch as they are the elementsnbsp;that constitute the framework of the sentence, which is the onlynbsp;independent, i. e. self-sufficient, unit of speech.

The words as used in speech have a physical side, i. e. a phonetic body consisting of one articulate sound or a set of such sounds, and a psychic side, i. e. a semantic shape, generally consisting ofnbsp;more senses than one. The connective bond between the phoneticnbsp;body and the semantic area is in our opinion that of a predicationnbsp;of identity. We have previously pointed out with Gardiner (op. cit.nbsp;p. 35) that in uttering a word the speaker offers to the listener thenbsp;whole range of its meaning, and that hence this is a semantic 'clue�,nbsp;and that the listener has to select from this range the sense whichnbsp;suits the context and the situation.

We have previously also touched upon the relation of words to the things referred to in speech. We have accepted Gardiner�s viewnbsp;that what is referred to by a word may be conceived of as a thing,nbsp;which hence may be called the thing-meant. In this case the relationnbsp;between the intended part of the semantic range of the word andnbsp;the aspect of the thing-meant which the speaker has in view is thenbsp;same as that between the members of a predication of identity, thenbsp;sense meant by the word forming the predicate. For, as Gardiner putsnbsp;it (p. 38), every word without exception is a class-name. But ifnbsp;so, it is obvious that the aspect in which the thing-meant is viewednbsp;by the speaker and the listener is that of the class the thing-meantnbsp;represents. But Gardiner also maintains that a word as appliednbsp;to a thing-meant may be apprehended as adjectival (pp. 37, 43).nbsp;He says (p. 33): �As he [= the grammarian] sees it, the meaningnbsp;of a word or sentence qualifies the thing meant by it in the way thatnbsp;a predicatival adjective qualifies a noun.� But the grammarian doesnbsp;nothing of the sort since he must be aware of the fact that he isnbsp;faced with a predication of identity, provided he be a true grammarian. And besides, Gardiner�s opinion involves an inconsistencynbsp;that invalidates his view. For why should the thing-meant still benbsp;looked upon as a thing but not the qualifying word? And we maynbsp;also ask whether he considers that the word, when conceived of as.

54 K. VET. O. VITTEBH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SEK. A. BD 1. N:0 3 being adjectival, qualifies the thing-meant directly (= the ultimatenbsp;thing-meant) or only as viewed in a particular aspect (= thenbsp;proximate thing-meant). In the latter case it is sheer nonsense tonbsp;speak of an adjectival function in point of the meaning of thenbsp;word. For the aspect of the thing-meant which the speaker andnbsp;the listener have in view is the class it represents, and this shallnbsp;be identical with the class denoted by the word employed, an actnbsp;of speech that doubtless implies the forming of a predication ofnbsp;identity. Direct qualification of the ultimate thing-meant by thenbsp;word employed appears to have reality when the proximate thing-meant is obscured and attention is directed to the ultimate thing-meant itself.�^) But this fact does not count when we have tonbsp;state the relation between the word employed and its thing-meant,nbsp;which is always denoted with reference to the aspect in whichnbsp;it is viewed by the speaker � the proximate thing-meant. Hencenbsp;we must flatly deny that the words are 'adjectival� in respectnbsp;of their relation to their things-meant. We admit the correctnessnbsp;of Gardiner�s opinion when he says as follows (p. 38): �A word expresses the speaker�s reaction to the thing spoken about.� Butnbsp;we deny the full legitimacy of his addition: �Thus when I say mynbsp;old hat I am in substance saying to the listener: 'Think of somethingnbsp;which I have felt, and you will feel [as to ownership] as being-mine,nbsp;[as to age] as being-old, [as to substance and use] as being-hat�.�nbsp;If the words put within square brackets are added, then we havenbsp;no objection to make to the explanation given. For they representnbsp;the aspects in which the thing-meant is to be viewed, and hence wenbsp;are faced with predications of identity.

That it is this kind of predicational nexus we are concerned with ought to be evident from the fact that, when the speaker has tonbsp;denote the class of the thing-meant by a word, he tacitly asks (ifnbsp;need be): What class does it represent? And when the listener hasnbsp;to interpret a word he asks the question (if need be): What classnbsp;is it meant to represent? It should he remembered that the relationnbsp;between the word and its thing-meant is a predicational relationnbsp;and that this relation is the same in the speech of any human idiomnbsp;even the most primitive one. But if so, it is obvious that the predicational nexus does not represent a predication of subsumption, asnbsp;some scholars think, nor, as Gardiner believes, a predication of attribution. For these types doubtless represent kinds of predicational

nexus that are the productions of later development of human thought. But, in our opinion, the predication of identity was thenbsp;primordial sentence of human speech, in addition to the predicationnbsp;of existence.

Up to now we have paid attention to the notion of 'meaning� as represented by a word irrespective of its syntactical functions.nbsp;This may be called its radical meaning. But the wordsnbsp;have also a relational meaning, i. e. such semantic elements as are conditioned by their syntactical relations, mostly expressed by their inflexional forms and forms indicating their word-class (= part of speech) but often not expressed by a particularnbsp;form. This additional meaning is by Gardiner called word-form and, as it is here to be understood, this term denotes as followsnbsp;(p. 130): �Word-form is the name of a special kind of meaning whichnbsp;attaches to words over and above their radical meaning.� He pointsnbsp;out that this additional meaning is of various kinds but that itsnbsp;characteristic feature is that it is always subsidiary to the meaningnbsp;of the stem, i. e. the radical meaning. He makes a distinction between inner w o r d - f o r m, i. e. such cases where the relationalnbsp;meaning has got no particular expression, e. g. He gave the boy anbsp;booh, where 'the boy� functions as a dative, and outer word-form, i. e cases where the relational meaning has got an externalnbsp;expression, e. g. Latin gen. pi. 'puerorum. Gardiner appears to benbsp;justified in maintaining (p. 134) that word-classes (= parts of speech)nbsp;are distinctions of word-form. He also contends that the form of anbsp;word is, just like its meaning, a fact of language, not of speech. Afternbsp;some other comments he gives again a definition of word-form, but henbsp;is now looking at it solely in its inner or semantic aspect (p. 138):nbsp;�As so seen, word-form is a kind of meaning permanently attached tonbsp;words over and above the meaning of the stem, intimating the formalnbsp;character in which the listener may expect the speaker to have intended the thing-meant to be taken.�

We have seen that word-form is by Gardiner denoted as a fact of language. The corresponding fact in single acts of speech is bynbsp;him called word-function (p. 141). He argues that in annbsp;act of speech the speaker�s aim is to draw attention to somethingnbsp;and that the words are, as it were, his functionaries whose office it isnbsp;to present the thing-meant as possessing some particular formalnbsp;character. In cases where form and function agree we are facednbsp;with congruent function, and in cases where these factors

disagree we are confronted with incongruent function. An example of the latter case is the rhetorical question: Have I evernbsp;done you an injuryX For it has the form of a question but servesnbsp;as a denial. In reality, says Gardiner (p. 142), the things spokennbsp;about are not external phenomena, but the reflections of these,nbsp;immediate or mediate, mirrored in the speaker�s mind. If we saynbsp;Looh how it rains!, the rain is presented as an action, full of movement and activity. If we say Look at the rain!, then the rain is presented as a thing. Hence we have to conclude, Gardiner says (p.nbsp;143), that the things referred to in speech are always mentally conditioned and that the conditioning of them is subject to the speaker�snbsp;will. When things-meant are spoken about, they have always assumed a particular form in the speaker�s mind. Hence he defines word-function in the following way (p. 144): �Word-function is the worknbsp;which a spoken word has to perform in order to present the thingnbsp;meant by the speaker in the formal character in which he must benbsp;supposed to have intended the listener to see it.� But let us leavenbsp;the notions of word-form and word-function since changes of thenbsp;relational meaning are outside the scope of the present semanticnbsp;investigation.

As to the nature of the semantic elements which constitute the word-meaning in itself, or as applied to a thing-meant, they may,nbsp;as Stern points out (p. 46), be divided into cognitive and emotive elements, i. e. such as regard their radical meaning or elsenbsp;their emotional value. The latter elements are either permanent ornbsp;incidental. As examples of the former case may be adduced withnbsp;Stern (p. 55, 58) steed as compared to 'horse�, hovel as comparednbsp;to 'house�, further words that denote emotive or affective qualities,nbsp;such as fear, anger, furious, to hate. Concerning other divisions of thenbsp;notion of meaning, see Stern, op. cit. p. 68 ff.

From what precedes it is obvious that the meaning of a word as used in speech is determined by the speaker, thenbsp;thing-meant, the word itself, and the listener. Hence the definitionnbsp;given by Stern reads thus (p. 45): �The meaning of a word � innbsp;actual speech � is identical with those elements of the user�s (speaker�snbsp;or hearer�s) subjective apprehension of the referent [= thing-meant]nbsp;denoted by the word, which he apprehends as expressed by it.� Henbsp;points out that the definition is applicable to affixes and stem-syllables,nbsp;also, in so far as these carry a distinctive element of meaning. Henbsp;also remarks that the definition is not applicable to speech as a

If we turn to L. Bloomfield, an American linguistic theorist, we find that he maintains that a phonetic form which has meaningnbsp;is a linguistic form. �Thus, any sentence, phrase, or word isnbsp;a linguistic form, and so is a meaningful syllable, such as, say, \mel\nbsp;in maltreat, or [mAn] in Monday, a meaningful form may even consistnbsp;of a single phoneme, such as the [s] which means '�more than one� innbsp;plural-forms like hats, caps, books.� His formulation of the notion ofnbsp;meaning is as follows: �We have defined the meaning of a linguisticnbsp;form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the responsenbsp;which it calls forth in the hearer.� He argues that the speaker�snbsp;situation and the hearer�s response are closely co-ordinated, thanksnbsp;to the circumstance that every one of us learns to act indifferentlynbsp;as a speaker or as a hearer.^)

In the present treatise we are exclusively concerned with radical word-meanings. Hence we want to point out the following characteristics only. Radical word-meaning from the speaker�snbsp;view-point consists of the notional (and emotive) elements whichnbsp;he attaches to the word he employs in characterizing his apprehension of the thing-meant. From the listener�s standpoint radicalnbsp;word-meaning is composed of the notional (and emotive) elementsnbsp;he attaches to the word received in finding out the speaker�s apprehension of the thing-meant. The two meanings are supposed to benbsp;identical with one another, and so they are practically, thanks to thenbsp;situation and to the knowledge of the semantic area of the word whichnbsp;both speaker and listener have in common.

B. Outlines of the Categories of Sense-change.

In spite of the normative and arresting influence exercised by-language, it is a fact that the words change their meaning in the lapse of time. If we say with G. Stern that this fact is due to thenbsp;speech-activity, we have told the truth.^) But this verity is too evident and also too abstract to arouse any interest since inactivitynbsp;is the great characteristic of language. It is a piece of more concrete information if we say that the variety of possible things-meantnbsp;is far greater than the variety of expressional means in any speaker�snbsp;vocabulary, and if we point out with John Locke that it is impossible for every particular thing [-meant] to have a [particular] namenbsp;and useless also and not of any great advantage for the improvement of knowledge.^) It is another item of concrete information ifnbsp;we state with A. H. Gardiner�) that one of the most precious characteristics of language is its elasticity, which permits speech tonbsp;stretch a word or a construction to suit the momentary fancy ornbsp;need. Let us leave it at that. It is unprofitable for our presentnbsp;purpose to expatiate further on the general causes of semanticnbsp;change.

There is no universally adopted classification of the sense-changes, and opinions differ as to the nature of individual types and their exemplification. It cannot of course be our duty to discussnbsp;at some length so great and thorny a subject. But, on the othernbsp;hand, it is hard to disregard the Latin saying: nullius addictus ju-rare in verba magistri. Nor are we willing to brush aside the viewnbsp;that no one can explain with complete satisfaction a thing he cannot clearly understand himself. Hence we are bound to discussnbsp;several points of classification. To touch only briefly upon themnbsp;and the general division of the sense-changes is all the present

Cp. Gustaf Stem Meaning and Change of Meaning, G�teborg 1931 p. 172 = G�teborgs H�gskolas Arsskrift XXXVIII, 1932; 1.

Cp. Johii Locke An Essay concerning Human Understanding, Book III, chap. Ill, sect. 2�4 (quoted from extract in Gardiner�s work).

If it is true that the constituent factors determining the radical meaning of the words as employed in speech are the words themselves, the things-meant, and the speaker together with the listener, then it should also be true that the various categories of semanticnbsp;change admit of being classified according as one of these threenbsp;determinants has been the causa movens of the sense-changes. Thisnbsp;important truth was realized by G. Stern and employed as mainnbsp;division when he gave a systematic arrangement of the sense-changesnbsp;he wanted to distinguish in his work ''Meaning and Change of Meaning� (1931). He opined that the seven classes of principal sense-changes distinguished by him form an organic system inasmuch asnbsp;each of them may be referred to a change in one of the factors thatnbsp;constitute the meaning of a word, viz. the thing-meant, its apprehension by the speaker and the listener, and the traditional semanticnbsp;range of the word employed. And he contends that, if only two ofnbsp;these factors are stable while the third varies, the meaning variesnbsp;with the third. Let us adopt Stern�s system of sense-changes, seeingnbsp;that the existence of each of his seven main categories appearsnbsp;to be justified by reality. But it is another question whether henbsp;has properly delimited and exemplified his categories or whether theynbsp;are sufficient to meet the demands of the factual state of things.

In both these respects there are cogent reasons for adopting a sceptic or polemic attitude. His main categories are as follows, but theirnbsp;order and mostly their definition, nay even a name or two, havenbsp;been changed. Besides, a new category of sense-change has beennbsp;added.

(1) ^Combinative Analogy, consisting in the isolation and fresh combination of meanings, basic or relational� (Stern p. ^nbsp;207).i)

1) 'Basic meaning� is here = the meaning of the stem; 'relational meaning� is here = inflectional meanings, i. e. such as are represented by the inflectional forms ofnbsp;the words and their syntactical relations, or else = derivational meanings, i. e. thenbsp;meanings assigned to a word by derivational affixes.

(2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;^Correlative Analogy, consisting in the naming ofnbsp;a referent [=a thing-meant] with a word that is evoked owingnbsp;to a semantic correlation to another known word, in the same, ornbsp;in another, language� (Stern p. 207).

(3) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;)gt;P h o n eti c Interference, consisting in the semanticnbsp;influence of one word on another, owing to phonetic similarity�nbsp;(Stern p. 207).

We find, then, that Stern regards quot;phonetic interference� as a subspecies of analogy. This implies giving the term a wider rangenbsp;than it generally has. But let us not quarrel about this enlargement since the term as used by linguists is not clearly conceivednbsp;of. Analogy is defined by a philosopher, i. e. H. Hoffding (Analog!nbsp;34), as �identity of relations between separate objects, not identitynbsp;of the single characteristics�, a definition sufficiently wide to benbsp;applicable from a linguistic view-point, also. A linguist, L. Bloomfield,^) points out that a grammatical pattern (sentence-type, construction, or substitution) is often called analogy and that hence wenbsp;use the expression on the analogy of in sense quot;on the pattern of�.nbsp;H. Paul maintains that analogy consists �gewissermassen in dernbsp;Aufl�sung einer Proportionengleichung�.^) This is in harmony withnbsp;the source of the word, viz. Greek avaloyla quot;mathematical proportion,nbsp;or proportion generally, esp. grammatical analogy�.�) But Paul�snbsp;mathematical explanation is rejected by Delacroix who advocatesnbsp;the following view: �I1 n�y a pas de raisonnement dans I�analogienbsp;linguistigue. �¹ ²) This is true, of course, considering the flashlikenbsp;speed of analogical change. But the process may belong to thenbsp;subconscious region. At any rate it appears to us to be beyondnbsp;doubt that, in the case of Stern�s 'correlative analogy�, the analogicalnbsp;change actually consists �in der Aufl�sung einer Proportionengleich-ung�, and we believe that the same interpretation holds good ofnbsp;his quot;combinative analogy�, also.

Proportional analogy presupposes the existence of two words or two groups of words standing in a certain relation to each other.nbsp;Stern�) points out that Paul makes a distinction between material or

Cp. H. Delacroix Le langage et la pens�es, Paris 1924, p. 250 (quoted from Stern�s work).

basic groups (stofflicheGruppen),formed by words with identical or correlated basic meaning, and formal groups (formale Gruppen),nbsp;composed of words with identical relational meaning. Basic groupsnbsp;of words are in Stern�s opinion of three kinds: (1) inflexionalnbsp;groups-, proximately constituted by the various inflexional formsnbsp;of one word but mostly typical of the inflexion of a group of words;nbsp;(2) derivational groups, �consisting of all the derivationsnbsp;of one stem that are still apprehended by linguistic feeling as belonging together�;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;(3) correlative groups, generally con

sisting of two or three words whose basic meanings are correlated in such a way that the words are apprehended by linguistic instinct as belonging together. To the correlative group belong thenbsp;names of the months, of the days of the week, of the numerals, andnbsp;so on, and word-pairs like boy: girl, old: new, go : come, up: down, etc.nbsp;As to the relational {formal) groups there is no conclusive linguisticnbsp;evidence for their existence (Stern p. 204).

Under such circumstances it is obvious that the natural division of the phenomena of analogy in a restricted sense should be as follows: (1) Inflexional Analogy, i. e. analogy taking placenbsp;within an inflexional group; (2) Derivational Analogy,nbsp;i. e. analogy taking place within a derivational group; (3) 0 or r e-lative Analogy, i. e. analogy taking place within a correlativenbsp;group. In actual fact, the imposing term 'combinative analogy� isnbsp;mere moonshine. To say that the characteristic of this analogynbsp;consists in isolation and fresh combination of meanings involvesnbsp;spiriting away the analogical process itself, i. e. the naming of anbsp;new thing-meant. For 'isolation� (in semantic respect) is here thenbsp;pre-requisite for the operation of analogy and 'fresh combinationnbsp;of meanings� is the result of its operation. Now both the pre-requisite and the result are characteristics of the correlative category,nbsp;also. But in denoting its characteristics Stern is only mindful of thenbsp;analogical process itself, i. e. the naming of a new thing-meant. Innbsp;this way he has created a difference between his combinative analogynbsp;and his correlative analogy, a discrepancy that does not exist. The onlynbsp;difference consists in the nature of the group of forms or words withinnbsp;which the analogical transformation takes place. It is for this reasonnbsp;we must denounce the disgusting term 'combinative analogy�. Let usnbsp;illustrate our categories by instances taken from Stern�s material.

As an instance of analogical semantic transformation within an inflexional group may be

given the case that the OE adverbial comparative brad or denoting 'sooner, more quickly� later on in the OE period adopted the sensenbsp;of 'earlier�, too, but that the sense 'early� did not appear in thenbsp;positive form until the ME epoch. To the analysing mind thenbsp;latter adoption seems to be based on the following syllogism, instinctively felt rather than made: 'Since the radical sense of mostnbsp;comparatives are legitimately used in the positive, also, the samenbsp;must be the case in the present instance, too�.

The following fact may be given as an example of semantic analogy within a derivational group. The ME.nbsp;adverb faste 'firmly, jimmovably� soon acquired the meaning 'vigorously, violently, eagerly� and about 1300 the sense 'swiftly�. Butnbsp;the corresponding adj. fast 'firm, immovable� never had the sensenbsp;'vigorous, violent, eager�, but none the less it adopted the sense ofnbsp;'swiff at the end of the 14th century when atonic final e hadnbsp;mostly been dropped in English. But at first the adjectival sensenbsp;was used as a qualification of nouns of action only, where the wordnbsp;might still be apprehended as an adverb but at the same time tendednbsp;to appear as an adjective, e. g. a fast runner (= a vigorous or anbsp;swift r.).

Correlative semantic analogy, i. e. analogy taking place within a correlative group formed in the same language bynbsp;two or more words, is in Stern�s opinion a rare phenomenon. Asnbsp;illustrative example he gives the following fact. A red letter daynbsp;came to denote an auspicious day on account of the old custom ofnbsp;marking the saints� days in the calendar with red letters. Hencenbsp;a black letter day was apprehended as an inauspicious day (blacknbsp;letter = Gothic type). But this type of analogy is not so rare afternbsp;all. For it embraces what is popularly called 'semantic contagion�nbsp;(Swed. 'betydelsesmitta�) consisting in the fact that, if two wordsnbsp;have one or two senses in common, a second or third sense existingnbsp;in one of the words only may be adopted by the other.

But a correlative group may also be formed by a native and a foreign word that in substance semantically correspond to eachnbsp;other. It may then happen that a piece of the semantic area ofnbsp;the latter which is absent in that of the former is analogicallynbsp;adopted. If so, we are faced with a foreign semantic loan, just as isnbsp;the case with semantic contagion within the same language. Sternnbsp;points out, for instance, that Old Eng. cwic a. 'living� (cp. Eng. quick-born) had many senses in common with Lat. vivus and that hence it

was used in rendering 'aqua viva�, 'panis vivus�, phrases introduced by Christianity. As to the expression aqua viva itseK, it is a casenbsp;in point inasmuch as the combination is a Hebraism meaningnbsp;'running water�, a sense which, in our opinion, was misinterpretednbsp;as implying 'bringing spiritual life� and hence also used in combination with 'panis�. A sense-loan, however, may be favoured by phonetic similarity. An example is afforded by OE eorl 'a brave man,nbsp;warrior, leader, chief�, which under the influence of Scandinaviannbsp;jarl, its etymological cognate, later adopted the sense of OE ealdor-man 'vice-roy, governor�.

We are concerned with the same semantic change when owing to literal translation of foreign phrases a native word or expressionnbsp;gets a new sense. As examples: Eng. to jump or leap to the eye{s) fromnbsp;French 'sauter aux yeux�, to cause us {one) furiously to think, or to makenbsp;us {one) think furiously, from French 'donner furieusement a penser�.^)

Let us turn to phonetic associative interference. Stern points out (p. 230) that in the cases adduced the operation ofnbsp;analogy was primarily based on semantic similarity, where phoneticnbsp;resemblance, if it actually occurred, played an inferior part. Innbsp;point of the present case he holds the following view (p. 230): �As-sociative interference is based primarily on phonetic similarity, although it seems that some semantic resemblance, or at least connection, is necessary.� He also emphasizes that the present type ofnbsp;analogy affects words which are not felt to be members of any group.nbsp;But if so, we are confronted, not with proportional but, with nonproportional analogy.

The linguistic units exposed to associative phonetic interference are mostly archaic words and form-words. But here belong alsonbsp;learned words with foreign phonetic bodies. In our opinion thesenbsp;readily become the objects of popular etymology in order to procurenbsp;them associative ties. As an Eng. example of the former class wenbsp;may with Stern adduce Eng. sandblind 'dimsighted�. The wordnbsp;appears to be a perversion of OE *sdmblind 'halfblind, purblind�nbsp;(OE sdm- 'half�, with vowel-shortening usual in compounds; Prim.nbsp;Teut. samp;mi- = Lat. semi-), originating when sam was no longernbsp;an intelligible member of the English language. The word is annbsp;example of a change of meaning not accompanied by a change ofnbsp;thing-meant. Stern points out that there are cases where both

Cp. H. W. Fowler A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, Oxford 1926 s. v. jump, leap, furiously.

changes have taken place. As an illustrative instance he gives shamefaced 'showing shame in one�s face�, a remodelling of shamefastnbsp;'modest, bashful�, a meaning also represented by shamefaced.

In conclusion, let it be noted that, when the law-term affidavit was turned into Alfred David by one of Dickens�s creations, the connecting link must have been the pronunciation [mfideivi]. Thisnbsp;looked like a combination of two hypochoristio forms of the namesnbsp;mentioned. But where is the semantic connection between affidavitnbsp;'a written statement confirmed by oath� and Alfred David or itsnbsp;intermediary [affydavy], a connection by Stern considered to benbsp;indispensable? We are evidently faced with an instance wherenbsp;semantic connection is absent. Analogy, then, has as motive simplynbsp;the desire for or expectation of uniformity (proportional analogy),nbsp;or else, as in the present type, the desire for associative connections.

The shortenings we are concerned with are intentional historical shortenings implying either a phonetic or anbsp;morphological reduction. The latter may happen also to a sentence-scheme, e. g. the Virgilian Ouos ego . . ., the Terentian Si verbumnbsp;adder is . . . (threatenings), and the German types Dass du gar nichtnbsp;milde wirst! (wonder). Ware ich erst da! (wish). The shortening maynbsp;also befall the scheme of a free word-combination within a sentence,nbsp;e. g. He went to his uncle�s (house or family). This costs five (shillings)nbsp;and six (pence). In all these cases it is obvious that the linguisticnbsp;expression presupposes a fuller form and that the meaning of thenbsp;expression omitted is more or less clearly suggested by the morphological type expressed and the situation. But shortening may alsonbsp;bring about semantic change in point of individual words. But therenbsp;is a pre-requisite. For if we intentionally reduce perambulator to pramnbsp;and comfortable to comfy, we have produced a change only in emotional effect (a stylistic change), but not in the semantic area of thenbsp;words curtailed, seeing that pram and comfy did not exist beforenbsp;in the English language.

It is obvious, then, that it is a pre-requisite for a change of the radical sense of a word by means of intentional shortening thatnbsp;the uncurtailed form should be a compound or a more or less stereotyped combination of words. For if the intentional abbreviationnbsp;keeps to the morphological joint of the compound, then there re-

mains after the shortening a word that represents the whole sense of the compound in addition to its own ordinary semantic area.nbsp;As examples: private for 'private soldier�, the fall for 'the fall of thenbsp;leaf�, bookie for 'book-maker�, kerb for 'kerbstone�, pines for 'pin-apples�, straw for 'strawhat�, tops for 'topp-boots�, blue for 'blue stocking�, public (or pub) for 'public house�, four-oar for 'four-oar boat�d)nbsp;to dissolve (Parliament), to leave (school), to pop (the question), tonbsp;shake (hands), to strike (colours), to weigh (anchor), etc.

The cause of the intentional reduction of individual words is a desire either chiefly to lend the expression abbreviated a new emotional effect (= the functional motive) or else chiefly to save energynbsp;and time in pronouncing a word. But these motives are generallynbsp;bound up with one another in an inextricable way, now one of thenbsp;causes, now the other having preponderance. This causal duality is bynbsp;E. Wellander^) considered to be a weak point in our delimitation ofnbsp;the notion of ellipsis made in a couple of writings.�) But this viewnbsp;is rank nonsense since stating a fact can never be discreditable tonbsp;a theory. Wellander�s own delimitation of ellipsis is very nebulousnbsp;and hence useless as a grammatical means of interpretation.

The view of intentional shortening and of semantic change connected with it which has here been outlined was long ago advocated by the present writer but under the name of ellipsis. It has beennbsp;adopted by Stern, but the category of curtailed simplicia is by himnbsp;called clippings, whereas the category of abbreviated compounds is called omissons.

If we want to give a succinct definition of sense-change due to Shortening, the following formulation may serve the purpose: Shortening is the kind of sense-change that takes place when the thing-meant remains the same but its linguistic expression is intentionallynbsp;shortened leaving behind an expression which alone has to representnbsp;the thing-meant but which has also a meaning of its own.

In our opinion four-oar is a member of a compound word, i. e. 'four-oar boat�, and so is five-year in 'the five-year plan�. On the other hand 'a four oars boatquot; andnbsp;'t/(e five years plan� are free syntactical combinations, but none the less four oars andnbsp;five years are compound words but like four-oar and five-year of the type we havenbsp;called 'parasynthetic compounds�, see D. A. Sunden Svensk Sprakldra i Sammandrag,nbsp;Stockholm 1937, 29th ed. p. 188.

�) Karl Sund�n Contributions to the Study of Elliptical Words in Modern English, Uppsala 1904. K. F. Sund�n Till Fragan om Ellipsbegreppet; cp. Sprak och Stil,nbsp;XI (1911).

As usual, the semantic change proximately consists in an enlargement of the semantic range of an expression. But this is here the result of a linguistic action actuated by a purpose other than thatnbsp;of bringing about a sense-change, viz. an emotional and a practicalnbsp;motive. But if so, the semantic enlargement is a 'Begleiterscheinung�nbsp;of another phenomenon. But since the remaining expression hasnbsp;also a signification of its own, the new sense involves an extensionnbsp;of the semantic area of the word.

b. Sense-changes due to Applying the Expression for an old Thing-meant to another Thing-meant.

The term Nomination is employed by G. Stern to denote intentional naming of a thing-meant, new or old, with a designation that has not previously been used for it. He justly makes anbsp;distinction between words that are new coinages and such as arenbsp;intentionally transferred from one thing-meant to another. Thenbsp;former case he calls 'intentional naming�, though it monopolizesnbsp;for a particular subclass a name that is applicable to the wholenbsp;category. Hence let us instead employ the term New Coinages.nbsp;As to the remaining types he makes use of a binary division according as the psychic factors that lead to the shift of sense are ofnbsp;purely cognitive or also of more or less emotive nature. The formernbsp;case gives rise to Intentional (non-figurative) Transfers;nbsp;the latter case, to Figures of Speech.

/�

Coinage of new names is employed to denote both new things-meant and old ones. Entirely new words, at least successful ones, are, as Stern points out, rare, e. g. gas, kodak. In most cases it isnbsp;an old word or part of it that is employed to form new words. Suchnbsp;may consist in facetiously compressing two notions into one wordnbsp;(= portmanteau-word), e. g. squarson 'squire amp; parson in one�,nbsp;coronotions 'coronation notions�, chortle 'chuckle loudly� (: chucklenbsp;and snort). They may also be made to meet the demands arisingnbsp;from new inventions and discoveries, or from new ideas in our intellectual and social life. The linguistic materials are then verynbsp;often taken from the classical languages, e. g. automobile, telephone.

cequator, unless there be a puristic tendency as in German, e. g. Kraftwagen, Fernsprecher, Gleicher. But native materials may alsonbsp;be used, e. g. folklore. This is of course mostly the case when anbsp;humorous effect is desired, e. g. sky-pilot or devil-dodger for 'clergyman�,nbsp;sawbones for 'surgeon�, or else for slang purposes, e. g. trotters fornbsp;'feet� peepers for 'eyes�, shiners or sparklers for 'precious stones�.nbsp;But note that these new coinages do not involve any sense-change.

This type of Nomination consists in intentionally denoting one thing-meant with a name belonging to another thing-meant.nbsp;The causes of the transfer are cognitive, not emotive in character,nbsp;and they are founded on some similarity or other relation betweennbsp;the old and the new thing-meant.

The type is often used in naming new things-meant originating from the scientific, technical, or social progress. Examples in pointnbsp;are, for instance, the labyrinth of the ear and the atlas, i. e. the vertebranbsp;supporting the skull (cp. the Greek god Atlas, who -was supposednbsp;to hold up the universe). �A11 terms�, says Bain I 142i) �derivednbsp;from mechanical forces are adopted in the description of socialnbsp;forces: impulses, propulsion, momentum, resistance, inertia, cohesion,nbsp;attraction.�

Here belongs the use of proper names for objects, such as ohm., ampere, volt, sandwich, spencer. Here belongs also thenbsp;use ot pi a c e-n a m e s for products or events, which,nbsp;however, may be explained in more ways than one. �When wenbsp;speak of mokka, java, calico, china, a basque, a jersey, camembert,nbsp;h�lland, cremona, bordeaux, champagne, boston (a game at cards), etc.,nbsp;the names in their secondary use may be shortenings of mokka coffee, etc. �^) When place-names are used for events which have happened at the place. Intentional Transfer is a possible but, in Stern�s

opinion, a less likely explanation. He mentions also Permutation as an alternative explanation. But he opines that Waterloo for ��thenbsp;battle of Waterloo� may be due to stylistic considerations, in whichnbsp;case we are, in his opinion, faced with a metaphor.

{r~'

To the present category Stern assigns the use of Christian names. To our mind every Christian name has an individualizingnbsp;function just as every generic name has the function of denotingnbsp;a class. They are like each other inasmuch as a generic name isnbsp;applicable to many individuals, and so is for obvious reasons anbsp;Christian name, too. But they are unlike each other inasmuchnbsp;as every generic name attains its purpose, whereas a Christian namenbsp;often does not do so and therefore requires an individualizing addition, e. g. a surname, a by-name. Hence we do not appreciatenbsp;Stern�s view when he says (op. cit. p. 296): �The Richards do notnbsp;form any distinct category of human beings, and we are thereforenbsp;not justified in speaking of the name as being still the same name,nbsp;although with different meanings, as we do when, for instance,nbsp;shif is used to denote various inventions in the way of vessels.�nbsp;This is a very strange manner of expressing the difference. In ournbsp;opinion all Richards may, if it serves any purpose, form an individualizing group linked together by using the same name, i. e. thenbsp;same individualizing means. The use of proper names involves ofnbsp;course acts of Nomination. But its purpose is individualization, notnbsp;classification as in other instances of Nomination. Hence theynbsp;form a category of their own.

This kind of Naming involves emotional (inch aesthetic) factors, not plain statements. In our opinion the most characteristic featurenbsp;of the figurative use of an expression is that it constitutes a meansnbsp;of indicating the speaker�s personal (modal) attitude towards thenbsp;thing-meant that shall be named.

In classifying the Figures of Speech Stern has abandoned the classical systematization, where a uniform basis seems to be absentnbsp;and where synecdoche and metonymy are often regarded as mainnbsp;classes of sense-change. Synecdoche is according to Bain^)nbsp;founded on similarity, and consists in putting (1) the species for thenbsp;genus; (2) an individual for a genus; (3) the genus for the species;

In Stern�s classification changes of these kinds are classed as Intentional Transfers, Metaphors, Regular Transfers, or Permutations. Metonymy is, according to Bain*, founded on contiguity and consists in naming a thing by some accompaniment. The latter maynbsp;be (1) the Sign or Symbol, or any significant Adjunct, (2) the Instrument for the Agent, (3) the Container for the Thing contained, (4)nbsp;an Effect for a Cause, (5) a Maker for his Works, (6) the name of anbsp;Passion for the name of its Object. Closely related to these formsnbsp;of metonymy are the forms of synecdoche founded on contiguity:

(1) Naming a thing by some Part, (2) the reverse operation of using the Whole for the Part. All these types are meant to be dividednbsp;up amongst various classes in Stern�s system. He also points outnbsp;that many figures of speech do not lead to permanent sense-changesnbsp;and that hence they have been disregarded by him.

It is impossible for us here to grapple with the far-reaching question as to the position of synecdoche and metonomynbsp;in a system of sense-changes. In this connection we want only tonbsp;emphasize the legitimacy of Stern�s view that a distinction shouldnbsp;be made between intentional and unintentional sense-changes and thatnbsp;synecdoche and metonymy should, if possible, be distributed amongstnbsp;other classes. There can hardly be any doubt that the majority ofnbsp;sense-changes generally classed as synecdoche or metonymy are madenbsp;intentionally. But if so, they are acts of denomination and hencenbsp;they should have been dealt with under the heading of Nomination,nbsp;or else under some other heading, seeing that every use of a word isnbsp;in reality an act of denomination. But, as will be seen later on, thesenbsp;and similar instances have been adduced by Stern mostly under the ^nbsp;heading of Permutation, though this type of sense-change is by himself / �nbsp;supposed to take place unintentionally. We cannot help thinkingnbsp;that this is a glaring departure from consistency in Stern�s classi-ficatory system of semantic changes.

The only figures of speech that Stern wants to deal with are metaphor, hyperbole, litotes, irony, and euphemism. What is then the difference between metaphor and the 'nbsp;other types of the figures of speech? Stern points out that thenbsp;function of euphemism is to tone down the impression of anbsp;jarring thing-meant, e. g. the use of transition or promotion for '^death�,nbsp;whereas the function of the other types is to enhance the impression of the thing-meant they denote. It is the form of this enhance-

ment that, in Stern�s opinion, determines the delimitation of the figures of speech, and hence he adopts the following view (p. 300):nbsp;�We might say that a metaphor expresses an enhancementnbsp;taking the form of a fusion of two disparate notions, referring tonbsp;referents [ = things-meant] not essentially identical; a hyperbolenbsp;expresses an enhancement taking the form of an enlargement ornbsp;multiplication; and a litotes expresses an enhancement takingnbsp;the form of a reduction or diminution, that is to say, a contrast ofnbsp;a special type.� He goes on to say: �We can then define a metaphor as a figure of speech in which (1) the enhancement is the resultnbsp;of a fusion of two disparate notions, i. e. there is no essential identitynbsp;between the two referents [= things-meant] involved; and (2) the relation between the two referents [= things-meant] is not expressed.�

What is the characteristic of irony? Its true nature appears best if we compare it with litotes. The latter figure of speechnbsp;is by Bain described as being the negation of the opposite to thatnbsp;which is meant, or, as H. W. Fowder^) puts it, that particular kindnbsp;of rhetorical understatement in which for the positive notion required is substituted its opposite with a negative: 'a citizen of nonbsp;mean city�, 'er freut sich nicht wenig\ 'Je ne vous blame pas\ Othernbsp;examples are: 1 Cor. 11 . 7 . 22 I pratse you not = I blame you;nbsp;not a few = a great number; not bad, eh? = excellent, eh? Butnbsp;there is another type of litotes which consists in using an expressionnbsp;denoting an inferior size, quality, etc. of whatever is being referred to,nbsp;e. g. the little village for London, the herring pond for the Atlantic,nbsp;my diggings for, possibly, my quite comfortable apartments (Stern,nbsp;p. 313). Litotes might be called an inversion of the hyperbole, e. g.nbsp;I have oceans of time (= hyperbole), an expression at the same timenbsp;metaphorical. If we turn to irony, we find that it consists in statingnbsp;the contrary of what is meant, there being something in the tone ornbsp;the manner to show the speaker�s real drift (Bain I 213). Also irony,nbsp;then, implies an understatement, but causa movens is not modesty butnbsp;a polemic purpose, i. e. a desire to express disapproval, displeasure,nbsp;or derision, but in a covert manner. Hence the instances of thenbsp;second type of litotes may also be understood as irony if the situation permits of it. Ironical expressions may become habitual. Asnbsp;examples (Stern, p. 338): (1) Laudatory terms are used: 'A nice jobnbsp;I have!� 'Things have come to a pretty pass�; (2) oldfashioned andnbsp;pompous words are used to throw a comical light over the expres-Cp. H. W, Fowler A Dictionary of Modern English Usage^ Oxford 1925.

sion, e. g. forsooth-, (3) intensifyers used ironically as downtoners, e. g. �A lot you know about that!�; muchiox not much in some phrases;nbsp;^Much you care!� �Much he knows!�

But let us return to the metaphor. It is the speaker who first experiences the association on which the metaphors are based,nbsp;and it is he who formulates their linguistic expression. His aim,nbsp;says Stern (p. 306), in employing a metaphor, is twofold: (1) to designate the thing-meant; (2) to invest the thing-meant with certainnbsp;associations carried along with the word from its original meaningnbsp;and sphere. The element in common must be prominent enough tonbsp;permit of the metaphor being applied without difficulty to thenbsp;actual thing-meant. Let us add with Stern (p. 307) that the metaphor also �aims at providing relief and expression for the speaker�snbsp;feelings, and at impressing the hearer in a definite way�. The fusionnbsp;of the elements of the original meaning with those suggested by thenbsp;apprehension of the new thing-meant enables the speaker to express shades of thought and feeling otherwise not easily formulatednbsp;so concisely. And the fusion also makes the new thing-meantnbsp;appear more vividly and completely. Lastly, it should be noted thatnbsp;metaphors may fade so that they lose their force and no longernbsp;carry with them associations from their original sphere (cf. Stern, 309).

, As to the subdivision of metaphors Stern points out (p. 309) that it may be founded on similarity or else on other relations between the old thing-meant and the new one. He rightly holds thenbsp;view that just as there are two kinds of unintentional sense-changesnbsp;founded on similarity and correlative relation, viz. Unintentionalnbsp;Transfer and Permutation, so, too, there ought to be not only annbsp;intentional type corresponding to the former sense-change but alsonbsp;an intentional type answering to the latter. To take an example.nbsp;In the expression a touch of shame upon her cheek the notion ofnbsp;shame is not similar to the notion of blushing but correlative to it.nbsp;In our opinion it is also equipollent with it � since they are interdependent notions � and hence able to replace it.

The following cases are adduced by Stern (p. 316 folk). Similarity of Appearance. This type is liable tonbsp;produce numerous doubtful cases, merging into non-metaphoricalnbsp;Intentional Transfers and into Regular Transfers. The substantives

are concrete in meaning. As examples; An old turnip of a watch (1840). � The bay is curling and writhing in white horses (1849).

� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;snapdragon (plant with flowers that can be made to gape andnbsp;shut like mouth) = G. L�wenzahn. � proboscis long human nosenbsp;(joc.), cp. an elephant�s or an insect�s p. � a poleer (of a person�snbsp;carriage and manner). � Adonis (a beau, dandy). � secretary birdnbsp;(African bird with crest likened to pen stuck behind ear).

Similarity of Quality, Activity, or Function. As examples: the city is a desert, � mountains of infamy, � a ray ofnbsp;hope, � a shade of doubt, � a flash of wit, � He is a fox, � Bringnbsp;in the admiration = the admired person (Shak.).

Similarity of Perceptual or Emotive Effect. Synaesthesia is an association that connects elements from differentnbsp;sensory spheres, the point of similarity being constituted by theirnbsp;effect on the perceiving subject (Stern, 322), e. g. the sound andnbsp;light of sweetest songs (Swinburne) � a tall talk � cold colozirs �nbsp;Abusive words as endearments: 0 heau�nly foolel (Sidney, 1586).

� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Tirst Youth; Hullo, congenital idiotl Second Youth: Hullo,nbsp;you priceless old ass (Punch)!

This type, says Stern, corresponds to Permutations, and it is often difficult to discriminate the two. Adjectives and verbs arenbsp;scantily represented.

Article of Dress, Tool, Implement, etc. for Person. As examples: poke-bonnets (= the Salvation Armynbsp;women). � Mr. B., the eminent silk-gown (King�s Counsel); � pigtailsnbsp;(Chinamen); � two good knives and forks (hearty eaters). � buttonsnbsp;page (orig. page�s many buttoned coat); � chips a ship�s carpenternbsp;(orig. pieces chipped off by the carpenter).

Symbol for Thing Symbolized. When we say crown, sceptre, or throne for 'royalty�, the reason is stylistic, and hence thenbsp;shift of sense is classed here; � the pulpit = preaching or preachers;nbsp;� lawn-sleeves = a bishop or his office; Ceres is used for bread,nbsp;Bacchus for wine, and grey hairs symbolize age, and Arabia, spices; etc.

Material for Object. As examples: steel may designate a weapon of steel; laurel may stand for laurel wreath.

Proper Names in Apellative Use. As examples: The London policeman is called a bobby, from Sir Robert Peel. �

Tommy Atkins, the nickname of the Army man, v^as a fictitious name in official blanks to show the recruits where to fill in their own names.nbsp;� A jackass is a male and a jenny a female of the species. � Pollnbsp;is the conventional name for a parrot. � Jenny is also used for machines; and davit, for machines, esp. for the contrivance for loweringnbsp;ship�s boats, from David. � A crowbar used by burglars is nownbsp;called jemmy, formerly bess or betty (from James and Elizabeth).

Dates for Events. The Forty-five is not only the year 1745 but also the Jacobite rebellion of that year.

Habitual Expressions for Persons who use them. The name of jingoes for music-hall patriots who sing thenbsp;jingo song (1878) is from the asseveration by jingo in a popular songnbsp;of the period. � In Paris slang an Englishman is called un goddam.

Place-names in Various Uses. Buncombe or Bunkum 'political claptrack� (Am.). � I am for Bedfordshire 'I want to gonbsp;to bed�. � To send a person to Birching-lane 'to whip�.

Regular Transfer is an immediate unintentional naming of a new thing-meant by means of the word for an old thing-meant,^nbsp;owing to some similarity between them for the moment appearingnbsp;as the chief characteristic of the former.

The shift of meaning may be no small one, but at the moment of the transfer the dissimilar points were not in the focus of attention.nbsp;The process is taking place immediately, i. e. it is not happening bynbsp;degrees, and unintentionally, i. e. the word offers itself spontaneouslynbsp;as a suitable expression for the new thing-meant and is as spontaneously accepted. But on reflecting upon the relation between the newnbsp;sense and the old one, the semantic change brought about looksnbsp;like a Eigurative Transfer.

Regular Transfer is in Stern�s opinion the simplest type of sense-change, and hence it passes unperceived by the listener and is often used by children to supply the gaps in their vocabulary. Like everynbsp;sense-change it is accompanied by Adequation, i. e. adjustment ofnbsp;the word to the new thing-meant, and must be repeated by a largenbsp;part of the speaking community before it can become a member ofnbsp;the language concerned.

The present class differs from Intentional Transfer founded on similarity in being unintentional and in lacking emotive factors

74 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N.'O 3 including aesthetic and stylistic elements. From Adequations andnbsp;Permutations it differs chiefly in being immediately brought about,nbsp;i. e. without gradual sense-change. But it is admittedly difficultnbsp;to find out the distinctive mark between Regular Transfers and f I u c-ttiations, i. e. variations of meaning that do not lead to �another�nbsp;meaning but stop within the range of the word itself. In that respectnbsp;the following view is held by Stern (p. 346): �We should probablynbsp;regard as fluctuations the variations in meaning of the word land innbsp;phrases like land and sea, land and water, land and people, or of thenbsp;word state in state and society, state and people, state and church (Wundtnbsp;II 537).� As a possible criterion he suggests the fact that fluctuationsnbsp;keep within the same category, while a transfer does not do so. �Ifnbsp;we employ the word saddle to denote a mountain ridge shapednbsp;like a saddle, then the referents [ = things-meant] do not belongnbsp;to the same category.� In conclusion, Stern says (p. 346): �Inbsp;define regular transfers as unintentional sense-changes based onnbsp;similarity.�

To our mind fluctuations should be taken to be minor disturbances of the equilibrium as to prominence presented by thenbsp;notional elements of a word-meaning as existing in language, disturbances brought about by the various contexts in which the wordmeaning appears in speech. Let it also be noted that Stern�s definition of Regular Transfers is incomplete. The characteristic featuresnbsp;of the category is not only the intentlessness of the procedure butnbsp;also its immediacy together with a considerable degree of similaritynbsp;between the old sense and the new one.

As is pointed out by Stern (p. 346), Regular Transfers are frequent in all languages, and, being of a very simple type, they do not varynbsp;much and need no extensive illustration. The instances given bynbsp;him represent nouns and adjectives only.

The nouns he devides into three categories: 'Identity of Appearance�, 'Identical Function�, and 'Identity of Relative Situation within a larger whole�. But why speak of identity when we arenbsp;only concerned with similarity? As to the first subclass, i. e. Sim i-lar ity of Appearance, Stern remarks that we have here tonbsp;notice, first of all, simple geometrical and stereometrical shapes asnbsp;bases of transfer. Ball, he says (p. 347), is transferred to 'a globular andnbsp;rounded mass of any substance� and to 'objects or parts with roundednbsp;outline�, and similarly is the case with cone, cube, pyramid, tube, etc.nbsp;He also observes that words for every day objects of a conspicuous

K. F. STJND�N, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 75 shape are often used in Regular Transfers, e. g. stich, hoard, lane,nbsp;vein, ladder, barrel, bowl, belly, bag, brick, leaf, ring, tongue, but henbsp;gives no other information about them. Thereupon he goes on to say:nbsp;�a bush is any bushlike bunch or tuft, a hear is ^a rough mat for wipingnbsp;boots on, a block covered with shaggy matting and used for scrubbing the decks of vessels� (or is this intentional?).� But if bear, as isnbsp;evidently the case, refers to Bruin himself, it is a matter of coursenbsp;that we are concerned with a metaphor, i. e. an Intentional Transfer.nbsp;But let us make up for the scarcity of real examples in Stern�s description: bag denotes also �puffy place under eyes�; barrel, also �revolvingnbsp;cylinder in machinery�; belly, also �cavity or bulging part of anything�;nbsp;brick, also �any brick-shaped thing�; frill, also �natural fringe on bird�;nbsp;knee, also �part of garment covering the knee if the latter has left anbsp;mark on it�; leaf, also �leaf of a book� (but the sense �hinge-flap�, e. g.nbsp;of table, shutter, is an Intentional Transfer); stick, also �a stick ofnbsp;chocolate, of dynamite, or of sealing-wax� (cp. Sw'ed. lackstdng, lit.nbsp;a pole of sealing-wax).

As examples of Similar Function Stern gives bonnet when meaning �protective cap in machinery� and �bonnetlike structure�, e. g. chimney-cowl; bolster when used of �various thingsnbsp;in the nature of a pad�; bed when denoting �the last bed or surfacenbsp;on which anything rests�; bridle when used of �various things resembling a horse�s bridle in form or use�; motdh when said of �the mouthnbsp;of a river or bay�.

The subclass that may be denoted as Similarity as to Relative Situation within a larger whole, is alsonbsp;illustrated. Stern points out that when we speak of the legs, arms,nbsp;feet, body, head, neck, etc. of an object, probably both appearance andnbsp;relative position are operating factors, but that such words as frontnbsp;back, top, bottom, sides, waist, etc. are likely to refer to the relativenbsp;position only.

The adjectives are also divided by Stern into three sub-categories. The first consists of cases having Similar (Stern: Identical) Appearance, Form, or Structure. Here belongnbsp;sharp when used of nose, referring only to the appearance, and losingnbsp;the implication of cutting and penetrating, and fast �immovable,nbsp;stable�, but when useji of a covenant or law = �firm, stable, reliable�,nbsp;or when used of friendship or fidelity = �firm, steadfast�, or of sleep,nbsp;= �deep, sound�. Stern remarks (p. 348) that words as round, square,nbsp;flat, narrow, low, denoting simple shapes, have a correspondingly simple

76 K. VET. O. VITTBEH. SAMH. HAIsDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N;0 3 meaning, offering few possibilities for specialization, and that the various uses are scarcely more than fluctuations within the range of thenbsp;word. Yet he admits that when applied to abstract things-meant,nbsp;e. g. a narrow mind, low cunning, and flat notes, the adjectives maynbsp;be Intentional Transfers. The point of similarity does not alwaysnbsp;offer itself at once. Take the adjective square, which means 'of thenbsp;shape of an equilateral rectangle� but also 'honest, candid, or fair�.nbsp;What is here the point of similarity? In our opinion it is certainlynbsp;not the fact that a square has six equilateral sides. It is insteadnbsp;the circumstance that this geometrical figure consists of straightnbsp;horizontal and perpendicular lines. And we are satisfied that thenbsp;same point of view underlies the slang metaphor He is a brick, i. e.nbsp;'a warmly approved person�, but originally meaning 'he has straightnbsp;lines like a brick�, i. e. a rectangle. Cp. Swed. Han ar ratlinjig, i. e.nbsp;He is honest, reliable (lit., has straight lines), and Eng. crooked 'notnbsp;straight, bent, wry� and hence 'dishonest�. We are afraid that thenbsp;employment of both square and brick in the senses mentioned shouldnbsp;be classed as Intentional Eigurative Transfers.

The second subcategory of adjectives as used in Regular Transfers denotes Similarity (Stern; Identity) of Function, Ability, or Behaviour. As examples are adduced sharpnbsp;when used of sight or eyes = 'acute, keen�; when used of a person�s intellect = 'acute, keen, discerning�; and light when used ofnbsp;persons, their mood, mind, heart, or countenance = 'merry, cheerful�, since the idea of being lightly burdened is here shifted to thenbsp;mental sphere.

The third subcategory of adjectives is by Stern called Relational Shifts. Under this heading he deals with adjectives qualifying nouns with which they do not logically admit of beingnbsp;combined. This case is especially usual with agent nouns whennbsp;the qualifier refers to the action expressed by the substantive. Asnbsp;examples: an early riser, a hard student, a slow walker, a great admirer of T., an enormous eater, a probable winner. The incongruousnbsp;function of the adjectives may also occur when the nouns denotenbsp;a person as having a certain quality. For in that case the adjective may qualify the adjectival sense of the substantive in the waynbsp;an adv. qualifies an adj. As examples: a perfect stranger, a positivenbsp;fool, her particular friend. When Stern has to explain this illogicalnbsp;use of the adjectives, he quotes the superficial view presented bynbsp;P. Feldkeller Ueber Begriffsilberschiebungen (Arch. f. d. gesammte

Psych. 36, 1917). Our own opinion is as follows. The starting-point for the incongruous use of the adjectives are free word-combinations, such as to rise early, to study hard, to be 'perfectly strange, to be particularly friendly, etc. On the other hand, there is a tendencynbsp;in English to replace verbs by nominal expressions, esp. to bea, substantive or an adjective, e. g. to be an indication of or to he indicativenbsp;of = to indicate. The increasing occurrence of such expressionsnbsp;favoured the tendency to use substantival expressions of the typesnbsp;He is an early riser (= rises early). He is a perfect stranger to menbsp;(= perfectly strange). But the really important factor is the associative power between the qualifier and its head-word, i. e. betweennbsp;the qualifying adverb and the verb or a predicatively used adjective.nbsp;Hence there is a natural tendency on the part of the speaker to retainnbsp;the same qualifier, but in the form of an adjective, when the headword is turned into a substantive. This is equivalent to sayingnbsp;that the speaker is inclined to form the substantival expression onnbsp;the analogy of the other expression so as not to break off the association between the qualifier and the thing qualified. But the possibilitynbsp;of doing so was due to the notional element of activity or of adjectivalnbsp;quality expressed by the substantives themselves. For this factnbsp;permitted the qualifiers to be used in their radical senses, only shiftingnbsp;their relational quality.

It is pointed out by Stern that the semantic change offered by the present section is a relational shift. So it is inasmuch asnbsp;it consists in a change of adverbs into adjectives. But since thenbsp;operating factors are analogy and associative power, the relationalnbsp;change does not belong to the present category but to Sense-changes due to Analogy.

The associative power between a qualifier and its headword should not be underrated. This power may, in our opinion, even reveal itself in the converse direction, i. e. in retaining thenbsp;qualifier of a substantive when the latter is replaced by the corresponding verb or adjective. In North American English it is a common phenomenon in colloquial speech that the phrase kind of anbsp;noun, whose first member is formally but not really the thing qualifiednbsp;in the expression, is retained though the noun be exchanged for anbsp;verb or an adjective. This involves that, instead of the sentence Henbsp;set up a kind of laugh (= not exactly a laugh), one may use thenbsp;expression He kind of laughed (= laughed slightly). There is nonbsp;denying the fact that this incongruous construction, now also cropp-

ing up in British English, was made on the analogy of the substantival expression and that it was strongly favoured, nay made possible, by the circumstance that kind of in the substantival expression had been turned into a qualifier denoting the degree in whichnbsp;the action or the quality implied in the substantive should benbsp;understood. But if so, it was not unnatural for the speaker to retainnbsp;the qualifier, which approached the nature of an adverbial adjunct,nbsp;when the substantival head-word was replaced by a verb. Hencenbsp;we are even inclined to believe that this analogical formation was madenbsp;unintentionally. It is possible that the N. E. D. (s. v. kind 14 d)nbsp;shares our view of the matter, but the explanation given by thenbsp;dictionary is justly rejected by G. Ph. Krapp on account of itsnbsp;scantiness. His own interpretation, however, cannot be accepted.i)nbsp;An Amer. example of sort of an adjective is the sentence �I feelnbsp;sort of sorry for �em�.

Identification is the kind of sense-change that takes place when an old thing-meant is modified by external, i. e. non-linguistic, causes, but is identified by speaker and listener as essentially being the same thing-meant as before and henee furnishednbsp;with its old name.

Identification, then, is another manner in which semantic variants of the same w'ord originate, just as Regular Transfer is another method of creating semantic variants of a word. In both cases wenbsp;are, strictly speaking, concerned with new things-meant which demand denomination. This demand is satisfied but in different ways.nbsp;Yet both manners have that in common that they employ linguisticnbsp;material already in existence. Otherwise said, the semantic changenbsp;brought about consists in both cases in the widening of the semanticnbsp;range of an old class-name.

The present category is by Stern called Substitution and is described in the following way (op. cit. 192): �Substitutions are sense-changes due to external, non-linguistic causes.� No term can be more misleading since, as in the case of Regular Transfers, we arenbsp;here, too, confronted with new things-meant that call for denomination in order to be able to play a part in speech. Hence there

Cp. George Philip Krapp The English Language in America, New York 1925 II 269 foil.

K. F. SUND�N, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 79 is nothing to be substituted. Far less obnoxious is Wellander�s termnbsp;Bedeutungsunterschiebung}) But this name disregards the causanbsp;efficiens, to wit, the identification of the class of the new thing-meant with the class of an old thing-meant, in spite of a minor discrepancy. This is the actual state of things, entirely hidden by Stern�snbsp;term and somewhat obscured by Wellander�s expression.

Let us with Stern take the subs, horn as illustrative example. Originally it meant an animal�s horn only, but when later on it wasnbsp;used as a drinking vessel or as a wind instrument, this new thing-meant was identified with the old thing-meant since the functionnbsp;of the horn was apprehended as a subsidiary notional element asnbsp;compared to its material and its form, which remained the same asnbsp;before. In its new application the word was immediately exposednbsp;to Adequation so that the functional element became clearly conspicuous. When horn in sense of a wind instrument became a commonnbsp;thing, this notional element got the upper hand in prominence, andnbsp;the idea of material and form became subsidiary elements. Hence,nbsp;if the musical instrument designated as horn was manufactured ofnbsp;other material and got another form, it would still be called a hornnbsp;if it continued to be a wind instrument capable of producing certainnbsp;sounds.

An equivalent semantic process is presented by the Eng. subs. pen. Its ultimate source is Lat. penna a feather, but its proximatenbsp;origin is OF penne meaning (1) a feather, a quill, (2) a quill-feathernbsp;used as an instrument for writing with ink. In mod. English thenbsp;word denotes not only the nib (the end) of a quill employed in writingnbsp;but also a nib made of steel, nay any instrument adopted for writingnbsp;with ink.

Another example is Eng. booking-office. It originally meant a place where travellers booked their names for a seat in a coach ornbsp;conveyance. When the system of tickets was adopted, the name wasnbsp;retained for the place where these were sold, because, as Stern puts it,nbsp;at a booking-office one paid for a journey in some conveyance and thatnbsp;was the main thing from the travellers� point of view. Hence thenbsp;new application of the word appeared as essentially the same as thenbsp;old application, and it was therefore provided with the same name.

It is pointed out by Stern (p. 193) that the present category is an extremely frequent form of semantic change since the constant

Cp. E. Wellander Studi�n zum Bedeutungswandel im Deutschen I, Uppsala 1917 pp. 55 ff. 70 ff.

progress and modification of all forms of human life and thought react on the meanings, that is, the development of meaning has followednbsp;the development of the things-meant. In the lapse of time suchnbsp;modifications of meaning may amount to considerable sense-changes.nbsp;But he also mentions that there are many words that are not exposednbsp;to the action of cultural evolution. Here belong parts of the body,nbsp;actions like run, go, eat, adjectives like hard, soft, big, little, alsonbsp;other words, such as light, darkness, day, night, sleep, dream, and manynbsp;others. Let us also agree with Stern that from a semantic point ofnbsp;view the present category offers but little of interest.

He points out, however, that, according to the origin of the change, three main types are distinguishable.,

1) Factual Change of the Thing-meant. In this case the thing-meant is subjected to a functional change due tonbsp;progress or modifications of technique, habits, etc. Changes due tonbsp;technical progress have affected an enormous number of objects,nbsp;such as house, carriage, war, trade, horn, pen, booking-office, etc. Thenbsp;gradual modifications of political conditions, says Stern (p. 197), isnbsp;reflected in the different notions of the word king. He also mentions,nbsp;like Paul (Prinz. 105), that the meanings of ethical, aesthetic, religious,nbsp;philosophical, and other scientific terms are in a constant flux, e. g.nbsp;religion, moral, holy.

T) Chang e in Knowledge of the Thing-meant. In this case the thing-meant remains unchanged, but our knowledgenbsp;of it changes. It is a matter of course that, as Stern points out, thenbsp;progress of scientific knowledge should have led to new notionalnbsp;elements being attached to many things-meant and consequently tonbsp;the words denoting them, e. g. electricity, atom, and the word meaningnbsp;itself.

Z) C hang e of Attitude to the Thing-meant. This change is of emotional character and is due to external causes.nbsp;Examples in point are political catchwords. Such expressions asnbsp;Corn Laws, Home Rule, Women�s Suffrage have, as Stern rightlynbsp;remarks, been fraught with emotion for many speakers. The disrepute into which medieval scholasticism has fallen has tinged thenbsp;meaning of the adjectives scholastic and scholastical.

L - I

- MjeXc ' Jc

Prolegomena to the Semantic-Genetic Interpretation II.

There still remain two classes of sense-change to be considered, two leading types, the most important and interesting ones of allnbsp;semantic change.

5 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;p e a k e r�s and the Listener�s Apprehension ofnbsp;the Thing- meant.

Adequation^) is a gradual unintentional adjustment of the sense of an expression to the semantic aspect of a new thing-meantnbsp;which it is.called upon to denote or else to a new apprehension ofnbsp;an old thing-meant.

The sense-change due to Adequation consists in the latter case in a gradual shift of attention from a dominant cognitive elementnbsp;of the thing-meant to a subsidiary but mostly indispensable cognitive element. Hence the latter becomes the predominant element,nbsp;whereas the former recedes into the background and may disappearnbsp;altogether.

From the definition given it appears that the sense-changes called Adequation proximately admit of a binary division, to wit.nbsp;Adequation after a preceding sense-change and Adequation without anbsp;preceding sense-change.^)

Adequation after Analogy: � When, for instance, the ME adjective fast borrowed the meaning 'rapid, swift� from the

') The term was first used by J. Stocklein Bedeutungswandel der Worter, Miinohen 1898. Its notion implies a definite step forward in the apprehension of semanticnbsp;phenomena.

82 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 adverb faste, the use of this sense was at first restricted to qualifying nomina actionis only, where it was possible to apprehendnbsp;the adjective as an adverb, also, after the time that ME atonic -enbsp;had fallen away. Gradually, through Adequation, the adjectivenbsp;grew capable of being used in its new meaning with any head-word.

Adequation after Shortening: � We have to assume, says Stern, that the use of private for private soldier occurred at first in definite contexts only and that, when through Adequation the feeling of connection with the fuller form disappeard, thenbsp;word could be used in any context.

Adequation after Nomination: � Note especially the fading of metaphors, e. g. Ever let the fancy roam. Pleasurenbsp;never is at home. They bathed in smiles of glee. Contentment isnbsp;the source whence all happiness flows.^) � Note also the adequation of Hyperboles, e. g. petrified, dumbfounded (= confoundednbsp;into dumbness), paralysed, thunderstruck. The verb astonish literallynbsp;meant 'to thunderstrike� (ultimately f. Lat. ex -j- tonare to thunder).nbsp;� Adequation may set in after Litotes, also, when this figure ofnbsp;speech is beginning to disappear. Thus, for instance, den and diggingsnbsp;may be conceived of as meaning plainly 'study� and 'apartments�nbsp;respectively. � The ironic use of a word may be perpetuated, e. g.nbsp;sapient, and hence the subs, supfewce, orig. 'wisdom, understanding�,nbsp;denotes 'would-be wisdom�. � Adequation may set in after E u-ph em, i s m s, too. Thus Stern rightly suggests (p. 413) that thenbsp;depreciative development of the words hussy (lt; housewife), quean,nbsp;and wench should be ascribed to Adequation, i. e. their use asnbsp;euphemisms fell into oblivion. The word disease, which originallynbsp;denoted 'discomfort�, is no longer felt as a euphemism, whereas indiscretion and transgression in sense of 'crime� still retain their euphemistic character.

Adequation after Regular Transfer: � The instance given by Stern, viz. saddle (p. 403), is an example in point when its figurative use is obscured.

Adequation after Identification (Stern; Substitution): � When, say, horn was used of its function as a drinking vessel or as a musical instrument. Adequation set in in order tonbsp;point out the purposive idea as the predominant notional element.

Adequation after Permutation: � When a word has passed through a Permutation, the new sense is proximately seen

under a particular aspect. Thus, for instance, when bead, orig. 'prayer�, assumed the sense of 'pearl�, the sense proximately referred to thenbsp;small balls of a rosary by means of which the monks counted theirnbsp;prayers. This origin w�as later on forgotten through Adequation sonbsp;that the word came to denote 'any small ball� (= Generalization)nbsp;and thereupon 'pearl� ( = Specialization).

In all these cases Adequation has adjusted the new sense to the thing-meant, a process which generally ends in an extendednbsp;use of the new sense, e. g. fast, private, bead, horn. This extendednbsp;use may also be due to the fading of a metaphor, or to a weakeningnbsp;of the picturesque force of another figure of speech, e. g. den,nbsp;diggings, or to stabilizing the fig. sense, e. g. sapient, or to adjustingnbsp;a euphemism to the real meaning, e. g. hussy.

The characteristic of this type of Adequation is the same as that of the other subclass inasmuch as we are still concerned withnbsp;a gradual unintentional process of semantic adjustment of an expression to the sense of a thing-meant. But the difference is thatnbsp;we are here faced, not with a new thing-meant, but with a new' apprehension of an old thing-meant. Hence the result of the sense-changenbsp;takes other forms, and these should be the basis of further classification of the instances falling under this category.

When Stern is going to subdivide the present category, he obviously wants to take as ground of division the logical relation as to intension and extent existing between the new sense and the old one.nbsp;This is a legitimate point of view. Hence his first subcategory isnbsp;called Generalization or Species pro G en er e. This involves a shift of attention to a characteristic of the thing-meantnbsp;�which is of a more general nature than the formerly predominantnbsp;characteristic, so that the word becomes capable of being extendednbsp;to other referents [ = things-meant], which it could not previouslynbsp;denote�. As examples are adduced, amongst other things, the following words (Stern, p. 405 ff): � Germ, anziehen, Eng. rubric,nbsp;blackbird, half sb., to walk over (erroneously apprehended by Stern),nbsp;to turn, etc.

His second subcategory is called Specialization or The Pregnant Use. He says (p. 408); �The pregnant use is a spe-

84 K. VET. O. VITTBEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 cialization on one or more characteristics of the referent [ = thenbsp;thing-ineant] which are considered as typical and essential, and involves a valuation of the referent as such, as a pre-eminent specimen of its kind. It is emotive in nature and is not expressed bynbsp;qualities.� The subcategory thus determined is by him also denotednbsp;as the Appreciative type. To this section are counted suchnbsp;cases as 'He was a man , 'a person of quality^, 'What a life (glorious 1.)�. 'That is not crickef, 'He never saw me eat (sc. in realnbsp;earnest)�. But he admits (p. 408) that also expressions, such asnbsp;'She is a woman (contemptuously said). What a life ( = miserable 1.)!,nbsp;'to call names (= opprobrious names)�, must be genetically explainednbsp;in exactly the same way as the laudatory expressions. And therefore he advocates the view (p. 411) that there is also a Deprecia-tive type of Specialization (The Pregnant Use),nbsp;and he makes the following allegation: oDepreciative specializationnbsp;is more exclusively emotive in character than the appreciative type,nbsp;and is caused by the circumstance that the speaker apprehendsnbsp;one or more characteristics as disadvantageous, contemptible, or ridiculous. The subjective factor is thus predominant.� As illustrativenbsp;examples are adduced such instances as lewd, menial, knave, politician, parson, sanctified, sanctimonious, dunce, crafty, artful, etc.

In the present subcategory, i. e. Specialization or the Pregnant use, as delimited by Stern, we are confronted withnbsp;disparate things that should not be classed together under the samenbsp;heading. In fact, it is both descriptively and genetically a grotesquenbsp;classification if examples, such as 'He is a man , 'What a life�, 'tonbsp;call names�, be put on a par with worde such as lewd, menial, parson,nbsp;etc. The former expressions are an intentional affair, and hencenbsp;they cannot belong to unintentional Adequation. Personally we arenbsp;even satisfied that instances of the types 'What a lifel�, 'to call names�nbsp;do not belong to any of Stern�s categories of semantic change. Hencenbsp;there was no reason for him to adopt a cavalier attitude towardsnbsp;Wundt, who saw far deeper, and say (p. 387): �W'undt makes anbsp;separate class of what he terms 'Verdichtung�, which I regard as anbsp;type of Adequation.� Let it also be noted that the depreciative ringnbsp;presented by words like lewd and parson respectively is of differentnbsp;origin inasmuch as lewd came to denote a depreciatory quality, i. e.nbsp;lascivious, indicent, whereas parson denotes a man with a respectednbsp;profession but has none the less acquired a disparaging tone (seenbsp;p. 90).

The third suhcategory instituted by Stern is called Particularization or The Unique Use. �This happens�, he says (p. 415), �when a term of more general import is habituallynbsp;used in a particular sense. Thus, the King, without any qualification, is for English speakers the King of England. Similarly, thenbsp;River, to a Londoner, is the Thames, the city is the City of London.nbsp;I shall call this the unique use of the word.� But the strange partnbsp;of this characterization is that it is meant to be applicable also tonbsp;instances of genuine Specialization (or particularization,nbsp;a term that should be discarded), i. e. cases where we are confrontednbsp;with Genus pro Specie, e. g. the Eng. substantives deer,nbsp;undertaker, etc. But expressions such as the King, the River, the Citynbsp;are of a totally different kind, seeing that they represent a type ofnbsp;Individualization, just like any concrete substantive withnbsp;the individualizing definite article. But the distinctive mark ofnbsp;Individualization is, on the one hand, that it is made intentionallynbsp;and, on the other hand, that it refers to the ultimate thing-meant,nbsp;which is a definite individual, whereas other designations refer tonbsp;the proximate thing-meant, i. e. they are class-names. But if so,nbsp;can expressions such as the King and the River be exposed to Adequation? Stern gives an affirmative answer saying (p. 415): �Thenbsp;unique use involves an adjustment of the meaning of the wordnbsp;within the relevant group of speakers � which may be equivalent tonbsp;the whole speaking community � to the referent [= thing-meant]nbsp;of which it is most frequently used.� Yes, there is factually a semantic change in these expressions, through Adequation, perceptible to every member of the speaking community. Eor thanksnbsp;to the incessant repetition of such expressions as the King, the River,nbsp;the City, they are in a fair way to become proper nouns. But thisnbsp;fact is not clearly pointed out by Stern. Furthermore, let it alsonbsp;be noted that he tries to establish a difference between the termsnbsp;'particularization� and 'specialization�, a distinction unintelligiblenbsp;to the reader. The adjective lewd, for instance, is adduced asnbsp;an example of specialization though it be nothing of the sort. Innbsp;fact, we get no tenable idea of the manner in which the semanticnbsp;development of the word should be explained.

We find, then, that Stern�s second and third subcategories cannot be said to be the outcome of clear thinking. On the contrary, they present to the reader a confused mass of disparate thingsnbsp;huddled together, which he himself has to disentangle. Let us now

86 K. VET. O. VITTBRH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. �f:0 3 on the basis of his material give a preliminary subdivision of thenbsp;category called quot;Adequation without a Previous Sense-change�, and letnbsp;us then pay due attention to the nature of the semantic change wenbsp;are faced with, the only rational ground of classification.

The term Adequation is by St�cklein (see p. 81, foot-note) illustrated by also adducing the Germ, word anziehen. Originally it signified quot;to pull or draw on (boots, gloves)� but later quot;to put on (an article of dress)�. This involves that the notion of physical effort gave upnbsp;its place as predominant element to the notion of quot;putting or gettingnbsp;on�. Stern goes on to say (p. 380): �When this point had beennbsp;reached, it was further possible, through a transfer, or perhaps a merenbsp;extension, to say Memd, Kragen, Giirtel, Kravatte anziehen . Wenbsp;have to distinguish carefully between the process of Adequationnbsp;and the following Transfer.� But we are here concerned, not withnbsp;a Transfer, but only with the gradual fading away of the notionalnbsp;element denoting physical effort in putting on an article of dress.nbsp;The absence of this element widens the applicability of the word,nbsp;i. e. it implies a Generalization of its sense. If we are herenbsp;concerned with a mental process, it is that of Identification.

Another example is rubric, originally meaning a heading of a chapter, section, etc. written or printed in red (Lat. ruber red).nbsp;But the function as heading was the important thing, and hencenbsp;the word could, after the operation of Adequation, be employednbsp;to denote other headings as well.� Blackbird, a species of thrush,nbsp;could, after Adequation, be used to denote also other birds dissimilar in colour but similar in other, more important respects. �nbsp;The half of something is also part of a whole. Hence the sensenbsp;quot;part� may sometimes become predominant so as to make it possible to say: it broke into three halves-, the larger half.

The disturbance of the equilibrium between the notional elements in words of the present subcategory was obviously due to the fact thatnbsp;the removal of the earlier predominant element would considerablynbsp;widen the range of the applicability of the word. This is a distinctnbsp;advantage since a genus may be used of a species, also. Hence thenbsp;predominant element was liable to decrease in prominence, i. e.nbsp;it gradually faded out.

Let us first take as example OE dear sb. 'animal, beast�, 'any four-footed animal that was an object of chase� as distinguished from tame animals and birds. But among hunting people OE deor or ME dernbsp;came to be habitually used also of the Cervidae, i. e. red deer, roedeer,nbsp;etc., which were the principal objects of chase. When in ME timesnbsp;the general sense of the word could be expressed by the loan-wordsnbsp;beast and animal, the word deer survived only in its restricted sense,nbsp;at first as a hunting term but later on in general speech. � Anothernbsp;hunting word, to wit, hound, has passed through a similar development. It came to denote habitually 'hounds as used for hunting�,nbsp;but subsequently the general sense was represented by dog alonenbsp;(OE docga). �� The word undertaker means literally 'one whonbsp;undertakes to carry out work or business for another�. But it is nownbsp;mostly used in the sense 'one who makes a business of carrying outnbsp;the arrangements for funerals�.

As examples of Depreciative Specialization Stern adduces some instances that shonld be understood as implying logical Interference between the new sense and the old one. In point of Notionsnbsp;of Interference Wundt says, Logik I 128 (1906): � �Die Begriffenbsp;decken sich teilweise oder kreuzen sich, in demnbsp;jeder einen Teil vom Umfang des anderen einnimmt: interferie-rende Begriffe.� As an example in point he gives, inter alia,nbsp;G. 'Neger� and 'Sklave�. This being so, we must also admit that, innbsp;medieval times when laymen often could neither read nor write, thenbsp;OE adjective Imwede 'lay, laic� and the adjectival notions impljdngnbsp;'unlearned, untaught� constituted Notions of Interference. Thisnbsp;implies that the sense of 'unlettered, untaught� constituted a subsidiary element in the notion of OE Icewede. Hence it is intelligiblenbsp;that in several contexts, e. g. co-ordination with an adj. denotingnbsp;'untaught�, the sense of 'unlearned� should get prominence and, ifnbsp;often repeated, be attached to the word as a collateral sense. Thisnbsp;change is factually met with since Old English lawede also denotesnbsp;'unlearned�. In ME and NE times the word appeared as lewd. Butnbsp;the sense 'unlearned, ignorant� and the meaning 'foolish, ill-mannered�nbsp;constituted Notions of Interference, and hence the latter meaning

was adopted by the word. But this sense had in its turn as a Notion of Interference the sense quot;base, worthless�, and hence thisnbsp;meaning became subsequently attached to the word. But the latternbsp;sense (now arch.) and the meaning quot;lascivious, indecent� were Notions of Interference, and hence this sense was attached to lewd. Wenbsp;believe that the Notion of Interference gives the key to understandingnbsp;the rich variety of meanings often presented by adjectives, but it isnbsp;an interpretation not adopted by semantic research.

But this phenomenon plays also a part in substantival sense-changes. Such is the case with Eng. boor lt; OE gebur (= Du. boer, Ger. Bauer), which Stern gives as an example of quot;Depreciativenbsp;Specialization�. The word originally meant quot;a peasant, countryman�.nbsp;But this sense had as Notion of Interference the sense quot;a rustic lackingnbsp;refinement, a country clown�, and hence in the course of time it adopted this meaning. But the latter sense had as Notion of Interferencenbsp;quot;any rude, or ill-bred fellow� and hence this meaning became attachednbsp;to the word. All these senses are still represented by the word boor.

Just like G. quot;Neger� and quot;Sklave� form Notions of Interference, so the same is the case with E. poZft�cfaw and quot;shrewd schemer or intriguer�, seeing that politicians are not rjtrely distinguished by thatnbsp;quality, to which suitable contexts try to give prominence. Hencenbsp;it is quite natural that the word should have adopted this sense andnbsp;that it was subsequently generalized so as to mean quot;crafty plotter innbsp;general�.

Let us remark in passing that we do not with Stern take the subst. dunce quot;a stupid fellow� as an example of Adequation. Its sourcenbsp;is John Duns Scotus (dead in 1308), the celebrated theologian whosenbsp;scholastic system was attacked with ridicule in the 16th c. Thenbsp;primary sense of duns was quot;a disciple or follower of Duns Scotus�nbsp;(1527). Later on there originated as a contextual synonym for itnbsp;the sense quot;a hair-splitting reasoner, dull pedant, dullard� (1577).nbsp;We are consequently faced with a case of Permutation.

On the other hand, it may be mentioned that the sense of the subst. 'premises should not with Stern be understood as a case ofnbsp;Permutation. The premises originally meant quot;the aforesaid�. Thenbsp;word was consequently a pronominal expression, destitute of a fixednbsp;or permanent thing-meant. In legal documents concerning sellingnbsp;or letting houses or lands it was common to use quot;the aforesaid� withnbsp;reference to the houses, lands, or tenements enumerated before, ornbsp;else to a house with its grounds and other appurtenances mentioned

before. Through favourable circumstances, to wit, the abolition of the French language in legal documents since 1749, the premises, i. e.nbsp;the aforesaid, took over permanently the sense which it had so oftennbsp;represented occasionally. Otherwise said, the expression the premises was used in legal English, also, but only with reference to houses,nbsp;lands, etc. in purchase- or sale-instruments. Owing to this, thenbsp;pronominal expression got a fixed thing-meant, and as in the casenbsp;of other expressions applied to a thing-meant, so here too the sensenbsp;of the linguistic expression was adjusted to its thing-meant, i. e.nbsp;the pronominal sense faded out and was replaced by the sensenbsp;implied in the thing-meant. It is true that in the present case thenbsp;semantic change has total character, yet the procedure was unmistakably that characteristic of Adequation.

We now come to a couple of types which are unlike the other species of Adequation without a Previous Sense-change. For we arenbsp;no longer concerned with a semantic change where a predominantnbsp;notional element recedes into the background (or is fading out) andnbsp;is replaced by a subsidiary element. The Adequation appearsnbsp;instead in other forms.

Let us remark, to start with, that there are words and expressions whose very sense denotes something base, disagreeable, or disgraceful, and hence are wrapped in an unpleasant atmosphere, e. g.nbsp;lewd, or whose sense gives rise to the idea of something precious or ofnbsp;exquisite beauty, e. g. orient in 'orient pearls�. In the present subclass we are not concerned with such cases. In other words. Wenbsp;have not to do vdth instances whose semantic development havenbsp;led up to notions of this kind. We are instead concerned withnbsp;examples which retain their cognitive elements but none the lessnbsp;adopt emotive elements in the lapse of time. These are brought tonbsp;light by Adequation, and they may be of eulogistic or dyslogisticnbsp;character, but the latter case is far more common than the former case, a natural outcome of man�s delightful nature.

The present subclass, then, has a subtle and interesting subject. It has to state that obsolescent or archaic words often have a nobler ring than ordinary words have, and that this state of thingsnbsp;perhaps is due to the fact that the past is likely to appear in a fairer

90 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH, HANDL. E. 6. SEE. A. BD 1. �f.O 3 light than does the present time. Such words have their being innbsp;the highest style, e. g. steed as against 'horse�. The category hasnbsp;also to point out that there are Christian names which seem to havenbsp;acquired an emotional aspect of their own, just as if they had beennbsp;impregnated with suggestions of qualities characteristic of some ofnbsp;their former bearers. Thus, for instance, the name Robert sometimesnbsp;appears to make an unpleasant impression, judging from the quotationnbsp;below.i) And there are names so grand that their elliptical abbreviation to many a man appears as a sacrilege (see quot. infra^).

Furthermore, in point of the present category we have to state that the applicability of ordinary words may be restricted by theirnbsp;adoption of a dyslogistic tone, and we have to explain this state ofnbsp;things. Take, for instance, the Eng. subs, parson. It originally meantnbsp;a 'rector�, but its use is now extended so as to include a vicar or anynbsp;beneficed clergyman. �In the more extended use�, says the N. E. D.,nbsp;�only colloquial, and (except in rural use) usually more or less depreciatory or dyslogistic�. But the reason why the word should havenbsp;adopted a disparaging tone is wrapped in obscurity. � It is mentionednbsp;by Stern that the subst. cunning is used by Shakespeare both in a depre-ciative and an appreciative sense but that nowadays it has only anbsp;depreciatory tone. Adjectives like crafty, knowing, clever, cute, keen,nbsp;sharp, smart, sly, and shrewd, are all denoting a quality that is innbsp;itself blameless or even praiseworthy, but their intensification willnbsp;appear to others whose interests suffer correspondingly in an unfavourable light. Conversely people who are not smart enough fornbsp;being successful in this world will easily appear to others as beingnbsp;of inferior intelligence. Hence the words, simple, innocent, guileless,nbsp;unsophisticated, have taken on a disparaging tone.�) But let us turnnbsp;to another subclass.

') 1881 Florence Marryat My Sister the Actress 145: � 'At home they call me �Robert�, but that is such a hideous name, and �Bobby� sounds like a Baby�. � 'Inbsp;don�t think �Robert� is hideous�, replies Betha, 'but I like �Rob� better�. � 'Thennbsp;call me �Rob��.

Cp. 1865. Ghamhers�s Journal of Popular Lit., Science, and Arts, p. 745. No man of correct taste or elevated sentiment can, without a shudder of regret, hearnbsp;the grand old names of Abraham and Isaac, Moses, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel desecratednbsp;into Abe and Ike, Jerry and Zike, and applied to a group of ragged urchins grovellingnbsp;in a gutter. Cp. Karl Sund�n Contributions to the Study of Elliptical Words in Modernnbsp;English, Upsala 1904, pp. 137, 107.

�) Cp. H. Sehreuder Pejorative Sense Development in English, Groningen 1929, pp. 154, 169 (Quoted from Stern�s work).

We have previously advocated the view that, when in England the expression the King under ordinary circumstances is regularlynbsp;understood as referring to the King of England, and when in London the River and the City are regularly taken to mean the Thamesnbsp;and the City of London, we are then confronted with a sense-changenbsp;that implies that these expressions distinctly approach the naturenbsp;of proper nouns. We also suggested that this semantic change wasnbsp;due to the incessant repetitions of these expressions. We have seennbsp;that Stern is aware of this sense-change and its cause, but that henbsp;does not realize its nature since he is unable to characterize it. Butnbsp;we must answer the question what it implies that these expressionsnbsp;approximate to proper nouns.

On the one hand we are faced with class-names indicating the class of the proximate thing-meant, i. e. the view-point fromnbsp;which the ultimate thing-meant should proximately be seen. Onnbsp;the other hand we are confronted with class-names which at thenbsp;same time directly refer to the ultimate thing-meant since theynbsp;are provided with the individualizing definite article. The equilibrium between these two functions of the class-names is disturbednbsp;by the incessant repetition of the expressions mentioned. For thisnbsp;accentuates the individualizing function and obscures correspondinglynbsp;the function of a class-name. Otherwise said, the individual characteristics of the ultimate thing-meant increase in prominence.

It is a matter of course that the so called occupative surnames, such as Clark, Cooper, Smith, Taylor, Turner, Wright, and Walker,nbsp;should have passed through the same development until they becamenbsp;permanent means of identification, i. e. surnames. The same is truenbsp;of other individualizing expressions, e. g. ME atte (= at the) mode,nbsp;atte pitt{e), which passed into the surnames Atwood and Pitt.

Permutation is an unintentional sense-change consisting in the shift of attention from the actual thing meant by a word tonbsp;quite another thing-meant cropping up in certain contexts andnbsp;later on replacing it. From a certain point of view the thing-meantnbsp;forms then an equipollent or synonymous notion with the old thing-meant, but from ordinary view-point the two factors are either disparate or correlative notions.

In this definition we have given prominence to the leading features of the present category such as we see them. To a certain extent it contrasts with Stern�s definition which reads thusnbsp;(p. 361): � �Permutations are unintentional sense-changes in whichnbsp;the subjective apprehension of a detail � denoted by a separatenbsp;word � in a larger total changes, and the changed apprehensionnbsp;(the changed notion) is substituted for the previous meaning of thenbsp;word. )gt;

Here the circumstance is stressed that the pre-requisite for the semantic change of the word concerned is its occurrence as gt;gt;a detailnbsp;in a larger total� or, as Stern often puts it, as �a detail of a phrase-referent�. But this characteristic may be said to occur also in certain types of Adequation, e. g. Species pro Genere and Sense-changenbsp;due to Interference. Stern�s definition disregards the heart of thenbsp;matter, to wit, the appearance of quite another thing-meant andnbsp;the circumstance that its relation to the old thing-meant is of anbsp;kind of its own. In fact, it is this very relation that should be takennbsp;as view-point if we want to make a further subdivision of the category. But since this distinction is of logical nature, it requires somenbsp;comments.

Let us remark as to identity of notions that there can be no difference made, except as far as their linguistic expression isnbsp;concerned. Wundt makes the following statement (Logik I 123);nbsp;� �Gleiche Begriffe, die verschieden bezeichnet sind, heissen Equipollent; die verschiedenen W�rter aber, die gleiche Begriffe be-deuten, werden synonym genannt. �Der Lehrer Alexanders� undnbsp;�der Philosoph aus Stagira� sind aquipollente Begriffe. �Mord� undnbsp;�T�tung� sind synonyme W�^�rter�. But in making this identification of notions or of senses, such differences are disregarded asnbsp;give rise to the difference in expression. Wundt points out as follows; � �Mord� und �T�tung� mogen in einem gegebenen Falie aufnbsp;die namliche Tatsache bezogen werden, doch die begriffliche Be-deutung beider ist nach dem Sprachgebrauch eine verschiedene. Dienbsp;�T�tung� dr�ckt einfach den Tatbestand aus, sie sagt nichts iibernbsp;dessen Motive; der �Mord� bezieht sich auf ein geplantes Verbrechen.nbsp;Nur dann sind also die Begriffe in vollem Sinne identisch, wenn diesenbsp;Identitat auch in ihrem Ausdruck enthalten ist.� He also pointsnbsp;out that the identity obtained through abstraction, i. e. A = B, isnbsp;infinitely more fertile for our thinking than genuine identity is,nbsp;i. e. A = A.

We have previously maintained in point of Permutation that the logical relation between the two operating notions may be thatnbsp;case of identity called equipollence or synonymity. But what shouldnbsp;be particularly noticed is the strange fact that, outside the contextnbsp;in which the two notions appear as equipollent, they may be disparate notions, i. e. they cannot even be compared. Hence thisnbsp;subclass is a very interesting type, and it may justly be called F er-mutati 011 of Disparate Notions.

On the other hand it should be observed that the two operating notions in Permutation may be correlative notions, i. e. suchnbsp;as presuppose the existence of each other. Says Wundt (Logik Inbsp;126): � �Beispiele solcher Wechselbegriffe sind: Mann und Frau,nbsp;Vater und Mutter, Land und Meer, Berg und Tal, Ursache undnbsp;Wirkung u. dgl. -Auch bei der Korrelation lasst sich stets ein all-gemeiner Begriff hinzudenken, dem die beiden Wechselbegriffe sub-sumiert werden k�nnen.� This subclass, then, may aptly be callednbsp;Permutation of Correlative Notions.

A constitutive feature of both subclasses is the circumstance that at first the new sense appears as an alternative significationnbsp;alongside of the old sense before it can appear as an independentnbsp;meaning. But be it also noted that this first stage may appearnbsp;without the next step being taken, i. e. without advancing to annbsp;independent sense. But what it is that gives the impetus to thenbsp;factual Permutation of the notions seems to belong to those accidental circumstances which assuredly play a part in unintentionalnbsp;linguistic changes but which are hard to get to know. Lastly, letnbsp;us emphasize the characteristic, also approved of by Stern, thatnbsp;Permutation is an unintentional process. It is not superfluous tonbsp;discuss this point for a moment.

Let us analyse the sense-change presented by the Eng. subs, bead 'pearl�, whose source is OE. gebed 'prayer�. This word is by Sternnbsp;given as a typical example of Permutation, and hence he subjectsnbsp;it to an analysis (p. 352). On the page adjoining he maintains thatnbsp;the mental process is too complicated to be adequately representednbsp;by a diagram, but none the less he gives a scheme meant to elucidatenbsp;the facts. But the semantic process is far less complicated thannbsp;he has dreamt of in his speculations, which are evidently based onnbsp;the false assumption that we are here faced with an unintentionalnbsp;process. In the Middle Ages when prayers, chiefly Pater Noster andnbsp;Ave Maria, had daily to be said repeatedly a certain number of times,

94 K. VET. O. VITTBEH. SAMH. HAVDL. F. 6. SEE. A. BD 1. X:0 3 it became necessary to make rosaries for the purpose of countingnbsp;the prayers, a custom previously adopted by the Mahometans.

Hence each small ball of the rosary was from the beginning deliberately meant to represent a prayer, i. e. to be equipollent with 'a prayer�, and a prayer was deliberately meant tonbsp;be equipollent with 'a small ball of the rosary�. Hence beads innbsp;the expression to count (or to tell) one�s beads meant at first 'prayers�,nbsp;since rosaries were made for the purpose of counting them. Butnbsp;the word could soon also mean 'small balls of the rosary�, since thisnbsp;notion was meant to be equipollent with 'prayers� in this contextnbsp;(= Permutation). Later on, through Adequation, bead came tonbsp;denote 'a small ball in general� (Species pro Genere), and thereuponnbsp;'pearl� (Genus pro Specie), whereas the original sense, i. e. prayer,nbsp;had long ago faded out. We find, then, that in the present casenbsp;the equipollence of the notions to be exchanged was purposivelynbsp;brought about. But if so, we must admit that the semanticnbsp;change cannot be classed as gradual and unintentional. We mustnbsp;instead admit the existence of also Intentional Permutation.

A striking parallel to this intentional sense-change is presented by the Eng. subs, knot in sense of 'a nautical mile�. For the purposenbsp;of measuring the speed of ships knots were made in loglines, eachnbsp;knot being deliberately meant to represent a nautical mile. Hencenbsp;from the view-point of measuring the speed of ships 'knot� andnbsp;'nautical mile� became equipollent or synonymous notions, and hencenbsp;the word knot could be used to denote the latter notion, also, thoughnbsp;it was seemingly a disparate notion.

Another instance is Eng. quarter originally meaning 'a fourth part� but later also 'region, district, place, locality�. The latternbsp;meaning started from the sense 'one of the four points or divisionsnbsp;of the compass�, and hence it was deliberately meant to denote 'thenbsp;region laying about or under one of these four principal points ornbsp;divisions of the horizon�.

Still another example of creation of an equipollent or synonymous notion is Eng. bush, originally meaning 'a shrub, a bunch of ivy or something�. But when 'a bush of ivy� was hung up as a vintner�s sign or as the sign-board of a tavern, then the sign or the wordnbsp;for it was deliberately meant to signify a notion equipollent withnbsp;'a vintner�s shop� or with 'a tavern�, and hence it could adopt thesenbsp;senses, e. g. Twenty to one you find him at the bush (1625).

In these examples we are concerned with Intentional Permutation. Otherwise said, the word for an old thing-meant is deliberately used to be equipollent or synonymous with the sense of a new thing-meant and to be a name for it, if need be. Such a neednbsp;is present in the case of bead ('a ball of a rosary�), knot ('a nauticalnbsp;mile�), and quarter ('the region laying about or under one of the fournbsp;principal points or divisions of the horizon�). But as to bush, therenbsp;was no such need since the notions represented had names of theirnbsp;own. But if none the less the word was employed in sense of 'anbsp;tavern�, this was an Intentional Permutation. But in the othernbsp;cases mentioned the Permutation itself was probably an unintentionalnbsp;step. But none the less the sense-change should be classed as an intentional procedure since the equipollence of the notions was broughtnbsp;about intentionally. Hence there is no denying the fact that Intentional Permutation is a kind of Nomination and that it hence shouldnbsp;strictly be kept apart from unintentional Permutation. But the intentional nature of the sense-change in the four instances adducednbsp;above is nowhere pointed out by Stern. Yet it is true that theynbsp;illustrate the factual procedure when unintentional Permutation ofnbsp;Disparate Notions takes place. Let us now give some examplesnbsp;of the two types of unintentional Permutation that in our opinionnbsp;may (but need not) be distinguished.

This interesting type seems to be of fairly rare occurrence. But apperances are proverbially deceptive, and this is likely to benbsp;the case in the present instance, too. The majority of our examples are taken from Stern�s work but a few from our own experience, viz. road, OE faru, admire, orient(al), and Lat. pacare.

Let us begin with the category of substantives. Engl, road now signifies 'way prepared for foot-passengers, riders, and vehiclesnbsp;to travel on�, but its OE source rad meant 'a ride, riding, expedition,nbsp;journey�, seeing that the word is directly connected with OE ridan 'tonbsp;ride�. South of the Humber the stem-vowel of the word became gnbsp;in ME, but the modern sense of the word did not appear until thenbsp;16th century. But long before that this sense is likely to have existed,nbsp;but only as a sense alternating with the meaning 'a ride, riding�.nbsp;In medieval England riding was a common means of travelling.nbsp;Hence, in certain contexts such as The ride there was miserable, the

notions of 'ride� and 'road� were equipollent notions from the viewpoint of (uncomfortable) travelling, and hence road adopted the sense of 'way�, also, a meaning which later on became habitual and oustednbsp;the original sense altogether. Again, north of the Humber the stem-vowel of OE rad was retained in ME and so was its sense on thenbsp;whole. In NE times this form was adopted by Standard Englishnbsp;as a loan from the north but with Scotch spelling, viz. raid 'anbsp;military expedition on horseback�.

A similar semantic development took place in OE times in the case of OE. jam, which means not only 'a going, a journej^� butnbsp;also �way�. The point of view from which 'journey� and 'way� appeared as equipollent or synonymons notions was evidently the samenbsp;as in the former case.

The same word, i. e. OE jam, retained in ME its old sense of 'journey�. This meaning obtained as equipollent notion 'a passagenbsp;or excursion for which a price is paid�, 'cost of conveyance�. Thisnbsp;alternative sense is met with in the 16th century in contexts such asnbsp;Making the whole fare [= journey or cost of conveyance, passagenbsp;money] worth four shillings (1570�6). Later on the latter sensenbsp;became an independent meaning. The view-point from whichnbsp;'journey� is then looked upon is that of its cost.

Through external influence Eng. board came to mean also 'table used for meals�. In certain contexts there originated as a synonymous sense 'food served at table�, e. g. cumed to horde (1200), Heo Setennbsp;to horde (1275), where horde means 'table� but with 'meat or food�nbsp;as an equipollent alternative notion. The view-point is here thenbsp;purpose of the action of coming or sitting 'to horde�. The changenbsp;is completed in the phrase To pay for hord (1386), where 'bord� isnbsp;equivalent to 'food or meals�.

Another instance is afforded by Er. danger, whence Eng. danger. Its etymon is late Lat. *dominiarium (deriv. from dominium lordship,nbsp;sovereignty) denoting 'domination, power�. But this sense had innbsp;several contexts the sense 'liability or exposure to harm�, i. e. 'danger�, as equipollent notion. The view-point was then the risk ornbsp;consequence of being in somebody�s power. But outside such contexts the notions of 'power� and 'danger� must be regarded as disparate notions.

The Eng. subs, field 'open land, plain� also acquired the sense of 'battlefield�� in Old English. In certain contexts, such as to winnbsp;or to make the field, to get or to have the field, there arose in the 15th

century the sense of 'victory� as an alternative synonym, a sense subsequently independent, but now obsolete.

The word consideration means 'the taking into account of anything as a motive or reason�. In such sentences as IFe gave them coppers in consideration (sc. of services, 1624) there arose as a synonym the sense 'payment, reward, remuneration�, and this equipollentnbsp;notion became an independent sense.

Let us take a couple of English verbs as examples of Permutation of Disparate Notions. In Peter Simple (ch. 16), one of Captain Marryat�s novels, we come across the following dialoguenbsp;between the captain of the ship and Peter Simple, midshipman; �nbsp;�Mr. Simple, what are you about, sir? I was listening to what younbsp;said, replied I, touching my hat. I admire your candour, sir, repliednbsp;he, but advise you to discontinue the practise.� It is obvious thatnbsp;in this setting admire has the sense 'to hold in the highest esteem�nbsp;but that it also has an alternative synonymous sense, viz. 'to approvenbsp;of� or 'to like�. But in spite of this semantic duplicity, the sense 'tonbsp;like� has never become an independent meaning in British English.^)nbsp;But this sense is of frequent occurrence in the North American variety, e. g. 1835 I should admire to bet some gentleman | 10 on the bay.nbsp;Mod. I should not admire to see the president.'^)

The earlier meaning of the verb want was 'to be in want of, to be without�. In several contexts there arose as an alternativenbsp;synonym the sense 'to stand in need of, to require�. This sense, becoming habitual, got in its turn the sense 'to desire� as an alternative synonym in certain contexts, such as the following Scotch sentence: Deyr cusyng, pray I thee, Quhen thow wantts gud, com fechnbsp;yneuch fra me (1470). In the lapse of time this sense became a newnbsp;meaning of the word alongside of its earlier meanings.

The Lat. verb pacare (f. pax, pacem peace) means 'to appease, to pacify, to reduce to peace�. The sense 'to pacify�, applied specifically to 'pacifying or satisfying a creditor�, came in Commonnbsp;Romanic to mean 'to pay a creditor� (= Permutation) and so 'tonbsp;pay� in general (Species pro Genere). In some of the Romanic langs,nbsp;the vb. has still both senses, but in Er. payer, whence Eng. pay, thenbsp;sense 'satisfy, please� is now obsolete (See N. E. D. s. v. pay).

It is most probable that Capt. Marryat knew of the American usage, but he certainly did not adopt it here since Americanisms are denounced by him as debasednbsp;English (see his work A Diary in America, 1839).

There are also adjectives that may illustrate the present category. An instance in point is ME, NE orient, or oriental. Whennbsp;the words were used of pearls and precious stones of superior valuenbsp;and brilliancy, as coming anciently from the East, they becamenbsp;synonymous with the meaning 'precious, excellent� or 'brilliant,nbsp;lustrous, sparkling�. Thereupon these senses became habitual sonbsp;that it was possible to say: These Pearls, though not altogether sonbsp;orient as they in India (1611).

It is justly maintained^) that the Germ. adj. leer 'empty� is directly related to the Germ, verb lesen 'to glean, etc.� and that itnbsp;genetically is an adjective of possibility used of a corn-field alreadynbsp;reaped but still having ears of corn left by the reapers, i. e. thingsnbsp;that admit of being gleaned, a quality transferred to the corn-field.nbsp;But if so, the sense 'empty� was originally in certain contexts a synonym for 'gleanable�.

In conclusion, it may be mentioned that, through Permutation, participles and substantives may be turned into conjunctions, e. g.nbsp;Eng. seeing {that), while. Germ, wahrend, weil.

If we stick to the definition of correlative notions given by logic, a definition implying that they are such notions as presupposenbsp;the existence of each other, then it is legitimate to count as correlative relations several types other than those mentioned by W'undt.nbsp;Also these relations afford examples of unintentional Permutation,nbsp;sometimes to a large extent. There is no difference between thenbsp;present subclass and Permutation of Disparate Notions as far asnbsp;the procedure is concerned, and hence it is of no consequence thatnbsp;their hnes of demarcations may sometimes be debatable. In ournbsp;opinion it is even permissible to assume that, in point of Permutation of Disparate Notions, equipollence presupposes correlative relation between the notions, but only in such contexts as give rise tonbsp;Permutation. On the other hand, it is a matter of course thatnbsp;ordinarily correlative notions should still appear as being equipollentnbsp;notions when they occur in contexts which give rise to Permutation.nbsp;But there are types of correlative relation which literally invite tonbsp;Permutation of their notions inasmuch as these occur in numerousnbsp;contexts which favour the origination of a synonymous sense. Let

US from Stern�s work adduce those correlative relations as appear to yield instances of unintentional Permutation.

(1) A Noun of Action is used for its Resultnbsp;or Product: � Thus, lending 'an act of lending� may alsonbsp;be used to denote 'something lent�, and leading 'an act of leading�nbsp;may also mean 'that which is led�. Furthermore, ashing 'an act ofnbsp;asking� may be used of 'that asked for�, saying 'an act of utterance�nbsp;may stand for 'what is said� and hence mean 'common remark ornbsp;maxim�, and lifting may represent 'the thing lifted�, and so on.

(2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;A Noun of Action is used for its Agent:nbsp;� Help 'the action of helping� may be used of 'any thing or personnbsp;that affords help�; failure 'the fact of failing to effect one�s purpose� may stand for 'a thing or person that proves unsuccessful�.

(3) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Function or Mental State is used fornbsp;Thing or Person causing it: � Here belongs care 'thenbsp;function of having oversight with a view to protection and guidance�, 'anxiety or occasion for it�, a sense that may be exchanged fornbsp;the meaning 'an object or matter of care, concern, or solicitude�.nbsp;Concern in the sense of 'interest, solicitude, anxiety� may stand for 'anbsp;matter that concerns�, delight 'the fact or condition of being delighted�nbsp;may be used to denote 'any thing in which one takes delight�, ornbsp;'anything which gives delight�; and desire 'the fact or condition ofnbsp;desiring� may imply 'an object of desire�. Similarly the subs, hatenbsp;may denote 'the object of hatred�, pride may mean 'that of whichnbsp;anyone is proud�, and trouble may signify 'a thing or person thatnbsp;gives trouble�.

At the end of his exposition of the semantic change called Permutation Stern takes a general view of such relations between one thing-meant and another thing-meant as may in his opinion illustratenbsp;this type of sense-change. He says (p. 361) that no one has beforenbsp;him attempted to ascertain the extent of Permutation and itsnbsp;connection with and difference from other types. He tries to disarmnbsp;criticism by admitting in advance that some of the shifts exemplifiednbsp;may have been effected intentionally, or through Shortening, ornbsp;through Analogy, and that some of his explanations are madenbsp;tentatively only. And he points out that when the sense-changenbsp;seems to be mediated through expressions of double meaning fromnbsp;the period when the new sense emerges, it is probable, or at leastnbsp;possible, that the new sense is due to Permutation. But the latter

fact is not an absolute criterion since equivocal instances appear elsewhere, too, for instance in cases of Adequation.

The survey given is in itself a creditable task. For we are here confronted with cases of semantic change whose nature has nevernbsp;been brought out clearly but whose paramount importance for semantic research nobody can deny. Hence it is that we cannotnbsp;disregard Stern�s account but must state our own opinion for whatnbsp;it is worth as to the classification of these cases. Some of themnbsp;have already been adduced by us as true specimens of Permutation,nbsp;but in some of the following cases we hold a view different fromnbsp;that advocated by Stern.

(1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Let us remark, to begin with, that the exchange of thenbsp;name of A Building for its Purpose may appear to benbsp;a specimen of Adequation, e. g. church, chapel, college, school, andnbsp;others. For church meant originally and may still mean 'a buildingnbsp;for the purpose of performing divine service or religious acts in it�,nbsp;and the purposive factor is clearly prominent since it is an indispensable notional element. In other words, 'divine service� wasnbsp;from the beginning a cognitive element of the notion of 'church�,nbsp;though the idea of the building itself was the predominant element.nbsp;But if so, the sense-change only implies that attention was shifted fromnbsp;the building and concentrated on its purpose so as to make it thenbsp;predominant notional element of the thing-meant. But this isnbsp;exactly what is characteristic of Adequation due to a new apprehension of an old thing-meant. Of course the sense-change wasnbsp;favoured by certain contexts, e. g. to go to church, to be in church,nbsp;and disfavoured by other situations, e. g. to look at the church, to benbsp;in the church. In English the sense-change is manifested also in thenbsp;absence of the definite article. But, on the other hand, there is nonbsp;denying the fact that the building and its purpose are correlativenbsp;notions and that they at the same time appear as equipollent notionsnbsp;Hence the use of the sense denoting the purpose should be classednbsp;as Permutation. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 373.

(2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The same interpretation applies when An Organ madenbsp;by Nature is used for its Purpose or Functionnbsp;since the latter qualities constitute cognitive elements clearly distinguishable in their notions. Examples of this sense-change are tonbsp;hand when ear is employed in sing, or plur. for 'the sense of hearing�,nbsp;or when eye is used in sing, or plur. for 'the action or the function ofnbsp;the eyes� or for 'the sense of seeing�, or when nose is used for 'the

sense of smell�, or when 'palate is popularly employed for 'the sense of taste�. Also in this case we are concerned with examples of Per-'\nbsp;mutation. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 366.

(3) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The same interpretation is also applicable when A Namenbsp;of a Place or Locality is used for its Inhabitants or Frequenters, seeing that the former things werenbsp;created or used for the purpose of giving accommodation to the latternbsp;beings or of housing them. Hence these beings constituted a subsidiary, but distinguishable and indispensable cognitive element of thenbsp;notions denoting a place or locality, and hence we are faced withnbsp;correlative notions that at the same time are equipollent notions.nbsp;But If so, the sense-change is due to Permutation. Examples ofnbsp;this sense-change are presented by the city when used of its inhabitants, by the whole house when employed of those that dwell in it,nbsp;and by the gallery, the pit, the boxes when referring to those sittingnbsp;there during a performance. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 374 f.

(4) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The same interpretation may also be made when Anbsp;Receptacle is used for its Content. For thenbsp;receptacle was obviously made for the purpose of containingnbsp;something, and hence the idea of the receptacle also embraced thenbsp;notion of a content, though of an indefinite nature, as a subsidiarynbsp;cognitive element of some prominence. When the receptacle camenbsp;to denote its content, the nature of the latter was determinednbsp;by the general applicability of the former, but above all by thenbsp;context. In this case, too, we seem to be concerned with correlative notions that at the same time are equipollent notions.nbsp;As examples: A barrel may also denote 'the quantity of waternbsp;contained in a barrel�, and a tub is often used of 'the contents of anbsp;tub� or 'the water for bathing�. A box may be 'the money containednbsp;in a box�, and a sack may denote 'the contents of a sack� or 'thenbsp;amount usually contained in a sack�. A wardroke originally denotednbsp;'a room in which wearing apparel was kept�, but later on it meantnbsp;'a person�s stock of wearing apparel�. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 363.

It seems to be evident, then, that in the four groups of instances adduced above we are concerned, not with Adequations, but withnbsp;Permutations, as is maintained by Stern. For it should be notednbsp;that we are faced with four groups of things made by man ornbsp;nature for the purpose of filling a particular function. Hence everynbsp;word of the groups contains two outstanding notional elements,nbsp;viz. that of a material instrument and that of the performance of

a function. Neither of these elements can be eliminated through unintentional Adequation. But they admit instead of being understood as equipollent notions, and hence they may be exchangednbsp;for each other by Permutation.

(5) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There are instances where A Noun of Action isnbsp;used of the Plaee of Action. In this case, too. Sternnbsp;justly maintains that we are concerned with nnintentional Permutation, and hence it is that we have already adduced NE. roadnbsp;and OE. faru as affording true specimens of Permutation of Disparatenbsp;Notions. As an illustrative example Stern gives crossing whennbsp;used of 'a place of crossing�, but in this case the sense-change maynbsp;be due to shortening of the expression 'a crossing of roads (streets)�.nbsp;Stern points out that the present type is very common and very old,nbsp;and he gives as further examples Lat. accessus denoting 'the actionnbsp;of entering� but also 'the place of entrance�, and Lat. exitus andnbsp;aditus, which present an equivalent sense-development. Let us alsonbsp;mention OE utgang 'going out, departure� and 'exit�, and OE. ingangnbsp;'ingress� and 'entrance�, and let us not forget Swed. gang in sense ofnbsp;'a path� a'nd Eng. walk in sense of 'a place or track meant or fitnbsp;for walking�. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 372.

(6) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;It is no rare phenomenon that The Originator isnbsp;used of the Product of his Hands or Brain. Wenbsp;are then faced with a correlative relation between an old thing-meant and a new one, between a cause and its effect. As illustrativenbsp;examples are adduced the cases when a Milton, a Shakespeare arenbsp;used in sense of 'a book by M.�, 'a play by Sh.�, and when a Rembrandt or a Romney is employed to denote 'a picture painted by Re.nbsp;or Ro. It is obvious that these modes of expression were adoptednbsp;intentionally and that they consequently are acts of Nomination.nbsp;They may perhaps be called Intentional Permutations, but theynbsp;appear to be specimens of a type of brachylogy whosenbsp;causa movens is conciseness of speech. It is suggested by Sternnbsp;that the incentive to the expression was given by the fact that thenbsp;name of the originator appeared on the eover or the title-page ofnbsp;his work, or was signed on his picture, and that hence the usage constitutes a parallel to the case when wines are intentionally callednbsp;by their labels, e. g. Beaune, Cliquot, Johannisberger. But his suggestion is not a likely one. The incentive was rather a desire fornbsp;conciseness in expression. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 373.

(7) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There are also the cases to be noted when The Geographical Origin is used as the Name of a Product,nbsp;e. g. NE nankeen 'a yellowish-buff cotton cloth� from Nankin innbsp;China, or ME tars '�a rich cloth� from Tharsia, a country adjoiningnbsp;Cathay (= arch, and poet, name for China). The interpretationnbsp;is doubtless different in different cases. We have to take elhpsis,nbsp;perhaps also Permutation into consideration. Misapprehension isnbsp;advocated by C. J. Efvergren in the case of tars}) He points outnbsp;that in such expressions as a cloth of tars and tapytez of tars (Gaw.

amp; Gr. Knt. 858) of may indicate the place of origin but also the material out of which something is made. But we beheve beforehand that in many or most cases we should adopt the interpretationnbsp;that here, too, we are confronted with acts of intentional naming ^nbsp;and with a type of brachylogy whose incentive is conciseness innbsp;expression.

(8) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;It is a common phenomenon that A Concomitantnbsp;implying a Concrete Thing is used to denotenbsp;a Person possessive of this Thing. Here belongnbsp;bahuwrihi-compounds � a Sanscrit word used of a rice-field andnbsp;denoting possessive of or yielding �much rice� �, such as Eng. blue-coat, red-coat, coxcomb, red-hat, Swed. bldjacka �a sailor�, (Erik) Va-derhatt �possessive of a hat bringing favourable weather�. Thenbsp;principle of expression is not changed if we are confronted withnbsp;articles of equipment and simple words, such as a standard �a standard-bearer� and helms �soldiers with a helm�. Stern points out that innbsp;the 16th century there are instances such as bow, corslet, drum, fife,nbsp;bag-pipe, ensign, and others, all denoting persons using a bow, corslet,nbsp;drum, etc. There is no denying the fact that in aU these instancesnbsp;we are concerned, not with Intentional Permutation, but with intentional Naming whose causa movens was a desire for a brachylogicalnbsp;expression or styhstic effect. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 367 f.

It ought not to make any difference as to apprehension if the concomitant be a quality, i. e. an abstract thing. Thus a woman may be called a beauty, and if so, we are assuredly concerned,nbsp;not with Intentional Permutation, but instead with an instance ofnbsp;intentional Naming brought about by a desire for brachylogy. Therefore, if OE seogu^ � whence Eng. �youth�, earlier *juyunp, whence alsonbsp;Ger. Jugend � meant not only �the quality of being young� but also

Cp. C. J. Efvergren Names of Places in a Transferred Sense in English, Lund 1909, p. 42 sqq.

104 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 quot;^young people�, '�or young warriors� (as opposed to OE du^u^), thenbsp;concrete sense should be understood to mean orig. 'individuals possessive of youth�, and hence it should be considered as an examplenbsp;of intentional Naming and as an instance of intentional brachylogy.nbsp;The same is true of OE. ieldu � earlier * aid in �which denotes '�oldnbsp;age� but also 'old people�. Stern makes the following allegationnbsp;(p. 372): )gt;Analogy with foreign patterns may be suspected in somenbsp;cases, since tbe �collective� type is old and international. Cf. Latinnbsp;juventus, E. jeuness, Germ. Jugend, E. youth.� But when he refersnbsp;to youth and Jugend, this is sheer nonsense, as is also intimated by OEnbsp;dusuf � earlier *duyunp (f. dugan to be worth, be capable of), whencenbsp;Ger. Tugend �, a word that means 'excellence, strength, valour,nbsp;glory� but also 'full-grown warriors, body of noble retainers�. � Asnbsp;another illustration of a quality expressing a concrete notion may benbsp;taken length in sense of 'a long stretch or extent�. Cp. Stern, op.nbsp;cit. 372.

(9) We have also to consider the cases when The Material is used to denote the Object made from it. An OE example is isen 'iron� when it also means 'iron articles�, e. g.nbsp;'a sword�. Later examples are Eng. brass when denoting 'a sepulchralnbsp;tablet of brass� or 'a musical instrument of brass�, perhaps evennbsp;when meaning 'brass or copper money�; further lead when denotingnbsp;'a bob or lump of lead suspended by a string to ascertain the depthnbsp;of water�; perhaps also copper in sense of 'copper money�. Herenbsp;belong also such words as mahogany in sense of 'a table, esp. a dinner-table�; sacking in sense of 'a piece of sacking�, i. e. a material usednbsp;in making sacks; sackcloth in sense of 'garments of sackcloth�, i. e.nbsp;coarse stuff such as sacks are made of.

We admit that brass and copper in sense of 'brass or copper money� may, but need not absolutely, be explained as intentionalnbsp;Shortenings (= Ellipses). But we cannot agree with Stern that innbsp;several instances Permutation is a possible explanation. For firstly,nbsp;we are faced with an intentional use of the words, a fact that precludes ordinary Permutation; secondly. Stern has not adduced anynbsp;phrases of double meaning; and thirdly, the existence of such equivocalnbsp;phrases is no infallible criterion of Permutation. To our mind we arenbsp;instead concerned with acts of intentional naming of a thing-meantnbsp;but in a manner that aims at brachylogy, i. e. conciseness of speech,nbsp;in order to save energy, or else for stylistic reasons. It should benbsp;observed that in another place Stern himself classes the use of Ma-

terial for Object as a Metaphor, e. g. steel in sense of quot;^a weapon of steel�.

(10) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Let us consider the case when A Constituent Detail or Part is used for the Whole. This type isnbsp;illustrated by hand in sense of 'a person who does something, esp.nbsp;with his hands�, 'a manual worker in factory, etc.�, and blade in sensenbsp;of 'sword� as being the essential part of the weapon. Another instance is Pr. bureau when denoting 'a writing-table�, but it originallynbsp;meant 'the piece of cloth covering the top of the table�. The obviousnbsp;fact that we are here faced with an intentional sense-change cannotnbsp;have been hidden from Stern. Hence he must mean that we arenbsp;here concerned with Intentional Permutation. But it is impossiblenbsp;to share this view, seeing that we are here faced with the phenomenon also called Pars pro Toto. Otherwise said, we havenbsp;to do with the same thing-meant but with our attention focussednbsp;on a cognitive element different from those ordinarily predominant.nbsp;But if so, we should instead say that we are in the presence of anbsp;type of Intentional Adequation. Cp. Stern, op. cit. 364.

As to instances of Totum pro Parte Stern says that they are doubtful and that they are more often Adequations. Butnbsp;none the less he seems to hold the view that examples in point arenbsp;presented by the names of trees or plants when �used to denote thenbsp;wood or the leaves or other parts of them�. As examples: �Do J/er tonbsp;sage and persely soyng (1420: the leaves of sage and parsley). Smal-coale ... is made of Sallow, Willow, Alder, Hasell, and the like (1646:nbsp;the wood of these trees). In the latter example the trees mentionednbsp;are deliberately considered from the view-point of their physicalnbsp;substance, which ordinarily forms a subsidiary element presented bynbsp;a sallow, a willow, etc. Hence we are evidently faced with a type ofnbsp;Intentional Adequation. This implies that the origin of the sensenbsp;of 'wood� in point of trees must be an intentional affair and no sensenbsp;gradually cropping up. When in the former example sage andnbsp;parsley are mentioned, reference is made, not to their leaves or othernbsp;parts, but to their physical substance. Hence we are not confrontednbsp;with specimens of Totum pro Parte. Nor are we faced with Permutation. We are instead concerned with Intentional Adequation.nbsp;Cp. Stern 364.

(11) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;We have also to state that there are cases where A Concrete Substantive is used to denote an Adjec^-tival Quality. This quality is then inherent in the notion of

the substantive. Stern points out that, according to Wundt, it is a general rule that perceptions are named from exterior objects ornbsp;states connected with them, and that this is due to the fact that nonbsp;perceptions are independent of such objects or states, and that hencenbsp;most modern colour names are the names of objects or materials:nbsp;orange, terracotta, indigo. Very well! But all this does not imply thatnbsp;we are here confronted with Permutations, be it of the intentionalnbsp;sort or not. In the present case we may truly maintain that we arenbsp;faced with instances of Totum pro Parte. But at bottomnbsp;we are in the presence of a type of Intentional Adequation. Fornbsp;attention is obviously meant to be at once shifted from the dominantnbsp;notional elements characteristic of the substantive in order to benbsp;focussed on a subsidiary adjectival element of the notion.

We have accomplished our critical review of the categories of semantic change distinguished by Stern. We do not deny the justification of establishing these categories, but in point of the classes of unintentional sense-change it has mostly been necessary to drawnbsp;their lines of demarcation more clearly so as to make them betternbsp;suited for being means of genetic interpretation. As to the classesnbsp;of intentional sense-changes, there are only two main categoriesnbsp;distinguished by Stern, to wit. Shortening and Nomination. He admits that the rhetorical categories called Synecdoche and Metonymy,nbsp;which are generally intentional phenomena, are by him distributednbsp;on the other classes, but the reader gets no specified information onnbsp;that point. It is evident that there is many a gap in his treatmentnbsp;of intentional sense-changes. To make a distinction between intentional und unintentional sense-changes is certainly a profitable step.nbsp;It should not be objected that sometimes it is difficult to make suchnbsp;a distinction, for the very statement of this difficulty in individualnbsp;cases is in itself a piece of information not destitute of interest. Ofnbsp;course it cannot be our duty to grapple here with a systematizationnbsp;of the intentional sense-changes, the less so as it is not required bynbsp;our own material. But we have seen that there are such categoriesnbsp;as Intentional Adequation, Intentional Permutation, and Intentionalnbsp;Brachylogy (for want of a better term) which are disregarded bynbsp;Stern�s classification. But what we particularly want to point outnbsp;is the existence of two groups of sense-changes which Stern classifies as Adequation but which may aptly be described as Semanticnbsp;Addition by Implication. There are instances in our material whose

explanation is obviously concerned with one of these groups. This fact goes to show the importance of confronting reality with thenbsp;sense-changes distinguished by semantics or vice versa. Let usnbsp;discuss this type of sense-change. It can probably, like Adequationnbsp;and Permutation, be said to belong to the general category of sense-changes due to a change of the Speaker�s and the Listener�s Apprehension of the thing-meant. For we are here faced with the Addition of a new thing-meant to an old thing-meant but put in a particular relation to it. Hence it may be permissible also to say that annbsp;old thing-meant has been apprehended in a new way by being viewednbsp;in its relation to another thing-meant. Otherwise we must establishnbsp;a fourth general category of semantic change.

The characteristic feature of this category consists in adding to the sense of a word when employed to denote a thing-meant anothernbsp;sense denoting another thing-meant but expressed by implicationnbsp;only, not in words.

We have previously seen that Semantic Addition by Implication may occur in point of sentences. Hence it is likely that we should sometimes meet with the same phenomenon when we havenbsp;to do with individual words. There is at least one type of suchnbsp;an Addition that should be looked upon as a true instance in point.nbsp;But there is also another group of examples that may be understoodnbsp;as illustrating Semantic Addition by Implication. But it is verynbsp;div�rgent from the former type, and, in distinction to it, it isnbsp;generally followed by another type of semantic change. Let usnbsp;discuss these two subclasses.

If we coin sentences such as He is a lion. He is a bride, then we are concerned with predications of co-ordination meaning He isnbsp;like a lion. He is like a brick. They involve that the listener is exhorted to leave all other quahties of the predicative substantivesnbsp;out of consideration and concentrate attention on the quahty thenbsp;speaker has in view, viz. courage and straight lines. Both from thenbsp;speaker�s and the listener�s view-point we may be said to be facednbsp;with Intentional Adequation. The listener has no feeling of in-

completeness in the linguistic expression, but he must feel that he is in the presence of a type of Brachylogy since the sentences meannbsp;He is like a lion in courage, like a brick in strait lines.

Let us now say with Hamlet: He was a man, take him for all in all, or let us take the following lines in Goethe�s Tasso: Wennnbsp;ich nicht sinnen oder dichten soil. So ist das Leben mir kein L eb ennbsp;mehr. In these two instances we are no longer concerned withnbsp;sentences of co-ordination but with sentences of subsumption or ofnbsp;qualification denoting: He was a true man. My life is not true {genuine) life. The adjectival attribute True� or ��genuine� has not beennbsp;expressed by a particular word. We are, according to Stern andnbsp;others, faced with a Pregnant use of the words man and Leben.nbsp;But this means at bottom an exhortation to the listener to concentrate his attention on those notional elements of the words thatnbsp;are essential characteristics, leaving aside all subsidiary elements,nbsp;which may disturb the clearness of the essence of their meaning.nbsp;It is obvious that the origination of this, as it were, refined or sublimated sense is due to Intentional Adequation, and that we consequentlynbsp;need not assume the existence of a linguistic omission or an Additionnbsp;by Implication. It is in this sense we should take the expressionnbsp;��pregnancy� or 'pregnant use�. Let us point out in passing that innbsp;the line from Tasso pregnancy has given rise to the rhetorical figurenbsp;called oxymoron, i. e. an expression which in its superficial ornbsp;literal meaning is self-contradictory but which at bottom is notnbsp;absurd. Other examples of pregnancy are: That is not cricket.nbsp;That is I i f e.

Let us now consider the exclamation What a li f e! It is obvious that in this case life is not at all taken in its pregnant or refined sense. On the contrary, it is taken in its ordinary meaning, but it is qualified by an adjectival attribute meant by implication.nbsp;For in the present case the sense not expressed in words is not 'truenbsp;or 'genuine�. The expression means either What a glorious life!,nbsp;or the like, or else What a miserable life!, or the like, according as is required by context and situation. We are here concerned with an intentional omission of an adjective made for stylistic purposes but added by implication. For the absence of anbsp;qualifyer in these cases has greater effect, because of its appealnbsp;to the listener�s imagination. But, as already intimated, the generalnbsp;tenor of the adjectival qualifyer that is meant by implication isnbsp;suggested by context and situation.

From what precedes it is evident that there is a distinct difference between the pregnant use of a substantive and the stylistic omission of an adjective and that only the latter cases are truenbsp;examples of Semantic Addition by Implication. But the semanticnbsp;situation in all these examples is grossly misunderstood by Sternnbsp;when he declares (op. cit. p. 408 f.) that in the expressions Whatnbsp;a life!, to call a 'person names we are faced with a pregnantnbsp;use of life and names, or that in the sentence from Hamlet man isnbsp;an instance of unintentional (!) Adequation, or that he sees no semantic and genetic difference between man and the former type.

Let us adduce some English instances of the type of sense-change we have called The Adjectival Type of Semantic Addition by Implication.

It is obvious that there is a difference between What a life! and to call a person names inasmuch as in the latter case, butnbsp;not in the former instance, the tenor of the adjective omitted hasnbsp;been restricted so as to always imply a pejorative sense such asnbsp;'bad�, 'opprobrious�, 'bitter�, etc. This semantic tenor was obviously chosen from the beginning. But none the less there is roomnbsp;left for the listener to make his choice from among various semanticnbsp;possibilities. This fact keeps alive the feeling of an omission andnbsp;hence also the stylistic force of the latter. This use of names,nbsp;recorded from the end of the 17th century, hardly ever occursnbsp;outside its original linguistic setting.

A parallel instance affords the expression to use language in sense to use bad, coarse, or vulgar language.^)

If we turn to the Eng. expressions of famil'y and of no family in sentences such as He is of family, of no family, it is obviousnbsp;that family is qualified by a eulogistic epithet such as 'noble, gentle,nbsp;distinguished�, or the like, and that this omission is still a livingnbsp;reality to the listener. The earliest instance of this case ofnbsp;omission is from the 2nd half of the 18th century.

There is certainly nothing omitted in such phrases as to heep or to lose one�s temper, to be out of temper, as is supposed by G. Kr�-ger (op. cit. p. 108), since here temper means 'mental balance ornbsp;composure, equanimity, calmness�. But things are different whennbsp;we are faced with the following sentence: � 1828 Webster, Temper',nbsp;The boy showed a great deal of temper when I reproved him. In

*) Cp. G. Kriiger Die A-uslasawng oder Ellipse, in Herrig�s Archiv, vol. CVIII (1902) p. 108.

this instance we may be concerned with a Shortening of the compound ill-temper. But if we take temper to stand for 'bad, violent, etc. temper�, then we are confronted with a specimen of the Adjectival Type of Semantic Addition by Implication.

Lastly, let us point out that the present type of the Semantic Addition by Implication is always intentionally brought about bynbsp;the speaker.

b. The Purposive and the R e s ult a t i v e Glass of Semantic Addition by Implication.

In the present case the Semantic Addition by Implication represents the purpose or the result of the activity expressed by the vecb that gets the addition. It should be observed that there arenbsp;examples where this Semantic Addition has been brought aboutnbsp;intentionally. Let us illustrate this case by some instances.

In English the expression to walk over originally and literally meant 'to go over (a course) at a walking pace�. But in sportingnbsp;parlance it is deliberately used to denote by implication a Purposive Addition, also, so as to get the sense 'to go over (the course)nbsp;at a walking pace in order to be accounted the winner of a racenbsp;where there is no competition� (said of a horse). From this semanticnbsp;starting-point further sense-development took place, but this timenbsp;unintentionally. Proximately there arose the sense 'to win a racenbsp;where there is no competition�. In Stern�s opinion this change wasnbsp;due to Adequation, i. e. to shifting the attention from the originalnbsp;sense to the Purposive Addition. This explanation may seem acceptable, but on closer consideration it should be abandoned.^) Letnbsp;it be noted that the relation between an activity and its purposenbsp;may be conceived of as a case of interdependence, just as the relation between cause and effect should be conceived of in this way.nbsp;Nobody denies the correlative nature of the latter relation. Butnbsp;the former relation may be apprehended in the same way, thoughnbsp;in this case the correlation appears to be less pronounced, whichnbsp;is equivalent to saying that the relation is not very intimate. Anyhow, to unsophisticated linguistic instinct the old sense and thenbsp;Purposive Addition obviously appeared as equipollent notions from

In his essay Notes on the Vocabulary of Layamon's Brul in A Philological Miscellany presented to Eilert Ehwall (= Studia Neophilologica XIV Nos. 1�3 pp. 296, 297) the present writer classed an equivalent sense-change as due to Adequation.nbsp;But this view was immaterial to the etymological question dealt with.

K. F. SUND�ISr, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OP GERMANIC VERBS 111 the view-point of interdependence. But if so, the sense-changenbsp;under consideration should be classed as Permutation, though it benbsp;likely that at first the old sense remained as a subsidiary elementnbsp;before it was ousted altogether. This is, in our opinion, the bestnbsp;explanation of the sense 'to be accounted the winner of a racenbsp;without competition�. But it was through Adequation that laternbsp;on this sense was generalized so as to mean 'to win a race ornbsp;other contest with little or no effort�.

Another example affordsLat. cancelldre (formed fromLat. cancellus, cancelli cross-bars, lattice). The verb originally meant 'to inclose innbsp;lattice-work or rails�, 'to make lattice-work�. But later on whennbsp;used in point of writing, it unavoidably obtained a Semantic Addition by Implication denoting the purpose of the action so as to givenbsp;rise to the sense 'to make lattice-work in order to deface or obliteratenbsp;writing�. But since the old sense and the Purposive Addition, i. e.nbsp;'to cross out, to annul�, were equipollent notions from the viewpoint of interdependence. Permutation took place so that the Purposive Addition, as being the more important notion, replaced thenbsp;earlier notion, which, receding into the background, became a subsidiary notion before it faded out. Hence the Eng. verb to cancel,nbsp;adopted via French canceller from Latin, has the meaning 'to defacenbsp;or obliterate (writing) by drawing lines across it lattice-wise�; 'tonbsp;cross out, to annul�. The latter sense is due to Adequation (Speciesnbsp;pro Genere).

But the addition of the purposive notion, which may supplant the earlier sense, is ordinarily not made intentionally. The incentive to adding tacitly the purpose to the sense denoting annbsp;activity is ordinarily given by the situation and the context. Tonbsp;our mind it is necessary to postulate a Purposive Addition ablenbsp;to form the basis of a Permutation where the purpose of the activitynbsp;has replaced the activity itself, seeing that the two notions arenbsp;not otherwise likely to come into contact in our minds for want ofnbsp;close associative bonds. Besides, there are cases where this Additionnbsp;is met with as a hving reality, even since Permutation has takennbsp;place (cp. to cancel and to sniff).

Let it be borne in mind that it is no rare phenomenon in semantic change that an activity has been exchanged for the notion denotingnbsp;its purpose. The Eng. verb to soothe signifies 'to humour or calmnbsp;a person�. But its source, OE s��ian (formed on soj) a. true), denotednbsp;'to prove true, to bear witness to the truth of (something)�. It is

112 K. VET. O. VITTBEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SEB. A. BD 1. N:0 3 obvious that the modern sense is the result of a Permutation wherenbsp;the Purposive Addition has replaced the OE sense, and that thenbsp;intermediary stage was the sense 'to bear witness to the truth of anbsp;person�s words in order to humour and calm him�. It is also evidentnbsp;that the Purposive Addition by Implication and the earlier sensenbsp;constitute equipollent notions in this combination.

Let us take the Eng. verb to sniff, which is of imitative origin and originally meant 'to draw in air through the nose with shortnbsp;or sharp audible inhalations� (14th c.). This activity is ordinarilynbsp;performed for the purpose of smelling, and hence it is likely that anbsp;Permutation should take place without the intermediate stage 'to sniffnbsp;in order to smell�. But in spite of the fact that 'sniffing� and 'smelling� very often became equipollent notions, a Permutation of themnbsp;is not recorded until the end of the 18th c., when we meet with thenbsp;sense 'to smell with a sniff or sniffs� (1788). But the purpose ofnbsp;sniffing may also be the desire to give vent to a feehng. Hence wenbsp;meet with the sense 'to sniff in order to show or express contempt,nbsp;disdain, disparagement, incredulity, or similar feeling�. This sense,nbsp;given by the N. E. D., clearly illustrates our view that a Purposivenbsp;Addition by Implication may appear in combination with the originalnbsp;sense. But also in this case the purposive notion appeared as equipollent with the old sense of the verb and hence able to supplantnbsp;it so as to give rise to the meaning 'to show or express disdain,nbsp;disparagement, etc. by sniffing� (= Permutation). Later on Adequation set in, ehminating 'by sniffing�, and the meaning becamenbsp;'to regard with disdain or contempt�, e. g. 1837 Carlyle Fr. Rev.nbsp;Thus some, with upturned nose, will altogether sjiiff and disdainnbsp;Sanscullotism.

There are also examples presented by our own material. Thus, in Swiss German there is a verb ernodere^ only denoting 'durch-st�bern� and 'erlesen�. To everybody it is obvious beyond disputenbsp;that the former sense has given rise to the latter meaning. But innbsp;what manner did it do so? In the dialect of Schleswig-Holsteinnbsp;there is a verb niischen II (formed from the extended base nus-k-)nbsp;only denoting 'herumkramen (= herumw�hlen)� and 'beim Essennbsp;die besten Bissen heraussuchen�. In this case, too, it is as clear asnbsp;noonday that the former sense has brought the latter meaning intonbsp;existence. But how was that possible? It was for the sake of thisnbsp;question that we were forced to establish the Purposive Type ofnbsp;Semantic Addition by Implication. It is evident that in the two

examples we are concerned with former Purposive Additions by Implication and that, from the view-point of interdependence,nbsp;the latter constituted notions equipollent with the original senses,nbsp;the semantic basis being in one case 'durchst�bern um zu erlesen�,nbsp;and in the other case 'herumkramen um beim Essen die bestennbsp;Bissen herauszusuchen�.

Another type of interdependence is the relation between cause and effect. Hence the question arises whether the effect (= result)nbsp;of an activity, i. e. a new sense, may by implication be added tonbsp;its cause, i. e. the old sense, and thereupon replace it by Permutation. The parallelism with the purposive type of interdependencenbsp;is too evident to permit of an answer in the negative. For alsonbsp;the old sense and the new one are equipollent notions from thenbsp;view-point of interdependence, and hence Permutation may takenbsp;place. But it should be noted that in the present case the correlativenbsp;relation between the two notions are ordinarily a bit closer thannbsp;in the former case, i. e. the semantic bond between them is as a rulenbsp;stronger. Sometimes this associative bond is so strong that there is nonbsp;need of a Semantic Addition as an intermediary for a Permutationnbsp;to take place. This is for instance the case with the senses 'to catch�nbsp;and 'to get or come into possession of� and with the senses 'to use ornbsp;employ� and 'to waste or damage (a material) gradually by use or attrition�. Let it be noted that in these instances the effects constantlynbsp;appear when conditioned by these causes. As illustrative examples:

� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The historical source of the Swed. verb fd 'to get or acquire� isnbsp;Prim. Teut. *fat9han 'to catch�. This sense is retained in Ger. fangen,nbsp;whence Swed. fdnga 'to catch�, whose source is Prim. Teut. *fa}dyan, anbsp;phonetic variant of *fmdhan. �The strong ablaut-grade of the Germanicnbsp;base nut 'to catch� appears in the Prim. Scand. verb *nautian 'tonbsp;catch�, whence MSwed. nota 'to get�, 'come into possession of�. Butnbsp;the MSwed. verb had also other senses, amongst them 'to use ornbsp;employ�, no matter how it originated. This meaning was in MSwed.nbsp;times exchanged for the sense 'to waste or damage (a material) bynbsp;use or attrition�, nowadays the only survival of the MSwed. senses.

� nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The OE verb werian (Prim. Teut. *wazjan, whence also Goth.nbsp;wasjan 'to clothe�), denoted 'to clothe� but also 'to carry or bear onnbsp;one�s body, to use�, all senses still current in Eng. to wear. Thenbsp;common sense 'to waste, damage, or destroy by use� did not appearnbsp;until the 14th c. It is suggested by the N. E. D. that wear in thisnbsp;sense perhaps originally is short for forwear, which is found earlier.nbsp;8

Certainly not. Permutation is likely to have taken place under any circumstances.

On the other hand, there are lots of cases where the Associative bond between cause and effect cannot be described as close. Ifnbsp;none the less Permutation takes place so that the sense presentednbsp;by the cause is replaced by that presented by the result, then we shouldnbsp;postulate as an intermediary stage that the sense of the effect wasnbsp;by implication added to that of the cause. Otherwise said, we mustnbsp;assume that before the Permutation could take place there was anbsp;tacit Semantic Addition of the Resultative T3rpe, suggested by situation and context. As a criterion of this Addition should be takennbsp;the circumstance that the correlative relation between cause andnbsp;effect is not so close that the effect invariably appears when thenbsp;cause is present in mind. Illustrative examples are the relationsnbsp;between 'to stumble� and 'to fall�, between 'to deal a blow with anbsp;weapon� and 'to glance off�.

The semantic area of the Swed. dial, verb trumla consists of the senses 'to stumble� and 'to fall�. There is no doubt whatsoever thatnbsp;the former sense has given rise to the latter signification. It is alsonbsp;obvious that from the view-point of interdependence these notions arenbsp;equipollent with each other, and that hence the meaning 'to stumble�nbsp;may be exchanged for the sense 'to fall�. But in this case the Permutation presupposes a tacit Semantic Addition of the Resultativenbsp;Type in order to bring the notions into contact in our mind, i. e. wenbsp;must postulate the existence of the sense 'to stumble so as to have anbsp;fair. The result of the Permutation was proximately the sense 'tonbsp;have a fall through stumbling�, which thereupon appeared as 'tonbsp;have a fall�, the subsidiary element gradually fading out (Adequation). An example of the same sense-change is afforded by thenbsp;Eng. verb to stumble (prob. representing an unrecorded ON *stumla-,nbsp;cp. Norw. stumla 'to grope and stumble in the dark�, Sw. dial, stomla),nbsp;which denotes not only 'to miss one�s footing, to trip over an obstacle�nbsp;but also, though rarely, 'to fall in consequence of a stumble�. � Annbsp;example of Permutation of the senses 'to deal a stroke� and 'to glancenbsp;off� is afforded by ON. svedja (pa. t. svaddi) to glance off. The intermediary stage was the sense 'to deal a stroke so that the weaponnbsp;glances off.^)

1) Cp. K. F. Sunden Notes on the Vocabulary of Layamon's Brut in A Philological Miscellany presented to Eilert Ekwall {= Studia Neophilologica vol. XIV (1942)nbsp;Nos. I�3 p. 294 seqq.).

Semantic Addition, however, is a phenomenon that probably manifests itself also in ways other than those consisting in the Addition of a purposive or resultative complement. Let us take the Ger.nbsp;agent noun Nusseler as met with in the Bremen dialect in 1768. Thisnbsp;subst. denoted on the one hand 'dem die Arbeit nicht von der Handnbsp;gehet�, and on the other hand 'der amp;msig ist und dooh nichts beschic-ket�. There is no doubt that the first meaning represents the earliernbsp;sense. Hence we may safely assume that the second sense hadnbsp;originally the semantic form 'one who makes no progress in his worknbsp;in spite of being diligent�, and that this semantic order was changednbsp;since the adversative idea was the more important notional elementnbsp;(= Adequation). But if so, we are obviously in the presence of anbsp;Semantic Addition by Implication suggested by situation and context. This case may be described as Semantic Addition of the Adversative Type since the element added represents an obstacle tonbsp;the validity of the earlier sense. There are probably also other types,nbsp;but the existence of Semantic Addition by Implication as a form ofnbsp;sense-change has never been discussed and hence never acknowledgednbsp;by orthodox semantics, i. e. the science of meaning.

The Semantic Development from the Germanic Base nut.

When we have to determine the primary signification of the base nut, we are faced with the fact that, in spite of the semanticnbsp;discrepancy, Norw. dial, nuta and Dan. dial, nuta (Bornholm)nbsp;are likely to be etymologically the same word. For in Prim.nbsp;Germanic there is no base nut known other than that denotingnbsp;^ 'to catch, or capture�. But if so, it is far more likely than notnbsp;that the semantic area of the Norw. verb, used of animals, shouldnbsp;be closer to the primary signification than the semantic area ofnbsp;the Bornholm word is, used of man. In the former case we are confronted with the senses 'to push forth the nose�, esp. 'to push forthnbsp;(or down) the nose into the fodder but without eating�. In thenbsp;latter case we are concerned with the meanings 'to be busy in anbsp;trifling manner� and 'to be slow or tardy in beginning or doing something�. But the former senses seem to be closer to the originalnbsp;signification than the latter senses are since they seem to involvenbsp;an activity denoting 'to sniff in order to smell� or 'to smell bynbsp;sniffing�. It is true that this sense closely agrees with the chiefnbsp;contextual meaning presented by ME. nytel, i. e. 'to nose about innbsp;quest of something (in a figurative sense)� and with the meaningnbsp;sst�bern, eig. und bild.�, one of the senses presented by Swiss Germ,nbsp;nodere� I. But 'to smell by sniffs� cannot be the primary meaning.nbsp;For it must not be forgotten that there are several verbs with thenbsp;base nut which denote 'to emit a series of sounds�, such as those produced by a creaking door, a whinnying colt, a quacking duck, anbsp;signalling snipe, or else sounds produced by a human being whennbsp;muttering or grumbling indistinctly. In view of the tendency ofnbsp;human speech to use, if possible, the linguistic material availablenbsp;when denoting new things-meant, it is all but certain that this basenbsp;nut must be the same as the base nut denoting 'to sniff in order tonbsp;smell�. But if so, it is obvious that the latter sense cannot havenbsp;been the ultimate source of a meaning denoting 'to emit a series ofnbsp;inarticulate sounds�. Hence we must postulate another primary

is the earlier notion. Such a signification is to breathe aud- nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;l,

From this primary signification there proximately originated two senses which evidently once were habitual meanings. It isnbsp;obvious that the sense 'to breathe audibly� may easily pass intonbsp;the meaning to breathe noisily. In point of fact, thisnbsp;meaning is so closely allied to the primary one that the use of thenbsp;word in order to denote this sense should be understood as a casenbsp;of Identification and the sense itself as a 'fluctuation�. From thenbsp;primary meaning 'to breathe audibly�, i. e. to inhale and exhalenbsp;audibly (mostly through the nose), may also the sense to sniffnbsp;or snuff originate, since it implies 'to make short audible inhalations or a long inhalation through the nose� and there consequentlynbsp;are several points of similarity between the two activities. Butnbsp;there are dissimilar points, also, since sniffing is an intentional action.nbsp;Therefore the use of the verb with the primary meaning mentionednbsp;in the sense 'to sniff� should be classed as a case of Intentional (non-figurative) Transfer due to Similarity. The action of sniffing has oftennbsp;the purpose to clear the nose, a fact pointed out by the N. E. D. innbsp;defining the notion as follows: � 'to draw air through the nosenbsp;with short or sharp audible inhalations in order to clear the nosenbsp;in this way�. But the purpose of sniffing or snuffing may also be tonbsp;smell something, and if this element is present in the speaker�s mind,nbsp;then we are faced with the Purposive Type of Semantic Additionnbsp;by Implication, i. e. we are confronted with the sense to sniffnbsp;or snuff in order to smell something. This meaning and the sense to breathe noisily are starting-pointsnbsp;for two ramifications of semantic development which comprise allnbsp;factual meanings presented by the verbs and their derivatives formednbsp;from the base nut.

A. The Semantic Development from the sense 'to sniff or snuff in order to smell something�.

We have previously seen that the Purposive Addition by Implication, i. e. 'to smell something�, may appear as a notion equipollent with the old sense, i. e. 'to sniff or snuff, and that hence Permuta-

118 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HANDL. E. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 tion of these two senses may take place so as to give rise to thenbsp;meaning 'to smell something by sniffing or sniffs�. It is obvious thatnbsp;this activity, too, may have a purpose, whether this be a desire 'tonbsp;find out something� or a wish 'to follow a track by its scent�, andnbsp;that this purpose may be tacitly added by implication to the sense denoted by the verb itself. But it is also evident that this Purposivenbsp;Addition may appear as a notion equipollent with the sense 'to smellnbsp;something by sniffing or sniffs� and hence able to replace the latternbsp;sense by means of Permutation. If this sense-change actually takesnbsp;place, then it gives rise to the meanings 'to try to find out something by the smell�, 'to try to find or track something (game, prey,nbsp;etc.) by the smell�. These senses are equivalent to the meaning 'tonbsp;nose about in quest of something� and to the sense of Ger. 'st�bern�.

In our material the former sense is identical with the best contextual meaning of ME nytel. But since the sense 'to nose about in quest of something� is used of man, we are confronted with anbsp;Figure of Speech, to wit, a Metaphor based on Similarity. Thisnbsp;semantic change is in this case always accompanied by an Adequationnbsp;that eUminates cognitive elements characteristic of animals andnbsp;adds new ones characteristic for man. The sense 'st�bern� is presented by the Swiss German verbs nodere� I (wodere�, nattere�')nbsp;when denoting 'st�bern eig. und bildl.�, 'einer Sache nachsuchen,nbsp;aufsp�ren�, and eni0dere� in sense 'durchst�bern�. We have previously pointed out that em�dere� also means 'erlesen� and thatnbsp;this sense originally constituted a Purposive Addition to the former sense. In other words, the sense 'erlesen� presupposes thenbsp;sense 'durchst�bern um zu erlesen� but also a subsequent Permutation, seeing that 'durchst�bern� and ''erlesen� appeared as equipollent notions. Note also Swiss Germ. Noderete� (N�derete�, N�tte-rete�), noun of action of nodere� I.

There appears to be a figurative use of the sense 'to nose� in the case of beneutelen in the dialect of Groningen, where it denotesnbsp;'iets met meer aandacht beneuzen, beneuzelen�. The latter verbsnbsp;are not noted down by van Dale�s Dutch dictionary, but cp. Du.nbsp;neuzelen in sense of neuzen 'snuffelen�, e. g. 'de hond snuffelte overal�.

It is now appropriate to explain the origin of the semantic aspect of Norw. dial, nuta, i. e. 'to push forth the nose�, esp. 'to pushnbsp;forth (or down) the nose into the fodder but without eating� (apparently chiefly said of horned cattle). It is a priori just as likelynbsp;as not that the first sense was earlier than the second sense. If so.

K. F. SUND�N, A NEW ETYMOL. GROEP OF GERMANIC VEERS 119 it may appear to be a plausible postulation to assume that thenbsp;first sense existed as a subsidiary element in'cases where the predominant notional element was 'to smell (by sniffing)�. If the speaker andnbsp;the listener repeatedly get the impression that the pushing forthnbsp;of the nose is not made for the purpose of smelling but from somenbsp;indefinite motive, then the subsidiary element gradually becomesnbsp;the predominant notional element so that there arises the meaningnbsp;'to push forth the nose as if for the purpose of smelling�. If so, wenbsp;are faced with Adequation. Owing to further operation of thisnbsp;transforming force, the purposive element disappeared altogether. Butnbsp;if so, we are confronted with the sense 'to push forth the nose�. Itnbsp;is a matter of course that the pre-requisite condition for this semantic development is the existence of the Situation of Visible Presence.nbsp;It is true that 'pushing forth the nose� and 'smelling� may be apprehended as equipollent notions, but it is impossible to see how thenbsp;sense 'to push forth the nose for the purpose of smelling� could benbsp;denoted by the word for 'smelling� since this semantic starting-pointnbsp;presupposes that 'pushing forth the nose� is the earlier sense, whereasnbsp;the explanation given above is perhaps an abstract possibility.

The second sense of Norw. dial, nuta, i. e. 'to push forth (or down) the nose into the fodder but without eating�, has the appearance of being a case of Semantic Addition by Implication. Itnbsp;is then the simplest explanation to assume that, owing to thenbsp;Situation of Visible Presence and frequent repetition of it, the notional elements 'into the fodder but without eating� were attachednbsp;to the verb so as to become a fact of language and hence capablenbsp;of being reproduced by any member of the linguistic communitynbsp;concerned. If so, we are faced with a case of Semantic Additionnbsp;by Implication, but obviously of a type other than that denotingnbsp;purpose, or result, or adversative obstacle. For it would be unnatural to postulate as an intermediary stage the sense 'to push forthnbsp;the nose in order to put it into the fodder but without eating�. Butnbsp;also this argumentation is a failure.

There is, however, another explanation to be considered, viz. the view that sense 2 is a modification � due to Adequation � ofnbsp;the notion of G. 'w�hlen�, i. e. 'to rout about, to poke or push aboutnbsp;with the nose in or into something�. If so, sense 1 is the youngernbsp;notion and has sense 2 as source. The first sense is then due tonbsp;Adequation, supported by the Situation of Visible Presence. Thisnbsp;is after all the correct explanation of the semantic aspect of Norw.

120 K. VET. O. VITTEBH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. K:0 3 dial. nuta. Cp. Eng, nuzzle I and LG n�sseln (see pp. 166, 211).nbsp;But how could the notion of V�hlen� be attached to the verb?

It appears to be no rare phenomenon that verbs meaning 'to nose about in quest of something� may also denote 'to root aboutnbsp;with the snout in quest of something�. This fact is confirmed bynbsp;our own material illustrating the semantic aspects of the verbsnbsp;with the base nut. In this case we should assume that the sensenbsp;'to root about or up someting� had as proximate source the meaningnbsp;'to nose about in order to root up (or root about for) somethingnbsp;eatable�. In other words, we are faced with a Semantic Additionnbsp;of the Purposive Type, and thereupon with Permutation.

In our material the sense 'to root about with the snout (in quest of something)�, be it said of animals or used figuratively, is presupposed by Norw. nuta and factually met with in Swabian nottere�nbsp;'wiihlen, schnattern� and in some Swiss German verbs and theirnbsp;derivatives. We have to state the following instances: � N0dere� Inbsp;signifies not only 'st�bern, nachsuchen� but also 'wiihlen, stochernnbsp;(== to poke the fire)�; niidere� I (also dim. n�derle�), e. g. �Jenbsp;mehr man im Licht n�dere, desto schlechter brenne es� (7840).;nbsp;�fnodere� aufw�hlen, eig. und bildl.; vemodere� zerwiihlen, z. B. vonnbsp;Mausen, �s Fur v., darin herumstochern und es dadurch ausl�schen;nbsp;n�derle�, Dim. zu nodere�' I, im Feuer oder in gliihenden Kohlennbsp;herumstochern; vern�deren = veniodere�. The sense is also metnbsp;with in agent nouns and in nouns of action, viz. Noderer, Noderinbsp;(N�deri) W'�hler, Gr�bler; Noderete�, Noderete� {Notteretequot;) Abstr. zunbsp;nodere�' I.

Let us in this connection point out that the sense 'stochern� or 'herumstochern�, i. e. to poke the fire, has 'wiihlen� as proximatenbsp;source and hence involves a sense-change that in Stern�s opinionnbsp;should be classed as an Intentional Transfer, which is non-figurativenbsp;since it is only based on cognitive points of similarity but is destitutenbsp;of emotive causes. And furthermore, when the agent nouns denotenbsp;not only 'W�hler� but also 'Gr�bler�, then the latter sense should,nbsp;according to his terminology, be classed as a Figure of Speech sincenbsp;this mode of Nomination involves an emotional (inch aesthetic)nbsp;element in the shape of a tone of contempt or disparagement.

In Scandinavian there is a verb with the base nut that has a sense obviously descended from the meaning 'to root up with thenbsp;nose�. This verb is Dan. dial, nutte, 'skultre sig�, i. e. to give one�snbsp;upper body shakes and twists in order to get rid of an itching or some-

thing else (Jutland). If a speaker has to denote this human activity, he is strongly reminded of a pig that in rooting up a plant gives itnbsp;shakes and twists in order to get it loose from the ground and shakenbsp;off the earth. But if so, it is only natural for him to employ a wordnbsp;denoting 'to root up with the nose�, a use, however, that presupposesnbsp;the Situation of Visible Presence. The type of sense-change involvednbsp;in this semantic transfer can hardly be apprehended as a Figure ofnbsp;Speech since no emotional element appears to have been operating.nbsp;But if so, we are faced with an Intentional (non-figurative) Transfernbsp;due to Similarity. It is a matter of course that Adequation set in andnbsp;adjusted the sense to the semantic aspect presented by the thing-meant.nbsp;If the transfer was often repeated, it was thereupon adopted by thenbsp;linguistic community concerned. This interpretation may appear asnbsp;a wanton conjecture. But in Scandinavian there is a verb with thenbsp;same sense formed from the Germanic base nus, whose derivativ�snbsp;semantically mostly run parallel with those descended from the basenbsp;nut since nus has the same primary signification. This verb is Dan.nbsp;dial. UUSSe 'skultre sig� (Jutland). In addition, there are other Scandinavian verbs formed from nus whose senses presuppose the formernbsp;existence of the meaning 'to root (up) with the nose� (see nextnbsp;chapter).

From this semantic line of development, which started from the senses 'to nose about� and 'st�bern�, we must now return to thisnbsp;point of departure. For it has also given rise to two or three othernbsp;lines of development. And these represent the leading senses of thenbsp;present verbs derived from the base nut, if we disregard for thenbsp;moment the cases which derive their origin from the sense 'to breathenbsp;noisily�.

Let us assume the case that there was a thing-meant showing the picture of a person moving slowly and leisurely about in performing some task so as to give the impression of lazily wasting timenbsp;or of wanting in efficiency. If a speaker had to clothe this humannbsp;activity in words, he is likely to have been forcibly reminded ofnbsp;a pig or a hen moving slowly about in quest of food. And if so, henbsp;might have chosen the word describing this picture in the animalnbsp;sphere since there were several points of similarity between bothnbsp;activities, viz. slowness, leisure, and the notion of walking about. Ifnbsp;the speaker actually chose the expression referring to the animal world,nbsp;then he employed a Figure of Speech. For an emotional element wasnbsp;then added to the cognitive elements that the two notions had in

122 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 common. And the emotion involved denoted disapproval and contemptnbsp;of this sort of human activity by comparing it with a mode of actionnbsp;occurring in the animal world. We are accordingly faced with anbsp;case of Intentional Figurative Transfer. Thereupon Adequationnbsp;immediately set in, adjusting the sense transferred to the characteristics of the new thing-meant. This consisted in eliminatingnbsp;notional elements belonging to the animal world and adding newnbsp;ones characteristic of man. Later on, through Adequation, thenbsp;notional element implying 'walking about� was eliminated as beingnbsp;of less importance than other cognitive elements. In this way itnbsp;came about that there arose such senses as 'to loiter or dawdle�, 'tonbsp;be tardy�, 'to be long or slow about getting a thing done� and modifications of them, such as 'to do or make work clumsily or unskilfully�,nbsp;or else 'inefficiently and without energy�.

These semantic aspects are more or less abundantly represented in our material as is apparent from the following survey.

Swedish: � Namp;ta v. 'Dr�ja, sola�, i. e. to tarry or be tardy, to loiter or dawdle (Finnby in Finland).

Danish: � Nuta v. 'Vsere langsom, ikke rask til sit Arbejde�, i. e. to delay or be tardy in beginning or doing anything (Bornholm).nbsp;Notie V. 'Vsere langsom til sit arbejde�, i. e. to delay or to be tardynbsp;in beginning or doing anything (Jutland). � Notler sb. 'En kluddrernbsp;som kan gore alslags, men intet godt% i. e. a bungler who can do ornbsp;make work of any kind but in a clumsy and unskilful manner (Jutland). Notlitot sb. 'En ligegyldig og tabehg person�, i. e. a listlessnbsp;and foohsh person (Jutland).

Low German. Schleswig-Holstein: � N�teln v. Langsam sein, zaudern, schlendern (i. e. schlecht und nachlassignbsp;arbeiten). Nuddeln and nuteln v. Zaudern, nicht vom Fleck kommen. � Nottelig a. Unsauher. Nuddel sb. Schmutziger Menschnbsp;(Schleswig). Nuddelig a. Langsam, trage; unordentlich, unsauber,nbsp;schmutzig. N�ddelig a. Saumig, langsam, ungewandt (= clumsy,nbsp;unskilful).

Bremisch-Niedersachsisches WSrterbuch (of 1768): �Neteln v. Zaudern; but also = nicht aufhoren k�nnen vonnbsp;einer Sache zu reden, einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben. N�telnnbsp;V. Zaudern. � Neteler sb. Zauderer, langsamer Mensch, es sey in dernbsp;Arbeit oder im Reden. Netel-goos sb. Dasselbe. Netelhaftig a., andnbsp;Netelig a. Zauderhaft, verdruslich- langsam. Netel-Kutte sb. Einnbsp;Zauderer. Netelije sb. Das Zaudern, Gezauder.

Livonia and Esthonia (until recently): � N�telu v. Zaudern, tr�deln (i. e. to dawdle = to idle, to waste time).

The North of Germany: � Nuttig a. and adv. Unbedeutend, schleeht (Cp. H. Berghaus, Der Sprachsatz der Sassennbsp;etc. Berlin 1883).

Middle German. Lipsic: � Nuddein v. Schleeht, liederlich, ohne Ernst und Nachdruck arbeiten; schleeht, langsamnbsp;fahren.

Bavarian Franconia with A s c h a f f e n b u r g: � Notzen v. Langsam seyn, nicht vom Fleck kommen (Aschaff.).

High German. Low Alemannian:� Nutt'lC� [nytle] V. Langsam thun, langsam an etwas herumarbeiten, herumzerren;nbsp;but also = behaglich arbeiten, aus Langeweile zum Zeitvertriebnbsp;arbeiten (Alsatia).

Netherlandish. Dutch: � Neutelen v. Lambiner, i. e. agir lentement (Pieter Marin, 1701); talmen, i. e. met de uitvoeringnbsp;van iets wachten, langzaam werken (van Dale, 1924). �Pieter Marin:nbsp;Neutelaar sb. Futselaar, i. e. a slowcoach, Tambin, ouvrier malnbsp;habil�. Neutelary sb. Lambinage. � van Dale: Neutelaar sb. Talmer, i. e. a slowcoach. Neutelarij sb. Talmerij, getalm, i. e. thenbsp;action or quality of dawdling. Neutelig a. Talmachtig, i. e. slownbsp;to act. Neuteligheid sb. Neutelarij, talmerij.

Frisian. West Frisian (Holland): � Neutelen v. Talmen, dralen (= talmen). Neutelje v. Zaniken, i. e. to dwell tediously on the same subject; zeuren, i. e. to be slow in performing a task, tonbsp;harp on the same subject.

The Frisian-Saxon Dial, in Groningen (Holland): � Nutel a. Nuffig, fatterig; 'nuffig� = als eene nuf, i. e. a conceited and overnice girl, esp. one very proud of her hair and dress; 'fatterig� = like a 'fat�, i. e. modegek; hence 'fatterig� = foppish;nbsp;�n nutel man == iemand die zich met vrowelijke angstvalligheidnbsp;kleedt.

The East Frisian-Saxon Idiom (Prussia): � No-teln V. Zaudern, z�gern, langsam arbeiten, nichts beschicken (St�ren-burg, 1857). N�teln v. Sich lange wo u. wobei aufhalten und womit beschaftigen; zaudern, saumselig sein, trandeln, tr�deln (ten Doorn-kaat Koolman, 1882) � Gen�tel sb. Getrandel, Gezauder, etc. (ten

Doornkaat Koolman). N�telee sb. Zauderei (St�renburg), N�tel� sb. Trandelei, Zauderei, Sauraseligkeit, etc. (ten Doornkaat Koolman).nbsp;Noteler sb. Zauderer (St�renburg). N�teler sb. Trandeler, Zauderer,nbsp;saumseliger Mensch, etc. (ten Doornkaat Koolman). Notelkraam sb.nbsp;Zauderei (St�renburg). N�tel-Kutte sb. Zauderer (St�renburg). Notelignbsp;a. Zauderhaft (St�renburg). Notelig a. Trandelig, zauderig, saumselig,nbsp;langsam (ten Doornkaat Koolman).

Northern Frisian: � Naeteln v. Zaudern, z�gern, langsam arbeiten (Ditmarschen). N�teln [n^dln] v. Langsam sein, zaudern,nbsp;schlendern (F�hr, cp. the Schlesw.-Hol. Dialect). � N�ddelig a.nbsp;Langsam, trage; unordentlich, unsauber, schmutzig (Ditmarschen).

English: � ME. Nytel v. In the alternative contextual sense 'to dawdle� (Lancashire). Nottle a. Foolish, trifling, absurd, waantonnbsp;(now obsolete, Devonshire). Nutil a. Useless, effeminate (now obsolete,nbsp;North East Yorkshire).

If we examine this material, we find that there are not only instances with the general sense 'to be slow in action or to be tardynbsp;to act� but also senses expressing 'want of skill or else absence ofnbsp;efficiency in doing or making something�. We may safely assumenbsp;that the former sense is the earlier meaning since this is here thenbsp;natural process of semantic development. But if so, we are prox-imately concerned with instances of Semantic Addition by Implication when the senses denote absence of efficiency. Here belongnbsp;LG. nuddeln and nuteln, which mean 'zaudern� but also 'nicht vomnbsp;Fleck kommen� (Schlesw.-Holst.), Mid. Ger. notzen signifying 'langsam seyn� and 'nicht vom Fleck kommen� (Aschaffenburg), and Eastnbsp;Fris. notein denoting 'zaudern, z�gern, langsam arbeiten�, but alsonbsp;'nichts beschicken� (St�renburg). It is obvious that the sense 'nichtnbsp;vom Fleck kommen�, 'nichts beschicken� represents the result of thenbsp;degree of activity implied in 'zaudern, langsam sein, langsam arbeiten�, and that this fact presupposes the previous existence of thenbsp;meaning 'langsam arbeiten und nichts beschicken�. But if so, we arenbsp;obviously faced with an instance of Semantic Addition of the Re-sultative type. It is also evident that the old sense and the newnbsp;one constitute equipollent notions and that hence the latter sensenbsp;was likely to replace the earlier meaning = Permutation.

The same genetic account does not seem to be applicable to the origination of the senses expressing want of skill. Examples of thisnbsp;type are met with when Fris. n�teln in the dial, of F�hr means notnbsp;only 'langsam arbeiten� but also 'schlendern�, i. e. schlecht und nach-

lassig arbeiten, or when Ger. nuddeln in the dialect of Lipsic signifies 'schlecht, liederlich, ohne Ernst^ und Nachdruck arbeiten�, a sense whose immediate source was most likely the meaning �langsamnbsp;arbeiten�. To our mind we are here concerned with a case ofnbsp;Adequation due to Interference. It should be noted that the sensenbsp;^to work slowly� generally had a disparaging tone and that hencenbsp;poor quality and carelessness were sure to appear as subsidiary notional elements in this sense. But if so, it is nothing remarkablenbsp;that the verb for the sense 'to work slowly� should be employed tonbsp;denote a thing-meant implying �to work badly and carelessly�, esp.nbsp;when this sense is supported by the Situation of Visible Presence.nbsp;The same explanation should be applied when in Pieter Marin�s dictionary Du. neutelaar denotes not only �slowcoach� but also �ouvriernbsp;mal hab��. It is also applicable when Dan. dial, notler, in additionnbsp;to the sense �a person who can do or make all sorts of handiworknbsp;without having been an apprentice�, also means �a bungler who cannbsp;do or make work of any kind but in a clumsy and unskilful way�.nbsp;The former sense should in its turn be understood as a case of Adequation due to Interference, seeing that the proximate source ofnbsp;the sense-change obviously was the sense �a person deft and clevernbsp;of hand�, a signification also represented by Dan. dial, notler.

We have seen that formations from the base nut may denote tardiness, or slowness, or else inefficiency, or want of skill, as characteristics of human activity in general. But there are also a few examples where verbs with this base are employed to denote a particular kind of activity but performed in a way exhibiting thesenbsp;qualities. Such instances should be understood as specimens of thatnbsp;class of Adequation called Specialization, i. e. the use of Genus pronbsp;Specie. An example in point is nuddeln in the dialect of Lipsic.nbsp;This verb denotes not only �schlecht, liederlich, ohne Ernst undnbsp;Nachdruck arbeiten� but also �schlecht, langsam fahren�, i. e. tonbsp;drive badly and slowly. The latter sense is obviously geneticallynbsp;and logically a Specialization of the former activity, but genetically we may perhaps be concerned, not with an Adequation, butnbsp;with an Intentional non-fig. Transfer due to Similarity, accordingnbsp;as the sense-change is apprehended as unintentionally or as intentionally brought about. Another example is the West Fris. verbnbsp;neutelje when, in addition to the sense 'binnenmonds bromme/n�, itnbsp;also means �zaniken�, i. e. to dwell tediously on the same su^bject,nbsp;and �zeuren�, i. e. �to be slow in performing a task� and �to harp

126 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 on the same subject�. As in point of Du. 'zeuren�, so in the case ofnbsp;the West Fris. verb the sense 'to harp on the same subject� maybe considered to be a Specialization of the meaning 'to be slo-w innbsp;performing a task�, or else to be an Intentional non-fig. Transfernbsp;due to Similarity. Another example is LG neteln, which in thenbsp;dialect of Bremen (1768) means not only 'zaudern� but also 'nichtnbsp;aufh�ren k�nnen von einer Sache zu reden� and 'einen langwierigennbsp;Stil im Tadeln haben�. Hence the agent noun of the verb, i. e.nbsp;Neteler or Netelgoos, signifies 'ein langsamer Mensch, es sey in dernbsp;Arbeit oder im Reden�. Otherwise said, the sense 'nicht aufh�rennbsp;k�nnen von einer Sache zu reden� may be understood as a Specialization of 'zaudern� in the sense 'to be slow in performing a task�,nbsp;or else as an instance of Intentional non-fig. Transfer.

But the case is not exactly the same when we have to explain the sense 'einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben�. For this meaning may be understood as a Regular Transfer of the meaning 'nichtnbsp;aufh�ren k�nnen von einer Sache zu reden�. On the other hand, it'nbsp;is possible to assume that the sense 'einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben� is a Specialization of the manner of performing the tasknbsp;of blaming, or criticizing. If so, we are faced with a case of Adequation without a previous Sense-change. But if so, we have only tonbsp;explain the origin of the sense 'to blame or to criticize�. This is annbsp;easy task, but it belongs to the second main ramification of semanticnbsp;development, i. e. the one starting from the sense 'to breathe noisily�.nbsp;It may seem likely that, since both senses appear in the Bremennbsp;verb neteln, one of them should be classed as a Regular Transfernbsp;of the other. But personally we believe that the sense 'einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben� should be explained as a Specialization of the sense 'to blame, to criticize�, and that hence we are concerned with the use of Genus pro Specie. This view seems to be innbsp;harmony with the state of things in Baltic German (existing untilnbsp;recently). In that dialect we meet with the verb n�tteln (18th c.),nbsp;which denotes not only 'mussitare�, i. e. in den Bart murmeln�,nbsp;but also 'iterum iterumque aliquid segre ferre atque id verbis expri-mere�, i. e. a Specialization of displeasure or criticism as to its mannernbsp;of expression. This fact explains the sense of modern Baltic nit-teln, i. e. 'an Allem etwas auszusetzen haben, und mit einer gewissennbsp;Kleinigkeitskramerei oder Spitzfindigkeit dabei verfahren�, and be-nitteln 'in verdriesslichem Ton kleinlich bekritteln�. Note also thenbsp;agent noun Nitteler 'Finer der nittelt�, the nouns of action Nittelei

and Nittlerei, and the adjectives nittlerisch 'immer etwas zu nitteln habend� and uittlich milder als nittlerisch�.

There is an example of the present type of semantic change, i. e. Genus pro Specie, whose former existence in a verb is proved bynbsp;an adjectival derivative only. For the adjective nutel in the dialectnbsp;of Groningen presupposes the former existence of a verb *nutelen.nbsp;The adjective means 'conceited like a girl, foppish�, and thenbsp;corresponding verb from which it is formed evidently denoted 'tonbsp;waste time on one�s toilet�, 'to be foolishly attentive to one�s appearance and dress�. It is an interesting fact that in Norw. dialectsnbsp;the parallel base nm has a derivative denoting about the samenbsp;thing, viz. nossa^) v. 'Sysle i mak og med omhu med paaklsedningnbsp;og morgenmaaltid; gjore sig det behagelig�, i. e. to spend time andnbsp;care on one�s toilet and meal in the morning, to make oneself comfortable. The latter sense of nossa is due to Intentional Permutation, being synonymous with the former sense.

In the Alsatian dialect the verb nutt'lequot; [nytle\ means 'lang-sam thun, langsam an etwas herumarbeiten, herumzerren� but also 'behaglioh arbeiten�, 'aus Langeweile, zum Zeitvertrieb arbeiten�. Itnbsp;is easy to understand how the sense 'behaglich arbeiten� originated.nbsp;In actual employment of the verb in sense of 'langsam arbeiten�nbsp;there arose, under favourable circumstances, the meaning 'behaglichnbsp;arbeiten� as a contextual synonym for it. Through Permutation andnbsp;repetition this sense became firmly attached to the verb alongsidenbsp;of the earlier meaning. But the other sense, i. e. 'aus Langeweilenbsp;zum Zeitvertrieb arbeiten�, should probably be explained in anothernbsp;way. This sense is equivalent to the meaning 'to work leizurelynbsp;in order to beguile the time�. But if so, the latter sense should benbsp;understood as presenting the Purposive Type of Semantic Additionnbsp;by Implication, subsequently exposed to Permutation.

There are sometimes adjectives and substantives which are formed from verbs with the base nut and with the sense 'to be slownbsp;and tardy�, 'to dandle�, but which offer a semantic aspect not in harmony with that of the verb. In the Schleswig-Holstein dialect thisnbsp;is the case with the adjective nottelig 'unsauber�. We have previously pointed out (p. 88) that adjectives not rarely present a lot of

The vowel of the stem is pronounced with the extreemly close o (with strong rounding of the lips) characteristic of Norwegian and Swedish. This is perhaps duenbsp;to influence from Norw. nosa v., but the base of the verb is nus. See Alf Torp Ny-norsk Etymologisk Ordbok, Kristiania 1919 s. v. nossa.

128 K. VET. O. VITTEEH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. N:0 3 senses which on closer inspection appear to be interrelated in thenbsp;way that they constitute a series of senses whose origin is due tonbsp;Adequation founded on logical Interference. In the present instancenbsp;we are doubtless concerned with this kind of Adequation. In othernbsp;words, there was a relation of Interference between the sensesnbsp;��unordentlich� and ^unsauber�, and hence the latter sense couldnbsp;replace the former meaning. And in its turn 'unordentlich� formed anbsp;relation of Interference with the sense 'langsam, trage�, and hence itnbsp;could replace this sense. But the earlier links of the semantic changenbsp;of development need not fall into desuetude, as in the present case.nbsp;They may be retained alongside of the new sense. This is actually thenbsp;case with the adjective nuddelig in the dialect of Schleswig-Holstein, anbsp;word that means 'langsam, trage�; 'unordentlich�; 'unsauber�, 'sohmut-zig�. The same meanings are presented by the adjective n�ddelignbsp;(Ditmarschen). The subs. Nuddel 'schmutziger Mensch� (Schleswig)nbsp;may be understood as a New Coinage correlative to the adjectivenbsp;nuddelig in sense of 'unsauber, schmutzig�. In Schleswig-Holsteinnbsp;the adjective n�ddelig denotes, inter alia, 'saumig, langsam�, andnbsp;'ungewandt�, i. e. unskilful, clumsy. There is a relation of Interference betw'een the former and the latter sense, and hence the appearance of the sense 'ungewandt� should be understood as an example ofnbsp;Adequation due to logical Interference. The meaning of Low German nuttig is 'unbedeutend, schlecht�. This is obviously a signification originating from 'langsam, saumig�, a sense readily suggestivenbsp;of inefficiency, and hence there is a relation of Interference betweennbsp;'langsam, saumig� on the one hand, and 'inefficient�, 'unbedeutend,nbsp;schlecht� on the other hand. The Eng. dialectal adjective nottlenbsp;(now obsolete) means 'foolish�, 'trifling� (i. e. behaving idly or frivolously, foolish, insignificant), 'absurd� (i. e. unreasonable andnbsp;hence ridiculous, silly), 'wanton� (i. e. unchaste, arbitrary, or unreasonable, also effeminate, arch.). All these are pejorative senses whichnbsp;may have had their ultimate origin in the sense 'slow, tardy� (in performing a task). They involve sense-changes due to Adequation as anbsp;result of relations of Interference. The semantic fundament, however, may also to some extent have been verbs meaning 'to be busynbsp;in a trifling way� (see p. 133). The Danish dialectal subst. notlitot 'anbsp;listless and foolish person� is a New Coinage, a compound evidentlynbsp;made up of the verb nottle in sense 'to work slowdy and inefficiently�nbsp;and the subs, tott (Jutland), meaning 'a tuft of hay�, 'a puny littlenbsp;child�, 'a bad or worthless fellow�.

But let US shake again the kaleidoscope of things-meant. It may then happen that there turns up a picture showing a person leizurelynbsp;walking about in performing some minor task or doing some triflingnbsp;work not requiring much physical effort or any amount of skill.nbsp;When a speaker has to denote this thing-meant, he is again stronglynbsp;reminded of an animal, say, a pig or a hen nosing or walking slowlynbsp;about in order to root up or pick up something eatable. But in thisnbsp;case the speaker�s attention is not directed to the low degree ofnbsp;efficiency and energy exhibited by a person in jierforming a task,nbsp;His interest is instead concentrated on the low degree of physical effortnbsp;required by a person in performing the task. This involves that thenbsp;speaker wants to characterize an activity as being busy with triflesnbsp;or trifling work. From this view-point the items of similarity betweennbsp;the activity performed by animals and the activity performednbsp;by man, i. e. the notional elements of slight work and of slowlynbsp;walking about, are of sufficient strength to induce the speaker tonbsp;transfer the expression from the animal world to the human sphere.nbsp;Though in this case the emotional element is not so prominent as innbsp;the case of verbs with the base nut denoting To act slowly and indolently�, it is not entirely absent. It chiefly consists in enshroudingnbsp;the human activity with a dyslogistic atmosphere, and this badnbsp;connotation readily attaches to the person performing such an activity. Also in the present case, then, we are concerned with a semantic change that should be classed as illustrating that kind of Nomination called Intentional Figurative Transfer. And also here thenbsp;notional element of 'walking about� may be eliminated by Adequation.nbsp;In this way there originated the sense 'to be busy with trifles�, 'tonbsp;be busy in a trifling way�.

In our material this meaning and its semantic derivatives are rarely found in Swedish idioms but often in Danish dialects and innbsp;Netherlandish, as is evident from the following survey.

Swedish : � Nattla v. 'Halla pa med petg�ra�, i. e. 'etwas Kleines, Schwieriges arbeiten� (the parishes of Bjorketorp and Ryssbynbsp;in Sweden).

Danish: � Nuta v. 'Nysle, smaasysle, have travlt med Ubetydeligheder�, i. e. to be busy in a trifling manner; also 'tonbsp;work slowly, or the like� (Bornholm). Nytle v. 'Vsere naevenyttig�,nbsp;i. e. to be deft or clever of hand (Jutland). Notie v. 'Sysle med alnbsp;slags smaarbejde, vsere naevenyttig�, i. e. to be busy with any sort ofnbsp;trifling work; to be skilful or expert in working with the hands ornbsp;9

in handicraft; also 'to work slowly, or the like� (Jutland). �Nytleri sb. 'Smaarbejde�, i. e. trifling work. Notleri sb 'Nottelvserk�.nbsp;Nottel sb. 'Nottelvserk�. Nottelarbejde sb. 'Nottelvserk�. Nottelgavnnbsp;sb. 'Nottelvserk�. Nottelvserk sb. 'Smat handarbejde�, i. e. work ornbsp;thing comparatively small and unimportant done or made by thenbsp;hands. Notteltang sb. 'Niptang�; doubtless = tweezers employednbsp;in doing 'nottelvaerk�. Notler sb. 'En handslov, nsevenyttig person�;nbsp;'en kluddrer som kan gore als slags arbejde men intet godt�, i. e. anbsp;person deft or clever of hand; a bungler who can do or make worknbsp;of any kind but in a clumsy or unskilful manner; also 'person somnbsp;kan gore handverksarbejde uden at have staet i laere�, 'husflidsar-bejder�, i. e. a person who can do or make the work of a craftsmannbsp;without having been an apprentice, a person occupied with domesticnbsp;industry; also 'nalemager�, i. e. needle-maker. � All these dialectalnbsp;words are met with in the Jutland idiom.

Low German. Schleswig-Holstein: � Niiddelig a. Geschickt im Verfertigen von allerlei Kleinkram, anstellig (i. e.nbsp;skilful), brauchbar, t�chtig; also 'saumig, langsam, ungewandt�.

High German: Swabian: � Nottlete sb. 'Hakelar-beit�. No other example found in High German.

, Netherlandish (Low Frankish). Dutch: � Neutelen V. 1701 Pieter Marin�s diet. 'Futselen� (i. e. zich met beuzelingennbsp;[= trifles] ophouden, langzaam werken), 'lambiner� (i. e. agir lente-ment, Littr�), 'tracasser (i. e. aller et venir, sur place, pour denbsp;petites occupations, Littr�). 1777 Kilian�s diet. 'Frivola agere� i. e.nbsp;to be busy with trifles. 1924 van Dale�s diet. 'Talmen� (i. e. met denbsp;utvoering van iets wachten, langzaam werken), 'futselen�, 'zich metnbsp;beuzelingen ophouden�. � Derivatives: Pieter Marin: Neutelaarnbsp;sb. 'Futselaar�; ('lambin�, 'ouvrier mal habil�). Neuteraar sb. Neutelaar.nbsp;Neutelary sb. ('Lambinage); tracasserie�. � Kilian: Neuteler, Neuteler-ken sb. 'homuncio frivolus, assiduus in rebus frivolis agendis: multasnbsp;sedulitatis in re frivola�. Neutken (oud n.), Neutelersken sb 'aniculanbsp;curax, multas sedulitatis anus�. �van Dale: Neutel sb. 'Klein mannetje, dreutel� (i. e. ventje = a puny person, often contemptuous;nbsp;also = keutel, hoopje dreck).

met beuzelwerk zijnen tijd verslijten�, i. e. to spend one�s time on trifles. Neuteltreuten v. 1892 Ibid. �Nutselen en trutselen, fr. 1am-biner, chipoter.� � Neutenaatje sb. 1892. Ibid, dimin. see Neuteraar,nbsp;also = Kilian�s neuteler, neutelerken sb.; Neutelaar, dimin. Neuter-aartje sb. 1892 Ibid. 'Dwergje, een verneuteld^) ventje, fr. petitnbsp;homme rabougri� (i. e. 'ch�tif, 'd�bile�).

East Fris. - Saxon dialect in Groningen: � Beneutelen v. 1880 Molema�s diet, (bij Hfft) 'lets met meer aandachtnbsp;dan bet verdient beneuzen, beneuzelen�.

East Frisian-Saxon dialect in Prussian East Friesland: � N�teln v. 1882 ten Doornkaat Koolman�snbsp;diet. 'Seine Zeit unniitz od. mit kleinlichen u. nichtniitzigen Dingennbsp;verschwenden�; auch 'zaudern, saumselig sein�.

English: � ME. nytel v. In the second contextual sense postulated, viz. 'to be busy in a trifling manner�, a meaning tentativelynbsp;suggested by the N. E. D.

In examining the linguistic material just quoted, we find that there are verbs with the base nut which denote 'to be busy in a trifling manner, i. e. with trifling things�, but are wanting in the sensenbsp;'to act slowly or indolently�, viz. Swed. dial, nattla, Dan dial, nytle,nbsp;Flemish neuten or neutelen in the compounds treuteneuten andnbsp;neuteltreuten, and possibly ME. nytel. On the other hand, we findnbsp;that there are instances where both senses appear alongside of eachnbsp;other, viz. Dan. dial, nuta (Bornholm) and notle (Jutland), Eastnbsp;Fris.-Saxon n�teln, Dutch neutelen. Here belongs also the adjective niiddelig in Schleswig-Holstein, whose semantic area comprisesnbsp;the meanings (1) 'saumig, langsam, ungewant�; (2) 'geschickt im Ver-fertigen von allerlei Kleinkram, anstellig (i. e. skilful), brauchbar,nbsp;t�chtig�. These senses are obviously founded on a verb that denotednbsp;the two meanings under consideration. When both senses arenbsp;represented by the same verb, the question arises whether the coexistence of the two meanings may involve that one of them is thenbsp;etymological source of the other. The answer should be in the negative. Let us take, for instance, the East Fris.-Saxon verb n�teln,nbsp;which means (1) 'zaudern, saumselig sein�, (2) 'seine Zeit unniitz odernbsp;mit kleinlichen u. nichtniitzigen Dingen verschwenden�, a modification (due to Adequation) of the sense 'to be busy with trifles�.nbsp;In this case there appears to be no genetic interrelation between

The word is not elsewhere found in De Bo�s dictionary, nor is it mentioned by van Dale.

132 K. VET. O. VITTERH. SAMH. HAVDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. R;0 3 the two senses. Otherwise said, it is not easy to imagine a contextnbsp;where the sense 'to be slow or indolent in performing an activity�nbsp;may pass into the sense 'to be busy with trifles�. But, of course, itnbsp;may pass into the sense 'to be busy in a trifling manner� if this expression be equivalent to the meaning 'to be performing a task in anbsp;slow or listless way�. But it is not this sense we have in view whennbsp;using the expression 'to be busy in a trifling way� but the meaningnbsp;'to be busy with trifles�. Furthermore, let us take the sense of Balticnbsp;German nitteln, 'an Allem etwas auszusetzen haben, und mit einernbsp;gewissen Kleinigkeitskramerei od. Spitzfindigkeit dabei verfahren�.nbsp;Can the genesis of this sense be ascribed to the use of the generalnbsp;sense 'to be busy with trifles�, so that we are here confronted withnbsp;the use of Genus pro Specie ? The sense 'to criticize� belongs to anothernbsp;main line of semantic development from the base nut. Hence wenbsp;must assume that the sense of Baltic nitteln, i. e. 'to be busy withnbsp;trifles in criticizing something�, should be explained as a Specialization of the sense 'to criticize� but not of the sense 'to be busy withnbsp;trifles�. This is the natural genetic explanation of the new sense,nbsp;which has the appearance of being a blending of the senses 'tonbsp;criticize� and 'to be busy with trifles�.

We have postulated that a bad connotation originally attached to the sense 'to be busy with trifling things� when expressed by anbsp;verb with the base nut, since a human activity was then denoted by anbsp;verb describing the activity of an animal. In some instances the pejorative atmosphere is still plainly perceptible. This is the case withnbsp;East Fris.-Saxon n�teln when denoting 'seine Zeit unniitz und mitnbsp;kleinlichen u. nichtn�tzigen Dingen verschwenden�. The same is obviously the case with Flemish neuten and neutelen, presupposed bynbsp;the compounds neuteltreuten and treuteneuten and hence like themnbsp;denoting 'met beuzelwerk zijnen tijd verslijten�. A disparaging tonenbsp;is also to be assumed in point of ME nytel if denoting 'to be busynbsp;in a trifling way�.

In other cases there is no knowing whether the disparaging element has been eliminated by Adequation or is still attached tonbsp;the verb. Perhaps we should adopt the latter alternative. Examplesnbsp;in point are Danish dial, nuta when meaning 'to spend one�s timenbsp;on doing all sorts of petty jobs� (Bornholm), and noddre when denoting the same sense (Jutland). Another example is Dutch neutelen when denoting (1) (accord, to Pieter Marin) 'tracasser�, i. e.nbsp;'aller et venir, sur place, pour de petites occupations� (Littr�); (2)

K. F. SUND�N, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 133 (accord, to Kilian) 'frivola agere�; (3) (accord, to van Dale) 'zichnbsp;met beuzelingen ophouden�. As to the derivative neutel 'klein mannetje, dreutel�, it seems to have a disparaging tone. But if so, itsnbsp;meaning approaches the sense of 'worthless fellow�, foolish fello%v�,nbsp;which constitute Notions of Interference with the former signification. But if so, it is obvious that the Flemish, subst. *n�tel, postulated b}^ us as the source of the Devonshire adjective nottlenbsp;'foolish, trifling, absurd, wanton� (now obsolete), may originallynbsp;have meant 'klein mannetje, dreutel� and not necessarily 'a slow,nbsp;listless, and inefficient worker�. We leave it an open questionnbsp;whether Dutch neutel ever had the function of an agent noun ornbsp;was a New Coinage from neutelen in order to denote 'klein mannetje�nbsp;since men usually performing petty jobs or trifling work are notnbsp;likely to be hefty fellows. Historical evidence is in favour of thenbsp;latter alternative. But if the word was originally an agent noun,nbsp;it is easy to understand how the sense-change originated. For thenbsp;sense 'a person doing trifling work� has 'klein mannetje� as contextual synonym since a person generally occupied in this way isnbsp;likely to have poor physical powers. In this case the factual sensenbsp;would be due to Permutation. It appears that this mode of explanation should be applied to West Flemish neuteraar (dimin.nbsp;neuteraatje), which now means 'dvergje, en verneuteld ventje, fr.nbsp;petit homme rabougri [i. e. ch�tif, d�bil]�. For the agential formnbsp;of the word indicates that the original sense was 'a person busynbsp;with trifling work� (cp. the sense of the verbs treuteneuten and neu-teltreuten).

In some instances there is obviously no disparaging tone present. This involves that the activity implying 'to be busy in a trifling manner� began to be apprehended in a slightly new waynbsp;and that this mode of apprehension got the upper hand throughnbsp;repetition ( = Adequation without a previous sense-change). An example of this type is Swed. dial, nattla 'halla pa med petg�ra�, i. e.nbsp;to be busy in a trifling manner, but a manner requiring attention andnbsp;patience. There may perhaps be an emotional element present,nbsp;but if so, this is of another type implying that the activity is tediousnbsp;and tiresome. Another instance is Danish dial, notle when denotingnbsp;'to be busy with any sort of trifling work�, seeing that it also meansnbsp;'to be deft or clever of hand�. This stylistic neutrality presentednbsp;by the former sense evidently attaches also to the substantivesnbsp;notleri, nottel (also in notteltang), nottelarhejde, nottelgavn, nottelvserk,

all denoting 'smat handarbejde�, i. e. a work or thing comparatively small and unimportant done or made by the hands (Jutland). Thenbsp;same is true of Swabian Nottlete 'Hakelarbeit�.

On the other hand, there are instances of words with the base nut in which a eulogistic tone is plainly distinguishable.nbsp;This is the case with the Danish dial, verb notle, which means, asnbsp;we have seen, not only To be busy with all sorts of trifling work�nbsp;but also 'vsere nsevenyttig�, i. e. to be skilful or expert in workingnbsp;with the hands or in handicraft. It is easy to understand how thisnbsp;sense originated. For the former meaning refers also to such activities as sewing, knitting, crotcheting, performed by women, or elsenbsp;to domestic crafts, generally performed by men. But these are occupations in which we often meet with skill and cleverness of hand.nbsp;When such is the case, attention is drawn to this notional elementnbsp;so as to bring it to the fore. If this is often repeated, a sense-changenbsp;is permanently brought about involving quot;^to be deft or clever ofnbsp;hand when doing or making trifling work�. If so, we are confrontednbsp;with a semantic change due to Adequation without a previous Sense-change, i. e. we are faced with a gradual adjustment to a new apprehension of the thing-meant. This semantic change maybe understoodnbsp;as a Specialization, but only in respect of the manner in which thenbsp;activity is performed. The new sense may very well exist alongsidenbsp;of the earlier meaning, as is shown by the Dan. dial, verb notle. Butnbsp;it may also oust the earlier sense, as is evidenced by the Dan. dialectal verb nytle, which only means Vsere nasvenyttig�, i. e. To benbsp;deft or clever of hand�, whereas the substantive nytleri denotesnbsp;'smaarbejde�, i. e. trifling work.

The eulogistic tone may also appear in derivatives, and it may then be a natural analogical transfer from the verb. This is the casenbsp;with the Dan. dial, subst. notler when it functions as the agent nounnbsp;of notle in sense of Vsere nsevenyttig�. But notler means not onlynbsp;'a person deft or clever of hand� but also �a bungler, a person whonbsp;can do or make work of any kind but in an unskilful or clumsynbsp;manner�. But the immediate source of the latter sense cannot havenbsp;been the meaning 'a person deft or clever of hand when doing ornbsp;making something�; for the difference in skill is too great to admitnbsp;of postulating a. direct genetic contact between the two senses. Asnbsp;previously pointed out, the immediate source was instead the sensenbsp;�a person who can do or make the work of a craftsman withoutnbsp;having been an apprentice�. And the sense-change we are then

concerned with is Specialization as to the manner in which an activity is performed. When notler denotes 'needle-maker� (Jutland), we are faced with a New Coinage formed from the stem nottle- whennbsp;denoting activities requiring the use of a needle, such as sewing,nbsp;knitting, crotcheting.

A eulogistic tone may occur in derivatives without existing in the corresponding verb. Such is the case with the Low Germ,nbsp;adjective niiddelig 'geschickt im Verfertigen von allerlei kleinkram,nbsp;anstellig, brauchbar, t�chtig� (also 'saumig, langsam, ungewandt�),nbsp;(Schles.-Holst.). It is obvious that this adjective presupposes thenbsp;former existence of a verb *n�ddeln denoting 'to be busy withnbsp;trifling work� and that niiddelig may originally have meant 'busynbsp;with trifhng work�. It seems, however, to be equally possible as notnbsp;that the eulogistic sense of the adjective is an inheritance from thenbsp;verb. Also in Kilian�s Dutch there are examples of a eulogisticnbsp;tone that may have originated in derivatives, to wit, neuteler,nbsp;neutelerken 'homuncio frivolus, assiduus in rebus frivolis agendis�,nbsp;and neutken, neutelersken 'anicula curax, multse sedulitatis anus�.nbsp;In Flemish there is a diminutive neutenaatje meaning 'dwergje� butnbsp;also the same as Kilian�s neuteler, neutelerken. In these instances,nbsp;which should be understood as original agent nouns denoting 'anbsp;person busy with trifling work�, attention was drawn to the fact that,nbsp;in performing this activity, carefulness and diligence were oftennbsp;exhibited and hence came to the fore and were adopted as notionalnbsp;elements characteristic of a person when performing this activity =nbsp;Specialization due to Adequation.

But let us return to the picture showing an animal slowly walking or nosing about in order to pick uj) or root up somethingnbsp;eatable. It would not be a matter of surprise if the verb denotingnbsp;this picture should also be used as a Metaphorical Transfer in ordernbsp;to denote a person�s activity consisting in slowly walking aboutnbsp;for some reason. In point of the parallel base nus there are derivatives whose semantic area comprises also the sense 'to walknbsp;slowly�. An informative example is presented by the West Fris.nbsp;verb nuskje which denotes not only 'beuzelen�, i. e. to be busy withnbsp;trifling jobs, but also 'langzaam wandelen�, i. e. to walk slowly. Thenbsp;co-existence of only these two senses makes it highly probable, notnbsp;to say certain, that they are Metaphorical Transfers of the samenbsp;sense but viewed from different angels, i. e. attention has beennbsp;centred on different notional elements. The question arises then

whether there are derivatives from the base nut presenting this Metaphorical Transfer ( = Intentional Figurative T.). In our material there are most likely unequivocal examples of this semanticnbsp;change, but they should be discussed.

In Alsatian there is a verb nott'le� [nolle, Lutterb. Wh.^ Dehli.] that denotes (1) 'riitteln, schiitteln, bewegen�; (2) dangsam gehen�.nbsp;There is also the subs. Schiffnottel 'Bezeichnung fiir Schiffsleute,nbsp;welche das Schiff selbst ziehen, wegen ihres langsamen, schwer-falligen Ganges�. For our part we hold the view that the verb innbsp;sense 1 is formed from the Prim. Teut. base hnud 'stossen, schlageiTnbsp;(cp. OHG hnuit�n �vibrare�, i. e. schwingen, schiitteln, zittern; OHGnbsp;genuot�n �conquassare�; MHG genuien, gn�tten �sich schwingen,nbsp;wackeln�; MHG nollen �sich hin und her bewegen�), but that thenbsp;verb in sense 2 is a derivative from the Prim. Teut. base nut, butnbsp;dressed in a Low Frankish form. For it should be noted that thenbsp;senses 1 and 2 are genetically irreconcilable, that the northern partnbsp;of the dialect is admittedly Low Frankish, and that the two bases,nbsp;if extended with the I affix, were here likely to coincide in form.nbsp;But note also the following case.

In Swabian, too, there is a verb nottIe� denoting (1) riitteln intr. (an etwas r.) and trans.; (2) niit �haben�; wackeln, unfest stehen;nbsp;(3) mit �sein�; langsam, unsieher gehen. There are also the derivatives Nottler sb. Alter Mann, Schelte (�Liebkosewort�); Wernbsp;schwankend geht; and nottlig a. schwankend, altersschwach. Innbsp;point of sense 1 there is no doubt that the verb is a derivative fromnbsp;the base hnud, but in the case of sense 3 it is quite possible that itnbsp;was formed from the base nut and adopted from Low Frankish, anbsp;not unlikely postulation since the Swab. subs. Nottlete �Hakelarbeit�nbsp;has this origin. If so, we must assume that the sense To walk slowly�nbsp;gave rise to the sense To walk slowly and unsteadily� (= Adequation). If attention is centred on the notion of �unsteadily� as beingnbsp;the more interesting element, then we get the sense �to stand onnbsp;one�s legs unsteadily (when walking slowly)�, a change due to Adequation. Thereupon the subsidiarj^ notional elements, i. e. �whennbsp;walking slowly�, w'ere eliminated through further Adequation. But,nbsp;on the other hand, the possibility is not to be denied that the sensenbsp;�to stand unsteadily� may be connected with the base hnud (cp.nbsp;MHG genuien, gn�tten sich schwingen, wackeln). But if so, thenbsp;sense �langsam, unsieher gehen� may perhaps have originated outnbsp;of the sense �w�ackeln�. But the difficulty is to give a plausible

ua /A � /a ' '�id. h

account of this sense-change. Hence we are decidedly in favour of the view that Swab. nottle�, at least in sense dangsam, unsichernbsp;gehen� is a derivative from the base nut and an adoption from Lownbsp;Frankish. But if so, the subs. Nottler is also a derivative fromnbsp;this base, and perhaps also the adj. noUlig, which, however, maynbsp;contain the base hnud.

We now come to the second of the two semantic main ramifications from the base mit that are distinguishable. The point of departure is here to breathe noisily, consequently anbsp;sense almost identical with the primary signification. In the present case it is not, as in the former main category, the semanticnbsp;aspect of the breathing or its aim that has determined the trend ofnbsp;the semantic development. It is instead the audibility, the phoneticnbsp;aspect of the breathing that has determined the direction. Otherwisenbsp;said, the predominant notional elements are here a series of subduednbsp;inarticulate sounds and their passage through the nose. These arenbsp;the notional elements that are here uppermost in the speaker�snbsp;consciousness when he first employs the verb with the base nut tonbsp;characterize utterances of man. The results of the factual semanticnbsp;development proximately admit of a binary division, according asnbsp;the sounds are uttered by man or else belong to the ajiimal worldnbsp;or inanimate objects in motion.

With regard to the instances of the present category, it is possible to make a chronological distinction inasmuch as the proximatenbsp;sense-change starting from the meaning 'to breathe noisily� is clearlynbsp;distinguishable. This change consisted in giving rise to the meaningnbsp;'to speak indistinctly in a low voice and, occasionally, through thenbsp;nose�, or variants of it, such as 'to speak indistinctly in a low voicenbsp;with nearly closed lips�, 'to speak between one�s teeth�. These sensesnbsp;are illustrated by the following instances in our material.

Danish (Jutland): � Noddre v. 'Om utydelig tale�, i. e. said of indistinct speech (also = to hum an air; also = to be ,nbsp;busy with trifles). � Nodder sb. 'Utydelig tale�, i. e. indistinct speechquot;^'

gt;erl

Low German. Schleswig-Holstein: � Nuddeln, Nuteln v. Undeutlich sprechen, unverstandlich murmeln (also = zaudern,nbsp;nicht vom Fleck kommen); Nuddelig a. Undeutlich (also = lang-sam, trage; unordentlich, unsauber, schmutzig).

Baltic German (18th c.): � N�tteln v. 'Mussitare�, i. e. in den Bart murmeln, i. e. to mutter to oneself (also = iterumnbsp;iterumque aliquid segre ferre atque id verbis exprimere).

Middle German (Lipsic): � Nudeln sb. Halblautes, undeutliches, schlechtes Reden (also = Singen oder stiimperhaftesnbsp;Spiel auf einem Instrument).

High Alemannian (Swiss German): �N�dere� II v. Undeutlich, leise reden. 'Mussare�, n�selen, n., durch die zan redennbsp;wie ein stumm. 'Mussitare�, n�selen; vern�selen, als wenn einernbsp;f�rcht, man h�re in reden, linss reden, schweigen. N�ttere� v. Halb-laut, unverstandlich reden.

It is easy to understand how the sense 'to speak indistinctly in a low voice (and with a nasal twang)� originated. Let us postulatenbsp;the appearance of a thing-meant whose characteristic features arenbsp;indistinct talking in a subdued voice, then the speaker who had tonbsp;denote this activity would be likely to select a verb in sense corresponding to Eng. 'mumble� or 'mutter�. But if the unpleasant impression of such speech was increased by worse articulation thannbsp;^usual or else by being uttered with a nasal twang, then it wouldnbsp;be natural for him to employ a word denoting 'to breathe noisilynbsp;through the nose�. For there would then be strong points of similarity between the thing meant to be named by a verb and the meaning of this verb itself, to wit, more or less inarticulate sounds produced in a low voice and passing through the nose. And an additional reason for using the verb with the base nut would be thenbsp;fact that the speaker would then be able to express his displeasurenbsp;with this mode of utterance, seeing that such speech would then benbsp;compared to unarticulated sounds unwittingly produced in breathing.nbsp;Hence the sense-change we are here concerned with should benbsp;classed as an Intentional Figurative Transfer. There is nothingnbsp;remarkable in this Transfer seeing that the ME verb brethe 'tonbsp;breathe� was later on used in the sense 'to utter in the most quietnbsp;way, to whisper�; cp. Shaks., King John IV. II. 36.

In the way mentioned, then, we should explain the origin of the sense 'to speak indistinctly in a low voice (and with a nasal

K. P. SUND�N, A NEW BTYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 139 twang)�. The slight variations of this sense are due to variations innbsp;apprehending the thing-meant, accompanied by Adequation, i. e.nbsp;adjustment of the sense of the word to the factual meaning of thenbsp;thing-meant.

The signification now dealt with gave rise to further sense-development. From a genetic view-point the new senses may be divided into two subclasses, according as the subsequent sense-change proximately consists in something else than Semantic Addition by Implication, or else in this very type of semantic change.

Let us first take a review of the verbs and their derivatives which illustrate this subclass in our material.

Danish (Jutland): � Noddre v. �Smaasynge, nynne�, i. e. to hum an air, to croon (also said of indistinct speech; also = to passnbsp;one�s time with all sorts of petty jobs). Nodder sb. 'Nynnen�, i. e.nbsp;humming a tune, crooning (also = indistinct speech). Noddresyngenbsp;V. �Nynne�, i. e. to hum an air, to croon. Noddresang sb. 'Nynnen�,nbsp;i. e. humming, crooning. Nodle v. �Smasynge, nynne�, i. e. to humnbsp;an air, to croon.

Low German (Bremen, 18th c.): �Vor neteln v. Enem W'at vor neteln: einem was vor tandeln, vor plaudern.

Middle German. Hessen-Nassau: � Nutteln v. Nasein (Willersdf-FK); but in Waldeck (L. G. territory) = knurren (pronounced nutdldn). Lipsic: � Nudeln sb. Singen oder stiimperhaftesnbsp;Spiel auf einem Instrument; davon die Nudelei; (also = halblautes,nbsp;undeutliches, schlechtes Reden).

High Alemannian (Swiss German): N0dere� II v. Albern plaudern (also = knarren, von Th�ren, Laden). Niiderequot; II v. Linssnbsp;reden, schweigen (also = undeutlich, leise reden; durch die zan redennbsp;wie ein stumm, vern�selen).

It is easy to explain the origin of the sense �to hum an air, to croon� presented by the Dan. dial, verbs noddre, noddresynge,nbsp;nodle (a parallel formation or rather a modification of noddre), andnbsp;the nouns of action nodder and noddresang. We are here confrontednbsp;with a thing-meant that presents a close similarity to the old thing-meant denoted by the verb noddre in sense �to speak indistinctly�.nbsp;For both the old and the new thing-meant are characterized bynbsp;inarticulate sounds, (nearly or wholely) closed lips, a subdued voice.

140 K. VET. O. VITTBRH. SAMH. HA�^DL. F. 6. SBB. A. BD 1. V;0 3 and the passing of the sounds through the nose. But none thenbsp;less the auditory and the purposive difference between the twonbsp;activities is so considerable that the new sense should be classednbsp;as an Intentional non-figurative Transfer due to Similarity, not as anbsp;case of Regular (= unintentional) Transfer.

It is permissible to assume that the Germ. dial, subst. Nndeln when denoting 'Singen oder st�mperhaftes Spiel auf einem Instrument� has a similar origin, seeing that it also means 'halblautes, un-deutliches, schlechtes Reden�, a noun of action presuppossing a verbnbsp;with the corresponding sense. For in the present case �Singen� cannbsp;hardly mean ordinary singing. It evidently means singing of a verynbsp;poor kind since it is co-ordinate with the sense �st�mperhaftes Spiel�.nbsp;But if so, the subs. Nvdeln may once have meant �humming of annbsp;air�, and hence it is a possible explanation to say that it was thisnbsp;sense the speaker had in view when he used this subst. to denotenbsp;�miserable singing� == Intentional Figurative Transfer. As to thenbsp;sense �st�mperhaftes Spiel�, it may be correct to apprehend it as annbsp;Intentional non-figurative Transfer of the meaning �wretched singing�.nbsp;Yet the fact should not be kept from the reader that in the dialect ofnbsp;Schleswig-Holstein the verb nudeln means �drehen bes. von dernbsp;Kurbel des Leierkastens� and that in this dialect Nudel-kasten meansnbsp;�DrehorgeF. Hence it is by no means unlikely that the word Nudeleinbsp;should be explained as connected with these words. But if so, thenbsp;same may be the case with the subs. Nudeln in sense of �st�mperhaftes Spiel�, and hence the sense �wretched singing� may be understood as an Intentional non-figurative Transfer of the former sense.nbsp;But to this view is opposed the fact that the subs. Nudeln alsonbsp;means �halblautes, undeutliches, schlechtes Reden�, and that thisnbsp;mode of speaking gave rise to the sense �to hum an air�, �to croon�nbsp;in the Danish dial, verb noddle and its noun of action, i. e. nodder,nbsp;which denotes �nynnen, utydelig tale�. Hence it is likely that thenbsp;source of the sense �miserable singing� as presented by the subst.nbsp;Nudeln was �to hum an air�. Yet it is possible that in the sensenbsp;�st�mperhaftes Spiel� this subs., whose u is long, and the subs.nbsp;Nudelei were connected with the verb nudeln �to grind an organ�nbsp;(Schlesw.-Holstein) and that this verb coalesced with a verb ��nudelnnbsp;denoting �to talk indistinctly in a subdued voice�, �to hum an air�.nbsp;It should be noted that in Middle German dialects t and d has anbsp;tendency to coalesce and that in German, but not in English, a shortnbsp;� in open syllables may be lengthened so as to become In our

opinion the verb nudeln 'to grind an organ� belongs to the Germanic base hnud 'stossen, schlagen�, which is met with in OHG. hnutt�nnbsp;'vibrare�, i. e. schwingen, sch�tteln, MHG notten 'sich hin und hernbsp;bewegen�, Swiss German nudeln 'pressen, dr�cken� (Stalder,nbsp;Schweiz. Idiotikon 1812), nay also in nudeln 'mit nudeln masten�nbsp;and nudel 'gerolltes, halbgebackenes Teigst�ck�. F. Kluge saysd) �-�Ein Etymon fiir Nudel fehlt�. But the word is doubtless a back-formation from the verb nudeln 'pressen, dr�cken�, a sense whichnbsp;easily passed into the meaning 'to knead�, 'to roll a piece of doughnbsp;to and fro so as to get the form desired�. The verb nudeln in thenbsp;sense 'to fatten geese� may be understood as a denominative formation from the substantive Nudel. But it may also be viewed asnbsp;originally containing a Purposive Addition to the verb, i. e. 'to rollnbsp;pieces of dough in order to be able to fatten geese�. If so, thenbsp;subst. is a back-formation from the verb nudeln in this sense.

The Low Ger. expression enem wat vor neteln signifies 'einem was vor t�,ndeln, vor plaudern� (Bremen, 18th c.), i. e. to prattlenbsp;to a person about something. In this case we should not adopt thenbsp;view that the sense 'to prattle� owes its origin to the meaning 'tonbsp;speak indistinctly in a low voice�. We are instead concerned withnbsp;a modification of the sense 'nicht aufh�ren k�nnen von einer Saehenbsp;zu reden�, presented by the Bremen verb neteln, consequently withnbsp;a kind of Adequation. Also the latter sense has been explained bynbsp;us as a specimen of Adequation.

We have seen that in the idiom of Hessen-Nassau there is a verb nutteln meaning 'nasein�, i. e. to speak through the nose, to havenbsp;a nasal twang. In explaining the origin of this sense, we shouldnbsp;remember that the district of Rhoden in Waldeck, which is by Luisenbsp;Berthold considered to belong to the dialect of Hessen-Nassau, alsonbsp;employs this verb in the sense of 'knurren�. Hence it is natural tonbsp;assume that both senses once had as source the sense 'to speaknbsp;indistinctly in a low voice and with a nasal twang�. From thisnbsp;semantic point of departure the sense of 'nasein� originated. Fornbsp;the disagreeable nasal twang became the element that most attractednbsp;attention (and hence came to the fore), whereas the other notionalnbsp;elements receded into the background and at last disappearednbsp;altogether. We are consequently concerned with a case of Adequation. Again, the sense 'knurren� presupposes that the semantic

Cp. F. Kluge Etymologisches W�rterbuch der Deutschen Sprache, Strassburg 1905, p. 285.

starting-point got a Purposive Addition by Implication so as to mean ^to speak indistinctly in a low voice (and with a nasal twang) in ordernbsp;to give vent to displeasure� = �knurren�, i. e. to grumble, to growl.

It is evident that the meaning 'to talk nonsense� (= albern plaudern, linss reden), presented by Swiss nodere� II and nudere� 11,nbsp;should be understood as a synonym for the meaning 'to talk indistinctly in a low voice (and with a nasal twang)�, seeing thatnbsp;nothing worthy of attention is likely to be communicated in thisnbsp;way. Otherwise said, we are faced with a sense-change due tonbsp;Permutation, but the Permutation is intentional since we are concerned, not with contextual, but with permanent synonyms. It maynbsp;seem difficult to account for the origin of the sense 'schweigen�,nbsp;i. e. to be silent, presented by Swiss Ger. nudere� II. But alsonbsp;in this case it is obvious that we are confronted with a case of Intentional Permutation. For if a person has to give an answer, say, to anbsp;reproach but only mutters something unintelligible between his teeth,nbsp;it is practically equivalent to being silent.

Let us first pass in review the instances in our material which illustrate this subclass.

Low German. Schleswig-Holstein; � Niiddeln and niiddern v. Brummen (18th c.), n�rgeln (i. e. to grumble, to nag,nbsp;to find fault with), �berlaunig Vorw�rfe maehen.

Bremen (18th c.): � Neteln v. Einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben (also = zaudern, nicht aufh�ren kSnnen von einernbsp;Sache zu reden). Beneteln v. In einem verdrusslichen Ton und Stilnbsp;etwas tadeln. Beneteld ppl. a. Verlegen, verwirrt, ungewiss wie mannbsp;sich helfen soli.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;^

Baltic German; � N�tteln (18th c.) v. Iterum iterumque aliquid segre ferre atque id verbis exprimere, also = mussitare, i. e.nbsp;in den Bart murmeln (Gadebusch). Nitteln v. An Allem etwas aus-zusetzen haben und mit einer gewissen Kleinigkeitskramerei odernbsp;Spitzfindigkeit dabei verfahren (Livonia; von Gutzeit); n�rgeln, innbsp;krittelnden Tonen murren, bekritteln (Esthonia; K. Sallmann).nbsp;Nittler is an agent noun (= einer der nittelt). Nittelei and Nittlereinbsp;are nouns of action. The adjective nittlerisch = immer etwas zu

other. But the existence of the Addition as an habitual element of a sense is a fairly rare phenomenon, seeing that the semantic^equili-brium of the whole sense is easily disturbed. For there is an unmistakable tendency to let the Addition take the precedence sincenbsp;it is the more interesting notion. If this change takes place, wenbsp;are in the presence of a case of Permutation. This implies herenbsp;that the sense To mutter, or mumble (= to speak indistinctly) innbsp;order to give vent to one�s displeasure or disapproval� passes intonbsp;the meaning To utter one�s displeasure or disapproval by mumbling�.nbsp;Later on the subsidiary element denoting 'by mumbling� is eliminated by Adequation.

The first or the second stage of this semantic development is obviously represented, or may be presented, by the following instances in our material.

Low Oerman: � Niiddeln and niiddern brummen (but also = n�rgeln, Vorw�rfe machen), (Schlesw.-Holst.). � Nut�l�n murrennbsp;brummen (Bauer), nutalan knurren (Luise Berthold), (Waldeck). �nbsp;N�tteln mussitare (also = iterum iterumque aliquid aegre ferre atquenbsp;id verbis exprimere), (Baltic German).

West Frisian: � Neutelje when denoting 'binnenmonds brommeln� (also = 'neulen� and 'zaniken�).

The third stage of the semantic development implying the loss of the connotation 'by mumbling or grumbling� should be classednbsp;as that type of Adequation called Species pro Genere, seeing thatnbsp;the sense now is 'to utter one�s displeasure or disapproval�. A synonym for this sense is 'to criticise�. But the latter sense cannot benbsp;understood as due to unintentional Permutation since it is a permanent synonym for the former sense, not a contextual synonym.nbsp;Otherwise said, we are confronted with Intentional Permutation.nbsp;The meaning 'to be displeased with something�, 'to criticise� is metnbsp;with in the following instances of our material.

Low German: � Niiddeln and niiddem n�rgeln, i. e. to find fault with, to nag, Vorw�rfe machen (auch = brummen),nbsp;(Schlesw.-Holst.). � Netein einen langwierigen Stil im Tadeln haben;nbsp;beneteln in einem verdrusslichen Ton und Stil etwas tadelnnbsp;(Bremen, 18th c.). � N�tteln (18th c.) iterum iterumque aliquidnbsp;segre ferre atque id verbis exprimere (also = mussitare), and

K. F. SrXD�X, A XEW ETYMOL. GEOUP OF GEKMAYIC VEKBS 145 nitteln (19th c.) an Allem et was auszusetzen haben und mit einernbsp;gewissen Kleinigkeitskramerei dabei verfahren; benitteln in ver-driesslichem Ton kleinlich bekritteln; also derivatives, viz. Nittler,nbsp;einer der nittelt; Nittlerei and Nittelei, nouns of action; nittlerischnbsp;immer etwas zu nitteln habend; nittlich milder als nittlerisch (Balticnbsp;German).

Swiss German: � Noddere� I korrigieren, wiederspreclien, mit einem Vorgange nicht zufrieden sein.

Frisian: � Niddelu n�rgeln, kritisieren; niddelig a. n�r-gelnd, immer scheltend (Ditmarschen).

As to derivatives it should be noted that heneteld (Bremen, 18th c.), a participial adj., means �quot;verlegen, verwirrt, ungewiss wienbsp;man sich helfen soil�. Since this meaning represents the consequence of being ^getadelt�, i. e. upbraided or rebuked, it is obviousnbsp;that we are here faced with an instance of Semantic Addition of thenbsp;Resultative Type implying �rebuked so as to be made confused�,nbsp;subsequently accompanied by Permutation so that the sense becamenbsp;�confused�.

Dutch: � Neutelig 'verdrietig� (van Dale�s dictionary); u�telik 'verdrietig� (Achterhoeksch in Ziitphen, see Frank-vanWijk, Etymol.nbsp;Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal s. v. neutelen).

Frisian-Saxon: � Neutelg 'brommig, knorrig, schlecht gehumeurd� (Groningen).

Frisian: � Neutelig 'misnoegd�, i. e. displeased; 'kribbig�, i. e. quarrelsome; 'half verstoord�, i. e. half angry (Molema�s dictionary s. V. neutelg).

When these adjectives mean 'displeased, angry, annoyed�, their senses correspond to the meaning 'to utter one�s displeasure�, 'to benbsp;displeased�. Hence they presuppose the existence of a correspondingnbsp;verb with this sense. But sometimes they mean 'annoying� (cp.nbsp;the sense of Du. verdrietig). In this case the genetic explanationnbsp;must again adopt the view that we are faced with a Semanticnbsp;Addition of the Resultative Type involving 'displeased so thatnbsp;it(or he) is annoying�. Owing to Permutation this meaning wasnbsp;turned into the sense 'annoying through his displeasure�, andnbsp;thereupon the subsidiary element gradually faded away sincenbsp;'annoying� was of far greater importance than this notional elementnbsp;(= Adequation).

h. Sense-changes bearing upon Animal Utterance and Squeaking or Creaking Inanimate Objects.

The instances belonging to this subdivision are very few in number. We have come across the following examples only.

Danish (Jutland): � Noddregi�g sb. Jacksnipe. Noddre-hors sb. = noddregi�g.

Swabian: � Nottere� [nodere^'] v. ��Schnattern�, i. e. 'to cackle� (said of ducks and geese) or 'to chatter� (said of apes andnbsp;women); also = wiihlen.

High Alemannian (Switzerland): � N0dere� II v. Knarren (von Th�ren, Laden); also = albern plaudern.

English (Oxfordshire): � Nutter v. To whinny softly as a mare and colt to one another. Nuttering sb. The whinnying of anbsp;colt; the hard discontented noise made by a horse before whinnyingnbsp;(Oxfordshire, Berkshire).

Attention should proximately be drawn to LG. n�ddem 'schwach wiehern (von F�llen)� and Eng. dial, nutter to whinny softly, as anbsp;mare and colt to one another. The ultimate source of this sense isnbsp;doubtless the meaning 'to breathe noisily� (said of man). But thenbsp;question arises whether the latter sense is to be understood as thenbsp;immediate source of 'schwach wiehern� or whether the proximatenbsp;source was the sense 'to speak indistinctly through the nose and innbsp;an undertone�. The latter view should be adopted, all the rather asnbsp;we then get an additional point of similarity between the old thing-meant and the new one, to wit, the notional element of communication.nbsp;In this case the semantic change should be classed as an instance ofnbsp;Intentional non-figurative Transfer based on Similarity. We cannotnbsp;here be confronted with a metaphor, seeing that there is no emotionalnbsp;element present. We are concerned with the same type of semanticnbsp;change if the sense 'to breathe noisily through the nose� is considerednbsp;to have been the immediate source of the sense under discussion.nbsp;But the view adopted is preferable since it is a far more natural explanation. When nuttering denotes 'the hard, discontented noise madenbsp;by a horse before whinnying�, it may be an Intentional non-figurativenbsp;Transfer of the sense 'to grunt discontentedly�, as said of man.

In view of the existence of the compounds noddregj�k and noddrehors, found in the dialect of Jutland, it is necessary, as already

mentioned in another connection, to postulate the former existence of a verb noddre meaning �'to whinny softly�. For this is the sensenbsp;that should be assigned to noddre as a member of the compoundsnbsp;mentioned, seeing that they signify �'a jacksnipe�. This bird is distinguished by a cry suggestive of soft whinnying, a sound said to benbsp;produced by its tail-feathers. Cp. Sw'ed. horsg�k 'enkel beckasin�,nbsp;i. e. a jacksnipe, but literally meaning 'horse-cuckoo�.

The sense of the Swabian verb nottere� [= nodere**] is 'schnat-tern�, which means 'to cackle� (said of ducks and geese), or 'to chatter� (said of apes and women). The former sense may be understood as annbsp;Intentional non-figurative Transfer of the sense of Lat. mussitare,nbsp;i. e. 'to mutter to oneself�, perhaps even directly of the meaning 'tonbsp;breathe noisily through the nose�. If the verb is employed of thenbsp;chatter of apes, it should be understood as a Regular (= unintentional)nbsp;Transfer of the sense 'to cackle�. But if the verb is used of the inanenbsp;gabble of women, we are faced with an Intentional Figurative Transfer since then an emotional element is distinctly prominent.

The Swiss German verb n�dere� II denotes 'knarren�, i. e. to squeak or creak, said of doors or shutters. In this case we may seemnbsp;to be faced with an Intentional non-figurative Transfer of the sense 'tonbsp;breathe noisily�, the point of similarity being 'a series of subduednbsp;inarticulate sounds�. But since the verb also means 'albern plaudern�,nbsp;a sense whose source obviously was 'to speak indistinctly in an undertone�, this sense may perhaps have also been the source of the meaning 'to squeak or creak�,' said of inanimate objects in motion. Ifnbsp;so, the sense-change was due to an Intentional Figurative Transfer,nbsp;seeing that there must then have been an emotional element presentnbsp;involving a jocular touch.

We have performed our task to try to prove, on semantic-genetic grounds, that there existed in Primitive Teutonic a base nut other than that denoting 'to catch or capture�. The meaningnbsp;that we assigned to this base was to breathe audibly,nbsp;and the justification of this semantic hypothesis was borne out bynbsp;all the factual senses denoted by words with the base nut and bynbsp;those senses that we were forced to postulate as prehistoric links.nbsp;For with this semantic starting-point there was no serious difficultynbsp;in demonstrating the proximate source of each sense in a plausiblenbsp;manner that ought to carry conviction. But if so, we have

demonstrated the legitimacy of considering this group of words to be genetically interrelated, i. e. to form an etymological category,nbsp;though the latter be a novelty to etymological research.

The argumentation we employed was based on the results of semantic research, as far as it is represented by the categories ofnbsp;sense-change distinguished by G. Stern in his w'ork 'Meaning andnbsp;Change of Meaning� (1932) and provided with modifications andnbsp;additions of our own. We readily admit that this modified systemnbsp;has stood us in good stead when we tried to classify the semanticnbsp;changes that obviously had taken place. We also admit that thenbsp;main categories of the system seem to rest on the solid fundamentnbsp;of reality, and that a general survey of the possibilities of semanticnbsp;change is an asset very serviceable when the investigator has tonbsp;give a semantic-genetic account of new linguistic material. But,nbsp;on the other hand, it should be noted that in the present case thenbsp;material itself is too limited in extent and too uniform in characternbsp;to be a serious test of the suitability and sufficiency of the distinctions made in point of semantic change. And yet, even this testnbsp;has been of importance. For it is above all the confrontation of thenbsp;system of sense-changes wdth our own material that has forced us tonbsp;modify several doctrines of semantic systematization. Otherwise itnbsp;would in many cases have been impossible for us to give a plausiblenbsp;genetic interpretation.

There is another state of things that should be pointed out by researchers dealing genetically with a linguistic material. We refernbsp;to the fact that there are cases admitting of more than one geneticnbsp;interpretation. Hence we cannot claim to have constantly foundnbsp;the correct solution of the minor genetic problems met with, althoughnbsp;the etymological relationship of the senses be beyond doubt. Therenbsp;may also be instances where the basic origin itself appears to benbsp;doubtful. But if so, this has been pointed out. In the present casenbsp;we have further to state the interesting fact that there is a Germanic base nus that runs parallel with the base nut and evidentlynbsp;has the same primary signification. It is true that we believe thatnbsp;our genetic account is innocent of any mistakes imperilling the result of our argumentation. But none the less we cannot superblynbsp;disregard the important fact that Fate has provided us with annbsp;external evidence for the justification of our semantic starting-point.nbsp;For in view of the origin of the two bases it is beyond doubt thatnbsp;the primary sense of nus was the same as that of nut. But if so,

we must expect that the derivatives from the two bases should present a sense-development that to a large extent is uniform.nbsp;If this expectation be realized, then we are faced with an evidencenbsp;other than the semantic-genetic account for the factual existencenbsp;of a new etymological group of Germanic verbs and their derivatives.nbsp;Hence we are going to deal with this cumulative evidence in thenbsp;next chapter.

The Semantic Development from the Germanic Base nus.

The existence of a Germanic base nus has not until lately been acknowledged by etymological researchers. In OE nosu, OFris.nbsp;nosi, M L G nose, Du. neus (Kilian: neuse), East Fris. nus, allnbsp;denoting 'a nose�, we meet with a base nus. But this manifestationnbsp;of its existence is generally considered to represent the stage ofnbsp;reduction, 'die Reduktionsstufe�, i. e. n^^s, of the IE base nas 'anbsp;nose�i), whence OE nasu, 0 H G nasa (G. Nase), ON n^s, M Sw.nbsp;nas, etc. This view is held by Walde andPokorny (in 1927)^), probablynbsp;by Hellquist (in 1922)2), ^nd by Torp (in 1909)�), who in the case ofnbsp;OE nosu, 0 Fris. nosi, nose, nos says as follows: �kaum zur Wz.nbsp;(s)nus, wozu nnorw. nusla Futter suchen, nhd. mundartl. nussen,nbsp;niischen schniiffeln, wahlerisch suchen s. snus.D In the N. E. D.nbsp;{N edited by W. A. Craigie in 1907) we read the following declaration in point of the Eng. subs, nose: )gt;The relationship to OE. nas^^,nbsp;Nase and to Nese is not clear.� But this well-grounded scepticalnbsp;attitude as to the correctness of the prevailing view never took thenbsp;form of postulating a Germanic base nus. For when this scholar hadnbsp;to explain the origin of the Eng. verb nuzzle I, he derived it fromnbsp;nose sb. -f the affix 1. But there obviously worked some doubt in hisnbsp;mind since he made the following addition: �but cf. Du. neuzelennbsp;(Kilian neuselen), G. nus{s)eln n�s{s)eln, n�s(s)eln, Sw. dial, n�ssla tonbsp;poke with the nose, to snuffle, to speak through the nose.� Letnbsp;us now turn to Nynorsk Etymologisk Ordbok (Kristiania 1919),nbsp;compiled by Torp. In this work s. v. nos, pi. naser (p 462) thisnbsp;scholar advocates the following view in point of OE nosu, 0 Fris.

1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;A. Walde and J. Pokorny Vergleichendes W�rterhuch der Indogermanischennbsp;Sprachen, Berlin u. Leipzig 1927. Bd II, p. 318.

2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;E. Hellquist Svensk Etymologisk Ordbok, Lund, l:sta uppl. 1922, s. v. nasa.nbsp;Cp. A. Torp Wortschatz der Germanischen Spracheinheit, Gottingen 1909,

p. 295 (= Aug. Pick, Vergleichendes W�rterhuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen, Dritter Teil).

tljgt;

nosi, M L G nose, East Eris. n�s, and Du. neus: �Dette er vel en laging til roten nus snuse�, i. e. to nose, sniff, sniffle, snuff.Thisnbsp;expression seems to mean that OE nosu, OFris. nosi, etc. shouldnbsp;be apprehended, not as assimilations to the base nus, but as formations from this base. Personally we do not doubt that all these wordsnbsp;denoting 'nose� are Germanic formations from the Germanic base nus.

The Indo-Eur. tradition, i. e. the base nas, nas ('Dehnstufe�), survived nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;*nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;^

into Primitive Teutonic as nas and nos, and these roots are still richly represented in Germanic. Under such circumstances it is incomprehensible why the native base nus, which denoted 'to breathenbsp;audibly� and later on also 'to sniff, to smell�, should be unable tonbsp;denote an organ intimately connected with these functions, andnbsp;why it should be preferable to postulate an IE reduced form n^s,nbsp;whose very existence is doubtful, whereas the base nus is a solidnbsp;reality. This strange fact can only be due to ignorance of thenbsp;existence of a Germanic base nus. In East Frisian there is a subs.nbsp;n�sse 'nose� which obviously is a back-formation from the verbnbsp;niissen in sense 'to root about with the nose�. There is also a LGnbsp;subs. Nate 'nose� which may have been formed from the parallel basenbsp;nut in early German, but it may also be a late modification of M L Gnbsp;smite 'nose�, being probably a nursery word. As to LG Nuster, G.

Niister nostril, it evidently contains the base nus, whether this be due to assimilation to it or not. But the formation of the wordnbsp;is a point at issue, and hence we had better disregard the form.

The only etymologist operating with the Germanic base nus seems to be Alf Torp. He was obviously forced to do so in his genetic explanation of the Norwegian dialectal vocabulary.2) But thenbsp;meaning he assigns to this base is 'snuse�, i. e. to nose, sniff, sniffle,nbsp;snuff. It is true that this meaning represents an early stage of thenbsp;semantic development from the base nus, but it cannot be the primary signification. For with this semantic starting-point it is impossible to explain such senses as 'to sleep, to whisper, to speaknbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;� .

indistinctly, to mutter to oneself�. Hence we must postulate that the primary signification of the base was the sense to breathenbsp;audibly, just as this was the case with the base nut.

Let us point out that the base nus has the phonetic variant n�s. But this form is of rare occurrence; and when the long stem-vowel has been diphthongized, as in Swiss Ger. nausen, nausen 'schn�f-

felnd w�hlen�, we have disregarded the form. Hence our material derived from the base nus has no pretensions to completeness. Butnbsp;otherwise we have almost always noted down the instances ofnbsp;this base that we have come across. Therefore, the material isnbsp;superabundant with regard to our chief purpose, which is to let thenbsp;derivatives from nus corroborate the genetic relationship between thenbsp;words appearing to have the base nut in common, an affinity hithertonbsp;established by us through an argumentation based on intrinsic semantic grounds only. But the material is also sufficient for illustratingnbsp;the occurrence and geographical spread of the base nus itself. Itnbsp;must not be forgotten that an exposition of the sense-developmentnbsp;starting from the base nus has also a value of its own. For thenbsp;existence of a Germanic base nus is scarcely acknowleged by scholarsnbsp;other than Torp and has never obtained a synopsis such as thenbsp;following presentation. There is also in this case a cumulative evidence for the existence of a genetic group of words formed on the basenbsp;nus, to wit, the etymological category formed on the base nut.nbsp;Hence we need not explain the origin of the senses that the formernbsp;group has in common with the latter category, when we now takenbsp;a conspectus of the words formed from the Germanic base nus.

SCANDINAVIAN.

Swedish (dials.). 1867 J. E. Rietz, Orclbok �fver Svenska Allmoge-sprdket (Lund).

Noskas V. dep. Luggas, i. e. to tear each other�s hair, to pull a person�s hair (Vesterbotten).

Nysla or N�sla I v. Vara sysselsatt med smasaker, hafvabradtom med manga obetydliga g�romal och arender, men darvid utrattanbsp;allt senfardigt, i. e. to be busy with trifles, to be eagerly busy withnbsp;many petty jobs but slow in completing them (Scania).

N�ssla II V. Gnaga, rota smatt, i. e., to gnaw, to root with the snout in a trifling way (Halland, Scania).

Nyssla or Nussla v. Stappla, vara nara att falla, i. e. to stagger, to be near having a fall (Scania).

Derivatives: � Ndskig, Noskig a. Snuskig, osnygg, i. e. dirty, uncleanly (Uppl., S�derml., Vestmnl.); in Weste�s dictionarynbsp;noskig 'vapig, fanig�, i. e. half-witted, foolish. � Nysla sb. Ettnbsp;vapigt fruntimmer, som till f�ga duger och for hvilket arbetet ej villnbsp;ga ur handerna, i. e. a soft-witted woman slow and inefficient innbsp;her work; also n�sselkar neut. and n�ssel, neut. (Scania).

Nossa I [wo.5(a)] V. (1) Lugga, i. e. to pull a person�s hair; (2) skaka om, i. e. to give a good shake; (3) tukta, i. e. to chastise.

Nossa II [nos] V. Syssla, bestyra, braka, i. e. to be busy (with trifles), to attend to or see after, to bustle or bother.

Nossa Sig refl. V. Vanda, vrida sig (i sangen av s�mnl�shet), i. e. to turn round or to writhe (in bed for want of sleep).

Nuska [nusk'\ V. Snoka, s�ka noga, i. e. to nose about for (a thing), to rummage.

Nussja [nm�] v. Tala for sig sjalv, mumla, i. e. to talk to oneself, to murmnr or mutter.

Nyssja II [nysy} v. [1] G�ra nagot smatt, st�ka, i. e. to be busy in a trifling way, to potter about putting things to rights (in a room);nbsp;(2) tissla och tassla, i. e. to whisper gossip, or the like; (3) pa falsktnbsp;lismande satt lista ut hemligheter eller taga reda pa nagot, i. e. tonbsp;wheedle secrets or information out of a person in a deceptive andnbsp;insinuating way.

Derivatives: � Noskog [noskug(dr)'] a. Smutsig, osta-dad, snuskig, i. e. dirty, nntidy, uncleanly. Noss \nos\ sb. (1) Lugg, i. e., a pull of a person�s, hair; (2) haret vid �ronen, i. e. the tuft ofnbsp;hair at the ears. Nossa \nosa] sb. Drul, t�lp, i. e. lout, churl. Nuskognbsp;\nusko(gcer)'] a. Illistigt nyfiken, i. e. inquisitive in a wily way.

Comments: � The sense To pull a person�s hair� expressed by nosk^ and nossa I most probably originated from the meaningnbsp;^to root (up) with the snout� or rather from one of the activitiesnbsp;involved in the process of rooting up something such as shaking ornbsp;tearing the roots of a plant. If so, we are faced with an instancenbsp;of Intentional- Figurative Transfer, but the sense-change presupposes the Situation of Visible Presence. The same is true of thenbsp;sense 'to give a good shake�, also, presented by nossa I, whereasnbsp;its meaning 'to chastise� is due to a Semantic Addition of the Purposive Type and subsequent Permutation, the starting-point beingnbsp;'to pull a person�s hair (or to give him a good shake) in order tonbsp;chastise him�. The meaning of nossa sig, i. e. 'to turn round or tonbsp;writhe (in bed for want of sleep)�, is obviously a synonym for the

1) As to nossa sig, nyssja in sense 3; noss in sense 2, and the form nuskog, see V. E. V. Wessman Samling av ord ur �stsvenska Folkmdl, Helsingfors 1926.

sense 'to bother oneself� in sense 'to worry oneself, to pester, or annoy oneself� (= Permutation).

When nyssja II denotes 'tissla och tassla�,i) j g whisper gossip, this sense may be taken to be an instance of Intentionalnbsp;non-figurative Transfer of the primary signification 'to breathe audibly� which passed into the meaning 'to whisper�, cp. Eng. to breathenbsp;also = to whisper. Thereupon followed Specialization, i. e. thenbsp;use of Genus pro Specie (a type of Adequation). The sense 'tonbsp;wheedle secrets or information out of a person in a wily way�, presented by the same verb, should proximately be explained as duenbsp;to a Semantic Addition of the Purposive Type. In other words, itnbsp;presupposes the previous existence of the sense 'to whisper gossipnbsp;to a person (in order to wheedle secrets or information out of himnbsp;in return)�. This semantic Addition by Implication was sooner ornbsp;later followed by Permutation so that the Purposive Addition alonenbsp;remained.

In the Scanian verb n�ssla II 'to gnaw�, 'to root with the snout in a trifling way�, the origin of the former sense is obviously genetically connected with the latter meaning. Let it be rememberednbsp;that the origin of such senses as 'to pull a persons hair� and 'to shake�nbsp;get a natural explanation when supported by the Situation of Visiblenbsp;Presence if we postulate that they are Intentional Transfers ofnbsp;senses representing special activities in the process of rooting upnbsp;something. But if so, the same interpretation is also applicablenbsp;to the origin of the activity of 'gnawing at a root�.

The Scanian verb nyssla or nussla 'to stagger, to be in danger of falling� should be particularly noted since its origin may appearnbsp;to be doubtful. We may advocate the view that also in this casenbsp;we are ultimately concerned with the sense 'to root up with thenbsp;snout�. For this activity consists not only in tearing and in shakingnbsp;(a root or a plant to be rooted up) but also in striking, pushing, ornbsp;butting with the snout at a root to get it loose from the ground.nbsp;Let it be noted that Dan. dial, n�ska means 'at rykke Een i haret�,nbsp;'banke�, i. e. to pull a person�s hair, to knock or beat (Bornholm).nbsp;But the sense 'to knock� may easily give rise to the meaning 'tonbsp;stagger� if it be used in the context 'to knock involuntarily withnbsp;the foot against something�. The result of this action is 'to stumble�,nbsp;'to stagger�. Hence, if the sense 'to knock� is taken as starting-point

Swed. tissla means utter in a whisper�, cp. D. A. Sund�n Ordbok ofver Svenska Sprdket, Stockholm 1892.

for the origin of the sense 'to stumble or stagger�, then the proximate sense-change consisted in a Semantic Addition of the Resulta-tive Type, so as to give rise to the meaning 'to knock with the foot against something (so as to stumble or stagger)�. This sense wasnbsp;sooner or later followed by Permutation giving rise to the meaningnbsp;'to stumble or to stagger�. It seems to be obvious, then, that thenbsp;semantic aspect of Scanian nyssla or nussla and of Dan. dial, n�skanbsp;may be considered to have had as source 'to root up with thenbsp;snout�, and that hence they may be taken to represent the Germanicnbsp;base nus.

On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that in ON and mod. Icel. there is a subs, hnoss f. ornament, trinket. This wordnbsp;is by Torp, understood as going back to Prim. Tent. *hnussi, anbsp;form which, according to him, is the assimilative result of *hnu�-pi,nbsp;lit. 'gehammertes�, a derivative from the base hnud 'stossen, schla-gen� (cp. ON hnj��a pa. t. hnaud stossen schlagen, nieten). Prom thenbsp;stem hnuss- (in *hnussi) was obviously formed OE Jinossian to strike,nbsp;and in mod. Icel. there is a verb hnuska (with a short u) denotingnbsp;'knuse el. stode, saal. at der kommer en haevelse�, i. e. to crush ornbsp;knock (strike) so as to cause a swelling.i) The fundament of thisnbsp;word is obviously the extended stem *hnus{s) -k-. Hence it is obvious that Scan, nyssla or nussla 'to stagger� may contain the stemnbsp;*hnuss- to strike, to knock. As to Dan. dial, 'n�ska 'to pull a person�s hair�, 'to beat or knock�, the latter sense probably took its risenbsp;from the sense 'to root up with the snout� since the former sensenbsp;evidently did so. For we have noticed that the coexistence ofnbsp;two senses may be genetically significant.

Personally, however, W'e do not believe that the proximate semantic source of Scanian nyssla or nussla 'to stagger� was the sensenbsp;'to knock or to strike�. We believe instead that the source was 'tonbsp;walk slowly�. For if this implies an habitual mode of locomotion,nbsp;its cause is mostly physical debility. But if so, we must admit thatnbsp;'to walk slowly� and 'to walk unsteadily� are Notions of Interference,nbsp;i. e. they have some notional elements in common. For in this combination the notion presented by 'unsteadily� appears as a subsidiarynbsp;element in the notion of 'slowly�. Hence the sense 'to walk slowly�nbsp;may through Adequation be turned into the sense 'to walk unsteadily�. But this meaning is equivalent to the sense 'to walk with anbsp;tottering or reeling of the body as if about to fall�, i. e. to staggernbsp;Cp. S. Bl�ndal Islandsk-Dansk Ordbog, Reykja\'ik, 1920�1924.

156 K. VET. O. VITTBRH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SER. A. BD 1. ]Sr:0 3 (when walking). Through further Adequation, i. e. through shiftingnbsp;again the attention from the notional element of walking to thenbsp;mode of its performance, the subsidiary element, i. e. '�when walking�,nbsp;was eliminated. This is the best genetic explanation, and it impliesnbsp;that the word is a derivative from the base nus. The sense 'to walknbsp;slowly� should be understood as an Intentional Figurative Transfernbsp;of the sense To nose about or to walk slowly about in quest of food�nbsp;(said of animals), but with suppression of the purposive idea. Anbsp;striking parallel to this explanation is afforded by the West Fris.nbsp;verb nuskje '�beuzelen�, i. e. to be busy in a trifling manner, langzaam wandelen�.

If we turn to the nouns with the base nus, it is to be'observed that noss means both '�a pull of a person�s hair� and The tuft of hairnbsp;at the ears�. This semantic duality is significant since it impliesnbsp;that in punishing children it was mostly the tuft of hair at the earsnbsp;that was being pulled. Hence there arose the sense �a pull of thenbsp;tuft of hair at the ears�, which involves a Specialization of thenbsp;sense 'a pull of a person�s hair�. This fact is the starting-point ofnbsp;the sense-change that ended in establishing The tuft of hair at thenbsp;ears� as an independent sense. It may then be argued that there wasnbsp;a relation of interdependence between �a pull� and this tuft of hairnbsp;and that these meanings appeared in suitable contexts as equipollent notions from the view-point of being means of administeringnbsp;supposed justice, e. g. Look out for the ^noss�\ If so, the appearance of the new sense was due to Permutation. But if this viewnbsp;be not accepted, then there is nothing for it but to regard thenbsp;new sense as a case of Intentional Adequation.

As to the adjectives, let us only point out that noskog in sense �inquisitive in a wily way� is an adjectival counterpart to the verbnbsp;nyssja in sense �to wheedle secrets or information out of a personnbsp;in a deceptive and insinuating way�. For its meaning originatednbsp;from the sense �wheedling secrets out of a person wylily�, a sensenbsp;equipollent with the notion �inquisitive in a wyly way� and hencenbsp;admitting of being replaced by the latter meaning (= Permutation).

Semantic parallels with verbs formed from the base nut are presented by the following verbs: � Nysla or Nosla I to benbsp;busy with trifles, n�sla II in sense �to root with the snout in a trifling way�; nossla �to loiter, to be late in coming, etc.�; nuska �to nosenbsp;about, to rummage for�; nyssja II in sense �to be busy in a triflingnbsp;way�; nussja �to talk to oneself, to murmur or mutter�.

As to derivatives we have to note that the substantives nysla 'a soft-witted woman slow and inefficient in her work� and nossanbsp;'a lout, a churl� have semantic congeners amongst the derivativesnbsp;from the quot;base nut, e. g. Dan. dial, notlitot, Du. neutel, Low Frank.nbsp;(Flemish) *n5tel, the postulated source of the Devonshire adj.nbsp;nottle = foolish, etc. (cp. Sw. dial, noskig foolish, soft-witted). Letnbsp;us also state that the adjectives noskig and noskog, when denotingnbsp;'^untidy, uncleanly, dirty�, have semantic counterparts with thenbsp;base nut in the Schleswig-Holstein dialect, viz. nottelig 'unsauber�nbsp;and nuddelig or niiddelig 'unordentlich, unsauber, schmutzig�.

Nosa [lt;*iiMs�w] V. Lugte, snuse, i. e. to smell; to nose, sniff, snuff, sniffle.

Nossa [-00-],!) Nussa (Sogn) v. (1) Sysle i mak og med omhu med paaklaedning og morgenmaaltid, gjore det sig behagelig, i. e.nbsp;to spend time and care on one�s toilet and meal in the morning, tonbsp;make oneself comfortable; (2) gi sig god tid, isaBr med smaa arbeider,nbsp;pusle, i. e. to allow oneself plenty of time, esp. in performing pettynbsp;jobs, to be busy in a trifling way. Also nossa seg refl. v. Gjore signbsp;tilgode, i. e. to make the most of it, to turn to good account.

Nosla V. HSte som en gris, med dens naeselyd, i. e. to eat like a pig in emitting nasal sounds.

Nussa V. (1) Lugte til; lugte, snuse efter, i. e. to smell at (a thing), to smell, to nose after, to rummage for; (2) sete ivrig og med neeselyd,nbsp;i. e. to eat eagerly in emitting nasal sounds. Also nussa seg, refl.nbsp;V. gi sig god tid, i. e. to allow oneself plenty of time, to be in nonbsp;hurry. The verb is a kind of intensive of noaa, nusa (accordingnbsp;to Torp).

Nuska V. (1) Soke, lete efter noget, is�r om dyr, gaa sakte om, luske om, i. e. to search for (esp. said of animals), to walk slowlynbsp;about, to prowl about; (2) sete saa smaat, i. e. to eat slightly; (3)nbsp;smaastjsele, rapse, i. e. to pilfer.

Nusla, also Nutia V. (1) Soke for, om dyr, i. e. to search for food (said of animals); (2) plukke, pusle, arbeide smaat, i. e. to pluck,nbsp;pick, to be busy in a trifling way; (3) nutia for nusla also = naslanbsp;'aete smaat og med en naeselyd, sete som en kat, gnage sagte�, i. e. tonbsp;eat slightly in emitting nasal sounds, to eat like a cat, to gnaw gently.

Nustra v. Gj0re sent og skrepelig arbeide, kludre, i. e. to be tardy and unskilful in doing or making something, to bungle.

Nusa V. Lugte til, snuse efter, i. e. to smell at, to nose after, to rummage for.

Nysja [lt; *nus-ja-n\ pa. t. nuste v. Plucke, pille, pusle med smaat arbeide, i. e. to pluck or pick, to be busy with petty jobs or trifles.

Nyssa I V. Plukke, snappe, rapse, plukke bort, i. e. to pluck or pick, to snatch, to filch, to snatch away. The ss is due to intensive doubling (according to Torp).

*N y s s a II v. Stange, puffe, i. e. to butt, to buffet, or to push. No connection with the base nus, according to Torp.

Nyssa III v. Vikle, svope om, i. e. to wrap up. Doubtful connection with the base nus, according to Torp.

Derivatives: � Gnos sb. Lugt, i. e. smell, scent, odour.^) The g is an accessory sound. � *Noss (also noos) sb. Liten Stakkar,nbsp;i. e. a poor little creature (thing, wretch). � Nuss sb. (1) Lugt, v�r avnbsp;noget, i. e. smell, scent = nus sb.; (2) = nusk neut. � Nusk Inbsp;sb. neut. Pilleri, drosing, i. e. trifles or niggling, dandling. Nusk IInbsp;sb. masc. Uansenlig person, i. e. an insignificant person. � N�Snbsp;sb. Lugt, v�r av noget, i. e. smell, scent of something.

Comments: � The most remarkable semantic feature amongst all these senses is the fact that there are verbs with thenbsp;base nus w'hich also mean To eat in a specified way�. When confronted with the verb nosla, whose only meaning is To eat like anbsp;pig in emitting nasal sounds�, one is tempted to look upon it as anbsp;phonetic variant of nasla, which has the same sense but also meansnbsp;To eat like a cat�. To gnaw slightly�. But none the less the verbnbsp;is by Torp connected with nusla, which means, amongst other things,nbsp;also �nasla�. We have also seen that nussa may mean �nasla� andnbsp;that nuska may denote �to eat in a trifling way�. These facts gonbsp;to show that the sense �to eat in a specified manner� is likely tonbsp;have originated spontaneously in verbs with the base nus. But ifnbsp;so, it is also likely that this meaning took its rise from the sensenbsp;�to root up something with the snout�, but only on the assumptionnbsp;that it got a Semantic Addition by Implication to the effect thatnbsp;the whole sense became �to root up something in order to eat it�.nbsp;Thereupon Permutation took place so as to give rise to the signification �to eat�. This general sense was through Adequation spe-

cialized in various ways, according to the nature of the thing-meant to which the word in the sense 'to eat� was applied.

Next after the sense 'to eat�, attention is drawn to the meanings 'to pluck or pick; to snatch away, to pilfer�, presented by nuska andnbsp;nyssa I. Of course it is possible to trace the sense 'to pluck or pick�nbsp;back to the meaning 'to rout or poke about in something� (= 'rotanbsp;om i�), as is suggested by Torp. But he does not tell us the subsequentnbsp;process of development. With this semantic starting-point, however,nbsp;it is necessary to postulate that the process consisted proximatelynbsp;in a Semantic Addition by Implication denoting the purpose of thenbsp;activity concerned so that there originated the sense 'to rout ornbsp;poke about in something in order to pick up a thing�. Thereuponnbsp;followed Permutation, yielding the sense 'to pick (up), to pluck�.nbsp;This process of semantic change is, in our opinion, a very commonnbsp;phenomenon, and hence the explanation given is no wanton conjecture.nbsp;But it is also possible to understand this sense as a Specialization ofnbsp;the general meaning 'to be busy in a trifling way� since this activitynbsp;may consist in plucking or picking berries, fruit, flowers, weeds,nbsp;scraps of paper, and other odds and ends. But this interpretationnbsp;maj^ perhaps seem too unlikely to reflect reality. For it operatesnbsp;with a source denoting an activity as performed by man, whereasnbsp;the proximate source was likely to be an activity as performed bynbsp;animals. But cp. the explanation of nyssla III and nyssa I infra. Letnbsp;us add that we are not willing to adopt Torp�s hypothesis as thenbsp;only possible explanation. For it is obvious that the original sensenbsp;may just as well have been the meaning 'to w'alk slowly aboutnbsp;(in order to pick up something eatable)� as the sense 'to rout or pokenbsp;about in something (in order to pick up something eatable)�. Thenbsp;former meaning is factually presented by nuska, a significationnbsp;readily originating from the sense 'to nose about in quest' of something�. All this goes to show that it is not superfluous to try tonbsp;find out the ways in which semantic change takes place. As to thenbsp;sense 'to pilfer�, it is obvious that it took its rise from the sense 'tonbsp;pluck, to pick�. But it is also evident that in certain contexts 'tonbsp;pick� and 'to steal� were equipollent notions, e. g. to pick and steal,nbsp;to pick pockets (= to steal from pockets), and that hence the sense-change is an instance of Permutation.

We have seen that the verb nyssla III means 'vikle, svope om�, i. e. to wrap up, and that in Torp�s opinion its connection with thenbsp;base nus is doubtful. He suggests, however, that the word may

have taken its rise from nyssa I, which means 'to pluck or pick�, 'to snatch away, to pilfer�. This origin is not to be denied, but onlynbsp;on the express condition that the semantic range of nyssa I hadnbsp;as proximate source the sense 'to busy oneself with trifling jobs�nbsp;(= Swed. 'ga oeh pyssla�). For in our opinion the sense 'to wrapnbsp;up� should be taken as a Specialization of this general sense whennbsp;it was used to describe a person�s behaviour towards another person.nbsp;For the sense then implies 'to pay attention in several minor waysnbsp;to a person�s comfort� (= Swed. 'pyssla om nagon�). It appears,nbsp;then, that this fact gives us the unexpected piece of information,nbsp;though in a roundabout way, that the sense 'to pluck or pick� maynbsp;be explained as another Specialization of the sense 'to be busy in anbsp;trifling way�. And in fact, the same item of information is impliednbsp;in the circumstance that the verb uysja means not only 'to be busynbsp;with trifling jobs� but also 'to pluck or pick�. It is plain, then,nbsp;that the fact of two senses being expressed by the same word maynbsp;be genetically significant.

Furthermore, we have found that the genetic connection between *ny s s a II denoting 'stange, puffe�, i. e. to butt, to buffet, ornbsp;push, and the base nus is denied by Torp. Instead he connects thenbsp;verb with the Gothic subs. hnujgt;�, hnut� 'spitzer PfahT, i. e. withnbsp;the Prim. Teut. base hnu) 'stossen, schlagen�, i. e. with the stemnbsp;hnuss- (lt; ¹hnud-pi) with the same sense. It is true that we havenbsp;previously tried to vindicate the possibility that the sense 'to push,nbsp;to knock� as presented by verbs supposed to contain the base nusnbsp;may also have taken its rise from the sense 'to root (up)� as one ofnbsp;the several activities involved in this comprehensive notion. It isnbsp;also true that the semantic aspect of ¹n y s s a II is by H. Rossnbsp;denoted to be 'smaastange, puffe�^) and that 'smaastange�, i. e. tonbsp;butt in a trifling w'ay, is exactly the sense to be expected if the genesis be adopted that we have suggested as a possible alternativenbsp;explanation in other cases. But ¹ny s s a does not also denote thenbsp;sense 'to root up� or 'to pull a person�s hair�. Also in Germannbsp;dialects there are several verbs, seemingly containing the base nus,nbsp;which only denote 'stossen, schlagen�. Hence let us adopt the viewnbsp;that, when this is the case, we are concerned with a derivative fromnbsp;the stem hnuss-.

We have seen that nussa seg denotes 'to allow oneself plenty of time, to be in no hurry�, whereas nussa means 'to smell at, to nose

after, to rummage for�. It is obvious that the reflexive pronoun has here dative function, and that the sense of the reflexive verb isnbsp;due to Permutation. For the sense of �nosing about� may appearnbsp;as a notion equipollent with the sense �to be in no hurry�.

It is perhaps superfluous to mention that in our opinion the verb uustra is a form parallel to the verb nussla, their prehistoricnbsp;sources being ¹nus-r-�n and ¹nus-l-�n respectively, and that bothnbsp;the r and the I are affixes with iterative, intensive, or diminutivenbsp;force.

As to the derivatives it should be noted that the subs, n�s �lugt, v�r av noget� is by Torp taken to be the source of the verb nusa �lugtenbsp;til, snuse efter�, which consequently is apprehended as a denominativenbsp;verb. He also maintains that nus is in ablaut-relation to the Norw.nbsp;dial. subs, njos �sharp lugt, stank�, i. e. strong smell, stench. Butnbsp;the validity of these allegations appear to be rather doubtful. Fornbsp;there is no denying the possibility that n�s and nusa are secondarynbsp;phonetic variants of Norw. dial, snus 'v�r av, nys om� and snusa,nbsp;�snuse, snofte, v�re, spore efter noget�, and that njos may go backnbsp;to the base hnus. Concerning the chronological interrelation of thenbsp;words snus and snusa, it is most likely, nay certain that the verbnbsp;has the priority since we are faced with a verbal base.

Let us particularly bring into notice the subs, no s s �liten stakkar�^), kleiner knirps, i. e. a pigmy, a poor little thing, since itnbsp;is an interesting word. For it is perhaps identical with earliernbsp;Dan. no s (s) �et kselenavn�, i. e. a pet name, whose source is considered to be ON hnoss �a costly thing, an ornament�, i. e. the verynbsp;word (Prim. Teut. ¹hnussi lt; hnu�-pi, according to Torp) that gavenbsp;rise to the Prim. Teut. stem hnuss-. The sense �a pigmy, a poornbsp;little thing� should then be understood as due to Permutation sincenbsp;this sense, too, may express fondness or familiarity.^) Let us admit,nbsp;however, that noss may be a derivative from nus and on a par withnbsp;Norw. dial, nusk II �an insignificant person� and Dan. dial, n�sselnbsp;in sense �a poor little woman�.

Semantic parallelism, whether we be concerned with postulated senses or not, with the verbs formed from the basenbsp;nut is presented by the following verbs with the base nus: � Nosa

Cp. Hj. Falk und Alf Torp Norwegisch-Danisches Etymologisches Worterbuch, Heidelberg 1910, Bd I s. v. nusse.

�) Cp. O. Kalkar Ordbog til Det celdre Danake Sprog, Kobenhavn 1892�1901 s. V. nos.

to smell, to nose or snuff; nossa (-00-) or nussa (1) to spend time and care on one�s toilet and meal in the morning; cp. the sense of thenbsp;postulated verb *nutelen in the Groningen dialect presupposed bynbsp;the adjective nutel foppish; (2) to allow oneself plenty of time, esp.nbsp;in performing petty jobs, to be busy in a trifling way; nussa in thenbsp;sense 'to smell at, to nose after or rummage for�; nuska in the sensenbsp;'to search for (esp. said of animals)�, to walk slowly about, to prowlnbsp;about; nusla (nutla) in the senses 'to search for food (said of animals)�,nbsp;'to be busy in a trifling way�; nustra to be tardy and clumsy in performing a task, to bungle, cp. Dan. dial, notler a bungler; n�sa tonbsp;smell a thing, to nose after; nysja (pa. t. nuste) in the sense 'to benbsp;busy with petty jobs�.

In point of derivatives it is worthy of note that the postverhal substantive nusk in sense 'an insignificant person� is a semanticnbsp;parallel to Dutch neutel 'klein mannetje, dreutel�, to Kilian�s neuteler,nbsp;neutelerJcen homuncio frivolus, and to West Flemish neuteraar, dim.nbsp;neuteraartje (also neutenaatje) 'dwergje, een verneuteld ventje�.

Nyssja, Nossja V. Eftersee, undersoge, hvad der ei vedkommer Een, i. e. to try to find out something that does not concern oneself.

N�ska V. At rykke Een i Haaret, banke, i. e. to pull a person�s hair, to knock, to rap.

N�ssla V. Nysle, smaasysle, smaapusle med Noget, i. e. to be busy with trifles (s. v. n�ssel).

Derivatives: �N�ssel sb. (1) Een, som er vilhg i sin Gjerning, men ei kan udrette synderligt derved, i. e. person willingnbsp;and assiduous but inefficient in his work; (2) et lille Kvindemen-neske, i. e. a poor little woman, or an insignificant litte woman.

Nostre [�aster, nastrd) v. (1) Smasynge for et lille barn, i. e. to croon or hum an air to a little child; smahviske uden at ordene kannbsp;hores, i. e. to whisper softly so as to make the words inaudible; (2)nbsp;nysle (uden at bestille noget sonderligt), smasysle, i. e. to be busynbsp;with petty jobs but without efficiency.

Nusse [nuso, nusi] v. (1) Ryste, i. e. to shake; (2) skultre sig, i. e. to give one�s upper body twists or shakes in order to get rid of something.

Nusle \_nus9l, nqsdl] v. (1) Pusle med et barn, gynge det pa heen-derne, i. e. to busy oneself in a trifling way with a child, to move it up and down on one�s hands; (2) arbejde uden fremgang el. kraft,nbsp;i. e. to work but without success or efficiency.

Nysle, Nosle [nys9l, n0Sdl] v. (1) Arbejde el. ga langsomt, i. e. to work or to walk slowly; also = ga langsomt (og darlig), i. e. to walknbsp;slowly (and badly), (2) pusle med smating, i. e. to be busy in anbsp;trifling way.

Derivatives: � Nos [nos] sb. Lugt, i. e. smell. Nostreret \nastrdr9'] a. Fingernem, i. e. handy, deft and clever of hand. � Nusknbsp;[nush, nBsli] sb. Et rusk, f. eks. i haret, i. e. a pull, say, of thenbsp;hair. Nussel \nosdV\ sb. En person, der arbejder darligt, i. e. annbsp;inefficient worker. Nusselvom {nasalwarri] a. Som arbejdet gar langsomt for, i. e. slow and inefficient in one�s work. � Nysleskanknbsp;\n0S9lska%k'\ sb. En person, som ingen vegne kommer med sit arbejde,nbsp;i. e. a person not making any progress in his work. Nyslevomnbsp;\n0Sdlworn] a. Langsom i sitt arbejde el. gang, i. e. slow in one�s worknbsp;or in one�s walk. Nyslevaerk [nosdlvoerk'] sb. Arbejde, som ikke skridernbsp;fra handen, i. e. work making no progress. Nyssel or Nessel sb. (1)nbsp;Nysselvserk = smaarbejde, i. e. trifling work; (2) en gammel nossel,nbsp;en gammel udslidt mand, der kun eevner att gore smasyssel, i. e. anbsp;worn-out old man only capable of doing petty jobs.

1914 B. T. Dahl, H. Hammer, H. Dahl Dansk Ordbog for Folket II Kobenhavn og Kristiania. (The words with the base nus mostlynbsp;belong to the language of the streets.)

Nusse V. (1) Vulg. Keele for, pleje, i. e. to take loving care of; nusse sig I hsege, pynte sig, i. e. to decorate or deck oneself; (2) =nbsp;nusle.^) Nusse sig II v. Skutte sig, gnide sig opad ngt; i. e. tonbsp;rub oneself against. Nusle v. Vulg. Pusle, sysle med Smaating, i. e.nbsp;to be busy in a trifling way. � Nysle v. A variant of nusle.

Derivatives: � Nusset a. Vulg. Uordentlig, urenlig, i. e. untidy, uncleanly. Nyslevom a. Som sysler med Smaating, i. e.nbsp;busy in a trifling way. Nysleri sb. Arbejde med Smaating, i. e. occupation with trifles.

Comments: �- As previously pointed out, the senses of the Bornholm verb n�ska, i. e. 'to pull a person�s hair� and �tonbsp;knock or rap�, are likely to have taken their rise from various actsnbsp;Cp. J. Brynildsen Norsk-Engelsk OrdboJc, Oslo 1927 (3 rd ed.).

of the activity involved in the comprehensive meaning ''to root up with the snout.� The same explanation is applicable to the Jutlandnbsp;verbs uuske 'to shake� and nusse 'to shake�, 'to give one�s upper bodynbsp;shakes or twists in order to get rid of something�. Yet, in point ofnbsp;these three verbs we cannot be absolutely certain as to whethernbsp;we are not concerned with the stem hnuss- after all. True, but onnbsp;the other hand it should be remembered that the explanation givennbsp;is a plausible hypothesis and that we are not confronted with thenbsp;fact that these verbs only denote 'to knock, to push, or to beat�.nbsp;This argumentum ex silentio should not be despised when we arenbsp;faced with semantic-genetic questions. In the present case thisnbsp;seems to be proved by the German dialects when they present verbsnbsp;meaning only 'stossen, schlagen� and seemingly containing the basenbsp;nus. The absence of other senses undeniably suggests that we arenbsp;then concerned with the stem hnuss-. The sense 'to shake� presentednbsp;by nuske and nusse, if they be derived from the stem hnuss-, maynbsp;have taken its rise from the sense 'to strike or beat something so asnbsp;to make it shake� (= Semantic Addition of the Resultative Type).nbsp;Cp. OHG hnutt�n 'vibrare� (lt; hnud to strike; to beat). But thenbsp;trans, sense of nuske and nusse is in favour of our explanation. Innbsp;addition, the stem hnuss- need not have developed the sense 'to shake�.

It is obvious that when the Jutland verb nusle signifies 'pusle med et barn�, we are concerned with a Specialization of the generalnbsp;sense 'to be busy in a trifling way�, and when it means 'to move anbsp;child up and down on one�s hands�, we are faced with a Specializationnbsp;or a Permutation of the former meaning. A synonymous variantnbsp;of the meaning 'to be busy in a trifling way with a child� is the sensenbsp;'ksele for, pleje�, i. e. to take loving care of a person, presented bynbsp;Dan. nussle (Intentional Permutation). But when nusse sig denotesnbsp;'haege, pynte sig�, i. e. to decorate or deck oneself, we may be innbsp;the presence of Permutation since this sense seems to have beennbsp;substituted for the meaning 'to take good or loving care of oneseK�.nbsp;But the sense-change may also be apprehended as a Specializationnbsp;of the latter sense.

The Jntland verb nysle or nnsle denotes, amongst other things, 'to work or to walk slowly�. This semantic description involves twonbsp;senses which should genetically be kept apart, viz. 'to work slowly�nbsp;and 'to walk slowly�. It may at first sight seem likely that the latternbsp;sense took its rise from the former meaning. But we cannot benbsp;concerned with a Specialization of sense since 'to walk slowly� is

generally an involuntary mode of locomotion and hence cannot be explained as due to using Genus, i. e. 'to work slowly�, pro Specie,nbsp;i. e. 'to walk slowly�. In addition, 'to walk� is no sub-species of thenbsp;sense 'to work�. It should be remembered that the verb denotes notnbsp;only 'to work slowly�, but also 'to walk slowly and badly� and 'to benbsp;busy in a trifling way�. In the preceding chapter we postulated innbsp;point of verbs formed from nut that both the sense 'to work slowlynbsp;or to dally�, and the meaning 'to be busy in a trifling manner� werenbsp;Intentional Figurative Transfers of the sense 'to nose or to walknbsp;slowly about in quest of food (said of animals)�, a picture which admitted of being apprehended as slowness in performing a task or asnbsp;occupation with petty jobs. But it is a matter of course that thisnbsp;picture might also be apprehended as illustrating 'slow walking� innbsp;performing a task. It is most interesting to find that the Jutlandnbsp;verb illustrates these three different modes of apprehension of thenbsp;same picture of a Situation of Visible Presence, figuratively transferred from the animal world to denote a thing-meant in the humannbsp;sphere.

Lastly, it is worthy of note that the Jutland verb nostre signifies not only 'to hum an air� or 'to whisper softly� but also 'to be busy in a trifling way�. For this goes to prove that the senses havenbsp;sprung from the same primary meaning.

Semantic parallelism with verbs formed from the base nut are often met with. We have to state that the Bornholm verbnbsp;nyssja or u�ssja denotes 'to try to find out something that doesnbsp;not concern oneself�, obviously an Intentional Figurative Transfernbsp;of the sense 'to nose about in quest of something�, and that n�sslanbsp;means 'to be busy in a trifling way�. We have further to note thenbsp;Jutland verbs nostre, whose senses have j.ust been mentioned (cp.nbsp;noddre, in Jutland); nusse in sense 'skultre sig�, evidently a Specialization of the meaning to shake (cp. nutte, Jutland); nusle in sensenbsp;'to work but without success or efficiency�, and nysle or nosle, whichnbsp;denotes 'to work slowly�, 'to walk slowly and badly� (cp. Alsatiannbsp;nottHe�'), and 'to be busy in a trifling manner�. Note also Dan. nussenbsp;sig I 'to decorate or deck oneself� and nusle (vulg.) 'to be busy withnbsp;trifles�.

As to the derivatives there are many semantic parallels. We have to mention the substantives n�ssel (Bornholm) in sense 'annbsp;insignificant little woman� (cp. Du. neutel klein mannetje, ventje);nbsp;nussel (Jutland) an inefficient worker (cp. Jut. notler in sense 'a

bungler�); nysleskank (Jutland) person who makes no progress in his work� (cp. West Flem. neutelaar a slowcoach); nyssel ornbsp;n0ssel (Jutland) in sense �smaarbejde�, i. e. trifling work; and nyslerinbsp;(vulgar Dan.) �arbeide med smaating�, i. e. occupation with triflesnbsp;(cp. nytleri �smaarbejde�, (Jutland). We have also to mention the adjectives nyslevorn (Jutland) slow in one�s work (cp. nuddelig langsam,nbsp;trage in Schleswig-Holstein, and notelig zauderhaft in East Frisia),nbsp;nostreret (Jutland) �handy, deft or clever of hand� (cp. nottelvorn deftnbsp;and clever of hand (Jutland), and niiddelig (Schles.-Hols.) in sensenbsp;�geschickt im Verfertigen von allerlei Kleinkram, anstellig�). Note alsonbsp;nusset (vulgar Dan.) �untidy, uncleanly� (cp. nuddelig or nuddelignbsp;�unordentlich, unsauber, schmutzig� in the idiom of Schles.-Hols.).

GERMAN

Low German

Nusseln [nushi], Nuuseln [nusln'] v. (1) Zaudern, langsam arbeiten, nicht aus der Stelle kommen; (2) unordentlich und unsauber arbeiten.

N�sseln \ny8ln\ v. (1) Z�gern, langsam arbeiten, nicht zu Ende kommen, nichts ordentlich machen (Dtm., etc.), cp. n�sseln andnbsp;nusseln; (2) langsam und schwankend gehen, taumeln (Dtm., etc.),nbsp;cp. n�sseln.

N�sseln [nosin'] V. (1) Langsam und ungeschickt arbeiten, nicht aus der Stelle kommen, ^igentl. wohl, mit der Nase in etwas w�hlen,nbsp;langsam in etwas herumsuchen; von Tieren: de K�h n�sselt watnbsp;in 't Heu �sie fressen langsam und lustlos�, �schn�ffeln im Heunbsp;herum� (Dtm.); (2) langsam und unsicher gehen, taumeln, schwanken,nbsp;straucheln, stolpern.

N�schen II [nysn] v. (1) Herumkramen; (2) beim Essen die besten Bissen heraussuchen.

Derivatives: � Adjectives: Nosselig, Nossig schmutzig. � Nusselig [nu'sdl]- (1) langsam in der Arbeit; (2) meist aber: un-

ordentlich, unsauber. Nussig [nu'si\ dumpfig (i. e. mouldy), schmut-zig. Nuschig [nu'h�] unordentlioli, schmutzig. � N�SSelig \ny'sd��] (1) unsicher, taumelig, benebelt (Dtm.); (2) zuweilen auch f�r schlaf-rig (Dtm.). � N�SSelig \n0'sdl�\ (1) langsam bei der Arbeit, faulnbsp;(Dtm.); (2) taumelig, schwindelig, nicht fest auf den Deinen.

Substantives: Nusch [nuS] Minderwertiges, cp. Norw. dial, nuslc sb. neut. Nusseler langsamer Arbeiter. Nusselie, Nusseligkeit lang-same, unordenthche Arbeit. Nusselkram Nusseligkeit. Nusselkatrien,nbsp;-liese, -peter, -puus, -pussel (Wm. Dtm.), -putt (Dtm) = Schelt-w�rter f�r langsame, unordenthche, schmutzige Menschen. � N�selnbsp;kleiner Rausch. N�sseler langsamer Mensch, in demselben Sinne:nbsp;N�ssel-b�del, -kopp, -peter, -puus (Wm.) u. ahnl. N�sselie langsame,nbsp;nichts schaffende Arbeit. � N�selnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;kleiner Rausch, Schwips.

Comments; � The sense 'still und unauffallig arbeiten� presented by uusen may be explained as a case of Permutationnbsp;since it forms a notion equipollent with the meaning langsamnbsp;arbeiten�, a sense far more common than the other in point of verbsnbsp;formed from the base nus and hence likely to have been the proximate source of the factual meaning.

(1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;'zaudern, langsam arbeiten, nicht aus der Stelle kommen�, and

(2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;'unordentlich und unsauber arbeiten�, the latter sense can hardlynbsp;have originated from the meaning langsam arbeiten�. For 'unsauber�nbsp;qualifies, not the verb, but the perforner of the activity it imphes.nbsp;The sense is far more likely to have taken its rise in the correspondingnbsp;agent noun, i. e. Nusseler 'a slow worker�. For this sense and thenbsp;meaning 'an inefficient worker� are Notions of Interference, i. e. theynbsp;have some notional elements in common, a fact that leads to annbsp;intentional concentration of one�s attention on these elements ifnbsp;the subs, is employed in suitable contexts. The same relationnbsp;exists between 'an inefficient worker� and 'a careless or negligentnbsp;worker�, and between the latter sense and the meaning 'an uncleanlynbsp;or dirty worker�. Otherwise said, we are here faced with Adequationsnbsp;due to Interference. We entertain the opinion, then, that the sensenbsp;'unordentlich und unsauber arbeiten� may or should be explainednbsp;as due to an Analogical Transfer (to the semantic area of the verb)nbsp;of a new sense adopted by its answering agent noun. This Transfernbsp;was made in order to bring about the semantic harmony thatnbsp;ordinarily prevails between a verb and its agent noun. It is truenbsp;that Nusseler only means 'a slow worker�, but it may once have had

also the sense 'an uncleanly or dirty worker�. As to sense 1 of the verb under discussion, let us point out that the meaning 'nicht ausnbsp;der Stelle kommen� may be understood as a Semantic Addition (bynbsp;Implication) of the Resultative Type made to the sense 'langsamnbsp;arbeiten� so as to give rise to the meaning 'to work slowly (butnbsp;without any noteworthy success)�, whereupon Permutation took place.nbsp;Or else the Permutation was made directly, i. e. without thenbsp;intermediacy of a Semantic Addition by Implication (= Intentionalnbsp;Permutation).

The verb n�seln denotes 'schlafen� only. It is obvious that in this case, too, we are faced with an instance of Permutation sincenbsp;under certain circumstances the sense 'to sleep� is a notion equipollent -with the sense 'to breathe audibly�. It is interesting to seenbsp;how the basic sense has in this veiled way been retained down thenbsp;centuries.

We have been informed of the fact that the verbs nysseln and n�sseln denote not only 'langsam arbeiten�, or the Like, but also 'langsam und schwankend gehen, taumehi�. We have previously pointednbsp;out that both senses should be understood as instances of Intentional Figurative Transfer of the sense 'to nose about�, or rather,nbsp;'to walk slowly about in quest of food� (said of animals). Otherwise said, the proximate source of both senses was the figurativenbsp;use of a meaning covering an old thing-meant but having thenbsp;speaker�s attention focussed on different notional elements on different occasions. We have also seen that in point of n�sseln in sense 1,nbsp;i. e. langsam und ungeschickt arbeiten, 0. Mensing makes the genetic remark: � �eig. wohl mit der Nase in etwas wiihlen, langsamnbsp;in etwas herumsuchen�. This explanation cannot be employed innbsp;the present case for the simple reason that there are plenty of verbs,nbsp;formed from the base nus, whose semantic area does not contain thenbsp;sense 'mit der Nase in etwas wiihlen� and probably never containednbsp;it. But his postulation cannot perhaps be called a wanton conjecture. For it is a fact that the Swed. verb sola originally denotesnbsp;to make dirty, to soil, to pollute� (answering to Goth, bisauljannbsp;to defile, Norw. soyla; OHG bisuljan, OE sylian to sully), but also hasnbsp;the intr. sense 'sudda, sola, vara senfardig�, i. e. to dawdle, to benbsp;slow or tardy, a sense appearing in the 17th century.^) This semantic change is pointed out, but not explained, by Hellquist (innbsp;Svensk Etymologisk Ordbok). The solution of its genetic problemnbsp;Cp. D. A. Sund�n Ordbok Ojver Svenska Spraket, Stockholm 1892.

is no business of ours, but it is obvious that there must have been contexts where the sense 'to soil, to pollute� and the sense 'to losenbsp;time, to be slow or tardy in bringing about, etc.� appeared as equipollent notions, representing cause and effect and that hence Permutation took place.

In our material we meet with the verbs *n u s c h e n and *n u s ch el n, denoting 'schlagen, stossen�, and there are also thenbsp;verbs *n � s ch e n I, III to be considered. Let us repeat our viewnbsp;that, when a verb seemingly is formed from the base nus but onlynbsp;denotes 'to strike, to knock, or to push�, we are probably faced withnbsp;the stem hnuss-, be it with k exention or not. Hence we are ofnbsp;opinion that the verbs *n u s c h e n and *nu s ch eln, which denotenbsp;'stossen, schlagen�, are in all probability formed from the stem hnuss-.nbsp;As to the verb n�schen, it is obvious that *n � s c h e n III is thenbsp;same word as *n � s c h e n I 'schlagen� since the reflexive sense isnbsp;founded on the transitive sense 'to push�. But it is perhaps notnbsp;impossible to assume that also n�schen II, which denotes 'herum-kramen� (i. e. mit der Gabel wiihlen) and its purpose, expressed bynbsp;the sense 'beim Essen die besten Bissen heraussuchen�, consequentlynbsp;a meaning due to Permutation, is the same word as *n�s ch ennbsp;III and hence is identical also with *n�schen I 'schlagen�. Thisnbsp;view is favoured by the verb n�schen in Hither Pomerania sincenbsp;it denotes both 'durchpriigeln� and 'durchschnauben�. It appears,nbsp;then, that we must say either that we are concerned with the basenbsp;nus or rather nus-k- in all the verbs n�schen or else that in point ofnbsp;Pomeran. n�schen we are concerned with a coalescence of the stemnbsp;hnuss-k- and the base nus-k-. The latter alternative should benbsp;adopted.

In this connexion it is meet to point out the slender fundament on which in early times the evidence is based for the occurrence ofnbsp;verbs with the stem hnuss-. The only reliable instance is OE hnossiannbsp;to strike. But this verb occurs only once in the OE literature, viz.nbsp;Riddles 6 (7) mec hnossiad homera lafe, i. e. swords (lit. the results ofnbsp;hammers) shall strike me. The corresponding ja-Yerh, i. e. gehnyssannbsp;to afflict � *ya-hnussjan), which often runs parallel with o-verbsnbsp;hke hnossian (lt; *hnuss�jan lt; *hnuss�n)^ is only recorded as a pastnbsp;participle, to wit, in Ps. C 127 /Se gehnysta gast, hiorte geclansod andnbsp;geeadmeded spiritus contribulatus, cor contritum et humiliatum.nbsp;But this participle may belong to gehnyscan to crush (lit. to makenbsp;nesh, cp. OE hnesce, hnysce soft, effeminate). As to modern times,

we have to note Eng. dial, nozzle to strike violently, and Icel. hnuska to crush or to strike so as to cause a swelling. But in favour of thenbsp;existence of a stem hnuss- 'schlagen, stossen� is also the fact thatnbsp;verbs with this semantic aspect and a similar phonetic shape ofnbsp;the stem are widely spread in the German dialects. This fact cannbsp;hardly be explained in another way.

If we turn to the derivatives, we find that there are some adjectives with the base nus which denote 'untidy or negligent� or else 'uncleanly or dirty�, viz. nosselig, nossig 'schmutzig�; nusselig 'lang-sam in der Arbeit� meist aber 'unordentlich, unsauber�; nussignbsp;'schmutzig�, also 'dumpfig� (i. e. mouldy, musty). To these wordsnbsp;may be added the stem nussel- in several compounds. The sensenbsp;'untidily and negligently� easily originates from the sense 'to worknbsp;slowly� since in this combination 'slowly� and 'untidily or negligently�nbsp;often form Notions of Interference, and hence the former notionnbsp;may be replaced by the latter sense (= Adequation due to logicalnbsp;Interference). But the sense 'uncleanly or dirty� cannot havenbsp;originated as an element in the verbal idea since this qualificationnbsp;refers to the performer of an activity. In other words, we wantnbsp;to point out that the formation of the adjectives denoting 'untidynbsp;or negligent� has been suggested by the verbal idea denoting 'tonbsp;work slowly, untidily, or negligently,� whether this idea appears as anbsp;predicate or as an agent noun, e. g. Nusseler 'langsamer Arbeiter�.nbsp;But we want also to emphasize that the sense 'uncleanly and dirty�nbsp;is a later development from these adjectives when qualifying nouns.nbsp;It is evident that 'untidy or negligent� and 'uncleanly or dirty�nbsp;constitute Notions of Interference and that the same is the case withnbsp;the senses 'dirty� and 'mouldy�. This fact explains the originationnbsp;of the senses 'dirty� and 'mouldy� (= Adequation due to logicalnbsp;Interference).

It may be a matter of surprise that the adjective nuschig should denote 'unordentlich, schmutzig�, seeing that the ultimate source ofnbsp;this meaning is 'to work slowly� and there is no verb nuschen with anbsp;corresponding sense in the idiom of Schleswig-Holstein. But formerlynbsp;there may have been such a verb; cp. nusken 'zauderhaft arbeiten�nbsp;in the dialect of Osnabriick (1758).^) � As to n�sselig, which innbsp;Ditmarschen denotes 'unsicher, taumelig, benebelt� but sometimes alsonbsp;'schlafrig�, we may say that the latter sense is due to Permutation.nbsp;For the notions of 'taumehg� and 'schlafrig� are equipollent notionsnbsp;') Cp. J. C. Strodtmami Idioticon Osnabrugense, Leipzig u. Altona 1758.

K. F. SXJND�N, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 171 if the relation between them is considered to be that between effectnbsp;and cause. Otherwise we are concerned with Adequation due tonbsp;logical Interference.

In regard to substantival derivatives, attention is drawn to N�sel ^kleiner Rausch�. The explanation of this meaning is given by thenbsp;existence of the verb n�seln 'schlafen�. For this fact suggests thatnbsp;the subs, originally meant 'a snatch of sleep�. But nobody can denynbsp;that between 'a doze� and �a slight booze� there often exists thenbsp;relation between effect and cause. Hence we often meet with contexts in which these senses represent equipollent notions so thatnbsp;the cause may be substituted for the effect (= Permutation). Thenbsp;subs. N�selnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;which means 'kleiner Rausch, Schwips�, is merely

Semantic parallelism with words formed from the base nut occurs in several words formed from the base nus. Let usnbsp;mention the verbs nusseln or nuuseln when denoting 'zaudern, lang-sam arbeiten, nicht aus der Stelle kommen�, and n�sseln when expressing the sense 'z�gern, langsam arheiten, nicht zu Ende kommen� hut also when denoting 'nichts ordentlich machen� (cp. thenbsp;agent noun notler (Jutland) in sense of 'a person who can do or makenbsp;work of any kind but in a clumsy and unskilful way�). Let us alsonbsp;point out that nosseln may mean 'langsam und ungeschickt arbeiten,nbsp;nicht aus der Stelle kommen� and that there is a close affinitynbsp;between nosseln in the sentence de K�h n�sselt wat in �t Heu �sienbsp;fressen langsam und lustlos, schn�ffeln im Heu herum� (Ditmar-schen), and the sense of Norw. dial, nuta when denoting 'to pushnbsp;forth (or down) the nose into the fodder but without eating�, a harmony that suits to a T our genetic explanation of the Norw. word.nbsp;We should also mention Niischen II in sense of hemmkramen, i. e.nbsp;herumw�hlen; cp. Swabian nettere^ 'w�hlen, sehnattern� and Highnbsp;Alemannian nodere^ I 'w�hlen, stochern, st�bern, etc.� But let usnbsp;above all point out the interesting parallelism in sense- developmentnbsp;presented by n�schen II, which denotes not only 'herumw�hlen� butnbsp;also 'beim Essen die besten Bissen herauswahlen�, and by Highnbsp;Alemannian ernodere^-^ which denotes 'durchst�bern� and 'erlesen�.nbsp;Both verbs are examples of substituting the purposive idea, expressednbsp;by implication only, for the ordinary sense of the verb, and bothnbsp;sense-changes lead to about the same result and have started fromnbsp;about the same signification. Cp. p. 112. � Lastly, it is worthy ofnbsp;note that in the dialect of Schleswig-Holstein the adjectives containing

the base nus and denoting quot;'unordentlich�, ��unsanber, schmutzig� have semantic parallels in adjectives containing the base nut, viz. nottelignbsp;'unsauber�, nuddelig or nilddelig 'unordentlich, unsauber, schmutzig.�

Derivatives: � Nusseler sb. Dem sein Werck nicht von der Hand gehet. Nusseley sb. Arbeit, womit nichts geschaffetnbsp;wird.

Bremen: 1768 Versuch eines bremisch-niedersdchsischen Wor-terbuchs etc. (Bremen).

Nusseln v (l) Mit der Nase worin herum wuhlen; (2) etwas durchstankern um etwas aus zu spuren. Metaph. von den Hunden;nbsp;(3) zauderhaft arbeiten. R[ichey].

Nusteren [die mittelste Silbe ein langes e] v. Herum nusteren, etwas durchstankern, durchsuchen. 1st von den Spurhunden ent-lehnet.

Derivatives: � Nusseler sb. Dem die Arbeit nicht von der Hand gehet; der amsig ist und doch nichts beschicket. Nusselijenbsp;sb. Eine Geschaftigkeit, womit nichts beschicket wird. R.�Beu�-selt ppl. a. Betrunken: gleichsam, der mehr Nbssel starkes GetrS,nknbsp;zu sich genommen hat, als er vertragen konnte.

Comments: ^� It is a legitimate postulation to assume that the sense �sich nicht entschliessen kdnnen� as expressed by thenbsp;verb nussen (Bremen) had as immediate source the meaning �to makenbsp;no progress in one�s work�. But since we are here concerned withnbsp;mental work, we may adopt the view, if we so will, that we arenbsp;faced with an Intentional non-figurative Transfer of a sense fromnbsp;the physical sphere to the mental domain, but also with a case ofnbsp;Permutation. As to the sense �to make no progress in one�s work�,nbsp;factually expressed by Nusseler, Nusseley (Hamburg) and by n�seln,nbsp;Nusseler, Nusselije (Bremen), it obviously represents a semantic Addition (expressed by implication only) of the Resultative Type, i. e. �(tonbsp;work slowly) so as to make no progress in one�s work�, or else of thenbsp;Adversative Type, i. e. �(to work slowly) but without making anynbsp;noteworthy progress�. In either case we are concerned with the logicalnbsp;relation existing between cause and effect, and hence, from the viewpoint of semantic change, we are in either case faced with a specimen

of Permutation. As previously pointed out, it is likely that the earlier sense at first receded into the background as a subsidiarynbsp;notional element until it faded away altogether, i. e. the sensenbsp;became proximately 'to make no progress in one�s work (throughnbsp;working slowly)�.

As to the verb nusseln (Bremen), let us point out that its second sense, i. e. 'etwas durchstankern um etwas aus zu spuren�, affordsnbsp;the interesting picture of a verb denoting an activity but providednbsp;by implication with a Semantic Addition of the Purposive Type.nbsp;But let us also point out that the verb has as first sense 'mit dernbsp;Nase worin herum wuhlen� and as third meaning the figurative sensenbsp;'zauderhaft arbeiten�. This goes to support the probability thatnbsp;the second sense gave rise to the first sense, as we have postulatednbsp;with regard to derivatives from the base nut.

The verb nusteren, with stress on the penultimate, has a form and a sense suggesting that it may be a derivative from LG Nusternbsp;= G. Niister nostril, all the more as Norw. dial, nustra and Dan. dial,nbsp;nostre have other meanings. But none the less it is probable thatnbsp;also LG nusteren had the prehistoric form *nus-r-�n as its ultimatenbsp;source, especially as the senses of the Scand. forms only representnbsp;a later stage in the semantic development. But if so, the LG formnbsp;of the word was originally *nustren or even *nusteren (with a parasitic e). This form was later on brought into contact with and assimilated to MLG and LG verbs in -�ren (= G. -eeren, -ieren).

In point of ben�selt 'betrunken� we are confronted with a past pple. of a verb benoseln, not mentioned by the dictionary of the dialect of Bremen but met with in the Elberfeld dialect, viz benoseln,nbsp;s�ck benoseln = sich betrinken. This verb is evidently formed fromnbsp;the subs. Niisel, N�sel (= -u-, -�-) kleiner Rausch (Schlesw.-Holst.)nbsp;and not from N�ssel (= -o-), 'ehm. kleines Fl�ssigkeitsniass�, i. e. anbsp;pint, as is suggested by the dictionary.

As to the semantic aspect of the agent noun Nusseler, we have already genetically explained the sense 'dem die Arbeit nicht vonnbsp;der Hand gehet�. In the other sense of the agent noun Nusseler, i. e.nbsp;'der imsig ist und doch nichts beschicket�, there are no equipollentnbsp;notions to be found, only a relation denoting cause and absencenbsp;of effect. But we are evidently faced with a sense-change startingnbsp;from the former meaning, seeing that the dominant notional elementnbsp;of the latter, i. e. 'absence of progress in one�s work�, is still metnbsp;with but as a subsidiary notional element. It is obvious that the

second sense had originally the same form as its starting-point but with a Semantic Addition of the Adversative type so as to appear innbsp;the shape 'a person who makes no progress in his work, despite hisnbsp;diligence�. Through Adequation the Adversative Addition, as beingnbsp;of special interest, became the dominant notional element. Thenbsp;Semantic Addition itself was due to unintentional Adequation.

Semantic parallelism with words formed from the base nut are presented by the following words and senses: � Hamburg:nbsp;niisseln 'zauderhaftig arbeiten�, Nusseler �dem sein Werk nicht vonnbsp;der Hand gehet�. N�sseley �Arbeit womit nichts geschaffet wird�,nbsp;cp. East Fris. N�tel�. � Bremen: nusseln (1) 'mit der Nase worinnbsp;herum wuhlen�, (2) �etwas durchstinkern (um etwas aus zu spuren)�,nbsp;(3) �zauderhaft arbeiten�; herumnusteren�etwas durchstankern, durch-suchen�; n�seln �arbeiten und nichts beschicken�; Nusseler �dem dienbsp;Arbeit nicht von der Hand gehet�; Nusselije 'eine Geschamp;ftigkeit,nbsp;womit nichts beschicket wird�.

Lab eck : 1907 Colmar Schumann Der Wortschatz von Liibeck (= Zs. f. deut. Sprachf., Beih. zu Bd IX).

Mecklenburg and Hither Pomerania: 1876 Mi W�rterbuch des Mecldenburgisch-Vorpommerschen Mundart (Leipzig).

Pomerania amp; R�gen: 1781 C. J. Dl,hnertPlatt-deutsches W�rterbuch nach der alten u. neuen Pommersch. u. Rug. Mundartnbsp;(Stralsund).

Nuschen v. (1) Etwas mit der Nase durchwuhlen, wie die Schweine Oder Hunde; (2) unter anderen Dingen etwas suchen, Sachen durch-stankern.

Derivatives: � Nusse [das ss weich] sb. �Eine olle Nusse�: Ein tramp;ger und fauler Arbeiter. Nusserij sb. Eine Arbeit die nichtnbsp;von der Hand gehet. Nussig a. amp; adv. Trl.ge, saumselig, langsam.

Comments: � The verb *n u s c h e n denotes only 'schla-gen, stossen� (L�beck), and hence it is very likely that we are concerned with a formation from the stem knuss-, with this sense. But,nbsp;on the other hand, there is the verb niischen denoting both 'durch-priigeln� and 'durchschnaubenquot; (Hither Pomerania), a semanticnbsp;duality suggesting that the senses have sprung from the same base,nbsp;viz. nus. And in fact, this explanation is in our opinion not to benbsp;dismissed in an offhand way. For in the picture of rooting up something there appear many activities, such as tearing, shaking, pushing,nbsp;or striking, and all of them seem to appear (but not at the same time)nbsp;in verbs which denote or formerly denoted To root up�. In thenbsp;present case we must adopt the view either that the base of thenbsp;verb niischen is nus or else that we are here faced with a coalescencenbsp;of the stem knuss- and the base nus. It simphfies the genetic question if we adopt the former view, but the latter interpretation isnbsp;probably the correct one.

We have seen that the verb niisseln denotes (1) Taumeln�, (2) 'unversehens zum Fall kommen� (Pom. amp; R�g.). It is obvious thatnbsp;sense 2 represents a Semantic Addition of the Resultative Typenbsp;but expressed by implication only, not in words. Hence there appearednbsp;at first the sense 'to stumble so as to have a fall�. But it is a matternbsp;of course that the notion of falling should tend to be the focal centrenbsp;of interest and that the notion of stumbling should tend to fallnbsp;into the background. From the view-point of interdependence 'tonbsp;stumble� and 'to faU� are understood as equipollent notions, andnbsp;hence the latter notion could be substituted for the former notion,nbsp;But the impulse to this Permutation was the difference in interestnbsp;presented by the two notions. The sense 'to stagger� had as proximate source the meaning 'to walk slowly (and stumblingly)�, and thenbsp;sense 'to walk slowly� originated from the sense 'to nose or walknbsp;slowly about in quest of food�, said of animals. We are consequently ultimately faced with an Intentional Figurative Transfer.

The adjectives nussig or nusslig denote 'schlaferig� and 'z�ge-rig� (Meek. amp; H. Pom.). Let us assume that the latter sense is the earlier notion in this case. Now 'z�gerig� may be the effect of beingnbsp;'schlaferig� But if so, they constitute equipollent notions from thenbsp;view-point of interdependence, and hence the cause, i. e. 'schlaferig�,nbsp;may be substituted for the effect, i. e. 'z�gerig�. Note, however.

that, if 'schlaferig� be the earlier notion, the same argumentation is applicable (mutatis mutandis). The semantic area of the adj.nbsp;nuschig (Pom. amp; R�g.) consists of the two senses 'durchwuhlet�nbsp;and 'durch herumruhren in Unordnung gebracht�. Also in this casenbsp;we are faced with the relation between cause and effect and consequently also with two equipollent notions. But in the presentnbsp;instance it is the effect that is the more interesting notion, as isnbsp;usually the case, and that therefore has replaced the other notionnbsp;( = Permutation). � The subs. Niisching 'ein Sweinchen� (Meek.nbsp;amp; H. Pom.) is obviously a New Coinage from the stem of the verbnbsp;niischen in sense �etwas mit der Nase durchwiihlen wie ein Schwein�.

Semantic parallelism with words containing the base nut is by no means absent: � Mecklenburg amp; Hither Pomerania:nbsp;Nusseln (= nuddeln) saumen, langsam arbeiten; n�schen in sensenbsp;�durchschnauben�; nussig or nusslig in sense 'z�gerig�; and Nussnbsp;eine Null, demand der nichts zu bedeuten hat (cp. Du. neutel andnbsp;LG. nuttig unbedeutend). � Pomerania amp; Riigen: Nussen sl/umen,nbsp;trage und faul arbeiten, Nichts beschaffen; nuschen etwas mit dernbsp;Nase durchwuhlen, unter anderen Dingen etwas suchen, Sachennbsp;durchstankern; Nusse ein trS,ger und fauler Arbeiter; Nusseri] einenbsp;Arbeit die nicht von der Hand gehet; nussig trage, saumselig,nbsp;langsam.

Gottingen und Orubenhagen: 1858 G. Schambach W�rterbuch der Mundart der F�rstenth�mer Gottingen u. Grubenhagennbsp;(Hannover).

Nuseln, Niiseln v. Nasein, durch die Nase sprechen, murmeln. Haufig dn�n bard (door den bard) n�seln�.

Derivatives.' � Ndskerske = Beyname zauderhafter Weiber (see Str. p. 148). Nusker sb. and Nuskery sb. (see Str. p. 168).

Westphalia: 1882 Pr. Woeste W�rterbuch der Westfd-lischen Mundart (Norden u. Leipzig).

Nuseln v. Summen, i. e. to buzz, to hum a tune, undeutlich sprechen, durch die Nase schnarren, i. e. to speak with a nasalnbsp;twang.

Waldeck: 1902 K. Bauer (H. Collitz) Waldeckisches W�rter-buch, Norden u. Leipzig.

N�s�Pn [� = geschlossenes kurzes ii\ v. Langsam oder heim-lich ausser der Mahlzeit essen, schnucken.

Comments; � Ben�seln quot;betrinken� (Elberfeld) is obviously a denominative verb formed on the subst. N�sel 'kleiner Rausch�; cp. ben�selt 'betrunken� in the dialect of Bremen (in 1768).nbsp;As to nus'En 'langsam oder heimlich ausser der Mahlzeit essen�nbsp;(Waldeck), it is'obvious that the sense 'langsam essen� should benbsp;understood as a Specialization of the general sense 'to be slow innbsp;performing an activity� and that we consequently are concernednbsp;with a case of Adequation (Genus pro Specie). It is also evidentnbsp;that this sense gave rise to the meaning 'heimlich ausser der Mahlzeit essen�. For under certain circumstances 'langsam essen� andnbsp;'heimlich essen� appeared as equipollent notions, and hence the latternbsp;sense as being of more interest than the former sense was able tonbsp;replace it = Permutation.

Semantic parallelism with words formed from the base nut is presented by aU the other words containing the basenbsp;nus. But let us especially point out the verbs nuseln, niiselu 'nasein,nbsp;durch die Nase sprechen, murmeln� (G�tt. amp; Grubenh.), nusehlnbsp;'summen, undeutlich sprechen, durch die Nase schnarren� (Westphalia), nuseln (u kurz) 'nasein� (Elberfeld), and n�skeln 'to nosenbsp;about� (Westphalia).

East and West Prussia: 1883 H. Erischbier Preus-sisches W�rterbuch. Ost- und Westpreussische Provinzialismen (Berlin).

Nuscheln v. (1) Mit der Nase wiihlen; (2) zaudernd, siiumig, ohne rechten Zweck arbeiten, eine Arbeit unvollkommen, unordent-lich, oberflachlich verrichten; (3) schmutzig, unsauber arbeiten,nbsp;Elecken in eine Arbeit bringen; in diesem Sinne auch ab-, benuscheln.nbsp;Vemuscheln auch verwischen, verwiihlen.

Derivatives: � Nuschel sb. m. Unsaubere, trage, un-ordentliche Person. Nuschel- in compounds, viz. -nase f. Zur Be-zeichnung einer saumigen, unfertigen, unsauberen und nicht sorg-faltigen Arbeiterin; ebenso -lise, -lotte, -hans, -peter. Nuschler sb. m. = Nuschelhans, -peter. Nuschlig a. In alien Bedeutungen (soil,nbsp;corresponding to those of the verb). Nuschrig a. Unsauber, un-reinlich; unansehnlich, elend.

Comments: � As to �ch, Frischbier gives the following piece of information pag. v: �sch bezeichnet den eigent�mlichen

Laut, der dem franz�sischen j gleich klingt und polnisch durch z ausgedr�ckt wird.� It is remarkable that there should be nonbsp;examples of the stem nus{s)- or niis{s)- in the dialect except nilssennbsp;'nach Niissen suchen�, obviously formed on the pi. of Nuss, i. e.nbsp;nut. Hence it is probable that sch represents earlier zz as found innbsp;the Hamburg verb nusseln (ss molli) 'zauderhaft arbeiten� (Richeynbsp;in 1755) and in the Pomeranian words nussen (das ss weich) '�siu-men, trage und faul arbeiten�, nusseln (das ss weich) 'taumeln, zumnbsp;Fall kommen�, Nusse (das ss weich) '�ein trager und fauler Arbeiter�nbsp;(Dihnert in 1781). But as to sch in nuscheln in sense of �w�hlen�,nbsp;the source was probably earlier sch (lt; sA;), which, however, wasnbsp;assimilated to the corresponding voiced sound (cp. nuschen �w�hlen�,nbsp;Dihnert in 1781).

Concerning the semantic view-point, let us consider the third sense of nu�chelu, i. e. 'schmutzig, unsauber arbeiten�, �Flecken innbsp;eine Arbeit bringen�. It is obvious that the latter sense was originally a Semantic Addition of the Resultative Type and that fromnbsp;the view-point of interdependence it was a notion equipollent withnbsp;the former sense, i. e. �schmutzig arbeiten�, and hence able to replace it = Permutation. As to the meaning �schmutzig arbeiten�,nbsp;it is a sense hardly arising from the verbal function of the word.nbsp;Therefore, as we have previously pointed out, it should be lookednbsp;upon as due to Analogy, i. e. as an Analogical Transfer of the sensenbsp;�unsauber Arbeiter� presented by the subst. Nuschel, which appearednbsp;as an agent noun and originally probably denoted 'langsamer Arbeiter�.

Let it also be noted in point of nuscheln that the relation between the sense �zaudernd, saumig, ohne rechten Zweck arbeiten� and the sense �eine Arbeit unvollkommen, unordentlich, oberflachlichnbsp;verrichten� is that between cause and effect, and that hence thenbsp;two senses are equipollent notions so that the sense expressing thenbsp;effect may be substituted for the sense denoting the cause (= Permutation). The two senses are so closely connected that there isnbsp;no need for assuming the intervention of a Semantic Addition ofnbsp;the Resultative Type. For they are permanent synonyms, i. e. synonyms not requiring a particular context, and hence we are facednbsp;with Intentional Permutation.

Semantic parallelism with words having the base nut is of course met with. Let us point out sense 1 and sense 2 of

nuscheln, i. e. V�hlen� and 'zaudernd, saumig, ohne rechten Zweck arbeiten�. Note also the subst. Nus'chel unsaubere, trage, unordent-liche Person (cp. Nuddel schmutziger Mensch, Schlesw.-Holst.),nbsp;and the adj. nu�chrig unsauber, unreinlich; also unansehnlich, elendnbsp;(cp. nottelig unsauber, nuddelig or n�dd�lig unordentlich, unsauber,nbsp;schmutzig; also = langsam, trage (Schlesw.-Holst,); cp. also LGnbsp;nuttig unbedenteud, schlecht).

Baltic German: 1887 ff. W. von Gutzeit W�rterhuch der deutschen Sprache Livlands (Riga), Bd II (1889).

Nuscheln v. Z�gern, tr�deln, saumig eine Sache betreiben (Livonia, Bergmann u. Hupel); unordentlich und faul arbeitennbsp;(Esthonia; Sallmann).

Derivatives: � Nusch a. Klein. Nuschehg a. (1) Langsam in der Arbeit, saumselig (auch in Estland); (2) etwas nachlassig; n. aussehen, n. angekleidet; Hupel erklart: unansehnlich, unordentlich; (3) unbedeutend (ein nuschliges Madchen); Hupel hat: einnbsp;nuscheliges Pferd, u. erklart mit elend, klein. Nuschlerhaft a. Wasnbsp;saumselig geschieht. Nuschlerisch a. Einem Nuschler eigen odernbsp;entsprechend. �� Nuschelei sb. Nuschlisches Wesen u. Tun. Nuschel-peter sb. Einfaltiger u. saumseliger Arbeiter; ahnlich sind Nuschel-hans und Nuscheltrine (saumseliges, langsames Erauenzimmer).nbsp;Nuschelarbeit sb. Genuschelte Arbeit, Nuschlerarbeit. Nusch(e)lig-keit sb. (1) Saumseliges Tun; (2) Unbedeutenheit. Nuschler sb. m.,nbsp;Nuschlerin sb. f. Saumseliger, langsam arbeitender Mensch; beinbsp;Hupel auch: einer der sich mit Kleinigkeiten beschaftigt. Nuschlerarbeit sb. Arbeit, die nicht vorwarts geht.

Comments: � Let us point out the absence of instances with the stems nus(s)-, n�s{s)-, or n�s{s)-, though Baltic Germannbsp;was due to immigration from the north-western part of Germanynbsp;where nowadays there is plenty of instances with these stems. Thenbsp;adj. nusch '^klein�, however, is evidently connected with the subs.nbsp;Nusch '^minderwertiges� met with in the idiom of Schleswig-Holstein.

As to semantic parallelism with words having the base nut, all the meanings given above may be said to be examplesnbsp;in point. Let us only remark that one of the two senses assignednbsp;by Hupel to Nuschler and Nuschlerin, which are agent nouns, isnbsp;'einer der sich mit Kleinigkeiten beschaftigt�. It should be observednbsp;that this signification is often attached to derivatives from the basenbsp;nut but that it is perhaps not equally common in point of derivatives from the base nus.

Middle German.

N�seln (auch n�sseln, nusseln, n�sseln gesprochen) v. (1) Herum-kramern, in etwas herumst�bern, namentlich aber (2) in den Speisen herumst�ren (mit der Gabel), ohne ernstbch zu essen; wenig odernbsp;ohne Appetit essen; (3) undeutlich, namentlich durch die Nase spre-chen, halblaut, wie Unzufriedene und Hinterhaltige thun, undnbsp;krittlich sprechen; sehr �blich, zumal nn den Bart nusseln�. lmnbsp;Haungrunde und weiter ist die erste dieser drei Bedeutungen nichtnbsp;verhanden, die anderen beiden Bedeutnngen aber werden durchnbsp;zwei verschiedene W�rter vertreten: nauseln, ohne Appetit essen;nbsp;n�sseln, durch die Nase, undeutlich sprechen, kritteln, tadeln.

Comments: � It is obvious that Vilmar�s account leaves much to be desired in point of completeness and accuracy. Letnbsp;us, however, consider sense 1 and sense 2 of n�seln or n�sseln. Tonbsp;begin with, it is evident that the sense 'in den Speisen herumst�ren�nbsp;is an example of Intentional Figurative Transfer of the meaning 'innbsp;etwas herumst�bern�. It is also obvious that the sense 'ohne ernst-lich zu essen� is a Semantic Addition expressed by implication onlynbsp;and that this Addition later on became an independent meaning innbsp;the form 'wenig oder ohne Appetit essen�, which was a notionalnbsp;element of more interest than that expressed in words. It is evident,nbsp;then, that the senses 'in den Speisen herumst�ren� and 'ohne ernstlichnbsp;zu essen� were apprehended as equipollent (= equivalent) notionsnbsp;and that hence the latter sense could be substituted for the formernbsp;meaning (= Permntation). But note that the new sense has notnbsp;ousted the earlier meaning with the Semantic Addition (as isnbsp;usually the case) but appears alongside of it. And note above allnbsp;that the relation between the sense 'in den Speisen hernmst�ren� andnbsp;its Semantic Addition, i. e. 'ohne ernstlich zn essen�, is not the relationnbsp;of interdependence (as is the case when the Addition denotes thenbsp;purpose or the result of the activity of the verb) but a relation thatnbsp;may be understood as adversative though here meant to involve equi-pollence (equivalence). The adj. nesset {-et lt; -eht) 'wahlerisch�nbsp;was obviously formed from the stem of the verb n�SSeln in sense 'tonbsp;poke about in the food but without eating in real earnest�. The

K. F. SITHDEN, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 181 3rd sense of n�seln, n�sseln illustrates the semantic parallelism existing between the derivatives from the base nus andnbsp;those derived from the base nut.

1886 H. V. Pfister Nachtrage zu A. F. C. Vilmar�s Idiotilcon von Hessen (Marburg).

*N u s s en, *N ii s s en v. Stossen, schlagen (zumal am Westerwalde, doch auch sonst in unserem Stammes Gebiete); auoh:nbsp;im Ringen niederwerfen . . . Obige beide Zeitw�rter decken begriff-lich sich nahezu v�llig mit ags. hnossian und hnyssan; desgleichennbsp;in der Form.

*N ii s s eln v. wird vom Voc. Hass, erlautert: �das Essen im Munde hin und her werfen wegen schlimmer Zahne�. �brigepsnbsp;trennt auch jenes Glossar [i. e. Vocabularium Hassiacum, ein kleinesnbsp;handschriftliches Glossar aus der Mitte des vorigen Jahrhundertes,nbsp;cp. p XVI, Einleitung] dies niisseln ganz bestimmt von einem nus-seln ^male loqui per nares� ... In rheinischem Hessen meinet neselnnbsp;so viel als Mergeln�.

Comments: �We should admit that *nussen, *n�ssen 'stossen, schlagen� is most probably derived from the stem *hnuss-and that the same is the case with *nii s s eln, whose sensenbsp;'das Essen im Munde hin und her werfen� should be understoodnbsp;as a Specialization of the sense 'to push� (stossen), i. e. Genus pronbsp;Specie. Hence it is correct to say that these verbs must be keptnbsp;apart from nusseln 'male loqui per nares� and neselu 'nergeln�. bothnbsp;of which are formed from the base nus and present semanticnbsp;parallels with verbs formed from the base nut.

As to the sense'im Ringen niederwerfen� expressed by *nuss en, *niissen 'stossen, schlagen�, its source was obviously the sense 'schlagen�, i. e. to deliver blows, as used of one of two parties in hostile opposition or in emulation (e. g. boxing). The sense-development is easilynbsp;understandable if we postulate a Semantic Addition (by implication) of the Resultative Type so that the starting-point for furthernbsp;sense-development was 'to deliver blows (so that the antagonist isnbsp;thrown down or overcome)�. But if so, we are confronted with twonbsp;notions, cause and effect, which from the view-point of interdependence are equipollent. Hence the effect as being the more important, i. e. the more interesting, notion of them was able to replacenbsp;its cause (= Permutation). Cp. Swed. sla (fienden, medtavlaren)nbsp;and Eng. to beat, when they denote 'to overcome, to conquer in battle,nbsp;or (in mod. use) in any other contest�. When the N. E. D. (s. v.

beat 10) says that this sense is �a natural extension of 4�, i. e. the sense 'to thrash, to punish by beating�, this is mere nonsense sincenbsp;also the latter meaning represents a Semantic Addition, but of thenbsp;Purposive Type, i. e. 'to beat or thrash in order to punish�, a meaningnbsp;which passed into the sense 'to punish by beating� (= Permutation).

1926 P. Hofmann Niederhessisches W�rterbuch (die Mundart von Oberellenbach, Kreis Rotenburg (Fulda), Marburg.

Nussen \nosdn\ Y. (1) In etw. herumst�bern; (2) kleinliche Arbeiten verrichten.

Hessen-Nassau: 1935 Luise Berthold Hessen-Nas-sauisches Volksw�rterbuch (Marburg).

Nuseln I or Niiselu V. (1) Durch die Nase reden; undeutlich, leise reden; weinerlich reden, weinen; missvergniigt brummen, tadeln,nbsp;schimpfen; (2) schwer atmen (von Kindern); (3) leise regnen.

*N us s en v. Verpr�geln, schlagen, Zerbrechliches zerbrechen; sick n. sich (den Kopf.) stossen.

Derivatives: � Nusel- in compounds, viz. -hart sb. Mensch, der undeutlich spricht; Mensch, der naselt; -dingen sb.nbsp;Kind, das undeutlich spricht; -nase sb. Dasselbe wie Nuselbart;nbsp;-peter sb. Dasselbe wie Nuselbart. Nuseler I sb. Mensch, der undeutlich spricht (durch die Nase spricht, leise spricht). Nuseler IInbsp;sb. Trinker. � Niiselig a. Genau, kleinhch bei der Arbeit. Niisichtnbsp;a. (1) Wahlerisch im Essen; (2) genau, kleinlich in der Arbeit; alsonbsp;n�sset, nesset � wahlerisch im Essen. Niistlich a. Empfindlich imnbsp;Essen.

Comments: � The twofold sense expressed by nussen (F. Hoffmann) and nuseu (L. Berthold), i. e. 'in etwas herumst�bern� and 'kleinliche Arbeit verrichten�, implies a valuable piece ofnbsp;information inasmuch as it plainly indicates the way in which thenbsp;sense 'to be busy in a trifling manner� may have originated. Fornbsp;we are informed that the semantic starting-point was in the presentnbsp;case the sense 'to nose about in quest of something�, said of animals,nbsp;and that this meaning was intentionally transferred from the animalnbsp;world to the human sphere so as to give rise to the signification 'to

walk about here and there (like an animal) in order to perform some trifling business�. In short, we are concerned with an Intentionalnbsp;Figurative Transfer due to points of similarity, consisting in walkingnbsp;about for the purpose of doing some trifling work. Later on thenbsp;notion of walking about was often eliminated through Adequation.

The sense �schwer atmen�, said of children and expressed by nuseln I or niiseln in addition to other meanings (L. Berthold), formsnbsp;a striking contrast to the semantic aspects usually expressed by thenbsp;derivatives from the base nus. But it should be noted that thisnbsp;sense, i. e. To breathe heavily�, is so closely allied to the meaning Tonbsp;breathe audibly�, the primary signification, that the sense-changenbsp;implied should be classed as a Regular Transfer, nay perhaps evennbsp;as an Identification with the original sense. If so, we have to statenbsp;the interesting fact that a slight variant of the primary sense hasnbsp;been preserved from early times down the centuries.

But nuseln I has also the senses 'weinerlich reden� and �weinen�. The former sense and the meaning �undeutlich, leise reden�, alsonbsp;presented by this verb, are obviously Notions of Interference, andnbsp;hence the former sense was brought about by the sense-change wenbsp;have called Adequation due to logical Interference. Also the sensenbsp;�weinen� is a case of Adequation since it implies a total shift of attention from the notion of speaking (in 'weinerlich reden�) to the equallynbsp;prominent notion of crying, which appeared as the more interestingnbsp;notional element, a semantic change which may be classed as a usenbsp;of Species pro Genere.

Furthermore, there is the sense Teise regnen� to be considered, also presented by nuseln I. The source of this meaning was evidently the sense �undeutlich, leise reden� or rather its variant Tonbsp;murmur�. There is undeniably a certain acoustic similarity betweennbsp;the subdued and continuons sound of murmuring and the subduednbsp;and continuous swishing sound of gently falling rain. Hence itnbsp;would not be impossible for a speaker to denote with the word fornbsp;'murmuring� an auditive perception coming from the outside andnbsp;implying the sound of falling rain, the less so as the very phoneticnbsp;shape of nuselu (the u is short) is apt to describe this sound. If so,nbsp;we are faced with a sense-change due to Intentional non-figurativenbsp;Transfer based on Similarity. Proximately the new sense denoted thenbsp;sound of gently falling rain but immediately also the falling rain itself,nbsp;since from the view-point of interdependence these things may be apprehended as equipollent notions and hence are liable to Permutation.

There is also a verb nusein II denoting 'trinken�, and the corresponding agent noun, viz. Nuseler II 'Trinker�, whereas Nuseler I means 'Mensch der undeutlich sprioht�. Hence Luise Bertholdnbsp;suggests, though hesitantly, that the element of 'trinken� took itsnbsp;rise in Nuseler I. This postulation involves the view that the sensenbsp;'trinken� should be understood as an Analogical Transfer from thenbsp;agent noun denoting 'Trinker�. Of course it is true that indistinctnbsp;speech is a characteristic of an inebriated fellow, but he must thennbsp;be more than half-seas-over. Hence we should expect, not the sensenbsp;'Trinker�, but the sense 'a drunken fellow�, since this is the notionnbsp;that may be equipollent with 'a fellow talking indistinctly�. It isnbsp;evident, then, that Nuseler II derives its origin from nuseln II andnbsp;not vice versa. In order to explain the origin of the sense 'trinken�,nbsp;there seems to be no alternative left but to assume that the original sense was 'langsam trinken�. If so, we are confronted with anbsp;Specialization of the general sense 'to perform an activity slowly�,nbsp;a meaning very often presented by verbs formed on the bases nusnbsp;and nut. We have previously employed this type of Adequationnbsp;(Genus pro Specie) in explaining the sense 'langsam oder heimlichnbsp;ausser der Mahlzeit essen� presented by nus�l�n in the dialect ofnbsp;Waldeck, or in accounting for the sense 'to spend much time onnbsp;one�s toilet and breakfast in the morning� expressed by Norw. dial,nbsp;nossa. And if we turn to verbs formed from the base nut, we havenbsp;seen that netelen (Bremen) may denote slowness in speech andnbsp;slowness in criticism, and nuddeln (Lipsic) slowness and clumsinessnbsp;in driving, and there are other examples, also. Under such circumstances why should it here be wrong to postulate the sense langsamnbsp;trinken in order to get the semantic connecting link betweennbsp;the sense 'to act slowly�, which obviously was the earlier meaningnbsp;of nuseln II, and 'to drink�, its present sense! Of course an inveterate sceptic shakes his head in dismay. But if so, let us givenbsp;him the piece of information that the verb n�len, which also denotesnbsp;'to act slowly�, in the L G dialect, where it appears also in the form ofnbsp;ndlen, means (1) z�gern, zaudern, saumselig und langsam eine Arbeitnbsp;f�rdern, eine Sache zustande bringen; (2) langsam trinken.i) Again,nbsp;the sense 'trinken� is of course due to the type of Adequation callednbsp;Generalization, i. e. the use of Species pro Genere.

Lastly, we have to note a couple of adjectives. The word n�-selig signifies 'genau, kleinhch bei der Arbeit�. There appears to

') Cp. H. Frischbier Freussisches W�rterbuch, Berlin 1883, Bd II s. v. ndlen, bendlen.

K. F. SUISTDE�T, A NEW ETYMOL. GEOFP OF GEBMANIC VERBS 185 be no answering verb denoting 'to be painstaking and careful innbsp;doing a thing�. If there were, the proximate source of this sensenbsp;would have been 'to be slow in doing a thing (because of beingnbsp;painstaking and careful)�, the latter part of the sense being expressednbsp;by implication only. Thereupon Permutation would have takennbsp;place so that the cause was substituted for the effect. We neednbsp;not, however, presuppose the former existence of such a verb, butnbsp;we must then postulate that the adjective n�selig once had thenbsp;sense 'langsam in der Arbeit�, otherwise there would be no connectingnbsp;link with the base nus. Now it is a common experience that slowness in one�s work may be due to painstaking and carefulness. Whennbsp;this is the case, there exists between the qualities 'slow� and 'painstaking� the relation between effect and cause, and hence the causenbsp;may be substituted for the effect, seeing that they are equipollentnbsp;notions from the view-point of interdependence. In the present case,nbsp;then, we should say that n�selig originally meant 'slow in one�snbsp;work� and that from this sense there originated, through Semanticnbsp;Addition by implication of the cause and by subsequent Permutation, the meaning 'painstaking and careful in one�s work�, a signification that has ousted the old sense altogether.

The adjective n�sicht denotes (1) wahlerisch im Essen (in this sense also n�sset, nesset)] (2) genau, kleinlich in der Arbeit. Thenbsp;former sense is obviously the earlier one since sense 2 is alreadynbsp;expressed by n�selig. If so, we should assume that n�sicht was formednbsp;as an adjectival counterpart to a verb denoting, like nisseln in thenbsp;Upper Lusatia (Oberlausitz), not only 'durchsuchen, durchwuhle�nnbsp;but also 'im Essen n�. = 'die besten Bissen herauswahlen�. Thenbsp;same explanation should be adopted in point of n�stlich 'empfind-lich im Essen�, whose t is intrusive being due to careless pronunciation of the consonantal combination si. The second sense ofnbsp;n�sicht, i. e. 'kleinlich in der Arbeit�, may very well have hadnbsp;'fastidious in eating� as proximate source. If so, we are faced with anbsp;Generalization of sense (Species pro Genere), giving as result 'fastidious in one�s work�, a sense equivalent to the meaning 'genau,nbsp;kleinlich in der Arbeit�. Cp. the sense of Eng. 'fastidious�: hard tonbsp;please with regard to matters of taste or 'propriety (see N. E. D.)

Semantic parallelism with words formed from the base nut is met with in all other cases except *nu s s en 'verpr�geln,nbsp;schlagen, Zerbrechliches zerbrechen�, a word most probably formednbsp;from the stem hnuss-. Let us, however, particularly mention nusen

(1) in etwas herumst�bern; (2) kleinliche Arbeiten verrichten; and nuseln I (n�seln) in the senses 'durch die Nase reden�, 'undeutlich,nbsp;leise reden�, �missvergn�gt brummen, tadeln�.

Unterharz: 1890 F. Liesenberg Die Stieger Mundart, ein Idiom des Unterharzes (Gottingen).

Derivatives: � *N u s ch e sb. pl. Schlage. Kopf-ni s s e sb. pl. Schlage an den Kopf (cp. op. cit. p. 120).

Henneberg (in Saxe-Meiningen): 1881 B. Spiess Beitrage zu einem Hennebergischen Idioticon (Wien).

N�seln [nuse�\ v. In naselndem Tone verdriesslich �ber etwas sprechen, ohne gen�gende Ursache seine Unzufriedenheit aussern,nbsp;in �bler Laune gar zu viel an einer Sache zu tadeln haben.

Comments: � Let us only point out the occurrence of the words *n u s c h e n schlagen, stossen; *N u s ch e pl. Schlage;nbsp;Kopfnisse (Unterharz); and *nu s s en durchpr�geln (Lipsic),nbsp;all of which in all probability belong to the stem hnuss- or to itsnbsp;extended form *hnuss-k-).

Semantic parallelism with words formed from the base nut is presented by the verbs nuseln nasein, durch die Nase sprechennbsp;(Unterharz) and n�scheln, nusseln undeutlich sprechen (Lipsic).nbsp;Note especially n�seln (Henneberg), whose sense is closely alliednbsp;to that presented by the Bremen verb neteln, Baltic Germ, n�tteln,nbsp;nitteln.

Upper L u s a t i a (Oberlausitz): 1825 et seqq. K. G. Anton Alphabet. Verz. mehrerer in der Oberlausitz ublichen, ihr zum Theilnbsp;eigenthumlichen, Worter u. Redensarten (GSrlitz, Progr.).

*N us s el n v. Einem Kopfnusse oder Schlage �berhaupt geben, einen abpr�geln.^)

*N u s ch el n [mit kurzem �] v. Einen, d. h. ihn schlagen, besonders auf den Kopf = nusseln.^)

*N i s ch eln v. Einen, ihn beim Kopf und den Haaren nehmen und raufen und schlagen.^)

Nissein v. Durchsuchen, durchwuhlen; im Essen n. = die besten Bissen auswahlen; auch fein regnen.^)

Derivative: � N i s ch el sb. Der Kopf, besonders der mit Haaren bewachsene Theild)

Nuscheln v. Sles. man schreibt und spricht es vielleicht richtiger nuseln, durch die Nase reden.

Comments; � The stem-wowels i and i (written ie) met with in some words adduced above should be explained asnbsp;delabializations of � and u. The long u of nuscheln in sense of niescheln and the long i of the latter verb are probably due to a nasalized, i. e. here an imitative, pronunciation, seeing that this pronunciation of short u is met with in the Bavarian verb nuseln quot;durchnbsp;die Nase oder sonst unverstandlich reden�. �The semantic aspectnbsp;of nisteln goes to show that the word is a derivative from the basenbsp;nus. The intercalation of a i between s and I or its elimination innbsp;this position is no rare phonetic phenomenon. Thus, for instance,nbsp;there is in Enghsh everyday parlance a tendency to use an accessorynbsp;t in scarcely, whereas in English an original t is silent in words endingnbsp;in -stle, e. g. thistle (OE distel), whistle (OE hwistlian). This phenomenon is due to carelessness as to the right moment for the tonguenbsp;to articulate the 1.

From a semantic view-point it is remarkable that the verb *nischeln should denote quot;einen beim Kopf und den Haarennbsp;nehmen und raufen und schlagen�. For this sense is inordinatelynbsp;rich in notional elements even if we reduce them to the meaningnbsp;quot;to pull a person�s hair and to beat him on the head�. The originalnbsp;sense of *ni s cheln was obviously the same as that of *n u-

188 K. VET. O. VITTBRH. SAMH. HANDL. F. 6. SEE. A. BD 1. N:0 3 s cheln, i. e. 'einen schlagen, besonders auf den Kopf�. The presentnbsp;great richness in notional elements appears to be difficult to explain,nbsp;unless it be postulated that we are concerned with an Intentionalnbsp;Transfer of the former sense in order to denote a Situation of Visiblenbsp;Presence of the complex nature mirrored by the present sense ofnbsp;*71 i s ch el n. The Transfer may be called figurative inasmuch asnbsp;it is equivalent to using Pars pro Toto, i. e. in this case part of anbsp;small series of activities immediately following upon each other andnbsp;hence forming a chronological whole. This explanation presupposesnbsp;the collaboration of the Situation of Visible Presence and, as usual,nbsp;of repetition of the Transfer until the association between the wordnbsp;and the new sense be firmly established.

We have seen that the semantic area of the verb nisseln comprises three senses, to wit, (1) durchsuchen, durchwuhlen; (2) im Essen n. = die besten Bissen auswahlen; (3) fein regnen. Thenbsp;second sense is an example of a Semantic Addition by Implicationnbsp;denoting the purpose of the activity expressed by the first sensenbsp;of the verb. Hence the second sense formed a notion equipollentnbsp;with that of the first sense and was able to be substituted for itnbsp;(= Permutation). The third sense is another example of a verbnbsp;formed from the base nus and presenting the meaning Tein regnen�.nbsp;The first instance was niiseln or nuseln I (Hessen) which denotes (1)nbsp;durch die Nase reden, undeutlich, leise reden, missvergn�gt brum-men etc.; (2) schwer atmen (von Kindern); (3) leise regnen. Thenbsp;last sense was explained as a case of Intentional Transfer of thenbsp;sense To murmur� in order to symbolize the sound of gently fallingnbsp;rain, which forms a notion equipollent with the rain itself. Fornbsp;they represent effect and cause, and therefore the cause could benbsp;substituted for the effect. The same explanation is applicable innbsp;the present case. But it presupposes that nisseln once had alsonbsp;the sense To murmur or mutter�. In view of the disparity in semantic area presented by the Lusatian nisseln and the Hessian n�seln,nbsp;the sense Tein regnen�, as presented by TiisselTi, is likely to have hadnbsp;another origin. It may very well be derived from the sense 'durch-suchen, durchwuhlen�. Let it be noted that nisteln signifies Teisenbsp;herumstSren, herumwuhlen�, and that nisseln may have had this sense,nbsp;too. As a matter of fact, nisteln has an intrusive t and was oncenbsp;identical with nisseln. But if so, this sense easily got a Semanticnbsp;Addition by Imphcation denoting the result of the activity of the verb,nbsp;i. e. the sense To as to make a slightly rustling sound�. Therupon

Permutation took place giving rise to the meaning 'to rustle slightly� This sense is not recorded, but it was obviously the proximate sourcenbsp;of the sense 'fein regnen�. For the former sense is well adapted fornbsp;symbolizing the sound of gently falling rain, and the speaker�s usenbsp;of the word in this new sense (= Regular Transfer) may have beennbsp;helped by a feeling of its phonetic appropriateness. But the newnbsp;sense was immediately followed by an act of Permutation, the notionnbsp;involving the cause, i. e. the fall of the rain, being substituted fornbsp;the notion implying the effect, i. e. the sound of the falling rain.

The subs. *N i s ch el, denoting 'KopF, is obviously a formation from the stem of the verb *ni s cheln, which, as we have seen, oncenbsp;had the same sense as *n u s c h e I n, i. e. 'einen schlagen besondersnbsp;auf den Kopf�. Hence it follows that *N i s ch el, a New Coinage,nbsp;originally meant 'a knock on the head�. But if so, there was obviouslynbsp;a shift of attention from the notion of 'a knock� to the notion of 'thenbsp;head�, which gave rise to the sense 'the head (as having got a knock),nbsp;whereupon the subsidiary notional elements within brackets graduallynbsp;faded away through unintentional Adequation. We have previouslynbsp;pointed out in an equivalent case that this shift of attention shouldnbsp;be classed as Intentional Adequation. It should be noted that 'anbsp;blow� and 'the head� are no correlative notions, since a view-pointnbsp;is absent from which they may appear in this way. The case isnbsp;another in point of 'a pull� and 'a tuft of hair�, seeing that bothnbsp;notions may be understood as m e a n s of administering punishmentnbsp;(cp. Swed. noss).

Semantic parallelism with words formed from the base nut is presented by n�scheln and niescheln 'unverstandlich undnbsp;leise reden�, 'durch die Nase reden�; nisseln 'durchsuchen, durchnbsp;wuhlen�, '(im Essen) die besten Bissen herauswahlen�; nisteln 'leisenbsp;herumstdren, herumwuhlen� (Upper Lusatia); nuscheln or nuselnnbsp;'durch die Nase reden� (Silesia).

High or South German (Oberdeutsch).

Bavaria tfc Upper Palatinate: 1789 A. Zaupser Versuch eines bairischen u. oberpfdlzischen Idiotikons (M�nchen).

Nuseln v. Durch die Nase reden � Nussig a. Schlecht. A nus-siger Kerl, Ein unbedeutender Mensch.

1872�77 J. A. SchmeUer Baierisches W�rterbuch, 2. Aufl. von G. K. Frommann (M�nchen).

Nuseln \nu^ s'ln],^) auch N�seln v. (1) Durch die Nase oder sonst unverstandlich reden; (2) (OPf., Frank.) in etwas herumsuchen,nbsp;herumlangen; (3) langsam, affectiert und wahlerisch essen (cp.nbsp;Schmeller I 764).

*N u s s en v. Stossen, schlagen; *ab nu s s en, *dernussen: abpr�geln (cp. Schmeller I 1764).

Comments: � The proximate source of the sense Tangsam, affectiert und wahlerisch essen� (= sense 3) presented by nusein ornbsp;n�seln (Bavaria) is obviously the general sense 'in etwas herumsuchen� (= sense 2). But sense 3 presupposes that sense 2 wasnbsp;Specialized so as to refer to 'eating� and imply 'beim Essen mit dernbsp;Gabel herumsuchen� (Genus pro Specie). If so, there is no fundamental difference between this sense and the meaning 'langsam,nbsp;affectiert und wahlerisch essen�. In fact, they may on the wholenbsp;be understood as ordinary synonymous notions, and hence the latternbsp;sense could be substituted for the former meaning (= Intentionalnbsp;Permutation).

We have seen that nusteren means 'heimlich, leise reden�, 'fl�stern� (Bavaria) and that nus'ln, nus�len denotes 'heimlich reden�, 'durch die Nase reden� (Carinthia). In point of 'heimlich reden� andnbsp;'leise reden�, 'fl�stern� the starting-point was the sense 'to murmurnbsp;something to a person�. This sense very often suggests a Semanticnbsp;Addition by Implication denoting the purpose of this mode ofnbsp;communication. Otherwise said, the Purposive Addition was something like 'in order not to be overheard�, a notion which may benbsp;understood as a synonym for 'secretly�. If so, we are here facednbsp;with a case where a Purposive Addition by Implication has beennbsp;established as a prominent notional element of a sense, viz. thenbsp;meaning 'to murmur or whisper secretly�.

As semantic parallels with derivatives from the base nut we have to mention nuseIn or n�seln 'durch die Nase reden

1) naoh einem Vocal zeigt an, dass dieser durch die Nase zu sprechen ist; � ein Punkt oben neben einem Buchstaben zeigt einen unausgesprochenen gebliebenennbsp;Vocal an (Schmeller).

Oder sonst unverstandlich reden�, �in etwas herumsuchen, herum-langen�, n�s'ln, nus'len �durch die Nase reden�, and the adj. nussig �schlecht, unbedeutend� (cp. LG nuttig a. unbedeutend).

*N u s s V. (1) N�sse ernten; (2) durchpr�geln; weit verbr. Vgl. *d u r c h *h e r *vernussen.

Nustere�, N�stere^ v. (1) ntis-: In etwas herumsuchen, st�bern; (2) n�s-, n�s-, nis-: Leises Gerauscb machen, knistern, rascheln.

Derivatives: Nuseler sb. (Obsolete) Schelte (the precise meaning is uncertain). Nuschel [n�sl] sb. Schwatzhaftes, sich auf-fallend gebardendes Weib. N�schel [nisi] sb. Haarschopf [also =nbsp;Haarb�schel], wirre Haare, Hinterkopf. Nussig a. Grob.

Comments: � The two meanings presented by *n u s s e^, viz. �N�sse ernten� and �durchpr�geln�, are by Fischer obviouslynbsp;understood as genetically connected since he says: �Die Walln�ssenbsp;werden vom Baum heruntergeschlagen.� He also points outnbsp;that Nusser existed as a family name as early as 1398 and thatnbsp;the sense �durchpr�geln� is widely spread, a statement corroboratednbsp;by our own material. Let us accept Fischer�s view that the sensenbsp;�N�sse ernten� is not due to a denominative formation from thenbsp;sb. Nuss, pi. N�sse. The sense �N�sse ernten� should instead benbsp;explained as representing a Semantic Addition of the Purposivenbsp;Type involving �in order to bring down the walnuts�. From the viewpoint of interdependence this sense is equipollent with the notionnbsp;�to beat the boughs or twigs of walnut-trees� and was thereforenbsp;able to be substituted for it (= Permutation).

The sense �an etwas hemmessen ohne Appetit� presented by uusleu is about synonymous with the sense �to stir about in the foodnbsp;(with the fork) in order to pick out the choicest bits only (but notnbsp;in order to eat in real earnest)�, a sense previously explained genetically. Hence we may suppose that the latter sense was the proximate source of the former meaning and that the sense-change wasnbsp;due to substitution of an ordinary synonym for the earlier sensenbsp;( = Intentional Permutation).

We have seen that nustere� or n�stere� denotes 'in etwas herumsuchen� but also �leises Gerausch machen, knistern, rascheln�.

It is obvious that the latter meaning represents a Semantic Addition of the Resultative Type. Otherwise said, to the sense To seek allnbsp;round� was added by implication the notion �so as to make a rustlingnbsp;noise�. From the view-point of interdependence the cause andnbsp;effect are equipollent notions, and hence the effect admitted of beingnbsp;substituted for the cause (= Permutation).

Let us turn to the substantives. As to Nuschel �schwatzhaftes, sich auffallend gebardendes Weib�, it should be apprehended as annbsp;agent noun, though destitute of a corresponding verb which must oncenbsp;have existed denoting To prattle gossip (in an undertone)�, or thenbsp;like. � We have seen that N�SChel means �Haarschopf� (i. e. a tuftnbsp;of hair), �wirre Haare�, �Hinterkopf�. There is no doubt that thisnbsp;word was originally a noun of action meaning �a pull� and later onnbsp;�a pull of a tuft of hair� (= Specialization). It is obvious that in thenbsp;latter expression there was once a shift of attention from the notionnbsp;of 'a pull� to the notion of �a tuft of hair�, a phenomenon that gavenbsp;rise to the sense �a tuft of hair [as being pulled]�. Thereupon thenbsp;subsidiary notional elements within brackets gradually faded awaynbsp;through unintentional Adequation. But how is this shift of attentionnbsp;to be classed? We persist in our opinion, previously advocated,nbsp;that �a pull� and �a tuft of hair� may be apprehended as equipollentnbsp;notions from the view-point of being means of administering correction for offence. Hence we are here concerned, not with Intentionalnbsp;Adequation, but with Permutation, presumably of the unintentionalnbsp;type. The possibility of this Permutation without being misunderstood by the listener was based on the associative power of thenbsp;bond between the head-word and its qualifier. With this explanationnbsp;we must expect that also the converse may take place, i. e. thatnbsp;�a tuft of hair� and �a puli�, both appearing in the sense 'a tuft ofnbsp;hair as being pulled� may be exposed to Permutation so as to givenbsp;rise to the sense �a pull of a tuft of hair�. This semantic developmentnbsp;is presented by the Swed. substantives luv and lugg, both originallynbsp;meaning �a tuft of hair hanging down� � they are derivatives fromnbsp;the Germanic bases luli and luy To hang loosely down� � but subsequently also meaning �a pull of a tuft of hair�i), a sense which, innbsp;our opinion, presupposes the intermediary signification �a tuft of hairnbsp;as being pulled�. The latter sense was due to a Semantic Additionnbsp;by Implication, caused by repeated Situations of Visible Presence.

*) Cp. D. A. Sund�n Ordbok �jver Svenska Sprdket, Stockholm 1892 s. v. luf and

As to the sense 'wirre Haare�, it may be understood as a Specialization of the sense 'a tuft of hair�, obviously due to the fact that this tuft of hair was often being pulled by way of chastisement. Whennbsp;we have to explain the sense �Hinterkopf�, we should remember thatnbsp;the expression 'wirre Haare� refers to the hair growing on the vertex,nbsp;which forms part of the occiput, i. e. the back of the head. Hencenbsp;the exchange of the notion of 'wirre Haare� for the notion of the vertexnbsp;or the occiput should be explained as due to Intentional Adequation.

As semantic parallels with derivatives from the base nut we have to mention nusle� 'an etwas herum essen ohnenbsp;Appetit� (cp. n�sseln (Ditmarschen) and Norw. dial, nuta); niische�nbsp;or nusche� 'suchen�; nustere� or niistere� 'in etwas herumsuchen,nbsp;st�bern�, and the adj. nussig 'grob� (cp. nuttig).

Alsatia: 1899 E. Martin u. H. Lienhart W�rterbuch der Elsas-sischen Mundarten (Strassburg).

*N u s s e^ I [wMsa] v. Mit den Kn�cheln der geballten Faust auf den Kopf schlagen (p. 789).

Nusse� II [nysQl V. Schlummern, leise schlafen; i� nusse� v. einschlummern, einschlafen (p. 789).

Niisch�le� [nesh Wh., nyUd Hf.] v. (1) Kleine Arbeiten verrichten; (2) unter kleinem, wertlosem, altem Zeug suchend ein leises Gerausch verursachen (p. 789).

Derivatives: *N u s s sb. Schlag auf den Kopf mit den Finger kn�cheln (p. 788). Nusser \nysdr, Ropp.) sb. Schlafer, schlaf-riger Mensch (p. 789).

Comments : � The sense 'schlummern, leise schlafen� presented by nussen II has a semantic counterpart in the verb niiseln 'schlafen� (Schlesw.-Holst.), and the sense may be explained innbsp;the same way. But in the present case the verb has a phoneticnbsp;appropriateness to symbolize 'slumbering�, and hence this fact maynbsp;have given rise to the sense 'to slumber�. If so, we are concernednbsp;with a New Coinage.

Let us further notice that the verb n�sch�le� \nesld, nysld] means not only ^kleine Arbeiten verrichten� but also 'unter kleinemnbsp;wertlosem, altem Zeug suchend ein leises Gerausch verursaohen�.nbsp;This sense is very interesting inasmuch as its proximate source wasnbsp;'to rummage for something among all sorts of old rubbish so as tonbsp;make a slight noise�. Otherwise said, a Resultative Addition bynbsp;Implication was connected with the sense 'to rummage for something among old rubbish� and has replaced this sense by Permutation so as to turn it into a subsidiary notional element. But thenbsp;interesting part of it is that the latter is retained and has not beennbsp;eliminated by Adequation.

As to nissle� [nesW] 'knuspern, nagen� we are probably concerned with a derivative formation from the base nus (cp. the pronunciation of niischTe�). If the source of this sense was 'to make anbsp;slight noise� (cp. niischHe�, but without its subsidiary notion), thennbsp;we are obviously concerned with a case of Regular Transfer and ofnbsp;Permutation inasmuch as the cause of the sound to be denoted hasnbsp;been substituted for its effect. But the proximate source maynbsp;perhaps have been 'to rustle�. If so, we may be confronted with annbsp;Intentional non-fig. Transfer due to some similarity in sound. Lastly,nbsp;let us point out that *N ii s ch el means 'Kopf� (with a disparagingnbsp;tone), just as *N i s ch el denotes Kopf in the Silesian dialect. Bothnbsp;words had probably as proximate semantic source, not 'a tuft ofnbsp;hair� (cp. Swab. Nuschel), but 'a blow on the head�. The operatingnbsp;factor was then Intentional Adequation, not Permutation since therenbsp;seems to be no view-point from which 'a blow� and 'the head� maynbsp;appear as equipollent notions.

As to semantic parallelisms with words formed from the base nut, we have to mention the verbs nus�lequot; (wysfo] 'lang-sam und ohne rechte Lust arbeiten�; niisch'lequot; in the sense 'kleine Arbeiten verrichten� (Alsatia); and n�sle 'durch die Nase reden� (Basel).

Swiss German: 1901 F. Staub u. L. Tobler W�rterbuch der Sweizerdeutschen Sprache (Frauenfeld), Bd IV.

1) The dictionary says: �Viell. blosse Nbf, zu noschle^.� That is true if sch originated from ss. In any case the t is an accessory sound.

Nosch^e� V. (1) Suchend in Etwas herumw�hlen, -st�bern, -kramen und es dadurch in Unordnung bringen; (2) langsam undnbsp;ungeschickt an Etw. herumfingern, herumarbeiten, sich mit klein-licher Arbeit umstandlich und ohne Erfolg zu schaffen machen;nbsp;vemosche� einen Gegenstand verlegen; dur�'�nosche� suchend durch-w�hlen (833).

No^SCh^le� {no^schlen^, n�schele��, noschele^) Dim. zu nosch�^, v. (1) = nosche^ in sense 1; (2) = nosche^ in sense 2; also = allerlei kleinenbsp;Arbeit verrichten; (3) einfadeln (333).

Derivatives: G�-noseh sb. n. (1) Das Herumw�hlen in Etwas; (2) langsames, umstandliches, ungeschicktes Arbeitennbsp;(833). � Noscherei sb. (l) = G^nosch in sense 1; (2) die dadurchnbsp;bewirkte Unordnung. � Noschi sb. (1) Einer der unordentlich innbsp;Etwas herumw�hlt; (2) langweiliger Arbeiter; (3) gedankenlose,nbsp;vergessliche, nachlassige Person. � Noschig a. Verwirrt, unordentlich.

Comments: � Let us point out that the sense 'suchend in Etwas herumw�hlen, -st�bern, -kramen (und es dadurch innbsp;Unordnung bringen)� presented by nosch^equot; illustrates the occurrence of a Semantic Addition by Implication denoting the result ofnbsp;the activity of the verb concerned. In the corresponding noun ofnbsp;action, viz. Noscherei, Permutation took place, i. e. the Resultativenbsp;Addition became an independent meaning. Hence the word denotesnbsp;(1) das Herumw�hlen in Etwas; (2) die dadurch bewirkte Unordnung.

But nosch^e� means also 'langsam und ungeschickt an Etwas herumfingern, herumarbeiten� and 'sich mit kleinlicher Arbeit umstandlich und ohne Erfolg zu schaffen machen�. We are here seemingly confronted with two leading senses, viz. 'to work slowly andnbsp;unskilfully� and 'to be busy with trifling work�, lit. 'to make oneself busy with trifling work�. Let us disregard the relational sense-change involved in the literal sense and stick to its radical meaning,nbsp;i. e. 'to be busy with trifling work�. It is obvious that the expression 'herumfingern, herumarbeiten� implies the notion of 'klein-liche Arbeit�, and that 'langsam� and 'umstandlich� are equivalentnbsp;notions and 'unskilfully� and 'unsuccessfully� Notions of Interference.nbsp;Hence we are justified in considering the two senses of sense 2 asnbsp;being synonymous (quite apart from the relational sense-change).nbsp;But if so, it is evident that these two senses should be apprehendednbsp;as a Specialization of the manner in which the general sense, i. e.nbsp;'to se busy with trifling work�, is performed.

The verb no^SChle� is a dim. of nosche^ and has about the same senses. But in addition it also denotes 'einfadeln� lit. To pass anbsp;thread through a needle�, fig. 'to start (a conversation), to manoeuvrenbsp;(a matter)�. We are probably concerned with a Specialization ofnbsp;the sense 'allerlei kleine Arbeit verrichten�, also presented by the verb,nbsp;esp. if 'einfadeln� may mean 'to arrange the threads properly whennbsp;used in weaving� (= Genus pro Specie).

When the subs. Noschi means 'Einer der unordentlich in Etwas herumw�hlt�, we are faced with an agent noun. But the word denotes also 'langweiliger Arbeiter� and 'gedankenlose, vergessliche,nbsp;nachlassige Person�. The former sense may be understood as havingnbsp;replaced the sense 'langsamer Arbeiter� (= Permutation), and thenbsp;latter sense, too, should be ascribed to Permutation since it may benbsp;apprehended as a notion equipollent with the agential sense 'Einernbsp;der unordentlich in Etwas herumw�hlt�. The adj. noschig 'ver-wirrt, unordentlich� is obviously a New Coinage from the stem nosch-as occurring in Noscherei (sense 2) and in Noschi (sense 1).

Semantic parallelism with derivatives from the base nut is presented by the verbs nosere� {n�sere^y, (urnen)- nostlennbsp;'in etwas herumsuchen, -st�bern�; nosche� in sense 2 'langsam undnbsp;ungeschickt an Etwas herumarbeiten�, and noschle�, dim. of nosche�,nbsp;esp. in sense 'allerlei kleine Arbeit verrichten�. As to substantives,nbsp;note G�-nosch (1) Das Herumw�hlen in Etwas; (2) langsames, um-standliches, ungeschicktes Arbeiten, and Noscherei = G^-nosch innbsp;sense 1. The adj. noschig 'verwirrt, unordentlich� has a parallel innbsp;the adj. nuddelig, niiddelig meaning, inter alia, 'unordentlich� in thenbsp;dialect of Schleswig-Holstein.

N�sle� {n�sU^, n�sele^, n�sere^) v. (1) a) Nasein, undeutlich reden, b) leise (und darum unverstandlich) reden, fl�stern; 'mutire,nbsp;heimlich oder leise reden, n�selen, mit ihm selbst reden�. (Denzl.nbsp;1677; 1715); (2) etwas Kleines, Schwieriges arbeiten Z; (3) seinenbsp;Arbeit langsam verrichten Z (831).

*N�sch^e^ I in�schH^) v. (1) (Mit den H�rnern) stossen, puffen; (2) (stossend) w�hlen; (3) schlagen, bes. mit der Eaust insnbsp;Gesicht, Ohrfeigen geben; (4) Einen beim Schopfe, bei den Haarennbsp;nehmen (833).

1) The t in nuMere�-, n�sterequot;, and nostere^ is in our opinion an old intercalation between s and r, the prototype being *nus-r-�n.

ilill

Nusche� II nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nach anderer Angabe -s^-, n�^sch^e�^, nu^sch^equot;]

V. (1) Nasein, undeutlich, leise reden (derber als n�schelen)\ (2) = nosche� in sense 1, i. e. suchend in Etwas herumw�hlen, -st�bern,nbsp;-kramen, mit der Nebenvorstellung eines raschelnden Gerausches;nbsp;(3) = noschequot; in sense 2; (4) sich im Geheimen nach Etwas um-sehen, auf Etwas lauern (834).

*Nuschle^ V. (1) Pr�geln; (2) �bh. scharf her-, hart mit-nehmen, z. B. beim Spiel verlieren machen (834).

Nuschere� {nusch^ere�'-) v. (1) = nuschen II 1; (2) = nuschen II 2. )gt;In Papier nuschern oder n�schern.� �Schn�ffeln LE.�; (3)nbsp;miu-echtliche Handgriffe im Verborgenen tun, heimlich etwas in dienbsp;Tasche stecken LE.�; (4) ganz kleinliche Arbeit verrichten L. (834).

Nustere� {n�stere�, n�stere^Y v. (1) St�bern, w�hlend suchen; mit der Nase untersuchen, schn�ffeln; (2) a) an Etwas zupfen, herum-tasten, sich mit Etwas zu schaffen machen, in tadelndem S.; b) sichnbsp;mit Kleinigkeiten abgeben, unbedeutende Arbeiten machen (846�7).

Derivatives: � *Nuss sb. PI. Kopfn�sse Z., Pr�gel, Schlage (827). � *Nusch I sb. Einer, der die Tiere kastriert. ��nbsp;*N u s ch'^ II sb. Derber Stoss (bes. mit den H�rnern), (2) Schlag,nbsp;Streich; (3) Beule (833).�Nuschd sb. m. (1) = Noschi 1; (2) ==Noschinbsp;2; (3) n. Verborgequot;s; heimlicher Mensch, Schleicher (854).�Nusterinbsp;sb. Wer neugierig herumw�hlt, stets herum fingert (847).

Comments: � As to n�sle� there seems to be a causal relation between the senses quot;Etwas Kleines, Schwieriges arbeiten�nbsp;and quot;eine Arbeit langsam verrichten�, both occurring in Z [= Z�rich]nbsp;only. If so, the latter sense may be understood as a Resultativenbsp;Addition (by Implication) to the former sense and hence as havingnbsp;originated by means of Permutation, though the sense quot;eine Arbeitnbsp;langsam verrichten� is widely spread and generally has another origin.nbsp;But if so, we have only to account for the source of the sensenbsp;quot;Etwas Kleines, Schwieriges arbeiten�. This meaning is an exactnbsp;correspondence to the Swed. sense quot;halla pa med petg�ra� presentednbsp;by Swed. dial, ndttla, and hence it should be explained in the samenbsp;manner, i. e. it should be understood as a Specialization of thenbsp;sense quot;to be busy with trifling work� (Genus pro Specie).

In point oi*nusche^ 1, ultimately probably formed on the stem knuss-, we have to state that it means not only quot;stossen, puffen,nbsp;stossend w�hlen, schlagen, bes. mit der Faust ins Gesicht, Ohrfeigennbsp;geben� but also quot;Einen beim Schopfe, bei den Haaren nehmen�. Fromnbsp;a semantic view-point there appears to be no genetic connection

between the latter sense and the former meanings except V�hlen�. But there is a chronological contiguity between the activities represented by them inasmuch as slaps on the face and boxes onnbsp;the ear are often accompanied by pulls of the hair. Hence, whennbsp;the verb *nusche�' I was used in the sense 'to give a person slaps onnbsp;the face or boxes on the ear�, there was often a Semantic Additionnbsp;by Implication co-ordinate with this activity and denoting 'Einennbsp;bei den Haaren nehmen�. If the verb was used in the impliednbsp;sense, this should be explained as due to Intentional Adequation,nbsp;i. e. an intentional shift of the attention from the notion expressed by a word to the notion expressed by Imphcation only.nbsp;This explanation presupposes the co-operation of the Situation ofnbsp;Visible Presence, but it may none the less justly appear as too venturesome to be the correct one. Hence we had better assume thatnbsp;the proximate source of the sense was 'wiihlen� or rather one ofnbsp;the activities implied in this complex notion (see the explanationnbsp;of Sw. dial, noskas and nossa I).

Concerning nusche� II it is worthy of mention that it also means 'suchend in Etwas herumwiihlen, -st�bern, -kramen, mit dernbsp;Nebenvorstellung eines raschelnden Gerausches�. For this sensenbsp;obviously contains a Semantic Addition by Implication denoting thenbsp;result of the activity expressed by the verb, and it implies the factnbsp;that in the present case the Addition has not led to a Permutation sonbsp;as to give rise to the sense 'rascheln�. But this verb has also thenbsp;meaning 'sich im Geheimen nach Etwas umsehen�, 'auf Etwas lauern�.nbsp;The former sense took its rise from a figurative use of the meaning 'tonbsp;nose about in quest of something�. The notional elements of 'secretly� and 'sneakingly� are likely to originate in this sense when usednbsp;in several contexts. The sense 'auf Etwas lauern� may be understood as a contextual synonym for the signification 'sich im Geheimen nach Etwas umsehen�. Otherwise said, the sense 'auf Etwasnbsp;lauern� may be apprehended as a Semantic Addition by Implicationnbsp;denoting the purpose of the activity of the verb, i. e. 'um auf etwasnbsp;zu lauern�, and hence as equipollent with the sense 'sich im Geheimennbsp;nach Etwas umsehen� and able to replace it (= Permutation).

In regard to the sense 'unrechtliche Handgriffe im Verborgenen tun�, i. e. to do unlawful manipulations in secret, presented bynbsp;nuscherequot;, it may be understood as a notion in itself equipollentnbsp;with the sense 'to nose about secretly and surreptitiously in quest ofnbsp;something�. If so, we are faced with a case of Intentional Permuta-

tion. The meaning 'heimlich Etwas in die Tasche stecken�, also presented by nuschere�, should be apprehended as a Specialization of the sense 'unreohtliche Handgriffe im Verborgenen tun� = Genus pro Specie.

If we turn to the verb nustere�, we find that, amongst other things, it denotes ^an Etwas zupfen, herumtasten�, 'sich mit Etwas zunbsp;schaffen machen (in tadelndem S.)�, but that it also signifies 'mitnbsp;der Nase untersuchen, schn�ffeln�. The sense 'an Etwas zupfen,nbsp;herumtasten� may be conceived of as an Intentional Figurativenbsp;Transfer of the latter sense. The meaning 'sich mit Etwas zu schaffennbsp;machen�, i. e. 'to be busy with something� or 'to concern oneselfnbsp;about a thing�, may be apprehended as a contextual synonym fornbsp;the sense 'an Etwas zupfen, herumtasten�, if the sense actually isnbsp;(as is implied in the phrase 'in tadelndem Sinne�) 'to concern oneselfnbsp;unduly about a thing�. If so, the new sense is due to Permutation,nbsp;seeing that from the view-point of propriety and decency its notionnbsp;is equipollent with the notion 'an Etwas zupfen, herumtasten�.

In point of derivatives we have to note *N u s ch II, which means not only 'derber Stoss, Schlag, Streich� but also 'Beule�. Itnbsp;is obvious that 'Beule� should be understood as a Resultativenbsp;Addition by Implication to the sense 'Schlag, Streich�, and that itnbsp;hence was able to replace the latter sense by means of Permutation. Let us also remark that if N u s ch I, denoting 'einer der dienbsp;Tiere kastriert�, actually is a derivative formation from the base nus,nbsp;which perhaps is doubtful, then the sense may be a Specializationnbsp;of the meaning 'an insignificant fellow�, 'a person of inferior value�nbsp;(= Adequation: Genus pro Specie). This sense may be postulated,nbsp;since we meet with Norw. dial, nusk 'an insignificant person�,nbsp;LG Nusch sb. neut. 'Minderwertiges� (Schlesw.-Holst.), and LGnbsp;Nuss 'eine Null, jemand der nichts zu bedeuten hat� (L�beck).

Semantic parallelism with derivative formations from the base nut is presented by the verbs n�sle� in senses (1) nasein,nbsp;undeutlich reden; (2) Etwas Kleines, Schwieriges arbeiten = thenbsp;sense of Swed. dial, ndttla; (3) seine Arbeit langsam verrichten;nbsp;nusche� II in senses (1) nasein, undeutlich, leise reden; (2) suchendnbsp;in Etwas herumw�hlen, -st�bern, -kramen; (3) langsam und un-geschickt an Etw. herumarbeiten; nuscherequot; in senses (1) nasein,nbsp;undeutlich, leise reden; (2) suchend in Etwas herumw�hlen, -st�bern,nbsp;-kramen; schn�ffeln; (3) ganz kleinliche Arbeit verrichten; nustere�nbsp;in senses (1) st�bern, w�hlend suohen, schn�ffeln; (2) sich mit Kleinig-keiten abgeben, unbedeutende Arbeiten machen.

N�se� {n�sse^, n�se��) v. Durch die Nase reden, wie Einer der eine Hasenscharte hat (831).

N�ssele� I v. Lauern; abn�sselen v. = auf listige Art Einem Etwas ablocken, abschwatzen (831).

Derivatives: � N�seler sb. (1) Einer der unverstandlich (durch die Nase) redet; (2) Mensch mit einer Hasenscharte. � N�s-seler sb. Wer Andern Etwas abzulocken, abzuschwatzen sucht odernbsp;versteht. � *Nussi sb. (1) Nasenst�ber (= a rap on the nose,nbsp;a fillip); (2) leichte Wunde, Beule, verursacht durch Schlag, Fall usw.;nbsp;(3) Hautausschlag, Pustel, bes. an den Lippen; (4) leichter Krankheits-anfall, der von Einem zum Andern im Hause �bergeht; (5) bildl. a)nbsp;verstecktes Hinderniss, b) Nachteil, Schlappe (= check, reverse),nbsp;c) Verweis (831).

*N � s ch^e^ I V. = *n�sch^e�' I, i. e. (mit den H�rnern) stossen, puffen; (stossend) w�hlen; schlagen, bes. mit der Faust ins Gesicht;nbsp;Einen bei den Haaren nehmen (833).

N�schele'* I v. = noschen 1, i. e. suchend in Etwas herum-w�hlen, -st�bern, -kramen; erg�n�schle� v. Einen recht herum-stossen. (834)

N�SCh�^ele� II (nU^sch^ele'^, in Sis. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;n�schle^) v. (1) a) =

n�sche^ 11 1, b) = nusle^ 1 b; (2) = nuschen 11 2; (3) nachgr�beln, zu genau nach-, untersuchen. (834)

Derivatives: � *g�n�sch^et ppl. a. Gefleckt, nur vom Kopfe des Schafes. � G�n�sch^el sb. n. Undeutliches Redennbsp;(durch die Nase). � N�schel I {n�^schhl, in BSi. -�-) sb. m. Schnup-fen. Syn. Chn�sel (Bd III 762). �N�scheler, N�scheli sb. m. Einer,nbsp;der durch die Nase undeutlich redet. � N�sch^er sb. m. (1) auchnbsp;N�scheri = Nuschi 1 u. 2; (2) Knirps, i. e. a little man, a pygmy.nbsp;� *N � s ch^ el II (Nl^s^el, N�^Sgel) sb. m. (1) Maul, Schnauze (roh,nbsp;auch wenn vom Vieh gebraucht); (2) Schopf, Kopf (roh), (835).nbsp;N�SCh^e� sb. (1) = Nosch = Hosch (Bd II 1759); (2) � R�lpsen.nbsp;(834�5)

N�stere� v. = nustere^; er-niistere� v. = ganzlich durch-st�bern; �S- = dem Vor., dur�'*- = durchsuchen (846�7).

N�sterle� V. Dim.: (1) gr�beln; unruhig herumsuchen; einer Sache auf die Spur zu kommen suchen, heimlich ausforschen; (2) a) =nbsp;nustere^ 2 a, i. e. an Etwas zupfen, herumtasten, sich mit Etwas zunbsp;schaffen machen; b) = nustere^ 2 b, i. e. sich mit Kleinigkeitennbsp;abgeben, unbedeutende Arbeiten machen. (847)

Nistere� v. Ausst�bern, w�hlend suchen, Kasten und Truhen durchsuchen. (845)

Niste� V. (1) Ein Nest bauen; (2) Ruhe gewinnen; (3) (a) in Etwas suchend w�hlen, herumkramen; w�hlen, stankern in Etwas,nbsp;selbst im Unrat; b) den Unrat wegschaffen. (844)

Derivatives: � Nisti sb. Wer seine Siebensachen in Kisten und Kasten zerstreut in steter Unordnung hat. G�-nistig a.nbsp;W�hlerisch, unruhig. (845).

Comments: � It is genetically necessary to keep apart the derivatives from the Germanic bases nus 'to breathe audibly�,nbsp;nuhs, neuhs 'wittern, untersuchen�, and hnus, hneus 'niesen�.^) Thenbsp;base nuhs, neuhs is represented by Goth, biniuhsjan 'auspahen�, ON.nbsp;nysa (or hnysa) 'to snuffle, to scent; to peer, to pry, to look about�,nbsp;OSax. niusian, niuson 'untersuchen�, OE neosan, neosian 'nachspiiren,nbsp;besuchen�, 'to search out, find out, inspect, etc.�, OHG ar-, biniusannbsp;'to try�, piniusan 'to experience, attain�. The base hnus, hneus is metnbsp;with in ON hnj�sa 'to sneeze�, Swed. nysa, MLG nesen, ME n�sen,nbsp;OHG niusan, MHG, G. niesen}) It is also represented by Icel. /nbsp;hnysast 'soge at komme paa Spor efter n-t, udspejde n-t�, i. e. tonbsp;track, to pry ouD), and Swiss Ger. chniisslequot;' 'to sneak treacherouslynbsp;after a person�.

Let us now turn to Swiss Ger. n�ssele� I 'lauern�, i. e. to wait impatiently for a thing; to be on the watch, to he in wait (ornbsp;ambush) for.�) But G. 'lauern� seems also to mean 'to spy�, 'to seeknbsp;to discover by stealthy observation�, 'to examine or observe closelynbsp;or carefully�. If so, there appears to be no obstacle to understandingnbsp;n�ssele� I 'lauern� as a derivative from the base nuhs, neuhs', andnbsp;the same is true of n�ssele� II 'an Etwas geringf�gigem herumdifteln�.nbsp;For 'difteln� means Dgriibeln, �ber etwas nachsinnen, anhaltend

1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cp. A Torp Wm-tschatz der Germanischen Spracheinheit, Gottingen 1909, pp.nbsp;299 and 100 (= A. Fick, W�rterbuch der Indogermanischen Spraohen, vol. III).

2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cp. S. Bl�ndal Islandsk-Dansk Ordbog, Reykjavik 1920�1924.

3) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cp. Muret-Sanders Deutsch-Englisches W�rterbuch, Berlin�Sch�neberg 1908nbsp;(2. Aufl.), s. V. lauern.

und tief nachdenken. �i) Hence 'herumdifteln� obviously means ^to examine or observe a thing closely and carefully�. But none thenbsp;less we must a priori admit the likelihood that both n�ssele'^ Inbsp;and II are derivatives from the base nus. For we have seen thatnbsp;nusch�^ II denotes not only 'nasein, undeutlich, leise reden; suchendnbsp;in Etwas herumwiihlen; st�bern; langsam und ungeschickt an Etw.nbsp;herumfingern, herumarbeiten�, but also 'sich im geheimen nach Etwas umsehen, auf Etwas lauern�. And the sense 'gr�beln, �bernbsp;Etwas nachsinnen� may be understood as a figurative use of 'herumwiihlen�, cp. Swiss Ger. nodderer 'W�hler�, 'Gr�bler�. In point ofnbsp;the verb abn�ssele� our dictionary says (IV 831): � �Wrsch. blossenbsp;Nbf zu (ab-) lusselen (s. Bd III 1455).� This view is erroneous, butnbsp;it contains a fragment of truth inasmuch as the very combinationnbsp;with the prefix ab- may have been suggested by this verb. But ifnbsp;so, the formative influence itself was due also to some semanticnbsp;similarity between the verbs, and hence it is legitimate to assumenbsp;that n�ssele� I had also the sense 'auf listige Art Einem Etwasnbsp;ablocken, abschwatzen�, as is suggested by the corresponding agentnbsp;noun, whose form is N�SSeler without the prefix ab-. But what wasnbsp;then the origin of this sense? The answer is given by a Swedishnbsp;dialect in Finland. We there meet with a verb nyssja denoting (1)nbsp;to be busy in a trifling waj^, to potter about putting things to rightsnbsp;in a room; (2) to whisper gossip; (3) to wheedle secrets and piecesnbsp;of information out of a person in a deceptive and insinuating way�,nbsp;i. e. the very sense with which we are here confronted. The proximate source of this sense was obviously 'to whisper gossip� butnbsp;with a Purposive Addition by Implication denoting 'so as to be ablenbsp;to wheedle secrets and pieces of information out of him in return�.nbsp;From the view-point of interdependence the former sense, i. e. 'tonbsp;whisper gossip�, was a notion equipollent with the notion representednbsp;by the purposive idea, and hence it could be replaced by the latternbsp;meaning. The same explanation should be adopted in point ofnbsp;niissele� I. Hence we must postulate that this verb once had alsonbsp;the sense 'to whisper gossip�, or the like. But if so, the geneticnbsp;problem of n�ssele� I and also of n�sselequot; II is solved in an unassailable manner. For it is then beyond dispute that they are derivativesnbsp;from the base nus.

The meaning 'jmdn empfindlich sch�tteln� presented by n�sch^e� should in our opinion be explained as having originated from thenbsp;1) Cp- B. Spiess Beitrage zu seinem Hennebergischen Idiotikon, Wien 1881.

sense ��w�hlen�, whose complexity of activities also embraces 'to shake�. But if so, the verb may have been the same word asnbsp;*nusch^e^ I, which denotes 'stossen�, 'puffen�, 'stossend w�hlen�,nbsp;'schlagen mit der Faust ins Gesioht�, 'einen bei den Haaren nehmen�.nbsp;For it should be noted that the quantitative difference between �nbsp;and M is in Swiss German no safe genetic criterion. Cp. the pronunciation of the verb n�sch}el�^ II and of the subst. Niischel I andnbsp;*Nussi, whose u must be of late date. But the solution of the problem is probably the view that the senses 'w�hlend stossen� andnbsp;'Einen bei den Haaren nehmen�, presented by *n u s c h e n I (stemnbsp;hnuss-), originally belonged to n�scheu (base nus), whose long � maynbsp;very well be the result of lengthening the short � in an open syllable.nbsp;Let it be noticed that *niische^ I is only a phonetic variant of *n�sche'^nbsp;I, which has the same senses.

The sense 'r�lpsen�, i. e. to belch, to break wind, expressed by n�sch^e� II is very difficult to explain unless it be permitted tonbsp;understand it as an Intentional Figurative Transfer of the primarynbsp;signification 'to breathe audibly�.

The semantic aspect of the verb niste� is genetically contradictory. The senses (a) 'in Etwas suchend herumw�hlen; w�hlen in Etwas, selbst im Unrat�, i. e. dirt, rubbish, (um ihn wegzuschaffen)nbsp;and (b) 'den Unrat wegschaffen� decidedly point to connection withnbsp;the base nus. On the other hand, the senses (c) 'ein Nest bauen (umnbsp;Ruhe zu gewinnen)� and (d) 'Ruhe gewinnen� just as decidedly pointnbsp;to connection with the German words nisten 'to build a nest� andnbsp;Nest 'a nest�. The solution of this conflict is that the sense 'ein Nestnbsp;bauen� has developed from the base nus. Further particulars willnbsp;be given when we deal with the East Fris. verb niisseln, which denotesnbsp;'to build a nest� along with the meaning 'mit der Nase in Etw'asnbsp;herumw�hlen, saumselig herumkramen�, 'zaudern�, 'mit kleinlichennbsp;Arbeiten die Zeit verbringen�.

Let us turn to the derivatives from the stems we are concerned with. The sense 'gefleckt (nur vom Kopfe des Schafes)�, presentednbsp;by *g�nti scheet ppl. a., should obviously be understood as a notionnbsp;equipollent with the notion of 'bruised� (in a figurative sense � asnbsp;if bruised) and consequently as belonging to the verb *nihch^e�' I. Ifnbsp;so, we are concerned with an instance of Intentional Figurativenbsp;Transfer.

The subs. N ii schel II denotes (1) Maul, Schnauze (rob, auch wenn vom Vieh gebraucht); (2) Schopf, Kopf (roh). We have seen

that Suabian N�schel denotes ^Haarschopf, wirre Haare, Hinter-kopf� and that we supposed the source of these senses to be proxi-mately quot;'a pull (of a tuft of hair)�. But in Swabian there was no semantically answering verb. But such a verb is met with in Swissnbsp;Germ, ^niisch^e�^ I in sense �Einen beim Schopfe nehmen�, a sensenbsp;which once must have existed in Suabian, too. Hence Swissnbsp;*N � s ch el II in sense of 'Schopf (= a tuft of hair on the crownnbsp;of the head; the crown of the head), Kopf� should be explained in thenbsp;same way as Suab. N�schel. In other words, it is a formation fromnbsp;*n�sche^ I originally denoting an act of an activity, i. e. a pullnbsp;of the tuft of hair on the crown of the head, subsequently exposednbsp;to Permutation (= the tuft of hair on the top of the head) andnbsp;thereupon to Intentional Adequation (= the crown of the head) andnbsp;lastly to unintentional Adequation (= the head). As to the sensenbsp;�Maul, Schnauze�, it should be understood as a New Coinage formednbsp;from *n�sch^e'^ I in sense of �w�hlen�, i. e. �to rout about with thenbsp;nose or Snout�.i) This origin explains why *N � s ch el II is �rohnbsp;auch wenn vom Vieh gebraucht�. In conclusion, let us admitnbsp;that the basic origin of the verb *n � s ch e�' I (and hence alsonbsp;of the subs. *N�schel II) is somewhat doubtful, since it denotesnbsp;not only �stossen�, �schlagen� but also �w�hlen�, �bei den Haarennbsp;nehmen�. The former senses point to the stem hnuss-, the latternbsp;senses to the base nus. It would perhaps have been preferable tonbsp;have understood the words as derivatives from the base nus.

It is a remarkable fact that the subs. N�schel I {nu^sch^el, in BSi. -amp;-) should denote �Schnupfen�; �Syn. Chn�ssel (Bd III 762).�nbsp;But let it be noted that the verb n�schlele^ {-�- or -�-) II, with whichnbsp;it is phonetically identical as far as is possible, denotes, amongst othernbsp;things, nasein; undeutlich, leise reden = nusche^ II1. Now it is obvious that the notion of �nasein�, when this mode of speaking is usednbsp;by a person that has got a cold, is a notion equipollent with the sensenbsp;�to have got a cold in one�s nose�. Hence the former sense may benbsp;replaced by the latter meaning (= Permutation), and hence a back-formation (G. R�ckbildung) may take place giving rise to the wordnbsp;N�schel �Schnupfen�. Let us add that this is no wanton conjecture,nbsp;since the verb n�schelequot; II in sense 1 factually has as a rare semanticnbsp;variant �den Schnupfen haben� (see vol. IV 834). �-With regard to thenbsp;subs. *iV' us si �Nasenst�ber, leichte Wunde, Beule verursacht dureh

Cp. East Fris. n�ssen in sense 1, i. e. *�mit der Nase in Etwas herumw�hlen� and East Fris. N�sse sb. Nase, doubtless a New Coinage from the verb.

Sclilag, Fall usw., Hautausslag, etc.�, it is most likely that we are concerned with a derivative from the stem hnuss-.

Semantic parallelism with derivatives from the base nut is presented several words. Let us only mention thenbsp;verbs n�se� 'durch die Nase reden; n�sche� �jmdn empfindlich sch�t-teln� (cp. Dan dial, nutte); n�schele� I �suchend in Etwas herum-w�hlen -st�bern, -kramen�; n�schele� II in sense �nasein, undeutlichnbsp;reden�; n�sterlequot; esp. in sense 'sich mit Kleinigkeiten abgeben, un-bedeutende Arbeiten machen�. Note also the subst. Nuschi in sensenbsp;of �Knirps� a little man, a pigmy (cp. West. Flem. neuteraartjenbsp;Dvergje, een verneuteld ventje); G�n�schel �undeutliches Redennbsp;(durch die Nase)�; N�scheler, N�scheli �Einer, der durch die Nasenbsp;undeutlich redet�.

Dutch: 1777 Cornelii Kiliani Dufflaei Etymologicum Teutonicce linguce: sive Dictionarium Teutonico-Latinum, etc.

Neuselen I v. Mutire, i. e. to whisper; mussitare, i. e. to mutter to oneself. Germ, nuselen, nusselen.

Derivatives: � Neuseler sb. Scrutator, clancularius (= a secret examiner, a spy). Neuse sb. Nasus, promontorium.

1924 van Dale�s Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (�s-Gravenhage amp; Leiden).

Neuzen v. (1) In de boeken neuzen, kijken, met den neus in de boeken zitten; hij kwam eens neuzen, eens kijken, inz. om zich vannbsp;iets op de hoogte te stellen, zich van iets te overtuigen; kijk hij neuzen, den boel verkennen (= reconnoitre), bespieden (= to spy upon,nbsp;watch); (2) door den neus spreken.

Neuzelen v. (l) Neuzen, snuffelen (= to snuff); (2) knutselen [= allerlei kleine voorwerpen (E. things) uit liefhebberij maken;nbsp;broddelwerk (= slecht werk = E. scamped work) verrichten; (3)nbsp;talmen (= met de uitvoering van iets w'achten, langzaam werken).

Nusselen V. (l) Talmen; (2) beuzelen [= (gew.), beuzels (i. e. lies, trifles, chatter) vertellen; zich met nietighe|den (= E. trifles) bezighouden]; (2) beuzelarijen (E. trifling jobs) verrichten, prutsennbsp;= onhandig (i. e. clumsily, unskilfully) bezig zijn; also knutselen.

Derivatives: � Neus sb. m. (1) E. nose; (2) het reukvermogen inz. (bij jagers) van een hond; (3) E. promontory. Neuzelaar sb. m.. Neuzelaarster sb. f. Die neuzelt. Neuzelwerk sb. Peuterwerk,

i. e. fine and arduous work (= Sw. petg�ra). � Nusselaar sb. m., Nusselaarster sb. f. Die nusselt. Nusselarij sb. (1) Het nusselen;nbsp;(2) hetgeen (= what or that which) iem. nusselt.

Neuzen v. (1) De neuze vooruit steken om te kijken; (2) snuffelen (= to snuff, to search . . . through), snuisteren (= to smell, sniff at; to try to find out by investigation; see De Bo), fr. fureter,nbsp;tvTquot; (3) rieken, kwalijk rieken, fr. r�pandre une (manvaise) odeur, (4) eennbsp;Kinderspel.

Neuzelen v. (1) Door de neuse spreken, mompelen, fr. nasiller; (2) neutelen, nusselen, prutsen, zich met kleenigheden bezig houden,nbsp;fr. chipoter {= (1) faire un travail, une besogne avec n�gligencenbsp;OU lenteur; (2) s�arr�ter a des riens, faire des difficult�s pour se d�-cider; Littr�). Afneuzelen v. = Afneuzen v. Nieuwsgierig allesnbsp;bezien.

Derivatives: �Neuzelaar sb. (1) Iemand die door de neuze spreekt; (2) neutelaar, fr. chipoteur. Neuzeling sb. (1) Hetnbsp;spreken door de neuze; (2) neuzelwerk. Neuzelwerk sb. Prutsewerknbsp;(= brodwerk, knoeiwerk = E. scamped work; fr. bousiUage = toutnbsp;ouvrage mal fait; De Bo, Littr�), puntwerk (= kleen werk, fijnnbsp;werk, dat geduld en nauwkeurigheit vraagt; De Bo), prullewerknbsp;(= onbeduidende bezigheid, werk van geener weerde; De Bo).

Comments: � Let us point out that in Kilian�s dictionary neusden II denotes quot;to examine by the smeU�, 'to nose�, that thenbsp;answering agent noun, i. e. neuseler, means also 'a spy�, andnbsp;that consequently 'to spy� was a sense most probably expressednbsp;Inbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;by the verb, also. As to neuzen, probably a root-verb (lt; *n�s�n)

like Norw. dial, ndsa and not a denominative formation from neus 'nose�, it is remarkable that van Dale�s dictionary does not mention the senses 'to examine by smelling�, 'to nose�, 'to scent�, thoughnbsp;they obviously are still in existence^) and are or may be presupposednbsp;by the senses comprised under neuzen (van Dale), viz. 'to examinenbsp;books in order to get knowledge�, 'to peer or pry into things in ordernbsp;to get information or certainty�, 'to spy upon�, all senses that maynbsp;owe their origin to a figurative use of the meaning 'to nose aboutnbsp;in quest of something�. Furthermore, let us point out that the Du.nbsp;verb nusselen in sense 'beuzelen� means not only 'to be busy withnbsp;trifles� but probably also 'to tell trifling things or gossip (also 'lies�)�.

*) Cp. G. Strom Nederlandsch-Zweedsch Woordenboek, Gouda 1916 s. v. neuzen (nosa (pa nagot), vadra, lukta, spara (nagot), fa nys om eller korn pa (nagot)).

If SO, the latter sense should be understood as a Specialization, rather than as an Intentional Transfer of the general sense To be busynbsp;with trifles� (= Genus pro Specie). The same is true of the meaningnbsp;'�allerlei kleine voorwerpen uit liefhebberij maken�, presented by Du.nbsp;neuzelen in sense 2 (van Dale).

Semantic parallelism with representatives of the base nut are to be noted in several important cases. We meet with thenbsp;sense 'mussitare�, i. e. to mutter to oneself, presented by neuselen (Ki-lian), and the sense To speak through the nose�, expressed by neuzennbsp;and its agent nouns neuzelaar and neuzelaarster (van Dale), and alsonbsp;expressed by West FI. neuzelen since it also denotes 'mompelen�, i. e.nbsp;to murmur, to grumble, and by its agent noun neuzelaar and noun ofnbsp;action neuzeling in sense 1, i. e. het spreken door de neuze. Wenbsp;come across the early senses To smell� and To nose (about)�, expressednbsp;by neuselen II (Kilian), by neuzen (Strom), and by West FI. neuzen,nbsp;which also denotes To have a bad smell� (= Specialization). Wenbsp;also meet with the characteristic meanings 'to delay, to be longnbsp;about getting a thing done, to work slowly�, presented by neuzelennbsp;and nusselen (van Dale) and by West FI. neuzelen (De Bo), and 'tonbsp;be busy with trifles or in a trifling way�, expressed by neuzelen andnbsp;nusselen (van Dale) and West FI. neuzelen (De Bo). Lastly, let us notnbsp;tacitly ignore that the sense 'to do or make something in a clumsynbsp;or unskilful manner�, expressed by Du. neuzelen, is also representednbsp;by Dan. dial, notler, an agent noun, and that Du. neuzelwerk innbsp;sense 'fine and arduous work (= Sw. petg�ra)� has semantic relationship to the Swed. dial, verb ndttla 'halla pa med petg�ra�.

FRISIAN

West Frisian: 1903 Waling Dijkstra Friesch Woordenboek (Leeuwarden). (Lexicon Frisicum.)

Nusselje (Nesselje) v. Talmen in het werk; schijnbaar bezig zijn, zonder iets van belang te verrichten.

N�skje V. (1) Beuzelen (see Du. nusselen p. 205�6); (2) langzaam wandelen. In sense 2 also nuishje.

Njuskje V. Talmen, dralen, met traagheid handelen, en te veel met kleinigheden bezig zijn. G. I. nuyskje. Thans (= nowadays)nbsp;Njeskje V. Met traagheid handelen, talmen, dralen.

The Groningen Idiom (East Frisian-Saxon): 1888 H. Molema W�rterbuch der Groningensen Mundart (Norden und Leipzig).

Nusseln I v. Beuzelen; langzaam werken om den tijd te verdrijven; ook het stil spelen van kinderen, bv. met eene bouwdoos.

Nusseln II v. = nustelu v. = dralen. Oostfr. n�sseln = met de vingers in iets woelen om iets te zoeken.)

Neusken v. Zonder verlof nauwkeurig (i. e. closely) bekijken = overal mit de neus inzitten.

The East F risian-Sax on Idiom {in Prussia): 1857 C. H. St�renburg Ostfriesisches W�rterbuch (Aurich).

N�ssen V. (1) Mit der Nase {N�sse, Nose) in etwas herumw�hlen; auch nds.; (2) = niissken; (3) = n�steln nisten (von V�geln).

N�ssken v. Zaudern, z�gern, saumselig herumkramen, mit klein-lichen Arbeiten die Zeit verbringen, gleichsam nicht mit der Nase aus etwas kommen. Also n��sken.

Derivatives: � N�sselk, N�sselig a. Saumselig. N�sseler sb. Saumseliger Mensch, Pfuscher. Let us here also adduce N�ssenbsp;sb. Nase; jetzt Nose oder N��s.

N�sken, N�skeu v. Schn�ffeln (= to sniff the air), kritteln (== to make critical comments or adverse remarks upon a thing).

N�sseln II v. Langsam sein, zaudern, saumen, sich lange womit u. wobei aufhalten, nicht vorwarts kommen womit, arbeiten u.nbsp;nichts beschicken, trandeln etc.

Derivatives: � N�sker, Nosker sb. Schn�ffeler, Krit-teler. Gen�ssel sb. Gezauder, Gez�ger etc. N�ssel� sb. Zauderei. N�ssel�g, N�ssl�g, N�sselg a. Zanderig, saumig, langsam, mit Nichtsnbsp;vorwarts kommend etc. N�se (Dimin, n�ske) u. (seltener) n�s (Di-min. n�sje, n�ske) sb. Nase; n�ske and nuske denote 'kleine Nase,nbsp;kleine scharfe Sp�rnase�; 'kleine scharfe weise Person, kleinernbsp;Naseweis�. N�s a. Klug, scharf, weise, pfiffig == snus a.; eigentlichnbsp;wohl so viel als 'sp�rnasig� od. 'naseweis�, i. e. endowed with a keennbsp;power of scent.

As to representatives of the base nus in the idiom of Ditmarschen, see the dialect of Schleswig-Holstein.

Comments: � It is worthy of note that W. Fris. n�skje signifies not only 'beuzelen�, i. e. to be busy in a trifling way,nbsp;but also 'langzaam wandelen�, i. e. to walk slowly. This semanticnbsp;duality seems to be suggestive of the way in which the senses

originated. We have previously advocated the view in point of verbs formed from the base nut that the former sense is an Intentionalnbsp;Figurative Transfer of the meaning To nose about or to walk slowlynbsp;about in quest of food� (said of animals). As to the sense 'langzaam wandelen�, the most natural explanation is to assume thatnbsp;we are concerned with an Intentional Figurative Transfer of thenbsp;sense just mentioned, but with suppression of the purposive idea.nbsp;Both cases of Transfer are based on similarity between the newnbsp;thing-meant and the old one. The co-existence of the senses seemsnbsp;to give thenbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;interesting piece ofnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;information thatnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;the meaningnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;'to

walk slowly nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;(about)�nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;has not asnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;source the general sense 'to work

The East Fris. verb n�sken, n�sken has the appearance of a denominative verb formed on nuske, n�ske 'a nose�. But the quantitynbsp;of the stem-vowel may be due only to associative influence from thesenbsp;forms. Anyhow, the verb denotes not only 'schn�ffeln� but alsonbsp;'kritteln�, i. e. to make critical comments or adverse remarks uponnbsp;(a thing). We may suppose that we are again faced with a casenbsp;where the co-existence of two senses is genetically significant. Ger.nbsp;'schn�ffeln�,nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;however,nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;has severalnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;senses such as 'tonbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;sniff the air�,nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;'to

snuffle�, 'to nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;snuff ornbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;smell at anbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;thing�, 'to follownbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;a scent� (fig.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;'to

spy out or about�), and 'to speak through the nose�. There are two of these senses which may have given rise to the sense 'kritteln�.nbsp;One is the sense 'to sniff�. For just as.Eng. 'to sniff at� has adoptednbsp;the sense 'to show one�s contempt for or displeasure with a thing bynbsp;sniffing�, so the same may have been the case with n�sken, n�skennbsp;in sense 'to sniff�. If so, this meaning was subsequently replacednbsp;by the sense 'kritteln�, since the latter notion was equipollent withnbsp;the former meaning and hence might be substituted for it (�Permutation). The other meaning from which the sense 'kritteln� maynbsp;have arisen is 'to speak through the nose�. But this view is possiblenbsp;only under the proviso that this sense had the connotations of softness and difficulty in being understood and had the implication thatnbsp;this mode of utterance was used to show the speaker�s displeasurenbsp;with something. This is about the same way in which derivativesnbsp;from the base nut acquired the sense 'to criticize�. But if n�sken,nbsp;n�sken is a denominative verb, which is very possible, then we cannot count with the fulfilment of these conditions, and hence thenbsp;former alternative, i. e. the sense 'to sniff at�, is the correct explanation.

The East Fris. verb n�ssen denotes (1) mit der Nase in etwas herumw�hlen; (2) = n�sken, i. e. zaudern, z�gern, saumselig herum-kramen, mit kleinlichen Arbeiten die Zeit verbringen; (3) = n�stelnnbsp;'nisten� or n�sten 'nisten�, i. e. to build a nest (said of birds). Cp.nbsp;also niist, pi. n�sten Nest, Lager. In view of the existence of Eng.nbsp;nest, Ger. Nest, etc. = IE *nizdos, whence Lat. nidus, it is evident thatnbsp;the stem-vowel � in the subs, n�st and in the verbs n�steln, n�stennbsp;is unoriginal and of late date. This vowel must be due to associativenbsp;influence from n�ssen, which is said to be the ordinary word fornbsp;'nisten� in East Frisian. But how did n�ssen acquire the sense 'tonbsp;build a nest�? Let it be remembered that the verb also means 'mitnbsp;kleinlichen Arbeiten die Zeit verbringen�, i. e. 'to be busy with trifling jobs�. It is this very sense or rather its proximate source, i. e.nbsp;'to move about in doing trifling jobs�, that has been employed tonbsp;denote the picture of a bird flying to and from its future home innbsp;order to build a nest. In this ease the sense-change is due to annbsp;Intentional non-figurative Transfer based on a very striking similarity. This explanation is semantically so natural that it shouldnbsp;be employed to explain the semantic area of the High Alemanniannbsp;verb niste^, also. The only points of difficulty arising are here ofnbsp;morphological or phonetic nature. For it is obvious that also thisnbsp;verb must have had contact with the base nus, seeing that it alsonbsp;denotes 'w�hlen, stankern in Etwas�. But the mode of coming intonbsp;this contact is not clear. There may have been a verb *n�sse�' innbsp;Swiss German, too, denoting, inter alia, 'to build a nest�. But thenbsp;balance of probabilities is in favour of the view that this niste^nbsp;originally appeared as *n�ste^, a form which may be understood asnbsp;a back-formation from n�ster�^ 'ganzlich durchst�bern�.

As to the original sense of the adj. n�s 'klug, scharf, weise�, it was obviously 'sp�rnasig� or 'naseweis�, i. e. endowed with a keennbsp;power of scent, as is duly pointed out by the East Fris. dictionary.nbsp;But 'a keen power of scent�, when used figuratively, is a notion equipollent with �Scharfsinn�. The same sense-development is presentednbsp;by Goth, snutrs, ON snotr, OE snot{t)or, etc., all denoting 'prudent�.

Semantic parallels with words formed from the base nut are abundantly met with. We come across leading senses characteristic of the category of words derived from nut, such as 'to worknbsp;slowly or inefficiently�, 'to be dilatory�, 'to be busy in a trifling manner�. There are also representatives of the senses 'to nose aboutnbsp;in quest of something (lit. and fig.)�, 'to root about with the nose�.

and 'to make critical remarks upon a thing�. But let us particularly point out that to West Fris. nusseln I in sense 'langzaam werken omnbsp;den tijd te verdrijven� answers Alsatian nutPle^ in sense 2, i. e. 'ausnbsp;Langeweile, zum Zeitvertrieb arbeiten�, and that to East Fris. N�sselernbsp;'saumseliger Mensch, Pfuscher� answers Dan. dial, notler a bungler,nbsp;a word which also signifies 'a person deft or clever of hand�.

ENGLISH.

Nuzzle V. (Sc. n. Cy. Nhb. Yks. Lane. Chs. Nhp. Glo. Brks. Suf. Sur. Som. Dev. Cor.). Also in forms Noosle (Bnff.i); Noozle (Sc. w. Som.^;nbsp;Cor.); Nouzle (Cor.); Nowzel (Berks.^); Nozzle I (Lnk. Nhb.^ Lan.i Suf.inbsp;Sur.); Nusle (w. Yks.); Nussle (e. Lan.). = [nu'zl, ne'zl, no-zl], (1) Tonbsp;push or poke about with the nose (Suf. Sur. Dev.); (2) to spend timenbsp;on trifles, to loiter (n. Cy. w. Yks.i ne. Lan^); (3) to push in the nose,nbsp;as an infant into the nurse�s bosom; to creep closely or snugly; tonbsp;nestle closely for protection or warmth; (4) to poke anything withnbsp;the nose, to root with the snout as a pig; gen. to press, poke; push;nbsp;also used fig.

*N 0 zzl e II Y. (w. Yks.) \no-zl] To strike or hit violently; to do anything with great vigour.

Nozzle III V. (Bnff. Lnk. Nhb.) (1) To seize by the nose; (2) fig. to catch, assail, to expose to stormy weather; = Nuzzle in sense 5nbsp;(in Wright�s Diet.).

D erivatives: � Nozzle sb. (Yks. Lan. Lin. Nhp. Brks. Hnt. Som.) \no-zl\ The nose. Nuzzler sb. (s. Chs.^) (1) A peg in anbsp;mole- or mouse-trap, which when touched by the mouse, releases anbsp;spring; (2) a mouse�s nest caught up on the teeth of a mowing-machine.

General English: 1908 Sir James A. H. Murray A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, Oxford {N editednbsp;by W. A. Craigie).

Nuzzle I (formerly also in forms Nosele, etc.; Nousle; Nusle, etc.) V. (1) intr. To bring the nose towards the ground, to grovel; obs,nbsp;rare (c. 1425); (2) to burrow or dig with the nose; to thrust the nosenbsp;into the ground or anything lying on it (since 1530); (3) to poke ornbsp;push with the nose in or into something (since 1603); also fig.; b) tonbsp;press or rub the nose against something; c) to snuff or poke with

the nose (of dogs); (4) to nestle, to lie snug in bed, etc. (since 1601); (5) trans, to root wp with the nose or snout (since 1613), rare; tonbsp;touch or rub with the nose (since 1812); (6) to thrust in the nose ornbsp;head (since 1594). � There is also a verbal subs, nuzzle (rare) = annbsp;act of nuzzling, a rub with the nose (a 1890).

uzzl e II (formerly also nosyll, nossel; nowsel, nousle; etc.) V. (1) trans. To accustom (a dog or hawk) to attack other animalsnbsp;or birds (1530�1688, now obsolete)] (2) to train, educate, nurture (anbsp;person) in some opinion, habit, etc.; freq. with up (since 1519, nownbsp;obsolete)] (3) to bring up, rear, train, educate (since 1558, now obs.)]nbsp;(4) to nurse, to cherish fondly, to provide with a snug place of restnbsp;(since 1581); (5) to impose upon, deceive (obs., rare, c. 1680, 1705). �nbsp;There is also a verbal subs., viz. nuzzling = nursling.

Comments: � It is obvious that the dialectal verbs nuzzle and nozzle I are formed on the base nus, though the vowel of thenbsp;stem of the latter word may be due to influence from the subs. nose.nbsp;It is equally evident that nozzle II, denoting 'to strike or hitnbsp;violently� or, in a transferred sense, 'to do anything with great vigour�,nbsp;should be understood as a derivative formation from the stem ofnbsp;OE. hnossian 'to strike�, and that we consequently are concernednbsp;with the stem hnuss-. But nozzle III denoting 'to seize by the nose�nbsp;and, owing to Permutation, 'to catch, assail, to expose to stormynbsp;weather�, should be considered to be a formation from the dial,nbsp;subs, nozzle 'nose�, w'hich in its turn is a derivative from the subs,nbsp;nose.

The subs, nuzzler in sense 1, i. e. 'a peg in a mole- or mousetrap, which when touched by the mouse releases a spring�, is a New Coinage from the verb nuzzle when the latter in general Englishnbsp;denotes 'to touch with the nose�. Hence the subs, denotes, not exactlynbsp;an agent noun, but an implement made for the purpose of beingnbsp;touched by a nose. And the subs, nuzzler in sense 2, i. e. 'a mouse�snbsp;nest caught upon the teeth of a mowing machine�, is a New Coinagenbsp;from the verb nuzzle when the latter in general English denotes 'tonbsp;nestle, to be snug in bed�, or the like. Hence we are faced, notnbsp;exactly with an agent noun, but with a sense denoting a means ornbsp;a place connected with nestling.

It is obvious that the sense 'to push in the nose as an infant into the nurse�s bosom�, presented by English dialectal nuzzle, is annbsp;Intentional Figurative Transfer of the sense 'to poke or push aboutnbsp;with the nose in or into something� (said of animals), a meaning also

presented by this verb. The sense To nestle closely for protection or warmth� is a synonym for the action mentioned above in pointnbsp;of a child. But let us point out that, strictly speaking, the synonymous sense is expressed by the words To nestle closely� and thatnbsp;the words Tor protection and warmth� is a Semantic Addition bynbsp;Implication denoting the purpose of the activity involved.

We have-seen that in general English there is a verb nuzzle I, chiefly denoting the intrans senses To dig with the nose�. To thrustnbsp;the nose into something�. To poke or push with the nose in or intonbsp;something�, also used transitively To root up something with thenbsp;snout, or figuratively. To nestle� (in order to lie snug) and hencenbsp;To lie snug in bed� (Permutation). The etymological source of thisnbsp;verb, which is identical with the dialectal nuzzle, is by the N. E. D.nbsp;considered to be the subs, nose le, �perh. originally suggestednbsp;by the adv. noseling� (= on the nose, face downwards). This viewnbsp;is not acceptable and is obviously due to ignorance of the existence of a base nus in Common Germanic. It is true that the I affixnbsp;is also a verbal formative with a frequentative or, sometimes, a diminutive force. It is also true that these English formations arenbsp;sometimes of pre-English origin, e. g. nestle, twinkle, wrestle, and that,nbsp;in ME and early NE times, the affix was extensively used, e. g.nbsp;crackle, crumple, dazzle, hobble, niggle, etc., and that many of thesenbsp;formations are from echoic roots, as babble, cackle, giggle, mumble,nbsp;etc. Hence it is possible that the formation of nuzzle I was notnbsp;earlier than the 15th century, as is indicated by documentarynbsp;evidence. But if so, the fundament of this formation was a verbnbsp;containing the base nus, either without or with intensive doubling ofnbsp;s, and going back to the OE period, though unrecorded, nay evennbsp;to pre-English times.

We have also seen that there is another verb with the same phonetic shape, viz. *nuzzle II, now obsolete or rare. This verb hasnbsp;a semantic area quite different from that of the former verb. Letnbsp;us point out again that *nuzzle II denotes only transitive senses,nbsp;viz. (1) to accustom (a dog or hawk) to attack other animals ornbsp;birds; (2) to train, educate, nurture (a person) in some opinion,nbsp;habit, etc.; (3) to bring up, rear, train, educate; (4) to nurse, tonbsp;cherish fondly; to provide with a snug place of rest; (5) to imposenbsp;upon, deceive. As to this verb the N. E. D. says as follows: �nbsp;�Of obscure origin. The identity of the forms with those of thenbsp;prec. verb [= nuzzle /] makes it possible that this also is f. nose

sb., but the connexion of sense is not clear. In sense 2 the word had great vogue from about 1530 to 1650.�

It is true that the genesis of this verb is a knotty problem since its phonetic body seems to be the same as that of nuzzle I,nbsp;but its semantic area is of another type. One thing, however, isnbsp;certain, viz. the chronology of the word. For we may rest assurednbsp;that *nuzzl e II with its strange semantic area originated in thenbsp;/nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;16th century. Hence we can hardly be said to have abdicated the

throne of reason if we postulate that this trans, verb was meant to be an iterative or diminutive form of the verb nurse in sense 'to bringnbsp;up, rear, train, educate� (= sense 3 of *mi zzl e II) expressed bynbsp;the I affix, and that the form was assimilated to the phonetic bodynbsp;of the chiefly intr. nuzzle I, a transformation probably favourednbsp;by weak articulation of the r. The verb nurse is considered to be anbsp;later form of nourish due to assimilation to the subs, nurse (seenbsp;N. E. D.). Our view implies that sense 1 and sense 2 of nuzzlenbsp;II originated spontaneously from sense 3 of this verb, since theynbsp;are semantic changes easily intelligible. As to sense 4, i. e. 'tonbsp;nurse, to cherish fondly, to provide with a snug place of rest�,nbsp;its late appearance (in 1581) and also the sense-history of nursenbsp;suggest that this sense was not adopted from the latter verb. Ifnbsp;we compare this sense with sense 4 of nuzzle I, i. e. with the sensenbsp;'to nestle�, 'to lie snug in bed�, we must admit that the former sensenbsp;appears as the transitive counterpart of the latter meaning. Thisnbsp;is tantamount to saying that the former sense has causative aspectnbsp;as compared to the latter meaning, seeing that it means 'to makenbsp;a child nuzzle�, 'to make it lie snug in bed�. But these senses arenbsp;equivalent to the senses 'to cherish fondly� and 'to provide with anbsp;snug place of rest�. Hence it is a likely postulation if we assumenbsp;that sense 4 of nuzzle II originated in the way that sense 4 ofnbsp;nuzzle I was deliberately used in the answering transitive sense.nbsp;If so, we are faced with a sense-change that concerns the relationalnbsp;meaning of sense 4 of nuzzle I, not its radical meaning. But if so,nbsp;the transitive sense under discussion belongs to nuzzle I, not tonbsp;nuzzle II, to which it has been assigned because of its transitivenbsp;function. It is an eloquent fact that nursle does not denote thisnbsp;sense (see infra). As to the possibility of making this change innbsp;the relational meaning, it should be noted that since about the 15thnbsp;century any English transitive verb whose sense may be apprehended as having a causative aspect may, if need be, also be used in

the corresponding intransitive sense without implying a conspicuous deviation from the ordinary linguistic usaged) Under such circumstances it cannot be a matter of surprise if an intransitive sensenbsp;should occasionally also adopt the corresponding transitive sense, i. e.nbsp;also appear with a causative aspect. Let us add that there are anbsp;few examples of the form nursle and that it denotes (1) the same

nuzzle II 2 (1596, etc.); (2) to bring up (a 1652), to foster, cherish (1746, 1829). This form is by the N. E. D. understood as anbsp;variant of nuzzle II assimilated to the verb nurse, a postulationnbsp;implying the converse of our own view of the genesis of nuzzle II.nbsp;A testimony to the associative bond between the two verbs, i. e.nbsp;nuzzle II and nurse, is the fact, pointed out by the N. E. D.,nbsp;that in modernized reprints of 16th century works nursle is sometimes substituted for nusle, nousle, etc.

Lastly, let us not forget that nuzzle II also has the sense To impose upon, to deceive�. This meaning should not with thenbsp;N. E. D. be connected with sense 3 of the verb, i. e. To bring up,nbsp;rear, educate�, but with sense 1, i. e. To train a hawk to attack othernbsp;birds�. For as an element of this training there was the practice ofnbsp;putting a hood, i. e. a covering of leather, over the head of a hawknbsp;to blindfold her when not pursuing game. This outstanding element of the training is likely to have sometimes monopolized thenbsp;attention so as to let nuzzle II also represent the meaning Tonbsp;hoodwink a hawk�. The earlier existence of this sense is provednbsp;by the very sense To impose upon, to deceive�. For the latter sensenbsp;should be understood as an Intentional Figurative Transfer of thenbsp;former meaning, its proximate sense being To blindfold mentally�,nbsp;i. e. to deceive, to humbug. Cp. the semantic area of the verb tonbsp;hoodwink. We have found, then, that the semantic aspect of nuzzlenbsp;II goes to show that this verb is not a member of the etymologicalnbsp;category of words which have the base nus in common.

Semantic parallelism with derivatives from the base nut is presented by Eng. dial, nuzzle or nozzle when denoting 'tonbsp;push or poke about with the nose� (cp. Norw. dial, nuta), To spendnbsp;time on trifles�. To loiter�. To root with the snout as a pig�, andnbsp;by nuzzle I in general English when denoting To push or poke withnbsp;the nose into something�. To snuff or poke with the nose (said ofnbsp;dogs)�. To root up with the nose or snout� (cp. Swiss Germ, nodere^ /

1) Cp. K. F. Sund�n A Category of Predicational Change in English (� Uppsala Universitets Arsskrift 1918, vol. I, p. 359).

w�hlen, st�bern eig. und bildl.). But let us above all point out that nuzzle I in sense 3 b, i. e. 'to press or rub the nose against something�,nbsp;is a semantic congener of Dan. dial, nutte 'skultre sig� and nussenbsp;'skultre sig' and of Dan. nusse sig 'skutte sig, gnide opad ngt�, i. e.nbsp;to rub oneself against something. This goes to prove that Dan. dial.nbsp;nutte belongs to the etymological category that has the base nutnbsp;as connective bond.

Our semantic-genetic review of the derivatives from the base nus is accomplished. It has proved that by indicating the proximatenbsp;source of the senses step by step the words admit of being carriednbsp;back to one and the same primary meaning, and that we consequentlynbsp;are faced with an etymological group of words. The examination hasnbsp;also made clear that these words are distinguished by the same generalnbsp;qualities as are characteristic of the derivatives from the base nut.nbsp;For all the verbs have weak conjugation, and the members of thenbsp;group have, as a rule, no dignified associations, and they are mostlynbsp;current in dialects only, not in general speech. But first and foremostnbsp;it has demonstrated that there is a uniformity in sense-developmentnbsp;from the bases nut and nus that is so great that it can only be explained by postulating the same semantic starting-point. This primarynbsp;signification is more clearly indicated by the sense-development fromnbsp;the base nus than it is by that from the base nut. For such sensesnbsp;as 'to sleep�, 'to whisper� readily suggest the meaning 'to breathenbsp;audibly� as the proximate source. But if so, our examination ofnbsp;the semantic development from the base nus has been an invaluablenbsp;means of verifying the justification of assigning this very sense tonbsp;the base nut, hitherto unknown, and the legitimacy of distinguishingnbsp;the lines of semantic development with which we have operated.

In point of frequency there is a difference between the two bases. For we have seen that in Swedish and Norwegian dialectsnbsp;the base nus cannot be said to be of rare occurrence, whereas thenbsp;base nut is only scantily represented, and that the state of thingsnbsp;is about the same in the East German dialects. But let us notnbsp;forget the interesting fact that, taken all together, the differencenbsp;in frequency is also manifested in the circumstance that the derivatives from the base nus present a sense-development far richernbsp;than that met with in the derivatives from the base nut. This hasnbsp;been a decided advantage, since we have turned our etymologicalnbsp;investigation into a study on semantics as well. For we have been

confronted with a number of semantic-genetic problems not met with in the derivatives from the base nut. And, in fact, it has notnbsp;always been easy to solve these problems, and hence we cannotnbsp;always be confident of having given the proper solution. But thenbsp;chief thing is to have been confronted with these questions and tonbsp;have been forced to grapple with them.

This view of ours leads to another question worthy of consideration. It may be argued in point of our semantic-genetic interpretation that etymological research as pursued by comparative linguistics does not operate with a detailed indication of the sense-changes which are likely to have taken place in individual cases,nbsp;and that none the less this discipline has been able to build up magnificent structures of genetic relationship between a number ofnbsp;words often seemingly disconnected. But let us remember thatnbsp;there are two different types of comparative linguistics distinguishable, at least when we are concerned with Indo-European languages.nbsp;In one of them the proximate etymological horizon is limited bynbsp;the Indo-European parent language. This type aims to establishnbsp;genetic relationship between words belonging to the various linguisticnbsp;families into which the Indo-European languages admit of beingnbsp;divided. In this type the phonetic connection of the words comparednbsp;seems to be the principal problem, often difficult to solve. Undernbsp;guidance of the stems of the words concerned the scholars try tonbsp;establish an Indo-Eur. base or root with or without extensions fromnbsp;which the phonetic shape of the stems of the words may have takennbsp;their rise. But this root or base must also be provided with a sensenbsp;or two. Hence the semantic problem consists in discovering suchnbsp;a sense or such senses as may be compatible with the function ofnbsp;the root of being the ultimate source of the semantic aspects presented by the w'ords compared. It is obvious that this task mustnbsp;operate with probabilities only, not with particularized semanticnbsp;changes. Otherwise said, the correctness of the basic sense chosennbsp;can hardly be verified by tracing in detail the development of sensesnbsp;from their existing aspect back to the starting-point. In doubtfulnbsp;cases the scholars only -suggest possible or likely intermediate linksnbsp;or point out parallel developments. It is a matter of course thatnbsp;this kind of etymological investigation cannot advance the study ofnbsp;semantic change as a compensation for the information the latternbsp;imparts, a knowledge on which the semantic postulations are ornbsp;should be based.

In the other type of comparative linguistics the proximate etymological horizon is limited by the parent language presented by one of the linguistic families into which the Indo-European parentnbsp;language has been split up. But since also in this case we arenbsp;ordinarily confronted with a proximate parent language, the methodnbsp;of etymological research is exactly the same as in the formernbsp;case. In other words, the investigator aims to find a phoneticnbsp;base which the words compared may have in common. He triesnbsp;to provide it with a signification that admits of being the ultimatenbsp;source of the semantic aspect of the words compared. And yetnbsp;there is a difference between the two types of comparative etymology. For in the present case there is generally no difficulty innbsp;finding out the phonetic base, but it is by no means equally easynbsp;to determine its primary signification. Hence the semantic side ofnbsp;the words compared factually plays here a more important partnbsp;than it does in point of the other etymological type where the wordsnbsp;compared may have drifted further and further away from theirnbsp;ultimate phonetic source and where the semantic difference seemsnbsp;to give rise to less difficulty as compared to the phonetic dissimilarity. It should also be pointed out that, thanks to the closer etymological relationship between the linguistic material, it is in thenbsp;present case factually possible to verify in detail the justification ofnbsp;the primary sense chosen, without incurring too much trouble ornbsp;risking too hazardous postulations. But none the less etymologicalnbsp;research employs also in this case the same conjectural method asnbsp;before, though with less risks, in establishing the primary signification of an etymological group of words. It does not try to verifynbsp;in detail the trend of the semantic development, nor to characterizenbsp;the nature of the single types of semantic change it is operating with.

The present investigation is dealing genetically with a number of words from different Germanic idioms which form an etymological group, and hence it belongs to the second type of etymologicalnbsp;research. But unlike the ordinary specimens of this type it hasnbsp;tried to justify the choice of the primary sense by demonstratingnbsp;in detail that, with the semantic starting-point chosen, the factualnbsp;senses of the words concerned admit of being genetically explainednbsp;in a manner that carries conviction. Let us point out, however, that,nbsp;from motives previously mentioned, our semantic interest has verynbsp;often been greater than was necessary for establishing the etymological affinity of the words. For we have also tried to explain

K. F. SFNDBN, A NEW ETYMOL. GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS 219 peculiar or unexpected senses constituting part of the semantic areanbsp;of the words but not affecting their general etymological relationship. For also within the semantic area of a word the genetic connection between the senses is far from always apparent. In thisnbsp;case the phonetic side of the word may be entirely disregarded, andnbsp;if so, we are only faced with semantic-genetic problems.

The method of research adopted by us has not only served its purpose in a satisfactory way; it has also given us valuable information. We have learnt that it may be equally interesting, to saynbsp;the least of it, to solve puzzling semantic-genetic problems withinnbsp;closely allied words or within the same word as it is to recognizenbsp;etymological connection between words of different linguistic families.nbsp;We have also learnt that comparison, a method of proved efficacy,nbsp;is also able in the present case to throw unexpected light on puzzlingnbsp;problems, and that the same may occur if the senses actually metnbsp;with are duly pondered over, inasmuch as the coexistence of sensesnbsp;in the same word are often suggestive of their proximate geneticnbsp;origin. We have also learnt to know the arbitrary arrangement ofnbsp;the senses of the words in descriptive dictionaries, seeing that theynbsp;mostly pay no attention to the semantic chronology even in casesnbsp;where the latter is manifest. But above all we have become awarenbsp;of the necessity of confronting the abstract dogmas of semanticnbsp;change with the living realities of a linguistic material. For thisnbsp;confrontation involves that every sense should be explained as tonbsp;its proximate origin, if need be. And hence it is obvious, atnbsp;least in our opinion, that, if genetic semantics is going to make anynbsp;progress, the best possible avenue of advance is confrontation ofnbsp;its system with reality. And this reality should be presented bynbsp;etymological groups of words within the same linguistic familynbsp;or by senses within the same word. For this is the best mannernbsp;in which to discover shortcomings and lacunae in the. theory of semantic change.

We have been confronted with two Germanic verbal bases whose phonetic shape differs only in the nature of the final consonant,nbsp;whose primary signification is the same, and whose derivatives,nbsp;therefore, present a remarkable harmony in semantic development.nbsp;But they also agree in some other characteristics, inasmuch as thenbsp;verbs have always weak conjugation, and the words mostly anbsp;disparaging tone and dialectal currency only. Erom all these factsnbsp;it is safe to deduce that this extraordinary parallelism cannot benbsp;attributed to chance coincidence. It must be a truth beyond allnbsp;cavil and doubt that there exists a close genetic relationship betweennbsp;the Germanic verbal bases nut and nus. There is no getting awaynbsp;from this deduction. But with the question of their origin we havenbsp;reached the final stage in the present investigation.

It is obvious, to start with, that in the two bases nut and nus the final consonants exemplify two different modes of extension ofnbsp;the same fundamental root. But the phonetic aspect of the latternbsp;was not *nu but snu. In other words, the forms nut and nus shouldnbsp;be regarded as abbreviations of the Germanic verbal bases snutnbsp;and snus, which also represent their ablaut-variants snut and sn�s.

The elimination of the initial s before a nasal consonant is not destitute of parallels. This abbreviation may have taken place innbsp;Indo-European times, but if so, Germanic seems to be a type ofnbsp;language where both forms are mostly recorded. There is, for instance, the Indo-Eur. verbal base s n er 'drehen, winden, zusammen-drehen, -schn�ren; sich zusammenwinden, einschrumpfen�, a basenbsp;that also appears as e r.�^) Compare on the one hand G. schnurrennbsp;'zusammenschrumpfen� or, with velar extension, Swed. dial, snurkennbsp;'zusammengeschrumpff, and on the other hand Lithuanian neriiinbsp;(1 ps. sing, pres.), n�rti (inf.) 'einfadeln, einschlangen, einziehen�,nbsp;or Prim. Teut. *nar-wa- 'zusammengeschniirt�, whence Eng. narrow

Cp. A. Walde und J. Pokorny Vergleichendes Worterhuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen, Berlin \ind Leipzig 1927, Bd II, 699 seqq.

and ON Nc^rva-sund 'the strait(s) of Gibraltar�. There is also the Indo-Europ. onomatopoeic base s n er, s nur 'murren, knurren u.nbsp;dgl.�, which also presents itself as n er, nur. Note on the one handnbsp;G. schnarren (to rattle; to buzz, to whirl), schnurren, E. snar to growlnbsp;(obsoL), whence snarl, or, with velar extension, ON sn^rgla (lt; *8nar-yulon) 'r�cheln�. Note on the other hand Lithuan. niurniu, niurn�tinbsp;'bruminen, knurren�, MHG narren, nerren 'knurren�, and G. norgeln,nbsp;nergeln 'undeutlich sprechen, mit verdriesslichem naselnden Tonenbsp;tadeln, kritteln�.^)

Let us also adduce the Indo-Eur. base m e I 'zerreiben�; in the European idioms also esp. 'Korn mahlen�. This base appears, fornbsp;instance, in Greek /xvlXm 'mahle, zerreibe, zermalme�; Lat. molonbsp;'mahle�; Goth., OHG malan, ON mala 'mahlen�; OHG muljan 'zer-malmen�, ON mylia to crush to pieces; Goth, malm 'Sand�, Sw. malmnbsp;'Sandebene�, Erz�. In Baltic and Germanic this base sometimesnbsp;appears as smel. Note Latvian smelis, sm�lis 'Wassersand im Eelde�;nbsp;MHG smoln 'Brotkr�mchen abl�sen�, Norw. dial, smola to crush tonbsp;pieces, Sw. smula a crumb, small piece or fragment (cp. ON moli thenbsp;same sense, also used collect. = bits, fragments).^) The Indo-Europ.nbsp;base m e I may get a dental extension so as to appear as m el - dnbsp;Note Greek y�ldm 'schmelze�; Lat. mollis � *moldu-is) 'weich, ge-schmeidig, biegsam�; Prim. Teut. *meltan str. v., whence OE meltannbsp;to dissolve, digest, to consume by fire, ON melta to digest; Prim.nbsp;Teut. causative *maltjan wk. v., whence Goth. *gamaltjan to melt,nbsp;disolve (cp. gamalteins dissolving, death), OE mieltan to digest,nbsp;refine, purge, Sw. malta to malt; OE mealt steeped grain, malt, ON,nbsp;Sw. malt. On the other hand, an initial s- is sometimes added to thisnbsp;base but, as far as we know, only in Germanic. Examples in pointnbsp;are OHG smelzan 'zerfliessen, schmelzen�, Sw. smalta str. v. intr.,nbsp;to melt, dissolve (lt; *smeltan), also wk v. trans., to melt, dissolve,nbsp;digestnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;smaltjan)] OE smolt a. mild, peaceful, still, gentle, and OE

smylte a. mild, peaceable, calm, cheerful, prosperous, OE smolt sb. lard, fat, OE smelt a fish (Osmerus eperlanus), MSw. smultna v. tonbsp;become calm (of the sea), Sw. smultron wild strawberries (from Sw.nbsp;dial, smulter a. of loose consistency, easily dissoluble). Whethernbsp;this addition of initial s be an inheritance from pre-Teutonic times ornbsp;a native phenomenon, it is obvious that such pairs of words as Germanic *smeltan and *meltan may analogically suggest the elimina-

Furthermore, there is an Indo-Eur. base snehh - (r i -) �eng, diinn, schmal (auch �flink� aus �mager�)�, chiefly occurring in Germanic hut appearing there also without the initial s. Note on the onenbsp;hand ON sn�jr (acc. -ran) narrow, tight; tough, vigorous; ON snc�fugr,nbsp;'rasch, flink�, MSw. snaver 'schmal, eng, knapp�, Sw. snav, ON sn�frnbsp;'schnell, flink� (lt; *sn�d-ri). Observe on the other hand ON n�fr,nbsp;MSw. ncbver, mver 'rasch, flink�, MHG, NHG (Alem.) nuofer 'munter�,nbsp;frisch, n�chtern�, NHG (Bavar.) nuober. It is more likely thannbsp;not that the elimination of the initial s is a Germanic phenomenon,nbsp;not an inheritance. It is true that in Armenian there is an adj.nbsp;nurb quot;^eng, schmal, d�nii�, which Lid�n (Arm. Stud. 64) derivesnbsp;from Indo-Eur. *sn�bhri-, but also in this case the loss of initial snbsp;may he a native affair.

Another instance of Germanic elimination of initial s before a consonant is perhaps presented by the Germanic base nab 'etwanbsp;hervorstechen, mit der Spitze streifen� as against the hase snab 'her-vorstecken, mit der Spitze streifen, straucheln�, since the latter hase isnbsp;by Torp understood as an ablaut-variant of sneb, Indo-Eur. sneb h-^)nbsp;As illustrative examples may be adduced, on the one hand. Prim.nbsp;Teut. *snab-ula-, whence OHG snabul, MHG snabel bill, beak, G.nbsp;Schnabel bill, beak, mouth (contemptuously), prow, MLG, Du.nbsp;snavel 'Schnabel, Riissel, OFris. snavel mouth; and Prim. Teut.nbsp;snab ja-. West Teut. snabb-j a-, whence OFris. snabba mouth, oldernbsp;Du. (Kilian) snabbe, snebbe L. rostrum, i. e. bill, beak. On the othernbsp;hand, we have to quote Prim. Teut. nab-ja-, whence ON Tie/beak,nbsp;bill, nose, nasal bone; West Teut. nabb-ja-, whence OE neb{b)nbsp;beak, bill, L G nebbe, whence Sw. niibb heak, hill.

But more trustworthy examples of the loss of initial s in Germanic times are afforded by the bases nut and n'us, which have the outward appearance of being abbreviations of the Germanic bases snutnbsp;and snus. That in this case appearances are not deceptive is suggestednbsp;by the mere fact that the elimination of initial s-, as a rule, onlynbsp;happens to the dental extensions of the fundamental root snu. Butnbsp;the principal pre-requisite for postulating that in this case the lossnbsp;of initial s- is of native origin is the existence of identity betweennbsp;the primary sense of the bases nut and nus on the one hand, and the

Cp. Alf Torp Wortschatz der Germanischen Spracheinheit, Gottingen 1909, p. 292 (= A. Fick IIP).

primary sense of the bases snut and snus on the other hand. In other words, also the latter bases must have denoted 'to breathenbsp;audibly�. As a matter of fact, this is the very sense which Alf Torpnbsp;assigns to the base snut when saying that it denotes Dsnuse, v�renbsp;(egtl. vel aande horlig)�, i. e. to nose about, to scent (orig. presumably 'to breathe audibly�).i) From this admission it follows as anbsp;logical sequent that also the primary sense of the Germanic basenbsp;snus must have been 'to breathe audibly� and not �sn0fte�, i. e. tonbsp;snort, as is maintained by Torp, though the latter sense be not verynbsp;remote from the former meaning. Now if the semantic starting-point of the subsequent sense-development is the same in the casenbsp;of the four bases nut, nus and snut, snus, then we must expect notnbsp;only that the sense-development from the bases snut and snus shouldnbsp;present a great parallelism, but also that their semantic developmentnbsp;should afford a striking similarity to that taking its rise from thenbsp;bases nut and nus, at least in the earlier stages of the development.nbsp;If the expectations of great parallelism in the sense-developmentnbsp;of the four bases be fulfilled, then we may regard it as a proof beyondnbsp;reasonable doubt that the bases nut and nus are Germanic abbreviations of the bases snut and snus. Hence we cannot entirely disregard the latter bases, whose existence has not until lately been recognized by scientific research. But since our illustration of thenbsp;occurrenc of these bases only aims to prove their quality as sourcesnbsp;of the roots nut and nus, the examples need neither comments nornbsp;exhaustiveness. As a matter of fact, we are by no means willing tonbsp;write the semantic history of four Germanic bases, merely because wenbsp;wanted to demonstrate the existence of one of them, hitherto unknownnbsp;in the world of scholarship. Hence, let us only adduce a number ofnbsp;instances taken from various Germanic idioms and illustrating thenbsp;semantic aspect of the derivatives from the bases snut and snus.

Sivedish : � Snuta [snuq v. Vadra, lukta, i. e. to snuff or smell, to scent (Fink, Vendell)^)

Snutta I [snut(a)] v. Tjura, vara surmulen, i. e. to sulk, to be surly (Fink, Vendell).

Snutta II V. Glutta, se of�rmarkt genom ett hal, i. e. to peep stealthily through a hole (Smal., Rietz).i)

Snutta III V. (1) Springa hit och dit med korta uppehall, i. e. to run hither and thither with short stops (Vesterg�th); (2) snafva,nbsp;i. e. to miss one�s footing (G�tah, Rietz p. 650).

Sndta I [snota'l v. Snoppa ljus eller parta, i. e. to snuff a burning candle or stick of wood (Fink, Vendell].

Sndta II [snot(a), snoJita, snuta] v. (1) Vadra, snoka (ish. om hund), i. e. to sniff, snuff, or scent (said esp. of a dog), to nosenbsp;about; (2) snusa; (3) nosa pa, i. e. to smell (at), (Fink, Vendell).

Snotta V. (1) Vadra och s�ka efter nagot, i. e. to sniff or scent and be in quest of something; (2) s�ka ifrigt i alia hal, noga och oftanbsp;leta efter, hemligen utforska, i. e. to search eagerly in every hole, tonbsp;rummage carefully and often for (something), to inquire into anbsp;matter secretly (Vesterg�th, Rietz. s. v. snokta).

Snottra II \snotra'\ v. Neds�la, ish. med snor, i. e. to soil, or befoul, esp. with nasal mucus (Fink, Vendell).

Snottra III [snotdr, snotra, snohtra] v. (1) Tala snabbt och otyd-ligt, sluddra, sladdra, i. e. to talk quickly and indistinctly, to sp(l)ut-ter or stammer; to jabber away; (2) puttra (i grytan), i. e. to bubble in the pot (Fink, Vendell).

Snyta str. v. (in MSw. wk v.) (1) To clean or clear the nose from mucus; (2) to snuff a candle; (3) (vulg. and joc.) to steal, to cheatnbsp;(general speech).

Derivatives: � MSw. Snuta sb. face in snutofagJier, i. e. having a handsome face, but orig. denoting ''snout, mouth�. Sw.nbsp;Snut sb. (1) = snyte = lang, smal och spetsig nos, i. e. a long,nbsp;tapering muzzle; (2) niisa, mun, i. e. nose, mouth; (3) a pet name;nbsp;(4) (now obsolete) ett slags spetsigt br�d, i. e. a sort of bread.^)nbsp;In Sw. dialects snut denotes not only 'nos, mule�, i. e. snout, muzzle,nbsp;and 'trut, mun�, i. e. mug. mouth, but also 'h�rn, udde�, i. e. corner,nbsp;promontory (Rietz, p. 645). � Snutt sb. hjartunge, i. e. (my) poppet,nbsp;popsy-wopsy (Vesterg�th, Ihre^). Snutta sb. Liten flicka, i. e.nbsp;a little girl (G�tah, Rietz; Fink, V. E. V. Wessman)*), orig. a pet

name. � Snuit sb. Liten, kort stund, �gonblick, litet grand, i. e. a little while, a moment, the veriest trifle (Vesterg�tl., Rietz).

Sndt I \snot, snat] sb. (1) Nasa, nos, tryne, i. e. nose, muzzle, snout; (2) trut, mun, i. e. mug, mouth; (3) nys, hum, vaderkorn,nbsp;i. e. an inkling, scent, power of scent (Fink, Vendell). Snat IInbsp;[snot] sb. Snor, i. e. nasal mucus (Fink, Vendell). Snat III [snot]nbsp;sb. (1) Ljus- eller partsot, i. e. soot from a candle or a burnt partnbsp;of a stick of wood; (2) avbrunnet stycke av en parta, i. e. the spentnbsp;part of a stick of wood used as a candle (Fink, Vendell). Sndt IVnbsp;[snot] sb. Fan, i. e. fool (Finl., Vendell). � Sndtt [.swoi] sb. Varg,nbsp;i. e. wolf; the term is obviously used as a noa word denoting ''onenbsp;that noses about in quest of food�; also in form sndtare. (Fink,nbsp;Vendell).

Sndtter [definite form sndttra, pk sndttren] sb. Hjortron, i. e. cloudberry, Rubus Chamsemorus (Vester- och Norrbotten, Rietz);nbsp;also sndtterbar, sndttron (Angermank, Rietz). Snutterbar sb. Smultron,nbsp;i. e. wild strawberries, Fragaria Vesca (Dalarne, Helsingk, Rietz);nbsp;also snytter-, sn�tterbar (Helsingk, Rietz); the word sndtter, snuiter,nbsp;etc. denotes that the berries (and hence the plants) may be scentednbsp;by the flavour they emit. � Snotter [snotdr] sb. Otydligt tal, plad-der, joller, i. e. indistinct speech, babble, prattle (Fink, Vendell).

Snottra I [snotra or -o, snohtra, snotra, or -o] sb. (1) En kvinna som snottrar, i. e. a gossip; (2) en snuskig kvinnsperson, i. e. a slattern (Fink, Vendell). Snottra II [snotro] sb. Mun, trut, i. e. mouth,nbsp;mug (Fink, Vendell).

Snutlig a. Hygglig, hyfsad, i. e. well-behaved or decent, cultivated (01., Rietz).

Snoter a. Valtalig, munvig, i. e. eloquent, voluble, ready-witted (Smak, Rietz). The original sense was 'having a keen power of scent� used figuratively, consequently the same sense as wasnbsp;originally presented by Ger. naseweis, now = 'pert, forward, prying,nbsp;impertinent�. Cp. Goth, snutrs a. prudent (and snutrei prudence),nbsp;OE snot{t)or a. clever, prudent (and snyttru prudence, cleverness;nbsp;snytrian to be clever, wise), OHG snotar prudent; etc.

Snottrog I [snotro(gar), snohtrugar] a. Osnygg, snuskig, i. e. uncleanly, dirty, filthy (Fink, Vendell). Snottrog II [snotro{gar),nbsp;snotro{gar), snotru(gar)] a. Talande otydligt, pladder- och skvaller-aktig, i. e. speaking indistinctly, prattling, gossipy (Fink, Vendell).nbsp;15

Sndtog I [snoto{gar)'\ a. Fallen f�r att snoka eller spana efter, i. e. addicted to nosing about or searching for something (Finland,nbsp;Vendell). Sndtog II \snotu- or snutu-l a. Fanig, i. e. foolish (Fink,nbsp;Vendell).

Norwegian:^) � Snutta v. Vise en spids, en tip. et glimt, i. e. to let appear (a point, a tip, a ghmpse); a denominative verb,nbsp;cp. the subs, snota (= snute, tip. spids) and snyt (spids, top).

Snutra v. Snake, snuse efter, i. e. to rummage about, esp. for something to eat, to nose after.

Snota V. Snuse, snake, i. e. to nose, sniff, sniffle, snuff; to rummage for, esp. for something to eat.

Snota V. (1) V�re, snuse, i. e. to scent; to nose, sniff, snuff; (2) lete, snake, i. e. to search for, to rummage about for; (3) ssette trut,nbsp;surmule, i, e. to pout, to sulk; perhaps a denominative verb, cp.nbsp;the sb. snot (snute, trut. i. e. a muzzle, mug). Snotra = Snutra.

Snotta V. Snofte, snuse, speide, i. e. to snort; to nose, sniff, snuff; to look out, watch, spy.

Snyta (mostly) str. v. (1) Stikke frem som en snute, i. e. to project like a muzzle, snout, or nose; (2) ta bort med raskt grep, i. e. to remove by making a sudden catch at something; (3) snyte naesen,nbsp;i. e. to blow the nose; (4) pudse et lys, i. e. to snuff a candle;nbsp;(5) narre, bedrage, i. e. to cheat, swindle.

Derivatives: � Snut sb. m. Snute, i. e. muzzle, nozzle, snout; fremragende spids.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;,

Snyt sb. m. Fremstikkende spids el. top, i. e. a projecting point, tip, or top. Snyta sb. fern. = snyt) also = grand, i. e. atom, particle,nbsp;the veriest trifle, etc. Snytta sb. fern. Spids, top, i. e. a point, tip, top.

Snot sb. m. Liten stump, i. e. a small stump, end, fag-end, etc. Snott sb. neut. Snot, i. e. nasal mucus; Prim. Teut. ¹snut(t)a-. Snotanbsp;sb. fern. Snute, tip, spids, i. e. muzzle, nozzle, snout, tip, point;nbsp;also = grand, smula, i. e. atom, particle, trifle, crumb, speck, etc.

Snot sb. (1) snute paa hund, raev o. L, i. e. the nose of a dog, fox, or the like; (2) trut, i. e. mug, mouth. Note that o stands fornbsp;earlier o, according to Torp. Snote sb. Raev, i. e. a fox. It shouldnbsp;be understood as a noa word.

The Norwegian words are taken from A. Torp Nynorsk Etymologisk Ordbok, Kristiania 1919.

Snyde v. (1) To clean or clear the nose from nasal mucus; (2) to snuff a candle; (3) to cheat (general speech)d)

Derivatives: � Snude sb. (1) The nose and mouth of certain animals such as a dog or a bear; (2) (vulg.) the nose, mouth,nbsp;face of men; (3) the foremost part of a ship or shoe (general speech).^)nbsp;Snut I sb. (Vulg.) Mouth, in imperative address: hdl s., lok di s.;nbsp;(2) en net tos, ung pige = a nice or young girl (Jutland, Feil-berg).^) Snut II sb. (Vulg.) A pet word used of a young girl or anbsp;little child (general speech).^

Snyde sb. Sharp irettessettelse, i. e. a sharp rebuke or reprimand (Jutland, Feilberg). Snyder sb. (1) (Vulg.) Nose; (2) (vulg.) a rebuke, reprimand, snub; (3) a cheat (general speech).

Snuttet a. (1) Nsesvis = nysgerrig, paatrsengende, ubeskeden, i. e. inquisitive, intrusive, immodest or immoderate; (2) klog, dygtignbsp;til at bega sig, snu, i. e. prudent, clever at getting on in the world,nbsp;smart, or shrewd (Jutland, Feilberg; hence snuttethed nsesvished. �nbsp;Snottet a. (1) Full of snot; (2) being under age and injudicious andnbsp;yet intrusive; (3) half drunk (general speech) � Snottig a. Hand-snild, i. e. dexter or clever of hand, cp. ON snotr wise (Jutland,nbsp;Feilberg).

Schleswig-Holstein:�) � Snuddeln \snudln'\, Snotteln V. Schmutzen, schmieren, sudeln.

Sniiten \_snydn\, Sniitjen \snyd�n\ wk. v. Schneuzen; de Nqse dat Licht s.; zu Snuut.

Derivatives: � Snuut [sw�d], Snutt sb. fern. Schnauze; (1) Tierschnauze; (2) grober Ausdruck flir �Mund�; (3) grober Aus-druck flir �Nase�; (3) die Umgebung von Mund und Nase: �Gesicht�.nbsp;�bertragen: (a) Spitze am Stiefel; (b) die beiden Spitzen am Schuh-

1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cp. B. T. Dahl, H. Hammer, H. Dahl Dansk Ordhog for Folket, Kobenhavnnbsp;og Kristiania 1914.

2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cp. H. F. Feilberg Ordbog over Jyske Almuesmal, Kjobenhavn 1894�1904.

band; (c) T�lle [i. e. spout, nozzle] am Topf. Snuutje \snud�d']. Snuitje [snud�d], Snuutjen sb. Diminutive zu Snuut: �Schnauzchen�. Auchnbsp;Kosew�rter f�r Kleine Kinder. Snyter \_snyda] sb. m., Sn�tjen [snyd�n]nbsp;sb. n. == Diminutive zu Snuut: �Schnauzchen; also used as pet-names: mien Sn�tjen = mein Liebling. Sniit [snyd^, Sn�tj [snyds'] sb.nbsp;Koseform f�r Nase; in der Kindersprache auch Nutnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;auch

Bezeichn. f�r einen h�bschen Menschen: he is en S. � Sniiter \_snyda\ sb. Lichtscheere.

Snott [snod} sb. m. Nasenschleim, Rotz; also in form Sn�tt [sw0d]. Snodder [snoda] or Snudder [_snud:i\ sb. Nasenschleim, Rotz;nbsp;auch als Schelte: du Snudder �Rotznase�. Snodder and Snudder arenbsp;prob. formed on the base snu^.

Snutig I [snu'di], Snudig, Snuttig \snu'dlx\, Snuddig a. schnauzig; zu Snuut = (1) mundfertig, schlagfertig; (2) vorlaut, frech; (3)nbsp;gescheit, klug, pfiffig; schlau, gerissen. Snutig II [snu'di'] a. Kaltnbsp;(verdeutlicht s. koold). Snuddelig [snu'ddli], Snuttelig, Snutelig a.nbsp;Unsauber, unordenthch; cp. snuddeln, snuteln v.

Snottig [snodix], Snuddig [snu'dlx] a. Rotzig. Snodderig [sno'deri], Snudderig a. Berotzt. Dann meist wie im Hochd. schnodderig,nbsp;flegelhaft, dummdreist. Snodderig, Snudderig are prob. derivativesnbsp;from snup.

Mecklenburg amp; Hither Pomerani a:^) �� Sn�tern v. K�ssen (Mi), evidently a derivative from the subs. Snut 'Schnauze�.

Pomerania and R�ge n:^) � Snuten v. Schneuzen, betriegen. Hence Snuterken sb. Ein zarthcher TS.ndel- Name, dennbsp;man Kindern giebt.

Snute sb. fern. Die Schnauze, Nase. 'Hollt de Snout�, halts Maul. Snutenwiis a. Naseweis.

H a m b u r g:�) � Smitten v. Schnl-utzen: Mat Licht afsnut-ten: das Licht putzen; Me Nese uthsnutten�: die Nase schnamp;utzen. Hence Snutter, Licht-Snutter sb. Licht-Putze.

Snute sb. Schnauze, Russel, Nase der Thiere ... In der P8bel-Sprache aber wird auch ein Menschen-Mund mit diesem Nahmen verlchtlich beleget. 'Hohl de Snut�: halts Maul. Hence Afsnuten v.nbsp;Ablauffen lassen, ubers Maul fahren. Wys-Snuk, wyssnuten, wyssnu-tig, Wyssnuterey: nasenweise, Nasenweiserey.

1) Cp. Mi Worterbuch des Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommerschen Mundart, Leipzig 1876. Cp. C. J. Dahnert Platt-deutsches 'Worterbuch nach der alten u. neuen Poni-mersch. u. Rug. Mundart, Stralsund 1781.

B r e m e n:i) � Snottern v. Mit der Nase ein GerS,usch machen, als wenn sie voll Rotz ist; it. mit dem Rotz sudeln. Hence Besnotternnbsp;V. Mit Rotz besudeln. � Snotte sb. Rotz, mucus, pituita narium. Innbsp;compounds Snott-: Snott-baarse sb. Perca minor mucosa Sw.nbsp;snorgars), Snott-beng�l, -flegel sb. Ein Rotznase, junger Lecker, rot-ziger Junge. The variant Snotter sb. is met with in the compoundsnbsp;Snotter-nase, -snute '�ein Rotznase, Rotzl�ffel�, and in the adj. Snotterig rotzig, der den Rotz hangen llsst.

Snute sb. The same senses as Snute in the dial, of Hamburg (see above). 'Een bbsen Snuten�: ein loses, z�,nkisches Maul. '�Enennbsp;wisen Snuten hebben�: ein naseweises Maul haben.

Snutjen [evidently -�-] v. So heftig weinen, dass davon die Nase fliesst; heftig weinen.

Snut [-M-] sb. m.; pi. Sniitte. (1) Her Nasenschleim; (2) ein kleines Talglicht, wie sie zu Weihnachten den Armeren die Stelle der Wachshchter an den Christbaumen vertreten; (3) die Mistel, einenbsp;Schmarotzerpflanze, welche auf Weiden und Apfelbaumen haufignbsp;gefunden wird. Ein daraus gekochter Thee wird den K�hen einge-geben, wenn sie gekalbt haben. Hence Snutncese sb. Die Rotznase;nbsp;oft als Schimpfwort gebraucht.

Snute sb. f. Die Schnauze; der Mund. Hence Sn�ten-t�njes sb. m. Schimpfwort: das Dickmaul, d. i. ein mundfauler Mensch (T�njesnbsp;aus Antonins).

Baltic German: � Schnottern v. Rasonniren. Hence Schnotterer sb. Rasonneur, Krakehler, Schwatzer. These words (cp.nbsp;Swed. dial, snottra III) seem to occur in Esthonia only; see vonnbsp;Gutzeit�s Diet. Ill 153).

Schnueten \schnudtt'n'\ v. Schn�ffeln, riechen, suchen (Bavaria, Schmeller II 590).

Schnutern v. Plappern (= gedankenlos schwatzen), i. e. to chatter, jabber, etc. (Henneberg, i. e. the Dialect of Saxe-Meiningen;nbsp;Reinwald).�)

Cp. Versuch eines Bremisch-Niedersachsischen Worterhuchs IV Bremen 1770. Cp. G. Schambach Worterbuch der Niederdeutschen Mundart der F�rsten-th�mer Gottingen und Grubenhagen, Hannover 1858.

Schn�te^ [bzw. U.,

-u�-

(1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Schwer und laut atmen; (2) = schn�ssen 2, i. e. brummen�; (3) =nbsp;schn�ssen 3, i. e. mit heftigem Windstoss vorbeifahren, sausen; (vonnbsp;aufgeregten, zornigen Menschen) brummend fortgehen; unwilhgnbsp;weglaufen; (4) von dem durch gewisse geistige oder k�rperlichenbsp;Gef�hle verursachten Zsziehen des Mundes, wie dieses den Affennbsp;eigen ist (Swiss German, Staub und Tobler.^)

Schnauzen v. (1) Aschaffenb.; (von genossenen Speisen oder Getranken) durch die Nase heraufriechen; (2) zornig reden (Bavaria,nbsp;Schmeller II 591�2). Hence Schnauzig a. Anfahrerisch, hastig.^)

Dutch'?) � Snuiten v. (1) Afknijpen, wegnemen (met een snuiter); (2) (bouwk.), (van een stuk hout) den snuit, een uitstekenden scherpen hoek, wegnemen; (3) den neus in een zakdoek ledigen; (4) beetnemen, bedriegen, inz. door te veel te laten betalen.

Snotteren v. (1) Snot loozen; (2) schreien, krijten, i. e. to cry, to weep, to whine.

Derivatives: � Snuit sb. (1) Voorste deel van den bek van varkens en olifanten; (2) neus, i. e. nose; (3) gezicht vannbsp;den mensch; also = mouth, e. g. hou je snuit zwijg; (4) (werkt.)nbsp;met een scherpen hoek vooruitstekende punt; (5) (zeew.) voorsteven;nbsp;(6) afval van werk, vlas, i. e. refuse, waste products. Snuiter sb. (1)nbsp;Werktuig om de verbrande pit (eener kaars) af te knijpen; (2) persoon die snuit; (3) kwant, zonderling mensch: �t is een rare, een vreemdenbsp;snuiter. Snuitsel sb. Af gesnoten deel van de pit eener kaars. �nbsp;Snoet sb. (1) (plat) Snuit, e. g. hou-je snoet zwijg; (2) gezicht; (3)nbsp;lieverd, schat = petnames. Snoetje sb. (gemenz.) Gezichtje. �nbsp;Snot sb. (1) Nasal mucus; (2) Piet Snot, een sul, i. e. a good-naturednbsp;person, a duffer or tomfool, a simpleton; (3) snotziekte, i. e. a kindnbsp;of disease; (4) a horse with this disease. Snotter sb. (1) Snot; (2)nbsp;neus; (3) snotjongen. Snotterik sb. Snotneus, i. e. brat, urchin.

Snottig a. (1) Snotterig; (2) niets waard zijnde, zeer onsterk; hence Snottigheid. Snotterig a. (1) Veel snot hebbende bf loozende;

Cp. F. staub u. L. Tobler W�rterbuch der Sweizerdeutschen Sprache, Frauen-feld 1901.

Cp. J. A. Schmeller Baierisches W�rterbuch, 2. Aufl. von G. K. Frommann, M�nchen 1872�77.

By way of comparison let us also adduce the following instances from Kilian�s dictionary.

Snutten v. (1) Mungere, emungere; (2) emungere pecuniis, fallere: deplumare, deglubere aliquem. � Snuyten v. Holl. = snutten, mungere. � Snotten v. = snutten, mungere. � Snutteren v. Fland. �nbsp;snipperen, i. e. resecare, secare, incidere. This meaning obviouslynbsp;originated from the sense 'to snuff a candle�,

Snut, Snot sb. Mucus, myxa, narium humiditas, pituita nasi. �� Snuyte sb. (1) Nasus; (2) rostrum; (3) proboscis, manus elephanti;nbsp;(4) rostrum, rostra: pars nauis primore in prora exporrectior amp;nbsp;acutior. � Snutter sb. Kers-snutter, emunctorium. �� Snutsel sb.

(1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Mucus, narium purgamen; (2) snutsel van de keersse; fucus, fungusnbsp;candelse: myxus, candelas ellychnij pars exusta. � Snoter, Snote-ringhe sb. Fland. Rheuma, catarrhus, coryza. � Snottigh, Snot-achtigh a. Mucosus. � Snuytert a. Nasutus, naso insignis.

East Frisian-Saxo ni^) �� Sn�ttern v. Rotz od. Schleim anhaltend aus der Nase fliessen lassen oder absondern.

Sniiten v. Schneuzen, reinigen, putzen; schneiden, scheeren, abschneiden, einschneiden, stutzen, kiirzen, ein- od. verk�rzen etc.nbsp;Cp. DS.hnert (1781): Snuten v. (1) Schneuzen; (2) betriegen.

Derivatives: �Snute od. SnUte, Sn�t sb. (1) Schnauze, Maul, Schnabel, Nase od. R�ssel; (2) die vorderste Spitze desnbsp;Schuhwerks. � Snot, Sn�tte sb. (1) Rotz, Schleim, Nasenschleim;

(2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Verstand, Weisheit, e. g. snot (od. g�rte Gr�ze) in de hop hebben.nbsp;Cp. OFris. snotta nasal mucus, MLG snot, snotte, snotter Nasenschleim. Snotter, Sn�tterd sb. Rotzbengel, Gelbschnabel, Naseweis.nbsp;� Sniiter sb. Lichtscheere. Snutsel sb. (1) Das mit der Lichtscheerenbsp;abgesehnittene od. abgeputzte u. ausgebrannte Dochtendchen od.nbsp;die Schnuppe, Sehneuze; (2) der abegchnittene od. abgeschorenenbsp;Abfall von Baumen, Strauchern u. lebenden Hecken.

Snotterig, Sn�tterg a. (1) Rotzig, mit Rotz od. Nasensehleim beschmutzt; (2) naseweis, superklug, scharf, gewitzigt.

Let us here also adduce a verb from the dialect of Groningen, viz. Snoetern v. Pruilen, i. e. to be morose, sulky, angry; de hp latennbsp;hangen; eene ontefreden, lastige bui hebben, i. e. to have a fit ofnbsp;displeasure or bad temper (Molema�s diet.)

English:^) �- OE snytan v. (1) to blow the nose; (2) to snuff a candle, cp. OE candelsnytels sb. m. candle-snuffers. Mod.nbsp;Eng. suite, now dial, and Scotch.

Snot [snot] v. (1) To blow the nose, esp. with the finger and thumb (Scotland); (2) to snort (n. Yks.); (3) to snuff a candle ornbsp;lamp (Nhb. Dur.).

Snotter [sno4d{r)] v. (1) To permit mucus to run from the nose; (2) to breathe heavily through the nose; to snuffle, snore, snortnbsp;(north of the Humber and in n. Lin. and Wor.); (3) to cry, weep; tonbsp;snivel, whine (north of the Humber); (4) to pull by the nose; to seizenbsp;by the nostrils, to hit on the nose (Wm. w. Yks.).

Snuitter v. To laugh in a suppressed manner through the nose (Fife, Jamieson). Also used as a substantive.

Snyte v. (1) To walk feebly; to walk in a slow, stupid manner, to loiter, to work stupidly and lazily. (Sc., Jam.). Cp. snuit.

Derivatives: � Snot I sb. (1) The mucus of the nose = OE. sesnot (now dial, or vulgar but common in the 17th c.);

(2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;the burnt wick or snuff of a candle or lamp (now north, dial.)',

(3) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;fig. a term of contempt for a dirty, mean, or despicable person (dial, and slang)-, see N. E. D. Snot II sb. The fruit of thenbsp;yew-tree. Taxus baccata (Lin. Nhp. Som.). Also snot-berry or snottle-berry a yew-berry. � Snotter sb. Sc. and north. (1) Snot or nasalnbsp;mucus; also used fig. to denote something of little or no value,nbsp;significance, or importance; (2) pi. a bad cold in the head (Yks.);nbsp;(3) the nose (Cum. s. Chs.); (4) the red membraneous portion of thenbsp;beak of a turkey-cock (Sc. Fif.); (5) a sniggering laugh (Fif.); (6) anbsp;wasted candle, a candle that has guttered (Nhb). �� Snout sb. (1 a)nbsp;The trunk of an elephant (c. 1220, etc.); (1 b) the projecting partnbsp;of the head of an animal, which includes the nose and mouth; the

1) The linguistic material has been taken from J. Wright Eng. Dial. Diet. 1898 and from the N. E. D.

proboscis or rostrum of an insect; formerly also quot;the beak or bill of a bird�; (2) the nose in man, esp. when large or badly shaped; formerly also the face or countenance; (3) the end of a ship�s prow, thenbsp;beak or rostrum of a vessel; (4) a structure, formation, projectingnbsp;part, etc., resembling or suggestive of a snout; a nozzle or the like,nbsp;a projecting point of land, rock, etc. (N. E. D.). Various othernbsp;senses are recorded in the Eng. Dial. Diet.

Snotty a. (1) Foul with snot or nasal mucus; (2) dirty, mean, paltry, contemptible (now. dial, or slang)-, (3) angry, curt, short-tempered; pert, saucy, impudent; proud, conceited {dial, or slang)-,nbsp;(4) consisting of snot, mucous, viscous, slimy, (N. E. D.). Thenbsp;word occurs also as a sb. in dial, use denoting (1) a person of dirty,nbsp;slovenly habits; (2) a dunce, booby, dolt; (3) a saucy fellow (thenbsp;Eng. Dial. Diet.).

Swedish: � Snusa I [-�-] v. (1) draga andan ljudeligt under s�mn, i. e. to breathe audibly while asleep; (2) to take snuff,nbsp;orig. to draw up snuff through the nostrils; (3) straft tilltala nagon,nbsp;snusa te eller d, i. e. to take a person up snappishly, to send a personnbsp;away with a snub, or a flea in his ear (general speech, Rietz).

Snusa II [sniis{a)] v. (1) Nosa, i. e. to nose at, to smell; (2) snoka, uppsnoka, i. e. to nose about for, to ferret out; (3) nysa, i. e.nbsp;to sneeze (Fink, Vendell).

Snusha I \_snuslc{a), snuskla)) v. Snoka, nosa, i. e. to nose for or after (to rummage for); to nose at, to smell (Fink, Vendell).

Snuska II [swM.sfc(a)] v. Smutsa, lorta, i. e. to make dirty, to befoul (Fink, Vendell).

Snuskla [snuskla, sniiamp;kdl] v. (1) Snoka, i. e. to nose about for or after; (2) obeh�rigen inblanda sig i andras affarer, i. e. to meddlenbsp;with other people�s affairs; (3) snatta, i. e. to pilfer (Fink, Vendell).

Snussla I v. (1) Dr�ja, uppehalla sig, i. e. to dawdle, to tarry, to stop or stay; (2) se at nagot, betrakta, i. e. to glance at, to look atnbsp;(Gotland, Rietz). It is obvious that sense 1 gave rise to sense 2 bynbsp;getting a Semantic Addition by Implication so as to denote quot;to stopnbsp;or stay in order to look at�. Later on Permutation took place. Innbsp;the same way sense 1 of snuskla gave rise to senses 2 and 3 of thisnbsp;verb.

Snussla II [snmsl] v. Vara petig, smaaktigt noggrann, i. e. to be finicky (Fink, Wessman). The proximate source of this sensenbsp;was sense 1 of the preceding verb.

Snustar, Sn�stdr (pa. t. -trd) v. Vadra efter, lukta upp; om hun-dar, i. e. to nose about for (after), to scent out, to ferret out (said of hounds); (2) lagga sin nasa i allt, i. e. to be a busybody (Vester-botten, Rietz). The t of the verb originated, in our opinion, between s and r (Prim. Teut. ¹ ²snus-r-�n).

Snoskla [snoskak] v. Snovla^), i. e. to speak indistinctly with a snuffle, i. e. through the nose (Fink, VendeU).

Derivatives: � Snus [-�-] sb. [1] Pulverized tobacco (general speech); (2) in Finland also = 'stoft�, i. e. dust (VendeU),nbsp;probably a late sense. The word is either a shortening of earUernbsp;snustobak 1644, i. e. tobacco meant to be drawn up through thenbsp;nostrils, or else it is a deverbative word, i. e. formed on the stemnbsp;of the verb snusa I.

Snusk I [swmsA:] sb. neut. (1) Snokande, s�kning, i. e. nosing for, search for (Fink, VendeU); (2) i snusk = il�ndom, i. e. in secret (Dalar-ne, 18th c., Ihre^). The original sense was obviously 'in secret search�.

Snusk II sb. (1) Avfall, i. e. refuse, leavings (in older Swedish, Hellquist), a sense probably due to exchanging the notion of 'nosingnbsp;about in leavings� for 'leavings as having been rummaged in� (= Permutation); (2) [-M-] 'illaluktande orenUghet pa klader och m�bler�,^)nbsp;i. e. leavings attached to clothes or furniture and emitting a nastynbsp;smell, evil-smelUng dirt (general speech). We cannot share Hellquist�snbsp;view that snusk II is to be connected with snask and snaska.²)

Snuska II [snusko] sb. Kvinna som jagar efter nyheter och skvaller, i. e. a woman on the look-out for news and gossip (Fink,nbsp;VendeU).

1) Sw. sn�vla = 'tala oredigt med en obehaglig naston�, i. e. to speak indistinctly with a disagreeable nasal twang. See D. A. Sund�n Ordbok �fver Svenska Spraket,nbsp;Stockholm 1892.

Snuska III [snimko] sb. (1) Slag pa nasan, i. e. a rap on the nose; (2) bannor, trator, i. e. a scolding, quarrels (Finl., Wessman).

Snuska IV [snosko, ammsko] sb. Snuskig, smutsig kvinna, i. e. a dirty woman (Fink, Wessman).

Snuskare \snuskara\ sb. (1) Snattare, i. e. a person committing petty larceny (Fink, Vendell); (2) snuskare, smuskarl en som snokar,nbsp;tullsnok, a customs officer, one who noses about; (Fink Wessman).

Snusken [snvskin, snustji{n), -tsi{n)} sb. m. The woK. This noa word is the definite form of snusk in sense ''one nosing or prowling about (in quest of food)�. (Fink, Vendell and Wessman s. v.nbsp;snusk.)

Snusning \snusni'gg'\ sb. Hum, nys om ngt, i. e. an inkling of something (Finl., Vendell).

Snussik \snussik'\ sb. no plural. Slusk, snuskig person, i. e. a shabby fellow or scamp, a filthy person (Fink, Vendell).

Snyssjare [snyfar] sb. En som lagger sin niisa i aUt, i. e. a person poking his nose into everything (Fink, Vendell).

Snusen a. (1) Harmsen, vid elakt lynne, i. e. indignant, in a bad humour (Vesterbotten, Jamtland; Rietz); (2) halvfull, i. e. hahnbsp;drunk. Pd snusen id. Svea-, G�taland (Rietz). It is true that sensenbsp;1 may have given rise to sense 2 by means of Permutation and thatnbsp;the converse sense-change is also possible. But personally wenbsp;have never heard snusen employed as an adj. in sense 'half drunk�.nbsp;The expression employed was always pd snusen. The use of preposition and the Swed. accent 1 go to show that we are here concerned with a sb. snus abstracted from snusa II and denoting 'searchnbsp;for or after� (soil, adventures). Hence the expression may be understood as equivalent to 'half drunk�, and hence the latter sensenbsp;could be substituted for the former meaning (= Permutation). Cp.nbsp;the parallel expression pd luffen, where luff has been abstracted (asnbsp;a sb. in the definite form) from the verb luffa (= back-formation).nbsp;Cp. Eng. on the move.

Snuskig, -og \_snu.ski-, snus_ko(gar)'\ a. (1) Snokande, nyfiken, i. e. nosing about for or after something, inquisitive; (2) skickhg, i. e.nbsp;skiKul (Fink, Vendell).

Snusog, -ot [snusu-, snuso-, snuso{\ a. (1) Ful, i. e. ugly; (2) ringa, obetydhg, i. e. insignificant (Fink, Vendell).

Norwegia w}) � Snusa [also sn�sa and snussa (of a hound)] V. Snuse, snofte, v�re, spore efter noget, i. e. to nose, sniff, sniffle,nbsp;snuff; to snort; to scent or to get. the wind of something, to tracenbsp;or track.

Snuska v. Snake efter mat, rapse, i. e. to nose about for something to eat; to filch.

Snosa V. Snuse, v�re, i. e. to nose, sniff, snuff; to scent or to get the wind of.

*8n6sa v. V�re, spejde, snake, i. e. to scent or to get the wind of something, to spy about for, to watch for, to nose about for.nbsp;The form is obviously a blending of nosa To smell� and verbs containing the base snus.

Derivatives: � 8nus I sb. m. = Snugg, teft, i. e. lugt, v�r, spor av = smell, scent, trace or track. 8nm II sb. (1) [also snuss\ neutr.nbsp;= Snustobak, i. e. snuff; (2) m. = en pris snus; smule, i. e. a pinchnbsp;of snuff; an atom, a particle, a trifle. In sense 'a pinch of snuff�,nbsp;the word is, in Torp�s opinion, prob. an adoption of LG snus f. anbsp;pinch of snuff. But in sense of powdered tobacco the word isnbsp;obviously of deverbative origin (note the neutral gender!) and denotednbsp;at first an inhalation through the nose, thereupon the thing inhaled.nbsp;� 8nusk sb. m. Avfald, levninger, i. e. refuse, offal, leavings. �¹8nysnbsp;sb. f. Nys om, v�r av, i. e. scent of, an intimation of. Probably anbsp;blending of the substantives snus and nys. � ¹8nds sb. m. Lugt, v�r,nbsp;tev, i. e. scent of, smeU. Probably a back-formation from the verb snosa.

Danish: � 8nuse v. (1) Drage Vejret gennem Naesen for at opfange Lugten af ngt, vejre, i. e. to draw up air through the nosenbsp;in order to scent something, to scent; gaa pa Spor, stove efter ngt,nbsp;i. e. to follow a trail or track, to nose about for or after; snuse tilnbsp;(ved) ngt, i. e. to smell (at); (2) brake Snustobak = to be in the habitnbsp;of taking snuff, to take snuff; (3) opdage, opspore ngt, i. e. to discover, find out; to run to ground, to track down (general speech).

8nussi [snusi -sr -ai], 8nyssi v. Ryste med ngt, i. e. to shake (Jutland, Feilberg).^) Cp. Nusse v. Skultre sig (Jutland).

As to the Norw. instances, see Alf Torp Nynorsk Etymologisk Ordbok, Kristia-nia 1919.

Derivatives: � Snus sb. m. (1) Snustoback, i. e. snuff; (2) en Pris, i. e. a pinch of snuff; fig. en Ubetydelighed, Smule, i. e.nbsp;an insignificant thing, an atom, etc.; (3) Dadel, Irettessettelse, Revs-else, Tugtelse, i. e. a rebuke, scolding, chastisement (general speech).^)nbsp;Snusen sb. (en) Det at snuse, i. e. the action of taking snuff (generalnbsp;speech).^) Snuser sb. (en) Agent noun of 'snuse� (general speech).^)nbsp;Pottesnuser sb. En mand, der blander sig i kvindernes kokkensyssel,nbsp;i. e. a man who thrusts his nose into kitchen matters (Jutland, Feilberg).

Rusk-om-snusk sb. Alt hvad der er sammenblandet, is8er om madvarer, i. e. all things that have been mixed up (said esp. ofnbsp;articles of food). (Jutland, Feilberg). Snysk [snysk] sb. Gr�naerter,nbsp;guler�dder, kartoffler opstuvede i melk, i. e. green peas, carrots,nbsp;potatoes stewed in milk (Jutland, Feilberg). � Snusket a. Snavset,nbsp;sjusket, i. e. uncleanly or dirtj^; careless or negligent (general speech).

Low Oerman. Schleswig-Holstein:^) � Snus-seln [snusln] v. Schmutzen, schmieren, sudeln (= snuddeln).

Snuschen [snuin] v. Fein regnen. The stem of the verb appears in the subs. Snusch-regen ganz feiner Staubregen (Angel).

Derivatives: � Snuus-tobak [snu-stobag] sb. Schnupftabak. The first member of the compound is a verbal stem. � Snusch [swms],nbsp;Snuusch, Sniisch [snys, Ang.] sb. Fin beliebtes Angler Gericht:nbsp;junge Erbsen, junge Bohnen (Schnittbohnen), gelbe Wurzeln, jungenbsp;Kartoffeln werden gekocht, dann mit gehackter Petersilie und einemnbsp;Kliimpchen Butter in heisse Milch getan und mit Schinken, gesal-zenem Hering oder gerauchertem Speck gegessen. � Sn�sel [sn^zl] sb.nbsp;Unverschamter, dummdreister Bengel, Gr�nschnabel, Schlingel.

Snuschig \_snu-amp;ix\ a. Kalt, regnerisch ungem�tlich (vom Wetter). � Snusselig a. Unsauber, unordentlich. � Snoselig nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;a.

Mecklenburg amp; Hither Pomerania:�) � Snusen [-U-] V. Umhergucken, umhersuchen, spahen. � Snus [-w-] sb. Finnbsp;verachtliches Ding. � Snusig a. Neugierig.

Pomerania amp; R�gen:¹ ²) � Snuscheln v. Dryckt(!) eigentlich das Wuhlen der Schweine mit der Nase aus. Uneigentlich

1) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cp. B. T. Dahl, H. Hammer, H. Dahl Dansk Ordbog for Folket, Kobenhavn ognbsp;Kristiania 1914.

2) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Cp. Otto Mensing Schleswig-HoUteinisches W�rterbuch, Neum�nster 1933.

heisst es: Esswerk durchsuchen urn das besste(!) herauszunehmen. � Snuus sb. Ein� Prise Schnupftobak. �� Sn�sel sb. Ein schimpfwortnbsp;auf einen jungen Laffen. Also Snasel. � Schnusselwark sb. f. Wasnbsp;von dem besseren ubrig geblieben ist.

Bremen:^) �Snusseln, Sn�sseln v. (1) Mit vorn ausge-streckter Schnauze oder Nase etwas ausspuren. Und daher, mit Vorwitz alles ausforschen. Man sagt auch nusseln, von Namp;se, Nase.nbsp;'Dat Kind snusselt an dem Titte�: das Kind suchet die Brust. (2) lmnbsp;Hannbveris. naschen. Daher Snusselije, das Naschen, Naschwerk.nbsp;Herum snusseln, an allen Seiten suchen und ausspuren, wie einnbsp;Spurhund: die Nase in alles stekken: alles durchstinkern. � Snuus-haan sb. Ein gar zu vorwitziger und naseweiser Mensch, der sicbnbsp;um alles bekummert, der alles aufspuren und ausspihen kann. Innbsp;this case snuus- is a verbal stem. �- Snuss (sb.) ist dasselbe mitnbsp;Snute. Nur wird es fur etwas gelinder und hSflicher gehalten.

Osnabr�ck:^) � Schnussel sb. Schnauze. Sn�ssel occurs in Gottingen and Grubenhagen = der R�ssel, die Schnauze, z. B. vonnbsp;Schweinen, Hunden und Mausen. � Snusterye sb. Kleinigkeiten.

It should be noted that in Low German there are also a verb snUsen 'schnauben, schn�ffeln� (Pick IIP 525) and a sb. snas snoutnbsp;(Hellquist op. cit.^ 1016).

Let us also illustrate the occurrence of the base snus in High German. It is sufficient to adduce a few examples only.

Schnause� [-ae-] v. Wahlerisch an den Speisen herum machen, die besten Bissen heraussuchen. (Suabian, Fischer).

Schnause^ [bzw. -au-, -ai-, -oi-, -m^-] v. (la) Durchschniiffeln, -st�bern, mit hamischer Neugier stankern, vorwitzig durchsuchen;nbsp;Geschriebenes oder Gedrucktes wahlerisch, fliichtig durchlesen; (lb)nbsp;naschen, Kleinigkeiten (besonders Esswaren) entwenden; (2) barschnbsp;anreden, schnauzen. Syn. schnUssen, schnauzen. Hence Schnausignbsp;a. (la) Schn�ffelnd, (neu-)gierig st�bernd; wahlerisch, naschhaft;nbsp;(1 b) diebisch, frech, zudringlich; (2) barsch, mit Worten anfahrend,nbsp;beissig; Syn. schnauzig-, (3) schnell; Syn. schnilssig. (Swiss German,nbsp;Staub und Tobler).

Schnuse�', frequentative form Schniisele�� v. (1) Von Kindern, an einem Lappen saugen, oder so saugen als batten dieselben einennbsp;Lappen im Munde. Hence Schnussi, Schniissi sb. (1) Sauglappen,

1770,

Versuch eines Bremisch-Niedersachsischen Worterbuchs IV Bremen p. 904�5, cp. p. 908.

Lutschbeutel; (2) Mutterbrust in der unfeineren Spr. (Swiss German, Staub und Tobler). As to the sense-development of schnuse� notenbsp;LG 'dat Kind snusselt an dem Titte�: das Kind suchet die Ernstnbsp;(soil, um zu saugen). (Bremen diet, of 1770.)

Schn�ssele^ v. H�rbar atmen, von einem schlafenden Kinde (Swiss German, Staub und Tobler). � Note also the adj. g^-schnusUgnbsp;undeutlich im Sprechen (Swiss German, Staub und Tobler) and thenbsp;subs. Schn�ss [snes] Maul, freche Schnauze (Alsatian, Martin undnbsp;Lienhart).

Netherlandish: � Older Du. Snoezen v. Snuffelen, i. e. to snuff. (Franck�s Etym. Woordenboek s. v. snoeshaan).

Snoesteren I s[iue] Snuysteren v. Snoepen (= catillare, ligurire, vorare poma), ligurire, vorare poma, etc. (Kilian). Snoesteren II v.nbsp;Sloesteren (i. e. entbolsteren noten, i. e. nuts), demere culeolas,nbsp;cortices siue putamina (Kilian).

Snuisteren I, Snuusteren v. (1) De snuit ergens in of aan steken en snuffelen (said of dogs); (2) naforschen, opzoekingen doen (Westnbsp;Vlaamsch, De Bo). Snuisteren II v. (1) Snoesteren, sloesteren,nbsp;ontbolsteren, i. e. to peal; (2) snoepen = likkernijen (inz. in hetnbsp;geheim, verholen) nuttigen; verboden minnehandel drijven; (3)nbsp;grissen, i. e. to snatch; stelen (kleinigheden), i. e. to steal or pilfernbsp;trifles; (4) (gew. Zuidn[ederlandsch]) snuffelen, i. e. to snuff, to prynbsp;into (van Dale). Hence the subs. Snuisterij (1) Kleinigheid, voorwerpnbsp;van weinig waarde, i. e. a thing of little value; (2) nietigheid, i. e.nbsp;a paltriness, a trifle, something insignificant (van Dale).

Note also Du. Snoes sb. (1) (gemeenz.) Lieverdje = lief kind, i. e. a darling; (2) snoeshaan; dim. snoesje (van Dale). Snoeshaan sb.nbsp;(1) Zonderling mensch, vreemde snuister, i. e. a rum chap; pocher,nbsp;snoever, i. e. a braggart (van Dale). � Snoezig a. Lief, aardig, snoeperig, i. e. dear, nice or decent, pretty, etc. (van Dale).

East Frisian: � Snusken v. Riechen, sptiren, schniif-feln, st�bern etc. (Doornkaat Koolman).

Snustern v. Schn�ffeln, st�bern, suchen etc. (Doornkaat Koolman). Cp. Snuustern v. 'Snuffelen�, i. e. to snuff, to rummage (the Groningen dialect, Molema).

Snus a. Spitz, spitz vorragend; scharf, eindringend; pfiffig, king, weise (Doornkaat Koolman). Cp. Snuus a. 'Beschaamd�, i. e.nbsp;ashamed, nonplussed (the Groningen dialect, Molema). � Note alsonbsp;the WestFris. adj. snusterich 'doezelig, bedoezeld�, i. e. drowsy ornbsp;half asleep, stupefied (Waling Dijkstra).

English: � Snush [snvJl v. To sniff at with a snorting sound (S. amp; Ork.). Hence Snush sb. A sniff, snort. See Wright�snbsp;Eng. dial. Diet.

Snuzzle [snu-zl] v. (1) Of swine: to rout about with the nose, 18th c. (Hmp.); (2) of a dog: to sniff or poke with the nose, 17th c.; (3)nbsp;to sniff, to breathe heavily and noisily (n.Yks. m.Yks.); (4) of persons, esp. children: to nuzzle, snuggle, nestle, or settle down comfortably (Yks. Lan. Chs. s. Not. n. Lin.). See N. E. D. and Wright�snbsp;Eng. Dial. Diet.

Snooze [swmz], also in form snews Cum. v. (1) To sleep, doze; to take a nap (Sc. Lnk. s. Don. Cum. w. Yks. Lan. Not. Lin. Lei.);nbsp;(2) to nestle, to lie snugly and warm (w. Yks. Nhp.). In gen. dial,nbsp;and colloq. use in Sc. Irel. and Eng. (Wright); see also N. E. D. (whichnbsp;says: �app. a cant or slang word of obscure origin�). Hence: Snoozenbsp;sb. A short sleep; a nap, doze. Snoozy a. Inchned to sleep, sleepynbsp;(Wright and N. E. D.). Also Snoozer sb. One who snoozes. Snoozingnbsp;vbl, sb. The fact of dozing or sleeping. Snooziness sb. The state ofnbsp;being snoozy or sleepy N. E. D.).

ij;

Snoozle [snuzl] v. (1) To nestle, to lie snugly and closely, to cuddle (Yks. ne. Lan. Not., Lin. Hrf. Brks. Sus. Hmp. w. Som.);nbsp;(2) of a dog: to sniff and poke with the nose. (Per. Yks); (3) to sleep,nbsp;doze; to take a nap (Sc. Cum. n. Yks., etc.). Wright�s Eng. Dial.nbsp;Diet. The verb is also met with in the N. E. D., which gives thenbsp;senses To nestle and sleep or doze, to nuzzle� and '�to thrust affectionately (its nose, said of a dog)�.

Snouse \_snauz'\ v. To sleep (s. Chs.). � Snuist v. To sniff (Sc., obsolete). �� Snuister v. To laugh, esp. in a suppressed manner throughnbsp;the nose (Sc.). Hence Snuister I sb. A suppressed laugh (Eif.).nbsp;Snuister II sb. A sweetie (Sc., Ayr.). Cp. Wright Eng. Dial. Diet.

In conclusion it may be mentioned that through the operation of what is called Verner�s law the base snus may sometimes appearnbsp;as snuz. This form of the base is considered to underlie Sw. snor,nbsp;dial, sndr, snor nasal mucus, older Dan. snor, snor; (^*snuz-a-. Withnbsp;I extension, i. e. snuz-t-, the base appears inNorw. dial, snulla 'snovle�,nbsp;i. e. to speak with a snuffle or nasal twang = Sw. dial, snolla, andnbsp;in South Dutch we meet with snollen 'snuffelen�. In view of suchnbsp;examples it is permissible to ask whether the base nus also appearednbsp;as nuz. That is possible, but we have paid no attention to thisnbsp;possibility in collecting our material.

Our survey of a number of derivatives from the bases snut and snus has proved up to the hilt that both had the same primary signification and that this sense must have been 'to breathe audibly�.nbsp;For we have been apprised that most of the senses of the verbalnbsp;derivatives are in both cases centred on the passive or active function of the nose, such as breathing through it, snorting, sniffing,nbsp;smelling, scenting, nosing or prying about, speaking (nay even laughing) through the nose, secreting nasal mucus, routing about in ornbsp;rooting up something with the nose, etc. And when the derivativesnbsp;are substantives, but of a semantic type other than agent nouns ornbsp;nouns of action, then they mostly denote nasal mucus or else nose,nbsp;mouth, or even face. For in animals the nose may be the chief partnbsp;of the head including also mouth and face in its notion.

But our survey has also proved the existence of a close semantic affinity between the derivatives from the bases snut and snus on thenbsp;one hand, and the derivatives from the bases nut and nus on thenbsp;other hand. In the earlier stages of the sense-development fromnbsp;the latter bases the parallelism with that from the former roots isnbsp;so great that it presupposes the same primary signification. Itnbsp;should be admitted, however, that nut and nus, as being phoneticallynbsp;somewhat removed from their origin, i. e. snut and snus, were perhaps more hkely than the latter to be the starting-points of furthernbsp;sense-development where new lines of semantic changes were duenbsp;to Intentional Transfers. But rightly considered, the same semanticnbsp;starting-point can never lead to total parallelism in the subsequentnbsp;sense-development. For the versatility of the human mind and thenbsp;comparative scantiness of the linguistic means of expression are toonbsp;great to permit of any complete uniformity. Let it also be noted thatnbsp;such a quality would be at variance with the purpose and tendenciesnbsp;of human speech. Judging from the evidence, then, given by thenbsp;linguistic material, we are obviously justified in coming to the conclusion that the Germanic bases nut and nus must be, abbreviationsnbsp;of the bases snut and snus, since they have the same primary meaning,nbsp;and that this phonetic change took place in Primitive Teutonic times.

If we put the question what cause it was that brought about the initial abbreviation of the bases snut and snus so as to makenbsp;them appear as nut and nus, no definite answer can be given. Innbsp;similar instances attention is never paid to this question by comparative linguistics, obviously for the reason that it can only be thenbsp;subject of random guesses. Thus, in the present case we may perhapsnbsp;16

suppose that the reduction of snus to nus was due to a dissimilatory tendency and that the curtailment of snut to nut was brought aboutnbsp;by associative influence from snus, which like the latter base was anbsp;dental extension of the base snu. But if the former abbreviationnbsp;occurred at a date anterior to that of the latter shortening, this isnbsp;at least in harmony with the fact that the base nut is very scantilynbsp;represented in Swedish, Norwegian, and East German dialects,nbsp;whereas the base nus is not so poorly recorded. But, after all,nbsp;our supposition is mere guess-work. But if so, the elimination ofnbsp;an initial s must be taken as a fact, just as the addition of an initialnbsp;s is a fact in Prim Teut. *smeltan as against *meltan, though notnbsp;explained.

We have previously maintained that the bases smd and snus should be understood as phonetic extensions of the Germanic basenbsp;snu. This is, no doubt, a legitimate view from the angle of the etymological state of things in the Germanic languages. The primarynbsp;sense of this fundamental root need not have been 'to breathe audibly�nbsp;but it was of course a sense not very remote from it. In Torp�snbsp;opinion its primary signification was 'schnauben�, i. e. to snort, pant,nbsp;breathe heavily, an acceptable sense. But in his opinion it was alsonbsp;'prusten�, an uncertain signification. The original meaning of thenbsp;base was according to him 'schaben, scharren, abschneiden�.^) Butnbsp;be this as it may, what is of importance to state is the fact that thenbsp;base snu was also extended by means of consonants other than t and s.nbsp;There are labial extensions, viz. snui- [sneub-), and snuf, e. g. MLGnbsp;snUve a cold in the head (whence Sw. sn�va); MLG sn�ven to snort, tonbsp;blow the nose; MHG snuben str. v. to snort, to blow the nose, whencenbsp;G. schnauben, i. e. to snort, to breathe hard; and perhaps snufennbsp;str. V. whence G. schnaufen, i. e. to breathe heavily, to pant (wherenbsp;snuf-is generally considered to go back to Teut snup-, cp. Pick IIP, 525).nbsp;Labial extensions are also met with when the basic vowel is short.nbsp;We come across the form snuw- e. g. *snuivw�n, whence norw. dial.nbsp;snugga to smell, scent, or nose about, Sw. snugga 'snylta�, i. e. to spongenbsp;on a person for one�s meals or (of dogs) for morsels of food. We alsonbsp;meet with the form snub-, e. g. LG snove a cold (in the head), smeU,nbsp;scent, OE snofl phlegm, mucus, and *snyflan presupposed by E.nbsp;snivel. We also meet with the form snubh-, e. g. LG snubbe a cold, ornbsp;with the form snupp- (lt; bn, according to Torp, Pick IIP 525), e. g. MLGnbsp;snoppe nasal mucus, MSw. snuppa, snoppa to sob, MHG snupfen tonbsp;1) Cp. Fick IIP p. 524.

breathe hard, to sob, MHG snupfe a cold (whence G. Schnupfen). Lastly, there is also the form snuff-, e. g. Older Du. (Kilian) snuf, snof L.nbsp;singultus, i. e. a sob, a derivative from snuffen, snoffen singultirenbsp;(Kilian); Du. snuffelen, G. schn�ffelen, E. to snuff. The Germanicnbsp;base snu has also a velar extension with k, e. g. MLG snuckennbsp;to sob, Norw. dial, snukka to snort, to smell at, Sw. dial, snuckanbsp;to hiccup, Norw. dial, snykta to catch one�s breath as in weeping,nbsp;Swed. dial, snykta � *snukkit5n), Eng. dial, snoek to snort contemptuously; to turn over with the nose as a dog or pig; to poke,nbsp;press into (Scotch), and snocker to breathe heavily and noisily throughnbsp;the nose; to snort, snore; also used fig. (Scotch).^)

The variation of the final consonant, when the base snu was extended, should in Hellquist�s opinion (op. cit. s. v. snuva) be understood as essentially due to the onomatopoeic nature of the base. Cp.nbsp;especially the forms with //, which, according to him, hardly admitnbsp;of being explained in a manner that is compatible with ordinarynbsp;phonetic laws. But his view appears to refer only to the labial andnbsp;velar extensions, not to the dental extensions with t and s. But itnbsp;is evident that also the latter forms should be understood as onomatopoeic expressions.

But there is another thing that must not be forgotten in this connection. For we have to state and consider the important factnbsp;that there is a dental extension of the base snu other than thosenbsp;with t and s. This extension gave rise to the base snup, and it isnbsp;most likely, nay certain that the primary sense of snu^ 2 was Tonbsp;breathe audibly�, a form related to snu^ 1 'ab-, beschneiden�.

We meet with the base snup, for instance, in ON snydja to sniff or snuffle, to rush; ON snu�ra or snodra to sniff or snuffle, to nosenbsp;about for; whence Norw. dial, snydja and snodra. We also comenbsp;across it in MLG snuden to snort or breathe audibly, to scoff ornbsp;taunt; MLG snoderen to blow the nose, to have a cold; LG snoddernbsp;nasal mucus; LG snoddrig full of phlegm, and other words. Thenbsp;base snuP is also met with in High German, e. g. MHG sn�den tonbsp;breathe with difficulty, to snort, snore; MHG snuderen to snort ornbsp;breathe hard; NHG dial. Schnude, Schnudel the nose (Henneberg,nbsp;Reinwald); schnodeln to breathe through an almost stopped up nosenbsp;(Bavaria, Schmeller II 572); schnudern to search for something

1) Cp. E. Hellquist Svensk Etymologisk Ordbok^ s. v. snuva, snyfta, snugga��, and A. Torp in Kick HE pp. 524�5 and Nynorsk Etymologisk Ordbok s. v. snugga^. snykta,nbsp;etc.

with the nose or snout (Bavaria, Schmeller II 573); schn�dern, schn�dern to sneeze, to snort, said esp. of horses (Silesia, Weinhold);nbsp;schnudere^, schnodere�� [-�-, -�-, -�-] (1) to rout about with the bill ornbsp;snout in the mud, said of ducks or pigs; (2) [-�-�] to produce a vibrantnbsp;tone with the lips, said of horses; (3) [-�-] to puff through the snout,nbsp;said of pigs; (4) to gabble off (Suabia, Fischer); snudern, sn�dernnbsp;to secrete nasal mucus, to cry excessively so as to secrete mucusnbsp;(Switzerland, Stalder); Schnvder mucus, schniiderig full of phlegm,nbsp;and Schnuderbeere vaccinium myrtillus (Switzerland, Stalder).^) Thenbsp;base snup seems to occur only scantily in Dutch and Flemish, viz.nbsp;snodder, vetus, mucus (Kilian) and snodder, Fland. sordes, i. e.nbsp;dirt, filth, foul matter (Kihan), or not at all in West and Eastnbsp;Frisian. We meet with the base again in OE snydian to go nose ornbsp;beak forwards (of a plough, Rd 22.�), originally *snyppan lt; Prim.nbsp;Teut. *snupjan,^) and perhaps in modern Eng. dials., if snod tonbsp;doze (m. Yks.), snoodle (Lakei. Lan. Ches., etc.) to nestle, to fondle,nbsp;to cuddle (also in form snuddle), and perhaps a few other words benbsp;examples in point. It appears, then, that nowadays the base snup 2nbsp;is chiefly rife in the German idioms.

The question arises now whether there was an ehmination of initial s also in this dental extension of the base snu. Thisnbsp;abbreviation is in itself by no means an unlikely occurrence,nbsp;since snup 2 most probably, nay certainly had the same primarynbsp;signification as was presented by snut and snus. But we havenbsp;previously advocated the view that there is no unequivocal examplenbsp;of the base nup having once had existence. And if we have madenbsp;mistakes on that point, which is possible esp. in the case ofnbsp;nuddeln and nudeln (Lipsic), it does not affect our semantic-geneticnbsp;interpretation, seeing that the primary sense was in the present case,nbsp;also, To breathe audibly�, or at least a sense closely akin to it. Innbsp;Torp�s opinion the primary sense of snup 2 was 'schnauben�, i. e. tonbsp;snort, to breathe hard, to pant, and �schnauzen�, i. e. to talk roughly �*nbsp;or rudely. But the latter sense is best explained as having developednbsp;from the sense To breathe noisily�, and hence it should not havenbsp;been postulated as a primary signification.

') As to the dictionaries compiled by Reinwald, Schmeller, Weinhold, Fischer, and Stalder, see p. 15 foil.

Cp. K. F. Sund�n Are Old English intransitive-inchoative 5-verbs originally ai-verbs? See Minneskrift tillagnad Professor Axel Erdmann, Uppsala amp; Stockholm 1913.

But there is also another thing to be noticed with regard to the base snuj). The importance of this base is highly overrated by Alfnbsp;Torp, who puts it before us as an independent base, while snut isnbsp;only mentioned in passing in connection with the etymological problem of a word (see Fick IIF 524�5). This fact is obviously, atnbsp;least partly, the result of his view that the Eng. subst. snot andnbsp;snout and their correspondences in other Germanic idioms shouldnbsp;be derived from the inflected forms of a sb. *snu^an- catarrh (cp.nbsp;MHG snude catarrh), viz. *snujgt;n-, and from a sb. *snnpan- snout, viz.nbsp;*sn�pn-. From the phonetic result of these inflected forms therenbsp;originated, according to Torp, in Prim. Teutonic the substantivesnbsp;*snut{t)a- nasal mucus, catarrh, whence OE sesnot, i. e. snot, MHGnbsp;snuz (gen. snutzes) catarrh, and *sn�ta- snout, an animal�s muzzle,nbsp;whence prehistoric *snutjan, whence OE snytan, ON snyta, OHGnbsp;snuzen (MHG sniuzen, G. schneuzen). The base underlying *snut{t)a-was in Torps opinion snujgt; 2 denoting 'schnauben, schnauzen�, butnbsp;the base underlying *snuta- was snu^ 1 'abschneiden beschneiden�nbsp;or else snup 2. But he obviously regarded the latter base as originally the same as the former base, which primarily denoted 'kratzen�.nbsp;And since he did not shrink from creating an Indo-Eur. source ofnbsp;the base snup, he suggested two alternative Indo-Eur. bases asnbsp;sources (see infra). But all this is mere guess-work as long as he isnbsp;unable to prove that the base snut is of younger date than the basesnbsp;snup and snus are, and as long as if is admitted that snut, snus, andnbsp;snup- are verbal bases. For if so, we should adopt the view thatnbsp;*snut{t)S- and *snuta- are to be understood as New Coinages, as substantival formations from the verbal stems snut- or '^snutt- (withnbsp;intensive doubling of the t in verbs) and snut-. It is in harmony withnbsp;this view that we meet with the fact, pointed out by Professor Craigienbsp;(see N. E. D. s. v. suite), that OE snytan to blow the nose, tonbsp;snuff a candle and ON snyta to blow the nose, to destroy, bothnbsp;deriving their origin from a prehistoric *snUtjan�, appear manynbsp;hundreds of years, before we meet with the substantives snut ornbsp;snute in English or Norwegian. It should also be noted that each ofnbsp;the bases snut and snus has considerably greater frequency thannbsp;that presented by the base snup. For these reasons we cannot sharenbsp;Torp�s view that the latter base is the fundament of Germanicnbsp;*snut{t)a- mucus and *snuta- snout. Let us add that later on henbsp;seems to have modified his view.^) The ME and Scand. subs, snute

') Cp. Alf Torp Nynorsk Etymologish Ordbok, Kristiania 1919 s. v. snott, sn�sa.

or snut are either loans from LG snute or else native creations due to proportional analogy with such desubstantival verbs asnbsp;present f-umlaut, being formed by means of the ^a-suffix (= thenbsp;ja conjugation), whereas the substantives derived were devoid ofnbsp;Gumlaut.

Concerning the base smis, too, as occurring in Norw. dial, snusa (also snusa and anussa) 'to sniff or snuff, to snort, to scent�, Torpnbsp;had an opinion of his own. He maintained^) that its origin wasnbsp;probably due partly to derivation from the base anus, partly to derivation by means of a from the substantival stem *sn�ta-, or even tonbsp;derivation from the base anup by means of a. But there is nonbsp;cogent reason whatever for adopting the view that the base anusnbsp;should partly have as source the stem *s7i'U.ta-, which in its turnnbsp;should partly have as source the base snuf, just as if the basenbsp;snup alone had the privilege of having an ablaut variant with a longnbsp;u, or of having passed through the great Germanic consonant-shift.

But Torp obviously also held the view that LG anuaaeln and an�aseln = nuaaeln 'to poke the nose into, to nose after� was formednbsp;from the LG sb. anuaa snout, MLG anuase and anutae}) It is probablenbsp;that he looked upon MLG anuase as an assimilative product ofnbsp;MLG snutae (which he probably looked upon as an a derivativenbsp;from MLG snute). But in our opinion MLG anuase, LG snusa Schneuze,nbsp;Maul der Thiere (Bremen 1770) had better be understood as a formation from the verbal stem snusa- in LG snusseln. This is all thenbsp;more evident, because there are parallels where there is no final anbsp;in the stem to dim the etymological view. One parallel is Resentednbsp;by the LG sb. snuff, snuffe 'Nase, Schnauze�, in the dialect of Bremen (1770), and snuff 'Schnauze, Nase�, in the dialect of Hamburg (1755). These substantives are obviously formed from thenbsp;stem snuff- or snuff- as appearing in the LG verbs snuffeln (Bremen 1770) and snuffeln (Hamburg 1755). Another parallel is affordednbsp;by the older Du. sb. snuf, snof 'rheuma, catarrhus, graveda (a coldnbsp;in the head), coryza (the running at the nose)�, doubtless from thenbsp;stem in Du. )gt;snuffen, snoffen naribus spirare, afflare, efflare, proflare, follicare . . . subolere. Germ. Schnauffen, erschnauffen� (Ki-lian). In view of these eloquent facts it is quite natural to regardnbsp;not only LG snusa 'nose, snout� but also Prim. Ger. *snut{t)a- 'catarrh,nbsp;snot� and *snUta- 'snout, mouth� as derivatives from verbal stems,nbsp;viz. snuss-, snut{t)-, and snut-.

The ulterior history of the Teutonic bases snut and smis, i. e. their Indo-European sources, is a thorny problem. It belongs to anbsp;field of research where the scholars often stand on shift3^ andnbsp;treacherous ground, and this is certainly true of the present case,nbsp;also. There is anIndo-Eur. base sna denoting'fliessen, Feuchtigkeit�,nbsp;i. e. to flow, moisture or dampness, and �neben snd- liegt sndu-und sneu-)). Let us listen to what is said as to the base sneu- innbsp;Vergleichendes W�rterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen by A.nbsp;Walde and J. Pokorny (Berlin amp; Leipzig II 693, 1927): � �Alsnbsp;Erweiterung von sneu- fasst man . . . mir. snuad �Fluss�, snuadnbsp;�caesaries� (* �herabfliessend�), mhd snuz �Schnupfen�, norw. snott,nbsp;ags. gesnott �Rotz�, aisl. snyta, ahd. snUzen, nhd. schneuzen, norw.nbsp;sn�t m. )gt;Schnauze�, nhd. Schnauze, mit idg. t mhd. snudel, snuder,nbsp;snvde �Schnupfen�, ahd. snuden oschnauben, schnarchen�, aisl.,nbsp;sny�ja �schn�ffeln, wittern (vom Hund)�, snudra, snodra ds., mit pnbsp;mhd. snupfe, aisl. snoppe �Schnupfen�, mhd. snufen �schnaufen�,nbsp;snuben �schnauben� u. dgh; doch ist es hinsichtlich der germ. Sippennbsp;mindestens ganz fraglich, ob ihnen der Begriff der Feuchtigkeit zu-grunde gelegt werden darf.� This repudiating attitude towards thenbsp;theory in point of Germanic is quite legitimate. For the Indo-Eur.nbsp;basic sense Teuchtigkeit� as represented by '�nasal mucus� and Thenbsp;secretion of it� can in the present case easily be explained, if thenbsp;primary sense of Germanic snut and snus was '�to breathe audiblynbsp;through the nose�. The very English expression To blow the nose�nbsp;is eloquent in this respect since it indicates that the method ofnbsp;removing troublesome nasal mucus consists in violently exhalingnbsp;through the nose. Hence it should not be a matter of surprise, ifnbsp;from the stem of the verb denoting this action, e. g. LG smittennbsp;'schneuzen das Licht und die Nase� (Bremen 1770), or from the stemnbsp;of OE snytan, Sw. snyta to blow the nose (lt;[ *snutjan) there was formednbsp;a substantive *smit{t)a denoting nasal mucus or a substantive *snuta-denoting its receptacle or place of origin, i. e. the nose. And hencenbsp;the postulated connection of the Germanic bases snut and snu^, etc.nbsp;with the Indo-Eur. bases mentioned above should be classed as annbsp;exploded theory.

But there is also another proposal for solving the problem of an Indo-Eur. source of the Teut. bases snut, snup, and snus, to wit,nbsp;the Indo-Eur. base gen- 'kratzen, schaben, reiben�. By postulatingnbsp;the addition of an initial s- to this base and the addition of thenbsp;difthong -eu to the end of it, there originates a base s-q{e)n-eii~

'kratzen, schaben, reiben�. It is from tbis base tbat, in Torp�s opinion, tbe Teut. bases snu 2 'abscbneiden�, orig. quot;scbaben, scharren�, and snu 3 ''scbnauben, prusten� derive tbeir origin, together withnbsp;their extensions, e. g. snup, snut, snus, snulc, snui, etc. (all fromnbsp;snu 3).^) But these extensions were in his opinion evidently notnbsp;purely Germanic in origin but presupposed an Indo-Eur. source.nbsp;It is possible that to an expert in comparative hnguistics all thesenbsp;postulations appear to be quite legitimate, but to a layman they arenbsp;disquieting symptoms. But let us be just and admit that therenbsp;are also experts who denounce this theory. Eor we read in thenbsp;dictionary by Walde and Pokormy II 693: � )gt;die Beziehung aufnbsp;ein neben gen �kratzen� � s. d. am Schlusse � stehendes *sq{e)n-eu-ist freilieh eine mir ganzlich unglaubliche Konstruktion.�

As an alternative Indo-Eur. source of the Germanic bases snup and snus Torp creates the forms qs- nu- t and qs- nu- s, postulated extensions of the base qes �kratzen, kammen�. Also this intrepidnbsp;conjecture is obviously devoid of any probability.

But there is stiU another Indo-Eur. base that should be mentioned when we are considering the problem of the pre-Germanic sources of the base snu 3 and its dental extensions. We mean thenbsp;bases qseu-, qsneu-, qneu-, sneu- �undahnlicheNachahmungennbsp;des Meslautes�, e. g. Old Ind. ksAuti sneezes, Latvian sKaut, ska�d�tnbsp;to sneeze. It is pointed out in the comparative dictionary by Waldenbsp;and Pokorny (I 501�2) that, in these bases, also the n may have onomatopoeic function and that qneu- and sneu- may be simplifications of qsneu-. As Germanic examples of qneu- are adducednbsp;OHG nlosan, MLG, ME nesen, ON hnj�sa, all actually denoting Tonbsp;sneeze�. As examples of sneu- are quoted ME snesen, NE sneezenbsp;�(ahnlich nd. sn�sen, dan. snuse �schnobern, wittern�)�, NPers.nbsp;isn�sa, asn�sa to sneeze �(ahnhch lit. sniaukti �schnupfen�)�. Butnbsp;what we want to point out is that the dictionary gives no Germanicnbsp;instances of the weak ablaut-grade snus and that ME snesen, NEnbsp;sneeze are no examples in point. For this verb stands for ME fnesennbsp;(OE *fn�osan, presupposed by OE fn�osung sneezing), which is supposed to go back to the Indo-Eur. base pneus-. It is pointed out bynbsp;Professor Craigie (N. E. D. s. v. sneeze) that the substitution of snesenbsp;for late ME fnese was due to misreading or misprinting it as Jnese

Cp. Fick III� pp. 424�6 s. v. snu 3, snu^, snus, and snut. Cp. also Walde and Pokorny op. cit. I 397 (qen-) and I 449 {qes-).

K. F. SUND�N, A NEW ETYMOL. GROEP OE GERMANIC VERBS 249 [written with a long s] after the initial combination fn had becomenbsp;unfamiliar early in the 15th century. He also remarks that the placenbsp;of fnese 'to sneeze� was mainly supplied by nese to neeze (now north,nbsp;dial, and Sc.), and that the adoption of sneeze was probably assistednbsp;by its phonetic appropriateness, since it may have been felt as anbsp;strengthened form of neeze. His view is in accord with our ownnbsp;experience that the derivatives from the Teut. base snus or any othernbsp;extension of the Germanic base snn 3 only rarely denote 'to sneeze�.nbsp;Hence Torp and Walde amp; Pokorny have failed to make likely thatnbsp;the Germanic bases smis or snu 3 ever denoted 'to sneeze�. Andnbsp;hence the sense 'prusten�, i. e. to spit (said of cats), to sneeze (also =nbsp;to burst out laughing), employed by Torp alongside of 'schnauben'nbsp;in order to denote the semantic aspect of snu 3, is no true semanticnbsp;description of the primary sense of this Teutonic base. It should benbsp;admitted, however, that from a semantic view-point there is nonbsp;obstacle to the assumption that Germanic snu- 'schnauben�, i. e.nbsp;to snort, to breathe heavily, to pant, may very well be an ablaut-variant of Indo-European sneu- to sneeze. Eor the sense 'to snort�nbsp;denotes 'to drive the breath violently through the nostrils by anbsp;voluntary action�, and the sense 'to sneeze� implies 'to drive thenbsp;breath suddenly and violently through the nose by an involuntarynbsp;and convulsive action�.

Let us now touch upon the question whether the dental extensions of the Teut. base snu 'schnauben� have passed throughnbsp;the great sound-change which in early Primitive Germanic timesnbsp;happened to the plosives inherited from the Indo-European parentnbsp;language. This phonetic change took place at different epochs, sincenbsp;there were different types of stopped consonants. The earliest con-sonant-shift consisted in transforming tenues and tenues aspiratse intonbsp;voiceless fricatives, e. g. t and fh passed into �, i. e. a base becamenbsp;snuj). The second consonant-shift found expression in turning mediaenbsp;aspiratse into voiced fricatives, e. g. dh passed into �,�i. e. Indo-Eur.nbsp;*medhu became MSw. mi�dher 'mead�. The third consonant-shiftnbsp;consisted in changing mediae into tenues, e. g. d passed into t, i. e.nbsp;a base snud became snut. This last consonant-shift was accomplishednbsp;at least before the middle of the last millennium B. C., probably stillnbsp;earlier. But since the only source of Old Germanic / is the Indo-Eur. t or th, it is obvious that the base snu^ once passed through thenbsp;first consonant-shift in Primitive Teutonic and that consequentlynbsp;its original form was snut. But if so, it is also possible that the base

snut as occurring in younger Primitive Germanic had snud as source. For a dental extension with d or s may very well have existed alongside of the t extension, since we are concerned with onomatopoeicnbsp;expressions. But there are obviously scholars who believe that thenbsp;Germanic base snut originated after the operation of the great Germanic consonant-shifts, though its origin is then wrapped in mystery.nbsp;This view was evidently held by Franck and van Wijk (op. cit. s. v.nbsp;snuit) and by Torp (cp. Fick IIP 524 s. v. snutra-). In this casenbsp;snu^ is regarded as the source of snut, but Torp�s argumentationnbsp;does not carry conviction (cp. Fick IIP p. 525). Hence we arenbsp;satisfied that this opinion is erroneous, all the more as the basenbsp;snut holds a very strong position in the Germanic vocabulary,nbsp;especially in Swedish dialects, while the base snu^ is, on the whole,nbsp;comparatively scantily represented.

We have found, then, that the Teutonic base snu 'to snort, pant, breathe heavily� and its dental extensions existed in earlynbsp;Germanic anterior to the consonantal shifts which are the greatnbsp;characteristic of the Germanic family of languages. It is true thatnbsp;there are extra-Teutonic words, such as Lith. sniaukti 'schnupfen�,nbsp;sniikis 'Maul, Schnauze�, and Celtic forms, which point to the necessity of acknowledging pre-Germanic connections for this base. Butnbsp;we have also seen that there is a great diversity of opinion in determining the nature of this relationship. For our own part we leavenbsp;aside the ulterior history of the early Germanic base snu and its dental extensions and say with Hamlet�s last words: � �The rest isnbsp;silence.�

As to aids to the reader, there is no need of a special index of the derivatives from the bases nut and nus dealt with, since a survey of them, arranged geographically, has been given in Chapters I and VI. Also anbsp;special bibliographical list of works consulted and quoted is superfluous.

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A NEW ETYMOLOGICAL GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS ANDnbsp;THEIR DERIVATIVES

A STUDY ON SEMANTICS

K. F. SUND�N

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A NEW ETYMOLOGICAL GROUP OF GERMANIC VERBS ANDnbsp;THEIR DERIVATIVES

A STUDY ON SEMANTICS

K. F. SUND�N

The Linguistic Material.

SCANDINAVIAN.

GERMAN.

FRISIAN.

ENGLISH.

Comments on the Linguistic Material.

Prolegomena to the Semantic-Genetic Interpretation I.

A. The Mechanism of Speech and the Notion of Meaning.

B. Outlines of the Categories of Sense-change.

Prolegomena to the Semantic-Genetic Interpretation II.

The Semantic Development from the Germanic Base nut.

The Semantic Development from the Germanic Base nus.

SCANDINAVIAN.

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GERMAN

Low German

Middle German.

High or South German (Oberdeutsch).

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FRISIAN

ENGLISH.

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